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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transaction%20Management%20eXecutive
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Transaction Management eXecutive
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Transaction Management eXecutive or TMX was NCR Corporation's proprietary transaction processing system running on NCR Tower 5000-series systems which were based on Motorola 680xx CPUs. This system was used mainly by financial institutions in the 1980s and 1990s.
Features
Basic features of the TMX operating system are listed below:
It was a multiuser, multitasking 32-bit operating system.
It featured a proprietary network called LBN (Local Branch Network).
Later versions of TMX had Token Ring support which was called LBN Emulation.
It had device support for financial applications on LBN, e.g. NCR dumb terminals, passbook printers, cash dispensers, magnetic stripe reader and pinpad.
It contained SNA LU emulations for mainframe connectivity.
Peripheral device configuration was fixed during boot time. Configuration changes were made using the SYSGEN command.
It supported a flat file system; there were no subdirectories. File name format was like this: diskname:usernumber.catalogname.filename.ext;version
Files had various types, like text files and index sequential data files.
Main programming language was Whitesmiths C, but the compiler was not ANSI C compliant.
It had limited memory (several MB) and disk (several hundred MB).
NCR Tower 5000 systems were also capable of running UNIX SVR3 version.
Discontinued operating systems
Proprietary operating systems
NCR Corporation products
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13564737
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxy-based%20estimating
|
Proxy-based estimating
|
Proxy-Based Estimating (PROBE) is an estimating process used in the Personal Software Process (PSP) to estimate size and effort.
Proxy Based Estimating (PROBE), is the estimation method introduced by Watts Humphrey
(of the Software Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University) as part of the
Personal Software Process (a discipline that helps individual software engineers monitor,
test, and improve their own work).
PROBE is based on the idea that if an engineer is building a component similar to one they built previously, then it will take about the same effort as it did in the past.
In the PROBE method, individual engineers use a database to keep track of the size and
effort of all of the work that they do, developing a history of the effort they have put into
their past projects, broken into individual components. Each component in the database is
assigned a type (“calculation,” “data,” “logic,” etc.) and a size (from “very small” to “very
large”).
When a new project must be estimated, it is broken down into tasks that correspond
to these types and sizes. A formula based on linear regression is used to calculate
the estimate for each task.
Additional information on PROBE can be found in A Discipline for Software Engineering by Watts Humphrey (Addison Wesley, 1994).
See also
Estimation in software engineering
External links
Proxy Based Estimating: Concept from chambers.com
Software engineering costs
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34472
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zope
|
Zope
|
Zope is a family of free and open-source web application servers written in Python, and their associated online community. Zope stands for "Z Object Publishing Environment", and was the first system using the now common object publishing methodology for the Web. Zope has been called a Python killer app, an application that helped put Python in the spotlight.
Over the last few years, the Zope community has spawned several additional web frameworks with disparate aims and principles, but sharing philosophy, people, and source code. Zope 2 is still the most widespread of these frameworks, largely thanks to the Plone content management system, which runs on Zope 2. BlueBream (earlier called Zope 3) is less widespread but underlies several large sites, including Launchpad. Grok was started as a more programmer-friendly framework, "Zope 3 for cavemen", and in 2009 Pyramid gained popularity in the Zope community as a minimalistic framework based on Zope principles.
History
The Zope Corporation was formed in 1995 in Fredericksburg, Virginia under the name Digital Creations, as a joint venture with InfiNet (a joint newspaper chain venture). The company developed a classified advertisement engine for the Internet. In 1997, the company became independently owned and private. The company's software engineers are led by CTO Jim Fulton. PythonLabs, creators of Python, became part of the company in 2000 (Python founder Guido van Rossum left Zope Corp in 2003).
What is now known as Zope 2 began with the merging of three separate software products – Bobo, Document Template, and BoboPOS – into the Principia application server. At the behest of its largest investor, Opticality Ventures, Principia was re-released as free software under the name Zope in 1998. Bobo, and therefore Zope, was the first Web object publishing solution.
In November 2004, Zope 3 was released. Zope 3 is a complete rewrite that preserves only the original ZODB object database. It is directly intended for enterprise Web application development using the newest development paradigms. Zope 3 is, however, not compatible with Zope 2, so you cannot run Zope 2 applications on Zope 3. It was originally intended to introduce a backwards-compatibility layer so that Zope 2 software would run on Zope 3. Instead a module known as Five introduced the new Zope 3 paradigms into Zope 2, although full compatibility isn't possible that way either.
The existence of two incompatible Web frameworks called Zope has caused a lot of confusion. In response, in January 2010, Zope 3 was renamed "BlueBream". "Zope" and "blue bream" are names of a kind of fish, Ballerus ballerus.
Zope Foundation
The Zope Foundation is an organization that promotes the development of the Zope platform by supporting the community that develops and maintains the relevant software components. The community includes both open source software, documentation and web infrastructure contributors, as well as business and organization consumers of the software platform. It manages the zope.org websites, an infrastructure for open source collaboration.
Zope Versions
Zope 2
A Zope website is usually composed of objects in a Zope Object Database, not files on a file system, as is usual with most web servers. This allows users to harness the advantages of object technologies, such as encapsulation. Zope maps URLs to objects using the containment hierarchy of such objects; methods are considered to be contained in their objects as well. Data can be stored in other databases as well, or on the file system, but ZODB is the most common solution.
Zope provides two mechanisms for HTML templating: Document Template Markup Language (DTML) and Zope Page Templates (ZPT). DTML is a tag-based language that allows implementation of simple scripting in the templates. DTML has provisions for variable inclusion, conditions, and loops. However, DTML can be problematic: DTML tags interspersed with HTML form non-valid HTML documents, and its use requires care when including logic into templates, to retain code readability. The use of DTML is discouraged by many leading Zope developers. ZPT is a technology that addresses the shortcomings of DTML. ZPT templates can be either well-formed XML documents or HTML documents, in which all special markup is presented as attributes in the TAL (Template Attribute Language) namespace. ZPT offers a very limited set of tools for conditional inclusion and repetition of XML elements. Consequently, the templates are usually quite simple, with most logic implemented in Python code. One significant advantage of ZPT templates is that they can be edited in most graphical HTML editors. ZPT also offers direct support for internationalization.
Zope 2 underlies the Plone content management system, as well as the ERP5 open source enterprise resource planning system.
BlueBream
BlueBream is a rewrite by the Zope developers of the Zope 2 web application server. It was created under the name "Zope 3", but the existence of two incompatible frameworks with the same name caused much confusion, and Zope 3 was renamed "BlueBream" in January 2010. BlueBream is distributed under the terms of the Zope Public License and is thus free software.
Zope 2 has proven itself as a useful framework for Web applications development, but its use revealed some shortcomings. To name a few, creating Zope 2 products involves copying a lot of boilerplate code – "magic" code – that just has to be there, and the built-in management interface is difficult to modify or replace. Zope 3 was a rewrite of the software that attempts to address these shortcomings while retaining the advantages of Zope that led to its popularity. BlueBream is based on a component architecture that makes it easy to mix software components of various origins written in Python. Although originally intended as a replacement for Zope 2, the Zope Component Architecture has instead been backported to Zope 2, starting with Zope 2.8. Many Zope platforms such as Plone are going through the same type of piece-by-piece rewriting. The first production release of the new software, Zope X3 3.0.0, was released on November 6, 2004.
History
The Zope 3 project started in February 2001 as an effort to develop a new version of Zope as an almost complete rewrite, with the goal to retain the successful features of Zope 2 while trying to fix some of its shortcomings. The goal was to create a more developer-friendly and flexible platform for programming web applications than Zope 2 is. The project began with the development of a component architecture, which allows the structuring of code into small, composable units with introspectable interfaces. The interfaces are supported by an interface package in order to provide the functionality of explicitly declared interfaces to the Python language. The first production release of the software, Zope X3, was released on November 6, 2004. In January 2010 Zope 3 was renamed BlueBream.
Technology
The goal of the project was to enable programmers to use Zope in order to expose arbitrary Python objects as model objects to the web without the need to make these objects fulfill particular behavior requirements. In Zope 2 there had been many behavior requirements to allow objects to participate in the framework, which resulted in a large amount of mixin base classes and special attributes. BlueBream uses a model/view architecture, separating the presentation code from the problem domain code. Views and models are linked together by the component architecture.
The libraries underlying BlueBream have been evolving into a collection of useful libraries for web application development rather than a single, monolithic application server. BlueBream includes separate packages for interfaces, component architecture, HTTP server, publisher, Zope Object Database (ZODB), Zope Page Templates, I18N, security policy, and so on. The component architecture is used to glue these together. The component architecture is configured using a ZCML (Zope Configuration Markup Language), an XML based configuration file language.
The Zope 3 project pioneered the practice of sprints for open source software development. Sprints are intensive development sessions when programmers, often from different countries, gather in one room and work together for a couple of days or even several weeks. During the sprints various practices drawn from agile software development are used, such as pair programming and test-driven development. Besides the goal of developing software, sprints are also useful for geographically separated developers to meet in person and attracting new people to the project. They also serve as a way for the participants to learn from each other.
BlueBream is considered a stable framework, used on production projects worldwide, most notably Launchpad.
Zope Toolkit
As a result of the development of Zope 3 / BlueBream, there are now many independent Python packages used and developed as a part of BlueBream, and although many of these are usable outside of BlueBream, many are not. The Zope Toolkit (ZTK) project was started to clarify which packages were usable outside BlueBream, and to improve the re-usability of the packages. Thus the Zope Toolkit is a base for the Zope frameworks. Zope 2.12 is the first release of a web framework that builds on Zope Toolkit, and Grok and BlueBream were set to have releases based on the ZTK during 2010.
Grok
In 2006 the Grok project was started by a number of Zope 3 developers who wanted to make Zope 3 technology more agile in use and more accessible to newcomers. Grok has since then seen regular releases and its core technology (Martian, grokcore.component) is also finding uptake in other Zope 3 and Zope 2 based projects.
Zope 4
In late 2017, development began on Zope 4. Zope 4 is a successor to Zope 2.13, making many changes that are not backwards compatible with Zope 2.
Zope 5
Zope 5 was released in 2020.
Zope Page Templates
As mentioned previously, Zope Page Templates are themselves XHTML documents, which means they can be viewed and edited using normal HTML editors or XHTML compliant tools (a big advantage compared to other template languages used for Web applications). Templates can also be checked for XHTML compliance so you can be fairly confident that they will automatically expand into proper XHTML.
However, these page templates are not meant to be rendered as is. Instead they are marked up with additional elements and attributes in special XML namespaces (see below). This additional information is used to describe how the page template should ultimately be processed.
Here are some basic examples. To conditionally include a particular element, like a div element, simply add the tal:condition attribute to the element as follows:
<div tal:condition="...">
...
</div>
To control what appears inside an element, use the tal:content attribute like this:
<h1><span tal:content="..."/></h1>
...
Finally, to introduce or replace values of attributes use the tal:attributes attribute as below. You can use Python to alter the href at runtime.
<a href="" tal:attributes="href python:'http://someurl.com/%s'%someobject">...</a>
This is a very cursory explanation of Zope Page Templates. The behavior of Zope Page Templates is almost completely described by a template language, fixed on TAL, TALES, and METAL specifications:
Template Attribute Language (TAL),
Template Attribute Language Expression Syntax (TALES),
Macro Expansion Template Attribute Language (METAL).
Notable software using Zope
SchoolTool is an open source student information system that uses Zope.
Plone is an open source content management system that uses Zope.
See also
Pylons project
Django
web2py
Content management (CM)
Content management system (CMS)
Web content management system (WCMS)
Plone
Naaya
Zwiki
ERP5
Twisted
References
External links
1995 establishments in Virginia
Cross-platform free software
Free content management systems
Free software programmed in Python
Python (programming language) web frameworks
Software companies based in Virginia
Software companies established in 1995
Web development software
Web server software for Linux
Software companies of the United States
it:Zope 3
pt:BlueBream
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752390
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niqqud
|
Niqqud
|
{| align="right" class="wikitable"
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | Niqqud
|-
| colspan="2" |
|-
| Other diacritics
| style="background:white" |cantillation, geresh,gershayim
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |Example
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" style="background:white;height:50px"|
|-
| colspan="2" style="width:250px;background:white" | <center>Gen. 1:9, "And God said,Let the waters be collected".Letters in black, niqqud in red, cantillation in blue</center>
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |Niqqud articles
|-
| colspan="2" style="width:250px;background:white"|<center>ShvaHiriqZeireSegolPatachKamatzHolamDageshMappiqShurukKubutzRafeSin/Shin Dot
|}
In Hebrew orthography, niqqud or nikud ( or ) is a system of diacritical signs used to represent vowels or distinguish between alternative pronunciations of letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Several such diacritical systems were developed in the Early Middle Ages. The most widespread system, and the only one still used to a significant degree today, was created by the Masoretes of Tiberias in the second half of the first millennium AD in the Land of Israel (see Masoretic Text, Tiberian Hebrew). Text written with niqqud is called ktiv menuqad.
Niqqud marks are small compared to the letters, so they can be added without retranscribing texts whose writers did not anticipate them.
In modern Israeli orthography niqqud is seldom used, except in specialised texts such as dictionaries, poetry, or texts for children or for new immigrants to Israel. For purposes of disambiguation, a system of spelling without niqqud, known in Hebrew as ktiv maleh (, literally "full spelling") has developed. This was formally standardised in the Rules for Spelling without Niqqud () enacted by the Academy of the Hebrew Language in 1996, and updated in 2017.
One reason for the lesser use of niqqud is that it no longer reflects the current pronunciation. In modern Hebrew, tzere is pronounced the same as segol, although they were distinct in Tiberian Hebrew, and pataḥ the same as qamatz. To the younger generation of native Hebrew speakers, these distinctions seem arbitrary and meaningless; on the other hand, Hebrew language purists have rejected out of hand the idea of changing the basics of niqqud and fitting them to the current pronunciation – with the result that in practice niqqud is increasingly going out of use.
According to Ghil'ad Zuckermann, the lack of nikúd in what he calls "Israeli" (Modern Hebrew) often results in "mispronunciations". For example, the Israeli lexical item מתאבנים is often pronounced as mitabním (literally "becoming fossilized (masculine plural)") instead of metaavním "appetizers", the latter deriving from תאבון teavón "appetite", whereas the former deriving from אבן éven "stone". Another example is the toponym מעלה אדומים, which is often pronounced as maalé edomím instead of maalé adumím, the latter appearing in the Hebrew Bible (Joshua 15:7 and 18:17). The hypercorrect yotvetá is used instead of yotváta for the toponym יטבתה, mentioned in Deuteronomy 10:7. The surname of American actress Farrah Fawcett (פארהפוסט) is often pronounced fost instead of fóset by many Israelis.
Demonstration
This table uses the consonant letters , or , where appropriate, to demonstrate where the niqqud is placed in relation to the consonant it is pronounced after. Any other letters shown are actually part of the vowel. Note that there is some variation among different traditions in exactly how some vowel points are pronounced. The table below shows how most Israelis would pronounce them, but the classic Ashkenazi pronunciation, for example, differs in several respects.
This demonstration is known to work in Internet Explorer and Mozilla browsers in at least some circumstances, but in most other Windows browsers the niqqud do not properly combine with the consonants. It works very well when "dir=rtl" is added in the HTML source. This is because, currently, the Windows text display engine does not combine the niqqud automatically. Except as noted, the vowel pointings should appear directly beneath the letters and the accompanying "vowel letter" for the mālê (long) forms appear after.
Note concerning IPA: the transcription symbols are linked to the articles about the sounds they represent. The diacritic ˘ (breve) indicates a short vowel; the triangular colon symbol ː indicates that the vowel is long.
Keyboard
Both consonants and niqqud can be typed from virtual graphical keyboards available on the World Wide Web, or by methods integrated into particular operating systems.
Microsoft Windows
In Windows 8 or later, niqqud can be entered using the right alt (or left alt + ctrl) + the first Hebrew letter of the name of the value, when using the default (Hebrew Standard) keyboard layout:
In Windows 7 or earlier, niqqud can be entered by enabling Caps Lock and then, with the cursor positioned after a letter, pressing Shift and one of the keys in the Windows column below.
The user can configure the registry to allow use of the Alt key with the numeric plus key to type the hexadecimal Unicode value.
The user can use the Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator to produce a custom keyboard layout, or can download a layout produced by another party.
Linux
In GTK+ Linux systems, niqqud can be entered by holding down AltGR and pressing the same keys as for Windows below. Or by pressing ctrl+shift+u followed by the appropriate 4 digit Unicode.
Macintosh
Using the Hebrew keyboard layout in Mac OS X, the typist can enter niqqud by pressing the Option key together with a number on the top row of the keyboard. Other combinations such as sofit and hataf can also be entered by pressing either the Shift key and a number, or by pressing the Shift key, Option key, and a number at the same time.Notes: 1 The letter "" represents any Hebrew consonant.
2 For sin-dot and shin-dot, the letter "" (sin/shin) is used.
3 The dagesh, mappiq, and shuruk have different uses, but the same graphical representation, and hence are input in the same manner.
4 For shuruk, the letter "'" (vav) is used since it can only be used with that letter.
A rafe can be input by inserting the corresponding Unicode character, either explicitly or via a customized keyboard layout.
SIL International have developed another standard, which is based on Tiro, but adds the Niqqud along the home keys. Linux comes with "Israel — Biblical Hebrew (Tiro)" as a standard layout. With this layout, niqqud can be typed without pressing the Caps Lock key.
See also
The Arabic equivalent, harakat.''
Hebrew diacritics
Q're perpetuum
Hebrew spelling
Tiberian Hebrew
Hebrew keyboard
Notes
Bibliography
, especially , ,
References
External links
Diacritical Vowel Markers
Hebrew diacritics
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32597
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilnius
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Vilnius
|
Vilnius ( , ; see also other names) is the capital and largest city of Lithuania, with a population of 592,389 . The population of Vilnius's functional urban area, which stretches beyond the city limits, is estimated at 706,832 (as of 2019), while according to the Vilnius territorial health insurance fund, there were 732,421 permanent inhabitants as of October 2020 in Vilnius city and Vilnius district municipalities combined. Vilnius is in southeastern Lithuania and is the second-largest city in the Baltic states. It is the seat of Lithuania's national government and the Vilnius District Municipality.
Vilnius is classified as a Gamma global city according to GaWC studies, and is known for the architecture in its Old Town, declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1994. Before World War II, Vilnius was one of the largest Jewish centres in Europe. Its Jewish influence has led to its nickname "the Jerusalem of Lithuania". Napoleon called it "the Jerusalem of the North" as he was passing through in 1812. In 2009, Vilnius was the European Capital of Culture, together with Linz, Austria. In 2021, Vilnius was named among top-25 fDi's Global Cities of the Future – one of the most forward-thinking cities with the greatest potential in the World.
Etymology and other names
The name of the city originates from the Vilnia River, from the Lithuanian for ripple. The city has also had many derivative spellings in various languages throughout its history: Vilna was once common in English. The most notable non-Lithuanian names for the city include , (Viĺnia), , , (Vilno), (Vilne). A Russian name from the time of the Russian Empire was Вильна (Vilna), although Вильнюс (Vilnyus) is now used. The names Wilno, Wilna and Vilna were also used in older English-, German-, French- and Italian-language publications when the city was one of the capitals of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and an important city in the Second Polish Republic. The name Vilna is still used in Finnish, Portuguese, Spanish, and . Wilna is still used in German, along with Vilnius.
The neighborhoods of Vilnius also have names in other languages, which represent the languages spoken by various ethnic groups in the area.
According to legend, Grand Duke Gediminas (c. 1275–1341) was hunting in the sacred forest near the Valley of Šventaragis, near where the Vilnia River flows into the Neris River. Tired after the successful hunt of a wisent, the Grand Duke settled in for the night. He fell soundly asleep and dreamed of a huge Iron Wolf standing on top a hill and howling as strong and loud as a hundred wolves. Upon awakening, the Duke asked the krivis (pagan priest) Lizdeika to interpret the dream. The priest told him, "What is destined for the ruler and the State of Lithuania, is thus: the Iron Wolf represents a castle and a city which will be established by you on this site. This city will be the capital of the Lithuanian lands and the dwelling of their rulers, and the glory of their deeds shall echo throughout the world." Therefore, Gediminas, obeying the will of the gods, built the city, and gave it the name Vilnius, from the Vilnia River.
History
Early history and Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Historian Romas Batūra identifies the city with Voruta, one of the castles of Mindaugas, who was King of Lithuania after coronation in 1253. During the reign of Grand Dukes Butvydas and Vytenis, a city started emerging from a trading settlement and the first Franciscan Catholic church was built.
Vilnius is the historic and present-day capital of Lithuania. Archeological findings indicate that this city was the capital of the Kingdom of Lithuania and later that of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. After Lithuania formed a dual confederation with the Kingdom of Poland, Vilnius still remained as Lithuania's capital.
The city was first mentioned in written sources in 1323 as Vilna, when the Letters of Grand Duke Gediminas were sent to German cities inviting Germans (including German Jews) to settle in the capital city, as well as to Pope John XXII. These letters contain the first unambiguous reference to Vilnius as the capital; Old Trakai Castle had been the earlier seat of the court of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
Vilnius's location offered practical advantages: it lay in the Lithuanian heartland at the confluence of two navigable rivers (Vilnia and Neris), surrounded by impenetrable forests and wetlands.
At the time of the 14th century, Lithuania was continuously invaded by the State of the Teutonic Order. The future King of England Henry IV (then Henry Bolingbroke) spent a full year of 1390 supporting the unsuccessful siege of Vilnius by Teutonic Knights with his 300 fellow knights. During this campaign he bought captured Lithuanian women and children and took them back to Königsberg for their conversion. King Henry's second expedition to Lithuania in 1392 illustrates the financial benefits of these guest crusaders to the Order. His small army consisted of over 100 men, including longbow archers and six minstrels, at a total cost to the Lancastrian purse of £4,360. Despite the efforts of Bolingbroke and his English crusaders, two years of attacks on Vilnius proved fruitless. Vilnius was the flourishing capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the residence of the Grand Duke. Gediminas expanded the Grand Duchy through warfare along with strategic alliances and marriages. At its height it covered the territory of modern-day Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Transnistria, and portions of modern-day Poland and Russia. His grandchildren Vytautas the Great and Jogaila, however, fought civil wars. During the Lithuanian Civil War of 1389–1392, Vytautas besieged and razed the city in an attempt to wrest control from Jogaila. The two Gediminids cousins later settled their differences; after a series of treaties culminating in the 1569 Union of Lublin, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was formed. The Commonwealth's rulers held two titles: Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland. In 1387, Jogaila acting as a Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland, granted Magdeburg rights to the city.
The city underwent a period of expansion in the 16th century. The Wall of Vilnius was built for protection between 1503 and 1522, comprising nine city gates and three towers, and in 1547 Sigismund II Augustus moved his court from Kraków to Vilnius.
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Vilnius's growth was due in part to the establishment of Alma Academia et Universitas Vilnensis Societatis Iesu by the Polish King and Grand Duke of Lithuania Stephen Báthory in 1579. The university soon developed into one of the most important scientific and cultural centres in the region and the most notable scientific centre of the Commonwealth.
During its rapid development, the city was open to migrants from the territories of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, Grand Duchy and further. Many languages were spoken: Polish, German, Yiddish, Ruthenian, Lithuanian, Russian, Old Church Slavonic, Latin, Hebrew, and Turkic languages; the city was compared to Babylon. Each group contributed uniquely to the city's life, and crafts, trade, and science prospered.
The 17th century brought a number of setbacks. The Commonwealth was involved in a series of wars, collectively known as The Deluge. During the Thirteen Years' War (1654–1667), Vilnius was occupied by Muscovite forces; it was pillaged and burned, and its population massacred. During the Great Northern War it was looted by the Swedish army. An outbreak of bubonic plague in 1710 killed about 35,000 residents; devastating fires occurred in 1715, 1737, 1741, 1748, and 1749. The city's growth lost its momentum for many years, but even despite this fact, at the end of the 18th century and before the Napoleon wars, Vilnius, with 56,000 inhabitants, entered the Russian Empire as its third-largest city.
In the Russian Empire
The fortunes of the Commonwealth declined during the 18th century. Three partitions took place, dividing its territory among the Russian Empire, the Habsburg Empire, and the Kingdom of Prussia. Forces led by Jakub Jasiński expelled Russians from Vilnius during the uprising in 1794. However, after the third partition of April 1795, Vilnius was annexed by the Russian Empire and became the capital of the Vilna Governorate. During Russian rule, the city walls were destroyed, and by 1805 only the Gate of Dawn remained. In 1812, the city was taken by Napoleon on his push towards Moscow, and again during the disastrous retreat. The Grande Armée was welcomed in Vilnius. Thousands of soldiers died in the city during the eventual retreat; the mass graves were uncovered in 2002. Inhabitants expected Tsar Alexander I to grant them autonomy in response to Napoleon's promises to restore the Commonwealth, but Vilnius did not become autonomous, neither by itself nor as a part of Congress Poland.
Following the November uprising in 1831, Vilnius University was closed and Russian repressions halted the further development of the city. Civil unrest in 1861 was suppressed by the Imperial Russian Army.
During the January uprising in 1863, heavy fighting occurred within the city, but was brutally pacified by Mikhail Muravyov, nicknamed The Hangman by the population because of the many executions he organized. After the uprising, all civil liberties were withdrawn, and use of the Polish and Lithuanian languages was banned. Vilnius had a vibrant Jewish population: according to the Russian census of 1897, out of the total population of 154,500, Jews constituted 64,000 (approximately 40%). During the early 20th century, the Lithuanian-speaking population of Vilnius constituted only a small minority, with Polish, Yiddish, and Russian speakers comprising the majority of the city's population. On 4–5 December 1905, the Great Seimas of Vilnius was held in the current Lithuanian National Philharmonic Society building with over 2000 participants. It was the first modern national congress in Lithuania. The assembly decided to demand wide political autonomy within the Russian Empire and achieve this by peaceful means. It is considered an important step towards the Act of Independence of Lithuania, adopted on 16 February 1918 by the Council of Lithuania, as the Seimas laid the groundwork for the establishment of an independent Lithuanian state.
World War I
During World War I, Vilnius and the rest of Lithuania was occupied by the German Army from 1915 until 1918. The Act of Independence of Lithuania, which declared Lithuanian independence without any affiliation to any other nation, was issued in the city on 16 February 1918 with Vilnius as its capital.
Regional turmoil 1918–1920
At the end of 1918 Soviet Russia invaded Lithuania with massive forces, and the Lithuanian Army withdrew from Vilnius to the center of the country in order to form a defense line. The German Army withdrew together with the Lithuanian government. The Self-Defence of Lithuania, which was affiliated with the Second Polish Republic, briefly controlled the city and unsuccessfully tried protecting it against the invading Soviet forces. Vilnius changed hands again during the Polish–Soviet War and the Lithuanian Wars of Independence: it was taken by the Polish Army, only to fall to Soviet forces again. Shortly after the Red Army's defeat at the 1920 Battle of Warsaw, in order to delay the Polish advance, the Soviet government ceded the city to Lithuania after the signing the Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty on 12 July 1920.
The League of Nations became involved in the subsequent Lithuanian self defense from Poland after it attacked Lithuanian army positions in the south west of Lithuania. The League brokered the ceasefire called the Suwałki Agreement on 7 October 1920. Lithuanians believed that it stopped a Polish aggression. Although neither Vilnius or the surrounding region was explicitly addressed in the agreement, numerous historians have described the agreement as allotting Vilnius to Lithuania. On 9 October 1920, the Polish Army surreptitiously, under General Lucjan Żeligowski, seized Vilnius during an operation known as Żeligowski's Mutiny. The city and its surroundings were designated as a separate state, called the Republic of Central Lithuania.
Interwar Poland
On 20 February 1922, after the highly contested election in Central Lithuania, the entire area was annexed by Poland, with the city becoming the capital of the Wilno Voivodeship (Wilno being the name of Vilnius in Polish). Kaunas then became the temporary capital of Lithuania. Lithuania vigorously contested the Polish annexation of Vilnius, and refused diplomatic relations with Poland. The predominant languages of the city were still Polish and, to a lesser extent, Yiddish. The Lithuanian-speaking population at the time was a small minority, at about 6% of the city's population according even to contemporary Lithuanian sources. The Council of Ambassadors and the international community (with the exception of Lithuania) recognized Polish sovereignty over Vilnius Region in 1923.
Vilnius University was reopened in 1919 under the name of Stefan Batory University. By 1931, the city had 195,000 inhabitants, making it the fifth largest city in Poland with varied industries, such as Elektrit, a factory that produced radio receivers.
World War II
Nazi Germany had invited Lithuania to join the invasion of Poland and retake the historical capital Vilnius by force; however, President Antanas Smetona and most of the Lithuanian politicians declined this offer because they had doubts about Adolf Hitler's eventual victory and were outraged by the 1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania. Instead, they supported the neutrality policy and after being encouraged by the French and British diplomats – Lithuania adopted the Neutrality Act, which was supported by all the political forces.
World War II began with the German invasion of Poland in September 1939. The secret protocols of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact had partitioned Lithuania and Poland into German and Soviet spheres of interest. On 19 September 1939, Vilnius was seized by the Soviet Union (which invaded Poland on 17 September). The Soviets repressed the local population and devastated the city, moving assets and factories to the USSR territory, including the major Polish radio factory Elektrit, along with a part of its labor force, to Minsk in Belarus SSR. The Soviets and Lithuania concluded a mutual assistance treaty on 10 October 1939, with which the Lithuanian government accepted the presence of Soviet military bases in various parts of the country. On 28 October 1939, the Red Army withdrew from the city to its suburbs (to Naujoji Vilnia) and Vilnius was given over to Lithuania. A Lithuanian Army parade took place on 29 October 1939 through the city center. The Lithuanians immediately attempted to re-Lithuanize the city, for example by Lithuanizing Polish schools.
Just after the beginning of the World War II, on 2 September 1939, the Lithuanian Consulate was opened in Vilnius. The consulate was the first in the world to grant Visas For Life for the Jews and also saved many Polish war refugees.
The whole of Lithuania was annexed by the Soviet Union on 3 August 1940 following a June ultimatum from the Soviets demanding, among other things, that unspecified numbers of Red Army soldiers be allowed to enter the country for the purpose of helping to form a more pro-Soviet government. After the ultimatum was issued and Lithuania further occupied, a Soviet government was installed with Vilnius as the capital of the newly created Lithuanian SSR. Between 20,000 and 30,000 of the city's inhabitants were subsequently arrested by the NKVD and sent to gulags in the far eastern areas of the Soviet Union.
On 22 June 1941, the Germans launched Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet Union, while at the same time Lithuanians began the anti-Soviet June Uprising, organized by the Lithuanian Activist Front. Lithuanians proclaimed independence and organized the Provisional Government of Lithuania. This government quickly self-disbanded. Nazis captured Vilnius on 24 June 1941. Lithuania became part of the Reichskommissariat Ostland, German civil administration. Two ghettos were set up in the old town centre for the large Jewish population – the smaller one of which was "liquidated" by October. The larger ghetto lasted until 1943, though its population was regularly deported in roundups known as "Aktionen". A forced labour camp (Kailis) was also set up behind the Vilnius Town Hall as a factory to produce winter clothing for the Wehrmacht and another one later for vehicle repair (HKP 562) on 47 & 49 Subačiaus Street. A failed ghetto uprising on 1 September 1943 organized by the Fareinigte Partizaner Organizacje (the United Partisan Organization, the first Jewish partisan unit in German-occupied Europe), was followed by the final destruction of the ghetto. During the Holocaust, about 95% of the 265,000-strong Jewish population of Lithuania was murdered by the German units and Lithuanian Nazi collaborators, many of them in Paneriai, about west of the old town centre (see the Ponary massacre).
In 1944, after the Nazis suffered losses in the Eastern Front and the Red Army was approaching, the Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force (LTDF) was established under the command of general Povilas Plechavičius. The LTDF mission was to defend the country within its borders against the Red Army and the Soviet partisans. On 1 April 1944, the LTDF battalions entered Vilnius and confronted the Armia Krajowa (AK), which unsuccessfully attempted to capture the city before the Soviets (see Operation Ostra Brama). The AK tried to negotiate a non-aggression pact with Plechavičius, but the Lithuanian side demanded the Poles to abandon the Vilnius Region or subordinate themselves to Lithuanians. The 19 500 men LTDF disbanded itself after refusing to transcend the Lithuanian border and to aid the Nazis in the Eastern Front. Many of the former LTDF members later formed the core of the Lithuanian partisans (e.g. Jonas Žemaitis).
In the Lithuanian SSR (Soviet Union)
In July 1944, Vilnius was once more occupied by Soviet Army with the Vilnius offensive, during which it defeated the German garrison. The town was once more the Lithuanian SSR's capital. The NKVD began repressions against Lithuanians and Armia Krajowa. Sovietization began in earnest.
The war had irreversibly altered the city – most of the city's population was removed from the city and 40% of its buildings were destroyed, including numerous historic architectural monuments. The Jewish population had been exterminated in the Holocaust, while most of the remaining ones were compelled to move to Communist Poland by 1946. Some partisans and members of the intelligentsia hiding in the forest were now targeted and deported to Siberia after the war.
From the late 1940s on Vilnius began to grow again, following an influx of Lithuanians, Poles and Belarusians from neighbouring regions and throughout Lithuania as well as neighbouring region of Grodno and from other more remote areas of the Soviet Union (particularly Russia, Belarus and Ukraine). Most of these new residents moved to Vilnius, due to repressions or poor living conditions caused by, e.g. collectivisation, in areas, where they lived previously. On the previously rural outskirts as well as in the very vicinity of the Old Town (industrial zones in Paupys, Markučiai, Naujamiestis), industrial areas were (re)designed and large Soviet plants were built, following a program of industrialization.
In November 1980, the number of inhabitants of Vilnius exceeded 500,000. Because of shortage of housing for a growing population of the city, large scale Microdistricts (so-called sleeping districts) were built in the elderates of Antakalnis, Žirmūnai, Lazdynai, Karoliniškės, Viršuliškės, Baltupiai, Justiniškės, Pašilaičiai, Fabijoniškės and on a smaller scale in other parts of Vilnius. These were connected with the central part as well as with industrial areas via expressway-like streets (so-called fast traffic streets) and by public transport, noticeably extensive network of trolleybuses (from 1956).
Independent Lithuania
On 11 March 1990, the Supreme Council of the Lithuanian SSR announced its secession from the Soviet Union and intention to restore an independent Republic of Lithuania. As a result of these declarations, on 9 January 1991, the Soviet Union sent in troops. This culminated in the 13 January attack on the State Radio and Television Building and the Vilnius TV Tower, killing at least fourteen civilians and seriously injuring 700 more. The Soviet Union finally recognised Lithuanian independence in September 1991. The Constitution, as did the earlier Lithuanian Constitution of 1922, mentions that "the capital of the State of Lithuania shall be the city of Vilnius, the long-standing historical capital of Lithuania".
Vilnius has been rapidly transforming, emerging as a modern European city. The majority of its historical buildings during the last 25 years had been renovated, and a business and commercial area is being developed into the New City Centre, that is expected to become the city's main administrative and business district on the north side of the Neris river. This area includes modern residential and retail space, with the municipality building and the Europa Tower as its most prominent buildings. The construction of Swedbank's headquarters is symbolic of the importance of Scandinavian banks in Vilnius. The building complex Vilnius Business Harbour was built in 2008, and one of its towers is now the 6th tallest building in Lithuania. More buildings are scheduled for construction in the area.
More than 75,000 new flats were built between 1995 and 2018 (including almost 50,000 new flats between 2003 and 2018), making Vilnius an absolute leader in construction sector in the Baltics of the last two decades. On average, or 3,246 flats are built each year. In 2015, there were 225,871 units in multi-storey houses and 20,578 flats in single-family or duplex apartment houses, the share of such housing increasing from 6.9% in 2006 to 8.3% in 2015. The record numbers of flats were built in 2019 – 4,322 flats in multi-family residentials were built in Vilnius city municipality and 817 flats were built in Vilnius urban zone (the city and the closest surroundings) in single-family detached houses – the later being the highest number in history.
Vilnius was selected as a 2009 European Capital of Culture, along with Linz, the capital of Upper Austria. Its 2009 New Year's Eve celebration, marking the event, featured a light show said to be "visible from outer space". In preparation, the historical centre of the city was restored, and its main monuments were renovated.
The global economic crisis of 2007–2008 led to a drop in tourism which prevented many of the projects from reaching their planned extent, and allegations of corruption and incompetence were made against the organisers, while tax increases for cultural activity led to public protests and the general economic conditions sparked riots. In 2015 Remigijus Šimašius became the first directly elected mayor of the city.
On 28–29 November 2013, Vilnius hosted the Eastern Partnership Summit in the Palace of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania. Many European presidents, prime ministers and other high-ranking officials participated in the event. On 29 November 2013, Georgia and Moldova signed association and free trade agreements with the European Union. Previously, Ukraine and Armenia were also expected to sign the agreements but postponed the decision, sparking large protests in Ukraine.
The 2023 NATO summit will be held in Vilnius.
Geography
Vilnius is situated in southeastern Lithuania at the confluence of the Vilnia and Neris rivers.
Several countries claims that the geographical centre of Europe is located in their territories. Its location depends on which arbitrary definition of the extent of Europe is chosen; the Guinness Book of World Records recognises a point near Vilnius as the continent's centre. After a re-estimation of the boundaries of the continent in 1989, Jean-George Affholder, a scientist at the Institut Géographique National (French National Geographic Institute) determined that its geographic centre was located at . The method used for calculating this point was that of the centre of gravity of the geometrical figure of Europe. This point is located in Lithuania, near the village of Girija (26 kilometres from Vilnius). A monument, composed by the sculptor Gediminas Jokūbonis and consisting of a column of white granite surmounted by a crown of stars, was erected at the location in 2004.
Vilnius lies from the Baltic Sea and Klaipėda, the chief Lithuanian seaport. Vilnius is connected by highways to other major Lithuanian cities, such as Kaunas ( away), Šiauliai ( away) and Panevėžys ( away).
The area of Vilnius is . Buildings occupy 29.1% of the city; green spaces occupy 68.8%; and waters occupy 2.1%.
Nature reserves
Vilnius has eight protected nature reserves: Vokės Senslėnio Slopes Geomorphological Reserve, Aukštagiris Geomorphological Reserve, Valakupių Klonio Geomorphological Reserve, Veržuva Hydrographic Reserve, Vokė Hydrographic Reserve, Cedronas Upstream Landscape Reserve, Tapeliai Landscape Reserve and Šeškinė Slopes Geomorphological Reserve.
Climate
The climate of Vilnius is humid continental (Köppen climate classification Dfb). Temperature records have been kept since 1777. The average annual temperature is ; in January the average temperature is , in July it is . The average precipitation is about per year. Average annual temperatures in the city have increased significantly during the last 30 years, a change which the Lithuanian Hydrometeorological Service attributes to global warming induced by human activities.
Summer days are warm and sometimes hot, especially in July and August, with temperatures above throughout the day during periodic heat waves. Outdoor bars, restaurants and cafés are widely frequented during the daytime.
Winters can be very cold, with temperatures rarely reaching above freezing – temperatures below may occur in January and February. Vilnius's rivers freeze over in particularly cold winters, and the lakes surrounding the city are almost always permanently frozen during this time of year. A popular pastime is ice-fishing.
The Lithuanian Hydrometeorological Service is headquartered in Vilnius and monitors climate of Vilnius and Lithuania.
Culture
Painting and sculpture
For centuries, Vilnius as a capital city was an art centre of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and has attracted artists from all across Europe. The oldest works of art which remained from the early Gothic period (14th century) are paintings dedicated to churches and liturgy (e.g. frescoes in the Crypts of Vilnius Cathedral, decorated hymns books). Walls paintings from the 16th centuries were also discovered in Vilnius (e.g. painting of the Church of St. Francis and St. Bernard vaults or in the Church of Saint Nicholas). Gothic wooden, mostly polychrome sculptures were used to decorate the altars of the churches of Vilnius. Some Gothic seals from the 14–15th centuries remained till the nowadays (Kęstutis, Vytautas the Great, Sigismund II Augustus).
In the early 16th century, the Renaissance sculptures appeared, which were mostly created by Italian sculptors: Bernardinus Zanobi da Gianotti, Giovani Cini, Giovanni Maria Padovano. In the Renaissance period, portrait tombstones and medals were highly valued (e.g. marle tomb of Albertas Goštautas, 1548, by B. Z. da Gianotti, tomb of Povilas Alšėniškis, 1555, by G. Cini, both located in the Vilnius Cathedral). The works of Italian sculptors are characterized by a naturalistic treatment of forms, precise proportions, tectonicity, a realistic representation of the deceased. The local sculptors took over only the iconographic scheme of the Renaissance tomb; their works (e.g. tomb of Lew Sapieha, ca. 1633, at Church of St. Michael) are characterized by conditionality of forms, stylization. During this period local and Western European painters created religious, mythologic compositions, portraits, which were intertwined with late Gothic and Baroque features. Illustrated prayer books illustrations and miniatures have survived.
The Baroque period which began in the late 16th century was exceptional for Vilnius as wall painting blossomed in the city. Most of the palaces and churches were decorated with frescoes characterized by bright colors, sophisticated angles and dramatism style. Also during this period the secular painting spread – representational, imaginative, epitaph portraits, scenes of battles, politically important events. It is characterized by detailed realistic style. This period sculptures dominated in the sacred architecture (tombstones with sculptural portraits, exterior and interior decorative sculptures), made of wood, marble and stucco. Italian sculptors (e.g. G. P. Perti, G. M. Galli, A. S. Capone) were exceptionally important in the 17th century Grand Duchy's sculptures development and were invited there by the Lithuanian nobility. Their works are characterized by the features of mature baroque: expressiveness of forms, sensuality, atectonic composition (e.g. sculptural decor of the Church of St. Peter and St. Paul). The local sculptors emphasized the decorative features of the baroque, and the expressiveness and emotionality of the baroque was less characteristic in their works.
At the late 18th and 19th centuries, the Lithuanian painting was largely influenced by the Vilnius Art School which introduced manifestations of Classicism art and later of Romanticism art. The painters had internships abroad, mainly in Italy. Painting of allegorical, mythological compositions, landscapes, portraits of representatives of various circles of society was begun; historical themes prevailed. The most famous Classicism painters from this time are Franciszek Smaglewicz, Jan Rustem, Józef Oleszkiewicz, , Józef Peszka, Wincenty Smokowski. While the Romanticism art is characterized by Jan Rustem, Jan Krzysztof Damel, Wincenty Dmochowski and Kanuty Rusiecki works. After the closure of Vilnius University in 1832, the artistic direction formed by the representatives of the Vilnius Art School influenced the further development of Lithuanian art.
Development of art in the first half of the 20th century was promoted by activities and exhibitions of the Lithuanian Art Society, established in 1907 by Petras Rimša, Antanas Žmuidzinavičius, Antanas Jaroševičius, and Vilnius Art Society, established in 1908. This period is characterized by Jonas Šileika, , , Vytautas Kairiūkštis, Vytautas Pranas Bičiūnas works. They continued the traditions of Western European styles (symbolism, realism, art nouveau) and followed the modernism art directions. Although, after the World War II the method of socialist realism was introduced – propaganda paintings, compositions of historical, household genre, still lifes, landscapes, portraits and sculptures.
The most notable late 20th and 21st centuries Vilnian painters are Žygimantas Augustinas, Eglė Ridikaitė, Eglė Gineitytė, Patricija Jurkšaitytė, Jurga Barilaitė, Solomonas Teitelbaumas.
Many prominent art galleries are located in Vilnius. Lithuania's largest art collection is housed in the Lithuanian Art Museum. One branch of it, the Vilnius Picture Gallery in the Vilnius Old Town, houses a collection of Lithuanian art from the 16th to the beginning of the 20th century. On the other side of the Neris, the National Art Gallery holds a permanent exhibition on Lithuanian 20th-century art, as well as numerous exhibitions on modern art. The Contemporary Art Centre is the largest venue for contemporary art in the Baltic States, with an exhibition space of 2400 square meters. The centre is a non-collection based institution committed to developing a broad range of international and Lithuanian exhibition projects as well as presenting a wide range of public programmes including lectures, seminars, performances, film and video screenings, and live new music events. On 10 November 2007, the Jonas Mekas Visual Arts Center was opened by avant-garde filmmaker Jonas Mekas with its premiere exhibition entitled The Avant-Garde: From Futurism to Fluxus. In 2018, the MO Museum was opened and is a personal initiative of Lithuanian scientists and philanthropists Danguolė and Viktoras Butkus. Its collection of 5000 modern and contemporary pieces contains major Lithuanian artworks from the 1950s to this day.
The Užupis district near the Old Town, which used to be one of the more run-down districts of Vilnius during the Soviet era, is home to a movement of bohemian artists, who operate numerous art galleries and workshops. Užupis declared itself an independent republic on April Fool's Day in 1997. In the main square, the statue of an angel blowing a trumpet stands as a symbol of artistic freedom.
In 1995, the world's first bronze cast of Frank Zappa was installed in the Naujamiestis district with the permission of the government. The Frank Zappa sculpture confirmed the newly found freedom of expression and marked the beginning of a new era for Lithuanian society.
In 2015, the project of Vilnius Talking Statues was realized. Eighteen statues around Vilnius interact with visitors in multiple languages by a telephone call to a smartphone.
Literature
About 1520, Francysk Skaryna, who is the author of the first Ruthenian Bible, established a printing house in Vilnius – the first in Eastern Europe. In 1522, he prepared and published the first printed book of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, titled the Little Traveller's Book (Ruthenian language: Малая подорожная книжка). In 1525, he printed the Acts and Epistles of the Apostles (the Apostle).
The Vilnius Academy Press was established in 1575 by the Lithuanian noble Mikołaj Krzysztof "the Orphan" Radziwiłł as the printing house of the Vilnius Academy. He delegated the management of the printing house to the Jesuits. In May 1576, it published its first book Pro Sacratissima Eucharistia contra haeresim Zwinglianam by Piotr Skarga. The Vilnius Academy Press situation was exceptional because its activities were funded by the secular society, the Lithuanian nobility and the Church. In 1805, Józef Zawadzki bought the Vilnius Academy Press and founded the Józef Zawadzki printing shop which continuously worked till 1939 and published books in multiple languages. The first poetry book of Adam Mickiewicz was published there in 1822.
One of the creators of Lithuanian writing, Mikalojus Daukša, translated and published the Catechism by Spanish Jesuit theologist Jacobo Ledesma in 1595 – this was the first printed Lithuanian language book in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. He also translated and published the Jakub Wujek's Postilla Catholica in 1599 (both in Vilnius).
Many famous writers were born, lived in Vilnius or are alumnus of the Vilnius University (e.g. Konstantinas Sirvydas, Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski, Antoni Gorecki, Józef Ignacy Kraszewski, Antoni Edward Odyniec, Michał Józef Römer, Adam Mickiewicz, Władysław Syrokomla, Józef Mackiewicz, Romain Gary, Juliusz Słowacki, Simonas Daukantas, Mykolas Biržiška, Petras Cvirka (who was killed in Vilnius by soviet secret police), Kazys Bradūnas, Nobel prize-winner Czesław Miłosz, Jurga Ivanauskaitė).
The first consideration of the First Statute of Lithuania took place in 1522 at the Seimas of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in Vilnius. The Statute of Lithuania has been drafted under the guidance of Grand Chancellor of Lithuania Albertas Goštautas and in accordance with the courts' jurisprudence formed by customary law, Heads of State legislation on certain matters and by the provisions of the canon law and Roman law regulations. It is the first official codification of this kind of secular law in Europe.
Lithuanian nationalist Albertas Goštautas actively supported the Lithuanian language usage in the Lithuanian literature and protected Lithuanian authors, including Abraomas Kulvietis and Michael the Lithuanian, who criticised the usage of Old Slavonic church language and called refugees Old Believers as the Muscovian spies in his book De moribus tartarorum, lituanorum et moscorum.
Since the 16th century, the Lithuanian Metrica was kept at the Lower Castle and safeguarded by the State Chancellor. Due to the deterioration of the books, the State Grand Chancellor, Lew Sapieha, ordered the volumes of the Metrica to be recopied in 1594. The recopying process continued until 1607. The newly recopied books were inventoried, rechecked, and transferred to a separate building in Vilnius, with the older books remaining in the Castle of Vilnius. According to the 1983 data, 665 books have remained till the nowadays and their microfilms are preserved at the Lithuanian State Historical Archives in Vilnius.
Over 200 tiles and commemorative plaques to writers, who have lived and worked in Vilnius, and foreign authors, who have shared a connection with Vilnius and Lithuania, adorn walls on Literatų Street () in the Old Town, presenting a broad overview of the history of Lithuanian literature.
The Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore and the Lithuanian Writers' Union are located in Vilnius.
The biggest book fair in Baltic states is annually held in Vilnius at LITEXPO, the Baltic's biggest exhibition centre.
Cinema
The very first public film session in Vilnius was held in the Botanical Garden (now Bernardinai Garden) in the summer of 1897. It is notable that such an event was held in Vilnius soon after the very first film sessions in the world by Auguste and Louis Lumière, who held it in Paris in 1895. Vilnius film session also showed the Lumière brothers documentary movies. Firstly shown movies were educational and were filmed in exotic locations (e.g. India, Africa) and introduced different cultures to Vilnians, who enjoyed the movies because very few were able to visit such far places. Georges Méliès's movie A Trip to the Moon was first shown in the non-stationary Lukiškės Square movie theater in 1902 and was the first feature film shown in Vilnius.
First stationary movie theater in Vilnius named Iliuzija () was opened in 1905 and was located in Didžioji Street 60. First movie theaters reminded theatres buildings and had boxes with more expensive tickets. Also, because there was no sound in the first movies, the sessions had a live orchestral or musicians performances. On stage, cinema screening was sometimes mixed with theatrical performances, illusion shows.
On 4 June 1924, Vilnius Magistrate established a popular 1,200-seat movie theater in the city hall, which in Polish was called Miejski kinematograf (). The purpose of this cinema was to provide cultural education for students and adults. The popularity of this cinema is evidenced by the numbers of viewers in 1926: 502 261 tickets were sold, 24 242 tickets were given free to boarding children, 778 to Vilnius guests and 8385 to soldiers. In 1939, the Lithuanian authorities renamed it to Milda. In 1940, the last city government handed over the premises to the People's Commissariat of Education, which established the Lithuanian National Philharmonic Society there.
In 1965, the most modern movie theater in Lithuania called Lietuva was opened in Vilnius, which annually had over 1.84 million visitors and profit of over 1 million Soviet rubles. After the reconstruction, it had one of the largest screens in Europe (200 square metres). Though, it was closed in 2002, demolished in 2017 and the MO Museum was built instead of it.
Vilnius Film Festival Kino Pavasaris is the biggest and most important cinema event in Lithuania with international guests and thousands of visitors.
Lithuanian Film Centre (Lithuanian: Lietuvos kino centras), which main task is to promote the development and competitiveness of the Lithuanian film industry, headquarters are in Vilnius.
Music
Musicians were presented at the Palace of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania as early as the 14th century as Grand Duke Gediminas daughter Aldona of Lithuania already was a large sympathizer of music and took court musicians, singers with her to Kraków after marrying King Casimir III the Great. In the 16th century Vilnius for some time in their lives was a hometown of composer Wacław of Szamotuły, lutenist virtuoso Bálint Bakfark, composer Jan Brant. The first textbook of music in Lithuania – The Art and Practice of Music () was issued in Vilnius by Žygimantas Liauksminas in 1667.
Italian artists organized the first opera in Lithuania on 4 September 1636 at the Palace of the Grand Dukes by the order of Grand Duke Władysław IV Vasa. Operas are staged at the Lithuanian National Opera and Ballet Theatre and also by independent troupe Vilnius City Opera.
The Lithuanian National Philharmonic Society is the largest and oldest state owned concert organization in Lithuania, whose main activity is to organise and coordinate live concerts, diverse classical/classical contemporary/jazz music events and tours throughout Lithuania and abroad. The Lithuanian State Symphony Orchestra, founded by Gintaras Rinkevičius, every year builds up a wide-ranging repertoire, introduces exceptional programs, and invites young talent to perform along with recognized soloists.
In Lithuania, choral music is very important. Vilnius is the only city with three choirs laureates (Brevis, Jauna Muzika and Chamber Choir of the Conservatoire) at the European Grand Prix for Choral Singing. There is a long-standing tradition of the Dainų šventė (Lithuanian Song and Dance Festival). Since 1990, the festival has been organised every four years and summons roughly 30,000 singers and folk dancers of various professional levels and age groups from across the country in Vingis Park. In 2008, Lithuanian Song and Dance Festival together with its Latvian and Estonian versions was inscribed as UNESCO Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
Jazz scene was active even during the years of Soviet occupation. The real breakthrough would occur in 1970–71 with the coming together of the Ganelin/Tarasov/Chekasin trio, the alleged instigators of the Vilnius Jazz School. Most known annual event of jazz in the city is the Vilnius Jazz Festival.
Gatvės muzikos diena (Street Music Day) gathers musicians of various genres annually in the streets of Vilnius.
Vilnius is the birthplace of many prominent music personalities: singers (e.g. Mariana Korvelytė – Moravskienė, Paulina Rivoli, Danielius Dolskis, Vytautas Kernagis, Algirdas Kaušpėdas, Andrius Mamontovas, Nomeda Kazlaus, Asmik Grigorian), composers (e.g. César Cui, Felix Yaniewicz, Maximilian Steinberg, Vytautas Miškinis, Onutė Narbutaitė), conductors (e.g. Mirga Gražinytė-Tyla), musicians (e.g. Antoni Radziwiłł, Jascha Heifetz, Clara Rockmore, Romas Lileikis).
Vilnius was a hometown of such 18th century composers as Michał Kazimierz Ogiński, Johann David Holland (colleague of C. Bach), Maciej Radziwiłł, Michał Kleofas Ogiński. 19th century Vilnius was famous for such European scale performers as singer Kristina Gerhardi Frank – a close friend of Mozart and Haydn (performed the main part at the premiere of The Creation by the latter), guitarist-virtuoso Marek Konrad Sokołowski, recognized as the best guitarist in Europe in the mid-19th century, composer Stanisław Moniuszko – "the father of Polish national opera". The wealthiest woman in the early 19th century Vilnius was singer Maria de Neri. In the early 20th century, Vilnius was a hometown of Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis. Musicians of late 20th and early 21st centuries include Vyacheslav Ganelin, Petras Vyšniauskas, Petras Geniušas, Mūza Rubackytė, Alanas Chošnau, Marijonas Mikutavičius.
Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre is headquartered in Gediminas Avenue and also has its department at the Slushko Palace in Antakalnis]. Many accomplished singers have lectured at the Academy, including the internationally famous tenors Kipras Petrauskas and Virgilijus Noreika.
Theatre
Lithuanian Grand Dukes' entertainment at the castle, ruler's visits abroad and the honorable guests' arrival meetings etiquette had theatrical elements already since the 14th century (e.g. musicians' chapels of Gediminas and Władysław II Jagiełło). During the period of Sigismund III Vasa's residence in Vilnius (first half of the 17th century), English professional drama actors' troupes played in the royal manor. In 1635, Władysław IV Vasa established a professional opera theatre in the Lower Castle, where dramma per musica genre productions were performed with operas' librettos being written by Italian Virgilio Puccitelli. The performances were characterized by fundamental, luxurious scenography.
Between the 16th and 18th centuries there was a Jesuit's School Theatre in Lithuania. In 1570, the first performance was shown in Vilnius (comedy Hercules by S. Tucci). Baroque aesthetics prevailed in the Jesuit's School Theatre, but it also had Middle Ages retrospectives, Renaissance elements, Rococo motifs, and served an educational function. The performances were played in Latin, however elements of the Lithuanian language were also included in intermediates and prologues, and some of the works were Lithuanian-themed (e.g. plays dedicated to Algirdas, Mindaugas, Vytautas and other rulers of Lithuania).
In 1785, Wojciech Bogusławski established the city's first public theatre Vilnius City Theatre. The theatre was initially located in the Oskierka Palace, but later moved to the Radziwiłł Palace and the Vilnius Town Hall. Until 1845 the plays were performed in Polish, from 1845 in Polish and Russian and from 1864 only in Russian. After the ban on the Lithuanian language was lifted, the plays were also performed in Lithuanian. The theatre ceased to exist in 1914.
During the interwar, then part of Poland, Vilnius was famous for the most modern in the region experimental Reduta troupe and institute, led by Juliusz Osterwa. In Vilnius and the Vilnius Region, the performances by the Vilnius Lithuanian Stage Amateur Company (), established in 1930 (later it was renamed to Vilnius's Lithuanian Theatre; professional theatre Vaidila), were shown. In 1945, it was merged to the Lithuanian National Drama Theatre.
After the USSR occupation of Lithuania in 1940, theatre became one of the means of disseminating the Soviet ideology and censorship of repertoires was introduced. The performances incorporated the principles of socialist realism and a number of revolutionary plays were staged by the Russian authors. A Repertory Commission was established under the Ministry of Culture to direct theatres, control their repertoires, grant permissions to perform or ban performances. Socialist realism was the only recognized direction.
After the restoration of independence of Lithuania, theatre changed cardinally and sought to recreate a broken dialogue with spectators. Vilnius City Opera, an independent opera theatre in Vilnius, blends classical with contemporary art. While the Lithuanian National Drama Theatre, State Small Theatre of Vilnius, State Youth Theatre and a number of private theatre companies, including OKT / Vilnius City Theatre, Anželika Cholina Dance Theatre and others, show classical, modern and Lithuanian playwriting directed by world-known Lithuanian and foreign directors. There also is a Russian language theatre Russian Drama Theatre of Lithuania.
Photography
The beginning of Lithuanian photography is considered to be the daguerreotyping of the reconstructed Verkiai Palace, which was performed in the summer of 1839 by François Marcillac, the governor of the children of Duke Ludwig Wittgenstein, this fact is mentioned in the memoirs of architect Bolesław Podczaszyński published in January 1853 in the Gazeta Warszawska newspaper. The unfavorable political situation in the country led to the slow development of new technology and cultural activities. The first known daguerreotype portrait atelier in Vilnius was opened in 1843 by C. Ziegler; such ateliers operated in Lithuania until 1859. One of the most famous photographers was K. Neupert, who came from Norway (since 1851 he worked in Vilnius and Druskininkai).
In the 1860s with the spread of negative and positive collodion technology, glass negatives and albumen paper were used instead of daguerreotype plates, photo portraits of standardized formats became widespread and commercial photography ateliers were established in Vilnius and other Lithuanian cities. The first landscape and architectural photographs were created by Vilnius photographers Abdonas Korzonas and Albert Swieykowski, who compiled the first set of photographs in Lithuania – the Vilnius Album (32 images). In 1862, the Provisional Censorship Regulations were adopted, which determined the activities of photographic institutions; they were supervised by the Central Press Board of the Ministry of the Interior. Photographers ateliers (4 of 9) who participated in the January Uprising and photographed the rebels were closed, their images were annihilated and the authors were punished (e.g. A. Korzonas was deported to Siberia). Other prominent photographers of the 19th century were Stanisław Filibert Fleury (one of the pioneers of stereoscopic photography), Aleksander Władysław Strauss, Józef Czechowicz.
One of the most important facts about the use of photography for scientific purposes is the second photoheliograph in the world (after London) installed in 1865 at the Vilnius University Astronomical Observatory, which was used to observe and photograph the sunspots. Since 1868, for the first time in the world, a systematic photographic service of sunspots dynamics was launched in Vilnius.
In 1927, Jan Bułhak in Vilnius established the first photography club in the present territory of Lithuania.
In 1952, the editorial office of Švyturys magazine organized the first photography exhibition in Vilnius, the main object of which was photography itself (16 photographers participated).
Crafts
Iron tools, weapons, brass, glass and silver jewelry have been produced in the present territory of Lithuania since the 1st century. Later pottery and production of wood products became widespread, and weaving in the 2nd and 4th centuries. During the period of feudalism, home crafts were the most significant in the conditions of subsistence economy. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the separation of crafts from agriculture accelerated; crafts have become an independent branch of the economy. The Grand Dukes of Lithuania promoted the development of crafts in cities. Weaving, shoemaking, fur-making and other crafts predominated. With the introduction of foreign artisans (early 14th century), the development of crafts accelerated even further. The development of crafts and trade stimulated the growth of Vilnius and other Lithuanian cities. In the 14th and 15th centuries, crafts were already highly specialized (especially in the production of tools, household items, fabrics, clothing, weapons, and jewelry) and at the same time workshops were established, which trained and defended the interests of craftsmen. In the 16th century, the production of fine glassware began, goldsmithing was developed, and the level of pottery and weaving crafts rose. The Statutes of Lithuania (1529 and 1588 editions) mention 25 crafts. Prominent European goldsmiths worked in the Vilnius Goldsmiths' Workshop (established in 1495), which controlled the trade of precious metals, gemstones and stood out for its wealth as it serviced the territory up to Daugava and Dnieper Rivers, as well as the Catholic Church in Lithuania, the manor of the Grand Duke, nobility, townspeople. No less important was the Vilnius Mint, which was the main mint of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and minted the Lithuanian denarius, shillings, groschens, thalers, ducats, and other coins from 1387 to 1666.
In the second half of the 17th century, due to the economic turmoil caused by the Russo-Polish War, crafts declined, most of the goods were imported from abroad duty-free by Szlachta Lithuanian and Polish nobles and sold on their holdings. Crafts began to rise again in the second half of the 18th century to the first half of the 19th century and Vilnius was the largest Lithuanian craft center. After the abolition of serfdom, craft schools were established in the Lithuanian cities. The growing industry begun to push crafts from some areas of food processing, textiles and metalworking. However, crafts have long prevailed in clothing manufacturing, goldsmithing, wood, food processing, and other fields. During the years of Soviet occupation, craftsmen worked in artels (until 1960), after their abolition - in household service combines. After the restoration of Lithuania's independence, crafts complemented small and medium-sized businesses.
Language
As a historically multicultural capital, many languages statuses changed over the centuries in the history of Vilnius. The predominant language of public life in medieval Lithuania was Lithuanian. It was spoken by people living in the ethnopolitical center of the state – ethnic Lithuania, including the ruler's manor and the most prominent Lithuanian nobility. However, the Lithuanian language had no literary traditions and was not used in writing, except for the most important religious texts (e.g. the Lord's and the Hail Mary prayers). Although, the importance of the spoken Lithuanian language remained for centuries because it is known that even Vytautas the Great himself knew and spoke in the Lithuanian language with Władysław II Jagiełło, whose son Casimir IV Jagiellon also spoke in the Lithuanian language. The word about the Lithuanian language spread wide, as even the Byzantine Greek historian Laonikos Chalkokondyles in the 15th century knew that the Lithuanians had their own distinct language.
The Ruthenian language was used in Lithuania and its capital Vilnius due to the incorporation of the Kievan Rus' lands. In colloquial form, these dialects formed the basis of the Ukrainian and Byelorussian languages in the 19th century. The written form of the Ruthenian language formed from the interaction of the ancient Slavic language with the local elements of the Ruthenian language. Such a Ruthenian language became the main language of the Chancery of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 14th and 15th centuries and maintained its dominant position until the middle of the 17th century.
Latin and Polish were also widely used in the Chancery of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the second part of the 17th century, the Polish language ousted the Ruthenian language from the written sources and the Lithuanian language from most areas of the public life. The first state documents in the Lithuanian language appeared in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania only at the very end of its existence (e.g. Constitution of 3 May 1791 and the Great Sejm Lithuanian manuscripts, Kościuszko Uprising Lithuanian notes).
In 1552, Grand Duke Sigismund II Augustus ordered that orders of the Magistrate of Vilnius be announced in Lithuanian, Polish, and Ruthenian languages.
Minorities (e.g. Lithuanian Jews, Lipka Tatars, Crimean Karaites) were under the guardianship of the Grand Duke of Lithuania, but their languages were only used among themselves and never gained a significant role. The 2nd and 3rd Statutes of Lithuania consolidated Lithuanian Jews status as non-Christian and "common human" (non-noble).
According to the 14th article of the modern Constitution of Lithuania, the Lithuanian language is the only official language in the state. Therefore, all the official procedures in Vilnius must be proceeded in the Lithuanian language, however interpreter assistance is guaranteed by the state in some cases.
Lithuanians speak on average of 2.7 languages, and 97.3% of the population speaks at least one foreign language.
Fashion
It is known that the Vilnians have enjoyed to expensively dress up since the Middle Ages. According to historian Antanas Čaplinskas, even the merchants and craftsmen wives were wearing multiple rings decorated with gemstones (e.g. with ruby and fourteen diamonds). Those who did not dress up and did not followed the fashion trends were even ridiculed (e.g. for wearing sheepskins, for not wearing luxurious belts, gloves, or for not using handkerchiefs). Property inventories of 16th–17th centuries often mention expensive clothing, such as long, wide-sleeved jackets of precious materials, known as kontusz, and żupans decorated with lynx's or other animal fur, also kontush belts. Special attention was paid to the buttons as in the list of one nobleman's property Čaplinskas found 12 buttons with pearls and corals, about 100 large buttons with diamonds, plum-shaped buttons decorated with enamel, as well as buttons made from brilliants, emeralds. Delias and dolmans were also popular among the townspeople and nobles.
Wealthy townspeople, decorated with luxurious clothing, raised the envy of the Lithuanian nobility and the nobles demanded the adoption of laws limiting the clothing of the townspeople. For the first time such restrictions were recorded in the Statute of Lithuania of 1588, according to which the townspeople were allowed to wear only two rings (one of them was the seal) while Jews were forbidden to adorn with gold chains and brooches (though, the Jewish women had more rights). Even wider restrictions were put in place by the Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth which adopted the Act of Thrift in 1613, according to which the non-noble townspeople were forbidden to appear in public places dressed in expensive furs (violators of the law were fined and the clothes were given to the complainants). The wealthy townspeople were not satisfied with such limitations, therefore a subscription fee was introduced later which removed all limitations.
The clothing trends changed in the late 18th century when almost all men already had shaved beards, short-haired hairstyles and began to wear trendy, blue, green or black tailcoats with open-fronts and waistcoats matched with white or yellowish trousers, while the 18th century women's clothing fashion had almost no differences from the Western European fashion trends. In the early 20th century the clothes were already in line with the Western European fashion trends, and in 1961 clothing designers studies were launched in the State Art Institute of Lithuania, also in the same year the Vilnius Model House was established which created and popularized unique and industrial apparel and footwear models, made clothing presentations.
Mados infekcija () was launched in 1999 and is the biggest Lithuanian fashion show, held every spring in Vilnius. Prominent Lithuanian clothing designer Juozas Statkevičius usually organizes his collections presentations in Vilnius.
Holidays and festivals
As a result of centuries long Catholic traditions in Vilnius and Lithuania, the Catholic holidays (e.g. Christmas, Easter, Saint John's Eve) are widely celebrated and employees have a days off.
Every year on 16 February (day of the Act of Independence of Lithuania) and on 11 March (day of the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania) festive events are organized in Vilnius with official ceremonies conducted by the heads of state and the holy masses of the Lithuanian Catholic Church in the Vilnius Cathedral. While in the evening of 12 January bonfires are ignited to mark the bloody January Events.
Saint Casimir's Fair () has been held annually for hundreds of years in the city's markets and streets on the Sunday nearest to 4 March (Feast of St. Casimir), the anniversary of Saint Casimir's death. It attracts tens of thousands of visitors and many Lithuanian and foreign craftsmen. Easter palms () are one of the most recognizable symbols of the fair.
Capital's Days () is the biggest festival of music and culture held in the city annually for three days (from 30 August to 1 September).
Although it is not a national holiday, the Vilnia River is dyed green every year for Saint Patrick's Day.
During the annual Vilnius Culture Night various artists and cultural organisations hold events and performances all over the city.
Administration
City government
Before the Magdeburg rights were granted to Vilnius in 1378, the city was overseen by the ruler's vicegerents. Later these duties were granted to a magistrate or a City Council, subordinate only to the ruler himself. During wars, when the city was in a danger, the city was led by a Voivode of Vilnius. The magisterial authority was headquartered at the Vilnius Town Hall.
Vilnius Magistrate was responsible for the city economy, was collecting taxes, taking care of the city treasury, was accumulating stocks of grain in order to avoid residents starvation in case of famine or wars. He also acted as a notary in transactions, testaments and as a judge during the city residents conflicts that involved new buildings constructions and reconstructions. His other function was taking care of the city craftsmen. From the beginning, statutes of workshops were approved by the ruler himself. Later, Sigismund II Augustus granted this privilege to the city magistrates in 1552. Since the 1522 privilege by Sigismund I the Old, Vilnius Magistrates had the responsibility to protect the city and its resident's tranquility by having 24 armed guards. During war times, the night watch was performed by three jurisdictions – magistrate, bishop and castle men.
Chief City Administrator was vaitas (a Grand Duke of Lithuania vicegerent in the city). Most of them were beginning their careers in the magistracy before obtaining such a position. All vaitai were Catholics. Vaitas was chairing during the City Council meetings. His competence also included criminal cases and he had the right to impose a death penalty. At first, he examined the cases alone, however since the 16th century two suolininkai also examined important cases (if the lawsuit was over 10 groschen) together with the vaitas. In the 16th century, Vilnius City Council consisted of 12 burgomasters and 24 councilors (half of them were Catholics, the other half were orthodoxes). There were no direct elections to the City Council and members to the council were chosen by the wealthy townspeople, merchants, workshops seniors. Burgomasters were being chosen until their deaths. In case of death, another member of the council was being chosen of the same religion. In 1536, Sigismund I the Old signed a privilege which regulated the magistracy formation principles that prohibited to choose close relatives to the council and all the new taxes, obligations and regulations required the prior agreement of the townspeople.
Under the Russian Empire, the City Council was replaced with a City Duma. The city was the capital of the Lithuania Governorate in 1797–1801, Vilna Governorate-General in 1794–1912, and Vilna Governorate in 1795–1915.
After the Soviet occupation of Lithuania, Vilnius became a republican subordinate city and capital of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic.
The current Vilnius City Municipal Council was established in 1990. The Vilnius City Municipality is one of 60 municipalities of Lithuania and includes the nearby town of Grigiškės, three villages, and some rural areas. The town of Grigiškės was separated from the Trakai District Municipality and attached to the Vilnius City Municipality in 2000.
A 50-member council is elected to four-year terms; the candidates are nominated by registered political parties and committees. As of the 2011 elections, independent candidates also were permitted. The last election was held in March 2019 and the results were: Public Election Committee "R. Šimašius Team "For Vilnius, which we are proud of" (17 seats), A. Zuokas and Vilnius Citizens Coalition "Happy Vilnius" (10 seats), Homeland Union – Lithuanian Christian Democrats (9 seats), the coalition of the Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania and Russians Alliance "Christian Families Alliance" (6 seats), Labour Party (5 seats), Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union (3 seats).
Before 2015, mayors were appointed by the council. Starting with the elections in 2015, the mayors are elected directly in a two-round system by voters registered in the municipality. Remigijus Šimašius became the first directly elected mayor of the city.
Subdivisions
Elderships, a statewide administrative division, function as municipal districts. The 21 elderships are based on neighbourhoods:
Verkiai – includes Baltupiai, Jeruzalė, Santariškės, Balsiai, Visoriai
Antakalnis – includes Valakampiai, Turniškės, Dvarčionys
Pašilaičiai – includes Tarandė
Fabijoniškės – includes Bajorai
Pilaitė
Justiniškės
Viršuliškės
Šeškinė
Šnipiškės
Žirmūnai – includes Šiaurės miestelis
Karoliniškės
Žvėrynas
Grigiškės – a separate town
Lazdynai
Vilkpėdė – includes Vingis Park
Naujamiestis – includes bus and train stations
Senamiestis (Old Town) – includes Užupis
Naujoji Vilnia – includes Pavilnys, Pūčkoriai
Paneriai – includes Trakų Vokė, Gariūnai
Naujininkai – includes Kirtimai, Salininkai, Vilnius International Airport
Rasos – includes Belmontas, Markučiai
District municipality
Vilnius District Municipality () is one of the largest municipalities in Lithuania. It occupies 2129 square kilometres and has 23 civil parishes. There are 1163 villages and 5 towns (Nemenčinė, Bezdonys, Maišiagala, Mickūnai and Šumskas) in the district. Vilnius district surrounds the Lithuania's capital and has developed public, business rural infrastructure and offers high standard of living with clean environment. Vilnius district borders with the Republic of Belarus and neighbours with Švenčionys, Moletai, Širvintos, Elektrėnai, Trakai and Šalčininkai districts.
Vilnius district has a multinational population, of which 52% are Poles, 33% are Lithuanians and the rest of 16% are Russians, Belarusians and other nationalities residents (e.g. Ukrainians, Lipka Tatars, Jews). Vilnius district has over 100,000 residents. Most of the population (95%) live in villages and 5% live in towns.
Vilnius district has the highest terrains of Lithuania – Aukštojas, Juozapinė and Kruopinė Hills, which are raised over 290 metres above sea level and are considered very high in the country's flatlands.
Palm Sunday is widely celebrated in the district and the unique and colorful Vilnian Easter palms (verbos) are made there from dried flowers and herbs. The tradition of making Vilnius palms is dated to the times of St. Casimir, who is a patron saint of Lithuania and Lithuanian youth.
Medininkai Castle, Liubavas Manor mill and Bareikiškės Manor are the most famous historical landmarks of the district.
Vilnius Voivodeship from 1769 surrounded a completely independent microstate Republic of Paulava, known for its Age of Enlightenment values, with its own president, peasants parliament, army and laws.
As a result of its large Polish population, Vilnius District Municipality Council mostly consists from members of the Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania. Lithuanian Pole Marija Rekst is a long-term mayor of the district.
National government
As the capital of Lithuania, Vilnius is the seat of Lithuania's national government. For the executive, the two chief officers of Lithuania have their offices in Vilnius. The President of the Republic of Lithuania resides at the Presidential Palace in Daukanto Square, while the Prime Minister's seat is at the Government of Lithuania office in Gediminas Avenue. According to the Law of the President of the Republic of Lithuania, the President of the Republic has a residence in Vilnius that is located in Turniškės district near Neris river. Prime Minister also has a right to a residence in Turniškės district during term in office. Government ministries are located in various parts of the city; many are located in Vilnius Old Town.
Historically, the Seimas of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania mostly gathered in Vilnius. The present-day Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania is also located in Vilnius and meets at the Seimas Palace in Gediminas Avenue.
Lithuania's highest courts are located in Vilnius. The Supreme Court of Lithuania (), the highest court in the judicial order, which reviews criminal and civil cases, is located in the Gynėjų Street, while the Supreme Administrative Court of Lithuania (), which acts as the highest court in the administrative order, judging litigation against public bodies, is located in the Žygimantų Street. The Constitutional Court of Lithuania (), an advisory body with ultimate authority on the constitutionality of laws meets in the Constitutional Court's Palace in Gediminas Avenue.
The Lithuanian Tribunal, the highest appeal court for the nobility of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, was established by Stephen Báthory, Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland, in 1581. It was located in Vilnius until the Third Partition of Poland in 1795.
Special services
The security of Vilnius is mainly the responsibility of the Vilniaus apskrities vyriausiasis policijos komisariatas, the highest police office in the city, and local police offices. Its main responsibilities are ensuring public order and public safety, disclosure and investigation of criminal offenses and traffic safety supervision. In 2016, there were 1500 police officers in Vilnius. Public Security Service is responsible for the prompt restoration of public order in extreme and special situations and ensure proper protection of important state objects and escorted subjects.
Vilniaus apskrities priešgaisrinė gelbėjimo valdyba is the primary governing body of the Vilnius's firefighters forces. In the first 9 months of 2018, there were 1287 fire incidents in the city of Vilnius, during which 6 people died and 16 were traumatized.
Vilniaus greitosios medicinos pagalbos stotis is responsible for emergency medical services in the city and can be contacted directly by calling a short number 033. It is one of the oldest emergency medical services institution in Eastern Europe and was established already in 1902. Large part of this institution doctors and other personnel were awarded with medals for their assistance to victims during the January Events in 1991.
Major number for contacting all the special services in Vilnius (and other regions of Lithuania) is 112.
Cityscape
Urbanism and architecture
The Old Town of Vilnius is the historical centre of Vilnius, about in size. Its history begins from the Neolithic period. During it, the glacial hills were intermittently occupied and a wooden castle, at the confluence of the Neris and Vilnia rivers, was built around 1000 AD to fortify Gedimino Hill. The settlement developed into a town in the 13th century, when the pagan Baltic people were invaded by the Westerners during the Lithuanian Crusade. Around 1323, when the first written sources about Vilnia occurred, it was the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which was formed from various cultures and nationalities residents. At this time, it only had some brick structures. By the 15th century, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania had become one of the most powerful and the largest country in Europe with its territory stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea (mostly, present-day Belarus, Ukraine and Russia lands). The historic centre consists of three castles territories (Upper, Lower and Curved) and the area that was previously encircled by a Wall of Vilnius. Its plan is mostly circular with its center in the original castle site. The streets pattern is medieval and has small, narrow streets, however large squares were also developed in later periods. Pilies Street, the main artery, links the Palace of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania with Vilnius Town Hall. Other streets meander through the palaces of feudal lords and landlords, churches, shops and craftsmen's workrooms.
The historic buildings are in Gothic (e.g. Church of St. Anne), Renaissance (e.g. Palace of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania), Baroque (e.g. Church of St. Peter and St. Paul with over 2,000 stucco figures interior, Vilnius University's main campus, which features 13 courtyards framed by 15th century buildings and splashed with 300-year-old frescoes, and the Church of St. Johns) and Classical styles (e.g. Vilnius Cathedral, Vilnius Town Hall, Šuazeliai Palace, Verkiai Palace) with splendid exteriors and interiors. The variety of preserved churches and former palaces of the Lithuanian nobility especially constitutes the Vilnius multicultural heritage.
As a capital of the massive state, Lithuanians shaped the development of its outstanding capital together with other nations. Vilnius development was influenced by the West and East ideologies. Christianity has dominated in Lithuania since the Christianization of Lithuania in 1387, however Orthodoxy of the state's eastern residents and the growing importance of Judaism led to exemplary material manifestations of these religious communities (e.g. Orthodox Cathedral of the Theotokos, Great Synagogue of Vilna).
Various disasters resulted in reconstructions of the Vilnius buildings in the School of Vilnius Baroque style, which later left an imprint in the whole Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Talented artists (e.g. Matteo Castelli, Pietro Perti) from the present-day Canton of Ticino were particularly preferred by the Grand Duke of Lithuania and local nobility, and developed many famous objects in the city (e.g. Chapel of Saint Casimir). Lithuanian Laurynas Gucevičius left a huge mark in the Classical style architecture of Vilnius.
Vilnius Old Town was inscribed to the list of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1994. The inscribed property has an extension of 352 ha. Vilnius Historic Centre is particularly noted for maintaining the medieval streets pattern without any significant gaps. However, some places were damaged during Lithuania's occupations and wars, including the Cathedral Square that covers the foundations of the Royal Palace – demolished after the 3rd partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795, a square in the east from the Church of All Saints where the Convent of the Barefoot Carmelites previously stood alongside a Vice-Chancellor Stefan Pac's established Baroque Church of St. Joseph the Betrothed, both demolished by the tsar's order. Great Synagogue and part of the buildings in the Vokiečių Street () were demolished after World War II.
Vilnius occupies an area of 401 square kilometers, of which only one fifth is developed and the remainder is green belt and water. For this reason, Vilnius is often referred to as one of the 'greenest' capital cities in Europe.
Crypts
The crypts of Vilnius Cathedral are a place where prominent figures of Lithuania and the Catholic Church are buried. At the Royal Mausoleum Grand Duke Alexander Jagiellon, Queen Elizabeth of Austria, Barbara Radziwiłł, heart of the Grand Duke Władysław IV Vasa are buried. These crypts also have one of the oldest frescos in Lithuania, painted in the late 14th or early 15th century, and dating to the times of the Christianization of Lithuania.
Housing
Vilnius Old Town () with medieval stone paved streets and Užupis offers one of the most prestigious housing in Vilnius. Many old town apartment buildings there offers direct views to the iconic churches or the biggest landmarks of the city (e.g. especially desired Gediminas Tower), enclosed inner courtyards, high ceilings, attics, non-standard layouts and luxurious historic interiors. Most expensive flats in these neighbourhoods may cost millions of euros and are accessible only to the wealthiest residents of the city. However, such problems as traffic jams, expensive car parking spaces, air pollution, high costs of maintenance, limitations for reconstructions repels rich Vilnians from living in these neighbourhoods, who often buy or build private houses in more distant parts of Vilnius (Balsiai, Bajorai, Pavilnys, Kalnėnai, Pilaitė and others) or nearby areas of the Vilnius District Municipality. About 21,000 residents live in the old town and 7,000 in Užupis.
Valakampiai and Turniškės are the city's most prestigious places with private houses quarters as plots there are sufficiently large, surrounded with the greenery, pines forests and are easily accessible from the city centre. Generally, exceptionally wealthy residents and heads of the state (e.g. presidents) live there and most of the larger private houses costs millions of euros. Part of the Žvėrynas neighbourhood also offers luxurious private houses with plots close to the Vingis Park, but it also has the Soviet-era apartment buildings, poor condition wooden houses, higher number of residents (~12,200).
Neighbourhoods around the old town (Antakalnis, Žirmūnai, Naujamiestis, Žvėrynas) offer a wide variety prices flats, decent amount of greenery suitable for walks, bicycle roads and therefore are the most popular among the middle class residents. Wealthier communities are living in a new construction apartments or renovated Soviet-era apartments. The Government of Lithuania strongly supports the renovation process and compensates 30% or more of the cost. However, poorer inhabitants and low income pensioners are often stopping the process adding to overall regionalistic policies of the politicians.
More distant neighbourhoods (e.g. Lazdynai, Karoliniškės, Viršuliškės, Šeškinė, Justiniškės, Pašilaičiai, Fabijoniškės, Naujininkai) are offering significantly cheaper flats. Their biggest disadvantages together with a more difficult communication with the city centre are mostly not renovated Soviet-era high-rise buildings, worn out surroundings, large traffic jams on the streets connecting with the city centre during the rush hours and a constant lack of car parking spaces near older apartments.
Šnipiškės eldership has received a significant amount of investment during the 2010s. The area was first mentioned in the Vilnius's historical documents in 1536 when the Grand Duke Sigismund I the Old ordered Ulrich Hosius to build a wooden bridge over the Neris river. Soon around the bridge, a suburb began to develop. In the 16th a palace dedicated to the Muscovites and Tatars messengers was built by the magistrate of Vilnius to the north of Šnipiškės, as during their visits, they acted noisily and the townspeople did not want them around. In the 18th century, a Jesuit's Church of St. Raphael the Archangel and monastery as well as solid palaces of the rich and multi-story brick houses of ordinary townspeople were built in Šnipiškės. On the other hand, the outskirts of this suburb were inhabited by the craftsmen: the glass-makers, brick-makers, pottery-makers. Smoking pipe factory, sawmills and even a tiny candy factory emerged. A small part of the territory (8 ha) of Šnipiškės west of the Kalvarijų market, called Skansenas, occupied mostly by poor condition wooden houses, emerged in the late 19th century. Surprisingly, it survived to this day and is now still underdeveloped territory, protected by the state. Next to it, then-luxurious quarter of bankers – Piromontas was built in the 1890s, is architectural heritage too.
During the 1960s, the Šnipiškės area was named the new city center: the first city pedestrian zone organized and before the 1990 a number of buildings, including the largest shopping center in what was then Lithuanian SSR, the highest and the largest hotel, planetarium, museum of Revolution, Pioneer's Palace as well as number of ministries of the Lithuanian SSR were built. However, the broader territory of Šnipiškės, stretching to the north of what is now Konstitucijos Avenue, remained mainly underdeveloped until the early 2000s when the new Vilnius city municipality building was built in the area, that inspired transformation of the surroundings: the new Europa square formed with a new shopping center "Europa", 33-story "Europa" business tower and 27-story "Europa" apartment building. Former Museum of Revolution was reconstructed to the National Art Gallery in the late 2000s. Since then skyscrapers and expensive commercial offices are being built constantly in the area. It already has almost 0.5 million square meters of real estate. A Japanese garden will be completed in the area till 2020.
In 2019, average price for of flat was around 2,000 euros and around 1,200 euros for of a private house in Vilnius, while the rent prices were ~10 €/m2 (for flats) and ~8 €/m2 (for private houses) respectively. According to the economists, number of transactions and housing affordability index has reached record highs in 2019 because of the significant rise in Vilnius residents incomes and slowing of the flats prices rising. Despite that, according to a research one fourth of the 26–35 years old inhabitants are still living in their parents or relatives owned homes, which is the highest number in the Baltic states, however it is likely that large part of these young people are simply saving for their own homes or the initial contribution because statistics traditionally shows that Lithuanians purchases their homes with less borrowed funds than Latvians or Estonians.
Demographics
Vilnius has thousands of years of demographics history as in the eldership of Vilkpėdė the remains of the Magdalenian culture settlement were found, which are dated to around 10,000 years BC. In the first 1,000 years AD there were large settlements in Kairėnai, Pūčkoriai and Naujoji Vilnia. The most densely populated area was the confluence of the Neris and Vilnia Rivers, which also had fortified homesteads. Later Vilnius was part of the Kingdom of Lithuania territory, however King Mindaugas did not constantly reside in it, despite building the first Catholic Church in Lithuania there on the occasion of his coronation. The city began to develop in the late 13th century, during the reign of Grand Dukes Butvydas and Vytenis.
Major growth of Vilnius as the centre and capital of the medieval state is attributed to the 14th century reign of Grand Duke Gediminas who invited knights, merchants, doctors, craftspeople and others to come to the Grand Duchy to practice their trades and faith without restriction. Although, the growth of Vilnius was limited at the time due to the brutal Teutonic Order attacks (e.g. during their assault in 1390 around 14,000 Vilnians were killed) and the Lithuanian Civil War of 1389–1392.
Vilnius developed as a multicultural city. In the 14th century sources it is mentioned that Vilnius consists of the Great (Lithuanian) city and Ruthenians city. Until the 16th century the city was mostly inhabited by Lithuanians and Ruthenians, however the German merchants, artisans, Jews (since the 14th century; later had their qahal till 1845) and the Tartars (since 1397) also settled down in Vilnius. In the 16th–17th centuries, during Reformation and Counter-Reformation, the Polonophone population began to grow – by the middle of the 17th century most writings were in Polish due to the Polonisation (before the 16th century the number was only around 5%).
The city prospered during the Golden Age by being one of the main cities of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the residence of the Lithuanian nobility. However, the city was severely devastated by fire in 1610. After the Battle of Vilnius in 1655 the city came under Russian control (1655–1661). Next, after the Great Northern War, the Swedish Empire controlled the city from 1702 to 1709. This occupation ended during the Great Northern War plague outbreak in 1709. It took the city more than 50 years to recover.
According to the first population census of the Commonwealth in 1790, the Vilnius Voivodeship (without the Grodno County) had a population of 718,571 residents, while the Vilnius County had 105,896 residents (the whole Grand Duchy after the Second Partition had a population of 1,333,493 then). Shortly after, the city population decreased to just 17,500 residents in 1796 due to the fierce battles of the Vilnius uprising in 1794, which was the last attempt to save the Grand Duchy's capital from falling under the complete Russian control. Though, after the rebels defeat, Vilnius was incorporated into the Russian Empire and was its third largest city in the beginning of the 19th century. After a few decades of the Russian despotism, Vilnius demographics were once again affected by the November Uprising in 1830 and the January Uprising in 1863, during which rebels attempts were made to restore the statehood. According to the Russian Empire Census of 1897, Vilnius had 154,532 residents and later grown to 205,300 residents in 1909, while the Vilna Governorate had 1,561,713 residents in 1897.
During World War I thousands of Vilnians were forced to flee, were killed or were taken to the forced labor camps; consequently the city had only 128,500 residents in 1919 (in total, the present-day Lithuania territory lost around 1 million residents). Vilnius recovered during the interwar period and had 209,442 residents in 1939, but due to World War II the number fell to 110,000 in 1944.
Vilnius again grew in population by being the capital of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (according to the 1989 census, it had 576,747 residents). Despite the fact that almost whole Lithuania suffered from a large emigration after the restoration of independence in 1990, the number of residents in Vilnius remained almost unchanged (542,287 in 2001) and began to steadily grow every year since 2006 to 580,020 residents (as of 1 January 2020).
Historic ethnic makeup
Around 1000 years AD, the confluence of the Neris and Vilnia rivers was densely populated by the Striped Ceramics culture, which had a half a hectare fortified settlement on the Gediminas' Hill. This culture tribes were common throughout present-day Lithuania, east of the Šventoji River and in the western part of Belarus. The direct descendants of this culture are believed to be a Baltic tribe – the Aukštaitians (). According to a prominent researcher of Vilnius history Antanas Čaplinskas, who researched the surnames of Vilnius residents in the archive documents of the city, the oldest surviving surnames of Vilnius residents are Lithuanian. Pagan Lithuanians mostly lived at the northern foot of Gediminas' Hill and in the Crooked Castle.
Later, following the invitation of Grand Duke Gediminas, merchants and craftsmen began to move to Vilnius from the cities of the German Hanseatic League, France, Italy and Spain, and replaced the Lithuanian surnames with German, Polish, and Russian surnames. In the late 14th century, during the reign of Grand Duke Algirdas, Vilnius already had a Ruthenian quarter () in the present-day Latako and Rusų Streets, as the trade relations between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Ruthenian principalities were quite well developed, therefore quite a few Ruthenian merchants lived there and the Ruthenian nobles had their residences in the quarter. The variety of nations in Vilnius was further increased by Grand Duke Vytautas the Great, who introduced Litvak Jews, Tatars and Crimean Karaites. After a few hundred years, the number of locals in Vilnius was smaller than the number of newcomers. However, according to an analysis of the tax registers of 1572, Lithuania proper had 850,000 residents.
Beginning during the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Polish culture began to penetrate the city rapidly and soon the Polish language prevailed in the city, even the Magistrate's documents were written in Polish until the November Uprising in 1831. After living for a while in Vilnius, foreign merchants and artisans quickly assimilated and were Polonized. The majority of the Lithuanian nobles spoke the Polish language, however they never considered themselves Poles and the Union of Lublin was only signed during the second attempt in 1569, with the agreement that both states will be sovereign entities within the Commonwealth. Their opinion did not change within the union and was confirmed again in the Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations in 1791.
Over the centuries, the composition of the population of Vilnius changed to become ethnically less Lithuanian. According to historian Vytautas Merkys, the city lost a great deal of its old population during the brutal rampages of the Swedish and Russian armies in the 17th and 18th centuries, and they were replaced by the newcomers, however the Lithuanians also constantly inhabited in Vilnius. According to the Russian Empire Census of 1897, only 2.1% (3200 residents) identified themselves as Lithuanian-speakers, while the Poles (30.8%; 47,600 residents) and the Jews (40.0%; 61,800 residents) were the largest ethnic groups of the city. According to the Parish censuses of 1857–1858, the Lithuanian population remained significant in the Vilna Governorate and, according to different authors, was between 23.6% and 50.0% (210,273–418,880 residents). Among the Szlachta (nobility) in Vilnius during the census of 1897, there were 5,301 (46.3%) local nobles and 6,403 (54.7%) newcomers, of these 24.1% noble newcomers came from Vilna Governorate territories, while the rest of newcomers nobles came to Vilnius from Grodno Governorate, Minsk Governorate, Vitebsk Governorate, Kovno Governorate, Vistula Land and other regions.
Ethnic Lithuanian numbers in the city of Vilnius reached record lows in 1931 (1600 residents – 0.8%, while Poles accounted for 65.9% – 128,600 residents) following the 1922 annexation of Vilnius Region by Poland and the Lithuanians retreat from the region to the temporary capital of Kaunas. Following the Soviet–Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Treaty in 1939, Lithuania recovered the Vilnius Region and made efforts to Lithuanize Vilnius by the introduction of Lithuanian laws. Prime Minister Antanas Merkys once said that it was intended "to make everybody think like Lithuanians. First of all, it was and still is necessary to comb out the foreign element from the Vilnius Region". The Lithuanian Government put into force a law according to which "who on 12 July 1920 (...) were regarded as Lithuanian nationals, and on 27 October 1939 were resident in the territory became Lithuanian nationals" (this definition of citizenship was used to dismiss a large number of Polish civil servants and ~150,000 Poles were later repatriated from the Lithuanian SSR). Almost the whole Jewish population was exterminated during the Holocaust in Lithuania. After World War II, the number of ethnic Lithuanians in the city started recovering (e.g. there already were 79,363 Lithuanians in 1959, who accounted for 33.6% of all residents in the city), however the Lithuanization ideas were mostly replaced with the Sovietization of the population after the rigged election to the People's Seimas in 1940. Following the restoration of independence in 1990, the ethnic Lithuanian population in the city continued to grow and according to the 2011 census of Lithuania already reached 63.2% (337,000 residents).
Economy
Vilnius is the major economic centre of Lithuania. The GDP per capita (nominal) in Vilnius county was €25,400 (~US$30,000) in 2019, making it the wealthiest region in Lithuania and the second-wealthiest region in the Baltic states.
The budget of Vilnius reached €740 million in 2021. As of Q3 of 2021 the average gross salary in Vilnius city municipality reached €1,822 per month or around €22,000 annual.
Since 2010, employment and unemployment indicators have continuously been improving in Lithuania. Employment reached a record high of 77.5% in the third quarter of 2018 while unemployment was 6.3% in the fourth quarter, a rate last observed in 2008. Nevertheless, this has to be seen in the context of a shrinking working age population. The activity rate reached 82% in 2017. Vilnius and Kaunas counties offer better labour market opportunities than other counties, and this drives the internal interregional migration. However, in other regions employment opportunities remain scarce. Unemployment rates remained persistently high in the least developed regions (14.9% in Utena County as compared to 4.8% in Vilnius County). Other key labour market indicators have improved, returning to pre-crisis levels. Long-term unemployment fell to 2.1% in the third quarter of 2018 (EU average: 2.9%). Youth unemployment (13.3%) and the rate of young people not in employment, education or training (NEET, at 9.1%) were below the EU average in 2017.
Overall, the share of the population at risk of poverty or social exclusion (AROPE) has decreased since Lithuania joined the EU in 2004. However, it remains among the highest in the EU (29.6% in 2017, compared to 22.4% in the EU). The risk of poverty or social exclusion in rural areas is nearly double that of urban areas, which corresponds to the gap in the unemployment rate between cities and rural areas (4.5% versus 11% in 2017). In particular the metropolitan areas of Vilnius and Kaunas, where significant economic activity is centred, drive a significant gap between AROPE rates in urban and rural areas. In 2017, the AROPE rate in rural areas was 37.2%, compared to 19.9% in cities.
Over the past 15 years, Lithuania has experienced the fastest convergence in the EU, but the benefits of economic growth are uneven across regions. Disparities among Lithuania's regions have steadily grown in this period. While GDP per capita reached nearly 110% of the EU average in the capital region of Vilnius, it is only between 42% and 77% in other regions. The country's rapid convergence is mainly fuelled by two regions – the capital region of Vilnius and Kaunas County – producing 42% and 20% of the national GDP, respectively. In 2014–2016 these regions grew on average by 4.6% (Vilnius) and 3.3% (Kaunas), while the other regions, which have a higher share of rural areas, stagnated or were in recession.
The supply of new housing in Vilnius and its suburbs, the country's biggest real estate market, has reached post-crisis highs and the stock of unsold apartments in the three largest cities has started to increase since the
beginning of 2017. The demand for housing is still strong, fuelled by rapidly rising wages, benign financial conditions and positive expectations. In the first half of 2018, the number of monthly transactions was the highest since the 2007–2008 peak. Most foreign direct investment and productive public investment in Lithuania is concentrated around the two main economic development poles of Vilnius and Kaunas.
Vilnius Industrial Park is located 18.5 kilometres from the city and its land is intended for commercial, industrial use.
Science and research
In 1675, Tito Livio Burattini lived in Vilnius and published a book Misura universale in which he suggested to use term metre for a unit of length for the first time. In 1753, on the initiative of Thomas Zebrowski the Vilnius University Astronomical Observatory was established, which was among the first observatories in Europe and the first in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Marcin Odlanicki Poczobutt led the reconstruction of the observatory in 1770–72 (according to Marcin Knackfus project) and made sure it was equipped with the latest astronomical instruments, from 1773 he began constant astronomical observations, which were recorded in the observation journals (), and created a constellation Taurus Poniatovii. In 1781, Jean-Emmanuel Gilibert established the Botanical Garden of Vilnius University with over 2000 plants, he also provided the first herbariums, collections of stuffed animals and birds, fossil plants, animal remains, and a collection of minerals to the Vilnius University. After the Third Partition of the Commonwealth, the observatory published the first exact sciences journal in the Russian Empire called the Journal of Mathematical Sciences ().
Sunrise Valley Science and Technology Park () is a non-profit organization, founded in 2003. The park is the centre of entrepreneurship, promotion of business and science collaboration, provision of infrastructure and other innovation support. Over 20,000 students study in the Vilnius University and Vilnius Gediminas Technical University facilities in the Sunrise Valley and 5,000 scientists performs their research in the corresponding science centres there.
Centre for Physical Sciences and Technology () or FTMC is the largest scientific research institution in Lithuania, which specialises in laser technologies, optoelectronics, nuclear physics, organic chemistry, bio and nano technologies, electrochemical material science, electronics, and other scientific fields. The centre was created in 2010 by merging institutes of Chemistry, Physics, Semiconductor Physics in Vilnius and Textile institute in Kaunas. The centre features 250 laboratories (24 open to the public) and can accommodate more than 700 researchers and students. Furthermore, the centre also offers PhD Studies and annually helds FizTech conferences of PhD students and young researchers. FTMC is the founder and sole shareholder of the Science and Technology Park of Institute of Physics in Savanorių Avenue, which provides assistance to companies operating in research and development field.
Laser Research Centre of Vilnius University () is an open access centre, mostly used by the Department of Quantum Electronics, which prepares highly qualified physicists, laser physicists and laser technology specialists. The department carries out world-class research in laser physics, nonlinear optics, optical component characterization, biophotonics and laser microtechnology. Lithuania is one of the world's leaders in producing laser technologies and has over 50% of the world's market share in ultrashort pulses lasers, which are produced by the Vilnius-based companies. In 2019, they developed one of the world's most powerful laser system in the world SYLOS for the Extreme Light Infrastructure laboratory in Szeged, which produces high-intensity ultra-short pulses with a peak power of up to a thousand times that of the most powerful nuclear power plant in the United States. Also, Corning Inc. has bought the licence for the state-of-the-art glass cutting solutions from the Vilnius-based laser company Altechna and uses it for manufacturing billions of Gorilla Glasses.
Vilnius University Life Sciences Centre () is a scientific research centre, which consists of three institutes: Institute of Biochemistry, Institute of Biosciences and Institute of Biotechnology. The centre was opened in 2016 and has 900 students, ~120 PhD students and 250 scientific-pedagogical staff that are able to use open access scientific laboratories equipped with the most advanced equipment there. Next to the main building there is a Technology Business Incubator for small and medium businesses in life sciences or related fields.
Vilnius Gediminas Technical University has three research centres in the Sunrise Valley: Civil Engineering Research Centre, Technology Centre for Building Information and Digital Modelling, Competence Centre of Intermodal Transport and Logistics.
The Lithuanian Social Research Centre () in A. Goštauto St. 9 analyzes the socio-economic, political and demographic processes and helps clients in public and private sectors. The Centre closely cooperates with the Government of Lithuania.
Santara Valley () is a second science and research valley in Vilnius, which focuses on the medicine, biopharmaceutical and bioinformatics areas. Vilnius University Faculty of Medicine Science Centre, costing million, will be completed in the valley in 2021.
Jonas Kubilius, long-term rector of the Vilnius University is known for works in Probabilistic number theory, Kubilius model, Theorem of Kubilius and Turán–Kubilius inequality bear his name. Jonas Kubilius successfully resisted attempts to Russify the Vilnius University. Vilnian Marija Gimbutas was the first to formulate the Kurgan hypothesis. In 1963, Vytautas Straižys and his coworkers created Vilnius photometric system that is used in astronomy. Kavli Prize laureate Virginijus Šikšnys is known for his discoveries in CRISPR field – invention of CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing.
Information technology
Lithuania and its capital Vilnius is an attractive place for foreign companies to open their offices. This is due to several main reasons – highly qualified employees and good infrastructure. Several high schools are preparing skilled specialists in Vilnius, most notably the Vilnius University Faculty of Mathematics and Informatics and Vilnius Gediminas Technical University Faculty of Fundamental Sciences. Sphere of the information technology is an attractive profession among the qualified professionals due to the high salaries in Vilnius (e.g. Lithuanian branch of Google, established in Vilnius, offers ~ monthly salary, which is one of the highest in Lithuania). In 2018, the annual output of the information technology sector in Lithuania was billion, of which a large amount was created in Vilnius.
Vilnius Tech Park in Sapieha Park is the biggest information technology startup hub in the Baltic and Nordic countries and unites international startups, technology companies, accelerators, incubators. In 2019, the fDi Intelligence (an investment experts subdivision of the Financial Times) ranked Vilnius as number one city in the Tech Start-up FDI Attraction Index.
In 2011, Vilnius had the fastest internet speed in the world and despite the fall in the rankings in recent years – it still remained as one of the fastest around the globe. Vilnius Airport also has one of the fastest wireless public internet (Wi-Fi) among the European airports.
The National Cyber Security Centre of Lithuania was established in Vilnius due increasing internet attacks against the Lithuanian Government organizations.
Bebras is an international informatics and information technology contest, which is held annually for pupils of 3–12 grades since 2004. Since 2017, computer programming is taught in the primary schools.
Lithuania and especially its capital Vilnius is a popular fintech companies hub due to the state's flexible regulations in the e-money licences field. In 2018, Bank of Lithuania granted an electronic money licence to the Google Payment Lithuania company, based in Vilnius. Since 2018, prominent e-money startup Revolut also has an e-money licence and headquarters in Vilnius, furthermore in 2019 it began to move its clients to the Lithuanian company Revolut Payments. On 23 January 2019, the Europe's first international Blockchain Centre was opened in Vilnius.
Finance and banking
Vilnius is Lithuania's financial centre. The Ministry of Finance is located in Vilnius and is responsible for the development and enforcement of an efficient public financial policy with a view to ensuring the macroeconomic stability of the state and its economic growth. The Bank of Lithuania is also headquartered in Vilnius and fosters a reliable financial system and ensures sustainable economic growth. Nasdaq Vilnius Stock Exchange, a leading stock exchange in Lithuania, is located in K29 business centre in Konstitucijos Avenue.
The National Audit Office of Lithuania () is located in V. Kudirka Street and helps the state to manage public funds and property wisely. While the State Tax Inspectorate () is headquartered in Vasario 16-osios Street and is responsible for collecting or refunding taxes in the country.
At the time, 7 banks in Lithuania are holding a bank or a specialised bank licence, while 9 banks are carrying out their activities as foreign bank branches. The two largest banks registered in Lithuania (AB SEB bankas, Swedbank, AB,) are supervised directly by the European Central Bank jointly with Bank of Lithuania experts.
The majority of the Lithuanian financial system consists of capital banks of the Nordic countries.
Education
Tertiary education
On 14 October 1773, the Commission of National Education () was created by the Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Grand Duke Stanisław August Poniatowski, which supervised the Vilnius University, schools and was responsible for other educational matters in the Commonwealth. Because of its vast authority and autonomy, it is considered as the first Ministry of Education in European history and an important achievement of the Enlightenment in the Commonwealth.
The city has many universities. The largest and oldest is Vilnius University with 19,768 students. Its main premises are in the Old Town. The university has been ranked among the top 500 universities in the world by QS World University Rankings. The university is participating in projects with UNESCO and NATO, among others. It features Masters programs in English and Russian, as well as programs delivered in cooperation with universities all over Europe. The university is divided into 14 faculties.
Other major universities include Mykolas Romeris University (7,500 students), Vilnius Gediminas Technical University (9,600 students), and Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences (merged into Vytautas Magnus University in 2018). Specialized higher schools with university status include the General Jonas Žemaitis Military Academy of Lithuania, the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre and the Vilnius Academy of Arts. The museum associated with the Vilnius Academy of Arts holds about 12,000 artworks.
There are also a few private universities such as ISM University of Management and Economics, European Humanities University, and Kazimieras Simonavičius University.
Several colleges are also in Vilnius including Vilnius College, Vilnius College of Technologies and Design, International School of Law and Business, and others.
Primary and secondary education
Primary and lower secondary education is mandatory in Lithuania. Children must start attending pre-primary education at six years old and education is compulsory until the age of 16. Primary and secondary education is free at all stages, however there also are private schools with tuition fees in Vilnius. The education system is governed by the Government of Lithuania and the Ministry of Education, Science and Sports of Lithuania which headquarters are in Vilnius.
Cathedral School of Vilnius, first mentioned in 1397, is the earliest known Lithuanian school. Vilnius Vytautas the Great Gymnasium, established in 1915, is the first Lithuanian gymnasium in Eastern Lithuania. In 2018, the city had 120 schools (not including preschools) with 61,123 pupils and 4,955 educators. Four out of five best rated schools in Lithuania are located in Vilnius, while the Vilnius Lyceum is the number one.
Ethnic minorities in Lithuania are allowed to have their own schools. In Vilnius there are 7 elementary schools, 8 primary schools, 2 progymnasiums and 12 gymnasiums dedicated exceptionally for minorities children where lessons are conducted in minorities languages only. In 2017, there were 4,658 Poles and 9,274 Russians who studied in their minorities languages in the city.
Vilnius has 11 vocational schools which provides vocational education.
National M. K. Čiurlionis School of Art is the only art school in Lithuania spanning the entire 12-year learning cycle. Vilnius Justinas Vienožinskis Art School is another prominent art school in Vilnius.
Most of the school graduates in Vilnius later studies in the universities or colleges as Lithuania is one of the world's leading countries in OECD's statistics of population with tertiary education (56% of 25–34 year-olds in 2018).
International schools include International School of Vilnius and Vilnius International French Lyceum.
Libraries
The Central Library of Vilnius City Municipality () operates public libraries in Vilnius. It has 17 public libraries, located in different elderships of Vilnius, 2 of them (libraries Saulutė and Papartis) are dedicated to children's literature only. Large part of these libraries organizes computer literacy courses that are free of charge. Usage of public libraries requires a free LIBIS (integrated information system of Lithuanian libraries) card.
Martynas Mažvydas National Library of Lithuania (), located in Gediminas Avenue and founded in 1919, is a national cultural institution which collects, organizes and preserves Lithuania's written cultural heritage content, develops the collection of Lithuanian and foreign documents relevant to research, educational and cultural needs of Lithuania, and provides library information services to the public. As of 1 July 2019, its electronic catalog has 1,140,708 bibliographic records.
The Wroblewski Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences () is a scientific library of state significance, a cultural, scientific and educational institution. Its founder is the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences. All citizens of Lithuania and foreign countries are entitled to use the services of the Library. As of 1 January 2015, the stock of the Library counted 3,733,514 volumes. On 1 January 2015, the Wroblewski Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences had 12,274 registered users.
Every Lithuanian university and college has its own library, dedicated to their students, professors and alumni. The most notable modern university library is the National Open Access Scientific Communication and Information Center of Vilnius University () in Saulėtekis Valley, which was opened in 2013 and offers over 800 workplaces in total area of . Central Vilnius University Library, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University Library, Mykolas Romeris University Library, ISM University of Management and Economics Library, European Humanities University Library, Kazimieras Simonavičius University Library are located in these universities complexes in Vilnius.
Religion
Already in the 17th century Vilnius was known as a city of many religions. In 1600, Samuel Lewkenor's book describing cities with universities was published in London. Lewkenor mentions that citizens of Vilnius included Catholics, Orthodox, followers of John Calvin and Martin Luther, Jews and Tartar Muslims.
Throughout the 17th century Vilnius had a reputation as a city which had no rivals in Europe in the number of churches of different confessions. At the end of the century, this reputation was confirmed by the highly regarded (and several times republished) work by Robert Morden, "Geography Rectified or a Description of the World", which said that no other city in the world could surpass Vilnius in the number of churches and temples of various faiths, except perhaps Amsterdam.
Today Vilnius is the seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Vilnius, with the main church institutions and Archdiocesan Cathedral (Vilnius Cathedral) located here. Numerous Christian Beatified persons, martyrs, Servants of God and Saints, are associated with Vilnius. These, among others, include Franciscan martyrs of Vilnius, Orthodox martyrs Anthony, John, and Eustathius, Saint Casimir, Josaphat Kuntsevych, Andrew Bobola, Raphael Kalinowski, Faustina Kowalska, Jurgis Matulaitis-Matulevičius.
There are a number of other active Roman Catholic churches in the city, along with small enclosed monasteries and religion schools. Church architecture includes Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque and Neoclassical styles, with important examples of each found in the Old Town. Additionally, Eastern Rite Catholicism has maintained a presence in Vilnius since the Union of Brest. The Baroque Basilian Gate is part of an Eastern Rite monastery.
Vilnius has been home to an Eastern Orthodox Christian presence since the 13th or even the 12th century. A famous Russian Orthodox Monastery of the Holy Spirit, is near the [Gate of Dawn. St. Paraskeva's Orthodox Church in the Old Town is the site of the baptism of Hannibal, the great-grandfather of Pushkin, by Tsar Peter the Great in 1705. Many Old Believers, who split from the Russian Orthodox Church in 1667, settled in Lithuania. The Church of St. Michael and St. Constantine was built in 1913. Today a Supreme Council of the Old Believers is based in Vilnius.
A number of Protestant and other Christian groups are represented in Vilnius, most notably the Lutheran Evangelicals and the Baptists.
The pre-Christian religion of Lithuania, centred on the forces of nature as personified by deities such as Perkūnas (the Thunder God), is experiencing some increased interest. Romuva established a Vilnius branch in 1991.
Judaism and Karaism
Once widely known as Yerushalayim D'Lita (the "Jerusalem of Lithuania"), Vilnius, since the 18th century, was a world centre for Torah study, and had a large Jewish population. A major scholar of Judaism and Kabbalah centred in Vilnius was the famous Rabbi Eliyahu Kremer, also known as the Vilna Gaon. His writings have significant influence among Orthodox Jews to this day. The Vilna Shas, the most widely used edition of the Talmud was published in Vilnius in 1886. Jewish life in Vilnius was destroyed during the Holocaust; there is a memorial stone dedicated to victims of Nazi genocide in the centre of the former Jewish Ghetto – now Mėsinių Street. The Vilna Gaon Jewish State Museum is dedicated to the history of Lithuanian Jewish life. The site of Vilnius's largest synagogue, built in the early 1630s and wrecked by Nazi Germany during its occupation of Lithuania, was found by ground-penetrating radar in June 2015, with excavations set to begin in 2016.
The Karaites are a Jewish sect that migrated to Lithuania from the Crimea. Although their numbers are very small, the Karaites are becoming more prominent since Lithuanian independence, and have restored their kenesas (e.g. Vilnius Kenesa).
Pilgrimage
Since the Christianization of Lithuania in 1387, Vilnius has become one of the main centres of Christianity in Lithuania and a Christian pilgrimage site. Vilnius Pilgrimage Centre () coordinates pilgrimages, assists in their proper preparation, and takes care of pilgrimage pastoral care. Many places in Vilnius are associated with divine miracles or marks significant events to the Christians. The Chapel of the Gate of Dawn is visited by thousands of Christian pilgrims annually. Initially, the gates were part of the defensive Wall of Vilnius, however in the 16th century they were given to the Carmelites, who installed a chapel in the gates with a prominent 17th century Catholic painting Our Lady of the Gate of Dawn. The painting was later decorated with gold-plated silver embellishments and is surrounded by a legend and divine miracles.
Sanctuary of the Divine Mercy is another important pilgrimage site, which has the Divine Mercy image. Vilnius became the birthplace of the Divine Mercy Devotion when Saint Faustina began her mission under the guidance and discernment of her new spiritual director, blessed Michał Sopoćko. In 1934, the first Divine Mercy image was painted by Eugeniusz Kazimirowski under the supervision of Faustina Kowalska and it presently hangs in the Divine Mercy Sanctuary in Vilnius. A feast of the Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament is held in the shrine 24 hours per day. The House of St. Faustina where she previously lived is located in V. Grybo St. in Antakalnis and is open to the pilgrims every day.
Church of St. Philip and St. Jacob near the Lukiškės Square has the painting of the Mother of God of Lukiškės, which is glorified by divine miracles. The icon was painted in the 15th – 16th centuries and is one of the oldest monuments of easel painting in Lithuania. It was brought by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania artillery general Motiejus Korvinas Gosievskis from the Russo-Polish War. From 1684 onwards miracles began to be experienced in the Vilnius Dominican Monastery, related to the image of Mother of God of Lukiškės, which in 1737 were published in a miracles book Mystical fountain (). The icon was restored and returned to the Dominicans in 2012.
Three Crosses is a prominent monument in Vilnius. According to a debated legend of the Franciscan martyrs of Vilnius, presented in the Bychowiec Chronicle, fourteen Franciscan friars were invited to Vilnius from Podolia by Petras Goštautas. The friars publicly preached the gospel and denigrated the pagan Lithuanian gods. Angered city residents burned the monastery and killed all fourteen friars. Seven of them were beheaded on the Bleak Hill; the other seven were crucified and thrown into the Neris or Vilnia River.
Verkiai Calvary (or Vilnius Calvary) is the second oldest calvary in Lithuania after Žemaičių Kalvarija. It is located in Verkiai, a neighborhood of Vilnius. The Calvary was built in 1662–69 as a sign of gratitude for the victory in the Second Northern War (1655–60). The consecration ceremony of the new Stations of the Cross took place at Pentecost on 9 June 1669. The Calvary includes 20 brick chapels, seven wooden and one brick gate, and one bridge with a wooden chapel. The path ends at the Church of the Discovery of the Holy Cross. In 1962 all chapels, except four closest to the church, were destroyed by the Soviet authorities with dynamites overnight. The Calvary was reconstructed in 1990–2002 and the chapels were solemnly consecrated at Pentecost in 2002. Pilgrimages in the Calvary are organized regularly with the clergy.
Church Heritage Museum () exhibits the oldest and largest of all the churches of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania treasure trove of the Vilnius Cathedral and liturgical artefacts from other churches of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Vilnius.
Vilnius is the only city in the Baltic states with an Apostolic Nunciature, in which Pope John Paul II and Pope Francis stayed during their visits to Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia.
Parks, squares and cemeteries
Almost half of Vilnius is covered by green areas, such as parks, public gardens, natural reserves.
Additionally, Vilnius is host to numerous lakes, where residents and visitors swim and have barbecues in the summer. Thirty lakes and 16 rivers cover 2.1% of Vilnius's area, with some of them having sand beaches.
Vingis Park, the city's largest, hosted several major rallies during Lithuania's drive towards independence in the 1980s. Sections of the annual Vilnius Marathon pass along the public walkways on the banks of the Neris River. The green area next to the White Bridge is another popular area to enjoy good weather, and has become venue for several music and large screen events.
Cathedral Square in Old Town is surrounded by a number of the city's most historically significant sites. Lukiškės Square is the largest, bordered by several governmental buildings: the Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Finance, the Polish Embassy, and the Genocide Victims' Museum, where the KGB tortured and murdered numerous opposers of the communist regime. An oversized statue of Lenin in its centre was removed in 1991. Town Hall Square has long been a centre of trade fairs, celebrations, and events in Vilnius, including the Kaziukas Fair. The city Christmas tree is decorated there. State ceremonies are often held in Daukantas Square, facing the Presidential Palace.
On 20 October 2013, Bernardinai Garden, near Gediminas Tower, previously known as Sereikiškės Park, was opened after reconstruction. The authentic 19th century Vladislovas Štrausas environment was restored. It is a venue for concerts, festivals, and exhibitions.
Rasos Cemetery, consecrated in 1801, is the burial site of Jonas Basanavičius and other signatories of the 1918 Act of Independence, along with the heart of Polish leader Józef Piłsudski. Two of the three Jewish cemeteries in Vilnius were destroyed by communist authorities during the Soviet era; the remains of the Vilna Gaon were moved to the remaining one. A monument was erected at the place where Užupis Old Jewish Cemetery was. About 18,000 burials have been made in the Bernardine Cemetery, established in 1810; it was closed during the 1970s and is now being restored. Antakalnis Cemetery, established in 1809, contains various memorials to Polish, Lithuanian, German and Russian soldiers, along with the graves of those who were killed during the January Events.
Tourism
According to the data collected by the Lithuanian Department of Statistics, a total of 1,200,858 visitors had rented rooms in Vilnius accommodation venues where they spent a total of 2,212,109 nights in 2018. Compared to the 2017 statistics, the number of guests grew by 12% and 11% respectively.
In 2018 81% of all the visitors who stayed in Vilnius were foreigners (970,577), which is 11% more than the previous year. Most foreign visitors came from Belarus (102,915), Germany (101,999), Poland (99,386), Russia (90,388) and Latvia (61,829). Guests from these countries accounted for 47% of all foreign guests, who rented rooms in Vilnius accommodation venues. Entirely, 230,281 Lithuanians (19% of all guests) were in Vilnius accommodation venues during 2018 (which is 18% more than in 2017).
According to a 2018 Vilnius Visitors Survey, 48% of tourists visited Vilnius for the first time, 85% of tourists planned the trip by themselves and 15% travelled with travel agencies. According to the same survey, 40% of tourists specified that they decided to visit Vilnius in order to learn about the history and heritage of the city; however, 23% of tourists also planned trips to other areas of Lithuania (e.g. Trakai, Kaunas, Druskininkai, Šiauliai, etc.). Many Belarusians (~200 000 granted travel visas annually) are arriving for shopping in the city's shopping malls and upon departing submits even half a meter long receipts to the customs.
In 2018 Vilnius Tourist Information Centres were visited by a total of 119,136 visitors (95,932 foreigners and 23,204 Lithuanians), a 5% increase compared with the 2017 statistics. In 2017 the centres were visited by 113,818 visitors (97,072 foreigners and 16,746 Lithuanians).
The best-rated tourist services in Vilnius are restaurants (cafés) services quality, old town attractions, hotels (or other accommodation places) services, trips to Trakai, parks (green zones), connection with the Vilnius Airport, food in hotels, restaurants, cafés.
In the City Costs Barometer 2019, Vilnius was ranked as number one among the European capitals for offering best value to visitors.
The Vilnius Palace of Concerts and Sports, originally constructed by the Soviet authorities on the site of a Jewish graveyard, is slated in 2022 to be transformed into the leading convention center in the Baltic states. The project is controversial.
Hotels
Lithuania is a member of the European Hotelstars Union, which provides a harmonised hotel classification with common criteria and procedures in the participating countries. Vilnius has six 5-star hotels, all located in the Vilnius Old Town. There are also 27 4-star hotels. The Grand Hotel Kempinski Vilnius, with a direct view of the Cathedral Square, is considered as the most luxurious hotel in Vilnius and offers presidential rooms for around €3,000 per night (more than three times the average monthly net salary in Vilnius) and is frequently chosen by the heads of state, movie stars, famous musicians and other celebrities during their visits to Lithuania.
In 2019, Vilnius had 82 hotels, 8 motels and 40 other accommodation facilities with 6,822 rooms and 15,248 beds. The highest hotel room occupancy was in August and the lowest in February.
According to a 2018 Vilnius visitors survey, 44% of visitors to Vilnius stayed in middle-range hotels (3–4 stars), 12% stayed in standard or economy hotels (1–2 stars) and 11% stayed in luxury 5-star hotels.
Sports
Several teams are based in the city. The largest is the basketball club BC Rytas, which participates in European competitions such as the Euroleague and Eurocup, the domestic Lithuanian Basketball League, winning the ULEB Cup (predecessor to the Eurocup) in 2005 and the Eurocup in 2009. Its home arena is the 2,500-seat Lietuvos Rytas Arena; all European matches and important domestic matches are played in the 11,000-seat Siemens Arena.
Vilnius also has several football teams. FK Žalgiris is the main football team. The club plays at LFF Stadium in Vilnius (capacity 5,067). Construction of the multi-functional Lithuania National Stadium has been ongoing in Šeškinė since 1987 and is currently frozen.
Olympic champions in swimming Lina Kačiušytė and Robertas Žulpa are from Vilnius. There are several public swimming pools in Vilnius with Lazdynai Swimming Pool being the only Olympic-size swimming pool of the city.
The city is home to the Lithuanian Bandy Association, Badminton Federation, Canoeing Sports Federation, Baseball Association, Biathlon Federation, Sailors Union, Football Federation, Fencing Federation, Cycling Sports Federation, Archery Federation, Athletics Federation, Ice Hockey Federation, Basketball Federation, Curling Federation, Rowing Federation, Wrestling Federation, Speed Skating Association, Gymnastics Federation, Equestrian Union, Modern Pentathlon Federation, Shooting Union, Triathlon Federation, Volleyball Federation, Tennis Union, Taekwondo Federation, Weightlifting Federation, Table Tennis Association, Skiing Association, Rugby Federation, Swimming Federation.
The Vilnius Marathon is an international marathon with thousands of participants every year.
Vilnius is one of the host cities for the 2021 FIFA Futsal World Cup.
Transport
Navigability of the river Neris is very limited and no regular water routes exist, although it was used for navigation in the past. The river rises in Belarus, connecting Vilnius and Kernavė, and becomes a tributary of Nemunas river in Kaunas.
Vilnius Airport serves most Lithuanian international flights to many major European destinations. The airport has about 50 destinations in 25 countries. The airport is situated only away from the centre of the city, and has a direct rail link to Vilnius railway station.
The Vilnius railway station is an important hub serving direct passenger connections to Minsk, Kaliningrad, Moscow and Saint Petersburg as well as being a transit point of Pan-European Corridor IX.
Vilnius is the starting point of the A1 motorway that runs across Lithuania and connects the three major cities (Vilnius, Kaunas and Klaipėda) and is a part of European route E85. The A2 motorway, connecting Vilnius with Panevėžys, is a part of E272. Other highways starting in Vilnius include A3, A4, A14, A15, A16. Vilnius's Southern bypass is road A19.
Carsharing and electric vehicles infrastructure
Vilnius-based international company CityBee is the biggest carsharing services provider in Vilnius, which offers cars, bicycles and electric scooters for a short or long term rental. Users get free parking, fuel, insurance and are only required to pay for the time of usage and distance travelled. The rental is activated using a mobile app. Its biggest competitor is another Vilnius-based company SPARK, which works with the same principles, but offers only the electric vehicles and has its own charging stations across Vilnius.
Vilnius is the city with the most electric vehicles in Lithuania. The city has tens of public high-power charging stations, provided by a state-owned enterprise Ignitis ON and a municipal enterprise Susisiekimo paslaugos. Vilnius city municipality and the Government of Lithuania encourages the usage of electric vehicles and has granted a number of benefits for such cars users (e.g. six charging stations offers a completely free charging in Vilnius, free parking in the city's public areas, electric vehicles are allowed to drive in a separate A road lane and significantly benefits in the traffic jams, electric and hybrid vehicles license plates begins with a letter E).
Public transport
The bus network and the trolleybus network are run by Vilniaus viešasis transportas. There are over 60 bus, 18 trolleybus, 6 rapid bus and 6 night bus routes. The trolleybus network is one of the most extensive in Europe. Over 250 buses and 260 trolleybuses transport about 500,000 passengers every workday. The first regular bus routes were established in 1926, and the first trolleybuses were introduced in 1956.
At the end of 2007, a new electronic monthly ticket system was introduced. It was possible to buy an electronic card in shops and newspaper stands and have it credited with an appropriate amount of money. The monthly e-ticket cards could be bought once and credited with an appropriate amount of money in various ways including the Internet. Previous paper monthly tickets were in use until August 2008.
The ticket system changed again from 15 August 2012. E-Cards were replaced by Vilnius Citizen Cards ("Vilniečio Kortelė"). It is now possible to buy a card or change an old one in newspaper stands and have it credited with an appropriate amount of money or a particular type of ticket. Single trip tickets have been replaced by 30 and 60-minute tickets.
The public transportation system is dominated by the low-floor Volvo and Mercedes-Benz buses as well as Solaris trolleybuses. There are also plenty of the traditional Škoda vehicles, built in the Czech Republic, still in service, and many of these have been extensively refurbished internally. This is a result of major improvements that started in 2003 when the first brand-new Mercedes-Benz buses were bought. In 2004, a contract was signed with Volvo Buses to buy 90 brand-new 7700 buses over the following three years.
An electric tram and a metro system through the city were proposed in the 2000s. However, neither has progressed beyond initial planning. In 2018 the Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania approved a new metro project with the president's agreement.
In 2014 a mobile app was launched with public transport tickets on smartphones.
In 2017, Vilnius started the historically largest upgrade of its bus services by purchasing 250 new low-floor buses. The project will result in making 6 of 10 public buses being brand new by the middle of 2018 and will allow its passengers to use such modern technologies as free Wi-Fi and to charge their electronic devices while traveling. On 5 September 2017, 50 new Isuzu buses were presented and articulated Scania buses were promised in the very near future. Vilnius City Municipality also held a contest for 41 new trolleybuses and its winner Solaris committed to deliver all trolleybuses until the autumn of 2018, which will also have the free Wi-Fi and charging features. On 13 November Vilnius City Municipality signed a contract with Solaris for the remaining 150 Solaris Urbino buses of the newest IV generation (100 standard and 50 articulated), also with the free Wi-Fi and USB charging. On 20 September 2019, five all-electric Karsan Jest Electric autobuses were presented, which will serve the 89 route in narrow streets.
Since 2017 a 30-minute ticket costs 0.65 euro, a 60-minute ticket costs 0.90 euro and a single ticket bought on board costs 1.00 euro. There are other types of tickets, both short-term and long-term. Various discounts for pupils, students and elder people are available.
Healthcare
The Vilnians took care of the cleanliness and health responsibly already during the Grand Duchy of Lithuania times as the city had public bathhouses and one fourth of houses in Vilnius had individual bathhouses, also almost half of the houses had alcohol distilleries. In 1518, medicine doctor and canon Martynas Dušnickis established the first špitolė () in Vilnius, which was the first hospital-like institution in Lithuania and treated people who were not able to take care of themselves due to their health condition, age, and poverty. The Brotherhood of Saint Roch maintained primitive hospitals and shelters (špitolė) for the sick and the disabled in Vilnius from 1708 to 1799, although it is not known whether the brothers had any kind of medical education, it is known that the brothers hired paramedics, doctors, and surgeons, including women nurses who could take care of their female patients, and a significant number of its patients had sexually transmitted diseases (other Catholic hospitals refused to treat such patients), also the brotherhood sheltered pregnant women and their abandoned children, other patients sought help for injuries, tuberculosis, rheumatism, arthritis, etc. In 1805, the Vilnius Medical Society was established on the initiative of Joseph Frank (son of Johann Peter Frank), which was the first society of this type in Eastern Europe and to this day unites medicine doctors and professors in Vilnius. The same year, the society established a teaching hospital (clinic) under the Vilnius University Faculty of Medicine.
The Ministry of Health is located in Vilnius and is responsible for the healthcare in Lithuania. Vilnians have to pay the compulsory health insurance (6.98% of the salary), which is governed by the Vilnius Territorial Health Insurance Fund and guarantees free health care to every insured person, however some residents are exempt from this tax (e.g. disabled persons, children, full-time students, etc.).
Vilnius University Hospital Santaros Klinikos and the Vilnius City Clinical Hospital are the primary hospitals in Vilnius. There also are eight polyclinics, the Medical Centre of the Ministry of the Interior and a number of private health care facilities in the city.
Media
The first Lithuanian periodical newspaper (weekly) Kurier Litewski was published in Vilnius from 1760 to 1763. Vilnius is home to numerous newspapers, magazines and publications including Lietuvos rytas, Lietuvos žinios, Verslo žinios, Respublika, Valstiečių laikraštis, Mokesčių žinios, Aktualijos, 15min, Vilniaus diena, Vilniaus Kraštas, Lietuvos aidas, Valstybė, Veidas, Panelė, Franciscan Bernardinai.lt, Russian Litovskij kurjer, Polish Tygodnik Wileńszczyzny.
Vilnius TV Tower is located in Karoliniškės microdistrict and transmits television signals to the whole of Vilnius. The most-viewed networks in Lithuania are headquartered in Vilnius including LRT televizija, TV3, LNK, BTV, LRT Plius, LRT Lituanica, TV6, Lietuvos rytas TV, TV1, TV8, Sport1, Liuks!, Info TV.
The first stationary radio station in Vilnius Rozgłośnia Wileńska was launched in Žvėrynas microdistrict on 28 November 1927, but was later moved to the present-day Gediminas Avenue in 1935. M-1, the first commercial radio station in Lithuania, started broadcasting from Vilnius in 1989. Many other Lithuanian or foreign languages radio stations also broadcasts from Vilnius, most of them signals comes from the Vilnius TV Tower or the Vilnius Press House.
The Lithuanian Union of Journalists () and the Lithuanian Society of Journalists () are headquartered in Vilnius.
Twin towns – sister cities
Vilnius is twinned with:
Aalborg, Denmark
Almaty, Kazakhstan
Brussels, Belgium
Budapest, Hungary
Chicago, United States
Chișinău, Moldova
Dnipro, Ukraine
Donetsk, Ukraine
Duisburg, Germany
Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
Erfurt, Germany
Gdańsk, Poland
Guangzhou, China
Joensuu, Finland
Kraków, Poland
Kyiv, Ukraine
Łódź, Poland
Madison, United States
Minsk, Belarus
Moscow, Russia
Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan
Oslo, Norway
Pavia, Italy
Piraeus, Greece
Reykjavík, Iceland
Riga, Latvia
Saint Petersburg, Russia
Salzburg, Austria
Stockholm, Sweden
Strasbourg, France
Taipei, Taiwan
Tallinn, Estonia
Tbilisi, Georgia
Warsaw, Poland
Significant depictions in popular culture
Vilnius is mentioned in the movie The Hunt for Red October (1990) as being the boyhood home of the sub commander Marko Ramius, and as being where his grandfather taught him to fish; he is also referenced once in the movie as "The Vilnius Schoolmaster". Ramius is played by Sean Connery.
Author Thomas Harris's character Hannibal Lecter is revealed to be from Vilnius and its aristocracy in the movie Hannibal Rising. Lecter is portrayed more popularly and often by Sir Anthony Hopkins, although Brian Cox played Lecter in the movie Manhunter.
The memoir A Partisan from Vilna (2010) details the life and struggles of Rachel Margolis. Her family's sole survivor, she escaped from the Vilna Ghetto with other members of the resistance movement, the FPO (United Partisan Organization), and joined the Soviet partisans in the Lithuanian forests to sabotage the Nazis.
Vilnius is classified as a city-state in the turn-based strategy games Civilization V and "Civilization VI".
Vilnius is a province and a capital city in the grand strategy game Europa Universalis IV.
Vilnius is the capital of Lithuania in the turn-based strategy game Medieval II: Total War: Kingdoms and a rebels' town in the Medieval II: Total War game.
Historical drama War & Peace was filmed in Vilnius by the BBC.
A well rated five-part historical drama television miniseries about Chernobyl nuclear disaster was mostly filmed in two Soviet-era elderships of Vilnius: Justiniškės and Fabijoniškės.
HBO's miniseries Catherine the Great, featuring Helen Mirren, was filmed in multiple locations of Vilnius.
New season of the web television series Stranger Things will be filmed in the now empty Lukiškės Prison in 2020.
Notable people
See also
Coat of arms of Vilnius
List of monuments in Vilnius
List of Vilnius Elderships in other languages
Neighborhoods of Vilnius
References
Bibliography
References from vle.lt stands for the Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija.
External links
The Jerusalem of Lithuania: The Story of the Jewish Community of Vilna an online exhibition by Yad Vashem
A. Srebrakowski, The nationality panorama of Vilnius, Studia z Dziejów Rosji i Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej, Vol 55, No 3 (2020)
Capitals in Europe
Cities in Lithuania
Cities in Vilnius County
Capitals of Lithuanian counties
Historic Jewish communities
Holocaust locations in Lithuania
Magdeburg rights
Municipalities administrative centres of Lithuania
Republic of Central Lithuania
Vilna Governorate
Vilnius Voivodeship
Wilno Voivodeship (1926–1939)
Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMA%20%28VPN%29
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HMA (VPN)
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HMA (formerly HideMyAss!) is a VPN service founded in 2005 in the United Kingdom. It has been a subsidiary of the Czech cybersecurity company Avast since 2016.
History
HMA was created in 2005 in Norfolk, England by Jack Cator. At the time, Cator was sixteen years-old. He created HMA in order to circumvent restrictions his school had on accessing games or music from their network. According to Cator, the first HMA service was created in just a few hours using open-source code. The first product was a free proxy website where users typed in a URL and it delivered the website in the user's browser.
Cator promoted the tool in online forums and it was featured on the front page of Digg. After attracting more than one thousand users, Cator incorporated ads. HMA did not take any venture capital funding. It generated about $1,000 - $2,000 per month while the founder went to college to pursue a degree in computer science. In 2009, Cator dropped out of college to focus on HMA and added a paid VPN service. Most early HMA employees were freelancers found on oDesk.com. In 2012, one of the freelancers set-up a competing business. HMA responded by hiring its contractors as full-time employees and establishing physical offices in London.
In 2012, the United Kingdom's government sent HMA a court order demanding it provide information about Cody Andrew Kretsinger's use of HMA's service to hack Sony as a member of the LulzSec hacking group. HMA provided the information to authorities. HMA said it was a violation of the company's terms of use to use its software for illegal activities.
In 2013, HMA added software to anonymize internet traffic from mobile devices was first added in 2013. In 2014, the company introduced HideMyPhone! service, which allowed mobile phone users to make their calls appear to come from a different location.
By 2014, the service had 10 million users and 215,000 paying subscribers of its VPN service. It made £11 million in revenue that year. HMA had 100 staff and established international offices in Belgrade and Kyiv.
By 2015, HMA became one of the largest VPN providers. In May 2015, it was acquired by AVG Technologies for $40 million with a $20 million earn-out upon achievement of milestones, and became part of Avast after its 2016 acquisition of AVG Technologies.
In 2017, a security vulnerability was discovered that allowed hackers with access to a user's laptop to obtain elevated privileges on the device. HMA corrected the vulnerability days later.
In 2019, it was reported that HMA received a directive from Russian authorities to join a state sponsored registry of banned websites, which would prevent Russian HMA users from circumventing Russian state censorship. HMA was reportedly given one month to comply, or face blocking by Russian authorities.
Software
HMA provides digital software and services intended to help users remain anonymous online and encrypt their online traffic. Its software is used to access websites that may be blocked in the user's country, to anonymize information that could otherwise be used by hackers, and to do something unscrupulous without being identified. HMA's privacy policy and terms of use prohibit using it for illegal activity.
HMA hides the user's IP address and other identifying information by routing the user's internet traffic through a remote server. However, experts note that the company does log some connection data including the originating IP address, the duration of each VPN session, and the amount of bandwidth used.
As of May 2018, the company had 830 servers in 280 locations across the globe and provided over 3000 IP addresses. The software also includes a kill switch across all platforms.
Privacy
According to Invisibler, HMA VPN appears to have cooperated with US authorities in handing over logs in a hacking case. This led to the arrest of a hacker in what is known as the “LulzSec fiasco”. However, since May 2020, HMA claims to be a "no log VPN", stating they no longer collect any usage logs.
Reception
In 2015, a review in Tom's Hardware said HMA was easy to use, had good customer service, and a large number of server locations to choose from, but criticized it for slowing internet speeds. In contrast, Digital Trends said HMA had strong speeds and good server selection, but wasn't fool-proof at ensuring anonymity, because it stored user activity logs (in 2020, HMA announced that it would no longer log user activity). In 2017, PC World noted that it was difficult to measure the effect a VPN service has on internet speed, because of variables like location, internet service speeds, and hardware.
A 2016 review in PC Magazine gave the HMA Android app 3 out of 5 stars. It praised HMA for its server selection and user interface, but criticized it for price, speed, and the lack of advanced features. In 2018, PC Magazine gave similar feedback on the HMA VPN service. PC World’s 2017 review also praised HMA's simple user interface, but criticized the lack of advanced features, saying the software was ideal for casual users that do not need advanced configuration options.
References
External links
Virtual private network services
Computer companies established in 2005
Computer security software
Proxy servers
2005 establishments in England
British companies established in 2005
2016 mergers and acquisitions
British subsidiaries of foreign companies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard%20Fischer%20%28professor%29
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Gerhard Fischer (professor)
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Gerhard Fischer (born 1945) is a German-born computer scientist, Professor of Computer Science, a Fellow of the Institute of Cognitive Science, and the founder and director of the Center for LifeLong Learning & Design (L3D) at the University of Colorado, Boulder.
Academic career
In 1971 he graduated with a Masters (Mathematics and Physical Education) from the University of Heidelberg. With a fellowship from the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), he spent the following two years at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, and the University of California, Irvine. He obtained a PhD from the University of Hamburg in Computer Science (1977), followed by a postdoctoral fellowship at MIT, Cambridge, (working with Seymour Papert and the LOGO community) and Xerox Parc (working with Alan Kay and the Smalltalk community).
From 1974 to 1977 he was Research associate at the Center for Educational Technology at the Technische Hochschule Darmstadt, Germany. From 1977 to 1978 he was Research Associate at the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. From 1978 to 1984 he served as an Assistant and Associate Professor at the University of Stuttgart. During these six years, he spent several extended visits at Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh to study with Herbert A. Simon who served as the primary advisor for his "Habilitation" degree that he obtained in 1983 from the University of Stuttgart.
In 1984 he accepted a position in the Computer Science Department of the University of Colorado, Boulder combined with being a Fellow of the Institute of Cognitive Science. During the years at CU Boulder, he was Stiftungsprofessor at the Department of Computer Science of the Technische Universität Darmstadt, Germany (1994-1995) and Erskine fellow at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand (2002-2003).
He was awarded a "Chair of Excellence" at the Charles III University of Madrid (UC3M), Spain and he spent 6 months in 2012 and 2013 as a visiting professor at UC3M. He obtained a fellowship from the Hanse-Wissenschaftskolleg (HWK) an Advanced Study Institute in Delmenhorst, Germany and he spent 6 months in 2014 and 2015 at the HWK as a fellow. He was invited as a Visiting Professor to the Technical University, Vienna, Austria (October 2018) and the University of Hiroshima, Japan (April 2019).
Research
Early Work (1978-1984). In his early work at the University of Stuttgart, he explored theoretical frameworks and system developments for Human-Computer Interaction and co-founded conferences in Germany on "Mensch-Maschine Kommunikation" (1980) and "Software Ergonomics" (1983).
Work at CU Boulder (1984 – 2012). His early work at CU Boulder was centered on domain-oriented design environments, critiquing systems, and the exploration of high-functionality environments.
In 1994, the Center for LifeLong Learning & Design was founded and in the following years, he (in close collaboration with numerous colleagues, including specifically Ernesto Arias, Hal Eden, Michael Eisenberg, and Walter Kintsch and a large number of PhD students) explored themes in meta-design, social creativity, cultures of participation, computer-supported collaborative learning, support environments for people with cognitive disabilities, and collaborative problem solving and decision making with table-top computing environments.
He participated in the characterization of numerous NSF research programs (including: Lifelong Learning, Science of Design, Creativity and IT). He served as the principal advisor of 20 PhD students
Recent Work (2013 – 2020). His research activities are centered around
supporting collaborative problem solving and decision making with table-top computing environments.
identifying design trade-offs associated with wicked problems and exploring quality of life as a fundamental objective of human-centered design
rethinking and reinventing learning, education, and collaboration in the digital age
serving on numerous advisory and editorial boards
continuing to be involved in combining European and American research traditions.
Awards
He was inducted into the ACM SIGCHI Academy in 2007 and was elected as a Fellow of the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM) in 2009, for contributions to human computer interaction and computer-mediated lifelong learning. In 2012, he received the RIGO award from the ACM Special Interest Group on Design of Communication (SIGDOC). In 2015, he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Gothenburg, Sweden and was featured as one of the Pioneers of HCI
References
External links
Gerhard Fischer's Publications
Living people
German computer scientists
American computer scientists
University of Hamburg alumni
Heidelberg University alumni
University of Colorado Boulder faculty
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
1945 births
Technische Universität Darmstadt faculty
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawful%20interception
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Lawful interception
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Lawful interception (LI) refers to the facilities in telecommunications and telephone networks that allow law enforcement agencies with court orders or other legal authorization to selectively wiretap individual subscribers. Most countries require licensed telecommunications operators to provide their networks with Legal Interception gateways and nodes for the interception of communications. The interfaces of these gateways have been standardized by telecommunication standardization organizations. As with many law enforcement tools, LI systems may be subverted for illicit purposes.
With the legacy public switched telephone network (PSTN), wireless, and cable systems, lawful interception (LI) was generally performed by accessing the mechanical or digital switches supporting the targets' calls. The introduction of packet switched networks, softswitch technology, and server-based applications during the past two decades fundamentally altered how LI is undertaken.
Lawful interception differs from the dragnet-type mass surveillance sometimes done by intelligence agencies, where all data passing a fiber-optic splice or other collection point is extracted for storage or filtering. It is also separate from the data retention of metadata that has become a legal requirement in some jurisdictions.
Terminology
Lawful interception is obtaining communications network data pursuant to lawful authority for the purpose of analysis or evidence. Such data generally consist of signalling or network management information or, in fewer instances, the content of the communications. If the data are not obtained in real-time, the activity is referred to as access to retained data (RD).
There are many bases for this activity that include infrastructure protection and cybersecurity. In general, the operator of public network infrastructure can undertake LI activities for those purposes. Operators of private network infrastructures in the United States have an inherent right to maintain LI capabilities within their own networks unless otherwise prohibited.
One of the bases for LI is the interception of telecommunications by law enforcement agencies (LEAs), regulatory or administrative agencies, and intelligence services, in accordance with local law. Under some legal systems, implementations—particularly real-time access to content—may require due process and receiving proper authorization from competent authorities—an activity that was formerly known as "wiretapping" and has existed since the inception of electronic communications. The material below primarily treats this narrow segment of LI.
Technical description
Almost all countries have lawful interception capability requirements and have implemented them using global LI requirements and standards developed by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), or CableLabs organizations—for wireline/Internet, wireless, and cable systems, respectively. In the USA, the comparable requirements are enabled by the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA), with the specific capabilities promulgated jointly by the Federal Communications Commission and the Department of Justice. In the USA, lawful intercept technology is currently patented by a company named Voip-pal.com under the USPTO Publication #: 20100150138.
Governments require phone service providers to install a legal interception gateway (LIG), along legal interception nodes (LIN), which allow them to intercept in real-time the phone calls, SMS messages, emails and some file transfers or instant messages. These LI measures for governmental surveillance have been in place since the beginning of digital telephony.
To prevent investigations' being compromised, LI systems may be designed in a manner that hides the interception from the telecommunications operator concerned. This is a requirement in some jurisdictions.
To ensure systematic procedures for carrying out interception, while also lowering the costs of interception solutions, industry groups and government agencies worldwide have attempted to standardize the technical processes behind lawful interception. One organization, ETSI, has been a major driver in lawful interception standards not only for Europe, but worldwide.
This architecture attempts to define a systematic and extensible means by which network operators and law enforcement agents (LEAs) can interact, especially as networks grow in sophistication and scope of services. Note this architecture applies to not only “traditional” wireline and wireless voice calls, but to IP-based services such as voice over IP, email, instant messaging, etc. The architecture is now applied worldwide (in some cases with slight variations in terminology), including in the United States in the context of CALEA conformance. Three stages are called for in the architecture:
collection where target-related “call” data and content are extracted from the network
mediation where the data is formatted to conform to specific standards
delivery of the data and content to the law enforcement agency (LEA).
The call data (known as intercept related information (IRI) in Europe and call data (CD) in the US) consists of information about the targeted communications, including destination of a voice call (e.g., called party’s telephone number), source of a call (caller’s phone number), time of the call, duration, etc. Call content is namely the stream of data carrying the call. Included in the architecture is the lawful interception management function, which covers interception session set-up and tear-down, scheduling, target identification, etc. Communications between the network operator and LEA are via the handover interfaces (HI). Communications data and content are typically delivered from the network operator to the LEA in an encrypted format over an IP-based VPN. The interception of traditional voice calls still often relies on the establishment of an ISDN channel that is set up at the time of the interception.
As stated above, the ETSI architecture is equally applicable to IP-based services where IRI/CD is dependent on parameters associated with the traffic from a given application to be intercepted. For example, in the case of email IRI would be similar to the header information on an email message (e.g., destination email address, source email address, time email was transmitted) as well as pertinent header information within the IP packets conveying the message (e.g., source IP address of email server originating the email message). Of course, more in-depth information would be obtained by the interception system so as to avoid the usual email address spoofing that often takes place (e.g., spoofing of source address). Voice-over-IP likewise has its own IRI, including data derived from Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) messages that are used to set up and tear down a VOIP call.
ETSI LI Technical Committee work today is primarily focussed on developing the new Retained Data Handover and next-generation network specifications, as well as perfecting the innovative TS102232 standards suite that apply to most contemporary network uses.
USA interception standards that help network operators and service providers conform to CALEA are mainly those specified by the Federal Communications Commission (which has both plenary legislative and review authority under CALEA), CableLabs, and the Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions (ATIS). ATIS's standards include new standards for broadband Internet access and VoIP services, as well as legacy J-STD-025B, which updates the earlier J-STD-025A to include packetized voice and CDMA wireless interception.
To ensure the quality of evidence, the Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies (CALEA) has outlined standards for electronic surveillance once a Title III surveillance application is approved:
Ensure clear access to all data without any loss of information or impact on the network being monitored
Create a filter to adhere to warrant parameters – time span, types of communications that can be monitored, evidence to be collected, etc.
Set the lawful intercept device to capture and/or store data according to the warrant parameters.
Deliver data directly from the source to the mediation device without any human intervention or packet loss
Generic global standards have also been developed by Cisco via the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) that provide a front-end means of supporting most LI real-time handover standards. All of these standards have been challenged as "deficient" by the U.S. Department of Justice pursuant to CALEA.
Laws
The principal global treaty-based legal instrument relating to LI (including retained data) is the Convention on Cybercrime (Budapest, 23 Nov 2001). The secretariat for the Convention is the Council of Europe. However, the treaty itself has signatories worldwide and provides a global scope.
Individual countries have different legal requirements relating to lawful interception. The Global Lawful Interception Industry Forum lists many of these, as does the Council of Europe secretariat. For example, in the United Kingdom the law is known as RIPA (Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act), in the United States there is an array of federal and state criminal law, in Commonwealth of Independent States countries as SORM.
Europe
In the European Union, the European Council Resolution of 17 January 1995 on the Lawful Interception of Telecommunications (Official Journal C 329) mandated similar measures to CALEA on a pan-European basis. Although some EU member countries reluctantly accepted this resolution out of privacy concerns (which are more pronounced in Europe than the US), there appears now to be general agreement with the resolution. Interception mandates in Europe are generally more rigorous than those of the US; for example, both voice and ISP public network operators in the Netherlands have been required to support interception capabilities for years. In addition, publicly available statistics indicate that the number of interceptions in Europe exceed by many hundreds of times those undertaken in the U.S.
Europe continues to maintain its global leadership role in this sector through the adoption by the European Parliament and Council in 2006 of the far reaching Data Retention Directive. The provisions of the Directive apply broadly to almost all public electronic communications and require the capture of most related information, including location, for every communication. The information must be stored for a period of at least six months, up to two years, and made available to law enforcement upon lawful request. The Directive has been widely emulated in other countries. On 8 April 2014, the Court of Justice of the European Union declared the Directive 2006/24/EC invalid for violating fundamental rights.
United States
In the United States, three Federal statutes authorize lawful interception. The 1968 Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act, Title III pertains mainly to lawful interception criminal investigations. The second law, the 1978 Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act, or FISA, as amended by the Patriot Act, governs wiretapping for intelligence purposes where the subject of the investigation must be a foreign (non-US) national or a person working as an agent on behalf of a foreign country. The Administrator of the U.S. Courts annual reports indicate that the federal cases are related to illegal drug distribution, with cell phones as the dominant form of intercepted communication.
During the 1990s, as in most countries, to help law enforcement and the FBI more effectively carry out wiretap operations, especially in view of the emerging digital voice and wireless networks at the time, the U.S. Congress passed the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) in 1994. This act provides the Federal statutory framework for network operator assistance to LEAs in providing evidence and tactical information. In 2005, CALEA was applied to public broadband networks Internet access and Voice over IP services that are interconnected to the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).
In the 2000s, surveillance focus turned to terrorism. NSA warrantless surveillance outside the supervision of the FISA court caused considerable controversy. It was revealed in 2013 mass surveillance disclosures that since 2007, the National Security Administration has been collecting connection metadata for all calls in the United States under the authority of section 215 PATRIOT Act, with the mandatory cooperation of phone companies and with the approval of the FISA court and briefings to Congress. The government claims it does not access the information in its own database on contacts between American citizens without a warrant.
Lawful interception can also be authorized under local laws for state and local police investigations.
Canada
Police ability to lawfully intercept private communications is governed by Part VI of the Criminal Code of Canada (Invasion Of Privacy). When evaluating Canada’s position on lawful interception, Canadian courts have issued two major rulings on this issue. In June 2014, the Supreme Court ruled that law enforcement officers need a search warrant before accessing information from internet service providers about users’ identities. The context behind this 8-0 ruling is an adolescent Saskatchewan man charged with possessing and distributing child pornography. The police used the man’s IP address to access his personal information from his online service provider— all of which was done without a search warrant. The plaintiff’s attorneys argued that their client’s rights were violated, as he was victim to unlawful search and seizure. Despite the court’s ruling, the evidence gathered from the unwarranted search was used as evidence in trial, as the court claimed that the police were acting in good faith. In accordance to the ruling, the court proclaims that a warrant is not needed if:
“There are exigent circumstances, such as where the information is required to prevent imminent bodily harm.”
“If there is a reasonable law authorizing access.”
“If the information being sought does not raise a reasonable expectation of privacy.”
The second court case to refer to is from the same year but in December. Essentially, the Supreme Court of Canada argued that police are allowed access to a suspect’s cell phone, but they must abide by very strict guidelines. This ruling came about from the argument of Kevin Fearon who was convicted of armed robbery in 2009. After robbing a Toronto Jewelry kiosk, Fearon argued that the police unlawfully violated his charter rights upon searching his cellphone without a warrant. Although divided, the Supreme Court laid out very detailed criteria for law enforcement officers to follow when searching a suspect's phone without a warrant. There are four rules which officers must follow in these instances:
“The arrest must be lawful – This is the case for any situation; it just means if the arrest isn’t lawful, then neither is the search.”
“The search must be incidental to the arrest and police need an “objectively reasonable” reason to conduct the search. These include: protecting police/the accused/the public; preserving evidence; discovering evidence such as finding more suspects.”
“The nature and extent of the search are tailored to the purpose of the search. This means police activity on the phone must be directly linked to the purpose they give.”
“Police must take detailed notes of what they looked at on the device as well as how it was searched (e.g. which applications or programs they looked at, the extent of search, the time of search, its purpose and duration)”
To continue a search without a warrant, the situation at-hand would need to meet three of the four guidelines stated above. Nonetheless, the court highly encourages law enforcement to request a warrant before searching a cellphone to promote and protect privacy in Canada.
Russia
Due to Yarovaya Law, law enforcement is entitled to stored private communication data.
Elsewhere
Most countries worldwide maintain LI requirements similar to those Europe and the U.S., and have moved to the ETSI handover standards. The Convention on Cybercrime requires such capabilities.
Illegal use
As with many law enforcement tools, LI systems may be subverted for illicit purposes, producing a violation of human rights, as declared by European Court of Human Rights in the case Bettino Craxi III v. Italy. It also occurred in Greece during the 2004 Olympics: the telephone operator Vodafone Greece was fined $100,000,000 in 2006 (or €76,000,000) for failing to secure its systems against unlawful access. According to Monshizadeh et al., the event is representative of mobile networks and Internet Service Providers vulnerability to cyber attacks because they use outdated LI mechanism.
Notes
See also
Secrecy of correspondence
Telecommunications data retention
Network Monitoring Interface Card
SS7 probe
SIGINT
Surveillance
Mass surveillance
Mass surveillance in the United Kingdom
Targeted surveillance
References
ETSI, Handover interface for the lawful interception of telecommunications traffic, ETSI TS 101 671, version 3.15.1, June 2018. (PDF-File, 728 KB)
ETSI, Handover Interface and Service-Specific Details (SSD) for IP delivery; Part 1: Handover specification for IP delivery, ETSI TS 101 232-1, version 3.7.1, 2014-07-25. (PDF, Word & zip)
ETSI, Handover Interface and Service-Specific Details (SSD) for IP delivery; Part 2: Service-specific details for E-mail services, ETSI TS 101 232-2, version 3.7.1, 2014-02-21. (HTML, Word, & zip)
ETSI, Handover Interface and Service-Specific Details (SSD) for IP delivery; Part 3: Service-specific details for internet access services, ETSI TS 102 232-3, version 2.2.1, January 2009. (PDF-File, 430 KB)
ETSI, Handover Interface and Service-Specific Details (SSD) for IP delivery; Part 4: Service-specific details for Layer 2 services, ETSI TS 102 232-4, version 3.4.1, August 2017. (PDF-file, 241 KB)
ETSI, Handover Interface and Service-Specific Details (SSD) for IP delivery; Part 5: Service-specific details for IP Multimedia Services, ETSI TS 102 232-5, version 3.2.1, June 2012. (PDF-File, 209 KB)
ETSI, Handover Interface and Service-Specific Details (SSD) for IP delivery; Part 6: Service-specific details for PSTN/ISDN services, ETSI TS 102 232-6, version 3.3.1, March 2014. (PDF-File, 90 KB)
ETSI, Handover Interface and Service-Specific Details (SSD) for IP delivery; Part 7: Service-specific details for Mobile Services, ETSI TS 102 232-7, version 2.1.1, August 2008. (PDF-File, 66 KB)
ETSI, Handover interface for the request and delivery of retained data, ETSI TS 102 657, version 1.7.1, October 2010. (PDF-File, 561 KB)
Handover Interface for the Lawful Interception of Telecommunications Traffic, ETSI ES 201 671, under Lawful Interception, Telecommunications Security, version 3.1.1, May 2007.
3rd Generation Partnership Project, Technical Specification 3GPP TS 33.106 V5.1.0 (2002–09), “Lawful Interception Requirements (Release 5),” September 2003.
3rd Generation Partnership Project, Technical Specification 3GPP TS 33.107 V6.0.0 (2003–09), “Lawful interception architecture and functions (Release 6),” September 2003.
3rd Generation Partnership Project, Technical Specification 3GPP TS 33.108 V6.3.0 (2003–09), “Handover interface for Lawful Interception (Release 6),” September 2003.
PacketCable Electronic Surveillance Specification, PKT-SP-ESP-I03-040113, Cable Television Laboratories Inc., 13 January 2004.
T1.678, Lawfully Authorized Electronic Surveillance (LAES) for Voice over Packet Technologies in Wireline Telecommunications Networks.
Lawfully Authorized Electronic Surveillance, ATIS/TIA joint standard, document number J-STD-025B, December 2003 (although challenged as deficient).
External links
White Paper on Interception of Voice over LTE (VoLTE) Networks
White Paper on Interception of IP Networks
White Paper on Interception of 3G and 4G Wireless Networks
3GPP Lawful Interception requirements for GSM
Guide to the one party consent exception to the rule against interception of private communications in Canada
Privacy of telecommunications
Surveillance
Voice over IP
Law enforcement agency powers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rclone
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Rclone
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Rclone is an open source, multi threaded, command line computer program to manage or migrate content on cloud and other high latency storage. Its capabilities include sync, transfer, crypt, cache, union, compress and mount. The rclone website lists supported backends including S3, and Google Drive.
Descriptions of rclone often carry the strapline Rclone syncs your files to cloud storage. Those prior to 2020 include the alternative Rsync for Cloud Storage. Users have called rclone The Swiss Army Knife of cloud storage.
Rclone is well known for its rclone sync and rclone mount commands. It provides further management functions analogous to those ordinarily used for files on local disks, but which tolerate some intermittent and unreliable service. Rclone is commonly a front-end for media servers such as Plex, Emby or Jellyfin to stream content direct from consumer file storage services.
Official Ubuntu, Debian, Fedora, Gentoo, Arch, Brew, Chocolatey, and other package managers include rclone.
History
Nick Craig-Wood was inspired by rsync. Concerns about the noise and power costs arising from home computer servers prompted him to embrace cloud storage. He began developing rclone as open source software in 2012 under the name swiftsync.
Rclone was promoted to stable version 1.00 in July 2014.
In May 2017 Amazon barred new rclone users from its consumer Amazon Drive file storage product. Amazon Drive had been advertised as offering unlimited storage for £55 per year. Amazon blamed security concerns and also banned other upload utilities. Amazon's AWS S3 service continues to support new rclone users.
The original rclone logo was retired to be replaced with the present one in September 2018.
In March 2020 Nick Craig-Wood resigned from Memset Ltd, a cloud hosting company he founded, to focus on open source software.
Amazon's AWS April 2020 public sector blog explained how the Fred Hutch Cancer Research Center were using rclone in their Motuz tool to migrate very large biomedical research datasets in and out of AWS S3 object stores.
In November 2020 rclone was updated to correct a weakness in the way it generated passwords. Passwords for encrypted remotes can be generated randomly by rclone or supplied by the user. In all versions of rclone from 1.49.0 to 1.53.2 the seed value for generated passwords was based on the number of seconds elapsed in the day, and therefore not truly random. CVE-2020-28924 recommended users upgrade to the latest version of rclone and check the passwords protecting their encrypted remotes.
Release 1.55 of rclone in March 2021 included features sponsored by CERN and their CS3MESH4EOSC project. The work was EU funded to promote vendor-neutral application programming interfaces and protocols for synchronisation and sharing of academic data on cloud storage.
Backends and Commands
Rclone supports the following services as backends. There are others, built on standard protocols such as WebDAV or S3, that work. WebDAV backends do not support rclone functionality dependent on server side checksum or modtime.
:
Remotes are usually defined interactively from these backends, local disk, or memory (as S3), with rclone config. Rclone can further wrap those remotes with one or more of alias, chunk, compress, crypt or union, remotes.
Once defined, the remotes are referenced by other rclone commands interchangeably with the local drive. Remote names are followed by a colon to distinguish them from local drives. For example, a remote example_remote containing a folder, or pseudofolder, myfolder is referred to within a command as a path example_remote:/myfolder.
Rclone commands directly apply to remotes, or mount them for file access or streaming. With appropriate cache options the mount can be addressed as if a conventional, block level disk. Commands are provided to serve remotes over SFTP, HTTP, WebDAV, FTP and DLNA. Commands can have sub-commands and flags. Filters determine which files on a remote that rclone commands are applied to.
rclone rc passes commands or new parameters to existing rclone sessions and has an experimental web browser interface.
Crypt remotes
Rclone's crypt implements encryption of files at rest in cloud storage. It layers an encrypted remote over a pre-existing, cloud or other remote. Crypt is commonly used to encrypt / decrypt media, for streaming, on consumer storage services such as Google Drive.
Rclone's configuration file contains the crypt password. The password can be lightly obfuscated, or the whole rclone.conf file can be encrypted.
Crypt can either encrypt file content and name, or additionally full paths. In the latter case there is a potential clash with encryption for cloud backends, such as Microsoft OneDrive, having limited path lengths. Crypt remotes do not encrypt object modification time or size. The encryption mechanism for content, name and path is available, for scrutiny, on the rclone website. Key derivation is with scrypt.
Example syntax (Linux)
These examples describe paths and file names but object keys behave similarly.
To recursively copy files from directory remote_stuff, at the remote xmpl, to directory stuff in the home folder:-
$ rclone copy -v -P xmpl:/remote_stuff ~/stuff
-v enables logging and -P, progress information. By default rclone checks the file integrity (hash) after copy; can retry each file up to three times if the operation is interrupted; uses up to four parallel transfer threads, and does not apply bandwidth throttling.
Running the above command again copies any new or changed files at the remote to the local folder but, like default rsync behaviour, will not delete from the local directory, files which have been removed from the remote.
To additionally delete files from the local folder which have been removed from the remote - more like the behaviour of rsync with a --delete flag:-
$ rclone sync xmpl:/remote_stuff ~/stuff
And to delete files from the source after they have been transferred to the local directory - more like the behaviour of rsync with a --remove-source-file flag:-
$ rclone move xmpl:/remote_stuff ~/stuff
To mount the remote directory at a mountpoint in the pre-existing, empty stuff directory in the home directory (the ampersand at the end makes the mount command run as a background process):-
$ rclone mount xmpl:/remote_stuff ~/stuff &
Default rclone syntax can be modified. Alternative transfer, filter, conflict and backend specific flags are available. Performance choices include number of concurrent transfer threads; chunk size; bandwidth limit profiling, and cache aggression.
Example syntax (Windows)
These examples describe paths and file names but object keys behave similarly.
To recursively copy files from directory remote_stuff, at the remote xmpl, to directory stuff on E drive:-
>rclone copy -v -P xmpl:remote_stuff E:\stuff
-v enables logging and -P, progress information. By default rclone checks the file integrity (hash) after copy; can retry each file up to three times if the operation is interrupted; uses up to four parallel transfer threads, and does not apply bandwidth throttling.
Running the above command again copies any new or changed file at the remote to the local directory but will not delete from the local directory.
To additionally delete files removed from the remote also from the local directory:-
>rclone sync xmpl:remote_stuff E:\stuff
And to delete files from the source after they have been transferred to the local directory:-
>rclone move xmpl:remote_stuff E:\stuff
To mount the remote directory from an unused drive letter, or at a mountpoint in a non existent directory:-
>rclone mount xmpl:remote_stuff X:
>rclone mount xmpl:remote_stuff E:\stuff
Default rclone syntax can be modified. Alternative transfer, filter, conflict and backend specific options are available. Performance choices include number of concurrent transfer threads; chunk size; bandwidth limit profiling, and cache aggression.
Academic evaluation
In 2018, University of Kentucky researchers published a conference paper comparing use of rclone and other command line, cloud data transfer agents for big data. The paper was published as a result of funding by the National Science Foundation.
Later that year, University of Utah's Center for High Performance Computing examined the impact of rclone options on data transfer rates.
Rclone use at HPC research sites
Examples are University of Maryland, Iowa State University, Trinity College Dublin, NYU, BYU, Indiana University, CSC Finland, Utrecht University, University of Nebraska, University of Utah, North Carolina State University, Stony Brook, Tulane University, Washington State University, Georgia Tech, National Institutes of Health, Wharton, Yale, Harvard, Minnesota, Michigan State, Case Western Reserve University, University of South Dakota, Northern Arizona University, University of Pennsylvania, Stanford, University of Southern California, UC Santa Barbara, UC Irvine, UC Berkeley, and SURFnet.
Rclone and cybercrime
May 2020 reports stated rclone had been used by hackers to exploit Diebold Nixdorf ATMs with ProLock ransomware. The FBI issued a Flash Alert MI-000125-MW on 4 May 2020 in relation to the compromise. They issued a further, related alert 20200901–001 in September 2020. Attackers had exfiltrated / encrypted data from organisations involved in healthcare, construction, finance, and legal services. Multiple US government agencies, and industrial entities were affected. Researchers established the hackers spent about a month exploring the breached networks, using rclone to archive stolen data to cloud storage, before encrypting the target system. Reported targets included LaSalle County, and the city of Novi Sad.
The FBI warned January 2021, in Private Industry Notification 20210106–001, of extortion activity using Egregor ransomware and rclone. Organisations worldwide had been threatened with public release of exfiltrated data. In some cases rclone had been disguised under the name svchost. Bookseller Barnes & Noble, US retailer Kmart, games developer Ubisoft and the Vancouver metro system have been reported as victims.
An April 2021 cybersecurity investigation into SonicWall VPN zero-day vulnerability SNWLID-2021-0001 by FireEye's Mandiant team established attackers UNC2447 used rclone for reconnaissance and exfiltration of victims' files. Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency Analysis Report AR21-126A confirmed this use of rclone in FiveHands ransomware attacks.
A June 2021 Microsoft Security Intelligence Twitter post identified use of rclone in BazaCall cyber attacks. The miscreants sent emails encouraging recipients to contact a bogus call centre to cancel a paid for service. The call centre team then instructed victims to download a hostile file that installed malware on the target network, ultimately allowing use of rclone for covert extraction of potentially sensitive data.
Rclone Wars
In a 2021 Star Wars Day blog article, Managed Security Service Provider Red Canary announced Rclone Wars, an allusion to Clone Wars. The post notes illicit use of other legitimate file transfer utilities in exfiltrate and extort schemes but focuses on MEGAsync, MEGAcmd and rclone. To identify use of renamed rclone executables on compromised devices the authors suggest monitoring for distinctive rclone top level commands and command line flag strings such as remote: and \\.
Rclone or rsync
Rsync transfers files with other computers that have rsync installed. It operates at the block, rather than file, level and has a delta algorithm so that it only needs to transfer changes in files. Rsync preserves file attributes and permissions. Rclone has a wider range of content management capabilities, and types of backend it can address, but only works at a whole file / object level. It does not currently preserve permissions and attributes. Rclone is designed to have some tolerance of intermittent and unreliable connections or remote services. Its transfers are optimised for high latency networks. Rclone decides which of those whole files / objects to transfer after obtaining checksums, to compare, from the remote server. Where checksums are not available, rclone can use object size and timestamp.
Rsync is single threaded. Rclone is multi threaded with a user definable number of simultaneous transfers.
Rclone can pipe data between two completely remote locations, sometimes without local download. During an rsync transfer, one side must be a local drive.
Rclone ignores trailing slashes. Rsync requires their correct use. Rclone filters require the use of ** to refer to the contents of a directory. Rsync does not.
Rsync enthusiasts can be rclone enthusiasts too. Rsync continued to influence rclone at September 2020.
Eponymous cloud storage service rsync.net provides remote unix filesystems so that customers can run rsync and other standard Unix tools. They also offer rclone only accounts.
In 2016, a poster on Hacker News summarised rclone's relationship to rsync as:- (rclone) exists to give you rsync to things that aren't rsync. If you want to rsync to things that are rsync, use rsync.
See also
Rsync
References
External links
2012 software
Cloud storage
Network file systems
Data synchronization
Free backup software
Backup software for Linux
Free network-related software
Network file transfer protocols
Unix network-related software
Free file transfer software
Cloud storage gateways
File transfer software
Software using the MIT license
SFTP clients
FTP clients
Free FTP clients
MacOS Internet software
Free file sharing software
Cross-platform free software
Free software programmed in Go
Free storage software
Object storage
Distributed file systems
Userspace file systems
File copy utilities
Disk usage analysis software
Disk encryption
Special-purpose file systems
Cryptographic software
Free special-purpose file systems
Cloud computing
Cloud infrastructure
Free software for cloud computing
Backup software for Windows
Backup software
Backup software for macOS
Cloud clients
Cloud applications
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop%20publishing
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Desktop publishing
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Desktop publishing (DTP) is the creation of documents using page layout software on a personal ("desktop") computer. It was first used almost exclusively for print publications, but now it also assists in the creation of various forms of online content. Desktop publishing software can generate layouts and produce typographic-quality text and images comparable to traditional typography and printing. Desktop publishing is also the main reference for digital typography. This technology allows individuals, businesses, and other organizations to self-publish a wide variety of content, from menus to magazines to books, without the expense of commercial printing.
Desktop publishing often requires the use of a personal computer and WYSIWYG page layout software to create documents for either large-scale publishing or small-scale local multifunction peripheral output and distribution – although a non-WYSIWYG system such as LaTeX could also be used for the creation of highly structured and technically demanding documents as well. Desktop publishing methods provide more control over design, layout, and typography than word processing. However, word processing software has evolved to include most, if not all, capabilities previously available only with professional printing or desktop publishing.
The same DTP skills and software used for common paper and book publishing are sometimes used to create graphics for point of sale displays, presentations, infographics, brochures, business cards, promotional items, trade show exhibits, retail package designs and outdoor signs.
History
Desktop publishing was first developed at Xerox PARC in the 1970s. A contradictory claim states that desktop publishing began in 1983 with a program developed by James Davise at a community newspaper in Philadelphia. The program Type Processor One ran on a PC using a graphics card for a WYSIWYG display and was offered commercially by Best info in 1984. (Desktop typesetting with only limited page makeup facilities had arrived in 1978–1979 with the introduction of TeX, and was extended in 1985 with the introduction of LaTeX.)
The Macintosh computer platform was introduced by Apple with much fanfare in 1984, but at the beginning, the Mac initially lacked DTP capabilities. The desktop publishing market took off in 1985 with the introduction in January of the Apple LaserWriter printer. This momentum was kept up by with the addition of PageMaker software from Aldus, which rapidly became the standard software application for desktop publishing. With its advanced layout features, PageMaker immediately relegated word processors like Microsoft Word to the composition and editing of purely textual documents. The term "desktop publishing" is attributed to Aldus founder Paul Brainerd, who sought a marketing catchphrase to describe the small size and relative affordability of this suite of products, in contrast to the expensive commercial phototypesetting equipment of the day.
Before the advent of desktop publishing, the only option available to most people for producing typed documents (as opposed to handwritten documents) was a typewriter, which offered only a handful of typefaces (usually fixed-width) and one or two font sizes. Indeed, one popular desktop publishing book was titled The Mac is Not a Typewriter, and it had to actually explain how a Mac could do so much more than a typewriter. The ability to create WYSIWYG page layouts on screen and then print pages containing text and graphical elements at crisp 300 dpi resolution was revolutionary for both the typesetting industry and the personal computer industry at the time; newspapers and other print publications made the move to DTP-based programs from older layout systems such as Atex and other programs in the early 1980s.
Desktop publishing was still in its embryonic stage in the early 1980s. Users of the PageMaker-LaserWriter-Macintosh 512K system endured frequent software crashes, cramped display on the Mac's tiny 512 x 342 1-bit monochrome screen, the inability to control letter-spacing, kerning, and other typographic features, and the discrepancies between screen display and printed output. However, it was a revolutionary combination at the time, and was received with considerable acclaim.
Behind-the-scenes technologies developed by Adobe Systems set the foundation for professional desktop publishing applications. The LaserWriter and LaserWriter Plus printers included high quality, scalable Adobe PostScript fonts built into their ROM memory. The LaserWriter's PostScript capability allowed publication designers to proof files on a local printer, then print the same file at DTP service bureaus using optical resolution 600+ ppi PostScript printers such as those from Linotronic.
Later, the Macintosh II was released, which was considerably more suitable for desktop publishing due to its greater expandability, support for large color multi-monitor displays, and its SCSI storage interface (which allowed fast high-capacity hard drives to be attached to the system). Macintosh-based systems continued to dominate the market into 1986, when the GEM-based Ventura Publisher was introduced for MS-DOS computers. PageMaker's pasteboard metaphor closely simulated the process of creating layouts manually, but Ventura Publisher automated the layout process through its use of tags and style sheets and automatically generated indices and other body matter. This made it particularly suitable for the creation manuals and other long-format documents.
Desktop publishing moved into the home market in 1986 with Professional Page for the Amiga, Publishing Partner (now PageStream) for the Atari ST, GST's Timeworks Publisher on the PC and Atari ST, and Calamus for the Atari TT030. Software was published even for 8-bit computers like the Apple II and Commodore 64: Home Publisher, The Newsroom, and geoPublish. During its early years, desktop publishing acquired a bad reputation as a result of untrained users who created poorly organized, unprofessional-looking "ransom note effect" layouts; similar criticism was leveled again against early World Wide Web publishers a decade later. However, some desktop publishers who mastered the programs were able to achieve highly professional results. Desktop publishing skills were considered of primary importance in career advancement in the 1980s, but increased accessibility to more user-friendly DTP software has made DTP a secondary skill to art direction, graphic design, multimedia development, marketing communications, and administrative careers. DTP skill levels range from what may be learned in a couple of hours (e.g., learning how to put clip art in a word processor), to what's typically required in a college education. The discipline of DTP skills range from technical skills such as prepress production and programming, to creative skills such as communication design and graphic image development.
, Apple computers remain dominant in publishing, even as the most popular software has changed from QuarkXPress – an estimated 95% market share in the 1990s — to Adobe InDesign. As an Ars Technica writer puts: "I've heard about Windows-based publishing environments, but I've never actually seen one in my 20+ years in design and publishing".
Terminology
There are two types of pages in desktop publishing: digital pages and virtual paper pages to be printed on physical paper pages. All computerized documents are technically digital, which are limited in size only by computer memory or computer data storage space. Virtual paper pages will ultimately be printed, and will therefore require paper parameters coinciding with standard physical paper sizes such as A4, letterpaper and legalpaper. Alternatively, the virtual paper page may require a custom size for later trimming. Some desktop publishing programs allow custom sizes designated for large format printing used in posters, billboards and trade show displays. A virtual page for printing has a predesignated size of virtual printing material and can be viewed on a monitor in WYSIWYG format. Each page for printing has trim sizes (edge of paper) and a printable area if bleed printing is not possible as is the case with most desktop printers. A web page is an example of an digital page that is not constrained by virtual paper parameters. Most digital pages may be dynamically re-sized, causing either the content to scale in size with the page or the content to re-flow.
Master pages are templates used to automatically copy or link elements and graphic design styles to some or all the pages of a multipage document. Linked elements can be modified without having to change each instance of an element on pages that use the same element. Master pages can also be used to apply graphic design styles to automatic page numbering. Cascading Style Sheets can provide the same global formatting functions for web pages that master pages provide for virtual paper pages. Page layout is the process by which the elements are laid on the page orderly, aesthetically and precisely. Main types of components to be laid out on a page include text, linked images (that can only be modified as an external source), and embedded images (that may be modified with the layout application software). Some embedded images are rendered in the application software, while others can be placed from an external source image file. Text may be keyed into the layout, placed, or – with database publishing applications – linked to an external source of text which allows multiple editors to develop a document at the same time.
Graphic design styles such as color, transparency and filters may also be applied to layout elements. Typography styles may be applied to text automatically with style sheets. Some layout programs include style sheets for images in addition to text. Graphic styles for images may include border shapes, colors, transparency, filters, and a parameter designating the way text flows around the object (also known as "wraparound" or "runaround").
Comparisons
With word processing
As desktop publishing software still provides extensive features necessary for print publishing, modern word processors now have publishing capabilities beyond those of many older DTP applications, blurring the line between word processing and desktop publishing.
In the early 1980s, graphical user interface was still in its embryonic stage and DTP software was in a class of its own when compared to the leading word processing applications of the time. Programs such as WordPerfect and WordStar were still mainly text-based and offered little in the way of page layout, other than perhaps margins and line spacing. On the other hand, word processing software was necessary for features like indexing and spell checking – features that are common in many applications today. As computers and operating systems became more powerful, versatile, and user-friendly in the 2010s, vendors have sought to provide users with a single application that can meet almost all their publication needs.
With other digital layout software
In earlier modern-day usage, DTP usually does not include digital tools such as TeX or troff, though both can easily be used on a modern desktop system, and are standard with many Unix-like operating systems and are readily available for other systems. The key difference between digital typesetting software and DTP software is that DTP software is generally interactive and "What you see [onscreen] is what you get" (WYSIWYG) in design, while other digital typesetting software, such as TeX, LaTeX and other variants, tend to operate in "batch mode", requiring the user to enter the processing program's markup language (e.g. HTML) without immediate visualization of the finished product. This kind of workflow is less user-friendly than WYSIWYG, but more suitable for conference proceedings and scholarly articles as well as corporate newsletters or other applications where consistent, automated layout is important.
In the 2010s, interactive front-end components of TeX, such as TeXworks and LyX, have produced "what you see is what you mean" (WYSIWYM) hybrids of DTP and batch processing. These hybrids are focused more on the semantics than the traditional DTP. Furthermore, with the advent of TeX editors the line between desktop publishing and markup-based typesetting is becoming increasingly narrow as well; a software which separates itself from the TeX world and develops itself in the direction of WYSIWYG markup-based typesetting is GNU TeXmacs.
On a different note, there is a slight overlap between desktop publishing and what is known as hypermedia publishing (e.g. web design, kiosk, CD-ROM). Many graphical HTML editors such as Microsoft FrontPage and Adobe Dreamweaver use a layout engine similar to that of a DTP program. However, many web designers still prefer to write HTML without the assistance of a WYSIWYG editor, for greater control and ability to fine-tune the appearance and functionality. Another reason that some Web designers write in HTML is that WYSIWYG editors often result in excessive lines of code, leading to code bloat that can make the pages hard to troubleshoot.
With web design
Desktop publishing produces primarily static print or digital media, the focus of this article. Similar skills, processes, and terminology are used in web design. Digital typography is the specialization of typography for desktop publishing. Web typography addresses typography and the use of fonts on the World Wide Web. Desktop style sheets apply formatting for print, Web Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) provide format control for web display. Web HTML font families map website font usage to the fonts available on the user web browser or display device.
Applications
A wide variety of DTP applications and websites are available and are listed separately.
File formats
The design industry standard is PDF. The older EPS format is also used and supported by most applications.
See also
Comparison of desktop publishing software
List of desktop publishing software
Document processor
Camera-ready
Desktop video
DTP artist
E-book
Digital publishing
Web design
WYSIWYG
References
Typography
Publishing
Communication design
Typesetting
News design
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistent%20Network%20Device%20Naming
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Consistent Network Device Naming
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Consistent Network Device Naming is a convention for naming Ethernet adapters in Linux.
It was created around 2009 to replace the old naming scheme that caused problems on multihomed machines because the network interface controllers (NICs) would be named based on the order in which they were found by the kernel as it booted. Removing existing or adding new interfaces could cause the previously added ones to change names. An Engineering Change Request was submitted to the PCI SIG firmware group on how system firmware can provide device naming to operating systems via the ACPI interface.
Adoption
The convention was implemented for Dell in a module called .
Among the first major Linux distributions to adopt the module were Fedora 15 in May 2011 and Red Hat Enterprise Linux version 6.1. It was also released in SUSE Linux Enterprise Server 11 Service Pack 2 in February 2012. The newer Dell PowerEdge and Dell Precision models support the new names.
An open-source implementation is available, based on the udev mechanism. Red Hat Enterprise Linux 7 started using systemd for networking.
Device naming rules
Onboard interfaces at firmware index numbers
Interfaces at PCI Express hotplug slot numbers
Adapters in the specified PCI slot, with slot index number on the adapter
If firmware information is invalid or rules are disabled, use traditional
References
Ethernet
Linux drivers
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1656124
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product%20software%20implementation%20method
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Product software implementation method
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A product software implementation method is a systematically structured approach to effectively integrate a software based service or component into the workflow of an organizational structure or an individual end-user.
This entry focuses on the process modeling (Process Modeling) side of the implementation of “large” (explained in complexity differences) product software, using the implementation of Enterprise Resource Planning systems as the main example to elaborate on.
Overview
A product software implementation method is a blueprint to get users and/or organizations running with a specific software product.
The method is a set of rules and views to cope with the most common issues that occur when implementing a software product: business alignment from the organizational view and acceptance from human view.
The implementation of product software, as the final link in the deployment chain of software production, is in a financial perspective a major issue.
It is stated that the implementation of (product) software consumes up to 1/3 of the budget of a software purchase (more than hardware and software requirements together).
Implementation complexity differences
The complexity of implementing product software differs on several issues.
Examples are: the number of end users that will use the product software, the effects that the implementation has on changes of tasks and responsibilities for the end user, the culture and the integrity of the organization where the software is going to be used and the budget available for acquiring product software.
In general, differences are identified on a scale of size (bigger, smaller, more, less).
An example of the “smaller” product software is the implementation of an office package.
However there could be a lot of end users in an organization, the impact on the tasks and responsibilities of the end users will not be too intense, as the daily workflow of the end user is not changing significantly.
An example of “larger” product software is the implementation of an Enterprise Resource Planning system. The implementation requires in-depth insights on the architecture of the organization as well as of the product itself, before it can be aligned. Next, the usage of an ERP system involves much more dedication of the end users as new tasks and responsibilities will either be created or shifted.
Examples of other "larger" product software are:
Enterprise resource planning software
Customer relationship management software
Content management system software
Human resource management systems
Supply chain management software
Software customization and Business Process Redesign
Process modeling, used to align product software and organizational structures, involves a major issue, when the conclusion is drawn that the product software and the organizational structure do not align well enough for the software to be implemented.
In this case, two alternatives are possible: the customization of the software or the redesign of the organizational structure, thus the business processes.
Customizing the software actually transforms the product software in tailor-made software, as the idea of standardized software no longer applies. This may result in loss of support on the software and the need to acquire consultancy when issues arise in the usage of the software. Customizing however results in a situation where the organizational integrity is not adjusted, which puts less pressure on the end users, as less changes or shifts in workflows are required. This fact may positively add to the acceptance of any new (product) software application used and may thus decrease the implementation time and budget on the soft side of the implementation budget.
Redesigning business processes is more sensible for causing resistance in the usage of product software, as altered business processes will alter tasks and responsibilities for the end users of the product software. However, while the product software is not altered, better support, training and service levels are possible... because the support was created for the specific integrity of the software.
Implementation Frameworks
The guiding principle versus the profession
Another issue on the implementation process of product software is the choice, or actually the question, to what extent an implementation method should be used.
Implementation methods can on the one hand be used as a guiding principle, indicating that the method serves as a global idea about how the implementation phase of any project should run. This choice leaves more room for situational factors that are not taken into account in the chosen method, but will result in ambiguity when questions arise in the execution of the implementation process.
On the other hand, methods can be used as a profession, meaning that the method should be taken strict and the usage of the method should be a profession, instead of a guiding principle. This view is very useful if the implementation process is very complex and is very dependent on exact and precise acting.
Organizational and quality management will embrace this view, as a strict usage of any method results in more clarity on organizational level.
Change management however might indicate that more flexibility in an implementation method leaves more room for the soft side of implementation processes.
Implementation frameworks
Apart from implementation methods serving as the set of rules to implement a specific product or service, implementation frameworks serve as the project managed structure to define the implementation phase in time, budget and quality.
Several project management methods can serve as a basis to perform the implementation method. Since this entry focuses on the implementation of product software, the best project management methods suitable for supporting the implementation phase are project management methods that focus on software and information systems itself as well.
The applicability of using a framework for implementation methods is clarified by the examples of using Dynamic and static systems development method (DSDM) and Prince2 as project management method frameworks.
DSDM
The power of dynamic systems development method is that the method uses the principles of iteration and incremental value, meaning that projects are carried out in repeating phases where each phase adds value to the project. In this way implementation phases can be carried out incrementally and add value to important project aspects such as the degree of acceptance, awareness and skills within every increment [F. Von Meyenfeldt, Basiskennis project management, Academic Service 1999].
In addition to the management of chance scope, increments are also usable in the process modeling scope of implementation phases. Using increments can align process models of business architectures and product software as adding more detail in every increment of the phase draws both models closer.
The DSDM also has room for phased training, documentation and reviewing.
Prince2
As with DSDM, the Prince2 method acknowledges implementation as a phase within the method. Prince2 consists of a set of processes, of which 3 processes are especially meant for implementation.
The processes of controlling a stage, managing product delivery and managing stage boundaries enable an implementation process to be detailed in with factors as time and quality.
The Prince2 method can be carried out iteratively but is also suitable for a straight execution of the processes.
The profits for any implementation process being framed in a project management framework are:
Clarity
An implementation framework offers the process to be detailed in with factors such as time, quality, budget and feasibility.
Iterative, incremental approach
As explained, the possibility to execute different phases of the implementation process iteratively enables the process to be executed by incrementally aligning the product to be implemented with the end-user (organization).
Embedded & Generic methods
One way to implement product software is through usage of an embedded method or model. Embedded models are part of the auxiliary materials (see: definition of product software) that come with the software package.
Implementing a software product using an embedded model implies not only that the model is (mostly) only usable with the specific software product, but also that the product can or should only be implemented using the model.
Embedded methods can thus be seen as very specific ways implementing product software.
Examples of software products with an embedded method are:
Implementing SAP (SAP R/3), using the ARIS embedded model.
Implementing the Baan ERP system, using Dynamic Enterprise Modeling (DEM).
Implementing Oracle E-Business Suite, using Oracle Application Implementation Method (AIM).
Generic implementation methods are not meant for a specific software product but for common usage in implementing product software products. This usage is going to be elaborated on using the example of implementing product software using Object Process Methodology. This methodology is very useful in for example ERP modeling: the modeling of ERP systems in order to implement it into an organizational structure.
Assessments
Using an embedded method brings the power that the method is designed to implement the software product that the method comes with. This suggests a less complicated usage of the method and more support possibilities.
The negative aspect of an embedded method obviously is that it can only be used for specific product software. Engineers and consultants, operating with several software products, could have more use of a general method, to have just one way of working.
Using a generic method like ERP modeling has the power that the method can be used for several ERP systems. Unlike embedded methods, the usage of generic methods enables engineers and consultants that operate in a company where several ERP systems are implemented in customer organizations, to adapt to one specific working method, instead of having to acquire skills for several embedded models.
Generic methods have however the lack that implementation projects could become too situational, resulting in difficulties and complexity in the execution of the modeling process, as less support will be available.
Software development process
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AppleScript
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AppleScript
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AppleScript is a scripting language created by Apple Inc. that facilitates automated control over scriptable Mac applications. First introduced in System 7, it is currently included in all versions of macOS as part of a package of system automation tools. The term "AppleScript" may refer to the language itself, to an individual script written in the language, or, informally, to the macOS Open Scripting Architecture that underlies the language.
Overview
AppleScript is primarily a scripting language developed by Apple to do inter-application communication (IAC) using Apple events. AppleScript is related to, but different from, Apple events. Apple events are designed to exchange data between and control other applications in order to automate repetitive tasks.
AppleScript has some processing abilities of its own, in addition to sending and receiving Apple events to applications. AppleScript can do basic calculations and text processing, and is extensible, allowing the use of scripting additions that add new functions to the language. Mainly, however, AppleScript relies on the functionality of applications and processes to handle complex tasks. As a structured command language, AppleScript can be compared to Unix shells, the Microsoft Windows Script Host, or IBM REXX in its purpose, but it is distinct from all three. Essential to its functionality is the fact that Macintosh applications publish "dictionaries" of addressable objects and operations.
AppleScript has some elements of procedural programming, object-oriented programming (particularly in the construction of script objects), and natural language programming tendencies in its syntax, but does not strictly conform to any of these programming paradigms.
History
In the late 1980s Apple considered using HyperCard's HyperTalk scripting language as the standard language for end-user development across the company and within its classic Mac OS operating system, and for interprocess communication between Apple and non-Apple products. HyperTalk could be used by novices to program a HyperCard stack. Apple engineers recognized that a similar, but more object-oriented scripting language could be designed to be used with any application, and the AppleScript project was born as a spin-off of a research effort to modernize the Macintosh as a whole and finally became part of System 7.
AppleScript was released in October 1993 as part of System 7.1.1 (System 7 Pro, the first major upgrade to System 7). QuarkXPress (ver. 3.2) was one of the first major software applications that supported AppleScript. This in turn led to AppleScript being widely adopted within the publishing and prepress world, often tying together complex workflows. This was a key factor in retaining the Macintosh's dominant position in publishing and prepress, even after QuarkXpress and other publishing applications were ported to Microsoft Windows.
After some uncertainty about the future of AppleScript on Apple's next generation OS, the move to Mac OS X (around 2002) and its Cocoa frameworks greatly increased the usefulness and flexibility of AppleScript. Cocoa applications allow application developers to implement basic scriptability for their apps with minimal effort, broadening the number of applications that are directly scriptable. At the same time, the shift to the Unix underpinnings and AppleScript's ability to run Unix commands directly, with the do shell script command, allowed AppleScripts much greater control over the operating system itself. AppleScript Studio, released with Mac OS X 10.2 as part of Xcode, and later AppleScriptObjC framework, released in Mac OS X 10.6, allowed users to build Cocoa applications using AppleScript.
In a 2006 article, Macworld included AppleScript among its rankings of Apple's 30 most significant products to date, placing it at #17.
In a 2013 article for Macworld, veteran Mac software developer and commentator John Gruber concluded his reflection on "the unlikely persistence of AppleScript" by noting: "In theory, AppleScript could be much better; in practice, though, it's the best thing we have that works. It exemplifies the Mac's advantages over iOS for tinkerers and advanced users."
In October 2016, longtime AppleScript product manager and automation evangelist Sal Soghoian left Apple when his position was eliminated "for business reasons". Veterans in the Mac community such as John Gruber and Andy Ihnatko generally responded with concern, questioning Apple's commitment to the developer community and pro users. Apple senior vice president of software engineering Craig Federighi responded in an email saying that "We have every intent to continue our support for the great automation technologies in macOS!", though Jeff Gamet at The Mac Observer opined that it did little to assuage his doubt about the future of Apple automation in general and AppleScript in particular. For the time being, AppleScript remains one component of macOS automation technologies, along with Automator, Shortcuts, Services, and shell scripting.
Basic concepts
AppleScript was designed to be used as an accessible end-user scripting language, offering users an intelligent mechanism to control applications, and to access and modify data and documents. AppleScript uses Apple events, a set of standardized data formats that the Macintosh operating system uses to send information to applications, roughly analogous to sending XPath queries over XML-RPC in the world of web services. Apple events allow a script to work with multiple applications simultaneously, passing data between them so that complex tasks can be accomplished without human interaction. For example, an AppleScript to create a simple web gallery might do the following:
Open a photo in a photo-editing application (by sending that application an Open File Apple event).
Tell the photo-editing application to manipulate the image (e.g. reduce its resolution, add a border, add a photo credit)
Tell the photo-editing application to save the changed image in a file in some different folder (by sending that application a Save and/or Close Apple event).
Send the new file path (via another Apple event) to a text editor or web editor application
Tell that editor application to write a link for the photo into an HTML file.
Repeat the above steps for an entire folder of images (hundreds or even thousands of photos).
Upload the HTML file and folder of revised photos to a website, by sending Apple events to a graphical FTP client, by using built-in AppleScript commands, or by sending Apple events to Unix FTP utilities.
For the user, hundreds or thousands of steps in multiple applications have been reduced to the single act of running the script, and the task is accomplished in much less time and with no possibility of random human error. A large complex script could be developed to run only once, while other scripts are used again and again.
An application's scriptable elements are visible in the application's Scripting Dictionary (distributed as part of the application), which can be viewed in any script editor. Elements are generally grouped into suites, according to loose functional relationships between them. There are two basic kinds of elements present in any suite: classes and commands.
Classes are scriptable objects—for example, a text editing application will almost certainly have classes for windows, documents, and texts—and these classes will have properties that can be changed (window size, document background color, text font size, etc.), and may contain other classes (a window will contain one or more documents, a document will contain text, a text object will contain paragraphs and words and characters).
Commands, by contrast, are instructions that can be given to scriptable objects. The general format for a block of AppleScript is to tell a scriptable object to run a command.
All scriptable applications share a few basic commands and objects, usually called the Standard Suite—commands to open, close or save a file, to print something, to quit, to set data to variables—as well as a basic application object that gives the scriptable properties of the application itself. Many applications have numerous suites capable of performing any task the application itself can perform. In exceptional cases, applications may support plugins which include their own scripting dictionaries.
AppleScript was designed with the ability to build scripts intuitively by recording user actions. Such AppleScript recordability has to be engineered into the app—the app must support Apple events and AppleScript recording; as Finder supports AppleScript recording, it can be useful for reference. When AppleScript Editor (Script Editor) is open and the Record button clicked, user actions for recordable apps are converted to their equivalent AppleScript commands and output to the Script Editor window. The resulting script can be saved and re-run to duplicate the original actions, or modified to be more generally useful.
Comments
Comments can be made multiple ways. A one-line comment can begin with 2 hyphens (). In AppleScript 2.0, first released in Mac OS X Leopard, it may also begin with a number sign (#). This permits a self-contained AppleScript script to be stored as an executable text file beginning with the shebang line #!/usr/bin/osascript
Example:
--This is a one line comment
# So is this! (in Mac OS X Leopard or later)
For comments that take up multiple lines, AppleScript uses parentheses with asterisks inside.
Example:
(* This is a
multiple
line
comment *)
Hello, world!
In AppleScript, the traditional "Hello, World!" program could be written in many different forms, including:
display dialog "Hello, world!" -- a modal window with "OK" and "Cancel" buttons
-- or
display alert "Hello, world!" -- a modal window with a single "OK" button and an icon representing the app displaying the alert
-- or
say "Hello, world!" -- an audio message using a synthesized computer voice
AppleScript has several user interface options, including dialogs, alerts, and list of choices. (The character ¬, produced by typing in the Script Editor, denotes continuation of a single statement across multiple lines.)
-- Dialog
set dialogReply to display dialog "Dialog Text" ¬
default answer "Text Answer" ¬
hidden answer false ¬
buttons {"Skip", "Okay", "Cancel"} ¬
default button "Okay" ¬
cancel button "Skip" ¬
with title "Dialog Window Title" ¬
with icon note ¬
giving up after 15
-- Choose from list
set chosenListItem to choose from list {"A", "B", "3"} ¬
with title "List Title" ¬
with prompt "Prompt Text" ¬
default items "B" ¬
OK button name "Looks Good!" ¬
cancel button name "Nope, try again" ¬
multiple selections allowed false ¬
with empty selection allowed
-- Alert
set resultAlertReply to display alert "Alert Text" ¬
as warning ¬
buttons {"Skip", "Okay", "Cancel"} ¬
default button 2 ¬
cancel button 1 ¬
giving up after 2
Each user interaction method can return the values of buttons clicked, items chosen or text entered for further processing. For example:
display alert "Hello, world!" buttons {"Rudely decline", "Happily accept"}
set theAnswer to button returned of the result
if theAnswer is "Happily accept" then
beep 5
else
say "Piffle!"
end if
Natural language metaphor
Whereas Apple events are a way to send messages into applications, AppleScript is a particular language designed to send Apple events. In keeping with the objective of ease-of-use for beginners, the AppleScript language is designed on the natural language metaphor, just as the graphical user interface is designed on the desktop metaphor. A well-written AppleScript should be clear enough to be read and understood by anyone, and easily edited. The language is based largely on HyperCard's HyperTalk language, extended to refer not only to the HyperCard world of cards and stacks, but also theoretically to any document. To this end, the AppleScript team introduced the AppleEvent Object Model (AEOM), which specifies the objects any particular application "knows".
The heart of the AppleScript language is the use of terms that act as nouns and verbs that can be combined. For example, rather than a different verb to print a page, document or range of pages (such as printPage, printDocument, printRange), AppleScript uses a single "print" verb which can be combined with an object, such as a page, a document or a range of pages.
print page 1
print document 2
print pages 1 thru 5 of document 2
Generally, AEOM defines a number of objects—like "document" or "paragraph"—and corresponding actions—like "cut" and "close". The system also defines ways to refer to properties of objects, so one can refer to the "third paragraph of the document 'Good Day'", or the "color of the last word of the front window". AEOM uses an application dictionary to associate the Apple events with human-readable terms, allowing the translation back and forth between human-readable AppleScript and bytecode Apple events. To discover what elements of a program are scriptable, dictionaries for supported applications may be viewed. (In the Xcode and Script Editor applications, this is under File → Open Dictionary.)
To designate which application is meant to be the target of such a message, AppleScript uses a "tell" construct:
tell application "Microsoft Word"
quit
end tell
Alternatively, the tell may be expressed in one line by using an infinitive:
tell application "Microsoft Word" to quit
For events in the "Core Suite" (activate, open, reopen, close, print, and quit), the application may be supplied as the direct object to transitive commands:
quit application "Microsoft Word"
The concept of an object hierarchy can be expressed using nested blocks:
tell application "QuarkXPress"
tell document 1
tell page 2
tell text box 1
set word 5 to "Apple"
end tell
end tell
end tell
end tell
The concept of an object hierarchy can also be expressed using nested prepositional phrases:
pixel 7 of row 3 of TIFF image "my bitmap"
which in another programming language might be expressed as sequential method calls, like in this pseudocode:
getTIFF("my bitmap").getRow(3).getPixel(7);
AppleScript includes syntax for ordinal counting, "the first paragraph", as well as cardinal, "paragraph one". Likewise, the numbers themselves can be referred to as text or numerically, "five", "fifth" and "5" are all supported; they are synonyms in AppleScript. Also, the word "the" can legally be used anywhere in the script in order to enhance readability: it has no effect on the functionality of the script.
Examples of scripts
A failsafe calculator:
tell application "Finder"
-- Set variables
set the1 to text returned of (display dialog "1st" default answer "Number here" buttons {"Continue"} default button 1)
set the2 to text returned of (display dialog "2nd" default answer "Number here" buttons {"Continue"} default button 1)
try
set the1 to the1 as integer
set the2 to the2 as integer
on error
display dialog "You may only input numbers into a calculator." with title "ERROR" buttons {"OK"} default button 1
return
end try
-- Add?
if the button returned of (display dialog "Add?" buttons {"No", "Yes"} default button 2) is "Yes" then
set ans to (the1 + the2)
display dialog ans with title "Answer" buttons {"OK"} default button 1
say ans
-- Subtract?
else if the button returned of (display dialog "Subtract?" buttons {"No", "Yes"} default button 2) is "Yes" then
set ans to (the1 - the2)
display dialog ans with title "Answer" buttons {"OK"} default button 1
say ans
-- Multiply?
else if the button returned of (display dialog "Multiply?" buttons {"No", "Yes"} default button 2) is "Yes" then
set ans to (the1 * the2)
display dialog ans with title "Answer" buttons {"OK"} default button 1
say ans
-- Divide?
else if the button returned of (display dialog "Divide?" buttons {"No", "Yes"} default button 2) is "Yes" then
set ans to (the1 / the2)
display dialog ans with title "Answer" buttons {"OK"} default button 1
say ans
else
delay 1
say "You haven't selected a function. The operation has cancelled."
end if
end tell
A simple username and password dialog box sequence. Here, the username is John and password is app123:
tell application "Finder"
set passAns to "app123"
set userAns to "John"
if the text returned of (display dialog "Username" default answer "") is userAns then
display dialog "Correct" buttons {"Continue"} default button 1
if the text returned of (display dialog "Username : John" & return & "Password" default answer "" buttons {"Continue"} default button 1 with hidden answer) is passAns then
display dialog "Access granted" buttons {"OK"} default button 1
else
display dialog "Incorrect password" buttons {"OK"} default button 1
end if
else
display dialog "Incorrect username" buttons {"OK"} default button 1
end if
end tell
Development tools
Script editors
Script editors provide a unified programing environment for AppleScripts, including tools for composing, validating, compiling, running, and debugging scripts. They also provide mechanisms for opening and viewing AppleScript dictionaries from scriptable applications, saving scripts in a number of formats (compiled script files, application packages, script bundles, and plain text files), and usually provide features such as syntax highlighting and prewritten code snippets.
From Apple
AppleScript Editor (Script Editor) The editor for AppleScript packaged with macOS, called AppleScript Editor in Mac OS X Snow Leopard (10.6) through OS X Mavericks (10.9) and Script Editor in all earlier and later versions of macOS. Scripts are written in document editing windows where they can be compiled and run, and these windows contain various panes in which logged information, execution results, and other information is available for debugging purposes. Access to scripting dictionaries and prewritten code snippets is available through the application menus. Since OS X Yosemite (10.10), Script Editor includes the ability to write in both AppleScript and JavaScript.
Xcode A suite of tools for developing applications with features for editing AppleScripts or creating full-fledged applications written with AppleScript.
From third parties
Script Debugger, from Late Night Software A third-party commercial IDE for AppleScript. Script Debugger is a more advanced AppleScript environment that allows the script writer to debug AppleScripts via single stepping, breakpoints, stepping in and out of functions/subroutines, variable tracking, etc. Script Debugger also contains an advanced dictionary browser that allows the user to see the dictionary in action in real world situations. That is, rather than just a listing of what the dictionary covers, one can open a document in Pages, for example, and see how the dictionary's terms apply to that document, making it easier to determine which parts of the dictionary to use. Script Debugger is not designed to create scripts with a GUI, other than basic alerts and dialogs, but is focused more on the coding and debugging of scripts.
Smile and SmileLab A third-party freeware/commercial IDE for AppleScript, itself written entirely in AppleScript. Smile is free, and primarily designed for AppleScript development. SmileLab is commercial software with extensive additions for numerical analysis, graphing, machine automation and web production. Smile and SmileLab use an assortment of different windows—AppleScript windows for running and saving full scripts, AppleScript terminals for testing code line-by-line, unicode windows for working with text and XML. Users can create complex interfaces—called dialogs—for situations where the built-in dialogs in AppleScript are insufficient.
ASObjC Explorer 4, from Shane Stanley A discontinued third-party commercial IDE for AppleScript, especially for AppleScriptObjC. The main feature is Cocoa-object/event logging, debugging and code-completion. Users can read Cocoa events and objects like other scriptable applications. This tool was originally built for AppleScript Libraries (available in OS X Mavericks). AppleScript Libraries aims for re-usable AppleScript components and supports built-in AppleScript dictionary (sdef). ASObjC Explorer 4 can be an external Xcode script editor, too.
FaceSpan, from Late Night Software A discontinued third-party commercial IDE for creating AppleScript applications with graphic user interfaces.
Script launchers
AppleScripts can be run from a script editor, but it is usually more convenient to run scripts directly, without opening a script editor application. There are a number of options for doing so:
Applets AppleScripts can be saved from a script editor as applications (called applets, or droplets when they accept input via drag and drop). Applets can be run from the Dock, from the toolbar of Finder windows, from Spotlight, from third-party application launchers, or from any other place where applications can be run.
Folder actions Using AppleScript folder actions, scripts can be launched when specific changes occur in folders (such as adding or removing files). Folder actions can be assigned by clicking on a folder and choosing Folder Actions Setup... from the contextual menu; the location of this command differs slightly in Mac OS X 10.6.x from earlier versions. This same action can be achieved with third-party utilities such as Hazel.
Hotkey launchers Keyboard shortcuts can be assigned to AppleScripts in the script menu using the Keyboard & Mouse Settings Preference Pane in System Preferences. In addition, various third-party utilities are available—Alfred, FastScripts, Keyboard Maestro, QuicKeys, Quicksilver, TextExpander—which can run AppleScripts on demand using key combinations.
Script menu This system-wide menu provides access to AppleScripts from the macOS menu bar, visible no matter what application is running. (In addition, many Apple applications, some third party applications, and some add-ons provide their own script menus. These may be activated in different ways, but all function in essentially the same manner.) Selecting a script in the script menu launches it. Since Mac OS X 10.6.x, the system-wide script menu can be enabled from the preferences of Script Editor; in prior versions of Mac OS X, it could be enabled from the AppleScript Utility application. When first enabled, the script menu displays a default library of fairly generic, functional AppleScripts, which can also be opened in Script Editor and used as examples for learning AppleScript. Scripts can be organized so that they only appear in the menu when particular applications are in the foreground.
Unix command line and launchd AppleScripts can be run from the Unix command line, or from launchd for scheduled tasks, by using the osascript command line tool. The osascript tool can run compiled scripts (.scpt files) and plain text files (.applescript files—these are compiled by the tool at runtime). Script applications can be run using the Unix open command.
Related scripting issues
AppleScript Libraries Re-usable AppleScript modules (available since OS X Mavericks), written in AppleScript or AppleScriptObjC and saved as script files or bundles in certain locations, that can be called from other scripts. When saved as a bundle, a library can include an AppleScript dictionary (sdef) file, thus functioning like a scripting addition but written in AppleScript or AppleScriptObjC.
AppleScript Studio A framework for attaching Cocoa interfaces to AppleScript applications, part of the Xcode package in Mac OS X 10.4 and 10.5, now deprecated in favor of AppleScriptObjC.
AppleScriptObjC A Cocoa development software framework, also called AppleScript/Objective-C or ASOC, part of the Xcode package since Mac OS X Snow Leopard. AppleScriptObjC allows AppleScripts to use Cocoa classes and methods directly. The following table shows the availability of AppleScriptObjC in various versions of macOS:
Automator A graphical, modular editing environment in which workflows are built up from actions. It is intended to duplicate many of the functions of AppleScript without the necessity for programming knowledge. Automator has an action specifically designed to contain and run AppleScripts, for tasks that are too complex for Automator's simplified framework.
Scriptable core system applications These background-only applications, packaged with macOS, are used to allow AppleScript to access features that would not normally be scriptable. As of Mac OS X 10.6.3 they include the scriptable applications for VoiceOver (scriptable auditory and braille screen reader package), System Events (control of non-scriptable applications and access to certain system functions and basic file operations), Printer Setup Utility (scriptable utility for handling print jobs), Image Events (core image manipulation), HelpViewer (scriptable utility for showing help displays), Database Events (minimal SQLite3 database interface), and AppleScript Utility (for scripting a few AppleScript related preferences), as well as a few utility applications used by the system.
Scripting Additions (OSAX) Plug-ins for AppleScript developed by Apple or third parties. They are designed to extend the built-in command set, expanding AppleScript's features and making it somewhat less dependent on functionality provided by applications. macOS includes a collection of scripting additions referred to as Standard Additions (StandardAdditions.osax) that adds a set of commands and classes that are not part of AppleScript's core features, including user interaction dialogs, reading and writing files, file system commands, date functions, and text and mathematical operations; without this OSAX, AppleScript would have no capacity to perform many basic actions not directly provided by an application.
Language essentials
Classes (data types)
While applications can define specialized classes (or data types), AppleScript also has a number of built-in classes. These basic data classes are directly supported by the language and tend to be universally recognized by scriptable applications. The most common ones are as follows:
Basic objects
application: an application object, used mostly as a specifier for tell statements (tell application "Finder" …).
script: a script object. Script objects are containers for scripts. Every AppleScript creates a script object when run, and script objects may be created within AppleScripts.
class: a meta-object that specifies the type of other objects.
reference: an object that encapsulates an unevaluated object specifier that may or may not point to a valid object. Can be evaluated on-demand by accessing its contents property.
Standard data objects
constant: a constant value. There are a number of language-defined constants, such as pi, tab, and linefeed.
boolean: a Boolean true/false value. Actually a subclass of constant.
number: a rarely used abstract superclass of integer and real.
integer: an integer. Can be manipulated with built-in mathematical operators.
real: a floating-point (real) number. Can be manipulated with built-in mathematical operators.
date: a date and time.
text: text. In versions of AppleScript before 2.0 (Mac OS X 10.4 and below) the text class was distinct from string and Unicode text, and the three behaved somewhat differently; in 2.0 (10.5) and later, they are all synonyms and all text is handled as being UTF-16 (“Unicode”)-encoded.
Containers
list: an ordered list of objects. Can contain any class, including other lists and classes defined by applications.
record: a keyed list of objects. Like a list, except structured as key-value pairs. Runtime keyed access is unsupported; all keys must be compile-time constant identifiers.
File system
alias: a reference to a file system object (file or folder). The alias will maintain its link to the object if the object is moved or renamed.
file: a reference to a file system object (file or folder). This is a static reference, and can point to an object that does not currently exist.
POSIX file: a reference to a file system object (file or folder), in plain text, using Unix (POSIX)-style slash (/) notation. Not a true data type, as AppleScript automatically converts POSIX files to ordinary files whenever they are used.
Miscellaneous
RGB color: specifies an RGB triplet (in 16-bit high color format), for use in commands and objects that work with colors.
unit types: class that converts between standard units. For instance, a value can be defined as square yards, then converted to square feet by casting between unit types (using the as operator).
Language structures
Many AppleScript processes are managed by blocks of code, where a block begins with a command command and ends with an end command statement. The most important structures are described below.
Conditionals
AppleScript offers two kinds of conditionals.
-- Simple conditional
if x < 1000 then set x to x + 1
-- Compound conditional
if x is greater than 3 then
-- commands
else
-- other commands
end if
Loops
The repeat loop of AppleScript comes in several slightly different flavors. They all execute the block between repeat and end repeat lines a number of times. The looping can be prematurely stopped with command exit repeat.
Repeat forever.
repeat
-- commands to be repeated
end repeat
Repeat a given number of times.
repeat 10 times
-- commands to be repeated
end repeat
Conditional loops. The block inside repeat while loop executes as long as the condition evaluates to true. The condition is re-evaluated after each execution of the block. The repeat until loop is otherwise identical, but the block is executed as long as the condition evaluates to false.
set x to 5
repeat while x > 0
set x to x - 1
end repeat
set x to 5
repeat until x ≤ 0
set x to x - 1
end repeat
Loop with a variable. When starting the loop, the variable is assigned to the start value. After each execution of the block, the optional step value is added to the variable. Step value defaults to 1.
-- repeat the block 2000 times, i gets all values from 1 to 2000
repeat with i from 1 to 2000
-- commands to be repeated
end repeat
-- repeat the block 4 times, i gets values 100, 75, 50 and 25
repeat with i from 100 to 25 by -25
-- commands to be repeated
end repeat
Enumerate a list. On each iteration set the loopVariable to a new item in the given list
set total to 0
repeat with loopVariable in {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
set total to total + loopVariable
end repeat
One important variation on this block structure is in the form of on —end ... blocks that are used to define handlers (function-like subroutines). Handlers begin with on functionName() and ending with end functionName, and are not executed as part of the normal script flow unless called from somewhere in the script.
Handlers can also be defined using "to" in place of "on" and can be written to accept labeled parameters, not enclosed in parens.
There are four types of predefined handlers in AppleScript—run, open, idle, and quit—each of which is created in the same way as the run handler shown above.
Run handler Defines the main code of the script, which is called when the script is run. Run handler blocks are optional, unless arguments are being passed to the script. If an explicit run handler block is omitted, then all code that is not contained inside handler blocks is executed as though it were in an implicit run handler.
Open handler Defined using "on open theItems".
on open theItems
repeat with thisItem in theItems
tell application "Finder" to update thisItem
end repeat
end open
When a script containing an "open handler' is saved as an applet, the applet becomes a droplet. A droplet can be identified in the Finder by its icon, which includes an arrow, indicating items can be dropped onto the icon. The droplet's open handler is executed when files or folders are dropped onto droplet's icon. References to the items dropped on the droplet's icon are passed to the droplet's script as the parameter of the open handler. A droplet can also be launched the same way as an ordinary applet, executing its run handler.
Idle handler A subroutine that is run periodically by the system when the application is idle.
on idle
--code to execute when the script's execution has completed
return 60 -- number of seconds to pause before executing idle handler again
end idle
An idle handler can be used in applets or droplets saved as stay-open applets, and is useful for scripts that watch for particular data or events. The length of the idle time is 30 seconds by default, but can be changed by including a 'return x' statement at the end of the subroutine, where x is the number of seconds the system should wait before running the handler again.
Quit handler A handler that is run when the applet receives a Quit request. This can be used to save data or do other ending tasks before quitting.
on quit
--commands to execute before the script quits
continue quit -- required for the script to actually quit
end quit
Script objects
Script objects may be defined explicitly using the syntax:
script scriptName
-- commands and handlers specific to the script
end script
Script objects can use the same 'tell' structures that are used for application objects, and can be loaded from and saved to files. Runtime execution time can be reduced in some cases by using script objects.
Miscellaneous information
Variables are not strictly typed, and do not need to be declared. Variables can take any data type (including scripts and functions). The following commands are examples of the creation of variables:set variable1 to 1 -- create an integer variable called variable1
set variable2 to "Hello" -- create a text variable called variable2
copy {17, "doubleday"} to variable3 -- create a list variable called variable3
set {variable4, variable5} to variable3 -- copy the list items of variable3 into separate variables variable4 and variable5
set variable6 to script myScript -- set a variable to an instance of a script
Script objects are full objects—they can encapsulate methods and data and inherit data and behavior from a parent script.
Subroutines cannot be called directly from application tell blocks. Use the 'my' or 'of me' keywords to do so.
tell application "Finder"
set x to my myHandler()
-- or
set x to myHandler() of me
end tell
on myHandler()
--commands
end myHandler
Using the same technique for scripting addition commands can reduce errors and improve performance.
tell application "Finder"
set anyNumber to my (random number from 5 to 50)
end tell
Open Scripting Architecture
An important aspect of the AppleScript implementation is the Open Scripting Architecture (OSA). Apple provides OSA for other scripting languages and third-party scripting/automation products such as QuicKeys and UserLand Frontier, to function on an equal status with AppleScript. AppleScript was implemented as a scripting component, and the basic specs for interfacing such components to the OSA were public, allowing other developers to add their own scripting components to the system. Public client APIs for loading, saving and compiling scripts would work the same for all such components, which also meant that applets and droplets could hold scripts in any of those scripting languages.
One feature of the OSA is scripting additions, or OSAX for Open Scripting Architecture eXtension, which were inspired by HyperCard's External Commands. Scripting additions are libraries that allow programmers to extend the function of AppleScript. Commands included as scripting additions are available system-wide, and are not dependent on an application (see also ). The AppleScript Editor is also able to directly edit and run some of the OSA languages.
JavaScript for Automation
Under OS X Yosemite and later versions of macOS, the JavaScript for Automation (JXA) component remains the only serious OSA language alternative to AppleScript, though the Macintosh versions of Perl, Python, Ruby, and Tcl all support native means of working with Apple events without being OSA components.
JXA also provides an Objective-C (and C language) foreign language interface. Being an environment based on WebKit's JavaScriptCore engine, the JavaScript feature set is in sync with the system Safari browser engine. JXA provides a JavaScript module system and it is also possible to use CommonJS modules via browserify.
See also
BBEdit — a highly scriptable text editor
References
Further reading
Older version (2015) in PDF format available from:
External links
(the content on the site is years out of date)
Macintosh operating systems development
MacOS development
Proprietary software
Scripting languages
Programming languages
High-level programming languages
Programming languages created in 1993
1993 software
Dynamic programming languages
Dynamically typed programming languages
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30514931
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macau%20Computer%20Emergency%20Response%20Team%20Coordination%20Centre
|
Macau Computer Emergency Response Team Coordination Centre
|
Macau Computer Emergency Response Team Coordination Centre (MOCERT) is managed by Macau New Technologies Incubator Centre in providing Macau with computer security incident handling information, promoting information security awareness, as well as coordinating computer security incident response for the public and local enterprises.
MOCERT not only collaborates with local bodies, but also communicates and exchange information with other members of FIRST (Forum of Incident Response and Security Teams) and APCERT (Asia Pacific Computer Emergency Response Teams).
Services
MOCERT's mission is to facilitate a healthy and secure Internet environment for Macau.
MOCERT provides the latest computer vulnerabilities that are discovered around the world, and publishes the latest security issues and advisories in the website. Individuals and organizations can also register for free as a MOCERT subscriber and get the latest related information through email. The organization also provides advice on the best way to handle computer incident for free. MOCERT accepts reports on computer security related incidents, for example, phishing, malware, malicious website, phoney emails and their attachments, and other information security attacks. MOCERT organizes relevant seminars and events to the Macao constituency on a regular basis to promote information security awareness to the Macao public. These events and their topics are altered according to the current issues facing Macao. MOCERT complements these seminars and events, with print material in the form of leaflet or booklets, to sections of the constituency that requires further awareness and guidance in information security.
External links
Macau Computer Emergency Response Team Coordination Centre
Macau New Technologies Incubator Centre
CERT coordination center
FIRST coordination center
Asia Pacific CERT
References
Organisations based in Macau
Computer security organizations
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2845570
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20Authentication%20Algorithm
|
Data Authentication Algorithm
|
The Data Authentication Algorithm (DAA) is a former U.S. government standard for producing cryptographic message authentication codes. DAA is defined in FIPS PUB 113, which was withdrawn on September 1, 2008. The algorithm is not considered secure by today's standards.
According to the standard, a code produced by the DAA is called a Data Authentication Code (DAC). The algorithm chain encrypts the data, with the last cipher block truncated and used as the DAC.
The DAA is equivalent to ISO/IEC 9797-1 MAC algorithm 1, or CBC-MAC, with DES as the underlying cipher, truncated to between 24 and 56 bits (inclusive).
Sources
Message authentication codes
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38908134
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubuntu%20Kylin
|
Ubuntu Kylin
|
Ubuntu Kylin () is the official Chinese version of the Ubuntu computer operating system. It is intended for desktop and laptop computers, and has been described as a "loose continuation of the Chinese Kylin OS". In 2013, Canonical Ltd. reached an agreement with the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology of the People's Republic of China to co-create and release an Ubuntu-based operating system with features targeted at the Chinese market.
The first official release, Ubuntu Kylin 13.04, was released on 25 April 2013, on the same day as Ubuntu 13.04 (Raring Ringtail). Features include Chinese input methods, Chinese calendars, a weather indicator, and online music search from the Dash.
History
The current version is 21.10
Version 20.04 introduced version 3.0 of its own, newly developed UKUI (Ubuntu Kylin User Interface). Formerly, UKUI was a customization of the MATE desktop.
Version 14.10 introduced the Ubuntu Kylin Software Center (UKSC), and a utility which helps common end-users for daily computing tasks called Youker Assistant.
The team cooperates with Sogou to develop Sogou Input Method for Linux. Since it is closed source, it is not included in the official Ubuntu Kylin image, but users can download it from UKSC or Sogou's website.
WPS Office, also closed-source, is the default office suite in the pro and enhanced editions. LibreOffice however is used mainly as default in the official vanilla Ubuntu Kylin image from the main Ubuntu server website without WPS Office installed.
Release History
See also
Canaima (operating system)
GendBuntu
BOSS Linux
Inspur
LiMux
Nova (operating system)
VIT, C.A.
Kingsoft WPS Office
References
External links
Ubuntu Kylin, wiki of the Ubuntu Kylin Team at wiki.ubuntu.com.
Chinese-language Linux distributions
Ubuntu derivatives
Linux distributions
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19629473
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sockstress
|
Sockstress
|
Sockstress is a method that is used to attack servers on the Internet and other networks utilizing TCP, including Windows, Mac, Linux, BSD and any router or other internet appliance that accepts TCP connections. The method does this by attempting to use up local resources in order to crash a service or the entire machine, essentially a denial of service attack.
Sockstress was developed as internal proof-of-concept by the late Jack C. Louis at Outpost24. Louis discovered anomalies using Unicornscan to test and probe networks for corporate security, which led to the development of Sockstress. The concept was first demonstrated in September 2008. The researchers had planned on releasing more details at the T2 conference in Finland where they demonstrated the attacks. They instead chose to continue to work closely with, and give more time to, the vendor and standards communities.
In a blog entry they said "We are not putting them [the vendors] under undue pressure to get poorly implemented rushed fixes out."
A proof-of-concept tool, Nkiller2, that demonstrated an attack similar to sockstress was released by Fotis Chantzis aka ithilgore on Phrack ezine. Nkiller2 works completely statelessly, using packet-parsing techniques and virtual states, and exploits an inherent mechanism of TCP, the Persist Timer, thus being able to perform and infinitely prolong a generic DoS attack with a minimal amount of network traffic.
About Sockstress
Sockstress is a user-land TCP socket stress framework that can complete arbitrary numbers of open sockets without incurring the typical overhead of tracking state. Once the socket is established, it is capable of sending TCP attacks that target specific types of kernel and system resources such as Counters, Timers, and Memory Pools. Obviously, some of the attacks described here are considered "well known". However, the full effects of these attacks is less known. Further, there are more attacks yet to be discovered/documented. As researchers document ways of depleting specific resources, attack modules could be added into the tree of socksframework.
The sockstress attack tool consists of two main parts:
1) Fantaip: Fantaip is a "Phantom IP" program that performs ARP for IP addresses. To use fantaip, type 'fantaip -i interface CIDR', Ex., 'fantaip -i eth0 192.168.0.128/25'. This ARP/Layer 2 function could optionally be provided by other means depending on the requirements of the local network topology. Since sockstress completes TCP sockets in user-land, it is not advisable to use sockstress with an IP address configured for use by the kernel, as the kernel would then RST the sockets. This is not strictly required as the use of a firewall to drop incoming packets with rst flag can be used to achieve the same goal and prevent the kernel from interfering with the attack vector.
2) Sockstress: In its most basic use, sockstress simply opens TCP sockets and sends a specified TCP stress test. It can optionally send an application specific TCP payload (i.e. 'GET / HTTP/1.0' request). By default, post attack it ignores subsequent communications on the established socket. It can optionally ACK probes for active sockets.
The attacks take advantage of the exposed resources the target makes available post handshake.
The client side cookies, heavily discussed in blogs, news and discussion lists, is an implementation detail of sockstress, and not strictly necessary for carrying out these attacks.
The attack scenarios
Every attack in the sockstress framework has some impact on the system/service it is attacking. However, some attacks are more effective than others against a specific system/service combination.
Connection flood stress
Sockstress does not have a special attack module for performing a simple connection flood attack, but any of the attack modules can be used as such if the -c-1 (max connections unlimited) and -m-1 (max syn unlimited) options are used. This would approximate the naptha attack by performing a connection flood, exhausting all available TCB's as described in the CPNI document in section 3.1.1
Example commands:
fantaip -i eth0 192.168.1.128/25 -vvv
sockstress -A -c-1 -d 192.168.1.100 -m-1 -Mz -p22,80 -r300 -s192.168.1.128/25 -vv
Zero window connection stress
Create a connection to a listening socket and upon 3 way handshake (inside last ack) send 0 window.
syn -> (4k window)
<- syn+ack (32k window)
ack -> (0 window)
Now the server will have to "probe" the client until the zero window opens up. This is the most simple of the attack types to understand. The result is similar to a connection flood, except that the sockets remain open potentially indefinitely (when -A/ACK is enabled). This is described in the CPNI document in section 2.2. A variation here would be to PSH a client payload (i.e. 'GET / HTTP/1.0') prior to setting the window to 0. This variation would be similar to what is described in the CPNI document section 5.1.1. A further variation would be to occasionally advertise a TCP window larger than 0, then go back to 0-window.
Good against:
services that have long timeouts
Example commands:
fantaip -i eth0 192.168.1.128/25 -vvv
sockstress -A -c-1 -d 192.168.1.100 -m-1 -Mz -p22,80 -r300 -s192.168.1.128/25 -vv
Small window stress
Create a connection to a listening socket and upon 3 way handshake (inside last ack) set window size of 4 bytes, then create an ack/psh packet with a tcp payload (into a window that is hopefully large enough to accept it) with a window still set to 4 bytes. This will potentially cause kernel memory to be consumed as it takes the response and splits it into tiny 4 byte chunks. This is unlike a connection flood in that memory is now consumed for every request made. This has reliably put Linux/Apache and Linux/sendmail systems into defunct states. It is also effective against other systems. We expect this has similar effects to what is described in the CPNI document in the second to last paragraph of page 17.
Look at the payload.c file in the sockstress source. Look for the hport switch statement. In that section you can specify payloads to be sent to specific ports. It is most effective to send a payload that will generate as large of a response as possible (i.e. 'GET /largefile.zip').
Good against:
services that contain initial connection banners
services that accept an initial request and send a large response (for example a GET request against a large web page, or file download)
Example commands:
fantaip -i eth0 192.168.1.128/25 -vvv
sockstress -A -c-1 -d 192.168.1.100 -m-1 -Mw -p22,80 -r300 -s192.168.1.128/25 -vv
Segment hole stress
Create a connection to a listening socket and upon 3 way handshake (inside last ack) send 4 bytes to the beginning of a window, as advertised by the remote system. Then send 4 bytes to end of window. Then 0-window the connection. Depending on the stack, this could cause the remote system to allocate multiple pages of kernel memory per connection. This is unlike a connection flood in that memory is now consumed for every connection made. This attack was originally created to target Linux. It is also quite effective against Windows. This is the attack we used in our sec-t and T2 demos. We expect this has similar effects to what is described in the CPNI document in section 5.2.2 5th paragraph and section 5.3.
Good against:
Stacks that allocate multiple pages of kernel memory in response to this stimulus
Example commands:
fantaip -i eth0 192.168.1.128/25 -vvv
sockstress -A -c-1 -d 192.168.1.100 -m-1 -Ms -p22,80 -r300 -s192.168.1.128/25 -vv
Req fin pause stress
Create a connection to a listening socket. PSH an application payload (i.e. 'GET / HTTP/1.0'). FIN the connection and 0-window it. This attack will have very different results depending on the stack/application you are targeting. Using this against a Cisco 1700 (IOS) web server, we observed sockets left in FIN_WAIT_1 indefinitely. After enough of such sockets, the router could no longer communicate TCP correctly.
Look at the payload.c file in the sockstress source. Look for the hport switch statement. In that section you can specify payloads to be sent to specific ports. It is important that you send a payload that will look like a normal client to the application you are interacting with. Against our cisco 1700, while using this attack it was important to attack at a very slow rate.
Example commands:
fantaip -i eth0 192.168.1.128/25 -vvv
sockstress -A -c-1 -d 192.168.1.100 -m-1 -MS -p80 -r10 -s192.168.1.128/25 -vv
Activate reno pressure stress
Create a connection to a listening socket. PSH an application payload (i.e. 'GET / HTTP/1.0'). Triple duplicate ACK.
Look at the payload.c file in the sockstress source. Look for the hport switch statement. In that section you can specify payloads to be sent to specific ports. It is important that you send a payload that will look like a normal client to the application you are interacting with.
Good against:
Stacks that support this method of activating reno or similar scheduler functionality
Example commands:
fantaip -i eth0 192.168.1.128/25 -vvv
sockstress -A -c-1 -d 192.168.1.100 -m-1 -MR -p22,80 -r300 -s192.168.1.128/25 -vv
Other Ideas
fin_wait_2 stress
Create a connection to a listening socket. PSH an application payload that will likely cause the application on the other side to close the socket (Target sends a FIN). ACK the FIN.
Good against:
Stacks that don't have a FIN_WAIT_2 timeout.
large congestion window stress
shrink path mtu stress
md5 stress
Effects of the attacks
If the attacks are successful in initiating perpetually stalled connections, the connection table of the server can quickly be filled, effectively creating a denial of service condition for a specific service. In many cases we have also seen the attacks consume significant amounts of event queues and system memory, which intensifies the effects of the attacks. The result of which has been systems that no longer have event timers for TCP communication, frozen systems, and system reboots. The attacks do not require significant bandwidth.
While it is trivial to get a single service to become unavailable in a matter of seconds, to make an entire system become defunct can take many minutes, and in some cases hours. As a general rule, the more services a system has, the faster it will succumb to the devastating (broken TCP, system lock, reboot, etc.) effects of the attacks. Alternatively, attack amplification can be achieved by attacking from a larger number of IP addresses. We typically attack from a /29 through a /25 in our labs. Attacking from a /32 is typically less effective at causing the system wide faults.
Exploitation caveats
The attack requires a successful TCP 3 way handshake to effectively fill the victims connection tables. This limits the attack's effectiveness as an attacker cannot spoof the client IP address to avoid traceability.
A sockstress style exploit also needs access to raw sockets on the attacking machine because the packets must be handled in userspace rather than with the OS's connect() API.
Raw sockets are disabled on Windows XP SP2 and above, but device drivers are readily available to put this facility back into Windows. The exploit is able to be executed as-is on other platforms with raw sockets such as *nix and requires root (superuser) privileges.
Mitigation
Since an attacker must be able to establish TCP sockets to affect the target, white-listing access to TCP services on critical systems and routers is the currently most effective means for mitigation. Using IPsec is also an effective mitigation.
According to the Cisco Response the current mitigation advice is to only allow trusted sources to access TCP-based services. This mitigation is particularly important for critical infrastructure devices. Red Hat has stated that "Due to upstream's decision not to release updates, Red Hat do not plan to release updates to resolve these issues; however, the effects of these attacks can be reduced." On Linux using iptables with connection tracking and rate limiting can limit the impact of exploitation significantly.
References
External links
Source code - compiles clean on slackware 14
Public domain C implementation (third party)
Outpost24
Edit of Security Now Podcast
Security Now #164 show notes Transcript
Unicornscan
Slashdot news article
Internet Protocol based network software
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5940044
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%20129001%E2%80%93130000
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Meanings of minor planet names: 129001–130000
|
129001–129100
|-id=026
| 129026 Conormcmenamin || || Conor Brendan McMenamin (born 1989) is a student engineer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology working as the Thermal Engineer guiding the design and stable temperature performance of the student-built Regolith X-ray Imaging Spectrometer aboard the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. ||
|-id=050
| 129050 Lowellcogburn || || Lowell Cogburn (born 1955) is lead dynamics analyst responsible for Touch and Go dynamic analysis and Sample Return Capsule release dynamic analysis for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He was the Dynamics lead on the GRAIL lunar mission. ||
|-id=051
| 129051 Chrismay || || Chris May (born 1972) is the Thermal Lead for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He was the Thermal Lead for the GRAIL lunar mission and thermal engineer on the Mars Phoenix lander, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and Mars Odyssey missions. ||
|-id=052
| 129052 Nîmeshdave || || Nîmesh Dave (born 1972) is the Certified Principal Engineer (CPE) for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He was the structures CPE on the GRAIL lunar mission, and mechanical design engineer on ORION and MSL Aeroshell. ||
|-id=053
| 129053 Derekshannon || || Derek Shannon (born 1976) is the Mechanical Analysis Lead and mechanical Certified Test Conductor for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He held the same role on the GRAIL mission, and was a stress analyst on Juno and MSL Aeroshell. ||
|-id=060
| 129060 Huntskretsch || || Hunts Kretsch (born 1957) is the Certified Principal Engineer for the capsule of the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. ||
|-id=061
| 129061 Karlfortney || || Karl Fortney (born 1962) is the Mechanisms Certified Principal Engineer for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He was a mechanical engineer on the MAVEN and Juno missions as well as the MSL Aeroshell. ||
|-id=063
| 129063 Joshwood || || Josh Wood (born 1977) is the flight system System Design Lead and CPE at Lockheed Martin for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He was also Systems/ Electrical/Payload Accommodations Engineer for the GRAIL program, and the STL lead for the Phoenix Mars Lander. ||
|-id=064
| 129064 Jeanneladewig || || Jeanne Ladewig (born 1957) is the flight system Payload Accommodation Lead Engineer and the TAGCAMS CPE at Lockheed Martin for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission and the Payload Accommodation Lead Engineer on the Juno and Phoenix missions. She has multi-mission experience working payloads on NASA interplanetary missions. ||
|-id=068
| 129068 Alexmay || || Alex May (born 1981) is the flight system Touch-And-Go Mission Phase Lead at Lockheed Martin for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. Alex has worked on a number of missions and research programs developing proximity operations technologies within System Engineering and Guidance, Navigation and Control teams. ||
|-id=071
| 129071 Catriegle || || Cat Riegle (born 1976) is the flight system Contamination Control Lead at Lockheed Martin for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. She has supported multiple NASA interplanetary missions helping to ensure that contamination control and planetary protection requirements are met. ||
|-id=073
| 129073 Sandyfreund || || Sandy Freund (born 1979) is the flight system Fault Protection Lead and Launch and SRC Release Mission Phase lead at Lockheed Martin on the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. She was the fault protection lead on MAVEN and was a mission operations development lead on the Phoenix Mission's EDL critical mission phase. ||
|-id=078
| 129078 Animoo || || Animoo, title of artistic work by Laurent "Lillo" Steidle, Swiss geologist and painter ||
|-id=082
| 129082 Oliviabillett || || Olivia Billett (born 1980) is the flight system Lead Software Systems Engineer, Science Mission Phase lead and flight system CPE delegate at Lockheed Martin on the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. She previously served as the SSE on the MAVEN mission, and supported multiple interplanetary missions within Mission Operations. ||
|-id=092
| 129092 Snowdonia || || Snowdon, the highest peak in Wales ||
|-id=095
| 129095 Martyschmitzer || || Martin Schmitzer (born 1970) is the RF Subsystem Lead for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He served as the RF lead for the GRAIL mission, MRO and Odyssey Mars missions, and Spitzer Space Telescope and was a team member on the Stardust comet sample return mission and 1998 Mars Surveyor Program. ||
|-id=096
| 129096 Andrewleung || || Andrew Leung (born 1986) is the EPS ATLO Lead for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. Prior to serving in this role, he was the PDDU CPE delegate, SASM and BCM Card Lead for OSIRIS-REx, and a card level electronics engineer for the ISIS airship program. ||
|-id=099
| 129099 Spoelhof || || William Spoelhof (1909–2008), American president of Calvin College (Src) ||
|-id=100
| 129100 Aaronammons || || Aaron Ammons (born 1970) is the Command And Data Handling (C&DH) Certified Principal Engineer Lead for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He was a team member to the Advanced Programs Low Power Avionics study and on the C&DH team for the GRAIL mission. ||
|}
129101–129200
|-
| 129101 Geoffcollyer || || Geoff Collyer (born 1958), Canadian computer scientist ||
|-id=102
| 129102 Charliecamarotte || || Charles Camarotte (born 1953) is the Lockheed Martin Power Systems Lead for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He was also the C&DH Lead for OSIRIS-REx, as well as the C&DH Lead for the Juno Mission, and a flight team member of the Tethered Satellite mission. ||
|-id=108
| 129108 Kristianwaldorff || || Kristian Waldorff is the flight system GN&C LIDAR CPE at Lockheed Martin for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He was a Payload Accommodation Engineer on the MAVEN mission and was on the Electrical System Engineering teams on the GRAIL and Phoenix missions. ||
|-id=114
| 129114 Oliverwalthall || || Oliver Walthall (born 1972) is the LIDAR algorithm subject matter expert at Lockheed Martin for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He was also a Guidance, Navigation and Control engineer on the MAVEN and Orion programs. ||
|-id=119
| 129119 Ericmuhle || || Eric Muhle (born 1981) is a Guidance, Navigation and Control engineer at Lockheed Martin on the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission, responsible for momentum management. He also served in GN&C Operations at LM IS&GS. ||
|-id=125
| 129125 Chrisvoth || || Chris Voth (born 1965) is the Guidance, Navigation and Control Subsystem Lead for OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission and the Subsystem CPE. He was also the attitude determination lead on Juno and other Lockheed Martin SES space missions. ||
|-id=137
| 129137 Hippolochos || || Hippolochos, son of Antimachos, a Trojan warrior from Greek mythology. He was killed by Agamemnon. ||
|-id=138
| 129138 Williamfrost || || William A. Frost (born 1976) is the Lockheed Martin system test engineering lead for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. Prior to serving in this role, he supported the MAVEN mission to Mars, the GRAIL lunar mission, the GLM program and the TIROS program. ||
|-id=146
| 129146 Stevenglenn || || Steven J. Glenn (born 1961) is the Lockheed Martin operations lead for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He has worked on many missions, including Magellan, Transfer Orbit Stage, Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Climate Orbiter, Genesis, MRO, Defense Systems, MER, MSL, GRAIL and MAVEN. ||
|-id=148
| 129148 Sheilahaggard || || Sheila D. Gray Haggard (born 1971) is a Lockheed Martin test engineer for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission, responsible for development of system verification tests. She has worked many other NASA missions including MGS, Stardust, Odyssey, Spitzer, Genesis, MRO, Grail, MAVEN and InSight. ||
|-id=149
| 129149 Richwitherspoon || || Richard A. Witherspoon (born 1981) is the Lockheed Martin lead electrical test conductor for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He also worked at Surrey Spacecraft Technologies. ||
|-id=151
| 129151 Angelaboggs || || Angela Boggs (born 1978) is the Lockheed Martin Simulation Software Lead for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. She was also the Simulation Software Lead for the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution Mission. ||
|-id=152
| 129152 Jaystpierre || || Jay St. Pierre (born 1969) is the Lockheed Martin Guidance Navigation and Control (GNC) Flight and Simulation Software Lead for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He was the GNC Subsystem Lead on the Juno Mission and was a GNC analyst and software developer for the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. ||
|-id=154
| 129154 Georgesondecker || || George Ralph Sondecker IV (born 1986), the original Lead Student Engineer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ||
|-id=158
| 129158 Michaelmellman || || Michael J. Mellman (born 1977) is the Lockheed Martin electrical ground equipment lead and test engineer for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He was also a shop lead for an electronics laboratory and a surveyor. ||
|-id=160
| 129160 Ericpeters || || Eric Peters (born 1989) worked as a student engineer at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he designed and tested a preliminary structural model for the student-built Regolith X-ray Imaging Spectrometer aboard the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. ||
|-id=161
| 129161 Mykallefevre || || Mykal Lefevre (born 1986) is the Mission Operations System Lead for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. She was also instrumental in the MAVEN Mars orbit insertion sequence development and implementation teams. ||
|-id=165
| 129165 Kevinstout || || Kevin Dale Stout (born 1988) worked as a student engineer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he developed a thermal design and thermal control system for the student-built Regolith X-ray Imaging Spectrometer aboard the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. ||
|-id=167
| 129167 Dianelambert || || Diane S. Doran-Lambert (born 1981) worked on the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission as a Stereophotoclinometry Scientist contributing to the testing of mission-critical software and the development of Digital Terrain Models ||
|-id=172
| 129172 Jodizareski || || Jodi Zareski (born 1982) is a central member of the Lockheed Martin Mission Operations Development team for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. She has been the primary operations test lead and block development engineer. ||
|-id=173
| 129173 Mattgoman || || Matt Goman (born 1979) is the Lockheed Martin Operations Ground System Development Lead for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission telemetry systems and tools. He was also Ground System Development Lead and tools engineer for the MAVEN and InSight missions. ||
|-id=176
| 129176 Gerardcarter || || Gerard Carter (born 1958) is the Lockheed Martin Quality Engineering Lead for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. Prior to serving in this role, he was the QE Lead for the MAVEN Mars Orbiter Mission and several other deep space missions. ||
|-id=177
| 129177 Jeanneeha || || Jeanne Eha (born 1960) is the Lockheed Martin Lead Parts Materials and Processes (PMP) Engineer for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. She was also the PMP Engineer for the MAVEN Mars Mission, the Juno and GRAIL missions. ||
|-id=185
| 129185 Jonburroughs || || Jonathan C. Burroughs (born 1982), the Lead Mission Assurance Engineer for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. ||
|-id=186
| 129186 Joshgrindlay || || Jonathan E. Grindlay (born 1944), a high energy astrophysicist and Professor at the Harvard College Observatory. ||
|-id=187
| 129187 Danielalfred || || Daniel Alfred (born 1985) was the lead thermal engineer for the OCAMS camera system of the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission ||
|-id=188
| 129188 Dangallagher || || Daniel Gallagher (born 1980) is a Multimedia Producer at NASA's Goddard Spaceflight Center. He is supporting the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission with videos, animations and other media products ||
|-id=196
| 129196 Mitchbeiser || || Mitchell Beiser (born 1991) worked as a mechanical design engineer on the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission OCAMS camera system. He is passionate about the outdoors and the night sky. ||
|}
129201–129300
|-
| 129201 Brandenallen || || Branden Allen (born 1979), an astronomer at the Harvard College Observatory ||
|-id=209
| 129209 Robertburt || || Robert Burt (born 1964), a longtime aerospace electronics engineer at Space Dynamics Laboratory, worked as the lead detector electronics designer on the OCAMS camera system of the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He was supported in this effort by his wife and five children. ||
|-id=214
| 129214 Gordoncasto || || Gordon Casto (born 1960), the OSIRIS-REx Visible and near InfraRed Spectrometer (OVIRS) mechanical lead, ensuring the instrument can operate properly under cryogenic conditions. ||
|-id=216
| 129216 Chloecastle || || Chloe Castle (born 1990) worked as a Hofstadter Analytical Services test engineer on the OCAMS camera system for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission, her first space mission. ||
|-id=234
| 129234 Silly || || Didier Silly (born 1950), French optician and amateur astronomer, friend of the discoverer Bernard Christophe ||
|-id=259
| 129259 Tapolca || || The town of Tapolca, birthplace of Hungarian astronomer Dorottya Szám who co-discovered this minor planet ||
|-id=277
| 129277 Jianxinchen || || Jianxin Chen (born 1963) worked as the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission OCAMS Camera Control Module electronics architect and the FPGA designer. He also designed the Ion and Electron Spectrometer FPGA and controller on the Rosetta mission, and the C&DH module for the Ralph camera on New Horizons. ||
|}
129301–129400
|-id=307
| 129307 Tomconnors || || Thomas Connors (born 1959) served as a lead mechanical engineer on the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission OCAMS camera. He also worked as systems engineer on the LBTI and Kepler Technology Demonstration projects, as well as future telescope architecture studies. ||
|-id=312
| 129312 Drouetdaubigny || || Christian Drouet d'Aubigny (born 1972) served as the deputy instrument scientist and lead optical designer for OSIRIS-REx Asteroid Sample Return Mission OCAMS camera. He also worked on technology development for terahertz imaging radars, imaging spectrometers, and for NASA's proposed Terrestrial Planet Finder. ||
|-id=314
| 129314 Dathongolish || || Dathon Golish (born 1979) was the lead image analyst on the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission OCAMS camera. He also worked on terahertz astronomical receivers for telescopes in Arizona and at the South Pole, as well as image formation software for the DARPA AWARE gigapixel camera. ||
|-id=318
| 129318 Sarahschlieder || || Sarah Elizabeth Schlieder (born 1995) is a science communications specialist. She worked as a Public Affairs Specialist for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. ||
|-id=321
| 129321 Tannercampbell || || Tanner S. Campbell (born 1991) worked on the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission as a Stereophotoclinometry Scientist and Programmer, working to test and develop the mission-critical digital terrain mapping software ||
|-id=324
| 129324 Johnweirich || || John R. Weirich (born 1979) is a researcher at the Planetary Science Institute. Currently his research focus is testing and preparing code that will be used to build a shape model of asteroid Bennu for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He also conducts age dating on impact-melted meteorites ||
|-id=325
| 129325 Jedhancock || || Jed Hancock (born 1977) served as the detector assembly lead on the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission OCAMS camera. He was Civil Space Division director at the Utah State University Space Dynamics Laboratory and managed development of camera assemblies on NASA's Ionospheric Connect Explorer mission. ||
|-id=327
| 129327 Davehamara || || Dave Hamara (born 1960) served as lead electronic designer for the Camera Control Module on the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission OCAMS camera. He worked with gamma ray and neutron instruments and data on Mars Odyssey, Mars Phoenix, Messenger and Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter missions ||
|-id=328
| 129328 Loriharrison || || Lori Harrison (born 1978) worked as the Integration and Test Lead Engineer for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission OCAMS camera. She was a Test Engineer for the Phoenix Mars Mission. She enjoys hiking, traveling, taking pictures in space and playing the bagpipes. ||
|-id=330
| 129330 Karlharshman || || Karl Harshman (born 1957) served as the lead software engineer on the OCAMS camera and as the Science Processing Operations Center Manager for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. ||
|-id=332
| 129332 Markhunten || || Mark Hunten (born 1954) worked as a senior electrical engineer on the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission OCAMS camera. He also worked on the Gemini 8-m telescopes and the MONSOON CCD and IR array controller. ||
|-id=333
| 129333 Ashleylancaster || || Ashley Lancaster (born 1990) worked as a test engineer on the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission OCAMS camera. She also worked on the ATST Solar Telescope. ||
|-id=335
| 129335 Edwardlittle || || Edward Little (born 1978) worked as a calibration and test engineer on the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission OCAMS camera. He is an avid amateur astronomer and optical designer. ||
|-id=338
| 129338 Andrewlowman || || Andrew Lowman (born 1967) worked as an optical designer on OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission OCAMS camera. He also worked as an optical engineer on the Lick Automated Planet Finder, SkyMapper, the Magdalena Ridge telescopes and on the Optical Navigation Camera for the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter ||
|-id=342
| 129342 Ependes || || The Swiss village of Épendes, located in the Canton of Fribourg ||
|}
129401–129500
|-bgcolor=#f2f2f2
| colspan=4 align=center |
|}
129501–129600
|-id=550
| 129550 Fukuten || || Fukushima Tenmon Doukoukai is a local astronomical association with 40 members. It has hosted star-parties and photo exhibitions for Fukushima citizens since its establishment in 1968. ||
|-id=555
| 129555 Armazones || || Cerro Armazones, the Chilean mountain selected as location for the Extremely Large Telescope by the European Southern Observatory (ESO) in 2010 ||
|-id=561
| 129561 Chuhachi || || Chūhachi Ninomiya (1866–1936), the first Japanese to fly a propeller-driven model aircraft ||
|-id=564
| 129564 Christy || || James W. Christy (born 1938), American astronomer who discovered Pluto's moon Charon ||
|-id=595
| 129595 Vand || 1997 VD || Vladimír Vand (1911–1968), Czech astronomer and molecular spectroscopist ||
|}
129601–129700
|-bgcolor=#f2f2f2
| colspan=4 align=center |
|}
129701–129800
|-id=743
| 129743 Grimaldi || || Francesco Maria Grimaldi (1618–1663) was one of the first telescopic observers of the Moon. He wrote De lumine, the first treatise on the wave nature of light. ||
|-id=773
| 129773 Catmerrill || || Catherine Merrill (born 1979) was the Lead Systems Engineer and Deputy Program Manager for the OCAMS camera on the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission, involved in all aspects of its development and delivery. She is presently the project manager of the primary mirror system for the Giant Magellan Telescope ||
|}
129801–129900
|-
| 129801 Tommcmahon || || Tom McMahon (born 1962) was electronics lead on the OCAMS camera for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He also served as project manager for the Large Binocular Telescope Interferometer and systems engineer for the Multi-band Imaging Spectrometer (MIPS) on the Spitzer Space Telescope ||
|-id=807
| 129807 Stefanodougherty || || Stefan O'Dougherty (born 1998) worked as a calibration and test engineer on the OCAMS camera system of the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. ||
|-id=811
| 129811 Stacyoliver || || Stacy Oliver (born 1969) worked as information technologies and documentation specialist on the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. ||
|-id=876
| 129876 Stevenpeterson || || Steven Peterson (born 1953) worked as an optical systems calibration and test engineer on the OCAMS camera of the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He also worked at Kitt Peak National Observatory and served as an officer of the Tucson Amateur Astronomy Association ||
|-id=879
| 129879 Tishasaltzman || || Tisha Saltzman (born 1966) served as the business manager on the OCAMS camera of the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. She also worked on the Phoenix Mars mission SSI and Ground Operations teams ||
|-id=881
| 129881 Chucksee || || Charles See (born 1956) worked as a calibration and test engineer on the OCAMS camera of the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He also filled many roles on the Descent Imager/Spectral Radiometer team on the Cassini-Huygens probe to Titan, including systems, calibration and test lead, and data analyst. ||
|-id=882
| 129882 Ustica || 1999 TO || Ustica, a volcanic island 70 km north of Palermo, Sicily, famous for being the first Marine Protected Area in Italy (1986). ||
|-id=898
| 129898 Sanfordselznick || || Sanford Selznick (born 1969) was the telemetry lead for the Science Processing Operations Center of the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He also designed the commanding and telemetry interface used for the Mars Odyssey mission, the Mars Phoenix mission, and contributed to OSIRIS-REx OCAMS camera hardware development. ||
|}
129901–130000
|-id=954
| 129954 Corksauve || || Corwynn Sauve (born 1961) was as a mechanical designer on the OCAMS camera suite of the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission ||
|-id=955
| 129955 Eriksyrstad || || Erik Syrstad (born 1978) was the detector assembly contamination control lead for the OCAMS camera of the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. As an instrument scientist at the Utah State University Space Dynamics Laboratory, he was the program manager for the FUV spectrograph camera on NASA's ICON mission. ||
|-id=962
| 129962 Williamverts || || William Verts (born 1968) worked as a senior mechanical designer on the OCAMS camera of the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He also helped design TEGA II on the Phoenix Mars Mission and Mars Polar Lander and GRS on the Odyssey Mars Mission ||
|-id=963
| 129963 Marvinwalthall || || Marvin Walthall (born 1983) worked as an optical and stray light analyst on the OCAMS camera of the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission ||
|-id=966
| 129966 Michaelward || || Michael Ward (born 1964) served as the configuration manager on the OCAMS camera of the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He also worked as mission operations manager for GRS on Mars Odyssey ||
|-id=968
| 129968 Mitchwhiteley || || Mitchell Whiteley (born 1972) designed the camera FPGA read-out electronics on the OCAMS camera of the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He also designed the SOFIE Sun Tracker for NASA-AIM and served as the USURF-SDL Digital Imaging Space Camera lead ||
|-id=969
| 129969 Bradwilliams || || Bradley Williams (born 1989) worked as a systems engineer on the OCAMS camera of the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He also worked on the Phoenix Mars mission. ||
|-id=973
| 129973 Michaeldaly || || Michael Daly (born 1965) is a professor of planetary science at York University and is the lead scientist for the laser altimeter of the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. Prior to this, he was the lead engineer for the development of Phoenix MET, Canada's first instruments to operate on the surface of Mars. ||
|-id=980
| 129980 Catherinejohnson || || Catherine Johnson (born 1967) is a planetary geophysicist and a Co-Investigator for the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission and for the InSight mission to Mars. She was a Participating Scientist on the MESSENGER mission to Mercury and is a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union ||
|-id=982
| 129982 Jeffseabrook || || Jeff Seabrook (born 1976) is part of the altimetry team developing the capability to generate topography and shape models from the laser altimeter of the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. Prior to this, he was a graduate student who developed and deployed atmospheric ozone lidars, and part of the MET team on the Phoenix Mars Mission. ||
|-id=985
| 129985 Jimfreemantle || || Jim Freemantle (born 1958) is the Project Manager for the OLA Science Team on the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. He was also the Project Manager for the Canadian MET Sensor on board the Phoenix Mars Lander. He has had a long career using remote sensing to monitor environmental change ||
|-id=988
| 129988 Camerondickinson || || Cameron S. Dickinson (born 1974) is the Technical Lead for the laser altimeter of the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample-return mission. Previously, Cameron was the Operations Lead for the Phoenix Mars Lander Meteorological Station ||
|}
References
129001-130000
|
8787196
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin%20Miller%20%28technology%20journalist%29
|
Robin Miller (technology journalist)
|
Robin "Roblimo" Miller (October 30, 1952 – May 24, 2018) was an American journalist specializing in technology who worked for Open Source Technology Group, the company that owned Slashdot, SourceForge.net, freshmeat, Linux.com, NewsForge, and ThinkGeek from 2000 to 2008.
Miller formerly owned Robin's Limousine, a small limo company based in Elkridge, Maryland, the origin of his online nickname. Miller is best known for his involvement with Slashdot, where he was not only the corporate editorial overseer but also Interview Editor.
As a freelancer, Miller wrote for a number of print and online publications including Time.com, Baltimore City Paper, American Medical News, Innkeeping World, Machine Design, The Baltimore Sun, and Rewired.com. Miller is the author of three books: The Online Rules of Successful Companies, Point & Click Linux!, and Point & Click OpenOffice.org, all published by Prentice Hall. His latest ventures revolve around Internet-delivered video, including video software "tours" and tutorials on Linux.com and his recent "side" venture, Internet Video Promotion, Inc.
Miller had been a judge for the Lulu Blooker Prize and was on the online advisory board of the Online Journalism Review of the Annenberg Center for Communication at the University of Southern California.
Miller lived in Bradenton, Florida. He was married with three grown children and three stepchildren.
References
External links
Interview chat on Washingtonpost.com
Roblimo Bio on ibiblio.org
at connectria.com
Unflattering article about Roblimo in (Tampa) Creative Loafing
1952 births
2018 deaths
American online publication editors
People from Bradenton, Florida
People from Elkridge, Maryland
Geeknet
American online journalists
American male non-fiction writers
Technology journalists
|
8033898
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer%20Maiden
|
Jennifer Maiden
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Jennifer Maiden (born 1949) is an Australian poet. She was born in Penrith, New South Wales, and has had 35 books published: 27 poetry collections, 6 novels and 2 nonfiction works. Her current publishers are Quemar Press in Australia and Bloodaxe Books in the UK. She began writing professionally in the late 1960s and has been active in Sydney's literary scene since then. She took a BA at Macquarie University in the early 1970s. She has one daughter, Katharine Margot Toohey. Aside from writing, Jennifer Maiden runs writers workshops with a variety of literary, community and educational organizations and has devised and co-written (with Margaret Cunningham Bennett, who was then the director of the New South Wales Torture and Trauma Rehabilitation Service) a manual of questions to facilitate writing by Torture and Trauma Victims. Later, Maiden and Bennett used the questions they had created as a basis for a clinically planned workbook.
Career and works
Among Jennifer Maiden's many awards are three Kenneth Slessor Prizes for Poetry, two C. J. Dennis Prize for Poetry,the overall Victorian Prize for Literature, the Harri Jones Memorial Prize, the H.M. Butterly-F.Earle Hooper Award(University of Sydney), the Grenfell Henry Lawson Festival Prize, the FAW Christopher Brennan Award for lifetime achievement in poetry, two The Melbourne Age Poetry Book of the Year awards, the overall Melbourne Age Book of the Year and the ALS Gold Medal. She has had residencies at the Australian National University, the University of Western Sydney, Springwood High School and the New South Wales Torture and Trauma Rehabilitation Service. She has been awarded several Fellowships by the Australia Council.
Her second novel Play With Knives has been translated into German as Ein Messer im Haus (dtv, 1994).
Her collection, Pirate Rain, won The Melbourne Age Poetry Book of the Year in 2010 and the N.S.W. Premier's Kenneth Slessor Prize for Poetry in 2011. She is the first writer to have won the Kenneth Slessor Prize three times.
In October 2011, the Australian magazine of politics, society and culture, The Monthly, listed her poetry collection, Friendly Fire (2005), as the poetry book in their selection of 20 Australian Masterpieces since 2000, when they asked 20 Australian art critics to identify "the most significant work of art in their field since 2000".
Her first UK collection, Intimate Geography, which is a selection from four of her Australian collections (Acoustic Shadow, Mines, Friendly Fire and Pirate Rain), was published by Bloodaxe Books in March, 2012.
Her collection, Liquid Nitrogen, was published by Giramondo in November, 2012, won the C. J. Dennis Prize for Poetry and the overall Victorian Prize for Literature, and was shortlisted for the Griffin International Poetry Prize, the Australian Prime Minister's Awards, and the Judith Wright Calanthe Award.
A chapbook of some of her new poems, The Violence of Waiting, was published by Vagabond Press in November, 2013.
Her collection, Drones and Phantoms, was published by Giramondo in 2014, and won the 2015 ALS Gold Medal.
Her collection, The Fox Petition, was published by Giramondo in November, 2015.
A new, revised edition of her novel Play With Knives was published online as a free download by Quemar Press in 2016, followed by its previously unpublished sequel, Play With Knives: Two: Complicity.
Maiden's third latest collection, The Metronome, deals partly with the 2016 U.S. elections and includes their result in its epilogue. Because of topical relevance, Quemar Press uploaded its electronic edition on 9 November 2016. Giramondo published a print edition of The Metronome in March 2017.
Her fourth novel, Play With Knives: Three: George and Clare and the Grey Hat Hacker, was published online in December, 2016, as an exclusive from Quemar Press. It is a prose/verse sequel to Play With Knives, Play With Knives: Two: Complicity, and those of her poems which feature her characters George Jeffreys and Clare Collins.
Aside from writing, her artwork has appeared on several of her book covers, including The Winter Baby, Acoustic Shadow, The Trust, and some of her books published by Quemar Press. She also created three collages of photographs for Quemar Press' collection of Montaigne's ideas, Truth in Discourse: Observations by Montaigne.
Her second latest collection, Appalachian Fall: Poems About Poverty in Power, was released by Quemar Press in 2018.
In January 2018, her novel, Play With Knives, was combined with its sequel, Play With Knives: Two: Complicity, in a paperback published by Quemar Press. This was the first time Play With Knives: Two: Complicity was published in print form.
An up-to-date Selected Poems 1967-2018 by Jennifer Maiden was published from Quemar Press in February 2018.
Jennifer Maiden's recent novels in poetry and prose, Play With Knives: Three and Play With Knives: Four were published in single paperback book from Quemar Press in 2018.
The final novel in the Play With Knives Quintet, Play With Knives: Five: George and Clare, the Malachite and the Diamonds, an experimental novel in poetry and prose, was released by Quemar Press in September 2018.
Her new collection of poems, brookings: the noun, was released in early 2019 by Quemar Press.
Following her work as Writer in Residence at the NSW Service for the Treatment and Rehabilitation of Torture and Trauma Survivors, Jennifer Maiden and the torture and trauma clinician, academic and researcher, Margaret Bennett collaborated, in 2019, on a workbook to assist torture or trauma survivors to write of their experiences, entitled Workbook Questions: Writing of Torture, Trauma Experience.
Maiden's poetry collection The Espionage Act, was published at the beginning of 2020. In December 2019, an advance copy was included in Fairfax Media's list of most appreciated books in 2019'
In 2020, another non-fiction work by Jennifer Maiden was released, entitled The Cuckold and the Vampires: an essay on some aspects of conservative political manipulation of art and literature, including the experimental, and the conservatives' creation of conflict.
Biological Necessity: New Poems was released in 2021.
Maiden's most recent poetry collection, Ox in Metal was released in 2022.
Bibliography
Poetry
Collections
The Problem of Evil. (Prism, 1975)
The Occupying Forces. (Gargoyle, 1975)
Mortal Details. (Rigmarole, 1977)
Birthstones. (Angus & Robertson, 1978)
The Border Loss. (Angus & Robertson, 1979)
For The Left Hand. (South Head, 1981)
The Trust. (Black Lightning, 1988)
Bastille Day. (NLA, 1990)
Selected Poems of Jennifer Maiden. (Penguin, 1990)
The Winter Baby. (Angus & Robertson, 1990)
Acoustic Shadow. (Penguin, 1993)
Mines. (Paper Bark, 1999)
Friendly Fire (Giramondo, 2005)
Pirate Rain (Giramondo, 2009)
Intimate Geography: Selected Poems 1991-2010 (Bloodaxe Books, 2012)
Liquid Nitrogen (Giramondo, 2012)
The Violence of Waiting (Vagabond Press, 2013)
Drones and Phantoms (Giramondo, 2014)
The Fox Petition (Giramondo, 2015)
The Metronome (Electronic Edition: Quemar Press, 2016) , (Print Edition: Giramondo, 2017) (pbk.)
Appalachian Fall: Poems About Poverty in Power (Quemar Press, 2018) Print Edition , Electronic Edition
Selected Poems 1967-2018 (Quemar Press, 2018) Print Edition , Electronic Edition
brookings: the noun (Quemar Press, 2019) Print Edition , Electronic Edition
The Espionage Act (Quemar Press, 2020) Print Edition , Electronic Edition
Biological Necessity: New Poems (Quemar Press, 2021) Print Edition , Electronic Edition
Ox in Metal: New Poems (Quemar Press, 2022) Print Edition , Electronic Edition
Novels
The Terms. (Hale & Iremonger, 1982)
Play With Knives. (Allen & Unwin, 1990. New Revised Electronic Edition: Quemar Press, 2016)
Play With Knives: Two: Complicity. (Quemar Press, 2016)
Play With Knives: Three: George and Clare and the Grey Hat Hacker. (Quemar Press, 2016)
Play With Knives: Four: George and Clare, the Baby and the Bikies. (Quemar Press, 2017)
Play With Knives & Play With Knives: Two: Complicity. (Quemar Press, 2018) (Paperback)
Play With Knives: Three: George and Clare and the Grey Hat Hacker & Play With Knives: Four: George and Clare, the Baby and the Bikies. (Quemar Press, 2018)
Play With Knives: Five: George and Clare, the Malachite and the Diamonds. (Quemar Press, 2018) Print Edition , Electronic Edition
Non-Fiction
Workbook Questions: Writing of Torture, Trauma Experience (Written in collaboration with Margaret Bennett). (Quemar Press, 2019) Print Edition
The Cuckold and the Vampires: an essay on some aspects of conservative political manipulation of art and literature, including the experimental, and the conservatives' creation of conflict. (Quemar Press, 2020) Print Edition , Electronic Edition
Literary awards
See also
1974 in poetry
1975 in poetry
1977 in poetry
1978 in poetry
1979 in poetry
1981 in poetry
1988 in poetry
1990 in poetry
1993 in poetry
1999 in poetry
2005 in poetry
2010 in poetry
2012 in poetry
2013 in poetry
2014 in poetry
1982 in literature
1990 in literature
References
External links
Biography, 2 poems, audio recording and video at the Red Room Company
10 poems at Poetry International Web
3 poems at Jacket Magazine
Friendly Fire Title Page at Giramondo Publishing
Jennifer Maiden Title Page at Bloodaxe Books
Review of Friendly Fire at Sydney Morning Herald
Review of Pirate Rain at Radio National
Review of Liquid Nitrogen at The Australian
Review of Intimate Geography at Poetry Book Society Poetry Portal
Liquid Nitrogen Title Page at Giramondo Publishing
Review of Liquid Nitrogen, Sydney Review of Books
1949 births
20th-century Australian novelists
Australian poets
Australian women novelists
Australian women poets
Living people
People from Sydney
20th-century Australian women writers
ALS Gold Medal winners
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment%20variable
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Environment variable
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An environment variable is a dynamic-named value that can affect the way running processes will behave on a computer. They are part of the environment in which a process runs. For example, a running process can query the value of the TEMP environment variable to discover a suitable location to store temporary files, or the HOME or USERPROFILE variable to find the directory structure owned by the user running the process.
They were introduced in their modern form in 1979 with Version 7 Unix, so are included in all Unix operating system flavors and variants from that point onward including Linux and macOS. From PC DOS 2.0 in 1982, all succeeding Microsoft operating systems, including Microsoft Windows, and OS/2 also have included them as a feature, although with somewhat different syntax, usage and standard variable names.
Design
In all Unix and Unix-like systems, as well as on Windows, each process has its own separate set of environment variables. By default, when a process is created, it inherits a duplicate run-time environment of its parent process, except for explicit changes made by the parent when it creates the child. At the API level, these changes must be done between running fork and exec. Alternatively, from command shells such as bash, a user can change environment variables for a particular command invocation by indirectly invoking it via env or using the ENVIRONMENT_VARIABLE=VALUE <command> notation. A running program can access the values of environment variables for configuration purposes.
Shell scripts and batch files use environment variables to communicate data and preferences to child processes. They can also be used to store temporary values for reference later in a shell script. However, in Unix, non-exported variables are preferred for this as they don't leak outside the process.
In Unix, an environment variable that is changed in a script or compiled program will only affect that process and possibly child processes. The parent process and any unrelated processes will not be affected. Similarly, changing or removing a variable's value inside a DOS batch file will change the variable for the duration of COMMAND.COM's existence.
In Unix, the environment variables are normally initialized during system startup by the system init startup scripts, and hence inherited by all other processes in the system. Users can, and often do, augment them in the profile script for the command shell they are using. In Microsoft Windows, each environment variable's default value is stored in the Windows registry or set in the AUTOEXEC.BAT file.
On Unix, a setuid program is given an environment chosen by its caller, but it runs with different authority from its caller. The dynamic linker will usually load code from locations specified by the environment variables $LD_LIBRARY_PATH and $LD_PRELOAD and run it with the process's authority. If a setuid program did this, it would be insecure, because its caller could get it to run arbitrary code and hence misuse its authority. For this reason, libc unsets these environment variables at startup in a setuid process. setuid programs usually unset unknown environment variables and check others or set them to reasonable values.
In general, the collection of environment variables function as an associative array where both the keys and values are strings. The interpretation of characters in either string differs among systems. When data structures such as lists need to be represented, it is common to use a colon (common on Unix and Unix-like) or semicolon-deliminated (common on Windows and DOS) list.
Syntax
The variables can be used both in scripts and on the command line. They are usually referenced by putting special symbols in front of or around the variable name.
It is conventional for environment variable names to be chosen to be in all upper case. In programming code generally, this helps to distinguish environment variables from other kinds of names in the code. On Unix-like operating systems, environment variable names are case sensitive, but they are not on DOS, OS/2, and Windows.
Unix
In most Unix and Unix-like command-line shells, an environment variable's value is retrieved by placing a $ sign before the variable's name. If necessary, the name can also be surrounded by braces.
To display the user home directory, the user may type:
echo $HOME
If xyz needed to be appended to the value of the HOME variable, one might type:
echo ${HOME}xyz
In Unix and Unix-like systems, the names of environment variables are case-sensitive.
The command env displays all environment variables and their values. The command printenv can also be used to print a single variable by giving that variable name as the sole argument to the command.
DOS, OS/2 and Windows
In DOS, OS/2 and Windows command-line interpreters such as COMMAND.COM and cmd.exe, an environment variable is retrieved by placing a % sign before and after it.
The environment variable named HOMEDRIVE contains the drive letter (plus its trailing : colon) of the user's home directory, whilst HOMEPATH contains the full path of the user's home directory within that drive.
So to see the home drive and path, the user may type this:
echo %homedrive%%homepath%
In DOS, OS/2 and Windows command-line interpreters, upper or lower case is not distinguished for environment variable names.
The command set (with no arguments) displays all environment variables and their values. set can also be used to print all variables whose name begins with a given prefix by giving the prefix as the sole argument to the command.
In Windows PowerShell, the user may type this:
echo $env:homedrive$env:homepath
or, using PowerShell's native command name equivalent to echo:
Write-Output $env:homedrive$env:homepath
In PowerShell, upper or lower case is not distinguished for environment variable names.
The following command displays all environment variables and their values:
get-childitem env:
Assignment: Unix
The commands env and set can be used to set environment variables and are often incorporated directly into the shell.
The following commands can also be used, but are often dependent on a certain shell.
VARIABLE=value #
export VARIABLE # for Bourne and related shells
export VARIABLE=value # for ksh, bash, and related shells
setenv VARIABLE value # for csh and related shells
A few simple principles govern how environment variables achieve their effect.
Environment variables are local to the process in which they were set. If two shell processes are spawned and the value of an environment variable is changed in one, that change will not be seen by the other.
When a child process is created, it inherits all the environment variables and their values from the parent process. Usually, when a program calls another program, it first creates a child process by forking, then the child adjusts the environment as needed and lastly the child replaces itself with the program to be called. This procedure gives the calling program control over the environment of the called program.
In Unix shells, variables may be assigned without the export keyword. Variables defined in this way are displayed by the set command, but are not true environment variables, as they are stored only by the shell and are unknown to all other processes. The printenv command will not display them, and child processes do not inherit them.
VARIABLE=value
The prefix syntax exports a "true" environment variable to a child process without affecting the current process:
VARIABLE=value program_name [arguments]
The persistence of an environment variable can be session-wide or system-wide.
unset is a builtin command implemented by both the Bourne shell family (sh, ksh, bash, etc.) and the C shell family (csh, tcsh, etc.) of Unix command line shells. It unsets a shell variable, removing it from memory and the shell's exported environment. It is implemented as a shell builtin, because it directly manipulates the internals of the shell. Read-only shell variables cannot be unset. If one tries to unset a read-only variable, the unset command will print an error message and return a non-zero exit code.
Assignment: DOS, OS/2 and Windows
In DOS, OS/2 and Windows command-line interpreters such as COMMAND.COM and cmd.exe, the SET command is used to assign environment variables and values using the following arguments:
SET VARIABLE=value
The set command without any arguments displays all environment variables along with their values. In cmd.exe, it is possible to assign local variables that do not leak outside using the SETLOCAL command.
In PowerShell, the assignment follows a syntax similar to Unix:
$env:VARIABLE = "VALUE"
Examples
Examples of environment variables include:
PATH: a list of directory paths. When the user types a command without providing the full path, this list is checked to see whether it contains a path that leads to the command.
HOME (Unix-like) and USERPROFILE (Microsoft Windows): indicate where a user's home directory is located in the file system.
HOME/{.AppName} (Unix-like) and APPDATA\{DeveloperName\AppName} (Microsoft Windows): for storing application settings. Many applications incorrectly use USERPROFILE for application settings in Windows: USERPROFILE should only be used in dialogs that allow user to choose between paths like Documents/Pictures/Downloads/Music; for programmatic purposes, APPDATA (for roaming application settings shared across multiple devices), LOCALAPPDATA (for local application settings) or PROGRAMDATA (for application settings shared between multiple OS users) should be used.
TERM (Unix-like): specifies the type of computer terminal or terminal emulator being used (e.g., vt100 or dumb).
PS1 (Unix-like): specifies how the prompt is displayed in the Bourne shell and variants.
MAIL (Unix-like): used to indicate where a user's mail is to be found.
TEMP: location where processes can store temporary files.
True environment variables
Unix
$PATH Contains a colon-separated list of directories that the shell searches for commands that do not contain a slash in their name (commands with slashes are interpreted as file names to execute, and the shell attempts to execute the files directly). It is equivalent to the DOS, OS/2 and Windows %PATH% variable.
$HOME Contains the location of the user's home directory. Although the current user's home directory can also be found out through the C-functions getpwuid and getuid, $HOME is often used for convenience in various shell scripts (and other contexts). Using the environment variable also gives the user the possibility to point to another directory.
$PWD This variable points to the current directory. Equivalent to the output of the command pwd when called without arguments.
$DISPLAY Contains the identifier for the display that X11 programs should use by default.
$LD_LIBRARY_PATH On many Unix systems with a dynamic linker, contains a colon-separated list of directories that the dynamic linker should search for shared objects when building a process image after exec, before searching in any other directories.
$LIBPATH or $SHLIB_PATH Alternatives to $LD_LIBRARY_PATH typically used on older Unix versions.
$LANG, $LC_ALL, $LC_... $LANG is used to set to the default locale. For example, if the locale values are pt_BR, then the language is set to (Brazilian) Portuguese and Brazilian practice is used where relevant. Different aspects of localization are controlled by individual $LC_-variables ($LC_CTYPE, $LC_COLLATE, $LC_DATE etc.). $LC_ALL can be used to force the same locale for all aspects.
$TZ Refers to time zone. It can be in several formats, either specifying the time zone itself or referencing a file (in /usr/share/zoneinfo).
$BROWSER Contains a colon-separated list of a user's web browser preferences, for use by programs that need to allow the user to view content at a URL. The browsers in the list are intended to be attempted from first to last, stopping after the first one that succeeds. This arrangement allows for fallback behavior in different environments, e.g., in an X11 environment, a graphical browser (such as Firefox) can be used, but in a console environment a terminal-base browser (such a Lynx) can be used. A %s token may be present to specify where the URL should be placed; otherwise the browser should be launched with the URL as the first argument.
DOS
Under DOS, the master environment is provided by the primary command processor, which inherits the pre-environment defined in CONFIG.SYS when first loaded. Its size can be configured through the COMMAND /E:n parameter between 160 and 32767 bytes. Local environment segments inherited to child processes are typically reduced down to the size of the contents they hold. Some command-line processors (like 4DOS) allow to define a minimum amount of free environment space that will be available when launching secondary shells. While the content of environment variables remains unchanged upon storage, their names (without the "%") are always converted to uppercase, with the exception of pre-environment variables defined via the CONFIG.SYS directive SET under DR DOS 6.0 and higher (and only with SWITCHES=/L (for "allow lowercase names") under DR-DOS 7.02 and higher). In principle, MS-DOS 7.0 and higher also supports lowercase variable names (%windir%), but provides no means for the user to define them. Environment variable names containing lowercase letters are stored in the environment just like normal environment variables, but remain invisible to most DOS software, since they are written to expect uppercase variables only. Some command processors limit the maximum length of a variable name to 80 characters. While principally only limited by the size of the environment segment, some DOS and 16-bit Windows programs do not expect the contents of environment variables to exceed 128 characters. DR-DOS COMMAND.COM supports environment variables up to 255, 4DOS even up to 512 characters. Since COMMAND.COM can be configured (via /L:128..1024) to support command lines up to 1024 characters internally under MS-DOS 7.0 and higher, environment variables should be expected to contain at least 1024 characters as well. In some versions of DR-DOS, the environment passed to drivers, which often do not need their environment after installation, can be shrunken or relocated through SETENV or INSTALL[HIGH]/LOADHIGH options /Z (zero environment), /D[:loaddrive] (substitute drive, e.g. B:TSR.COM) and /E (relocate environment above program) in order to minimize the driver's effectively resulting resident memory footprint.
In batch mode, non-existent environment variables are replaced by a zero-length string.
Standard environment variables or reserved environment variables include:
%APPEND% (supported since DOS 3.3) This variable contains a semicolon-delimited list of directories in which to search for files. It is usually changed via the APPEND /E command, which also ensures that the directory names are converted into uppercase. Some DOS software actually expects the names to be stored in uppercase and the length of the list not to exceed 121 characters, therefore the variable is best not modified via the SET command. Long filenames containing spaces or other special characters must not be quoted (").
%CONFIG% (supported since MS-DOS 6.0 and PC DOS 6.1, also supported by ROM-DOS) This variable holds the symbolic name of the currently chosen boot configuration. It is set by the DOS BIOS (IO.SYS, IBMBIO.COM, etc.) to the name defined by the corresponding CONFIG.SYS directive MENUITEM before launching the primary command processor. Its main purpose is to allow further special cases in AUTOEXEC.BAT and similar batchjobs depending on the selected option at boot time. This can be emulated under DR-DOS by utilizing the CONFIG.SYS directive SET like SET CONFIG=1.
%CMDLINE% (introduced with 4DOS, also supported since MS-DOS 7.0) This variable contains the fully expanded text of the currently executing command line. It can be read by applications to detect the usage of and retrieve long command lines, since the traditional method to retrieve the command line arguments through the PSP (or related API functions) is limited to 126 characters and is no longer available when FCBs get expanded or the default DTA is used. While 4DOS supports longer command lines, COMMAND.COM still only supports a maximum of 126 characters at the prompt by default (unless overridden with /U:128..255 to specify the size of the command line buffer), but nevertheless internal command lines can become longer through f.e. variable expansion (depending on /L:128..1024 to specify the size of the internal buffer). In addition to the command-line length byte in the PSP, the PSP command line is normally limited by ASCII-13, and command lines longer than 126 characters will typically be truncated by having an ASCII-13 inserted at position 127, but this cannot be relied upon in all scenarios. The variable will be suppressed for external commands invoked with a preceding @-symbol like in @XCOPY ... for backward compatibility and in order to minimize the size of the environment when loading non-relocating TSRs. Some beta versions of Windows Chicago used %CMDLINE% to store only the remainder of the command line excessing 126 characters instead of the complete command line.
%COMSPEC% (supported since DOS 2.0) This variable contains the full 8.3 path to the command processor, typically C:\COMMAND.COM or C:\DOS\COMMAND.COM. It must not contain long filenames, but under DR-DOS it may contain file and directory passwords. It is set up by the primary command processor to point to itself (typically reflecting the settings of the CONFIG.SYS directive SHELL), so that the resident portion of the command processor can reload its transient portion from disk after the execution of larger programs. The value can be changed at runtime to reflect changes in the configuration, which would require the command processor to reload itself from other locations. The variable is also used when launching secondary shells.
%COPYCMD% (supported since MS-DOS 6.2 and PC DOS 6.3, also supported by ROM-DOS) Allows a user to specify the /Y switch (to assume "Yes" on queries) as the default for the COPY, XCOPY, and MOVE commands. A default of /Y can be overridden by supplying the /-Y switch on the command line. The /Y switch instructs the command to replace existing files without prompting for confirmation.
%DIRCMD% (supported since MS-DOS 5.0 and PC DOS 5.0, also supported by ROM-DOS) Allows a user to specify customized default parameters for the DIR command, including file specifications. Preset default switches can be overridden by providing the negative switch on the command line. For example, if %DIRCMD% contains the /W switch, then it can be overridden by using DIR /-W at the command line. This is similar to the environment variable %$DIR% under DOS Plus and a facility to define default switches for DIR through its /C or /R switches under DR-DOS COMMAND.COM. %DIRCMD% is also supported by the external SDIR.COM/DIR.COM Stacker commands under Novell DOS 7 and higher.
%LANG% (supported since MS-DOS 7.0) This variable is supported by some tools to switch the locale for messages in multilingual issues.
%LANGSPEC% (supported since MS-DOS 7.0) This variable is supported by some tools to switch the locale for messages in multilingual issues.
%NO_SEP% (supported since PC DOS 6.3 and DR-DOS 7.07) This variable controls the display of thousands-separators in messages of various commands. Issued by default, they can be suppressed by specifying SET NO_SEP=ON or SET NO_SEP=1 under PC DOS. DR-DOS additionally allows to override the system's thousands-separator displayed as in f.e. SET NO_SEP=..
%PATH% (supported since DOS 2.0) This variable contains a semicolon-delimited list of directories in which the command interpreter will search for executable files. Equivalent to the Unix $PATH variable (but some DOS and Windows applications also use the list to search for data files similar to $LD_LIBRARY_PATH on Unix-like systems). It is usually changed via the PATH (or PATH /E under MS-DOS 6.0) command, which also ensures that the directory names are converted into uppercase. Some DOS software actually expects the names to be stored in uppercase and the length of the list not to exceed 123 characters, therefore the variable should better not be modified via the SET command. Long filenames containing spaces or other special characters must not be quoted ("). By default, the current directory is searched first, but some command-line processors like 4DOS allow "." (for "current directory") to be included in the list as well in order to override this search order; some DOS programs are incompatible with this extension.
%PROMPT% (supported since DOS 2.0) This variable contains a $-tokenized string defining the display of the prompt. It is usually changed via the PROMPT command.
%TEMP% (and %TMP%) These variables contain the path to the directory where temporary files should be stored. Operating system tools typically only use %TEMP%, whereas third-party programs also use %TMP%. Typically %TEMP% takes precedence over %TMP%.
The DR-DOS family supports a number of additional standard environment variables including:
%BETA% This variable contains an optional message displayed by some versions (including DR DOS 3.41) of COMMAND.COM at the startup of secondary shells.
%DRDOSCFG%/%NWDOSCFG%/%OPENDOSCFG% This variable contains the directory (without trailing "\") where to search for .INI and .CFG configuration files (that is, DR-DOS application specific files like TASKMGR.INI, TASKMAX.INI, VIEWMAX.INI, FASTBACK.CFG etc., class specific files like COLORS.INI, or global files like DRDOS.INI, NWDOS.INI, OPENDOS.INI, or DOS.INI), as used by the INSTALL and SETUP commands and various DR-DOS programs like DISKOPT, DOSBOOK, EDIT, FBX, FILELINK, LOCK, SECURITY.OVL/NWLOGIN.EXE, SERNO, TASKMAX, TASKMGR, VIEWMAX, or UNDELETE. It must not contain long filenames.
%DRCOMSPEC% This variable optionally holds an alternative path to the command processor taking precedence over the path defined in the %COMSPEC% variable, optionally including file and directory passwords. Alternatively, it can hold a special value of "ON" or "1" in order to enforce the usage of the %COMSPEC% variable even in scenarios where the %COMSPEC% variable may point to the wrong command-line processor, for example, when running some versions of the DR-DOS SYS command under a foreign operating system.
%DRSYS% Setting this variable to "ON" or "1" will force some versions of the DR-DOS SYS command to work under foreign operating systems instead of displaying a warning.
%FBP_USER% Specifies the user name used by the FastBack command FBX and {user}.FB configuration files under Novell DOS 7.
%HOMEDIR% This variable may contain the home directory under DR-DOS (including DR DOS 5.0 and 6.0).
%INFO% In some versions of DR-DOS COMMAND.COM this variable defines the string displayed by the $I token of the PROMPT command. It can be used, for example, to inform the user how to exit secondary shells.
%LOGINNAME% In some versions of DR-DOS COMMAND.COM this variable defines the user name displayed by the $U token of the PROMPT command, as set up by f.e. login scripts for Novell NetWare. See also the similarly named pseudo-variable %LOGIN_NAME%.
%MDOS_EXEC% This variable can take the values "ON" or "OFF" under Multiuser DOS. If enabled, the operating system permits applications to shell out to secondary shells with the DOS Program Area (DPA) freed in order to have maximum DOS memory available for secondary applications instead of running them in the same domain as under DOS.
%NOCHAR% This variable can be used to define the character displayed by some commands in messages for "No" in [Y,N] queries, thereby overriding the current system default (typically "N" in English versions of DR-DOS). If it contains a string, only the first character, uppercased, will be taken. Some commands also support a command line parameter /Y to automatically assume "Yes" on queries, thereby suppressing such prompts. If, however, the parameter /Y:yn is used to specify the "Yes"/"No" characters (thereby overriding any %NOCHAR% setting), queries are not suppressed. See also the related CONFIG.SYS directive NOCHAR and the environment variable %YESCHAR%.
%NOSOUND% Setting this variable to "ON" or "1" will disable default beeps issued by some DR-DOS commands in certain situations such as to inform the user of the completion of some operation, that user interaction is required, or when a wrong key was pressed. Command line options to specifically enable certain beeps will override this setting.
%OS%This variable contains the name of the operating system in order to distinguish between different DOS-related operating systems of Digital Research-origin in batch jobs and applications. Known values include "DOSPLUS" (DOS Plus 1.2 in DOS emulation), "CPCDOS 4.1" (DOS Plus 1.2 in CP/M emulation), "DRDOS" (DR DOS 3.31-6.0, DR DOS Panther, DR DOS StarTrek, DR-DOS 7.02-7.05), "EZDOS" (EZ-DOS 3.41), "PALMDOS" and "NetWare PalmDOS" (PalmDOS 1.0), "NWDOS" (Novell DOS 7), "NWDOS7" (Novell DOS 7 Beta), "OPENDOS" (Caldera OpenDOS 7.01, Caldera DR-OpenDOS 7.02), "CDOS" (Concurrent DOS, Concurrent DOS XM), "CPCDOS" (Concurrent PC DOS), "CDOS386" (Concurrent DOS 386), "DRMDOS" (DR Multiuser DOS), "MDOS" (CCI Multiuser DOS), "IMSMDOS" (IMS Multiuser DOS), "REAL32" (REAL/32). MS-DOS INTERSVR looks for a value of "DRDOS" as well. See also the identically named environment variable %OS% later introduced in the Windows NT family.
%PEXEC% In some versions of DR-DOS this variable defines the command executed by the $X token of the PROMPT command before COMMAND.COM displays the prompt after returning from external program execution.
%SWITCHAR% This variable defines the SwitChar to be used for argument parsing by some DR-DOS commands. If defined, it overrides the system's current SwitChar setting. The only accepted characters are "/" (DOS style), "-" (Unix style) and "[" (CP/M style). See also the related CONFIG.SYS directive SWITCHAR (to set the system's SwitChar setting) and the %/% system information variable in some issues of DR-DOS COMMAND.COM (to retrieve the current setting for portable batchjobs).
%TASKMGRWINDIR% This variable specifies the directory, where the Windows SYSTEM.INI to be used by the DR-DOS TASKMGR multitasker is located, overriding the default procedure to locate the file.
%VER% This variable contains the version of the operating system in order to distinguish between different versions of DR-DOS in batch jobs and in the display of the VER command. It is also used for the $V token of the PROMPT command and affects the value returned by the system information variable %OS_VERSION%. Known values include "1.0" (PalmDOS 1.0), "1.2" (DOS Plus 1.2 in DOS emulation), "2.0" (Concurrent DOS 386 2.0), "3.0" (Concurrent DOS 386 3.0), "3.31" (DR DOS 3.31), "3.32" (DR DOS 3.32), "3.33" (DR DOS 3.33), "3.34" (DR DOS 3.34), "3.35" (DR DOS 3.35), "3.40" (DR DOS 3.40), "3.41" (DR DOS 3.41, EZ-DOS 3.41), "3.41T" (DR DOS 3.41T), "4.1" (Concurrent PC DOS 4.1), "5.0" (DR DOS 5.0, DR Multiuser DOS 5.0), "5.1" (Novell DR Multiuser DOS 5.1), "6.0" (DR Concurrent DOS XM 6.0, DR DOS 6.0), "6.2" (DR Concurrent DOS XM 6.2), "7" (Novell DOS 7, Caldera OpenDOS 7.01, DR-DOS 7.02-7.05), "7.00" (CCI Multiuser DOS 7.00), "7.07" (DR-DOS 7.07), "7.1" (IMS Multiuser DOS 7.1), "7.21" (CCI Multiuser DOS 7.21), "7.22" (CCI Multiuser DOS 7.22) etc.
%YESCHAR%This variable can be used to define the character displayed by some commands in messages for "Yes" in [Y,N] queries, thereby overriding the current system default (typically "Y" in English versions of DR-DOS). If it contains a string, only the first character, uppercased, will be taken. Some commands also support a command line parameter /Y to automatically assume "Yes" on queries, thereby suppressing such prompts. If, however, the parameter /Y:y is used to specify the "Yes" character (thereby overriding any %YESCHAR% setting), queries are not suppressed. See also the related CONFIG.SYS directive YESCHAR and the environment variable %NOCHAR%.
%$CLS% This variable defines the control sequence to be sent to the console driver to clear the screen when the CLS command is issued, thereby overriding the internal default ("←[2J" under DR-DOS, "←E" under DOS Plus 1.2 on Amstrad machines as well as under Concurrent DOS, Multiuser DOS, and REAL/32 for VT52 terminals, or "←+" under Multiuser DOS for ASCII terminals). If the variable is not defined and no ANSI.SYS console driver is detected, the DR-DOS COMMAND.COM will directly clear the screen via INT 10h/AH=00h BIOS function, like MS-DOS/PC DOS COMMAND.COM does. A special \nnn-notation for octal numbers is supported to allow the definition of special characters like ESC (ASCII-27 = "←" = 1Bh = 33o), as f.e. in SET $CLS=\033[2J. To send the backslash ("\") itself, it can be doubled "\\".
%$DIR% Supported by DOS Plus accepting the values "L" (long) or "W" (wide) to change the default layout of directory listings with DIR. Can be overridden using the command line options /L or /W. See also the similar environment variable %DIRCMD% and the DIR options /C and /R of the DR-DOS COMMAND.COM.
%$PAGE% Supported by DOS Plus accepting the values "ON" or "OFF" for pagination control. Setting this to "ON" has the same affect as adding /P to commands supporting it (like DIR or TYPE).
%$LENGTH% Used by DOS Plus to define the screen length of the console in lines. This is used to control in a portable way when the screen output should be temporarily halted until a key is pressed in conjunction with the /P option supported by various commands or with automatic pagnination. See also the related environment variables %$WIDTH% and %DIRSIZE% as well as the similar pseudo-variable %_ROWS%.
%$WIDTH% Used by DOS Plus to define the screen width of the console in columns. This is used to control in a portable way the formatting of the screen output of commands like DIR /W or TYPE filename. See also the related environment variables %$LENGTH% and %DIRSIZE% as well as the similar pseudo-variable %_COLUMNS%.
%$SLICE% Used by DOS Plus accepting a numerical value to control the foreground/background time slicing of multitasking programs. See also the DOS Plus command SLICE.
%$ON% This variable can hold an optional control sequence to switch text highlighting, reversion or colorization on. It is used to emphasize or otherwise control the display of the file names in commands like TYPE wildcard, for example SET $ON=\033[1m with ANSI.SYS loaded or SET $ON=\016 for an IBM or ESC/P printer. For the special \nnn octal notation supported, see %$CLS%. While the variable is undefined by default under DOS Plus and DR-DOS, the Multiuser DOS default for an ASCII terminal equals SET $ON=\033p. See also the related environment variable %$OFF%.
%$OFF% This variable can hold an optional control sequence to switch text highlighting, reversion or colorization off. It is used to return to the normal output after the display of file names in commands like TYPE wildcard, for example SET $OFF=\033[0m with ANSI.SYS loaded or SET $OFF=\024 for an IBM or ESC/P printer. For the special \nnn octal notation supported, see %$CLS%. While the variable is undefined by default under DOS Plus and DR-DOS, the Multiuser DOS default for an ASCII terminal equals SET $OFF=\033q. See also the related environment variable %$ON%.
%$HEADER% This variable can hold an optional control sequence issued before the output of the file contents in commands like TYPE under DR-DOS 7.02 and higher. It can be used for highlighting, pagination or formatting, f.e. when sending the output to a printer, i.e. SET $HEADER=\017 for an IBM or ESC/P printer. For the special \nnn octal notation supported, see %$CLS%. See also the related environment variable %$FOOTER%.
%$FOOTER% This variable can hold an optional control sequence issued after the output of the file contents in commands like TYPE under DR-DOS 7.02 and higher. It is used to return to the normal output format, i.e. SET $FOOTER=\022\014 in the printer example above. For the special \nnn octal notation supported, see %$CLS%. See also the related environment variable %$HEADER%.
Datalight ROM-DOS supports a number of additional standard environment variables as well including:
%DIRSIZE% This variable is used to define non-standard screen sizes rows[,cols] for DIR options /P and /W (similar to %$LENGTH% and %$WIDTH% under DOS Plus).
%NEWFILE% This variable is automatically set to the first parameter given to the CONFIG.SYS directive NEWFILE.
%TZ%, %COMM%, %SOCKETS%, %HTTP_DIR%, %HOSTNAME% and %FTPDIR% are also used by ROM-DOS.
OS/2
%BEGINLIBPATH% Contains a semicolon-separated list of directories which are searched for DLLs before the directories given by the %LIBPATH% variable (which is set during system startup with the special CONFIG.SYS directive LIBPATH). It is possible to specify relative directories here, including "." for the current working directory. See also the related environment variable %ENDLIBPATH%.
%ENDLIBPATH% a list of directories to be searched for DLLs like %BEGINLIBPATH%, but searched after the list of directories in %LIBPATH%.
Windows
System path variables refer to locations of critical operating system resources, and as such generally are not user-dependent.
%APPDATA% Contains the full path to the Application Data directory of the logged-in user. Does not work on Windows NT 4.0 SP6 UK.
%LOCALAPPDATA% This variable is the temporary files of Applications. Its uses include storing of desktop themes, Windows error reporting, caching and profiles of web browsers.
%ComSpec%/%COMSPEC%The %ComSpec% variable contains the full path to the command processor; on the Windows NT family of operating systems, this is cmd.exe, while on Windows 9x, %COMSPEC% is COMMAND.COM.
%OS%The %OS% variable contains a symbolic name of the operating system family to distinguish between differing feature sets in batchjobs. It resembles an identically named environment variable %OS% found in all DOS-related operating systems of Digital Research-origin like Concurrent DOS, Multiuser DOS, REAL/32, DOS Plus, DR DOS, Novell DOS and OpenDOS. %OS% always holds the string "Windows_NT" on the Windows NT family.
%PATH% This variable contains a semicolon-delimited (do not put spaces in between) list of directories in which the command interpreter will search for an executable file that matches the given command. Environment variables that represent paths may be nested within the %PATH% variable, but only at one level of indirection. If this sub-path environment variable itself contains an environment variable representing a path, %PATH% will not expand properly in the variable substitution. Equivalent to the Unix $PATH variable.
%ProgramFiles%, %ProgramFiles(x86)%, %ProgramW6432% The %ProgramFiles% variable points to the Program Files directory, which stores all the installed programs of Windows and others. The default on English-language systems is "C:\Program Files". In 64-bit editions of Windows (XP, 2003, Vista), there are also %ProgramFiles(x86)%, which defaults to "C:\Program Files (x86)", and %ProgramW6432%, which defaults to "C:\Program Files". The %ProgramFiles% itself depends on whether the process requesting the environment variable is itself 32-bit or 64-bit (this is caused by Windows-on-Windows 64-bit redirection).
%CommonProgramFiles% This variable points to the Common Files directory. The default is "C:\Program Files\Common Files" in the English version of Windows.
%SystemDrive% The %SystemDrive% variable is a special system-wide environment variable found on Windows NT and its derivatives. Its value is the drive upon which the system directory was placed. The value of %SystemDrive% is in most cases "C:".
%SystemRoot%The %SystemRoot% variable is a special system-wide environment variable found on the Windows NT family of operating systems. Its value is the location of the system directory, including the drive and path. The drive is the same as %SystemDrive% and the default path on a clean installation depends upon the version of the operating system. By default:
Windows XP and newer versions use "\WINDOWS".
Windows 2000, NT 4.0 and NT 3.1 use "\WINNT".
Windows NT 3.5 and NT 3.51 uses "\WINNT35".
Windows NT 4.0 Terminal Server uses "\WTSRV".
%windir%This variable points to the Windows directory. (On the Windows NT family of operating systems, it is identical to the %SystemRoot% variable). Windows 95-98 and Windows ME are, by default, installed in "C:\Windows". For other versions of Windows, see the %SystemRoot% entry above.
User management variables store information related to resources and settings owned by various user profiles within the system. As a general rule, these variables do not refer to critical system resources or locations that are necessary for the OS to run.
%ALLUSERSPROFILE% (%PROGRAMDATA% since Windows Vista) This variable expands to the full path to the All Users profile directory. This profile contains resources and settings that are used by all system accounts. Shortcut links copied to the All Users\' Start menu or Desktop directories will appear in every user's Start menu or Desktop, respectively.
%USERDOMAIN% The name of the Workgroup or Windows Domain to which the current user belongs. The related variable, %LOGONSERVER%, holds the hostname of the server that authenticated the current user's login credentials (name and password). For home PCs and PCs in a workgroup, the authenticating server is usually the PC itself. For PCs in a Windows domain, the authenticating server is a domain controller (a primary domain controller, or PDC, in Windows NT 4-based domains).
%USERPROFILE% A special system-wide environment variable found on Windows NT and its derivatives. Its value is the location of the current user's profile directory, in which is found that user's HKCU registry hive (NTUSER). Users can also use the %USERNAME% variable to determine the active users login identification.
Optional System variables are not explicitly specified by default but can be used to modify the default behavior of certain built-in console commands. These variables also do not need to be explicitly specified as command line arguments.
Default values
The following tables shows typical default values of certain environment variables under English versions of Windows as they can be retrieved under CMD.
(Some of these variables are also defined when running COMMAND.COM under Windows, but differ in certain important details: Under COMMAND.COM, the names of environment variable are always uppercased. Some, but not all variables contain short 8.3 rather than long file names. While some variables present in the CMD environment are missing, there are also some variables specific to the COMMAND environment.)
In this list, there is no environment variable that refers to the location of the user's My Documents directory, so there is no standard method for setting a program's home directory to be the My Documents directory.
Pseudo-environment variables
The command processors in DOS and Windows also support pseudo-environment variables. These are values that are fetched like environment variables, but are not truly stored in the environment but computed when requested.
DOS
Besides true environment variables, which are statically stored in the environment until changed or deleted, a number of pseudo-environment variables exist for batch processing.
The so-called replacement parameters or replaceable parameters (Microsoft / IBM terminology) aka replacement variables (Digital Research / Novell / Caldera terminology) or batch file parameters (JP Software terminology) %1..%9 and %0 can be used to retrieve the calling parameters of a batchjob, see SHIFT. In batchjobs, they can be retrieved just like environment variables, but are not actually stored in the environment.
Some command-line processors (like DR-DOS COMMAND.COM, Multiuser DOS MDOS.COM/TMP.EXE (Terminal Message Process), JP Software 4DOS, 4OS2, 4NT, Take Command and Windows cmd.exe) support a type of pseudo-environment variables named system information variables (Novell / Caldera terminology) or internal variables (JP Software terminology), which can be used to retrieve various possibly dynamic, but read-only information about the running system in batch jobs. The returned values represent the status of the system in the moment these variables are queried; that is, reading them multiple times in a row may return different values even within the same command; querying them has no direct effect on the system. Since they are not stored in the environment, they are not listed by SET and do not exist for external programs to retrieve. If a true environment variable of the same name is defined, it takes precedence over the corresponding variable until the environment variable is deleted again. They are not case-sensitive.
While almost all such variables are prefixed with an underscore ("_") by 4DOS etc. by convention (f.e. %_SECOND%), they are not under DR-DOS COMMAND.COM (f.e. %OS_VERSION%).
In addition, 4DOS, 4OS2, 4NT, and Take Command also support so called variable functions, including user-definable ones. They work just like internal variables, but can take optional parameters (f.e. %@EVAL[]%) and may even change the system status depending on their function.
System information variables supported by DR-DOS COMMAND.COM:
%AM_PM% This pseudo-variable returns the ante- or post-midday status of the current time. The returned string depends on the locale-specific version of DR-DOS, f.e. "am" or "pm" in the English version. It resembles an identically named identifier variable in Novell NetWare login scripts.
%DAY% This pseudo-variable returns the days of the current date in a 2-digit format with leading zeros, f.e. "01".."31". See also the similar pseudo-variable %_DAY%. It resembles an identically named identifier variable in Novell NetWare login scripts.
%DAY_OF_WEEK% This pseudo-variable returns the day name of the week in a 3-character format. The returned string depends on the locale-specific version of DR-DOS, f.e. "Sun", "Mon", "Tue", "Wed", "Thu", "Fri", or "Sat" in the English version. It resembles an identically named identifier variable in Novell NetWare login scripts.
%ERRORLEVEL% In COMMAND.COM of DR-DOS 7.02 and higher, this pseudo-variable returns the last error level returned by an external program or the RETURN command, f.e. "0".."255". See also the identically named pseudo-variable %ERRORLEVEL% under Windows and the IF ERRORLEVEL conditional command.
%ERRORLVL% In DR-DOS 7.02 and higher, this pseudo-variable returns the last error level in a 3-digit format with leading zeros, f.e. "000".."255". Under Multiuser DOS, this is a true environment variable automatically updated by the shell to the return code of exiting programs. See also the related pseudo-variable %ERRORLEVEL% under DR-DOS and the IF ERRORLEVEL command.
%GREETING_TIME% This pseudo-variable returns the 3-level day greeting time. The returned string depends on the locale-specific version of DR-DOS, f.e. "morning", "afternoon", or "evening" in the English version. It resembles an identically named identifier variable in Novell NetWare login scripts.
%HOUR% This pseudo-variable returns the hours of the current time in 12-hour format without leading zeros, f.e. "1".."12". It resembles an identically named identifier variable in Novell NetWare login scripts.
%HOUR24% This pseudo-variable returns the hours of the current time in 24-hour format in a 2-digit format with leading zeros, f.e. "00".."23". It resembles an identically named identifier variable in Novell NetWare login scripts. See also the similar pseudo-variable %_HOUR%.
%MINUTE% This pseudo-variable returns the minutes of the current time in a 2-digit format with leading zeros, f.e "00".."59". It resembles an identically named identifier variable in Novell NetWare login scripts. See also the similar pseudo-variable %_MINUTE%.
%MONTH% This pseudo-variable returns the months of the current date in a 2-digit format with leading zeros, f.e. "01".."12". It resembles an identically named identifier variable in Novell NetWare login scripts. See also the similar pseudo-variable %_MONTH%.
%MONTH_NAME% This pseudo-variable returns the month name of the current date. The returned string depends on the locale-specific version of DR-DOS, f.e. "January", "February", "March", "April", "May", "June", "July", "August", "September", "October", or "December" in the English version. It resembles an identically named identifier variable in Novell NetWare login scripts.
%NDAY_OF_WEEK% This pseudo-variable returns the number of day of the current week, f.e. "1".."7" (with "1" for Sunday). It resembles an identically named identifier variable in Novell NetWare login scripts.
%OS_VERSION% This pseudo-variable returns the version of the operating system depending on the current setting of the environment variable %VER%. If %VER% is not defined, %OS_VERSION% returns "off". It resembles an identically named identifier variable in Novell NetWare login scripts, which may return versions also for non-DR-DOS versions of DOS.
%SECOND% This pseudo-variable returns the seconds of the current time in a 2-digit format with leading zeros, f.e. "00".."59". It resembles an identically named identifier variable in Novell NetWare login scripts. See also the similar pseudo-variable %_SECOND%.
%SHORT_YEAR% This pseudo-variable returns the year of the current date in a 2-digit format with leading zeros, f.e. "93".."99", "00".."92". It resembles an identically named identifier variable in Novell NetWare login scripts.
%YEAR% and %_YEAR% Supported since Novell DOS 7, the %YEAR% pseudo-variable returns the year of the current date in a 4-digit format, f.e. "1980".."2099". It resembles an identically named identifier variable in Novell NetWare login scripts. DR-DOS 7.02 and higher added %_YEAR% for compatibility with 4DOS, returning the same value.
%/% In COMMAND.COM of DR-DOS 7.02 and higher, this pseudo-variable returns the current SwitChar setting of the system, either "/" (DOS style) or "-" (Unix style). See also the related CONFIG.SYS directive SWITCHAR and the environment variable %SWITCHAR%.
%_CODEPAGE% This pseudo-variable returns the systems' current code page ("1".."65533"), f.e. "437", "850", "858". This variable was originally introduced by 4DOS, but also became available with COMMAND.COM since DR-DOS 7.02. See also the CHCP command.
%_COLUMNS% This pseudo-variable returns the current number of screen columns depending on the display mode, f.e. "40", "80", "132", etc. This variable was originally introduced by 4DOS, but also became available with COMMAND.COM since DR-DOS 7.02. See also a similar environment variable %$WIDTH% under DOS Plus.
%_COUNTRY% This pseudo-variable returns the systems' current country code ("1".."65534"), f.e. "1" for USA, "44" for UK, "49" for Germany, "20049" with ISO 8601, "21049" with ISO 8601 and Euro support. This variable was originally introduced by 4DOS, but also became available with COMMAND.COM since DR-DOS 7.02. See also the CONFIG.SYS directive COUNTRY.
%_DAY% This pseudo-variable returns the days of the current date without leading zeros, f.e. "1".."31". This variable was originally introduced by 4DOS, but also became available with COMMAND.COM since DR-DOS 7.02. See also the similar pseudo-variable %DAY%.
%_HOUR% This pseudo-variable returns the hours of the current time in 24-hour format without leading zeros, f.e. "0".."23". This variable was originally introduced by 4DOS, but also became available with COMMAND.COM since DR-DOS 7.02. See also the similar pseudo-variable %HOUR24%.
%_MINUTE% This pseudo-variable returns the minutes of the current time without leading zeros, f.e "0".."59". This variable was originally introduced by 4DOS, but also became available with COMMAND.COM since DR-DOS 7.02. See also the similar pseudo-variable %MINUTE%.
%_MONTH% This pseudo-variable returns the months of the current date without leading zeros, f.e. "1".."12". This variable was originally introduced by 4DOS, but also became available with COMMAND.COM since DR-DOS 7.02. See also the similar pseudo-variable %MONTH%.
%_ROWS% This pseudo-variable returns the current number of screen rows depending on the display mode, f.e. "25", "43", "50", etc. This variable was originally introduced by 4DOS, but also became available with COMMAND.COM since DR-DOS 7.02. See a similar environment variable %$LENGTH% under DOS Plus.
%_SECOND% This pseudo-variable returns the seconds of the current time without leading zeros, f.e. "0".."59". This variable was originally introduced by 4DOS, but also became available with COMMAND.COM since DR-DOS 7.02. See also the similar pseudo-variable %SECOND%.
System information variables supported by DR-DOS COMMAND.COM with networking loaded:
%LOGIN_NAME% This pseudo-variable returns the user name. This always worked with NETX, but it will also work with Personal NetWare's ODI/VLM if the current drive is a PNW-mapped drive (otherwise an empty string is returned). See also the similarly named environment variable %LOGINNAME%.
%P_STATION% This pseudo-variable returns the physical station number in a format "????????????". The value depends on the MAC address of the network adapter, but can be overridden. It resembles an identically named identifier variable in Novell NetWare login scripts.
%STATION% This pseudo-variable returns the logical station number starting with "1" for the first client. The numbers are assigned by the file server and remain static for as long as the IPX connection remains established. It resembles an identically named identifier variable in Novell NetWare login scripts.
%FULL_NAME% This pseudo-variable returns the full name of the logged in user, if available. It resembles an identically named identifier variable in Novell NetWare login scripts. See also the related pseudo-variable %LOGIN_NAME%.
Windows
Dynamic environment variables (also named internal variables or system information variables under DOS) are pseudo-environment variables supported by CMD when command-line extensions are enabled, and they expand to various discrete values whenever queried, that is, their values can change when queried multiple times even within the same command. While they can be used in batch jobs and at the prompt, they are not stored in the environment. Consequently, they are neither listed by SET nor do they exist for external programs to read. They are not case-sensitive.
Indirectly, they are also supported under Windows' COMMAND.COM, which has been modified to internally call CMD.EXE to execute the commands.
%CD% This pseudo-variable expands to the current directory equivalent to the output of the command CD when called without arguments. While a long filename can be returned under CMD.EXE depending on the current directory, the fact that the current directory will always be in 8.3 format under COMMAND.COM will cause it to return a short filename under COMMAND.COM, even when COMMAND internally calls CMD.
%CMDCMDLINE% This pseudo-variable expands to the original startup parameters of CMD.EXE, f.e. "C:\Windows\system32\cmd.exe". Under Windows' COMMAND.COM, this may return something like "C:\Windows\system32\cmd.exe /c ..." due to the fact that COMMAND.COM calls CMD.EXE internally.
%CMDEXTVERSION% This pseudo-variable expands to the version of the command-line extensions of CMD.EXE, if enabled (e.g. "1" under Windows NT, "2" under Windows 2000 and Windows XP).
%DATE% This pseudo-variable expands to the current date. The date is displayed according to the current user's date format preferences.
%ERRORLEVEL% This pseudo-variable expands to the last set error level, a value between "0" and "255" (without leading zeros). External commands and some internal commands set error levels upon execution. See also the identically named pseudo-variable %ERRORLEVEL% under DR-DOS and the IF ERRORLEVEL command.
%RANDOM% This pseudo-variable returns a random number between "0" and "32767".
%TIME% This pseudo-variable returns the current time. The time is displayed according to the current user's time format preferences. If the %TIME% and %DATE% variables are both used, it is important to read them both in this particular order in rapid succession in order to avoid midnight-rollover problems.
Other shells
Unix-like shells have similar dynamically-generated variables, bash's $RANDOM being a well-known example. However, since these shells have a concept of local variables, they are described as special local variables instead.
See also
Variable (computer science)
List of Unix commands
List of DOS commands
Special folder
Modules Environment
PWB shell
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Environment Variables Wiki
User Environment Variables
fix setx.exe not found bug
Operating system technology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OHRRPGCE
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OHRRPGCE
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The Official Hamster Republic Role Playing Game Construction Engine, abbreviated as OHRRPGCE or OHR, is an open-source, "All-in-one" game creation system. It was designed to allow the quick creation of 2D role-playing video games (RPGs). It was originally written by James Paige in QuickBASIC and released in late 1997 or early 1998. In May 2005, the source code was released as free software under the GNU GPL-2.0-or-later, and it was soon ported from QuickBASIC to FreeBASIC and to modern operating systems.
The OHRRPGCE is designed to be simple to use and to create full Final Fantasy-style RPGs without any programming required. HamsterSpeak, the custom scripting language used by the OHR, is very simple and is intended for users with no prior programming knowledge. As it is specialized with many hundreds of available commands, it provides flexibility although it does not attempt to be a general-purpose language. HUDs, battle systems, special effects, customized menus, and entirely scripted non-RPG games can be created with it.
It is often compared with more complex and more full-featured game engines like the commercial RPGMaker but it is open-source free software unlike the unofficial free warez English-language ports of the various editions of RPGMaker, and it also runs on (and compiles for) more hardware architectures and on more OS platforms.
Description
Most of the OHRRPGCE's games are amateur and made by novice game developers. However, other games are full-length RPGs, some of which have been released commercially. Sidescrollers, puzzle games, arcade remakes and first-person dungeon crawlers have all been made with the engine. The game editor (commonly called 'Custom'), which includes graphics, map and numerous other editors, is fully keyboard-based, though also supports using a mouse for most tasks. The game editor can be used on any supported platform except for Android.
Limitations
One of the biggest drawbacks of the engine are its strict technical limitations. It runs at an 8-bit color depth, by default creates games that run at a 320 × 200 resolution, and its editor prefers keyboard controls instead of using a modern graphical user interface toolkit. These are hold-overs from the original Mode X graphics mode used under MS-DOS. Many other restraints are due to the engine originally being written in QuickBasic, which had severe Real mode memory limitations. There are plans for removing most limitations, which the developers have been implementing gradually since the FreeBASIC port.
Mascot
The engine's mascot is Bob the Hamster, the protagonist of the game for which the engine was originally built for, Wandering Hamster.
History
The OHRRPGCE was created by James Paige as a generic engine for personal use, starting in mid 1996 and building on previous free and commercial games created by Paige and Brian Fisher and released under the Hamster Republic name. The engine was created alongside its first game, Wandering Hamster, demos of which were released in late 1997, and which is still in active development as of 2020. Initially he decided to release the engine as shareware, offering only a crippled "4-Map" version to the public. Many people wanted the full engine, and James gave it to anybody who could mail him what he deemed a "Good game". After a few months of this, he released the full engine as freeware.
The November 9, 1999 release of the OHR was the first version to include the HamsterSpeak scripting language. The OHRRPGCE does not use version numbers, but rather named versions, starting with the "handshake" release on November 29, 2002.
On May 19, 2005 the engine was open-sourced under the GPL-2.0-or-later, and since then has been developed by a team of dedicated programmers. Not long after this, the engine was successfully ported from QuickBasic to FreeBasic to run natively on Windows and Linux. The OHRRPGCE gained the ability to play sound files as well as other music formats with the release of "Ubersetzung" on September 21, 2007.
The engine was later ported to Mac OS X in the Zenzizenic release (May 6, 2011), and to Android in the Callipygous release (April 4, 2016), as well as the OUYA, GameStick and Amazon Fire TV Android consoles. A number of OHRRPGCE games have been released on the Google Play, OUYA, Steam and other stores.
In 2017, versions Dwimmercrafty and Etheldreme added widespread mouse support to the game editor and preliminary support to the game player, which was completed in Fufluns in 2020.
References
External links
Video game development software
Video game engines
Free game engines
Free software that uses SDL
Game engines for Linux
Software using the GPL license
Free software programmed in BASIC
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayea%20Boat%20%26%20Aeroplane%20Works
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Mayea Boat & Aeroplane Works
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Mayea Boat & Aeroplane Works is an American wooden boat builder based in Michigan. The company was founded in 1911 by Louis T. Mayea and represents the oldest family-run custom mahogany speedboat builder/designer in the United States. While all other early wooden speedboat builders have changed owners, shut their doors, or turned to fiberglass construction, Mayea Boat & Aeroplane Works continues the wooden speedboat tradition with direct lineage to the company's founder.
History
Louis T. Mayea started building boats in 1893 when he was 15 years old. In 1907 he became the Superintendent of the newly formed Detroit Launch & Power Company. The company was incorporated in Detroit, Michigan by John F. Hacker, father of the now well-known boat designer John L. Hacker.
In 1908 the company roles were listed as: John F. Hacker, President; Louis T. Mayea, Vice President and Superintendent; and John L. Hacker, General Manager.
The company designed and built launches, sailboats, hydroplanes and cruisers up to 60'. In 1911 The Detroit News reported that the company had designed and built the fastest step bottom hydroplane in the United States, named Kitty Hawk II. That same year the company gained attention after designing and building the first successful pontoons for Russell Alger's Wright Brothers Model B plane. Frank Trenholm Coffyn used the hydroplane in 1912 to take off and land on the Hudson River, enabling him to capture aerial video of the New York skyline for the first time in history.
By September 1911 Louis T. Mayea had taken control of the company and renamed the firm to Mayea Boat Works. The new company's advertisements touted their ability to build launches, hydroplanes and cruisers up to 100' in length. In 1916 the General Aeroplane Company commissioned Mayea Boat Works to build a line of mahogany, two-passenger, biplane flying boats. The planes were named Verville Flying Boats after their designer, Alfred Verville. They were the first Michigan-designed and built planes sold to the U.S. Navy. That same year the company was renamed to Mayea Boat & Aeroplane Works and relocated to Fair Haven, Michigan.
During the Great Depression the American economy slowed, as did the luxury boat business. The company was somewhat better positioned then other boat manufactures as it had remained a family-run business able to survive on building a small number of custom boats. In order to stay solvent the company also began building fast custom bootleggers for local rum-runners to smuggle booze the short distance from Canada to Detroit. The outbreak of World War II helped put the company on more solid footing. Louis' sons, Louie and Herbert, produced three experimental military boats for a joint venture between Gray Marine Motors and General Motors: the 49' GM2, the 53' GM3, and a 65' troop huller named GM6. GM3 was powered with four GM 6-71 diesels, making it the fastest diesel-powered boat in the United States.
In 1946 the first Mayea boat branded as a Mays Craft was design and built. The company continued designing and building one-of-a-kind custom wooden boats through the years for customers such as William Andrew Fisher of Fisher Body.
Today
Mayea Boat & Aeroplane Works is run by third and fourth generation Mayeas. Mixing new technology with tradition handed down by their fathers and grandfathers, the company still designs and builds custom one-of-a-kind mahogany boats up to 60' in length. The Mayea family constructs one to two boats per year. The last boat to be built was a custom designed and built 47' mahogany runabout. It is thought to be the world's largest custom diesel-powered varnished mahogany runabout. The boat's amenities include hand-wrapped ostrich skin seats, black ebony inlaid teak floors, 850 horsepower Italian Sea Tec diesels and custom fabricated stainless steel hardware.
External links
Mayea Boat & Aeroplane Works
References
American boat builders
Alfred V. Verville
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1911
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Pentecost
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David Pentecost
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David John Pentecost (born 1940) is a British composer, a writer, a retired information technology specialist, and a retired British computer industry history researcher. He is a Certified Information Technology Professional, a Life Member of the British Computer Society, and also a Member of the Computer Conservation Society.
Early life and education
David Pentecost was born in London. He was educated privately in piano playing for seven years, from age 6. He attended Christ's College, Finchley (a grammar school in north London), until age 18, and then studied mathematics at Brunel College of Technology. Pentecost passed three examinations at the London College of Music, up to Intermediate level. He then taught himself a large repertoire of classical piano music, during subsequent years.
Significant information technology projects
Elliott Brothers (London) Ltd
1960 – 1962 Pentecost worked as a computer programmer at computer manufacturer Elliott Brothers in Borehamwood, Hertfordshire – the first British company to become seriously involved with digital computer technology. Pentecost wrote software on the Elliott 405 computer to measure the precise execution time taken by another computer program running simultaneously on the same computer. This software was used to demonstrate that Elliott's employee Tony Hoare’s new sorting techniques method Quicksort was faster than previous sorting techniques. The Quicksort method, or a version of it, now forms the basis of most computer sorting programs.
Mills Associates Ltd
In 1962, Pentecost moved to Mills Associates Ltd, where he headed a small team of programmers to implement a unit trust administration system, believed to be the first of its kind.
Unit Trust Services Ltd
In 1967, Pentecost joined Unit Trust Services Ltd in the City of London, and in 1972 he was appointed as a director. He designed and implemented what was thought to be the first fully computerised unit trust contract note production system. He chose Honeywell’s new H316 industrial process control mini-computer, having persuaded Honeywell that it would be the first of its type to be used for commercial applications in the UK.
Coward Chance (later Clifford Chance)
In 1980, Pentecost joined Coward Chance as Business Systems Manager. In 1985 Pentecost designed and implemented a system on a large Burroughs Corporation mainframe computer, to revolutionise the administrative aspects of the office, replacing typewriters with word processors, all linked to the central computer, for accounting, billing and other purposes. The system was called the Office Automation System, and it incorporated an internal electronic mail system, before electronic mail over the Internet became widely available to the general public.
Computer industry history research
In 2003, Pentecost learned that Simon Lavington, Emeritus Professor of Computer Science at the University of Essex, was leading a project called Our Computer Heritage, to document the history of British computers for the Computer Conservation Society, whilst pioneers with the knowledge of these computers were still alive. The results of the project are now recorded on the website of the Computer Conservation Society. Pentecost offered, and was asked to lead part of the project, as co-ordinator for the Elliott 400 series of computers section of the website, and from 2003 to 2011 he collected information about the hardware, software and systems relating to these computers. One of his tasks was to find out about the Elliott 403 computer, which was also known as WREDAC. Only one had been built, in 1955, for the Government's Weapons Research Establishment, in Salisbury, South Australia, for the analysis of guided missile trials at Woomera. Simon Lavington referred to Pentecost's work on the 403 computer in two of his works.
Pentecost wrote an autobiography about his work in the computer industry, and included details of his research for the Computer Conservation Society's project to document early British computers. The Society regards his autobiography as a unique book, describing the complete working life experiences of a 20th-century computer programmer.
Music career
In 1987 Pentecost took organ lessons from Catherine Ennis, at St Lawrence Jewry church, which led to his becoming, for a few years, one of the organists at St. Barnabas’ Church, in Linslade, Bedfordshire.
In 2001, he was accepted as a member of the Chopin Society in London. From 2002 to 2005, before emigrating to Cyprus, he played at five of the Society's Members’ Matinée concerts, and included in his programmes a few of his early piano compositions.
From 2007 to 2011, after emigrating to Cyprus, Pentecost formed and organised two groups of amateur pianists in Cyprus, one in Paphos, the other in Limassol. They were called Pianists’ Circles and were based on similar principles to those of the Chopin Society's Members’ Matinée concerts.
He began teaching himself to compose piano solo music in 1996, and he has continued this activity since then, as a professional composer. Russian pianist Tatiana Stupak played one of his compositions at a concert at Cyprus’ Presidential Palace. She and another Russian pianist, Natalia Lezedova, played his early piano works in Cyprus at a public concert in Paphos. He has been administering concerts in Cyprus for Tatiana Stupak since she turned professional.
The Cyprus national broadcaster, Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation classical music radio station RIK 4 Classic, has played some of Tatiana Stupak's recordings of his compositions.
In 2015, Pentecost researched the life of the once world-famous Scottish pianist Frederic Lamond (pianist), who was a pupil of Franz Liszt, shortly before Liszt's death in 1886. As a result, he made a documentary video, intended for students of music history, about Lamond and his time spent with Liszt.
In 2018, Pentecost won first prize for composition at the 4th International Competition of Musicians in Cyprus.
To date (February 2022), he has written 64 piano solo works, and two works for violin and piano. A CD of seventeen of his compositions was issued in 2021, 16 played by Tatiana Stupak, and one played by himself. His music is generally not written in modern styles. He does not write atonal or minimalist music. According to the sheet music published at sheetmusicplus.com, most of his works are in 19th century romantic styles, although a few works are baroque in style.
He has written a second autobiography, about his life in the world of music – see Notes k to n below.
List of works
Genealogy research projects
From about 1981 to 1991, he researched the history of his father's family, tracing it back in England to about 1480, and publishing a book. He became a member of the Society of Genealogists in London. He also researched for a few years up to 2014, the history of his mother's family and associated families, producing several books totalling more than 800 pages, which were distributed electronically privately to family members.
References
Notes
Alumni of Brunel University London
1940 births
Living people
British emigrants to Cyprus
British computer specialists
Members of the British Computer Society
English organists
British male organists
21st-century British composers
21st-century classical composers
21st-century British male musicians
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ari%20Schwartz
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Ari Schwartz
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Ari M. Schwartz is an American cybersecurity and technology policy expert. He is the former Special Assistant to the President and senior director for cybersecurity on the United States National Security Council Staff at the White House, having left the role in October 2015. Previously, Schwartz worked in both the Executive Branch and civil society as on cybersecurity, privacy, civil liberties, and policy. He is an advocate for vulnerability disclosure programs.
Career
Schwartz came to the White House after serving as a Senior Advisor for technology policy to the United States Secretary of Commerce. Previously, he was at the National Institute of Standards and Technology where he served as Internet Policy Advisor, working on the Internet Policy Task Force at the Department of Commerce.
Before his government service, Schwartz was the vice president and chief operating officer of the Center for Democracy and Technology (CDT) in Washington, D.C., in the United States. He was formerly a CDT senior policy analyst and subsequently the center's Vice President and COO.
While at CDT, Schwartz won the RSA conference award for Excellence in Public Policy, and the Online Trust Alliance Award for Excellence in Public Policy.
In October 2015, it was revealed that Schwartz had stepped down from his role as senior director for cybersecurity after a two-year tenure. He remarked that he had always planned to leave the role after this period. Schwartz was praised on his departure for helping to develop the government's cybersecurity framework, a voluntary guideline to help companies bolster their security programs, and as an honest broker with industry and civil society.
Schwartz currently works at the law firm Venable, where he is the Managing Director of Cybersecurity Services.
Personal life
Schwartz is from the Detroit, Michigan area, and holds a bachelor's degree in sociology from Brandeis University.
References
External links
CDT.org profile for Schwartz
Video (and audio) conversation with Schwartz about tech issues (specifically Google) on Bloggingheads.tv
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
People from Detroit
Brandeis University alumni
People associated with computer security
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network%20Operations%20Command%20%28Italy%29
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Network Operations Command (Italy)
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The Network Operations Command (, COR) is an Italian cyberwarfare Joint military unit. Until its merger with the Comando C4 Difesa in 2020 it was called Joint Cybernetic Operations Command (, CIOC)
History
The project of an Italian cyber command, modelled on the United States Cyber Command, was envisaged in 2015 Defence White Paper. The Joint Cybernetic Operations Command, established on 30 September 2017, is intended to achieve initial operational capability by the end of 2018 and full operational capability by 2019. In 2020 CIOC was merged with Comando C4 Difesa and redenominated COR.
Tasks
The Network Operations Command has tasks in the areas of information security, computer network operations, cyber warfare and cyber security. It is designed to be a force provider.
According to the former CIOC Commander, Air Force Brigadier General Francesco Vestito, the Command has two operational focus: cyber-defence and cyber network-defence. The cyber defence is related to the static defence and protection of the network, carried out in cooperation with the rest Italian military, in order to ensure the integrity of the network and the availability of the data flows. The cyber network-defence is related to the ability to carry out the vulnerability assessment and penetration test, in order to provide a quick intervention.
Cooperation
The Network Operations Command supports and protects military operations, conducts offensive operations, and functions as coordinating body between the Italian Armed Forces and other Italian cyber security institutions.
According to Defence Undersecretary Gioacchino Alfano, the Command is intended to operate mainly in joint, inter-agency and NATO contexts, as well as in coordination with university and economic worlds.
With regard to the domestic cyber security organization, the Department of Information Security has the leadership, via the Deputy Director responsible for the cyber security; the operational arms are the Joint Cybernetic Operations Command and the State Police CNAIPIC (Centro Anticrimine Informatico per la Protezione delle Infrastrutture Critiche, Critical Facilities Anti-Informatic Crime Protection Centre), as well as the national CERT. Some other Ministries are linked to the national CERT through their own cyber infrastructures.
Organization
The Command is directly dependent on the Chief of the Defence Staff Defence Staff of the Italian Armed Forces; in particular, it depends on the Deputy Commander for Operations.
The Network Operations Command is currently organized as follows:
Command (Comando)
Administrative Office (Ufficio Amministrazione)
Prevention and Protection Service (Servizio Prevenzione e Protezione)
C4 Unit (Reparto C4), controls the Italian Defense Communication Network (DIFENET) and provide technical, logistical and configuration support to the Italian Joint C4 structure as a whole. It is organized on:
Networks and Data Center Office (Ufficio Reti e Data Center)
Centralized Systems and Software Office (Ufficio Sistemi ed Applicativi Centralizzati)
ICT Operability Office (Ufficio Operatività ICT).
Security and Cyber Defense Unit (Reparto Sicurezza e Cyber Defence), controls the security of High Command ICT hardware and software assets. It is organized on:
Defense CERT Office (Ufficio CERT Difesa)
Security Facilities Office (Ufficio Infrastrutture di Sicurezza)
Classified Systems Office (Ufficio Sistemi Classificati.
Cyber Operations Office (Reparto Cyber Operations), controls both the active side of the cyberdefense operations and the training activities. It is organized on:
Training Office (Ufficio Addestramento)
Cybernetic Activities Office (Ufficio Attività Cibernetiche)
Operations Office (Ufficio Operazioni)
The Command is to recruit also personnel not part of the military.
The operational unit handles the Cyber Operational Cells, which are the actual operational pawns; those cells are tasked to operate on the field under the field commander, who may employ them in order to achieve his or her operational goals.
The Command was located near the military intelligence service Centro Intelligence Interforze in Castel Malnome near Rome, not far from Leonardo da Vinci–Fiumicino Airport. It is now located near the Forte Trionfale'' in Rome.
Notes and references
See also
List of cyber warfare forces
External links
Official Website
Military units and formations of Italy
Military units and formations established in 2017
Military communications units and formations
Net-centric
Computer security organizations
Military communications of Italy
Italy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-PC%20era
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Post-PC era
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The Post-PC era is a market trend observed during the late 2000s and early 2010s involving a decline in the sales of personal computers (PCs) in favor of post-PC devices; which include mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers as well as other mobile computers such as wearable and ubiquitous ones. These devices emphasize portability and connectivity, including the use of cloud-based services, more focused "apps" to perform tasks, and the ability to synchronize information between multiple devices seamlessly.
The term was first coined by MIT scientist David D. Clark. While both Microsoft's and Apple's former CEOs Bill Gates and Steve Jobs also predicted a shift towards mobile devices as the primary method of computing, as a complement to the PC, Jobs popularized the term "post-PC" in 2007 (the launch of the first iPhone), and in 2011 launched iCloud, a service enabling Apple's product line to synchronize data with PCs through cloud services, freeing their iOS devices from dependency on a PC.
Towards the middle of the 2010s, media sources began to question the existence of the post-PC era, at least as conventionally defined, stating that the so-called post-PC devices are just other portable forms of PCs joining traditional desktop PCs which still have their own operation areas and evolve. For example, gaming PCs are often considered still popular for many users.
History
The term "post PC" was first used by David D. Clark in 1999; considering the future of computing to be "inevitably heterogeneous" and a "network full of services". Clark described a world where "everything" would be able to connect to the internet (including watches and toasters), computing would primarily be done through information appliances, and data would be stored by centralized hosting services instead of on physical disks.
In a 1999 op-ed piece for Newsweek, Microsoft's CEO Bill Gates predicted a landscape he dubbed "PC Plus", where personal computers would be used alongside devices which would seamlessly synchronize data (such as calendar events, files, e-mails, etc.) from a PC for easier accessibility from where a user would need it. At Macworld Expo in 2001, not long after the dot-com bubble burst and amidst industry-wide angst over the future of the PC, Apple founder and CEO Steve Jobs announced a strategy seeing a PC (specifically, the Macintosh) serving as a "digital hub" for future mobile devices (such as its iPod MP3 player). Jobs stated that "We don't think the PC is dying at all. We don't think the PC is moving from the center at all. We think it's evolving. Just like it has since it was invented in 1975 and '76."
At an interview alongside Bill Gates at the 5th All Things Digital conference in 2007, Steve Jobs further described a concept similar to Gates' "PC Plus" known as a "post-PC device"; "a category of devices that aren't as general purpose, that are really more focused on specific functions, whether they're phones or iPods or Zunes or what have you. And I think that category of devices is going to continue to be very innovative and we're going to see lots of them". Jobs felt that despite these developments, PCs would "continue to be with us and morph with us, whether it's a tablet or a notebook or, you know, a big curved desktop that you have at your house or whatever it might be." Gates suggested the prevalence of multiple form factors for such devices, including full-sized tablets, small phones, and 10-foot experiences for the living room.
In June 2010, at the D8 conference, while being interviewed by Walt Mossberg and Kara Swisher, Jobs compared tablets and PCs to cars and trucks, saying "[PCs are] still going to be around. They’re still going to have a lot of value. But they’re going to be used by like one out of x people" while predicting that the vast majority of people will eventually use tablets as a primary computing device, analogous to the majority of people who drive cars. Directly conflicting Apple's previous "digital hub" strategy centered around the Macintosh PC, Steve Jobs unveiled Apple's iCloud platform in 2011, which provides cloud storage for data that can be automatically synced between iOS products and PCs. iOS 5, released concurrently with iCloud, also removed the platform's dependency on a PC for first-time setup, syncing, and software updates. Jobs explained that iCloud would replace the PC as the "hub" for a user's devices with online serversall of a user's devices, including a PC, would be able to automatically synchronize and access media and other files between platforms. Apple's current CEO Tim Cook continued to elaborate on the concept that a PC would no longer have to be the center of one's digital life, considering them to be a "device" on the same level as any portable device that a particular user owns. Cook also explained that mobile devices such as tablets and smartphones would be "more portable, more personal and dramatically easier to use than any PC has ever been".
Technologically, Jason Perlow compared post-PC devices to the centralized mainframe-based computer systems of 1970sbut enhanced by the use of cloud computing to provide a more flexible and heterogeneous infrastructure for online services to run on, and the use of desktop virtualization to serve PC-only applications when needed as businesses shift towards apps. Matt Baxter-Reynolds felt that the main selling point of post-PC devices are their lack of functionality; believing that their more simplistic and secure design make them less intimidating to use for consumers in comparison to a traditional PC, their lack of keyboard (unlike laptops) contribute to better portability, and also noted their emphasis on connectivity as well.
In 2014, Sony had sold off its PC division and VAIO brand. This, along with a drop in sales, led many to speculate the PC market was dying. However, the PC market did experience some periods of growth in the 2010s as well, leading many to claim the exact opposite. PC gaming grew 8% in 2012 alone and is expected to continue growing. In the second quarter of 2014, PC sales began to rise again. Growth of the PC compatible market was driven by strong sales of portable PCs in 2014.
Proponents
During an event that unveiled the 3rd generation iPad, Tim Cook reported that Apple had sold 172 million iPod, iPhone, and iPad products in 2011 alone (totaling 76% of the company's total revenue), and had sold more iPad tablets during the fourth quarter of 2011 than personal computers were sold worldwide. Likewise in the third quarter of 2012, worldwide PC sales dropped by 8.6% in comparison to 2011, and in July 2013, Gartner reported that the number of worldwide PC shipments had fallen for the fifth quarter in a row, marking the longest decline in the history of the PC industry. The threat of post-PC devices have also affected the producers of the x86 processors typically used by PCs; many smartphones and tablets use low-power ARM processors manufactured by companies such as Nvidia and Qualcomm instead of the x86 processors sold by companies such as Intel and AMD. The decline in PC sales has directly affected the sales of their processors; while Intel continued to gain market share over AMD in the third quarter of 2012, worldwide shipments of processors also declined by 9% in comparison to the third quarter of 2011.
Several sources, including The Economist, have identified Amazon, Apple, Google and Microsoft as the four platform cloud companies which will be the key competitors in the post-PC era of mobile computing. Tech companies with a heavy dependency on PC sales such as Hewlett-Packard and Dell have seen decreased profits, while IBM has also struggled due to slowing demand for hardware and consulting services.
Detractors
Despite the decrease in PC sales, desktop computers and laptops still made up 84% of the global Web traffic as of March 2013. At its Worldwide Partner Conference in 2012, Microsoft's COO Kevin Turner attacked Tim Cook's declaration of a post-PC era for being "completely incorrect", and described its then-upcoming Windows 8 operating system as a "game-changer" for Bill Gates' "PC plus" landscape. Unlike Apple, whose mobile and PC devices both use different operating systems (iOS and OS X), Windows 8 was designed to accommodate both traditional PCs and tablets through its use of an updated interface optimized for touchscreen use, and its introduction of Windows Store, a service similar to the App Store for obtaining touch-optimized software. As a complement, Microsoft also introduced Windows RT, a special stripped down variant of the operating system built for devices that use the ARM architecture commonly used in smartphones and tablets. While Windows 8 devices (including tablets) are closer in nature to traditional PCs, Windows RT was designed to be a more closed down and "reliable" platform (closer in nature to other post-PC devices such as the iPad), and aside from included desktop programs such as Internet Explorer 10 and Office 2013, can only run apps.
During a presentation in January 2012, Intel's senior vice president Tom Kilroy questioned the arrival of a post-PC era, citing a survey of college students where 66% of its respondents still considered the PC to be the "most important" device in their daily lives. In 2011, Intel introduced Ultrabook—specifications and a marketing platform for a class of subnotebook with an emphasis on portability, responsiveness, productivity, and long-lasting battery life. In 2012, Intel introduced new Atom system-on-chip designs for Android smartphones and Windows 8 tablets, codenamed "Medfield" and "Clover Trail" respectively. Intel stated that Clover Trail tablets could achieve "all-day" battery life, and unlike Windows RT devices, still provide backward compatibility with applications designed for previous versions of Windows. Windows 8 also spurred OEM interest in "convertible" devices, a form factor of devices that can act as either a laptop or tablet, often by having a keyboard accessory they can be docked upon.
While Google already produces the Android operating system used by many tablets and smartphones, it also introduced Chrome OSan operating system designed for personal computing built around its popular Chrome web browser, in 2009. Primarily shipping on netbooks known as Chromebooks, Chrome OS is designed for users who frequently use web applications and cloud-based services (such as Google's own Play and Drive)all of its "applications" are web applications, and the OS itself formerly used only a fullscreen web browser as its shell until an update in 2012, which introduced a desktop environment closer to that of other operating systems.
Windows RT was ultimately cannibalized by low-end tablets running the standard Windows 8 operating system—a market incentivised by Microsoft's decision to optimize Windows 8.1 for these devices, and drop Windows OEM license fees on devices with screens smaller than 9 inches in size. By 2015, Microsoft had quietly mothballed Windows RT by ending the production of its remaining first-party devices. Windows 10 revised Microsoft's mobile strategy by focusing on unification of functionality between device classes, including an extension of Windows 8's app platform that allows software to be coded to support multiple device classes running a Windows 10-based operating system, and tailoring its user experience based on available input devices—particularly on "convertible" laptops and tablets. Microsoft also presented Windows 10 Mobile, an iteration of Windows Phone for smartphones and tablets; the platform supports the ability for devices to be attached to an external display via a docking station, which allows use of a PC-like interface with USB mouse and keyboard support.
References
External links
Pocket Monster: How DoCoMo's wireless Internet service went from fad to phenom - and turned Japan into the first post-PC nation, Wired, September 2001
Personal computing
Classes of computers
Mobile computers
Tablet computers
Market trends
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taligent
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Taligent
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Taligent (a portmanteau of "talent" and "intelligent") was an American software company. Based on the Pink object-oriented operating system conceived by Apple in 1988, Taligent Inc. was incorporated as an Apple/IBM partnership in 1992, and was dissolved into IBM in 1998.
In 1988, after launching System 6 and MultiFinder, Apple initiated the exploratory project named Pink to design the next generation of Mac OS. Though diverging into a sprawling new dream system unrelated to Mac OS, Pink was wildly successful within Apple and a subject of industry hype without. In 1992, the new AIM alliance spawned an Apple/IBM partnership corporation named Taligent Inc., with the purpose of bringing Pink to market. In 1994, Hewlett-Packard joined the partnership with a 15% stake. After a two-year series of goal-shifting delays, Taligent OS was eventually canceled, but the CommonPoint application framework was launched in 1995 for AIX with a later beta for OS/2. CommonPoint had technological acclaim but an extremely complex learning curve, so sales were very low.
Taligent OS and CommonPoint mirrored the sprawling scope of IBM's complementary Workplace OS, in redundantly overlapping attempts to become the ultimate universal system to unify all of the world's computers and operating systems with a single microkernel. From 1993 to 1996, Taligent was seen as competing with Microsoft Cairo and NeXTSTEP, even though Taligent didn't ship a product until 1995 and Cairo never shipped at all. From 1994 to 1996, Apple floated the Copland operating system project intended to succeed System 7, but never had a modern OS sophisticated enough to run Taligent technology.
In 1995, Apple and HP withdrew from the Taligent partnership, licensed its technology, and left it as a wholly owned subsidiary of IBM. In January 1998, Taligent Inc. was finally dissolved into IBM. Taligent's legacy became the unbundling of CommonPoint's best compiler and application components and converting them into VisualAge C++ and the globally adopted Java Development Kit 1.1 (especially internationalization).
In 1996, Apple instead bought NeXT and began synthesizing classic Mac OS onto the NeXTSTEP operating system. Mac OS X was launched on March 24, 2001 as the future of the Macintosh and eventually the iPhone. In the late 2010s, some of Apple's personnel and design concepts from Pink and from Purple (the first iPhone's codename) would resurface and blend into Google's Fuchsia operating system.
Along with Workplace OS, Copland, and Cairo, Taligent is cited as a death march project of the 1990s, suffering from development hell as a result of feature creep and the second-system effect.
History
Development
The entire history of Pink and Taligent from 1988 to 1998 is that of a widely admired, anticipated, and theoretically competitive staff and its system, but is also overall defined by development hell, second-system effect, empire building, secrecy, and vaporware.
Pink team
Apple's cofounders Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs had departed the company in 1985. This vacuum of entrepreneurial leadership created a tendency to promote low-level engineers up to management and allowed increasingly redundant groups of engineers to compete and co-lead by consensus, and to manifest their own bottom-up corporate culture. In 1988, Apple released System 6, a major release of the flagship Macintosh operating system, to a lackluster reception. The system's architectural limits, set forth by the tight hardware constraints of its original 1984 release, now demanded increasingly ingenious workarounds for incremental gains such as MultiFinder's cooperative multitasking, while still lacking memory protection and virtual memory. Having committed these engineering triumphs which were often blunted within such a notoriously fragile operating system, a restless group of accomplished senior engineers were nicknamed the Gang of Five: Erich Ringewald, David Goldsmith, Bayles Holt, Gene Pope, and Gerard Schutten. The Gang gave an ultimatum that they should either be allowed to break from their disliked management and take the entrepreneurial and engineering risks needed to develop the next generation of the Macintosh operating system, or else leave the company.
In March 1988, the Gang, their management, and software manager and future Taligent CTO Mike Potel, met at the Sonoma Mission Inn and Spa. To roadmap the future of the operating system and thus of the organizational chart, ideas were written on colored index cards and pinned to a wall. Ideas that were incremental updates to the existing system were written on blue colored cards, those that were more technologically advanced or long-term were written on pink cards, and yet more radical ideas were on red cards because they "would be pinker than Pink". The Blue group would receive the Gang's former management duo, along with incremental improvements in speed, RAM size, and hard drive size. Pink would receive the Gang, with Erich Ringewald as technical lead, plus preemptive multitasking and a componentized application design. Red would receive speech recognition and voice commands, thought to be as futuristic as the Star Trek science fiction series.
Erich Ringewald led the Gang of Five as the new Pink group, located one floor below the Apple software headquarters in the De Anza 3 building, to begin a feasibility study with a goal of product launch in two years. Remembering the small but powerful original Macintosh group, he maintained secrecy and avoided the micromanagement of neighboring senior executives, by immediately relocating his quintet off the main Apple campus. They used the nondescript Bubb Road warehouse which was already occupied by the secretly sophisticated Newton project. Pink briefly garnered an additional code name, "Defiant".
Pink system
The Pink team was faced with the two possible architectural directions of either using legacy System 6 code or starting from scratch. Having just delivered the System 6 overhaul in the form of MultiFinder, Ringewald was adamant that Pink's intense ambitions were deliverable within a realistic two year timeframe only if the team heavily improved its legacy compatibility code. He pragmatically warned them, "We're going to have enough trouble just reimplementing the Mac." In Apple's contentious corporate culture of consensus, this mandate was soon challenged; David Goldsmith resigned from Pink after making a counter-ultimatum for a complete redesign which obviates all legacy problems, and some other staff escalated their complaints to upward management in agreement with that. Months later, a senior executive finally overrode Ringewald, thus redeveloping Pink from scratch as a new and unique system with no System 6 legacy.
The Pink team numbered eleven when the six-person kernel team within Apple's Advanced Technology Group (ATG) was merged into Pink to begin designing its new microkernel named Opus. Embellishing upon the pink index cards, Pink's overall key design goals were now total object-orientation, memory protection, preemptive multitasking, internationalization, and advanced graphics. Many ideas from the red cards would later be adopted. After its first two months, Pink had a staff of about 25.
By October 1988, the Gang of Five had become only one Bayles Holt, because Gene Pope, Gerard Schutten, and Erich Ringewald then exited the sprawling Pink. The former leader held "grave doubts" over the feasibility of this "living, breathing, money-consuming thing" which was "out of control". Meanwhile, the remaining group and all of Apple were enamored and doubtless of Pink's world-changing vision, trying to join its staff of more than 100 by April 1989. It was a flourishing project that drained personnel from various other departments. All groups outside of Blue became defensively secretive in a company-wide culture of empire-building. Pink's secretive and turf warring culture didn't share source code or product demonstrations, even with the next generation Jaguar workstation design group, until so ordered by CEO John Sculley, and only then under extreme security and monitoring. Throughout Apple, the project and the system were considered successful, but from April 1989 and on into the 1990s, the running joke had always been and would always be, "When is Pink going to ship? Two years."
In 1990, Pink became the Object Based Systems group with Senior Vice President Ed Birss and a diverse staff of 150, including marketing and secretaries. Meanwhile, the hundreds of personnel in the Blue design group were constrained by the commercial pragmatism of maintaining their billion-dollar legacy operating system, which required them to refuse many new features, which earned them the infamous nickname "Blue Meanies". This group had well established the evolution of System 6 which would be released in 1991 as System 7. RAM chips and hard drives were extremely expensive so most personal computers were critically resource constrained, and System 7 would already barely fit onto existing Macintosh systems. Pink would therefore be hard-pressed to include backward compatibility for System 7 applications atop itself — assuming the team wanted to do so. This physical and economical constraint is a crucial aspect of the second-system effect.
By late 1989, Pink was a functional prototype of a desktop operating system on Macintosh hardware, featuring advanced graphics and dynamic internationalized text. Pink engineer Dave said it was "a real OS that could demonstrate the core technology" much deeper than System 6 could do. In June 1990, Bill Bruffey abandoned the idea of Pink becoming a new Mac OS. He got permission to create yet another new microkernel named NuKernel, intended explicitly for a new Mac OS. His team of six engineers worked a few months to demonstrate a microkernel-based Mac OS on a Macintosh IIci — which would years later become Copland and the proposed Mac OS 8.
In the early 1990s, Pink's graphical user interface (GUI) is based on a faux 3D motif of isometric icons, beveled edges, non-rectangular windows, and drop shadows. One designer said "The large UI team included interaction and visual designers, and usability specialists." That essential visual design language would be an influence for several years into Copland, Mac OS 8, and CommonPoint. Magazines throughout the early 1990s showed various mock-ups of what Pink could look like. The People, Places, and Things metaphor extends beyond the traditional desktop metaphor and provides the user with GUI tools to easily drag documents between people and things, such as fax machines and printers. The component-based document model is similar to what would become OpenDoc. In mid-1991, Apple CEO John Sculley bragged that Apple had written 1.5 million lines of code for Pink. An IBM engineer described the first impression of this sophisticated prototype in 1991:
AIM alliance
On October 2, 1991, the historic AIM alliance was formed and announced by Apple, IBM, and Motorola. It was conceived to cross-pollinate Apple's personal products and IBM's enterprise products, to better confront Microsoft's monopoly, and to design a new grandly unified platform for the computing industry. This alliance spun off two partner corporations: Kaleida Labs to develop multimedia software, and Taligent Inc. to bring Pink to market sometime in the mid-90s.
Pink was a massive draw for this alliance, where Apple had been initially approached by two different parts of IBM. One IBM group sought customers for its new POWER CPU hardware, therefore discovering Pink and a new desire to port it to this hardware. The other IBM group sought third party interest in its Grand Unifying Theory of Systems (GUTS) as the solution to the deeply endemic crisis that is software development, which would soon result in Workplace OS. In an April 12, 1991 demonstration of Pink and its architecture, IBM was profoundly impressed and its GUTS outline was immediately impacted. By 1993, IBM's ambitious global roadmap would include the unification of the diverse world of computing by converting Pink to become one of many personalities of Workplace OS, and the ending of the need to write new major applications by instead making smaller additions to Pink's generalized frameworks.
Even before the signing of the alliance contract, the very existence of Pink was identified as a potential second-system threat if its revolutionary aura could prompt customers to delay their adoption of OS/2.
Taligent Inc.
On March 2, 1992, Taligent Inc. was launched as the first product of the AIM alliance. Moving from a temporary lease at Apple headquarters to an office down the street in Cupertino, the company launched with 170 employees, most of whom had been re-hired directly from Apple plus CEO Joe Guglielmi. At age 50, he was a 30 year marketing veteran of IBM and former leader of the OS/2 platform up to its soon-launched version 2.0. The company's mission was to bring Pink to market.
Culture and purpose
Enthusiastically dismissing industry skepticism, he said Taligent would form its own corporate culture, independent of the established cultures and potential failures of its two founding investors and future customers, Apple and IBM. The two were recent allies carrying five other joint initiatives, and a deep rivalry of more than a decade. Dr. Dobb's Journal reflected, "It was fairly surreal for the Apple and IBM employees who went to Taligent and found themselves working for bosses still loyal to the opposition. Not a typical Silicon Valley career move, maybe, but perhaps a portent of other weird twists to come. Ignoring the politics as much as possible, the Taligent programmers buckled down and wrote a lotta lines of code." Commenting on the corporate culture shock of combining free-spirited Apple and formal IBM personnel, Fortune compared the company's cultural engineering challenge as possibly exceeding its software engineering challenge. The openminded but sensible CEO reigned it in, saying, "I'm tired of [Apple] folklore ... I want some data." Comparing the eager startup Taligent to its billion dollar investors, a leader at Kaleida said "The culture of IBM and Apple is largely about getting more benefits, perks, larger offices, fancier computers, and more employees". Dr. Dobb's Journal would describe the increased abstraction in corporate culture resulting from Hewlett-Packard's upcoming 1994 addition to the partnership: "Now you could be [a former] Apple programmer working for [a former] IBM boss who reported [externally] to HP. Or some combination thereof. Twisteder and twisteder."
Apple and IBM did share a progressive culture of object orientation, as seen in their deep portfolios since the early 1980s. IBM had delivered objects on System/38 and AS/400, partnered with Patriot Partners, and integrated System Object Model (SOM) and Distributed SOM into OS/2 and AIX. Apple had already delivered Lisa, prototyped the fully object-oriented Pink operating system, and delivered object oriented frameworks using MacApp. Both companies had worked with Smalltalk.
Within one month of its founding, there was immediate industry-wide confusion about Taligent's purpose and scope. An industry analyst said "IBM and Apple blew it ... they should have announced everything [about Taligent] or nothing." Especially regarding Taligent's potential relationship to the Macintosh, Apple reiterated that its existing flagship legacy would continue indefinitely with System 7 and Macintosh hardware. COO Michael Spindler said "The Mac is not dead" and others said that they had never claimed that Pink would supersede the Macintosh. Charles Oppenheimer, Director of Marketing for Macintosh system software, said "We can't say for sure how [the two] will fit together." The industry was further confused as to the very existence of any Taligent software, not realizing that it was already beyond the concept stage and in fact consisted of volumes of Pink-based software in development by Apple for years. One year later in February 1993, Wired magazine would assert its suspicion that Apple and IBM's core messengers are maintaining "the big lie"—that Taligent's technology is merely a concept, has no existing software, and is actually years away from production—in order to protect their established multi-billion-dollar core legacy of Macintosh and OS/2 products from a potentially superior replacement and to divert the second system effect.
Upon its launch, CEO Joe Guglielmi soon organized the company into three divisions: a native system group for its self-hosted Pink OS, a development tools group, and a complementary products group for application frameworks to be ported to other OSes.
Taligent spent much of its first two years developing its operating system and simultaneously trying to find a market for it. They started a large project surveying potential customers, only to find little interest in a new OS. It is a point of controversy whether the lack of interest was real or the survey fell prey to question-framing problems and political issues with investors. If asked the question "Do you want a new OS?", there were few who would say yes. The survey did, however, show there was sufficient support for the benefits TalOS would bring.
Technology
The Pink operating system is now formally named Taligent Object Services (TOS or TalOS) whether hosted natively on its microkernel or non-natively on a third party OS, but the nickname "Pink" will always remain industry lore, such as with the developer phone number 408-TO-B-PINK. The entire graphics subsystem is 3D, including the 2D portions which are actually 3D constructs. It is based extensively on object-oriented frameworks from the kernel upward, including device drivers, the Taligent input/output (I/O) system, and ensembles. By 1993, IBM discussed decoupling most of TalOS away from its native Opus microkernel, and retargeting most of TalOS onto the IBM Microkernel which was already used as the base for IBM's tandem project, Workplace OS. Its text handling and localization via Unicode was intended to begin enabling the globalization of software development, especially in simplifying Japanese.
In January 1993, Taligent's VP of Marketing said the strong progress of native TalOS development could encourage its early incremental release prior to the full 1995 schedule for TalAE. Apple's business manager to Taligent Chris Espinosa acknowledged the irony of Apple and IBM building competing Taligent-based platforms, which had originated at Apple as Pink. He forecast Apple's adoption of Taligent components into the irreplaceably personal Mac OSwhile empowering its competitiveness with IBM's future Taligent-based general purpose systems, and easing corporate users' migration toward Apple's Enterprise Systems Division's future Taligent-based computers.
On January 10, 1993, The Wall Street Journal reported on the state of Taligent, saying the company and its platform had the broad optimistic support of Borland, WordPerfect, and Novell. Borland CEO Philippe Kahn said "Technically, [Pink] is brilliant, and Taligent is running much faster than I expected." A software venture capitalist expected new entrepreneurs to appreciate the platform's newness and lack of legacy baggage, and the industry expected Apple loyalists to embrace a new culture. Regardless of genuine merit, many in the industry reportedly expected Taligent's success to depend upon wounding Microsoft's monopoly. On January 18, InfoWorld reported, "Taligent draws rave reviews from software developers".
By April 1993, Taligent, Inc. had grown to about 260 employees, mostly from Apple or "some other loose Silicon Valley culture". MacWEEK reported that the company remained on schedule or ahead through 1993 into 1994.
On June 23, 1993, Apple preannounced MacApp's direct successor, the new object-oriented crossplatform SDK codenamed Bedrock. Positioned as "the most direct path for migration" from System 7 to Pink, it was intended to provide source code compatibility between System 7, Windows 3.1, Windows NT, OS/2, and Pink. Bedrock would be abruptly discontinued 18 months later with no successor, and leaving Apple with no connection between System 7 and Pink.
By 1994, the platform consisted of Taligent Object Services (TOS or TalOS), Taligent Application Environment (TAE or TalAE), and the Taligent Development System (TDS or TalDS). The initial plan was to deploy TalAE in early 1994 to help seed the market with a base of applications for TalOS, which was intended to be launched in 1995, with the whole platform going mainstream in two to five years—surely expecting a modern OS from Apple by 1994 or 1995. Influenced by the results of the survey effort, CEO Joe Guglielmi acknowledged the unavoidable risk of creating its own second-system effect, if the TalAE enhancements could make third party operating systems into competitors of native TalOS. The first internal development environment was an IBM RS/6000 model 250 with a PowerPC 601 CPU running AIX, building TalOS natively for the 68k Macintosh.
HP, CommonPoint beta
In January 1994, fellow object technology pioneer Hewlett-Packard joined Apple and IBM as the third co-owner of Taligent at 15% holding. HP held deeply vested experience in object technology since the 1980s with the NewWave desktop environment, the Softbench IDE, Distributed Smalltalk, Distributed Object Management Facility (DOMF), and having cofounded the Object Management Group. Taligent's object oriented portfolio was broadened with HP's compilers, DOMF, and intention to integrate TalOS and TalAE into HP-UX. HP had already partnered with Taligent's well-established competitor NeXT to integrate OpenStep into HP-UX, and Taligent had pursued partnerships with both Sun and HP for several months, all serving to improve HP's competitive bargaining in its offer to Taligent. A Taligent engineer reportedly said, "It wasn't that HP was driven by OpenStep to go to Taligent, but that OpenStep allowed them to make a much better deal." NeXTWORLD summarized that "[HP covered] all bets in the race for the object market", and Sun CEO Scott McNealy derided the partnership as HP being Taligent's "trophy spouse". Dr. Dobb's Journal quipped: "Now you could be [a former] Apple programmer working for [a former] IBM boss who reported [externally] to HP. Or some combination thereof. Twisteder and twisteder."
By March 1994, Taligent had reportedly begun shipping code to its three investors, and some parts of TalAE had shipped to developers though without source code by policy. The first public Taligent technology demonstration was at SFA in Atlanta as an "amazingly fast" and crash-tolerant five-threaded 3D graphics application on native TalOS on a Macintosh IIci. Also in March 1994 at the PC Forum conference, Taligent gave the first public demonstration of TalAE applications, to an impressed but hesitant reception. A show of hands indicated one out of approximately 500 attendees were actively developing on TalAE, but Taligent reported 60 members in its future second wave of developer program. The frameworks already present allowed the integration of advanced TalAE features into pre-existing platform-native applications. CEO Joe Guglielmi reported on TalAE gaining the ongoing outside interest of IBM, but suffering relative uninvolvement from Applepossibly due to Apple's failure to deliver a mainstream OS capable of running it. On April 18, 1994, InfoWorld reported Taligent's future plans for its SDK to be distributed. In November 1994 at Comdex, the public debut of third-party TalAE applications was on an RS/6000 running AIX to demonstrate prototypes made by seven vendors.
In late 1994, TalAE was renamed to CommonPoint, TalDE was renamed to cpProfessional, and Taligent User Interface Builder was renamed to cpConstructor. CommonPoint was being beta tested at 100 sites, with an initial target market of internal corporate developers. TalOS was still scheduled to ship in 1996. Apple considered MacApp's lifespan to have "run its course" as the primary Macintosh SDK, while Taligent considered MacApp to be prerequisite experience for its own platform. Meanwhile, Apple and CILabs had begun an internal mandate for all new development to be based on the complementary and already published OpenDoc. CILabs was committed to publishing its source code, while Taligent was committed against publishing its own.
Taligent was now considered to be a venerable competitor in the desktop operating system and enterprise object markets even without any product release, and being late. John C. Dvorak described Taligent as a threat in the desktop market of integrated application suites, particularly to the "spooked" Microsoft which responded with many vaporware product announcements (such as Chicago, Cairo, Daytona, and Snowball) to distract the market's attention from Taligent. ComputerWorld described the enterprise computing market as shifting away from monolithic and procedural application models and even application suites, toward object-oriented component-based application frameworks — all in Taligent's favor. Its theoretical newness was often compared to NeXT's older but mature and commercially established platform. Sun Microsystems held exploratory meetings with Taligent before deciding upon building out its object application framework OpenStep in partnership with NeXT as a "preemptive move against Taligent and [Microsoft's] Cairo". Having given up on seeing Pink go to market soon, Apple publicly announced Copland in March 1994 intended to compete with the upcoming Windows 95.
Apple was and will remain the only vendor of a desired target OS which is physically incapable of receiving Taligent's heavy payload due to System 7's critical lack of modern features such as preemptive multitasking. However, Taligent reportedly remains so committed to boosting the industry's confidence in Apple's modernization that it is considering creating a way to hybridize TalOS applications for the nascent System 7, and Apple reportedly intends for the upcoming Power Macintosh to boot native TalOS as a next-generation alternative to System 7. The second-system effect is uniquely intensified because Apple is beginning to view the architecturally superior TalOS as a competitor against the protractedly weak System 7 which has no successor in sight. InfoWorld reported this: "Developers and analysts also said that Taligent's fate is closely tied to that of OS/2 and the other as-yet-undelivered operating systems that it is designed to run on top of." This included Apple, Windows NT, and the yet unreleased Windows 95. A 1994 detailed report by INPUT assesses that Taligent's "very risky" future will depend not on its technology, but on support from IBM and major developers, the rapid and cheap development of applications and complex integration tasks, and the ability to create new markets.
In June 1994, Taligent shipped its first deliverable, considered to be somewhat late for its three investors and approximately 100 developer companies. It is a prebeta developer preview called the Partners Early Experience Kit (PEEK), consisting of 80 frameworks for AIX and OS/2. It received mixed reviews, with InfoWorld saying it is "inhibited by a massive footprint, a shortage of development tools, and a mind-boggling complexity". TalDE was scheduled to ship in Q2 1995.
At this point, Apple was reportedly "hedging its bets" in formulating a strategy to deliver the second-system TalAE, while remaining primarily devout to System 7. The company intended to soon introduce the PowerOpen platform of PowerPC AIX, which would deliver TalAE for running a hopefully forthcoming class of applications, simultaneously alongside Macintosh Application Services for running legacy System 7 personal applications.
In May 1995, Taligent canceled the delayed release of its natively hosted TalOS, to focus on its TalAE application framework programming environment that would run on any modern operating system. Having been developed mainly upon AIX, the plan was to port TalAE to HP-UX, OS/2, Windows NT, and Copland. Those vendors are intended to port and bundle TalAE directly with their operating systems, and Taligent will port for those who don't.
CommonPoint
Taligent said that it wants CommonPoint to be the definitive software industry standard, like a local app store in every computer. "Shake n bake" application development in four steps. Each app would have minimal package delivery size because customers already have most of the code in the form of the shared CommonPoint framework. The CommonPoint frameworks are divided into three categories: Application, Domain, and Support.
On July 28, 1995, Taligent shipped its first final product, CommonPoint 1.1, after seven years in development as Pink and then TalAE. First released only for its reference platform of AIX, it was initially priced at for only the runtime framework for users; or for the runtime framework and the software development kit, which further requires the Cset++ compiler because TalDE is still scheduled for a later release. The runtime has an overhead of for each machine and total system RAM is recommended. Though essentially on schedule by the company's own PEEK projections last year, some analysts considered it to be "too little, too late" especially compared to the maturely established NeXT platform. Several PEEK beta test sites and final release customers were very pleased with the platform, though disappointed in the marked lack of crossplatform presence on HP/UX, Mac OS, and Windows NT which strictly limited any adoption of CommonPoint even among enthusiasts. Hewlett-Packard wrote a beginner's guide for CommonPoint programmers to address its steep learning curve, saying that its survey showed that experienced C++ framework programmers needed at least three months to even approach their first application. At its launch, InfoWorld told CEO Joe Guglielmi that "corporate users don't generally understand what CommonPoint is for" and have trouble differentiating CommonPoint and OpenDoc. IBM reportedly conducted a "full-court press" to analyze and promote customers' awareness of CommonPoint, by training its direct sales and consulting staff, attending industry conferences to make CommonPoint presentations, and "talking with any third-party software vendor and systems integrator who will listen".
The CommonPoint beta for OS/2 was released on December 15, 1995. This was coincidentally the same day as the gold master of the Workplace OS final beta, IBM's complementary cousin operating system to TalOS. The final beta of Workplace OS was released on January 5, 1996 in the form of OS/2 Warp Connect (PowerPC Edition) and then immediately discontinued without ever receiving a release of CommonPoint.
Meanwhile, at Apple, the one-year-old Copland reached a primitive and notoriously unstable developer preview release, and Apple's frustrated lack of operating system strategy still had not shipped anything physically capable of running any Taligent software.
New leadership
By 1995, it was estimated that the three investors had spent more than $100 million on Taligent, Inc., with its closure being predicted by sources of the Los Angeles Times due to the decline of its parent companies and due to the inherent difficulty of anyone in the IT industry remaining committed beyond 18 months.
In September 1995, CEO Joe Guglielmi unexpectedly exited Taligent to become VP of Motorola, intensifying the industry's concerns. Dick Gurino, a general manager of a PC and software development division at IBM, was named the interim CEO and tasked with searching for a permanent CEO. In October 1995, Gurino died of a heart attack while jogging, leaving the company without a CEO. On December 19, 1995, founding Taligent employee and Apple veteran Debbie Coutant was promoted to CEO.
On that same day it received what would be its final CEO, Taligent Inc. also ended its partnership form. Apple and HP sold out their holdings in the company, making Taligent Inc. a wholly owned subsidiary of IBM alone. While dissolving the partnership, each of the three former partners expressed approval of Taligent's progress. In what they called overall enterprise-wide cost-cutting processes, Apple and HP wanted to simply maintain technology licenses, IBM wanted to use its own redundant marketing and support departments, and Taligent wanted to focus only on technology. In the process, nearly 200 of the 375 employees were laid off, leaving only engineering staff. Apple veteran and Taligent cofounding employee, Mike Potel, was promoted from VP of Technology to CTO, saying, "We're better protected inside the IBM world than we would be trying to duke it out as an independent company that has to pay its bills every day."
In November 1996, the final public demonstration of the complete native TalOS was given, titled "The Cutting Edge Scenario". While referring to the original codename of "Pink", Taligent had already officially abandoned the never-published native TalOS in favor of CommonPoint.
Unbundling
In 1997, Taligent's mission as an IBM subsidiary was to unbundle the technology of CommonPoint, and to redistribute it across IBM's existing products or license it to other companies — all with a special overall focus on Java. On September 1, 1997, Dr. Dobb's Journal observed, "I guess it's easier to develop hot technology when the guys before you have already written most of it. Like inheriting from a rich uncle. And having another rich uncle to sell it for you doesn't hurt, either."
The wider mass market debut of CommonPoint technology was in the form of VisualAge C++ 3.5 for Windows, with the bundling of the Compound Document Framework to handle OLE objects. In February 1997, the first comprehensive shipment of CommonPoint technology was its adoption into IBM's well-established VisualAge for C++ 4.0, which PC Magazine said was "unmatched" in "sheer breadth of features" because "Now, the best of the CommonPoint technology is being channeled into Open Class for VisualAge." This bundled SDK adaptation includes several CommonPoint frameworks: desktop (infrastructure for building unified OCX or OpenDoc components); web (called WebRunner, for making drag-and-drop compound documents for the web, and server CGIs); graphics for building 2D GUI apps; international text for Unicode and localization; filesystems; printing; and unit tests. Through 1997, Taligent was at the core of IBM's companywide shift to a Java-based middleware strategy. Taligent provided all Unicode internationalization support for Sun's 1997 release of Java Development Kit 1.1 through 1.1.4. Taligent was still leasing the same building from Apple, and JavaSoft was located across the street. But its parent IBM, and the related Lotus, were located on the east coast and were not fully aware of Taligent's plans and deliverables.
WebRunner is a set of Java- and JavaBeans-based development tools at $149. In June 1997, Places for Project Teams was launched at $49 per user as a groupware GUI which hides the ugly interface of Lotus Notes. Taligent had several products, licenses, trademarks, and patents.
Apple canceled the unstable and unfinished Copland project in August 1996, which had already been presumptively renamed "Mac OS 8", again leaving only a System 7 legacy. Apple's own book Mac OS 8 Revealed (1996) had been the definitive final roadmap for Copland, naming the platform's competitors and allies, and yet its 336 pages contain no mention of Pink or Taligent. In late 1996, Apple was ever more desperately scrambling to find any operating system strategy whatsoever beyond System 7, even after having already planned its upcoming announcement of it to be made in December 1997. The company had failed to deliver even a functional developer preview of Copland in two years; and it discarded the successful A/UX and PowerOpen platforms in 1995, and the new AIX-based Apple Network Server of 1996-1997. To build the future Mac OS, the company seriously explored licensing other third party OSes such as Solaris, Windows NT, and TalOS.
Dissolution
On September 16, 1997, IBM announced that Taligent Inc. would be dissolved by the end of the year, with its approximately 100 software engineers being "offered positions at IBM's Santa Teresa Laboratory to work on key components for IBM's VisualAge for Java programming tools, and at the recently announced Java porting center that IBM is setting up with Sun Microsystems and Netscape". IBM withdrew CommonPoint for OS/2 from the market on August 3, 1999.
Reception
By 1993, one year after incorporation and two years before shipping its first product, Taligent was nonetheless seen as a significant competitor in the industry. UnixWorld said that "NeXT needs to increase its volume three-fold [over its existing 50,000 installations] in order to build enough momentum to forestall Microsoft and Taligent in the object-oriented software business."
In 1994, several PEEK beta test sites were impressed with CommonPoint, including one production success story at American Express which replaced its existing six month legacy application in only six weeks. At first in 1994, they'd said "We are almost overwhelmed by the complexity of [CommonPoint]. I don't know if the typical corporate developer is going to be able to assimilate this in their shop." but in 1995 they concluded the project with, "The CommonPoint frameworks — and I'm not exaggerating — are brilliant in the way they cover the technical issues [of that project]." Others were disappointed in the marked lack of crossplatform presence on HP/UX, Mac OS, and Windows NT which strictly limited any adoption of CommonPoint even among enthusiasts.
In March 1995, IEEE Software magazine said "Taligent's very nature could change the contour of the application landscape. ... [I]t's clear that Taligent is sitting on, using, and refining what is ostensibly the world's best developed, comprehensive, object-oriented development and system environment." The system was described as virtually "a whole OS of nothing but hooks"which rests upon, integrates deeply with, and "replaces the host's original operating system", leaving "no lowest common denominator". Therefore, any Taligent native application is expected to run just the same on any supported host OS. Any degree of clean portability, especially with native integration, in the software industry was described as a holy grail to which many aspire and few deliver, citing the fact that Microsoft Word 6.0 for Macintosh still works like a foreign Windows application because the foundation was redundantly ported with each application. In February 1997, at the first comprehensive mass release of Taligent technology in the form of VisualAge C++ 4.0, PC Magazine said "Now, the best of the CommonPoint technology is being channeled into Open Class for VisualAge. ... Although the technology was lauded by many, the size and complexity of the CommonPoint frameworks proved too daunting for practical purposes. ... For sheer breadth of features, the Taligent frameworks are unmatched. An all-encompassing OOP framework has always proved a difficult ideal to realize, but VisualAge's Open Class Technology Preview is by far the most credible attempt we've seen.".
In 2008, PCWorld named the native Taligent OS as number 4 of the 15 top vaporware products of all time.
Due to the second-system effect and corporate immune response, Wired writer Fred Davis compared Taligent's relationship with Apple and IBM to a classic Greek tragedy: "A child is born, destined to kill its father and commit even more unspeakable acts against its mother. The parents love their child and are unwilling to kill it, so they imprison it in a secret dungeon. Despite its mistreatment, the child grows stronger, even more intent on committing its destined crimes."
In 1995, IT journalist Don Tennant asked Bill Gates to reflect upon "what trend or development over the past 20 years had really caught him by surprise". Gates responded with what Tennant described as biting, deadpan sarcasm: "Kaleida and Taligent had less impact than we expected." Tennant believed the explanation to be that "Microsoft's worst nightmare is a conjoined Apple and IBM. No other single change in the dynamics of the IT industry could possibly do as much to emasculate Windows."
Legacy
The founding lead engineer of Pink, Erich Ringewald, departed Apple in 1990 to become the lead software architect at Be Inc. and design the new BeOS. Mark Davis, who had previously cofounded the Unicode Consortium, had at Apple co-written WorldScript, Macintosh Script Manager, and headed the localization of Macintosh to Arabic, Hebrew, and Japanese (KanjiTalk), was Taligent's Director of Core Technologies and architect of all its internationalization technology, and then became IBM's Chief Software Globalization Architect, moved to Google to work on internationalization and Unicode, and now helps to choose the emojis for the world's smartphones. Ike Nassi had been VP of Development Tools at Apple, launched MkLinux, served on the boards of Taligent and the OpenDoc Foundation, and worked on the Linksys iPhone.
IBM harvested parts of CommonPoint to create the Open Class libraries for VisualAge for C++, and spawned an open-source project called International Components for Unicode from part of this effort. Resulting from Taligent's work led by Mark Davis, IBM published all of the internationalization libraries that are in Java Development Kit 1.1 through 1.1.4 along with source code which was ported to C++ and partially to C. Enhanced versions of some of these classes went into ICU for Java (ICU4J) and ICU for C (ICU4C). The JDK 1.1 received Taligent's JavaBeans Migration Assistant for ActiveX, to convert ActiveX into JavaBeans. Davis's group became the Unicode group at the IBM Globalization Center of Competency in Cupertino.
Taligent created a set of Java- and JavaBeans-based development tools called WebRunner, a groupware product based on Lotus Notes called Places for Project Teams. Taligent licensed various technologies to Sun which are today part of Java, and to Oracle Corporation and Netscape. HP released the Taligent C++ compiler technology (known within Taligent as "CompTech") as its "ANSI C++" compiler, aCC. HP also released some Taligent graphics libraries.
In the 2010s, some of Apple's personnel and design concepts from Pink and Purple (the first iPhone's codename) would resurface and blend into Google's Fuchsia operating system. Based on an object-oriented kernel and application frameworks, its open-source code repository was launched in 2016 with the phrase "Pink + Purple == Fuchsia".
Publications
The following were written by Taligent personnel about its system and about software engineering in general.
Whitepapers
Books
The Taligent Reference Library series:
Manuals
Patents
Notes
References
Defunct software companies of the United States
Companies established in 1992
Companies disestablished in 1998
Apple Inc. operating systems
IBM operating systems
Former IBM subsidiaries
Microkernel-based operating systems
Object-oriented operating systems
PowerPC operating systems
Microkernels
Apple Inc. partnerships
HP software
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCLinuxOS
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PCLinuxOS
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PCLinuxOS, often shortened to PCLOS, is an x86-64 Linux distribution, with KDE Plasma Desktop, MATE and XFCE as its default user interfaces. It is a primarily free software operating system for personal computers aimed at ease of use. It is considered a rolling release.
History
The precursor to PCLinuxOS was a set of RPM packages created to improve successive versions of Mandrake Linux (later Mandriva Linux). These packages were created by Bill Reynolds, a packager better known as Texstar. From 2000 to 2003, Texstar maintained his repository of RPM packages in parallel with the PCLinuxOnline site. In an interview, Reynolds said he started PCLinuxOS "to provide an outlet for [his] crazy desire to package source code without having to deal with egos, arrogance and politics."
In October 2003, Texstar created a fork of Mandrake Linux 9.2. Working closely with The Live CD Project, Texstar has since developed that fork independently into a full-fledged distribution. The initial releases were successively numbered as "previews": p5, p7, p8 up to p81a, then p9, p91, p92, and p93.
Although it retains a similar "look and feel" to Mandriva Linux, PCLinuxOS has diverged significantly. The code was officially forked from Mandrake 9.2 into an independent project in 2003. After three years of continuous development, the developers took advantage of further development in (the renamed) Mandriva late in 2006 for PCLinuxOS 2007. In the releases before 2007, it was normally necessary to perform a re-installation.
PCLinuxOS 2007
For 2007, PCLinuxOS used a one-time source code snapshot from Mandriva to produce a new independent code base (no longer a fork of Mandriva). This implied a shift to a more modern code, which required a complete reinstallation to this version. The new version featured a new look and built-in 3D effects. A new logo was also designed for the new version, and was incorporated into the boot screen. A new login screen was designed, entitled "Dark". The final/official PCLinuxOS 2007 version was released on May 21, 2007.
PCLinuxOS 2009
The last version of the 2009 Live CD, PCLinuxOS 2009.2, was released on June 30, 2009. Improvements included bug fixes, new backgrounds, sounds, and start-up screen, as well as quicker start-up times. It was the last PCLinuxOS live CD to ship with K Desktop Environment 3, and the last of the PCLinuxOS 2007 backward compatible series.
Remasters of PCLinuxOS, featuring the Xfce (Phoenix), LXDE (PCLinuxOS-LXDE), and Gnome (PCLinuxOS-Gnome) desktops were also made available.
PCLinuxOS 2010
The 2010 version of the Live CD was released on April 19, 2010. It includes the new KDE SC 4.4.2, a new graphical theme and a new version of the Linux Kernel (Kernel 2.6.32.11). It is also the first PCLinuxOS Live CD to include the ext4 file system support. This version required a complete reinstall of the operating system.
While a version of PCLinuxOS that features the GNOME desktop environment was introduced in 2008, the 2010 version is the first one to not only offer the KDE Plasma and GNOME versions, but also versions with Xfce, LXDE, Enlightenment, and Openbox.
PCLinuxOS 2010.1
Version 2010.1 was released on May 5, 2010. Changes made since last version:
[The] Kernel has been updated to version 2.6.32.12-bfs.
KDE Plasma Desktop has been upgraded to version 4.4.3.
Support has been added for Realtek RTL8191SE/RTL8192SE WiFi cards and Microdia webcams.
Vim console text editor and udftools has been added.
Fixed CD-ROM ejection when using the Copy to RAM feature.
Fixed KDE new widget download. Updated nVIDIA (195.36.24) and ATi fglrx (8.723) drivers.
Updated all supporting applications and libraries from the software repository which include security updates and bug fixes.
PCLinuxOS 2011.6
PCLinuxOS 2011.6 version was released on June 27, 2011.
PCLinuxOS 2012
PCLinuxOS 2012.02 version was released on February 22, 2012. Later another maintenance release was made on August 22, 2012. Major changes compared to 2011 release are:
Kernel has been updated to version 3.2
KDE version 4.8.2
nVIDIA and ATi fglrx driver support.
PCLinuxOS 2013 64-bit
PCLinuxOS 2013 64-bit first version was released on April 10, 2013.
It featured:
Kernel 3.2.18-pclos2.bfs for maximum desktop performance.
Full KDE 4.10.1 Desktop.
nVIDIA and ATi fglrx driver support.
Multimedia playback support for many popular formats.
Wireless support for many network devices.
Printer support for many local and networked printer devices.
Addlocale: allows you to translate PCLinuxOS into over 60 languages.
LibreOffice preinstalled.
LibreOffice Manager can install LibreOffice supporting over 100 languages.
MyLiveCD allows you to take a snapshot of your installation and burn it to a LiveCD/DVD.
PCLinuxOS-liveusb – allows you to install PCLinuxOS on a USB key disk.
PCLinuxOS 2014.7
The new version was released on July 7, 2014.
Features:
kernel 3.15.4 for maximum desktop performance.
Full KDE 4.12.3 Desktop.
Nvidia and ATI fglrx driver support.
Multimedia playback support for many popular formats.
Wireless support for many network devices.
Printer support for many local and networked printer devices.
Addlocale allows you to convert PCLinuxOS into over 60 languages.
LibreOffice Manager can install LibreOffice supporting over 100 languages.
MyLiveCD allows you to take a snapshot of your installation and burn it to a LiveCD/DVD.
PCLinuxOS-liveusb – allows you to install PCLinuxOS on a USB key disk
Features
PCLinuxOS places specific emphasis on desktop computing, concentrating its efforts for home or small business environments, hence paying less attention to other more "traditional" uses, like servers, although packages for most server tasks are available.
PCLinuxOS is distributed as a Live CD, which can also be installed to a local hard disk drive or USB flash drive. Since version 2009.1, provides a USB installer to create a Live USB, where the user's configuration and personal data can be saved if desired. A live USB of older versions of PCLinuxOS can be created manually or with UNetbootin. The entire CD can be run from memory, assuming the system has sufficient RAM. PCLinuxOS uses APT-RPM, based on APT (Debian), a package management system (originally from the Debian distribution), together with Synaptic Package Manager, a GUI to APT, in order to add, remove or update packages. If there is enough memory on the machine, and an active network connection, the Live CD can update packages. PCLinuxOS is also designed to be easy to remaster after installation, creating one's own personalized Live CD, using the mylivecd tool.
PCLinuxOS maintains its own software repository, available via the Advanced Packaging Tool (APT) and its Synaptic front-end, completely replacing Mandriva's urpmi. This means that an installation could be continuously updated to the latest versions of packages, hence sometimes forgoing the need to re-install the entire distribution upon each successive release. Other differences include its own menu arrangement, custom graphics, and icon sets.
End of official support for 32bit version
On May 10, 2016 main developer Texstar announced the end of support for 32bit versions of PCLinuxOS. As a result, 32bit ISOs of the distribution, official 32bit package updates and forum support ceased availability. While this doesn't prevent unofficial support, following the announcement only 64bit ISO images and package updates are available through the official webpage and channels.
Other versions
There are several community projects associated with PCLinuxOS.
KDE Fullmonty (FM) edition (Discontinued)
KDE FullMonty (Live & Install DVD) is a regular PCLinuxOS KDE installation, but is modified to include a special desktop layout and many additional applications and drives preinstalled. It is available as either a 32- or 64-bit edition.
FM applies a new concept: activity-focused virtual desktop layout, which aims to address typical user-needs/tasks, make their life easy, and working on the computer straightforward and fun. It has 6 virtual desktops:
The idea of the FM concept is to provide the best out-of-the-box experience in an intuitive, thematically organized desktop setup. FM is designed for Linux beginners and newcomers from other operating systems. The typical user is provided with a cream of the crop selection of activity-related applications available in PCLinuxOS. The most popular ones are easily accessible from the respective virtual desktop and many more applications can be accessed from the PCmenu. The variety of applications in FM serves several purposes: advertising those applications to users; stimulating the comparative usage of these applications in the forum, learning about and discussing specific application features, and finally helping deciding on and providing constructive feedback on finding the most popular application for a given task. FM should facilitate the entry into the Linux desktop experience and provide an intuitive and easy to use working environment.
Trinity edition
The Trinity edition of PCLinuxOS comes in 2 flavours, a mini-me that is a minimalist iso for those that want to customize their desktop with only the programs they want.
The Other is Big Daddy, which includes all the codecs for multimedia, office tools and more out of the box programs.
LXQt edition
Xfce edition
PCLOS community edition featuring XFCE desktop in a rolling release offers easy installation and setup, easy to update and works out of the box without systemd..a lot like MX-17 but non expiring. Bluetooth easiest working distro.
MATE edition
The newest edition of PCLinuxOS incorporates the MATE desktop environment, announced on the 3rd July 2013. PCLinuxOS Mate ISO is available in 64bit flavor only. This ISO is small enough to fit on a standard 700 mb CD or a small USB key.
Features: Mate Desktop 1.6.x, Kernel 3.4.52, Pulse Audio enabled by default, Udisks2, Hal daemon turn off but still available as a service if needed. All of the Mate desktop applications plus Firefox, Thunderbird, Pidgin and Skype. Clementine and VLC multimedia players. PysolFC for recreation.
Third-party distributions
Because PCLinuxOS includes the mklivecd script, there have been several third-party distributions over the years based on PCLinuxOS, though they may only mention that connection if they follow strict guidelines.
Release history
Almost all major releases have been accompanied by new boot-up and login screens, along with some changes in icon sets, and login sounds.
See also
APT-RPM
Mandriva Linux
Rolling release
References
External links
PCLinuxOS Magazine
PCLinuxOS Zen mini archive
PCLinuxOS on OpenSourceFeed Gallery
KDE
Live CD
Live USB
Mandriva Linux
Operating system distributions bootable from read-only media
RPM-based Linux distributions
Linux distributions without systemd
X86-64 Linux distributions
Rolling Release Linux distributions
Linux distributions
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1695848
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring%20%28operating%20system%29
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Spring (operating system)
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Spring is a discontinued project in building an experimental microkernel-based object-oriented operating system (OS) developed at Sun Microsystems in the early 1990s. Using technology substantially similar to concepts developed in the Mach kernel, Spring concentrated on providing a richer programming environment supporting multiple inheritance and other features. Spring was also more cleanly separated from the operating systems it would host, divorcing it from its Unix roots and even allowing several OSes to be run at the same time. Development faded out in the mid-1990s, but several ideas and some code from the project was later re-used in the Java programming language libraries and the Solaris operating system.
History
Spring started in a roundabout fashion in 1987, as part of Sun and AT&T's collaboration to create a merged UNIX. Both companies decided it was also a good opportunity to "reimplement UNIX in an object-oriented fashion". However, after only a few meetings, this part of the project died.
Sun decided to keep their team together and instead explore a system on the leading edge. Along with combining Unix flavours, the new system would also be able to run almost any other system, and in a distributed fashion. The system was first running in a "complete" fashion in 1993, and produced a series of research papers. In 1994, a "research quality" release was made under a non-commercial license, but it is unclear how widely this was used. The team broke up and moved to other projects within Sun, using some of the Spring concepts on a variety of other projects.
Background
The Spring project began soon after the release of Mach 3. In earlier versions Mach was simply a modified version of existing BSD kernels, but in Mach 3 the Unix services were separated out and run as a user-space program like any other, a concept Mach referred to as a server. Data which would normally be private in the kernel under a traditional Unix system was now passed between the servers and user programs using an inter-process communication (IPC) system, ending in ports which both programs held. Mach implemented these ports in the kernel, using virtual memory to move data from program to program, relying on the memory management unit (MMU) and the copy on write algorithm to do so with reasonable performance.
In its ultimate development, an OS on Mach would consist of a number of such servers, each handling a specific task. Examples would include the file system or network stack. The operating system server in such a system would be quite small, providing services unique to that OS, and forwarding most other calls to other servers. Since the OS was running on top of single set of common servers, several OS servers could be run at the same time, allowing a single system to "natively" support DOS, Unix and other operating systems at the same time.
This capability was particularly exciting to companies like IBM, who were already supporting several different systems, and saw Mach as a way to combine these with common underlying code. In fact this was not so easy. Mach made several decisions at a low-level which made any system running on it Unix-like to some degree. Most notable was a security system which was modelled on fairly inflexible inherited model of Unix programs. Additionally the IPC system proved to be a major performance problem, although the nature of this issue didn't become clear until later. The performance was so poor that many commercial projects to port existing operating systems to Mach, notably IBM's Workplace OS, were eventually abandoned.
Rationale
Although Sun was also interested in supporting multiple operating systems, their needs were nowhere as pressing as IBM or Apple. By this point in time they had already moved platforms from their early 68k-based machines to their SPARC-based lineup, and their UNIX System V-based Solaris operating system was taking over from their BSD-based SunOS. Sun's concerns were somewhat more subtle: keeping developers interested in Sun's version of Unix; and, allowing their system to scale downwards onto smaller devices such as set-top boxes. A microkernel-based system would be particularly useful in this latter role.
Spring concentrated on "programmability"; making the system easier to develop on. The primary addition in this respect was the development of a rich interface definition language (IDL), which exported interfaces with considerably more information than the one used in Mach. In addition to functions and their parameters, Spring's interfaces also included information about what errors can be raised and the namespace they belong to. Given a proper language, programs, including operating system servers, could import multiple interfaces and combine them as if they were objects native to that language — notably C++. Some time later the Spring IDL was adopted with minor changes as the CORBA IDL.
Spring also explored a number of specific software advances in file systems, virtual memory and IPC performance. The result was a single Unix-like system with much better performance than Mach. Some of these changes are detailed below.
Description
The Sun engineers used non-standard terminology for a number of common components, which makes discussing the system somewhat confusing. For instance, Mach tasks are referred to as domains, ports as doors, and the kernel as the nucleus.
The nucleus
The Spring kernel was divided into two parts: a virtual memory system and the nucleus. Although the nucleus is equivalent to only one portion of the Mach kernel, the kernels of each OS are analogous enough to be considered to perform the same function.
The Spring kernel includes only the most basic functionality and state needed to support user-side applications. Primarily this includes state to maintain lists of running programs (domains) and their threads, as well as the communications links between them (doors).
The Spring kernel is not multi-threaded. Normally this would preclude it from use in realtime settings, but it is not clear that is the case. Normally kernels need to be threaded in order to ensure a long-running task such as disk I/O won't tie up the system and prevent a subsequent call from being serviced in time; under Spring the kernel almost immediately hands off the vast majority of requests to the servers, so under this model it is only the servers which, in theory, need to be threaded.
IPC model
One major difference between Mach and Spring was the IPC system. In Mach, the system was arranged as a set of one-way asynchronous pipes (ports) between programs, a concept derived from Unix pipes. In programming, however, the most common method of communications is the procedure call, or call/return, which Mach did not support directly. Call/return semantics could only be supported via additional code in higher-level libraries based on the underlying ports mechanism, thereby adding complexity.
Spring instead directly supported call/return semantics in the basic communications system. This resulted in a change of terminology from ports in Mach, to doors in Spring. Doors were known to the kernel only; programs were handed a "handle" to the door with an identifier which was unique to that program. The system worked similarly to ports for the initial message; messages sent to a door were examined by the nucleus in order to find the target application and translate the door handle, but the nucleus then recorded small amounts of information from the caller in order to be able to return data quickly. This sped up the return by about 40%.
Additionally, the Mach model was asynchronous — the call would return if and when the server had data. This followed the original Unix model of pipes, which allowed other programs to run if the server was busy. However, for a call/return system this has serious drawbacks, because the task scheduler has to run to select the next program to be serviced. Hopefully this was the server the call was requesting data from, but it this was not guaranteed. Under Spring, IPC is synchronous; control is immediately passed to the server without running the scheduler, improving the round trip time in the common case when the server can immediately return.
Under Mach, the virtual memory system, supported by the memory management unit (MMU), was expected to provide a lightweight solution to copying data, by simply mapping the same data in memory into the two programs. In reality this solution was not at all efficient, as many MMUs had design features which made this mapping slow or even impossible.
Unlike Mach's one-size-fits-all solution to IPC, Spring used a variety of methods to physically pass data between programs. One of these, the bulk-path, was basically identical to Mach's ports and messages, but in practice the bulk-path was the least common message type. For smaller messages Spring provided the vanilla-path, which directly copied the data from one space to another, something which proved to be faster than memory mapping in the real world for less than 5k of data.
The fast-pathallowed for extremely fast invocations — at least when running on SPARC-based platforms. The fast-path used a unique "half-trap" to avoid much of the context switching overhead which plagued Mach systems. Instead of saving out all of the processor state—the normal procedure in the case of a trap into the kernel—Spring only saved out the top 16 SPARC registers, a number which was defined by specific implementation details of the SPARC architecture. The other portions of the register stack were rendered invisible to the receiver using the SPARC's WIM instruction, providing some level of security. The fast-path strongly resembles a classic procedure call within a single application, which uses register windows on the SPARC, adding some MMU work to move the context from one program to another.
The fast-path was only available for calls passing simple values which didn't have to be translated (no door references, for instance) with up to 16 values in total. Although this would seem to be quite limiting, the fast-path is actually used by the vast majority of calls in Spring—generally over 80% of the calls and about 60% of the returns. Returns often respond with large blocks of data, for instance, a disk block, explaining why the returns more often used the other IPC systems.
On 32-bit SPARC V8 systems, a complete round-trip call using the fast-path took just over 100 instructions, making it many times faster than a typical Mach call. It remains unclear whether or not the fast-path could be implemented on other machines, so the overall performance improvement of Spring is difficult to compare with Mach, which was typically measured on IA-32 systems. Specifically, a full syscall took under 20 µs on a 486DX-50 for existing BSD Unix systems, and 114 µs under Mach. This led to a performance hit of 50% or more, and doomed most Mach projects. In contrast, Spring using the fast-path boasted an IPC time of only 11 µs on a SPARCstation 2.
Virtual memory
Another key area of improvement in Spring was the implementation of the virtual memory (VM) system, also part of the kernel. Virtual memory is a system which ties together the physical random-access memory (RAM) in a machine, the MMU, and the disk system to create the illusion that every program on the system has its own block of RAM equal to the maximum the machine and operating system can support. The most prevalent memory addressing model in computers and operating systems in use in the 1980s and 1990s, was 32-bit, providing access to a theoretical limit of 4 GiB of memory, but until the early 2000s, only relatively expensive computers would have that much physical RAM. The VM system creates the illusion of more by using the hard disk as a backing store, an area of much slower memory used to offload inactive portions of RAM.
In traditional Unix systems VM is a part of the kernel, as are the disk and memory handlers it ties together. Under Mach the decision of where to place the VM system is not so obvious—although the kernel is in control of RAM and the MMU, the disk handlers are part of external client programs. To solve this problem Mach 3 introduced a new two-layer VM system, with control of the actual VM system in the kernel, which would then ask an external client-space pager to interact with the disk system to physically copy memory around. Unfortunately this proved to be a serious performance issue, requiring several trips in and out of the kernel (with resulting context switches along with it) as the various layers of the VM system called each other.
The Spring team had the advantage of being able to examine what went wrong with the Mach model and fix it. The result was a much more cleanly separated system of address spaces in programs, mapped by the VM into various memory objects, which were in turn managed by a pager for backing store handling. When a program made a request for data the request was passed to the VM system in the kernel, which would find the appropriate pager and ask it to create and set up an appropriate memory object. In exchange the pager was passed a cache manager from the VM, which was responsible for keeping track of clean/dirty status of the local cache of that memory object. Implementation details added considerable complexity to this model, but most of this was hidden. In the end the basic system had pagers which were in charge of the memory, and address spaces which were in charge of the caches. The two had well-defined interfaces allowing them to pass commands back and forth to keep their data in sync.
This split in duties led to one very real performance improvement. Since programs could share the memory objects, and microkernel systems like Spring are based on the idea of copying memory around, Spring allowed programs sharing memory in this fashion to share it in the VM system as well. Thus under Mach if a network file server is handing data to a program both programs will end up using up memory in the VM system, whereas under Spring the two would naturally share the same memory objects, as the pager implementing that memory object would simply return another handle to the same memory. Only inside the VM would they be considered different objects, and would be handled by separate cache managers. Therefore, the data would only be cached in RAM once. In theory this could lead to considerably better real-world RAM usage.
Additionally, the use of external pagers with a well defined API allowed the system to be cleanly separated when this was needed. Spring also allowed programs themselves to state which pager would be best suited to their needs, including themselves, allowing Spring programs to easily implement private VM systems for known workloads. For applications like file servers, web servers and database management systems, custom VMs and file systems often lead to dramatically improved performance.
Name service
Most operating systems include a variety of naming services. The most basic example is a file system, in which the files are internally referred to by a "handle", a small number, while a separate directory gives the files names with which the users interact. The same kind of name/identifier dichotomy occurs many other parts of the typical Unix system; printers are named in the etc/printcap file, small numbers and strings in the environment variables, and network locations in DNS. Each of these systems provided its own names, with a custom API, making the different objects appear completely different even in concept.
Other systems had attempted to add naming systems to existing Unix systems, but generally these were "covers" over the existing functionality which simply collected up all the names from these various services and presented them in one collection. Due to the fact they relied on knowing about the underlying system layout they tended to be rather inflexible, not making it easy for new services to be added. These seem to have seen little use.
Only in a completely new operating system could one hope to provide a universal service. For instance, Plan 9 used the file system as a universal naming service; everything from printers to windows could be accessed by name through the file system. This is an extension of the original Unix concept, one which had slowly disappeared as more and more functionality had been added over the years.
Mach did not have a naming service of any sort for its ports. This proved to be a serious problem, because programs had to know in advance what servers they had to call in order to ask the kernel to provide a port. This meant that replacing functionality was much more difficult than it should have been; a new printer server needed to sit on the same ports as the old one for instance: there would be no way to run two side by side for development. If ports were instead referred to by name, servers could sit on different ports and simply use the same name. This functionality, provided by a name server, was considered highly important under Spring.
Spring's approach essentially inverted the Plan 9 system: under Spring the file system was one example of a server which used the single unified name service. The same service could be used to name files on disk, environment variables, hardware devices, programs and even objects inside programs. The system was hierarchical, only the system namespace was directly supported, by a server which started at boot time. Other servers would then "bind" the names they knew into the system, the printer server would produce a list of printers, the file system would bind in the directories of attached disks. In this way a mapping of all the objects on the system was built up, potentially at runtime, and could be accessed in a file-like fashion very similar to Plan 9. All of these could be accessed using a single API, although the system also provided a variety of stub libraries to make it appear as classical services as well, notably in the Unix emulation server.
The name service was also the central location for security and permissioning. Since doors, the real accessors in Spring, were handed out by the name service, the server included a complete access control list-based permission checking system. So in addition to providing permissions on the file system, under Spring any object could be controlled using the same set of permissions and user interface. Contrast this with Windows NT for instance, which includes about a dozen permissioning systems (file system, DCOM, SQL access, IIS, etc.), all of which have to be set up separately. In order to improve performance, the system included the concept of trust, allowing nameservers to assume requests from other servers were valid. For instance, if a user asked the file server to access a file, the system nameserver would pass along the request to the file system, which would immediately honor it. However, since the user was not known, the ACL's would be check against the file being accessed.
Groups of related names were known as contexts. Contexts were also names, and thus similar to the file system concept of a directory. Users could build their own contexts out of seemingly unrelated objects; printers using completely separate drivers (servers) could be collected into a single list, a file could have different names in different places (or for different users), or a single domain could be built up containing every personal file in it for searching purposes. In this manner Spring allowed file directories to be "unioned", a useful feature lacking from traditional Unixen.
Spring did not include a built-in object persistence system, but the name service was persistent and could be used to find objects in this sort of manner. To some degree the series of servers started during boot time provided a persistent name space which survived boots, as they copied their names into the same server. In theory the system could allow the name server to provide a "lazy launch" system, not starting the networking server until someone requests it for instance, but it does not appear it included this functionality. In fact the separation of name spaces would allow this to be separated out to the service which actually implemented the naming of doors, making implementation considerably easier.
File system
As stated earlier, the Spring VM allowed any program to define what pager it should use. Additionally the Spring system was based on a single universal naming system. These two concepts were combined to produce the Spring file system.
Key to the Spring file system's operation was tight integration with the VM system. Since it was "known" that the VM system would be managing the local cache of the data from the file system, the file system was reduced to a command structure only, and was its own pager. That is, the file system was responsible for loading and saving data from memory objects when needed, but caching of that data would be handled for it by the VM. As mentioned before, this means that under Spring a file only exists in RAM in one place, no matter how it is being shared by the programs in the system.
Spring used two sorts of file systems, a local file system which was similar to most common Unix systems, as well as a caching file system for network devices. The caching system demonstrates the utility of Spring's VM/pager split, using the same physical memory from the VM which it would have to use normally, the CFS short-circuited all read requests to the local cache, and did lazy write-backs every 30 seconds to the source file system. This would be particularly notable if common Unix directories were being loaded over the network, the normal setup for labs of workstations. Most Unix systems use similar caching mechanisms for the same performance reasons, but would end up using RAM twice, once in the cache, and again in the programs using it. The CFS also cached names from the remote system, making the initial directory traversal and open requests much faster.
The Spring file system is also a name service context provider, lazily mapping directories from the on-disk structure into new contexts in the name service. These could then be accessed using the universal naming API, or alternately via a Unix emulation library which presented them as a traditional unix file system.
Note that Spring's use of the term file system is somewhat confusing. In normal usage the term refers to a particular way to physically store files on a disk.
Unix emulation
Spring also needed to support existing Unix applications, the basis of Sun's business. To do this, Spring also shipped with two key extensions: a Unix process server which mimicked a full Unix, and a re-write of the standard libc library called libue which redirected Unix kernel requests to various servers. For instance, a Unix application which required file or network services would be directed to the associated Spring server, while one which wanted to list the currently running programs would be directed to the Unix process server. The process server was also responsible for handling signals, a concept which had no analog under Spring – nor was it really needed other than for backward compatibility, since signals are essentially an inflexible single-purpose IPC mechanism.
Running a Unix application under Spring required that it be re-linked against libue; the system shipped with the majority of basic Unix utilities and an X11 server relinked and ready to use. However this method of compatibility was neither invisible nor guaranteed to work; Spring documents note that "many" applications will run unmodified (presumably other than relinking), but fail to mention what sort of problem areas the developer should expect if they do not.
Subcontracts
Although not directly related to Spring per se, the Sun engineers working on the project found that existing mechanisms for supporting different flavors of calls were not well defined. In order to provide a richer interface, they developed the concepts of subcontracts.
Other systems
Sun has added a "Unixified" version of Doors to Solaris.
In the years since the Spring system work ended, work on operating systems in general has essentially ended. With the market quickly stratifying into a world dominated by Windows and Unix-like operating systems, there appear to be only niche markets open for any other system. Additionally, the poor performance of Mach 3 seems to have taken the wind out of the sails of many projects.
Nevertheless, there have been some newer systems. One in particular, the L4 microkernel, shares many features with Spring's kernel. In particular it also uses a synchronous call/return system for IPC, and has a similar VM model. L4 has, so far, concentrated almost solely on the kernel itself; there is nothing analogous to Spring's naming service, security model, or file system.
References
An Overview of the Spring System (PDF)
The Spring Nucleus: A Microkernel for Objects (PDF)
The Spring Name Service (PostScript)
The Spring Virtual Memory System (PDF)
Microkernels
Microkernel-based operating systems
Object-oriented operating systems
Proprietary operating systems
Sun Microsystems software
1993 software
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driver%20wrapper
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Driver wrapper
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A driver wrapper is a subroutine in a software library that functions as an adapter between an operating system and a driver, such as a device driver, that was not designed for that operating system. It can enable the use of devices for which no drivers for the particular operating system are available. In particular, Microsoft Windows is the dominant family of operating systems for IBM PC compatible computers, and many devices are supplied with drivers for Windows but not other operating systems.
Windows driver wrappers for Linux
Several open source software projects allow using Microsoft Windows drivers under another operating system, such as Linux.
Examples include network drivers for wireless cards (such as NDISwrapper for Linux or Project Evil for FreeBSD) and the NTFS file system (see Captive NTFS).
The common thread among these examples is the use of wrapper technology, which allows execution of the drivers in a foreign environment.
Limitations for driver wrappers include the lack of an ability to function at real time. An example of this limitation includes latency problems as those associated with attempts to make compatible with Linux the ZoomR16 audio DAW sound recorder and control surface.
See also
Wrapper library
Compatibility layer
References
Subroutines
Device drivers
System software
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2157232
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherston%20Software
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Sherston Software
|
Sherston Software, also known as Sherston Publishing Group, was a British software publisher, producing educational games and learning resources.
Two teachers, Bill and Lou Bonham, started making games for the BBC Micro in 1983 and set up a limited company in 1991. In 2003, Bill and Lou sold Sherston to a four-man management team, which led to the company being called Sherston Publishing Group. In 2008 the offices in Angel House, Sherston, Wiltshire also became home to BLi Education which owned the brands TAG Learning, Economatics Education and SEMERC. TAG Developments (based in Kennington, London) is also part of the group and produced MAPS – Managed Assessment and ePortfolio System – which features some Sherston software content. In difficult trading conditions in the education market in 2010 and 2011, BLi Education went into administration but many of the assets were acquired by Sherston Publishing Group which now operates once again under the 'Sherston' name.
Sherston employs developers in India. An associate company, Sherston Sheshani operates out of an office in Cape Town, South Africa. Sherston also has an office in the US (Sherston America) based in Portland, Oregon. Sherston Software also publishes software in association with partners including BBC Worldwide (now BBC Active), HarperCollins and Oxford University Press.
In 2015, Sherston was acquired by private equity firm Big Clever Learning.
Software
Planet Sherston
Rusty Dreamer
Tizzy's Toybox
Crystal: The ICT Channel
Gogglebox: Topic Based Online Channel
Sherston Mega Deal
Sherston Online
Sherston Skill Builders Online
The Crystal Rainforest
Mission Control
The ArcVenture series
The Map Detectives
The Nature Park Adventure
The Email Detectives
Izzy's Island
Number Train
abc-CD - Animated Alphabet
Skill Builders
School's Out - After School Club
123-CD
The Crystal Maze (based on the popular British TV game show The Crystal Maze)
Furbles
Space Mission Mada (later to be adapted into Australian TV show Space Mission Mada News)
Tina's Terrible Trumpet
The Worst Witch (based on the book The Worst Witch)
The Future Is Wild
The Fleet Street Phantom
References
External links
Sherston Publishing Group
Sherston Home
Sherston Online
School's Out After School Club
Skill Builders Online
Site of BLi Education Limited
Sherston Digital Downloads
MobyGames Profile
Giant Bomb
Video game companies of the United Kingdom
Software companies of the United Kingdom
Educational software companies
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32006576
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balurghat%20Techno%20India%20Group%20Public%20School
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Balurghat Techno India Group Public School
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Techno India Group Public School Balurghat, or Balurghat Techno India Group Public School. or TIGPS, Balurghat is an English medium co-ed school following CBSE in Balurghat, West Bengal, India. The classes range from Pre-school playgroup to Class XII. However, for the academic year 2012–2013 it has classes up to X. There are almost 600 students in the school.
Affiliation
CBSE is the following board of TIGPS, Balurghat. CCE-based examinations are held in the academics session.
Academics
The school has different subjects for each age group:
For Playgroup classes: English, Rhymes, Maths
For Kindergarten and Nursery classes: English, Bengali/Hindi, Maths, Science
For classes 1, 2: English, Bengali/Hindi, Maths, Science, Computer Science
For classes 3, 4: English, Bengali/Hindi, Maths, Science, Computer Science, Social Science (History, Geography)
For class 5: English, Bengali, Hindi, Maths, Science, Computer Science, Social Science (History, Geography)
For classes 6, 7, 8: English, Bengali, Hindi, Maths, Science, Computer Science, Social Science (History, Geography, Civics), E.V.S.
For class 9: English, Bengali/Hindi, Maths, Science, Information Technology, Social Sciences (History, Geography, Pol. Sci., economics), E.V.S.
For class 10: English, Bengali/Hindi, Maths, Science, Information Technology, Social Sciences (History, Geography, Pol. Sci., Economics), E.V.S.
The school conducts four formative assessments and two summative assessments per year. It follows the new CCE (Comprehensive and Compulsory Examinations) scheme for academics. Special audio/visual classes are taken for every class regularly.
Co-curricular activities
Extracurricular classes include dance or music and sports like cricket, football, badminton, carrom and table tennis. Specialised coaching is given to boys and girls in cricket and football. Workshops are held in the vacations to enrich students' knowledge.
Houses
The students are divided into four competing houses — Teresa House (Blue), Tagore House (Green), Vivekananda House (Orange), Netaji House (Red). Competitions are held every year among the houses which include debate, elocution, dance, music, science quiz, and sports like cricket, football, kho kho, kabaddi, badminton and others. Netaji House were the champions from 2010 to 2012. Vivekananda House won it in 2013.
Performances outside school
TIGPS Balurghat has won prizes for performances outside the school.
It won first prize in dance in 2010 and 2011, 3rd prize in 2012, and 2nd prize in the Republic Day Celebrations at Balurghat Stadium. From 2011 to 2013 it won the first prize in Tableau. It thus made a record of Hattrick in Tableau in the Republic Day Celebrations. The dance of TIGPS, Balurghat is specially praised in the culture of the town. In 2014 to 2020 Republic Day Celebration in Balurghat Stadium, the school had been winning 1st prize in dance.
Carnival
In the Carnival of TIG 2008, Balurghat won 6 medals (1 gold,2 silvers and 3 bronzes) and became 4th among all TIGPS schools. In the Memory Test, Balurghat became the most successful among all schools, collecting all the three medals — Gold, Silver and Bronze.
In the next Carnival in 2010, Balurghat came to be second, after TIGPS, Hooghly. Balurghat won 6 medals (along with 2 third positions). The Medal tally consisted of 2 golds,4 silvers and 2 third positions.
Balurghat Techno has been most successful in the category of Memory Test, winning 4 medals. It is followed by Fancy-Dress Competition
with 2 medals.
Sources
Techno India Group prospectus.
Co-educational boarding schools
Primary schools in West Bengal
High schools and secondary schools in West Bengal
Balurghat
Educational institutions established in 2007
2007 establishments in West Bengal
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2436817
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/More%20%28command%29
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More (command)
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In computing, more is a command to view (but not modify) the contents of a text file one screen at a time.
It is available on Unix and Unix-like systems, DOS, Digital Research FlexOS, IBM/Toshiba 4690 OS, IBM OS/2, Microsoft Windows and ReactOS. Programs of this sort are called pagers. more is a very basic pager, originally allowing only forward navigation through a file, though newer implementations do allow for limited backward movement.
History
The more command was originally written by Daniel Halbert, a graduate student at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1978. It was later expanded on by Eric Shienbrood, Geoff Peck (added underlining, single spacing) and John Foderaro (added -c, more environment variable history). It was first included in 3.0 BSD, and has since become a standard program in all Unix systems. less, a similar command with the extended capability of allowing both forward and backward navigation through the file, was written by Mark Nudelman between 1983 and 1985 and is now included in most Unix and Unix-like systems.
The command is available in MS-DOS versions 2 and later. A more command is also part of ASCII's MSX-DOS2 Tools for MSX-DOS version 2. The Software Link's PC-MOS includes an implementation of more. Like the rest of the operating system, it is licensed under the GPL v3. The FreeDOS version was developed by Jim Hall and is licensed under the GPL v2. The command is also available in the KolibriOS Shell.
The numerical computing environments MATLAB and GNU Octave include a more
function that turns output pagination on or off.
Usage
Unix-like
The command-syntax is:
more [options] [file_name]
If no file name is provided, more looks for input from standard input.
Once more has obtained input, it displays as much as can fit on the current screen and waits for user input to advance, with the exception that a form feed (^L) will also cause more to wait at that line, regardless of the amount of text on the screen. In the lower-left corner of the screen is displayed the text "--More--" and a percentage, representing the percent of the file that more has paged through. (This percentage includes the text displayed on the current screen.) When more reaches the end of a file (100%) it exits. The most common methods of navigating through a file are Enter, which advances the output by one line, and Space, which advances the output by one screen.
There are also other commands that can be used while navigating through the document; consult more's man page for more details.
Options
Options are typically entered before the file name, but can also be entered in the environment variable $MORE. Options entered in the actual command line will override those entered in the $MORE environment variable. Available options may vary between Unix systems, but a typical set of options is as follows:
-num: This option specifies an integer which is the screen size (in lines).
-d: more will prompt the user with the message [Press space to continue, 'q' to quit.] and will display [Press 'h' for instructions.] instead of ringing the bell when an illegal key is pressed.
-l: more usually treats ^L (form feed) as a special character, and will pause after any line that contains a form feed. The -l option will prevent this behavior.
-f: Causes more to count logical, rather than screen lines (i.e., long lines are not folded).
-p: Do not scroll. Instead, clear the whole screen and then display the text.
-c: Do not scroll. Instead, paint each screen from the top, clearing the remainder of each line as it is displayed.
-s: Squeeze multiple blank lines into one.
-u: Backspaces and carriage returns to be treated as printable characters;
+/: This option specifies a string that will be searched for before each file is displayed. (Ex.: more +/Preamble gpl.txt)
+num: Start at line number num.
Microsoft Windows and ReactOS
The command-syntax is:
command | more [/c] [/p] [/s] [/tn] [+n]
more [[/c] [/p] [/s] [/tn] [+n]] < [Drive:] [Path] FileName
more [/c] [/p] [/s] [/tn] [+n] [files]
Examples
To display the file named letter.txt on the screen, the user can type either of the following two commands:
more letter.txt
type letter.txt | more
The command displays the first screen of information from letter.txt, and then the following prompt appears:
-- More—When the spacebar is pressed, the next screen of information will be displayed.
It is also possible to clear the screen and remove all extra blank lines before displaying the file:
more /c /s < letter.txt
type letter.txt | more /c /s
IBM OS/2
The command-syntax is:
MORE < [drive:][path]filename
command | more
drive:\path\filename – Specifies the location of the file to display one screen at a time.
command | – Specifies the command whose output will be displayed.
Example
Return the content of the OS/2 system directory using the dir command and display it one screen at a time using the more command:
[C:\]dir C:\OS2 | more
See also
pg (Unix)
less (Unix)
most (Unix)
References
Further reading
External links
"FOLDOC entry for pager"; see definition #2.
manpage of more
more | Microsoft Docs
Open source MORE implementation that comes with MS-DOS v2.0
https://www.question-defense.com/documentation/linux-manpages/more
Standard Unix programs
Unix SUS2008 utilities
Terminal pagers
External DOS commands
Microsoft free software
OS/2 commands
ReactOS commands
Windows commands
Windows administration
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29112697
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher%20Abad
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Christopher Abad
|
Christopher Abad is an American hacker, museum curator, artist, network engineer and programmer. He is best known for his qualitative analysis of specialization stratification in the underground economies related to computer crime.
Academic publication and mainstream news coverage
While at UCLA, Abad discovered a method by which collisions in the hash function used in Internet Protocol datagrams may be leveraged to enable covert channel communications. His discovery was a centerpiece of covert communications methodology and was the primary citation for an Association for Computing Machinery paper on covert channel detection and another on a similar technique using TCP timestamps, the two most well-cited and widely republished papers on the subject.
In 2005 while working at Cloudmark, Abad spent six months examining the phishing underworld from the inside. Abad discovered that phishers were using IRC channels in order to trade personal information. He stalked and collected messages from thirteen chat rooms phishers use. Whereas past phishing researchers believed that phishing was coordinated by highly organized criminals, Abad discovered that phishing rings were decentralized. Abad published his findings in First Monday. This paper was the first examination of how the economy of phishing agents functioned, and highlighted the high degree of specialization within the economy.
20 GOTO 10
Abad was the founder and owner of 20 GOTO 10 (2008–2012), a former gallery which caters not only to fine art, but to "hacker" art, with an emphasis on technology as art, or exhibits which make the potentially criminal or unethical aspects of computer security accessible to the public. The gallery received many favorable reviews coverage for its airing of art related to the computer underground, including ANSI and 3D art.
References
American computer programmers
Hackers
Living people
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
20th-century births
Year of birth missing (living people)
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16619615
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20free%20and%20open-source%20software
|
Timeline of free and open-source software
|
This article presents a timeline of events related to popular free/open-source software. For a narrative explaining the overall development, see the related history of free and open-source software.
The Achievements column documents achievements a project attained at some point in time (not necessarily when it was first released).
1970s
1980s
1990s
2000s
By the 2000s the number of open source software packages in wide use was so large that it would be infeasible to make a definitive list.
2010s
2020s
See also
History of free and open-source software
List of free and open-source software packages
Timeline of programming languages – many programming languages are open source
Timeline of operating systems – quite a few operating systems are open source
Timeline of Linux adoption
History of Linux
Linux kernel#History
References
External links
A brief history of open-source software
Open-source software
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58405438
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20low-code%20development%20platforms
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List of low-code development platforms
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Below is a list of notable low-code development platforms.
Implementations
AppSheet A part of google cloud that offers users to create apps from google sheet.
Acceleo is an open source code generator for Eclipse used to generate any textual language (Java, PHP, Python, etc.) from EMF models defined from any metamodel (UML, SysML, etc.).
Actifsource is a plugin for Eclipse that allows graphical modelling and model-based code generation using custom templates.
Appian is an enterprise low-code automation platform for application development. The platform includes a visual interface and pre-built development modules.
Betty Blocks, software-as-a-service no-code platform
DMS Software Reengineering Toolkit is a system for defining arbitrary domain specific languages and translating them to other languages.
Claris FileMaker is a low-code development platform that helps problem-solvers of all skill levels create, share, and integrate custom apps quickly. It combines the data, business logic, and user interface layers to deliver customized, flexible apps that work seamlessly across all devices, on the web, on-premise, or in the cloud.
GeneXus is a cross-platform, knowledge representation-based development tool, mainly oriented to enterprise-class applications for Web applications, smart devices and the Microsoft Windows platform. A developer describes an application in a high-level, mostly declarative language, from which native code is generated for multiple environments.
The Maple computer algebra system offers code generators for Fortran, MATLAB, C and Java. Wolfram Language (Mathematica), and MuPAD have comparable interfaces.
Microsoft Power Fx is a free and open source low-code, general-purpose programming language for expressing logic across the Microsoft Power Platform.
OSBP is a software factory provided as Open Source by the Eclipse Foundation. It combines no-code/low-code elements with classic software development. Coding is largely replaced by a descriptive modeling of the desired software, while allowing developers to integrate their own source code. The applications are intended for professional use in companies.
Oracle APEX permits developers to go from no code to low code to more code.
OutSystems is a low-code platform for omnichannel enterprise application development.
Servoy is a low code / RAD platform for omnichannel core systems and systems of engagement. Its entirely focussed on software vendors, building products. It gives full freedom in both the UX and business logic whilst maintaining productivity
Spring Roo is an open source active code generator for Spring Framework based Java applications. It uses AspectJ mixins to provide separation of concerns during round-trip maintenance.
RISE is a free information modeling suite for system development using ERD or UML. Database code generation for MySQL, PostgreSQL and Microsoft SQL Server. Persistence code generation for C# (.NET) and PHP including both SOAP and JSON style web services and AJAX proxy code.
UiPath is a low-code / no-code development platform for enterprise automation and robotic process automation (RPA)
Uniface is a leading provider of model-driven, low code application development software for developers, enterprises and ISV's enabling business critical applications.
WaveMaker is an enterprise low-code platform mainly oriented towards core application development and delivery users. The applications created are largely open-standards-based and the tool can be used to generate code in the background by drag and drop visual development.
See also
Compiler optimization
Declarative programming
Graphical user interface
Integrated development environment (IDE)
Refactor
Robotic Process Automation (RPA)
Snippet management
User interface markup language
wizard (software)
References
External links
The Best Low-Code Development Platforms of 2017 (PCMag.com)
The Best Low-Code Platforms of 2021 (G2 Independent User Reviews)
Programming paradigms
Source code generation
Lists of software
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42572674
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry%20Connections%20Security%20Group
|
Industry Connections Security Group
|
The Industry Connections Security Group (IEEE ICSG) is a global group of computer security entities (past and present members include: Anh Labs, AVG, Avira, ESET, F-Secure, K7 Computing, Kaspersky Labs, Marvell, McAfee, Microsoft, Palo Alto Networks, Panda Software, SafeNet, Sophos, Symantec and Trend Micro) that have come together under IEEE to pool their experience and resources in combating the systematic and rapid rise in computer security threats.
IEEE ICSG activities include:
Anti-malware working group
Malware meta-data exchange standard (MMDEF) working group
Privilege Management Protocols working group
Anti-malware support service which includes
The taggant system
Clean meta-data exchange system (CMX)
External links
IEEE ICSG
Anti-malware working group
ICSG AMSS
Malware meta-data exchange format
Computer security organizations
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35714923
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ERS%203500%20and%20ERS%202500%20series
|
ERS 3500 and ERS 2500 series
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Ethernet Routing Switch 3500 series and Ethernet Routing Switch 2500 series or ERS 3500 and ERS 2500 in data computer networking terms are stackable routing switches designed and manufactured by Avaya.
The Switches can be stacked up to eight units high through a 'stacking' configuration; Avaya markets this capability under the term 'Avaya Virtual Enterprise Network Architecture (VENA) Stackable Chassis'. This series of Switches consists of six ERS 3500 models, the ERS 3526T, ERS 3526T-PWR+, ERS 3510GT, ERS 3510GT-PWR+, ERS3524GT, ERS3524GT-PWR+ and four different ERS 2500 models, the ERS 2526T, ERS 2526T-PWR, ERS 2550T and the ERS 2550T-PWR. The 'PWR' suffix designation identifies the Switch that can provide Power-over-Ethernet on the copper Ethernet ports, the '+' suffix designation indicates that the Switch can provide PoE plus on the copper ports. These Switches are all covered by Avaya's Lifetime warranty.
History
ERS 3500
This series of Switches became available in April 2012 with software release 5.0
ERS 2500
This product line became available in 2007 with software release 4.0 and the device was demonstrated in March at the 'Spring VoiceCon 2007'. In March 2007 the product started to ship, and then in May 2007 a detailed evaluation between this switch and two competitor's switches identified that this switch had a better performance and better total cost of ownership. In 2008 Layer 3 routing support, secure web access with https and TACACS+ were added to the software in version 4.2. In January 2008 another detailed evaluation of this systems was performed by Tolly Enterprises, LLC. comparing the 2500 systems to Catalyst 2960-24T and HP ProCurve 2626 and 2650 systems. In May 2009 Cisco published an evaluation and comparison between this switch and its 2000 and 3000 series switches as competitor published fear, uncertainty and doubt about the product not having the ability to do routing, even after the product had released the new routing software almost a year earlier. Later in November 2010 IGMP multicast and IPv6 management was added in version 4.3. As of February 2012 the software version 4.4 is the latest software released for the product which was currently published in August 2011.
Scaling
ERS 3500 Series
The ERS 3500 Series consists or four gigabit Ethernet models the 3510GT, 3510GT-PWR+, 3524GT, and 3524GT-PWR+ along with 2 fast Ethernet models 35265T, and 3526T-PWR+. The Switch leverages 802.1AB link layer discovery protocol and LLDP media endpoint discover and auto discovery and auto configuration to allow the Switch to automatically configure or reconfigure itself for new phone installs or phone movement in 1 minute.
ERS 2500 Series
The switch can be installed initially as standalone and then field-upgraded via a license to support resilient 'Stackable Chassis' configuration of up to eight Switches. The stack-enabled version of the ERS 2500 Switches will not require a license kit or license file.
ERS 2550T and 2550T-PWR Models
The ERS 2550T supports 48 ports of 10/100 plus two Gigabit uplink ports that are a combo configuration of 1000BASE-T/SFP. The ERS 2550T-PWR supports PoE capabilities on half of the user ports. System scaling is accomplished by stacking eight ERS 2550T-PWR systems together to provide up to 384 ports of copper 10/100BASE-T and with the ERS 2550T-PWR models, 192 of the ports will support Power-over-Ethernet (all the ports with the red border around them will support PoE - see the adjacent picture) and up to 16 ports of 1000BASE-X Small form-factor pluggable transceivers.
ERS 2526T and ERS 2526T-PWR Models
The ERS 2526T and ERS 2526T-PWR models offer 24 ports of 10/100 plus two Gigabit uplink ports that are a combo configuration of 1000BASE-T/SFP. The ERS 2526T-PWR model offers PoE support on half of the user ports. When staking eight ERS 2526T models it will provide 192 ports of copper 10/100BASE-T, and with the ERS 2526T-PWR models 96 of the ports will support PoE and up to 16 ports of 1000BASE-X Small form-factor pluggable transceivers. The system also has the ability to stack any combination of these Switches (up to 8 switches) in a system.
Stacking
The ERS 2500 Series of Switches can be stacked with Flexible Advanced Stacking Technology (FAST) to allows eight switches to operate as single logical system with a 32 Gbit/s virtual backplane. The stack operates on a bi-directional and shortest path forwarding star topology that allows traffic to flow either 'upstream' or downstream' simultaneously from every switch allowing packets to take the optimal forwarding path (shortest path). The bi-directional paths allow the traffic to automatically redirect around any switch in the stack that is not operating properly. This stacking technology allows stackable switches to operate with the same performance and resiliency as chassis solution. The entire stack can be managed from the base switch by several methods: Console into the base switch and use command line or a menu; telnet/SSH into the IP address of the base switch IP address and use command line; SNMP into the IP Address of the base switch to use the GUI configuration tools to management all switches on the stack at once.
Link aggregation across the stack
This switch allows for link aggregation from ports on different stacked switches either to other switches not in the stack (for example a core network) or to allow servers and other devices to have multiple connections to the stack for improved redundancy and throughput.
Models
References
Further reading
Data Stackables
External links
Avaya Official Ethernet Routing Switch Documentation List -Retrieved 22 July 2011
ERS 2500 Fact Sheet
ERS 3500 Fact Sheet
Stackable Chassis Architecture
Avaya products
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83195
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theano
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Theano
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In Greek mythology, Theano (; Ancient Greek: Θεανώ) may refer to the following personages:
Theano, wife of Metapontus, king of Icaria. Metapontus demanded that she bear him children, or leave the kingdom. She presented the children of Melanippe to her husband, as if they were her own. Later Theano bore him two sons of her own and, wishing to leave the kingdom to her own children, sent them to kill Melanippe's. In the fight that ensued, her two sons were killed, and she committed suicide upon hearing the news.
Theano, one of the Danaïdes, daughter of Danaus and Polyxo. She married (and murdered) Phantes, son of Aegyptus and Caliadne.
Theano, a priestess of Athena in Troy during the Trojan War. She was a daughter of King Cisseus of Thrace and wife of Antenor, one of the Trojan elders.
Theano or Theona, a character appearing in the Aeneid, the consort of Amycus.
Notes
References
Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Homer, Homeri Opera in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Pseudo-Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Publius Vergilius Maro, Aeneid. Theodore C. Williams. trans. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Publius Vergilius Maro, Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Princesses in Greek mythology
Danaids
Trojans
Women of the Trojan war
People of the Trojan War
Characters in the Aeneid
Women in Greek mythology
Characters in Greek mythology
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4594672
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational%20problem
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Computational problem
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In theoretical computer science, a computational problem is a problem that may be solved by an algorithm. For example, the problem of factoring
"Given a positive integer n, find a nontrivial prime factor of n."
is a computational problem. A computational problem can be viewed as a set of instances or cases together with a, possibly empty, set of solutions for every instance/case. For example, in the factoring problem, the instances are the integers n, and solutions are prime numbers p that describe nontrivial prime factors of n.
Computational problems are one of the main objects of study in theoretical computer science. The field of computational complexity theory attempts to determine the amount of resources (computational complexity) solving a given problem will require and explain why some problems are intractable or undecidable. Computational problems belong to complexity classes that define broadly the resources (e.g. time, space/memory, energy, circuit depth) it takes to compute (solve) them with various abstract machines. For example, the complexity class P for cassical machines, and BQP for quantum machines.
It is typical of many problems to represent both instances and solutions by binary strings, namely elements of {0, 1}*. For example, numbers can be represented as binary strings using binary encoding.
Types
Decision problem
A decision problem is a computational problem where the answer for every instance is either yes or no. An example of a decision problem is primality testing:
"Given a positive integer n, determine if n is prime."
A decision problem is typically represented as the set of all instances for which the answer is yes. For example, primality testing can be represented as the infinite set
L = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, ...}
Search problem
In a search problem, the answers can be arbitrary strings. For example, factoring is a search problem where the instances are (string representations of) positive integers and the solutions are (string representations of) collections of primes.
A search problem is represented as a relation consisting of all the instance-solution pairs, called a search relation. For example, factoring can be represented as the relation
R = {(4, 2), (6, 2), (6, 3), (8, 2), (9, 3), (10, 2), (10, 5)...}
which consist of all pairs of numbers (n, p), where p is a nontrivial prime factor of n.
Counting problem
A counting problem asks for the number of solutions to a given search problem. For example, a counting problem associated with factoring is
"Given a positive integer n, count the number of nontrivial prime factors of n."
A counting problem can be represented by a function f from {0, 1}* to the nonnegative integers. For a search relation R, the counting problem associated to R is the function
fR(x) = |{y: R(x, y) }|.
Optimization problem
An optimization problem asks for finding a "best possible" solution among the set of all possible solutions to a search problem. One example is the maximum independent set problem:
"Given a graph G, find an independent set of G of maximum size."
Optimization problems can be represented by their search relations.
Function problem
In a function problem a single output (of a total function) is expected for every input, but the output is more complex than that of a decision problem, that is, it isn't just "yes" or "no". One of the most famous examples is the traveling salesman problem:
"Given a list of cities and the distances between each pair of cities, find the shortest possible route that visits each city exactly once and returns to the origin city."
It is an NP-hard problem in combinatorial optimization, important in operations research and theoretical computer science.
Promise problem
In computational complexity theory, it is usually implicitly assumed that any string in {0, 1}* represents an instance of the computational problem in question. However, sometimes not all strings {0, 1}* represent valid instances, and one specifies a proper subset of {0, 1}* as the set of "valid instances". Computational problems of this type are called promise problems.
The following is an example of a (decision) promise problem:
"Given a graph G, determine if every independent set in G has size at most 5, or G has an independent set of size at least 10."
Here, the valid instances are those graphs whose maximum independent set size is either at most 5 or at least 10.
Decision promise problems are usually represented as pairs of disjoint subsets (Lyes, Lno) of {0, 1}*. The valid instances are those in Lyes ∪ Lno.
Lyes and Lno represent the instances whose answer is yes and no, respectively.
Promise problems play an important role in several areas of computational complexity, including hardness of approximation, property testing, and interactive proof systems.
See also
Lateral computing, alternative approaches to solving problems computationally
Model of computation
Transcomputational problem
Notes
References
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Theoretical computer science
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17502510
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One%20A110
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One A110
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The A110 is a netbook computer by One. It is built on a reference design by Quanta Computer and was announced to run Linpus Linux. However, some or all of the first batch have actually been delivered with a modified Ubuntu Linux installed, using SquashFS to fit the system in the 2GB Flash memory.
Hardware specifications
VIA C7-M-ULV Processor (1.0 GHz, 400-MHz FSB, max. 3.5 Watt)
7-inch display 800×480 (with external VGA port)
512 MB DDR2 PC400 RAM
64 MB VX800 S3 integrated graphics card
2 GB Flash Memory
2× USB 2.0 ports
1× Microphone-in jack
1× Speaker jack
56 kbit/s Modem
10/100 Mbit/s LAN
WLAN
3-in-1 Cardreader, SD/MMC/MS
Height: 2.8 cm
Width: 24.3 cm
Depth: 17.1 cm
Weight: 950 g
A second model called A120 is available with 4 GB of flash memory (compared to the 2 GB of the A110), a webcam and Windows XP.
References
External links
One Official Site
Official site
Subnotebooks
Linux-based devices
Netbooks
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57209590
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topcoder%20Open
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Topcoder Open
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Topcoder Open (TCO) is an annual design, software development, data science and competitive programming championship, organized by Topcoder, and hosted in different venues around US. In the first two years, 2001 and 2002, the tournament was titled TopCoder Invitational.
In addition to the main championship, from 2001 to 2007 Topcoder was organizing an annual TopCoder Collegiate Challenge tournament, for college students only. Also from 2007 to 2010 TopCoder High School competition was held.
From 2015, Topcoder Regional events are held through the year in different countries.
Competition tracks
Competition tracks included in Topcoder Open tournament changed through its history. Many of them resemble the types of challenges offered to Topcoder Community through the year, but there is no 1:1 match. Here is the alphabetical list of all competition tracks ever present at TCO:
Algorithm Competition (SRM)
Timeline: 2001 – nowadays
Champions: Gennady Korotkevich tourist (2021, 2020, 2019, 2014); Petr Mitrichev Petr (2018, 2015, 2013, 2006); Yuhao Du xudyh (2017); Makoto Soejima rng_58 (2016, 2011, 2010); Egor Kulikov Egor (2012); Bin Jin crazyb0y (2009); Tomasz Czajka (2008, 2004, 2003); Jan Kuipers Jan_Kuipers (2007); Eryk Kopczyński Eryx (2005); John Dethridge John Dethridge (2002); jonmac (2001).
Details:
The only track that was present at all main TCOs events, and at most of the other Topcoder events. Follows the format of regular 1.5 hours Single Round Matches:
The Coding Phase – 75 mins: All competitors are presented with the same three algorithmic problems of different complexity, each problem has its own maximal number of points. Problem descriptions are initially invisible. Competitors have 75 minutes to solve these problems. Competitor can open any problem description in any order; once he opened a problem, the number of points he can get for the correct solution of that problem starts decreasing over time. When competitor submits problem solution (a code that successfully compiles), he is awarded with the current number of points he can get for that problem. He can re-submit a solution, getting the further decrease number of points, minus extra penalty for the resubmission. During the phase competitors can see the current points awarded to each participant, but they don't know whether solutions of those participants are correct or wrong, thus whether these scores will hold after The System Testing Phase, or will be reset.
The Challenge Phase – 15 mins: Each competitor can see all submission done by other competitors. He can (optionally) challenge any of them, submitting test cases that will cause other competitor's submission produce a wrong result. Submission of correct challenge test case gives submitter 50 points award, submission of an incorrect test case (i.e. the challenged solution can solve it successfully) will lead to 25 points penalty for the test case submitter.
The System Testing Phase – In the last phase system tests are automatically executed for all submissions from all competitors. If a submission fails testing, the scores awarded for that submission during The Coding Phase are reset to zero. The final scores after the system testing determine the winner.
First to Finish (F2F)
Timeline: 2009–2014, 2016 – nowadays
Champions: Thomas Kranitsas thomaskranitsas (2021); Victor Roberto Gomes da Cunha cunhavictor (2020); Dilip Kumar Thapa veshu (2019); Dmitry Kondakov kondakovdmitry (2018); Akinwale Ariwodola akinwale (2017, 2014); vvvpig (2016); Pratap Koritala supercharger (2013); Lan Luo hohosky (2012); Yang Li Yeung (2011); Margaryta Skrypachova Margarita (2010); Ninghai Huang PE (2009).
Details:
Officially called as Mod Dash from 2009 to 2013, and First2Finish afterwards. Competitors are provided with set of small programming tasks (like bug fixes / enhancements in an existing codebase), and they get scores based on who correctly resolves each task first. The exact rules for on-site competition may vary from year to year.
Information Architecture
Timeline: 2015 only.
Champions: Silvana Vacchina f0rc0d3r (2015).
Details:
Provided with client requirements for a software product, competitors are asked to create a wireframe mockup of the future app / website.
Marathon Match (MM)
Timeline: 2007 – nowadays
Champions: Catalin-Stefan Tiseanu CatalinT (2021); Hironao Tsutsumida iehn (2020); Gennady Korotkevich tourist (2019, 2018); Przemysław Dębiak Psyho (2017, 2016, 2014, 2013, 2011, 2008); Tiancheng Lou ACRush (2015); Won-Seok Yoo ainu7 (2012); Yoichi Iwata wata (2010); Andrey Lopatin KOTEHOK (2009); Mateusz Zotkiewicz Mojito1 (2007).
Details:
Officially called as just Marathon from 2007 to nowadays. Follows the format of regular MM competitions (a 1–2 weeks long online, and 1 day long during on-site competitions). Competitors are provided with the same algorithmic / data science problem, which is judged objectively with a live leaderboard, visible to everybody. Everybody can submit multiple times with no penalties, with the goal to come up with a code that scores the maximal possible amount of scores on that problem. During the competition the leaderboard is generated based on submissions testing against a limit number of test cases, and after the contest the final results are determined in a testing against a larger test dataset.
Quality Assurance Competition (QA)
Timeline: 2019 – nowadays
Champions: Nuwan Gunarathne codejam (2021, 2020); Vladimir Timofejev v.t. (2019)
Details:
The QA competition includes: structured and unstructured testing, structured test case writing, and automated testing.
Software Design
Timeline: 2004–2014
Champions: Meng Wang albertwang (2014, 2013); Michael Paweska argolite (2012, 2010); WuJian Ye BLE (2011); Olexiy Sadovnikov saarixx (2009); Tim Roberts Pops (2008, 2006); Sergey Kalinchenko kyky (2007); Nikolay Archak nicka81 (2005); Adrian Carcu adic (2004).
Details:
Officially called as Component Design from 2004 to 2009, and just Design from 2010 to 2014. Competitors were asked to take client requirements for a software component / product as input, and produce development documentation / technical specifications. Solutions were evaluated by a panel of judges according to objective scorecards.
Software Development
Timeline: 2004 – nowadays
Champions: Jiang Liwu jiangliwu (2021, 2019); Dr. Sergey Pogodin birdofpreyru (2020, 2017); Ngoc Pham ngoctay (2018); Łukasz Sentkiewicz Sky_ (2016, 2015, 2014); Zhijie Liu morehappiness (2013); Yang Li Yeung (2012, 2010); Franklin Guevarra j3_guile (2011); GuanZhuo Jin Standlove (2009 – Architecture, 2004); Pablo Wolfus pulky (2009 – Assembly); Yanbo Wu assistant (2009 – Component Development); Piotr Paweska AleaActaEst (2009 – Specification); Romano Silva romanoTC (2008); Feng He hefeng (2007); Sindunata Sudarmagi sindu (2006); Qi Liu visualage (2005).
Details:
Officially called as Component Development from 2004 to 2009, and just as Development from 2010 to nowadays. The actual rules differ from year to year, but, typically, competitors are presented with technical specifications for development of a software component / application / tool, or with a more open, hackathon-style requirements, which they must implement in the best possible way in 4 hours. Submitted solutions are evaluated by a panel of judges according to objective scorecards.
UI Design
Timeline: 2007 – nowadays
Champions: Teeraporn Sriponpak iamtong (2021, 2020, 2018, 2012); L. O. I. (2019); Panji Kharisma kharm (2017); Junius Albertho abedavera (2016, 2015, 2013, 2011); Faridah Amalia Mandaga fairy_ley (2014); Tri Joko Rubiyanto djackmania (2010); Dale Napier djnapier (2009); Nino Rey Ronda oninkxronda (2008); Yiming Liao yiming (2007).
Details:
The event was officially called Studio from 2007 to 2014, and UI Design from 2015 onwards. Competitors, provided with client requirements, are asked to create the best UI (visual) design for an software product.
UI Prototype
Timeline: 2015–2018
Champions: Mouly Gunarathne moulyg (2018, 2017, 2016); Dileepa Balasuriya dileepa (2015).
Details:
Competitors are provided with design specifications for a website / web-application, and they should create a working prototype of the frontend within a ~4 hours timeframe. The resulting submissions are judged against objective scorecards.
List of Topcoder Open events
These are the main Topcoder Open events, where champions are determined.
Topcoder Open victories by countries represented by champions
Notes
References
Programming contests
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65945645
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound%20Credit
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Sound Credit
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Sound Credit is a music credits platform with computer software applications for Windows, macOS, iOS, and Android. It includes the Sound Credit Publisher cross-platform desktop application, the Tracker cross-platform digital audio workstation (DAW) plug-in, physical kiosks, smart card check-in system, and online database.
Sound Credit is used in the music industry through multimodal interaction, with a free user profile option including identifier code generation, data entry and editing software developed for information quality (IQ). It also functions as a data hub and exporter for data transmission throughout the music industry supply chain for royalty payment and attribution purposes.
Music credits are loaded and saved into Sound Credit's DDEX RIN format implementation, as the first software available to the public with this capability. As of 2019, Sound Credit is included with Pro Tools subscriptions.
History
Sound Credit was originally released under the brand Soundways RIN-M. Soundways later renamed as Soundways dba Sound Credit. RIN-M was renamed as the Sound Credit Tracker plug-in during the platform expansion.
In 2019, Sound Credit partnered with Phonographic Performance Limited (PPL), a British music copyright collective, for an International Performer Number (IPN) integration as part of its cloud profile services.
Sound Credit also partnered with Avid Technologies, the makers of Pro Tools, and the Sound Credit platform applications are included with Pro Tools subscriptions.
In July 2020, Sound Credit partnered to become an ISO International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) Registration Agency, and released the first fully automated ISNI Registration feature as part of its cloud profile services.
Sound Credit was noted as being used in the delivery of credits and information on Blake Shelton's release God's Country to Warner Music. The release received a GRAMMY Award nomination in 2020 and won Single of the Year for the 2019 Country Music Association (CMA) Awards.
Features and usage
Sound Credit Publisher
The Sound Credit Publisher is cross-platform software for Windows and macOS, allowing users to enter, edit, and export music credits. This software is the primary application of the platform. The Sound Credit Publisher runs natively on desktop computers and powers Sound Credit interactive kiosk hardware installations.
Primary features
Single-window user interface with nested menus, fully scalable
Native DDEX RIN loading and saving
Grouped RIN loading and speed-optimized file switching
Use of single RIN as a template for the creation of additional RINs
International Standard Recording Code Generator
Global Release Identifier Code Generator
Incremental search
Multimodal search
Draft label copy export
CD panel and vinyl sleeve exports
Mastering workstation export (Magix Samplitude/Sequoia and Steinberg WaveLab)
Sound Credit Tracker Plug-in
The Sound Credit Tracker is a plug-in that works with digital audio workstation (DAW) software, including Garage Band, Logic, Nuendo, Sequoia, Wavelab, Cubase and Pro Tools.
VST, AU and AAX plug-in format support
BWAV embedding of Artist Name, Song Name and ISRC Codes
Sound Credit Kiosk
The Sound Credit kiosk is a standalone system for checking-in to music recording sessions.
Magnetic stripe card support
Barcode reader support
Sound Credit Mobile App
The Sound Credit mobile app allows profile management and session check-in.
Android
iOS
Investment Backing
Sound Credit is a C Corporation based in the United States. It is one of approximately 100 companies backed by the Revolution Fund, led by Steve Case and which lists LPs including Jeff Bezos, Michael Bloomberg, Meg Whitman and others. Sound Credit is also backed by investment from US-based venture capital firm, Innova Capital. Sound Credit was founded and engaged in Techstars Global Accelerator Network accelerator program, StartCo.
Sound Credit CEO and Co-founder, Gebre Waddell, appeared in 2019 on 60 Minutes in an episode about the Revolution Fund's investment in Sound Credit.
Reception
Sound Credit won the Rise of the Rest venture capital investment competition in 2018.
In 2019, Sound Credit was voted as a NAMM Show TEC Awards nominee. Sound Credit was the first music credits software to be nominated for a TEC award.
Sound Credit appeared at the 2019 Creator Credits Summit in Stockholm hosted by Spotify, and the 2020 Creator Credits Summit.
Sound Credit was also featured at Recording Academy/GRAMMY Membership Celebrations in Portland, Oregon, and Houston, Texas.
References
External links
Sound Credit Website
Cross-platform software
IOS software
Windows software
MacOS software
Android (operating system) software
Music software
Music production software
Companies based in Memphis, Tennessee
Music industry
American music industry
Music production
Black-owned companies of the United States
Music databases
Online music and lyrics databases
Online music database clients
Entertainment databases
Companies based in Tennessee
Technology companies of the United States
Technology companies established in 2016
Music technology
American companies established in 2016
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55700962
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luis%20Falc%C3%B3n
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Luis Falcón
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Luis Falcón Martín is a Spanish computer scientist, physician and Free Software activist. He is the founder of GNU Solidario, an organization focused in Education and Health. He is also known for his work in the areas of Social Medicine and as the author of GNU Health, a health and hospital information management system.
Biography
Luis Falcón was born in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain, in 1970. He graduated from California State University, Northridge in 1996 with a degree in computer science, and from Instituto Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud (IUCS) medical school in Argentina. In 2009, he founded GNU Solidario, a non-profit organization that focuses on health and education with free software.
GNU Solidario: Free Software in Health and Education
Falcon defends the adoption of Free Software in the public administration. GNU Solidario, the organization that he founded in 2009, works for the universality of public health and education.
In his speech Free Software as a Catalyst for Liberation, Social Justice and Social Medicine, he defines Free Software as a movement, as a philosophy, and as a way of activism. To him, the use of proprietary software in the public administration is a contradiction by definition.
Public Education
The initial projects that Luis Falcon started were related to Public Education.
After observing the reality of many of the children on these schools, he incorporates Social Medicine to the project, to improve the socio-economic determinants of health on the communities. He conceives education and health as the basis for development and dignity of societies.
IWEEE
In 2010, Falcon organized the first International Workshop on eHealth in Emerging Economies - IWEEE - in an effort to congregate different organizations to share their experiences and to try to find ways to improve the lives of millions of human beings from the developing world. IWEEE is a non-technical conference, where academic institutions, humanitarian organizations and social collectives get together to present and debate about social issues, Medicine and eHealth.
Since its first event in 2010, IWEEE has hosted humanitarian, multilateral organizations, such as United Nations Development Programme, Red Cross, War Child, World Health Organization, Médecins Sans Frontières, United Nations University International Institute for Global Health, or Caritas Internationalis, as well as research institutions, like the European Bioinformatics Institute and universities.
Public Health and Social Medicine
Falcón defends the public health model, and universality of healthcare. He conceives health as a "non-negotiable human right".
. He believes in the adoption of free software in the public sector. In one interview, Falcón declared "I encourage people to ask their politicians to adopt free software in the healthcare sector, because health is a public good. And thus, all health information systems should be based on free software. Public health and proprietary software are antagonistic".
He follows the idea of Rudolf Virchow, about the concept of Medicine being a Social Science. Falcon coins Virchow's aphorism, "Medicine is a social science, and politics is nothing else but medicine on a large scale".
GNU Health
Following his experience in rural and underprivileged areas in South America, he starts thinking on Free Software could help health professionals and authorities to improve the public health system. Those ideas and reflections led him to create GNU Health.
Luis Falcón defines GNU Health as a "Social Project with some technology behind".
GNU Health was the first Free Software project that clearly focused on Public Health and Social Medicine. On November 11, 2011, Luis Falcón, president of GNU Solidario and Mohamed Salleh, director of United Nations University, Institute for Global health signed an agreement to deploy GNU Health Hospital and Information System globally, particularly in the developing countries.
In 2012, the Ministry of Health of Jamaica decided to adopt and customize GNU Health as their national health electronic record. As they mentioned in the National Health Information System Strengthening and e-Health Strategic Plan 2014-2018 document, the goal is to "Implement, on a phased basis, GNU Health Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) as the new national electronic Patient Administration System (ePAS) for public hospitals and health centres".
Falcón believes that the university must be a key player in not only teaching Health Informatics and Social Medicine to their students, but as a crucial actor in outreaching the community and spreading the value of Free Software in public administration in general, and in Public Health in particular.
The United Nations University, International Institute for Global Health has conducted training for health professionals from different countries. The article cites that participants were mostly from the Ministry of Health of Malaysia and Indonesia, public and private hospitals, universities as well as non-governmental organizations.
The University of Entre Ríos has been one of the early adopters of GNU Health, both in teaching health informatics with Free Software to students and health professionals, and in implementing the GNU Health in different health institutions in Argentina.
Animal Rights
Luis Falcón is also an animal rights activist. In an interview on Ethical Magazine, he said that "A society is sick when enslaves, tortures and kills other species".
In his keynote speech in the 12th International Symposium in Open Collaboration, OpenSym 2016 in Berlin, he declared that Dairy and Meat industry are not only inhumane and extremely cruel, but also unhealthy and negative for the environment.
In July 2020, Luis Falcón was among a group of scientists and academics who co-signed an open letter to various international regulatory bodies to stop the use of animal models in medical research.
Recognitions
Luis Falcon received the 2011 Social benefit award for Best Project of Social Benefit from the Free Software Foundation for the GNU Health project at LibrePlanet 2012, at University of Massachusetts Boston
Shuttleworth Foundation Grant 2015 for the work on GNU Health
Sonderpreis Open Source Business Award (OSBAR) 2016 for GNU Health
Open Awards 2019 special recognition award for Open Source in Medicine and Science
See also
GNU Solidario
GNU Health
References
External links
Success of GNU Health goes beyond free software Interview to Luis Falcon at Opensource Magazine
El Software Libre no se Mancha Article at rebelion.org
Sanidad del siglo XXI en el Camerún rural Article in Planeta Futuro El país
Luis Falcon : Sin Salud Pública no hay Desarrollo Interview in La Provincia
Harvard / MIT HST.936 Global Health Informatics to Improve Quality of Care Luis Falcón speech at MIT
Un software sanitario libre con ADN canario se extiende por tres continentes Interview in Eldiario.es
Entrevista a Luis Falcon Interview in Ethical Magazine
Cheaper health care with free software The Hindu
Liberar la Salud con Software Interview : Innovadores El Mundo Comunidad Valenciana
Premian un sistema libre de gestión hospitalaria ideado por un grancanario Interview in Canarias7
Free software programmers
Spanish computer scientists
1970 births
Living people
21st-century Spanish physicians
People from Las Palmas
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63899963
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sini%C5%A1a%20Mali%20plagiarism%20scandal
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Siniša Mali plagiarism scandal
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Siniša Mali plagiarism scandal refers to the political scandal in Serbia which led to the 2019 annulment of the 2013 doctoral dissertation of economist and politician Siniša Mali by the Belgrade University. After the first plagiarism claims in 2014, the process spanned for over five years, during which Mali progressed from the position of mayor of Belgrade to the office of the finance minister in the Serbian government, and became a member of the ruling Serbian Progressive Party (SNS). In time, question of Mali's doctorate crossed the lines of academia becoming a political affair and a much wider social issue in Serbia due to the inactivity of the state and educational institutions regarding this matter, which in turn provoked public protests, university's blockade by the students and a fierce public and political division.
Being a close friend of Aleksandar Vučić, head of the SNS and president of the Republic of Serbia, his brother Andrej Vučić, and a school friend of Serbian prime minister Ana Brnabić, Mali was vehemently defended by the entire governing and party establishment in what was described as the operation "defend and protect plagiarism" with the entire "machinery employed to defend the doctorate". On the other side, this triggered protests and public performances calling for the annulment of Mali's doctorate which ultimately blended into the wider civil and political Serbian protests since 2018. This was enhanced by the perception of his tenure as the mayor of Belgrade, which was described as the "deluge of affairs" while Mali himself was labeled the "walking affair", a "problematic character followed by his affairs", "controversial" and "scandal-ridden". The plagiarism was even described as a lesser affair compared to other political and economic ones Mali had in his career.
Due to the scandal outbreak, Mali was never officially promoted to the rank of the doctor of philosophy, which didn't prevent pro-government media to title him that way. On the electoral list for the 2018 Belgrade elections, he even named "doctor of philosophy" as his "occupation". On 12 December 2019, the Senate of the Belgrade University unanimously annulled Mali's doctorate due to plagiarism. Ten days later, Mali removed info on his doctoral degree from his official biography on the Ministry of Finance website, but he remained in office, refusing to step down and calling the decision political.
The case has been often compared, unfavorably though, to the Guttenberg plagiarism scandal of Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg, German Minister of Defense who resigned his post after the plagiarism was revealed. But, while in Guttenberg's case political epilogue came after 20 days and a legal one after 9 months, scandal with Mali's doctorate dragged on for 6 calendar years while he progressed in the political hierarchy. During the process, behavior of the faculty and university was labeled as shameful, and the entire process as the "mawkish saga" which ultimately was solved thanks to the students, several professors and public who didn't let the affair go away. The academia's fear of the politicians was blamed for the protraction of the process, but also the pressure of the ruling establishment on the FON and the obedience and corruption of intellectual elite.
The doctorate of Mali was one in the series of , regarding dubious diplomas, master's degrees and doctorates of the high-profile public persons, mainly politicians (Tomislav Nikolić, Nebojša Stefanović, Mića Jovanović, Jorgovanka Tabaković, Aleksandar Martinović, Igor Bečić, Aleksandar Šapić, Jelena Trivan, Aleksandar Vulin, Aleksandar Antić, Zoran Đorđević). Mali's doctorate was the first annulled by the university itself (Jovanović's doctorate was declared non-existing earlier, in 2014, but it was done by Srđan Verbić, Minister of Education at the time). On 11 March 2015 European Parliament expressed concerns that neither academia nor political institutions deal with the problem of plagiarism. In 2018, membership of the National Entity for Accreditation and Quality Assurance in Higher Education of Serbia (NAT) in the European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education was reduced from full membership to the adjoining member.
This also coincided with the period of exponential growth of doctorates in Serbia. In 100 years, from 1905 (when Belgrade University was organized as such and organized doctoral studies) to 2005, on all universities which were formed in time, there were 16,860 doctorates. In the next 8 years, from 2006 to 2013, there were 9,000, with additional 15,000 doctoral students. There were 205 doctorates in 2007, 770 in 2012 and 2,012 in 2016. In only one week in 2016, 187 doctorates were awarded. The paradox is that the number of students in Serbia is below the European average compared to the total population, but the number of doctoral students is well above. One mentor has up to 15 students. 2014 survey showed that 65% of the faculties had no plagiarism procedure, and out of the remaining 35%, only few were able to explain what the procedure actually looks like.
Doctorate
Mentored by professor Dragan Đuričin, Siniša Mali in 2002 originally submitted his thesis at the faculty where he studied, the Faculty of Economics (EKOF). The title of the thesis was Privatization by the Method of Enterprises Selling - Theoretical Concepts and the Case of Serbia. After 9 years, the report on the work wasn't adopted by the EKOF in 2011, and Mali's public defense of the dissertation was refused. The faculty rejected his submission, concluding the work is of low quality and without scientific value.
Mali then modified it and submitted it to the University of Belgrade's Faculty of Organizational Sciences (FON) under the title Value Creation through the Process of Restructuring and Privatisation – Theoretical Concepts and the Case of Serbia. There he obtained his PhD in 2013. The commission included professors Ondrej Jaško (new mentor), Slađana Barjaktarović Rakočević and Đuričin.
Switching of the faculties later became part of the controversy. Professor Đuričin, one of the members of the commission which accepted Mali's thesis at the FON, actually claimed that Mali wrote two doctorates, the one rejected at the FE, and one accepted by the FON. Submitting one the same thesis at two faculties is forbidden and the Faculty of Economics never published Mali's original thesis nor the reasons why it was rejected, so it remains unclear if these were different theses. Mali stated that he wrote the thesis for 3 years, which would mean that he concurrently wrote two theses. Dean of the FON at the time of Mali's defense of the thesis, professor Milan Martić, confirmed that Mali's doctoral dissertation was rejected at the FE, after which he has published his dissertation at the FON. He also stated that 50% of the dissertation was different from the first one, but the original dissertation remained unpublished.
Initial plagiarism reports
On 9 July 2014 the website "Peščanik" claimed that Mali had plagiarized at least one third of his PhD thesis. Raša Karapandža, finance professor at the EBS University of Business and Law in Wiesbaden, Germany, and visiting scholar at the New York University and the University of California in Berkeley, showed that Mali plagiarized the thesis with the content from other theses, authored articles, site of the Agency of Privatization of Serbia and Wikipedia by publishing several examples. Karapandža claimed at the time that Mali plagiarized at least 33% of the thesis, publishing data which confirmed some 18%. At that time, Mali said he "is firmly standing behind his work".
In September 2014, German publisher De Gruyter announced that the article published in their journal, one of two which qualified Mali for the title, contains uncited paragraphs from the doctoral dissertation of Stifanos Hailemariam, a professor and economist from Eritrea, titled Corporate Value Creation, Governance and Privatisation: Restructuring and Managing Enterprises in Transition – The Case of Eritrea, defended at the University of Groningen in The Netherlands, in 2001. On 20 January 2015, Simon Cifert, editor-in-chief of the journal "Organization and Management" which published the scientific work of Siniša Mali, retracted Mali's text from the journal. After revision of the text submitted by the lead co-author, the editorial board of the journal republished the above-mentioned study, with an introductory note Corrigendum, citing another source from the literature used in the design of the study, which was claimed by the co-author to be a technical mistake in the previous version. 13 citations of Hailemariam were added, unlike the previous work which had no quotes by him at all.
A group of the FON alumni sent an open letter to dean Martić, claiming a blatant conflict of interest. One of the co-authors of the retracted article was Slađana Barjaktarović Rakočević. The article later became part of the thesis, while she became a member of the commission when Mali defended it. Additionally, the other article which quialified Mali to submit his thesis, Privatization Through the Sale of Equity – Conceptual Framework and Archived Results in Serbia, was published in February 2013 in magazine Ekonomika preduzeća, whose editor is Dragan Đuričin, Mali's original mentor and another defending commission member.
Group of authors, joined by the association "Save the science" ("Spasimo nauku") pointed out that even if two published works were non-plagiarized and legitimate, they wouldn't be acceptable for the doctorate defense. Code on Accreditation of the Study Programs stipulates that, in order to be accepted for the doctoral theses, work must be published in magazines listed at SCIndeks, Serbian version of citation analysis. Neither of Mali's articles was published in such magazines.
First faculty commission
Prompted by Karapandža's report, the FON formed a commission to investigate Mali's doctorate. All three members of the commission were the same as the original thesis defending commission (Jaško, Barjaktarović Rakočević, Đuričin). In October 2014, this commission gave positive opinion on the thesis. They claimed that the process neither stipulated, nor it was possible, to use specialized software for discovering plagiarism and that media reports regarding the issue are not credible. The commission did state that certain parts regarding the literature listing were incorporated without quoting, which doesn't affect the doctorate's scientific contribution. In media, the findings of the commission were simply titled the Mentor's Report. The Scientific-Teaching Council (NNV) of the faculty accepted this report on 20 November 2014. Out of 154 members (NNV is made of professors and assistants), 118 were present: 117 yes, 1 abstained.
On 10 December 2014, the Legal-Economic Sciences Council of the Belgrade University rejected this report, as out of 23 members, 11 voted to accept it. Some, including the "Save the Science" movement, took this as the official recognition of the plagiarism, calling for the university to annul Mali's doctorate immediately.
Rector of the Belgrade University, , on 10 June 2015 asked the Legal-Economic Sciences Council to re-examine the case after the retracted article by De Gruyter was reposted with added references. The council refused to do so, waiting for the university's new code regarding the plagiarism process and ethical codes. Though announced for the end of 2015, they were adopted only in July 2016. The process was then returned to the FON, to start the new procedure.
Second faculty commission
In November 2016 the FON formed new Ethics Commission which included Milica Bulajić, Mladen Čudanov, Srđa Bjeladinović, Veroljub Nastić and Miloš Krstanović. On 19 December 2016 the commission rejected plagiarism report as unsubstantiated, concluded that citing omissions are negligible, that software checks can't be the basis for the proceedings and that it can not be challenged on the original scientific contribution of the doctoral dissertation as the scientific contribution is undisputable.
Professor Karapandža called the report meaningless, as the commission didn't try to dispute the plagiarism regarding the translation from English to Serbian, as checking software can't do that so it has to be done "by hand". He also said that, given the amount of copied/translated text, it can't be just citing omission. Dušan Teodorović, a member of the Serbian Academy of Science and Arts and president of the Academy Board for Higher Education sent 20 pages of evidence which he alleged prove the work is a plagiarism to the rector of the university asking for Mali's PhD to be annulled. On 18 January 2017, citing procedural reasons, the Senate of the University of Belgrade rejected the Ethics Commission findings, instructing the faculty to form an Experts Commission instead, as it should have done in the first place by the university's rule book.
Third faculty commission
Failure in forming a commission
By April 2017, all members of the commission resigned, with the exception of professor Čudanov who was teaching at the chair headed by professor Jaško, Mali's mentor. The FON failed to assemble the next commission for 3 years. The faculty asked for help from the university's Rector Collegium, admitting that 4 of their professor refused to participate in the commission, which was to have 4 members: two appointed by the faculty, one by the university's council in charge of the subject (alter confirmed as the Council of the Social-Humanist Sciences), and one by the National Council for Higher Education. It was reported that the collegium managed to provide one member (originally only reported to be from Slovenia) and that National Council delegated professor Milan Jovanović who was neither present at the voting, nor accepted it.
In October 2017, the National Council announced Italian professor Roberto Velardi as their member of the commission. Just two months later, Velardi withdrew citing health reasons. The Council of the Social-Humanist Sciences had no candidates as no one wanted to accept the appointment, even from the Faculty of Economics, as the member had to be an economic manager. Dean of the faculty Branislav Boričić said they even tried to find someone from other economic institutions, but no one wanted to accept it. He also added that his faculty "already tackled the problem and stated its mind in some way", alluding to the original refusal of Mali's thesis.
During this vacuum, on 27 February 2018 a group of professors and doctors of philosophy delivered a request to the Belgrade University's Rectorate to prevent the promotion of Mali as the doctor of philosophy and to annul his PhD altogether. 379 doctors of philosophy, including 8 members of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts signed a request, which also asks for the ethical scrutiny of three members of the commission which originally confirmed his doctorate. On the same day, economist and professor , accused Mali of blatantly copying study Novi model privatizacije u Srbiji (New model of privatization in Serbia), published in 2000 by Mijatović, Boris Begović and Boško Živković. The study is available online and comparison showed that some sections were rewritten to the letter. A day later, rector Bumbaširević announced that the National Council for Higher Education will soon name its representative to the commission, adding that Mali is not a doctor of philosophy, since he hasn't been awarded the doctoral diploma yet, nor has he been promoted to PhD, neither he will be until the entire process is over. Still, on the Serbian Progressive Party's list for the local elections in Belgrade, set for 4 March 2018, Siniša Mali named "doctor of philosophy" as his "occupation".
New commission
In February 2019, the FON formed an experts commission made of professors Dejan Erić (Belgrade Banking Academy-Union University, Belgrade), Tomaž Čater (School of Economics and Business-University of Ljubljana, Slovenia), Dragan Mikerević (Faculty of Economics-University of Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina) and Vinko Kandžija (Faculty of Economics-University of Rijeka, Croatia). With the help of the specialized software Turnitin, on 26 March 2019 they concluded that Mali properly quoted only 2 out of 126 quotations in his thesis, that he copied 4,500 words without quotations, but that he plagiarized only 6.97% of his thesis, which the commission claimed is not enough to dispute its scientific contribution. The commission found that actually 16% of the text is copied, but the difference came from the "official state reports", "common phrases", "formulas", etc. Mali copied texts from publications of the Agency for Privatization, which he headed at the time. Agency also claimed that some portions were erroneously recognized as plagiarism by the software. The commission also stated that Hailemariam's thesis was the "starting point" for Mali's thesis, even though Mali doesn't quote or mention Hailemariam in his PhD at all. Commission also ignored the accusations of plagiarism by Mijatović, Begović and Živković.
The Experts Commission handed its decision to faculty's Ethics Commission. Made of Čudanov, Nevenka Žarkić Joksimović (president), Milica Jovanović, Snježana Jerković and Mihailo Okiljević. the commission unanimously accepted the report on 2 April. On 8 May, the FON's NNV accepted the Ethics Commission report (110 members present, 82 yes, 28 abstained). The FON sent its report to the Senate of the Belgrade University, which decided to declare itself after the complaint deadline is over, and after the decision of the university's Professional Ethics Board.
Reactions and escalation
Academia reaction
Despite the claim that 6.97% of plagiarism is not enough to annul the doctorate, ethical code of the Belgrade University states that plagiarism is "literal transcription of the other author's text, or copying from the electronic or printed sources, either in Serbian or foreign languages, in parts or entirety". Commission's bargaining regarding the percentage of plagiarism was described as the insipid, rude argumentation. Other professors protested, claiming that you can't "plagiarize a little", that, depending on the context, you can properly cite other authors but not the entire passages and pages, and that what the Experts Commission described is a textbook of "hidden plagiarism". In general, the commission was accused of polemicizing with Karapandža's evidence instead of dealing with the thesis itself. The composition of the 4-members commission was also criticized. None of the members deal with the corporate finances, which is the theme of the PhD. One of them speaks no English so he couldn't compare the Hailemariam's doctorate to the Mali's one, only one published works in a journal with impact factor, while the third was removed from the state university after he was caught by the police for selling exams to the students. Also, the commission in its report referred to Mali as "doctor", which he still isn't as the University hadn't promoted him yet.
Karapandža pointed out again that Turnitin can't compare theses in two different languages and Mali literally translated it from English to Serbian word by word (with some extremely poor translations), using italics and bolded text in the exactly same places and copying almost all of the schematics and diagrams. The only thing Mali did was to replace Eritrea with Serbia in sentences. He used the same font, too. Mali even kept the example of value forming for cotton, which is one of the main crops in Eritrea but doesn't grow in Serbia. Teodorović also said there is a zero probability that two persons, from different parts of the world, name 100 exactly the same references, in the exactly the same order, including exactly the same typos. Karapandža then showed that the commission actually only cited several pages which he originally published proving it was a plagiarism. He then published further 10 pages of blatant copies by Mali from Hailemariam's original thesis, which the commission never mentioned, asking the commission to tell what is the percentage of plagiarism needed to dispute Mali's PhD and also published 6 plagiarized illustrations. Karapandža also noted that the fact that Mali simply copied texts from the government documents was taken as a mitigating circumstance, while in Germany, in the case of Guttenberg plagiarism scandal it was taken as an aggravated circumstance because of the misuse of state and government resources.
Other complaints included material errors and some "absurdities". For the parts which Karapandža proved that Mali simply translated, the commission commended him for better referencing than Hailemariam himself. But, for example, an author with two surnames at Hailemariam was referenced as two separate authors by Mali. Professor Božidar Radenković, the only FON professor who signed the complaint said that the thesis is plagued with obvious plagiarism and that reports by the FON's Experts and Ethics Commission fall under the comedy genre.
Complaints and university reaction
Total of 4 complaints were filed to the university's Professional Ethics Board against the findings of the FON's commission. One, upheld by Todorović and , was signed by 140 university professors. Second complaint was filed by 3 professors from the University of Belgrade Faculty of Law (Miodrag Jovanović, Goran Dajović, Bojan Spaić) who challenged the report on percentage of allegedly allowed plagiarism and commission's erroneous effort to comment and examine scientific contribution instead of checking if it is an original piece of work. Third and fourth complaints were was filed by professors Predrag Simonović (Faculty of Biology) and Aleksej Tarasjev ("Siniša Stanković" Institute for Biology Research), respectively.
After the complaint period expired on 24 May, rector Ivanka Popović forwarded the complaints to the Professional Ethics Board. Acting upon the complaints, on 15 July the board again returned the doctorate back to the FON for new deliberation, giving them 60 days to do so. They concluded that the commission's findings, on which the faculty's decision was made, were "incomplete, unclear and contradictory". When published, board's report stated that faculty's commission didn't check if the doctorate is plagiarized at all, judging the “scientific contribution” instead, which wasn't its task. The board also asked for feedback from both the faculty and Mali, regarding new complaints. The faculty responded to the board, Mali didn't. They also instructed the commission that software check is only one of the ways to check for plagiarism. Some professors criticized the board for not declaring a plagiarism right away, while others resigned their administrative posts in protest (Slobodan Prvanović, Ognjen Radović). Prvanović, deputy member of the board, resigned the post and accused the board of preparing the decision for returning the report months ago, in order to accommodate the ruling establishment in the state, to which Mali belonged. He asked the Senate to dismiss the board for being compromised, but that didn't happen. He also reported pressure he experienced from hiss director, head of the Physics Institute, Aleksandar Bogojević.
Rector Popović asked for the professors not to pressure the board. Critics responded that the board was left alone for months and again made a bad decision, while the "post festum" criticism is not a pressure.
Blockade of the Rectorate
A group of students blocked the Rectorate of University of Belgrade on 19 July 2019, protesting the Senate's decision. During talks with the rector Popović, they asked for the university to push the prime minister Ana Brnabić to dismiss Mali from the government (and Interior Minister Nebojša Stefanović, also because of the plagiarism), in order to ease the pressure on the university to declare the doctorate a plagiarism. Popović asked for some time over the summer to see into the students' demands, so the students set a deadline for September, when they promised to continue their actions.
On 13 September 2019, a group of students from the association "1 of 5 Million" locked themselves inside the Rectorate, blocking anyone from entering. Their main demand was that rector Popović, on Radio Television Serbia, calls for premier Brnabić to sack Mali from the government citing conflict of interest since Mali, as a finance minister, assigns funds to the university's budget. Counter group, some of which admitted they were summoned by the ruling Serbian Progressive Party (SNS) also gathered, clashing with the students. Others were identified as party activists via social networks. Groups of citizens who supported the students gathered in front of the building, including some professors and public and opposition figures. University's governing bodies accused the students of non-academic behavior and political demands.
Popović, however, began negotiations with the students stating that hostile takeover of the building, cutting off of water or electricity or any repressive measures towards the students are out of the question. Negotiations came to the stalemate until 22 September, when Popović acknowledged and condemned intrusion of the SNS activists into the building, which was one of the demands from the protesters, confirming that some members of the SNS group were obviously "not students". Negotiations continued, with Popović defending protesters adding the talks are the only course of action and that question of Mali's doctorate must "be solved". The agreement was reached when Popović announced she "stands by her students" who are "fighting for the autonomy and reputation of the university". As per compromise with the students, she gave a deadline to the Ethics Board until 4 November to decide whether Mali's doctorate is a case of plagiarism. On 25 September, students left the building. The rector guaranteed their request regarding Mali's doctorate will be executed. Popović also stated that the students who participated in the blockade must not bare any disciplinary or any other academic consequences. The students reiterated they organized the blockade because of Mali's plagiarism, and announced a new blockade, this time jointly with the professors who support them, if Mali's doctorate is not confirmed as plagiarism.
Governmental response
Regarding the complaints and number of professor who signed them, Siniša Mali said that collecting signatures doesn't bother him and that he believes in his knowledge and institution of university. He stayed quiet regarding the protests, but posted his diplomas and recognitions, and photos of him "still studying", on his Instagram account, though no one disputed his diplomas, only the doctorate.
Prime minister Ana Brnabić made a statement, expressing her support to Mali regarding the students' request during their blockade of the rectorate. She stated that Mali was her personal choice for a minister and that she was completely confident in her decision. She also said that without Mali there would be no reduction in payroll taxes, an increase of the minimum wage and other good things that happened. Brnabić expressed her concern that the whole process was politically motivated. She said she did not want to interfere with the autonomy of the university, but as a citizen she noticed the contradictory statements of rector Popović. President Aleksandar Vučić supported Mali and stated that the protest for his dismissal was organized by the students who want to influence the composition of the government. He added that Mali's appointment as a minister was the political decision of the ruling coalition. He also stated that the goal of the blockade itself is to elicit attention and not to improve student conditions. In order to explain how the actions of the students make no sense, Vučić said:
Vučić labeled students as opposition activists who will not see the police intervention, "which they wish for". He said he supports "love between rector and students", adding "it is super for her not to enter her office in 15 days...it would be ideal for her not to do anything for another 15 days". Even pro-government media described the entire Vučić's approach as ironic. He said there is nothing rude in his statement that "she is in political love with members of the opposition parties". Brnabić said she will not yield to the "ultimatum of 15-20 students" and sack Mali from the government, calling protests an anarchy and "hostage crisis". Popović called for all politicians to respect the autonomy of the university and freedom of thought and expression of its students, responding that with the 21st century technology, she doesn't have to sit in her office all the time anyway.
Vučič also stated that Mali doesn't need diploma cause he may be a minister with only an elementary school education, since it is a political decision. Response from Karapandža and others was that this is not an issue at all - what matters is whether someone is a "liar and a thief, or not". Vučić's "defense" was described as an indirect admission that Mali plagiarized his doctorate but that it doesn't matter anyway.
Defense campaign
Professors Todorović and Karapandža were often attacked by the pro-government tabloids and members of Mali's political party. Mali labeled them "twitter professors", adding he will "continue to fight for better and more prosperous Serbia and for the higher quality of life for its every citizen". He described Karapandža as "completely anonymous individual" who attacks him for political reasons. Tabloid Alo in August 2017 sent a letter to the dean of the Wiesbaden university, asking him to fire Karapandža whom they accused of plagiarism and of smearing the names of Serbian citizens. Independent commission was formed by the university which cleared Karapandža of all allegations from the letter, labeling them materially incorrect and non-academic, with the university supporting Karapandža in debunking the fake doctorates. Alo refused to publish the rebuttal. Rectors and deans from the Belgrade University, academics, directors of the scientific institutes and numerous professors, received a letter from professor Đuričin, Mali's original mentor and member of the original doctoral commission. The letter was actually an open discreditation of Karapandža who, among other things, was accused of being part of the "mathematicians clique" which intruded into the economics and caused the global Financial crisis of 2007–2008. Karapandža also reported continuous threats he received.
The problem with Mali's doctorate already spread outside of the academia limits and became a much wider social issue in Serbia, but after the agreement between the students and the rector was reached, a full blown media attack against university professors began. They were attacked by the pro-regime media, highest state officials, members of parliament and members of the ruling party. Main focus was on two most media exposed members of the negotiation team with the students, rector Popović and professor Danijel Sinani, on professors Karapandža and Teodorović from before, but campaign was also directed against other professors who publicly denounced Mali's doctorate, like Danica Popović and Ognjen Radonjić.
Accused directly by Vučić and Brnabić for "crossing the red line" and losing her neutrality for agreeing with the students, rector Popović said: "I am not neutral. I am on the side of the University". It was claimed that her "paternal uncle was Stalinist and head chopper", it was called for governmental inquiry against her, while the university was labeled an opposition lair. She was also mocked because of her appearance and dressing style ("physically neglected", "cleaning lady"). Sinani was attacked on ethnic lines, especially on Happy TV. The executive and host Milomir Marić declared Sinani the "representative of Thaçi and Haradinaj", who, being an Albanian, teaching Albanian language and having "suspicious surname", has no moral grounds to judge anything in Belgrade. Marić said that Sinani is teaching some "roka mandolina" (Albanian folk song which became quite popular in Yugoslavia in the 1970s). Sinani, however, is not Albanian but Gorani, teaches Folk religion of the Serbs and several other anthropology of religion classes, was a longtime president of the National Committee for the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Serbia and a pivotal member of the team which helped inclusion of kolo, gusle and slava as Serbian elements on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists.
Danica Popović was accused of plagiarism. Vocal opponent of the regime in general, and already cleared by the faculty commission, she became target of continuous, highly aggressive plagiarism campaign. Tabloids also accused one of the opposition leaders and former mayor of Belgrade, Dragan Đilas of bribing members of the FON's Ethics Commission to vote in favor of plagiarism. They claimed Đilas "bought" one professor for €50,000, while promised another one office of the dean after the government change. However, student-prorector Danilo Potparić claimed that one member of the Student Parliament offered him a bribe to vote that the thesis is not plagiarized. He was offered to "split the money" with the person who offered it, but after he refused this person said it was just a joke. Potparić didn't want to disclose the name of this person. Potparić was to be re-elected, but he and the university's teaching-prorector Petar Bulat were removed from the session, delegates who supported his re-election were replaced and another student was then elected instead of him.
Tabloid Alo continued to call Karapandža a plagiarist, accusing him of "spitting on everything Serbian" and of campaigning against Serbia. He was described as the cutpurse and "scientific abomination". All government tabloids and TV stations at the same time published the story, claiming the truth behind the campaign against Mali. According to this, Siniša Mali as the chairman of the Board of Directors of Komercijalna banka in 2013, refused to buy the software sold by the Center for Innovation and Finance (CIF), a company where Karapandža was one of the shareholders and was inventor of the software. One year after Mali refused to buy the software, Karapandža posted that his PhD was plagiarism. Karapandža gave the exact data when CIF was actually invited to a tender by the bank. It was in 2009 and 2017, while Mali was board member from 2013 to 2014, which can be confirmed by the board members from the EBRD. He added that Mali is doctor as much as Dr. Dre or Dr Nele Karajlić. Dejan Šoškić, former Governor of the National Bank of Serbia, also refuted the claim. Karapandža and Šoškić were then accused of "wasting" another bank, Srpska Banka. Additionally, Karapandža was accused of falsifying report on his plagiarism from his university. Karapandža was also accused of "robbing" and racketeering other banks and being a member of the "mafia octopus".
Karapandža responded that he may be the head of the Mexican drug cartel but that doesn't diminish the scale of Mali's [intellectual] theft. He compared Guttenberg's case, saying that Serbia not only can't compare to Germany, but can't be compared to Zimbabwe either. The doctorate of Grace Mugabe was annulled after 4 years, while President of Zimbabwe (and her husband) Robert Mugabe wasn't organizing press conferences in New York, from the annual United Nations General Assembly session, to call professors who caught Mali in stealing the "haters [of Serbs and Serbia]", like president Vučič did.
For the short period of time, media star of the pro-regime media became student Aleksandar Jakšić. He initially accused Danica Popović of textbook plagiarism and then for selling the grades to her students behind the closed door of her cabinet. Every time he would appear on TV, he had more and more papers with him, weaving the web of corruption which included all the major accusers of Mali for plagiarism and generally summarizing government accusations against them. He called Popović and her assistant Jelena Rašković criminals and filed official complaint, but the Faculty of Economics cleared Popović of plagiarism. She responded that she has been attacked because of Mali's doctorate, that Jakšić bragged he is a cousin of Bratislav Gašić, head of Serbian Security Intelligence Agency (BIA), and reported Jakšić to the disciplinary commission. Jakšić then denied he is Gašić's cousin. After several disciplinary commissions, where Danica Popović was the first professor to report the student, it was proved that Jakšić accused her of selling exams on one of the faculties public discussions (he said it was an "open secret"). His defense was that he has the right to say things even without any proof or witnesses, cause his oppionion is not the claim ("You can't do anything to me"). He found no witness to support him at the commission, while Popović's witnesses, other professors and academics, Jakšić called out for the lack of credibility. He was supported by president Vučić who said that Popović is "the professor who is harassing the student who stood up to her at her class". The commission gave the sanction of strict reprimand to Jakšić, while Popović asked for him to be sacked from the faculty.
Months later, Jakšić continued to call out Popović, but then also accused Karapandža of plagiarism again, despite his university cleared him already. He then involved Karapandža, former governor and professor Šoškić, and professors Boris Živković (whose co-authored work Mali plagiarized), Branko Urošević (Karapandža's former mentor) and Milojko Arsić (who debunked president Vučić's claim on the state of Serbian economy) into the corruptive "web of professors". Jakšić claimed he discovered some of the things by "accidentally clicking the mouse". He also attacked professors Teodorović and Srbijanka Turajlić of corruption and hypocrisy. After a while, Jakšić disappeared from media.
The attacks were so wide and below any professional standards, that even some government controlled agencies reacted, not just the independent ones. Ministry of Culture and Information issued a statement calling for strict following of the Serbian Journalists Code and "generally accepted moral norms", labeling the attacks "unsuitable rhetoric" and "unacceptable...pejorative, false and incriminating context". Regulatory Authority for Electronic Media (REM) filed charges against Happy TV. Several journalists associations filed criminal charges against Milomir Marić from the Happy TV, who personally attacked professor Sinani. Support came from the students and number of faculties, professors and civil organizations, which deemed the attacks loathing and chauvinistic, or continued to further debunk Mali's doctorate. Still, the operation "defend and protect plagiarism" continued, with the entire "machinery employed to defend the doctorate", while the University remained under the "barrage fire" by the state representatives.
In Mali's defense, government media claim that while for the "five and a half years every word is being measured" in Mali's doctorate, in the world, up to 20% of plagiarism is allowed if it's "not essential", and that EU University (which doesn't exist) confirmed that Mali's doctorate is not plagiarism.
Fourth faculty commission
Decision
The FON's Ethics Commission formed the same Experts Commission as in January 2019, which on 23 October 2019 submitted exactly the same report as the previous time, that percentage of plagiarism doesn't call for any sanctions. The commission dismissed all complaints, claiming that the only important thing is the scientific contribution, even though that was not the merit the commission was formed to judge. Accepting this report, two days later, the Ethics Commission submitted its own report to the NNV, but this time adding it hadn't "enough facts" but that there are "elements of non-academic conduct", recommending "public reprimand" of Mali.
Prior to the session of the FON's NNV, the students covered the entrance with the messages against plagiarism. One of the FON's professors, Mirko Vujošević, labeled the students "terrorists" and said that faculty shouldn't mess with this at all and let the University to deal with it. The NNV accepted the report but changed the recommendation to "public condemnation", the stricter type of sanction. Some members of the council stated that this practically instructs the University's Ethics Board to annul the doctorate. Representative of the FON's students in the NNV, Moma Kovačević, stated that this means Mali has no support of the council anymore. Several council members wanted for the council to vote directly on plagiarism, but this was ignored by the FON's dean Milija Suknović. Hence, the faculty never actually voted whether the work is plagiarism or not. This didn't stop pro-government media to report that it was again voted that the doctorate is not plagiarism.
The report sent to the university's Ethics Board had more than 699 pages, analyzing the doctoral dissertation. Commission members (Erić, Čater, Kandžija, Mikerević) requested a meeting with board members to substantiate their views about the indisputable scientific contribution of Mali's work. The decision was a controversy within the controversy: the work was not declared non-original or plagiarized, but the author was to be admonished for his non-academic behavior. Dean Suknović, though obliged by the decision, didn't reprimand Mali with "public condemnation". It was later discovered that Suknović tried to skip the process and avoid the voting of the NNV by sending the commission report directly to the university, thus evading FON's obligation to make a decision, but the rector returned it back to the faculty asking them to follow the procedure.
Reactions
Mali stated: "I am glad they again confirmed my doctorate is not plagiarism, cause I know I wrote it, I am confident in my knowledge, I am confident in what I have done. But here, for some errors that were made I will accept the responsibility and let's move on". He accused opposition of politicizing and spinning the issue, labeling them as fascists. Mali also added that he would "most gladly tear his doctorate and write another one" and that opposition is attacking his doctorate because they have no plan or program and can't say anything bad about him because "salaries and pensions are rising".
General public consensus was that Mali (jokingly called "financial guru") will stay in office, despite everything. He was openly called out for his lack of moral and for not showing the shred of remorse because of the affair and the damage it brought. He blamed everyone else, calling the process political, but it became political because of the behavior of the ruling establishment which pressured the academia. Though Mali previously stated he takes responsibility for the quotation mistakes, he first relativized the issue saying that "they claim they have found 6,97%", but in the end he completely rejected any fault, blaming the original doctoral commission instead: That's not even my error, it is an error of the commission, cause, someone was looking at it.
Given the date when the FON made its decision, in order to follow the due process and because of the deadline for complaints, the final date for decision was moved to 11 November, or 13 November in case of the rector's complaint. Citing further procedure, rector Popović then gave 22 November as the final date, apologizing to the students, who decided to wait, but without any apologies, pleads or concessions after that date. The students repeated they will resume the blockade if Mali's deoctorate is not declared a plagiarism, regardless of the new, private, ununiformed security guards who suddenly appeared in the Rectorate building, restricting movement of the students. When rector Popović came to the hall, new guardsmen hid from her. Some professors publicly announced they will join the blockade this time. Rector confirmed there will be no more returning of the decision back to the FON and that decision by the university board will be final.
This time, a group of over 200 university professors filed a joint complaint against the decision of the FON. Later, four other complaints were filed, lifting the number to almost 300 professors. For the first time, Mali also filed complaints in his favor. Three complaints, one by him and two by his attorneys, had a total of 3,000 pages. He didn't claim the doctorate is not a plagiarism, but cited numerous formalities and technicalities in the process claiming he never received any decisions from the academic institutions, that no one of the persons who filed complaints since the process began actually have the right to do so and that filed complaints are not properly structured. Because of this, his attorneys planned to file counter-complaint to every complaint by the professors.
Ethics Board
On 21 November 2019, university's Professional Ethics Board overturned the faculty's decision and unanimously confirmed the non-academic behavior of Siniša Mali while writing his doctorate. Rector Popović stated he violated the Article 22 of the University's Code of professional ethics, because he literally included texts and entire passages in his dissertation, without naming the original authors. The Board also reprimanded Suknović for only suggesting the reprimand of Mali, and not going through with it, as it was his duty. The Board sent its decision to the Senate to make the final decision in accordance with the guidebook on the process of nullifying diplomas and other works. The terminology used was "non-academic behavior", but the rector later that day clarified that it was a case of plagiarism. Professor Vladeta Janković said that the original commission, and especially Mali's mentor, should be next, while professors Biljana Stojković and Teodorović announced further complaints against Mali's PhD mentor, all members of the commission which endorsed his doctorate and all members of the commissions which declared his doctorate a non-plagiarism. Popović ended her statement with words "We'll bee seeing each other more. Pleasant day".
Board findings
The decision was formalized and made public on 28 November 2019. The Board deliberated on the complaint by the rector Ivanka Popović (compilation of 5 academia complaints) and on the complaint by Siniša Mali and his attorneys Andrija Đurović and Nemanja Vasiljević. By the Board's decision 10 br. 612-2294/34-19, the decision of the FON's NNV was overturned and the non-academic conduct of Siniša Mali was confirmed. They concluded that Mali violated article No. 22 of the University's Code of professional ethics - plagiarism. Mali's complaint, that is, a request for the re-evaluation of the FON's decision was rejected as inadmissible.
The FON's decision was classified as unlawful since it lacks clear explanation, description and qualifications of the non-academic behavior for which it suggested reprimand of Mali. Also none of the commissions and the NNV failed to comply to the previous guidelines by the Board in order to improve the decision and all of them showed lack of readiness to establish true and complete facts relevant for the matter. Especially since, in this case, the facts were indisputable and easily established by simply comparing Mali's doctorate with the works of other authors. Failure also include the fact that they never included copied text from Haimelariam's dissertation into the plagiarized section of Mali's thesis (the previously reported 6.97%) and inability of different faculty bodies to take one, joint stand on the issue.
As the FON decided not to compare Mali's thesis with other works, the Board took it upon itself to do it. The results of the comparison with Haliemariam's work showed that on 35 pages, Mali copied Hailemariam's thesis (with the detailed list of pages from both doctorates). Of those, 30 pages were plagiarized more than 50%, while 16 are completely or almost completely copied so the Board concluded that Mali literally copied (translated) Hailemariam's work which is neither referenced nor mentioned in the bibliography, nor the text was marked with the quotation marks. The Board's stance was that an aggravated circumstances for Mali include copying of entire passages and pages, and adopting Hailemariam's references as his own. Out of 96 footnotes, Mali took from Hailemariam 51, or more than a half.
The Board then compared the doctorate with the study Novi model privatizacije u Srbiji by Begović, Živković and Mijatović. Mali copied the study on 9 pages in total, of which 2 were coped more than 50%. He even included plagiarized work from the study in the conclusion of his thesis. The study is, just like the Hailemariam's dissertation, never mentioned in his work (references, footnotes, bibliography, no quotation marks).
Taking all this in account, the Board made a decision on plagiarism, which was described as "evident and indisputable". Mali's complaints on the process were dismissed, with detailed explanation of the regulations. Regarding Mali's complaint that he wasn't allowed to participate in the process, the Board said that Mali sent his reply to the FON's request on 14 December 2016, while all documentation regarding the matter was sent by the Board to him so he wasn't excluded. For another Mali's complaint, that the complaints against the FON's decision were filed by unauthorized persons, the Board explained that those five individual complaints were only parts of compiled rector's complaint, and the rector is authorized to file it. Also declared inadmissible was Mali's complaint regarding his reprimand by the FON. The faculty's NNV only suggested it, while it has no power to actually make it effective. It is dean's duty, but since he never did it, the complaint was pointless. As president of the Board, professor Vuk Radović signed the decision.
Reactions
Mali commented on the decision: "I am confident in my knowledge. I know I did not do it. This topic means to some people for political reasons and that I can not even comment. In any case, in the next few days I will address this topic more extensively, and now, to be honest, I am interested in the budget of Serbia and to deal with what I have been paid for by the citizens of Serbia". President Vučić said he is not surprised by the university's "deeply political decision" and continued to insult and dispute people who were active in debunking the plagiarism, or were connected to them, adding Mali is doing "excellent work". He asked who gave "them" the right to dispute Mali's doctorate, labeling them "half-literate", "highly uneducated leaders of political parties", "uneducated elite", "worst students" or, ironically, "great experts". Vučić said that this decision confirms he is not a dictator, since this is a political decision aimed against the government and that such things were impossible under he previous regime, so he concluded that Serbian society advanced greatly.
The government establishment was described as finally coming to the realization that the plagiarism was actually confirmed and its reaction was characterized as orchestrated, not so much as an effort to clear Mali's name, but to provide excuses for keeping him in the government. Both prime minister Brnabić and president Vučić said that Mali will remain in office. With other ministers, deputies and party members, they all called the university's decision a political one, praising Mali's economic achievements. Brnabić said that the obvious indicator this was a political decision was the talk show "360 Stepeni" on N1, non-nationwide cable channel from 31 October, three weeks prior to the Board's decision, when two leaders of the non-parliamentary opposition parties, Dragan Đilas and Sergej Trifunović expressed their firm belief that the doctorate will be annulled. The claims of fierce opposition forcing the University to bring anti-government decisions is contrasted by other, concurrent claims from the government, that the opposition is almost non-existent, unimportant, utterly disliked by people and that no one would vote for them.
Commentators noted the unpleasantness, as the push from the position in charge of pressure (president Vučić, "it is decided there is no plagiarism in Mali's work, he just messed some footnotes"), with all mechanisms for enforcing the pressure, actually failed. It was first such slap in the face of the government after a long time. Reaction of prime minister Brnabić was deemed especially nervous.
Rector Popović said that the decision is academic and made by experts, without presumption of Mali's capacity in the government. On the parliamentary session where the budget, presented by Mali, was discussed, almost every deputy from the ruling coalition spoke about the political decision of the university and praised Mali, calling for his stay in the office. Speeches included: explanations that he wasn't elected because of the doctorate but because of his expertise, calling a Daltonist everyone who can't see this is a political decision, calling university pathetic, mocking the students, claims of conspiracy that this is just the first step in annulment of all doctorates obtained by the members of the ruling party, labeling the process of annulment as the amounting of various destructive energies and a conspiracy against president Vučić, labeling the plagiarism as "allegedly some kind of plagiarism". Some labeled the rector as "Mali's executioner" and called for her to resign instead of Mali.
Tabloids called Mali to keep the office and not to pay attention to the "danglers". Some views were even more extreme. Head of assembly's Education Board Muamer Zukorlić called the process "rebellion against the government" and a "bad sign". He stated that if this "clash with the government" is taken lightly, it will be an "announcement of fiercer attacks". He labeled the plagiarism happenings as the fire that is not to be underestimated and a systemic disease. He openly warned Vučić that he must not pass this as it is, otherwise it will be "either you will get them, or they will get you". Zukorlić founded private International University of Novi Pazar in 2002, which worked ever since but was never accredited. Though leader of the Justice and Reconciliation Party, Zukorlić was nominated to head the assembly's Education Board by the Vučić's party. Opposition contested his election to the post in 2016 as a blatant conflict of interest.
Organization MASA (Academic Solidarity and Engagement Web) stated concern with how much vengefulness and anger was in parliamentary speeches against the University. They especially named Zukorlić for his call on Vučić to deal with the university, and asked from his removal from the position of the board president. Zukorlić said that his call for the reckoning between Vučić and university was "poetic", but that examining only Mali's doctorate because he is a politician is dishonest and criticized opposition for debunking the fake doctorates of the ruling establishment. Some professors pointed out that because Mali is a politician in the ruling establishment, the process actually dragged for so long.
Vučič said he will propose the state financed digitalization of all existing magister and doctoral theses, so that anyone can read and compare them, especially the doctorates of Karapandža and Bojan Pajtić, former president of the Democratic Party. However, the doctoral theses are already published publicly since 2014. He also sent mixed signals saying that he has no intention to bow in front of the political decisions but also that Mali has to pay the political price, not specifying what and when:
In Mali's defense, Vučič compared his ordeal with one of the greatest Serbian authors, Danilo Kiš. In an interview with Milomir Marić at "Happy TV", where he is regular (talk show Ćirilica), he said: Do you know who was investigated, whose doctorate was abolished, under question? Well the great Danilo Kiš. So I think that it is much more important what Siniša Mali can do for the country in the public finances department. However, this was false information as Kiš had no PhD at all. He was actually accused in 1977 of plagiarizing one of his major works, A Tomb for Boris Davidovich and managed to defend himself in court, though the controversy remained. Writers and literature critics heavily criticized comparison between Kiš and Mali, calling it the brutal disrespect of cultural values, bizarre, distasteful and shameful mudslinging of Kiš for which Vučić should apologize. Even more so, as Kiš wasn't declared a plagiarist, while Mali was. Some other reactions were ridiculed, like the statement of Mali's colleague in the government, Minister of Transportation Zorana Mihajlović, that plagiarism is a private matter between Mali and the University.
Opposition parties and movements asked for Mali's resignation. Several protests and marches were organized by the "Ne Davimo Beograd" movement, asking for the removal of Mali from the government. Students who organized the blockade of the Rectorate declared a victory. A group of students from the "1 of 5 Million" movement organized a march which ended in the park which encircles the House of the National Assembly of the Republic of Serbia where they organized a symbolical funeral for the 2020 budget of Serbia, stating that Mali must not be the one who is tailoring a budget. Managing of the state vault by Mali has been described as giving the goat to guard the cabbage by professor BIljana Stojković. On the protests and marches Mali has been given the red cards, which was the title of the march ("Red card for Siniša Mali"). The students objected his staying in office openly saying that the thief can't draft the budget. Activists from "Ne Davimo Beograd" chained and locked the building of the Ministry of Finance.
The Board for Higher Education of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts supported University's Board decision and its right to make decisions within its authority. President of the board, professor Todorović continued to be under the attack of the regime media, and at one point said that building of one of the major propaganda televisions, Pink TV, should be demolished. Pink TV's owner, Željko Mitrović, in his usual manner when he confronts someone who is critical on him, his TV, or president Vučić, wrote an "open letter", which was then aired several times a day for several days. Among other things, he called Teodorović "the stupidest and least talented person among the academy members". Serbian Academy condemned Mitrović's behavior and his insulting of Teodorović on political basis.
Opposition and the students also accused Mali of taking a revenge on the Belgrade University as the money allocated for the university in the state budget was reduced from 19.24 billion dinars (€163.75 million) in 2019, to 18.71 billion (€159.25 million) in the new budget for 2020, which was proposed in November 2019. Mali called them liars, saying that the university budget consists of two parts: one funded by the state and one filled by the university's own income. He stated that the part provided by the state was enlarged by 804 million dinars, or €6.85 million (10.4 to 11.3 billion dinars, or €88.5 to €96.2 million), but university planned much lesser income, hence the total reduction. Mali addressed the opposition: You probably know, and you should ask the leadership of the University, you know them better than I do, why is their own income lower, so their total budged is lower, too".
The news on Mali's plagiarism made worldwide news. On the other hand, despite the years long tensions, which especially escalated in 2019, none of the regime tabloids printed the news on the annulment on front page.
Annulment by the Senate
On 12 December 2019, the Senate of the Belgrade University unanimously and officially annulled Mali's doctorate due to the plagiarism. When it comes to the university procedures, the decision is final and there can't be any further complaints regarding the matter. Actually, the Senate only accepted the Board's decision, without opening the debate on the issue. The FON's dean Suknović, member of the Senate, this time voted for the annulment of Mali's doctorate.
The University sad that Mali has the right to file the complaint to the Administrative Court. The court can't discus or revert the merit of the Senate's decision, but can return it to deliberation due to the technical reasons in the deliberation process.
Reactions
Mali initially refused to comment on the decision. On 15 December 2019 he said he is "targeted by the opposition, so as president Aleksandar Vučić" because they can't "forgive the success" of the two and that he doesn't report to the opposition, but also praising his own economic knowledge and patriotism. After Danas newspaper published an article on Mali's biography on the his ministry website where he kept data on his doctorate, he deleted it on 22 December 2019, ten days after the official annulment. A record of his doctoral studies remained for a while longer on the official government's site, but it was removed later, too.
Calls for his resignation continued. Some members of the opposition and various civil associations (like the UZUZ, Association for the Protection of Constitution and Law), continued to send motions to prime minister Brnabić to sack Mali from the government. Other, like the investigative journalists editorials commented that we finally awaited at least one of Mali's affairs to be concluded, but asked what happens with the entire string of other, more serious, material affairs which followed him for years, some of which, indirectly, even caused fatalities (illegal acquisitions of various companies by him and his father, tax evasions, numerous of-shore companies, illegal acquiring and concealing of assets, participation in corrupt privatizations, money laundering, ownership of 45 bank accounts, illegal, night demolitions of objects in Belgrade). Political scientist Boban Stojanović said that Mali would surely be removed from office
if he wouldn't be involved in major corruption affairs and obtaining large amount of funds for his party, reminding on his further affairs, like 24 apartments in Bulgaria and dubious businesses of his brother, but "Mali is obviously the person on whom the functioning of this government depends" and "he is doing important work for Vučić personally and for the party".
Later developments
Milka Babić, spokesperson for the Administrative Court, confirmed that Mali filed the complaint against the Ethics Board's decision on 17 December 2019. The complaint has no effect on the possible postponing of the university's decision. Though the possible court's decision concerns only the technical and procedural aspects of the process, his intention to defend his plagiarism at court, when it was already confirmed by the academia, was described as pathetic effort. Professor Vesna Rakić Vodinelić had an insight in Mali's complaint and confirmed that it is not tackling the plagiarism itself. She said that based on the law, the complaint should be dismissed, but since Serbia has no judicial practice in this matter, everything is possible. Professors Biljana Stojković and Slobodan Prvanović agreed that Mali can't overturn the decision anyway, calling his complaint pointless and noting that this way Mali is the one actually keeping the affair alive. None of the professors are familiar with any previous case of plagiarism decision being defended at Administrative Court.
Professor Karapandža ironically said that due to Mali's denial of plagiarism, he will eventually have to write the book, where he will debunk in detail Mali's doctorate. He said that there are even more bizarre things that have been copied than cotton. He also mentioned publishing of detailed threats he received, misuse of the Security Intelligence Agency and interstate scandal which he kept quiet about so far because he wanted to avoid the politicalization of an academic matter. Karapandža, who continued to dissect the doctorate, claimed that he has evidence that plagiarized text already crossed the amount of 40% and that there is more to be checked.
On 31 December 2019, Mali announced that he is going to write the new doctorate "in the second half of the year", as he was thinking actively about it since the "unfortunate political decision". In the meantime, he added, he is preparing another exam for the management of the alternative investments saying he passed the first, though the pass rate was only 52%. Mali also said he previously acquired the CFA. Mali stated he always had much faith in his knowledge and abilities, that he is not quitting anything and that he will always fight. He was considering conditions for doctoral studies both in Serbia and abroad, saying he will invite "everyone" to go with him to the exams.
In February 2020, daily Politika published an article on fake theses, after interviewing one of the ghost writers, who was familiar with the business since 2008 but knows some cases from the 1990s. It takes about two months to draft the doctorate but those who are more skilled or versed can compile it in a month. Some openly advertise their work on the Internet but majority still operates on recommendation, especially after the scandals broke out. They also write graduate and undergraduate dissertations, scientific works, etc. Minimal price is €1,000. The client provides the subject and basic literature, while the rest of the sources are procured online by the ghost writer or "if we take a real effort, we go to the library". Special attention is given to the parts that mentor is paying extra attention to.
The interviewee admitted having a guilty conscience sometimes, but if he doesn't take the job someone else would, and he needs money. However, he expressed his surprise with the complete lack of guilt by the clients. He divides them in three groups: 1) those pressured by their parents and spouses to get a degree even though they don't want to; 2) those who want to progress professionally and earn higher salaries based on the education coefficient; 3) those who are legit doctoral students and started the process, but were halted by other things in life and never finished it.
On 25 May 2020, a group of 20 professors filed a complaint to the FON's ethics commission regarding non-academic behavior of Mali's mentor, FON's dean and all members and presidents of the various commissions who kept confirming Mali's doctorate through years: Milija Suknović, Jaško Ondrej, Dragan Đuričin, Slađana Barjaktarović Rakočević, Milica Bulajić, Nevenka Žarkić Joksimović, Mladen Čudanov, Srđa Bjeladinović, Veroljub Nastić and Miloš Krstanović. They also asked for the public reprimand of Čudanov, because he was member of two commissions. Upon receiving the complaint, the commission has 60 days to submit its opinion to the dean who can then accept it or reject it.
Next month, professor Đuričin was appointed by the Serbian Chamber of Commerce to head the jury which should declare the best student's doctoral dissertation for 2018/2019. That same month, the FON endorsed Čudanov's candidacy for tenure, as he is an associate professor. His colleagues from the FON defended him, saying he is one of better teachers, that students gave him an average grade of 4,88 out of 5, asked whether the professional career of the brilliant candidate should be destroyed and is he the only or the major culprit. Čudanov also defended his participation in the commissions, saying he is not guilty of anything, distancing himself from the plagiarism process adding that all of this is endangering his health, work and peace. Professors who filed complaint said that Čudanov's expertise is not an issue, but ethics and that he shouldn't be teaching at university at all.
In July 2020, the university added a clause to the Ethics Code by which the members of the commissions can't be liable for the views they express or the way they voted during the plagiarism procedures. Rector Popović stated this will empower the professors' free convictions, independence and impartiality, but the professors who opposed the clause said that the commission members are now devoid from ethics and that it was specifically introduced to shelter those who participated in Mali's case over the years. In October 2020 Čudanov was given the tenure, with only one vote against in the Senate. Popović said there was no reason to punish Čudanov for his views, citing the newly added clause.
Aftermath
Politics
In the end, Mali suffered no political or legal consequences. Same goes for all those involved in confirming his doctorate through the years. During the entire scandal, Mali even progressed politically, being appointed to head or oversee the bodies which either investigated his business affairs and scandals or disputed his various claims like the Ministry of Finance or the Administration for the Prevention of Money Laundering (APML). From the position of the mayor of Belgrade in 2014 when the scandal broke, he was appointed to the post of the finance minister on 29 May 2018, thus the APML becoming hierarchically subordinated to him. Mali continued to amass public functions and was appointed as the head of the Coordinating Body for the Prevention of Money Laundering and Terrorism Financing on 4 July 2019. In this capacity he presented the state Strategy for the Money Laundering Prevention, which was adopted by the government in January 2020.
Already in September 2019 journalists and editors Branko Čečen, Stevan Dojčinović and Aleksandar Đorđević, from three major investigative networks in Serbia (CINS, KRIK and BIRN, respectively), anticipated that Mali will stay in office even if plagiarism is confirmed. On the question by Olja Bećković, the host of the talk show Utisak nedelje, is there a chance that Vučić will let Mali down the drain as part of his exit strategy, Čečen said that he doesn't think it will happen since various political and financial interests are so tightly entangled. Dojčinović explained that, as the key man of the [Vučić's] system, Mali is "as steady as a rock" and he most certainly won't be let off. Crucial thing about Mali is that he is one of the main experts for the grey economy in Serbia. He added that for the large part of his career, Mali was opening offshore companies and operated through them, and was hired and paid by the people who wanted to hide their assets.
Media
After the official annulment in December 2019, the state media switched to mostly ignoring the issue. Ultimately, none of the media were sanctioned. Criminal charges filed by several media organizations against Milomir Marić, the editor and host "Happy TV", were dismissed by the Higher Public Prosecutor's Office (VJT) in January 2020. Charges were filed by the "Slavko Ćuruvija Foundation", "Independent Journalists' Association of Serbia" (NUNS), "Independent Journalists' Association of Vojvodina" (NDNV) and "Association of Online Media", claiming Marić's report on professor Daniel Sinani was causing national, racial and religious hate and intolerance, but also on a different charge of the damage of reputation because of the racial, religious, national or other affiliation. VJT's deputy prosecutor Nenad Stefanović replied there is no reasonable suspicion that the deed was done, or any other deed which should be prosecuted in official capacity within the jurisdiction of VJT. The charge on reputation damage was forwarded to the lower, Basic Public Prosecutor's Office, which has a jurisdiction over the matter. Stefanović's answer was actually just one piece of paper which lacked the necessary parts of the legal response, like the explanation or legal remedy.
Investigative network "Cenzolovka", which published the news, was heavily criticized by the Association of Judges and Prosecutors of Serbia (UST). In the statement it was also said that the dismissal was legal, that is has an explanation but that they have no intention of educating "Cenzolovka" when and to whom the explanation will be sent. President of the UST is prosecutor Stefanović, the one who dismissed the charges, and in its statement, the UST said this fact can "only be impressive". The UST was founded on 4 September 2018, even though both the judges and the prosecutors already had their separate professional associations. Stefanović stated at the time that the UST will follow guidelines of the MEDEL, European association of judges and public prosecutors. However, already in November 2018, the MEDEL warned that the UST is actually a GONGO, formed by the government to confirm and justify opinions and visions of government officials.
Colleagues of professor Sinani from the Faculty of Philosophy called the prosecutor's office unprofessional, stating that Marić's behavior wasn't just shameful but against the Constitution and its Article 21. According to professors, the actions of prosecutor Stefanović showed that everyone who is socially critical and not follow the wishes of the ruling party becomes victim of the media prosecution and despise. They also concluded that this case clearly shows the intertwinement of the regime media, vulgar TV shows, subjugated and occupied prosecutor's office and politics of the ruling party. Sinani said he is not surprised at all by the dismissal and that he expected such epilogue since the "institutions are not functioning". He added that he won't meddle into the prosecutor's job: "He has his arguments and this decision will remain in his biography. Let him deal with it".
Nevertheless, they all filed complaints and the Appellate Prosecution Office dismissed them all in February 2020. From the Appellation's response it was evident that the VJT reduced all charges to the damage reputation before forwarding them to the Third Basic Prosecutor's Office, without notifying the attorneys of the plaintiffs. Also from this papers the conclusions of the VJT became public, as they refused to disclose them previously. The VJT concluded that Marić didn't show hate or intolerance to any nation, he simply stated his mind on an actual subject and that his words were taken out of the context, even though the show was aired live.
FON
Citing FON's handling of the Mali's doctorate scandal as their starting point for credibility re-check, Center for Education and Evaluation in Science (CEES) announced in May 2019 that journals published by the FON are dropped out from SCIndeks. The reason given is the faculty's "compromised ethical status". The ban includes all three journals published by the faculty (Info M, Management and YUJOR). The CEES also included in its decision a huge number of works and texts published by the FON professors in the predatory journals (91 work and 257 authorships in 3 years period only). They qualified the faculty's behavior in this matter as a "bizarre saga".
Belgrade University
University was criticized for dragging the process for so long. When the scandal broke in 2014, neither the University, its Ethics Board, and especially the FON, showed no interest into solving the problem. University's decision to annul the doctorate in the end was, however, praised, as preservation of the integrity and ethical courage. Though the University corrected its mistake, saving its honor, reputation, dignity and autonomy at the last moment, it was harmed by the years of its servility and silent acceptance of the pressure form the government and the tabloids. The process was also described as the "five and a half years long stain".
Rector Popović stated that the case of Mali's doctorate harmed the reputation of the university. Former rector said autonomy went down the drain five and a half years ago when Vučić said that plagiarism charge is the "stupidest thing he has ever heard". University of Belgrade Faculty of Philosophy issued a statement warning that the reactions of the government officials during this process further downgraded the reputation of the university. Tinde Kovač Cerović, professor and former state secretary in the Ministry of Education, said that Mali, with his plagiarism and denial, inestimably damaged the entire educational system. Since he didn't step down, she proposed him to do raise the salaries of professors and at least do something good.
Berkeley physics professor Jasmina Vujic visited students during the September 2019 protest, calling doctorate an obvious plagiarism and that 5 years long process damaged university's reputation so much that at Berkeley they are now cautious on accepting Belgrade University students at doctoral studies. Former head of the Ethics Board, professor Radmila Vasić, confirmed that the reputation is damaged and that from various sides they get warnings that Serbian students are more thoroughly checked when applying for doctoral studies. Judith Butler, who visited Belgrade University few weeks later, supported the protest and said that "academic liberty is a political matter".
In 2018, the European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ENQA) placed the membership of the National Entity for Accreditation and Quality Assurance in Higher Education of Serbia (NAT) under supervision. After two years, the ENQA concluded in March 2020 that the NAT remained under the influence of the government, instead of being independent and reduced the NAT's membership from full to the adjoining member. Government appoints majority of the NAT's Administrative Board members. Also, if the NAT refuses to give credentials to some school or university, they appeal to the National Council for Higher Education (NSVO), where majority of members are also appointed by the government creating a way of bypassing the accreditation body. While the government downplayed the importance of the ENQA's decision, some academia members stated that this might mean additional checks of the Serbian students who continue postgraduate education in foreign countries, but also that the demotion of the NAT is "the price for the tolerance showed by the both private and state universities towards the suspicious diplomas of the politicians". Government's majority in both the NAT and the NSVO, so as removal of the students' representatives from the bodies (another complaint by the ENQA), were achieved by the amendments of Muamer Zukorlić, which were then endorsed by the Vučić's ruling majority.
Fake diplomas and titles, especially that of Mali, became regular part of performance acts in students' protests which in turn are part of the wider political protests in Serbia since 2018.
Plagiarism procedures
During the course of the scandal, several changes were made regarding the academic plagiarism. The Law on High Education was changed in 2014, with added obligation for doctoral dissertations to be publicly available. In July 2016, new codes were adopted at the university, which regulate doctoral studies and plagiarism, so as the new ethical code of the university.
Though lack of the proper procedure was used as a defense of Mali by prime minister Brnabić ("I ask both myself and those who are decision makers, if you retroactively decide based on the 2016 code for something that happened in 2013, does that mean you can judge retroactively any doctoral dissertation"), the plagiarism was always forbidden at the university by its former ethical codes. Rector Popović responded that there is no statute of limitation for plagiarism.
In January 2020, the University adopted the 4th version of the anti-plagiarism code. Rector Popović said that number of reports for suspicion of plagiarism grew "in the previous period" and that, with new and simplified procedures, and acquirement of further anti-plagiarism software (like iThenticate), she expects further rise in the number of reports. She added that all decisions will be publicly announced by the University, in order to make the process more transparent. In February 2020, Popović said there were 9 or 10 reported plagiarized doctorates in the deliberation process at the University.
On 19 February 2020, the Senate amended the code again, adding an automated termination of employment as the clear consequence of plagiarism. This is opposed to the previous sanction, which included only stripping of the academic title. The change was prompted by the case of professor Aleksandar Jakšić. Among several other plagiarisms declared by the University in 2019, there was a decision from 9 October regarding the school book International private law'' by Jakšić in which he plagiarized some 100 pages from German law professor . He complained to the Administrative Court which adopted his appeal regarding technicalities of the process. As Jakšić was already sanctioned for previous indiscretions, the Faculty of Law fired him on 4 February 2020 citing damage he invoked to the faculty due to his plagiarism. On 18 February, the Labor Inspection ordered the faculty to hire Jakšić again, as the inspector took upon herself to judge if Jakšić's plagiarism damaged the reputation of the faculty or not, instead of checking whether the technical, formal and lawful procedure was applied.
References
Plagiarism controversies
Politics of Serbia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyper-encryption
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Hyper-encryption
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Hyper-encryption is a form of encryption invented by Michael O. Rabin which uses a high-bandwidth source of public random bits, together with a secret key that is shared by only the sender and recipient(s) of the message. It uses the assumptions of Ueli Maurer's bounded-storage model as the basis of its secrecy. Although everyone can see the data, decryption by adversaries without the secret key is still not feasible, because of the space limitations of storing enough data to mount an attack against the system.
Unlike almost all other cryptosystems except the one-time pad, hyper-encryption can be proved to be information-theoretically secure, provided the storage bound cannot be surpassed. Moreover, if the necessary public information cannot be stored at the time of transmission, the plaintext can be shown to be impossible to recover, regardless of the computational capacity available to an adversary in the future, even if they have access to the secret key at that future time.
A highly energy-efficient implementation of a hyper-encryption chip was demonstrated by Krishna Palem et al. using the Probabilistic CMOS or PCMOS technology and was shown to be ~205 times more efficient in terms of Energy-Performance-Product.
See also
Perfect forward secrecy
Randomness extractor
References
Further reading
Y. Z. Ding and M. O. Rabin. Hyper-encryption and everlasting security. In 19th Annual Symposium on Theoretical Aspects of Computer Science (STACS), volume 2285 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pp. 1–26. Springer-Verlag, 2002.
Jason K. Juang, Practical Implementation and Analysis of Hyper-Encryption. Masters dissertation, MIT Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 2009-05-22.
External links
</ref>
, video of a lecture by Professor Michael O. Rabin.
Cryptography
Information theory
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1919%20USC%20Trojans%20football%20team
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1919 USC Trojans football team
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The 1919 USC Trojans football team represented the University of Southern California (USC) in the 1919 college football season. In their first year under head coach Gus Henderson, the Trojans compiled a 4–1 record and outscored their opponents by a combined total of 87 to 21.
Schedule
References
USC Trojans
USC Trojans football seasons
USC Trojans football
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st%20Expeditionary%20Space%20Control%20Squadron
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1st Expeditionary Space Control Squadron
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The United States Air Force's 1st Expeditionary Space Control Squadron is a provisional squadron attached to the 21st Space Wing at Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado.
Before conversion to provisional status, the 1st Space Control Squadron was a space situational awareness unit last located at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California. The squadron commanded the United States Space Surveillance Network to detect, track, identify and catalog positional data for all man-made objects in Earth orbit. The squadron was established in 1989 as the 1st Command and Control Squadron at Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Base, Colorado. It was inactivated in 2008 and its personnel and equipment were integrated into the 614th Air and Space Operations Center.
History
Background
The roots of the squadron can be traced to 1961, when the Space Detection and Tracking System Center at opened at Ent Air Force Base, Colorado. The center brought together Air Force and Navy systems designed to track objects in space in all directions, not merely Soviet missiles launched over the North Pole. The center came under the operational control of North American Air Defense Command. There were several subsequent moves, name changes, and changes in personnel, experience, and equipment.
Activation
The Air Force activated the 1st Command and Control Squadron at Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station, Colorado in December 1989 to operate the system.
The 1st Command and Control Squadron provided collision avoidance support during each shuttle mission as well as maintaining an extensive satellite catalog (the "SATCAT" or "Box score"). This catalog is used by U.S. civilian and military agencies when launching new satellites into space, as well as by U.S. allies.
The 1 SPCS tracked and compiled positional data on thousands of man-made objects in space partly to prevent collisions between newly launched satellites and other objects already orbiting the earth. Additionally, the unit had the mission to task 30 space sensors within Space Surveillance Network to track satellites for US Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM) to maintain an accurate satellite catalog (SATCAT) of over 9000 objects orbiting the earth., To support manned space flight, 1 SPCS constructs a theoretical box around the space shuttle, MIR or ISS, and projects flight path intersections for 36 to 72 hours. If any objects intersects the theoretical box, the unit forwarded the analysis to NASA, allowing them to determine whether to change the spacecraft/space station's flight path. Based on 1 SPCS mission analysis, and its predecessor units, NASA has moved the space shuttle 12 times and the International Space Station five times since 1981.
In June 1995, the unit tracked the U.S. Space Shuttle Atlantis during its historic rendezvous with the Russian space station Mir. The unit also compiled a catalog of space objects.
The 1 SPCS also contained international personnel, such as Canadian military, since SSA was not just a U.S. problem.
Move
In 2006, Admiral Timothy Keating, commander of NORAD directed a study on the continued use of the hardened command post at Cheyenne Mountain in view of what was perceived as diminished threats. The decision to close Cheyenne Moungain required a unit move. The unit moved to Vandenberg Air Force Base, California in 2007 to better coordinate activities with the Joint Space Operations Center, it lost over 150 years of expert civilian experience.(archive returns only an error message)
Inactivation
The unit was inactivated on 9 Jun 2008, and its mission and members integrated into the 614th Air and Space Operations Center / Joint Space Operations Center. Unconfirmed sources state that Cheyenne Mountain may retain some capability to cover the 1 SPCS mission, if required. At the time of inactivation, 106
Lineage
Constituted as the 1st Command and Control Squadron on 30 November 1989
Activated on 1 December 1989
Redesignated 1st Space Control Squadron on 1 October 2001
Inactivated c. 9 June 2008
Redesignated 1st Expeditionary Space Control Squadron' and converted to provisional status on 11 February 2009
Activated 27 February 2009
Assignments
1st Space Wing, 1 December 1989
73d Space Surveillance Group (later 73d Space Group), 28 February 1992
721st Space Group, 24 June 1994
21st Operations Group, 26 April 1995 – c. 9 June 2008
Air Force Space Command to activate or inactivate as needed, 11 February 2009
Attached to 21st Space Wing, 27 February 2009
Stations
Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Base (later Cheyenne Mountain Air Station, Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station), Colorado, 1 December 1989
Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, 31 July 2007 - 9 June 2008
Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado, 27 February 2009 – present
Commanders
Lt David Agee (1989–1991)
Lt Col Joseph Wysocki (1991–1992)
Lt Col John M. Rabins (1992–1994)
Lt Col Michael A. Muolo (1994–1996)
Lt Col Joseph G. Baillargeon (1996–1998)
Lt Col David A. Strand (14 Aug 1998-2000)
Lt Col Craigen B. Anderson (2000-2002)
Lt. Col. Scott F. Shepherd (2002–2004)
Lt Col Michael Mason (circa 2007),
Lt Col Chance Saltzman (???-2008)
Awards
See also
Space Surveillance Network
Midcourse Space Experiment
Air Force Space Command
Fourteenth Air Force
References
Notes
Bibliography
(link to Google Books Play)
External links
30th Space Wing: Vandenberg AFB home page
Military units and formations in California
Space Control 0001
Communications squadrons of the United States Air Force
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antic%20%28magazine%29
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Antic (magazine)
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Antic () was a magazine devoted to the Atari 8-bit family of home computers and later the Atari ST. It was named after the ANTIC chip which provides 2D graphics in the computers. The magazine was published from April 1982 until June/July 1990. Antic printed type-in programs (usually in BASIC), reviews, and tutorials, among other articles. Each issue contained one type-in game as "Game of the Month."
Its main rival in the United States was ANALOG Computing, another long-lived magazine devoted to the Atari 8-bit line. Multi-system magazines COMPUTE! and Family Computing also served Atari 8-bit owners with type-in programs.
History
NASA programmer Jim Capparell was an early Atari 8-bit owner. He quit his job on 15 January 1982 to found a magazine for the computer. Companies such as On-Line Systems, Broderbund, and Synapse Software agreed to purchase advertising in the new publication, and Capparell's staff distributed the first issue of 30 pages at the March 1982 West Coast Computer Faire. The first issue of Antic was published in April 1982. While it began as a bimonthly magazine, within a year it had gone monthly.
By Christmas 1983 the magazine was 148 pages, but in 1984 Antic saw advertising sales drop by 50% in 90 days. The Antic Software catalog, bound into each issue, contained public domain software, re-released products from the Atari Program Exchange after it folded, and original titles. It helped the company avoid bankruptcy, and in 1985 it started II Computing for the Apple II series.
Antic started selling games and application software under the name Antic Software after the Atari Program Exchange was closed by Atari, Inc. The Antic Software catalog was bound into issues of the magazine and included former APX titles.
In 1985 Antic began ST Resource, a section of the magazine devoted to the Atari ST line. In 1986 it began STart Magazine for the computer. The daughter magazine would outlive its parent by about a year. When Antic ended, it continued as a section of STart, appearing in six more issues. A magazine for the Amiga, the primary competitor of the Atari ST, was published from 1989 until 1991 under the name Antic's Amiga Plus.
The last issue of Antic was June–July 1990. All told, 88 issues and a "Best of" book were published.
TYPO
A utility called TYPO ("Type Your Program Once," a play on typographical error) was used to verify that programs were typed in correctly that generated set of check-sums for different portions of the lines of code, but it didn't help users find exactly which line had the error. TYPO was later succeeded by TYPO II, a smaller, faster program that generates a checksum two letter code for each Atari BASIC line entered in a program. By comparing each line's checksum with that printed in the magazine, the reader could be sure they typed the BASIC source correctly before entering the next line of code.
Versions of TYPO were also published and used (with permission) by Page 6 magazine. ANALOG magazine also used a two-letter checksum code for their type-in programs they offered and was interoperable with Antic's TYPO II.
References
External links
Antic Magazine – At the Classic Computer Magazine Archive
The Antic Magazine Library at the Centre for Computing History
Defunct computer magazines published in the United States
Atari 8-bit computer magazines
Magazines established in 1982
Magazines disestablished in 1990
1982 establishments in the United States
1990 disestablishments in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Tyde
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Arthur Tyde
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Arthur Tyde is an American software entrepreneur and private investigator based in San Francisco and SE Asia. He has been an advocate for Open Source software since founding the first Linux Users Group in the San Francisco / Silicon Valley Area. (BALUG).
He graduated from Michigan State University with a BA in Telecommunications and Anthropology and was the author of many shoot-em-up style games for Atari consoles, the Commodore 64 and Texas Instruments TI-99/4A home computer systems. Following graduation he jumped freight trains covering most of North America and Canada with Steven 'Bo' Keeley, famous maverick hobo adventurer and speculator.
Tyde settled in San Francisco, California where he started his West Coast career as the Information Systems Director for the Law Offices of Melvin Belli in 1988. He was part of the team that worked on the landmark Exxon and Dow Corning lawsuits. Three years later he teamed up with Melvin Belli's chief investigator to start a boutique detective agency specializing in high tech competitive issues and due diligence for mergers and acquisitions.
He had a significant impact on the computing industry as the original CEO and co-founder of Linuxcare where he recruited some of the most talented developers in Open Source software. Linuxcare was the first company to offer commercial / enterprise class support for Linux and Open Source software and supported 21 different Linux distributions on nine hardware architectures. Linuxcare held the Dell support contract for Red Hat Linux for many years, negotiating a deal with Dell that effectively substituted the Windows license SKU for a support contract with Linuxcare. In addition, Tyde is credited, through Linuxcare, as the founding sponsor of the Linux Professional Institute, the Free Standards Group, and one of the first platinum members of the OSDL (now the Linux Foundation - where Tyde served as Chief Technology Officer from 2005-2006). Linuxcare was intended to become publicly traded in 2001, led by Credit Suisse First Boston, but market circumstances and the termination of the companies CEO ultimately ended its ambition to go public.
Tyde affiliated with Techzecs LLC as a principal in 2007. Recently, he has led Oracle Corp's Asia Pacific (ASEAN) based Cloud Computing business development practice, served as a consulting Enterprise Architect to Oracle's key customer accounts, and advised APAC based start-up companies. Additionally, Tyde lectures on Open Source strategies for the enterprise, developing effective sovereign innovation programs, computer security, privacy issues, digital currencies and building start-up companies.
Current appointments
Program Executive, High Performance Computing, Oracle Corporation (Asia Pacific)
Board of Directors, Orange & Bronze Software, Philippines
Board of Advisors, Sputnik Inc., wireless media, San Francisco CA
Board of Advisors, Stravati Dalian Software Company Ltd, Software Development, Dalian China
Board of Advisors, Untangle Inc., Open Source Gateway, San Mateo CA
Board of Advisors, TSKG Linuxworld Korea, Seoul Korea
Board of Advisors, SingleStep Technologies, enterprise systems management, Seattle WA
Board of Advisors, Black Duck Software, intellectual property management, Boston MA
References
— startup company co-founded by Arthur Tyde
— Smart 50 of 1999
External links
Official website
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American technology chief executives
American chief technology officers
Michigan State University alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Artemis%20Fowl%20characters
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List of Artemis Fowl characters
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This is a list of characters in the Artemis Fowl novel series by Eoin Colfer.
Overview
List indicator(s)
A dark grey cell indicates that the character was not in the property or that the character's presence in the property has yet to be announced.
A Main indicates a character had a starring role in the property.
A Recurring indicates the character appeared in two or more times within the property.
A Guest indicates the character appeared once in the property.
A
Leon Abbot
Leon Abbot is the main antagonist of Artemis Fowl: The Lost Colony. He is a demon who opposed the time-spell at the battle of Taillte, and broke the circle of warlocks as they were performing the spell. In the aftermath, he and Qweffor, an apprentice warlock, merge by lava and magic, and the hybrid is catapulted to the "near past" in France. Abbot retains control of the body, stealing Qweffor's magic. On Earth, Abbot learns how far humans have advanced from Minerva Paradizo. Realizing that any attempt to resume war with the humans would lead to certain extinction, Abbot steals a book and a crossbow and resolves to return to Hybras to spend what time the island has left as ruler.
Abbot travels back through time to Hybras at the exact moment that the time-spell is put into effect and takes out the book and the crossbow, claiming to be the demons' savior. He uses the magic stolen from Qweffor to mesmerize anyone who challenges him for the throne. When he learns that No1 is a warlock, he mesmerizes him into jumping into Hybras' volcano, hoping that he would be burnt to death, perish during the time-travel, or be killed by humans. At the end of the book, he kills Holly, while she was with No. 1, and Qwan as they are preparing to perform the time-spell. However, Artemis's quick-thinking and manipulation of the disintegrating time-spell allows him to resurrect her. At the end of the book, Qweffor takes over Abbot's body. Abbot's consciousness is subsequently transferred to a guinea pig to stop him from hurting anybody.
Abbot's demon name is N'zall, meaning "little horn" in ancient demon language. The name is the source of a lot of his resentment towards the older demons. Instead, he calls himself "Leon Abbot" after the general in the book he brought back, Lady Heatherington Smythe's Hedgerow.
In The Lost Colony, Holly speculates that Leon Abbot suffers from acquired situational narcissism; however, in The Time Paradox, author Eoin Colfer describes Abbot as "psychopathic".
Amorphobots
In Artemis Fowl: The Atlantis Complex, the Amorphobots are gelatinous robots originally intended to serve as a crew for a Mars probe designed by Foaly. Turnball Root takes control of them in order to direct the probe back to Earth so they can rescue him from prison.
Jerbal Argon
Jerbal Argon is the owner of a health clinic in Artemis Fowl: The Opal Deception, though he first appears in the first book, Artemis Fowl. In his first appearance, he watches a video of Artemis to determine if the boy is lying when he says he can escape the time field. In Artemis Fowl: The Opal Deception, Argon is shown at his clinic taking care of Opal Koboi, his "celebrity" patient, who is in a self-induced coma. He is not inclined to release Koboi because she funds the hospital as long as she is in his care. Argon also appears near the end of the Artemis Fowl: Atlantis Complex, treating Artemis, and at the start of Artemis Fowl: The Last Guardian, having cured Artemis Fowl from the Atlantis Complex.
Argon's two best pixie custodians, the Brill brothers, call him "Jerry", a name he later mentions he hates. While he feels he deserves more respect from the employees of his eponymous clinic, he says nothing because good janitors are so hard to find.
B
Arno Blunt
Arno Blunt is a secondary antagonist in the book Artemis Fowl: The Eternity Code.
He is a New Zealand bodyguard working for Jon Spiro, an American businessman. He has bleached-blond hair, tattoos on his body and neck, and is first seen wearing a cut-off T-shirt and pirate earrings. He does not like to be forgotten or ignored. Over the course of the book, all his teeth are blown out and replaced with several sets of customized dentures: a porcelain set, sharpened to points; a flat porcelain set "for crushing stuff"; and a strange set, half filled with blue water, half filled with oil. In an attempt to kill Artemis, Blunt shoots Domovoi Butler, Artemis Fowl II's bodyguard, nearly killing him. At the end of the book, Blunt plans to ambush Artemis but is caught by Butler, masquerading as a spirit from hell, and Blunt confesses. During the storyline, he is represented as everything Butler is not—brash, conspicuous and careless—despite the fact they both have the same job and bulk.
Mervall and Descant Brill
Mervall and Descant Brill are twin pixies from Artemis Fowl: The Opal Deception. They are known together as "the Brill brothers" and individually by other characters as "Merv" and "Scant". Although they are twins, Mervall is slightly older and is considered smarter. Mervall and Descant sometimes finish each other's sentences. They have appeared on numerous fairy television shows and have attained somewhat of a celebrity status in the Lower Elements, as fairy twins are extremely rare, and pixie twins are even rarer.
Merv and Scant are agents of Opal Koboi. They are perhaps the most competent and faithful of her henchmen, and she places them as janitors in the J. Argon clinic as part of her backup plan. They orchestrate a power failure and rescue her from the clinic, replacing her with a clone. The Brill brothers continue to serve Koboi throughout the rest of the book, performing tasks including piloting and maintaining her shuttle, escorting, and cooking.
However, Koboi's personality changes greatly after her rescue, and she becomes intolerably paranoid and obsessive, taking out her anger on them. She writes a list of rules for the brothers, including demands that they bow before her, avoid looking at her directly (claiming it's "bad for her skin"), not pass wind, not use slang, and not "think too loudly" near her after she begins to claim that she is psychic. The Brill brothers become resentful of her rules, and only fear and the promise of escape to Barbados keeps them loyal to her.
However, Koboi betrays them in the end by ejecting them from her shuttle against the chute wall, leaving them stranded in impact gel. Foaly later reveals that the brothers survived and quickly gave information on Koboi after they were picked up.
The brothers appear again in The Time Paradox as their younger selves, helping the past Opal Koboi increase her magical powers by extracting the body fluids of supposedly extinct animals thrown down to them unknowingly by the Extinctionists. Koboi apparently attacks them at the end of one chapter. After Artemis escapes from her, Koboi says that she has to blame someone, and in the twins' attempt to escape the ensuing rampage, "they didn't run fast enough".
Domovoi Butler
Domovoi Butler is Artemis Fowl II's bodyguard. His uncle the Major was Artemis Senior's bodyguard, until he was killed by the Russian Mafia when they attacked the Fowl Star. The Butlers have been serving the Fowls as bodyguards since the Norman conquest. His current employer (known as a "principal") is Artemis Fowl II, the main character of the Artemis Fowl series. Along with Artemis Fowl II and Juliet, he is one of the few people who knows about the existence of fairies.
Butler is described as a large Eurasian man, who is almost seven feet tall and weighing 90 kilograms (200 lbs), with deep blue eyes. Like all Butlers, he was trained in Madame Ko's Bodyguard Academy, where he was trained in Cordon Bleu cooking, marksmanship, a blend of different martial arts, emergency medicine, and information technology. He is the third deadliest man in the world, behind only one of his relatives and a martial arts master who lives on a tropical island and spends his days beating up palm trees.
In Artemis Fowl, Butler disarms the elite squadron of the LEPretrieval fairy police force and becomes the first human in history to survive and defeat a troll using an antique set of 14th century armor to protect himself and his sister Juliet Butler. The footage ends up on fairy television, and is later incorporated into the combat curriculum for the LEP. With extensive experience in intelligence missions and dealings in criminals, Butler is usually Artemis' first port of call when it comes to advice, and serves as his sounding board when discussing fairy matters, although this usually annoys him.
After an incident in Artemis Fowl: The Arctic Incident, Butler begins carrying special goggles which allow him to see fairies even when they are shielding.
In Artemis Fowl: The Eternity Code, Butler is shot by Arno Blunt and nearly dies, but Artemis cryogenetically preserves his brain, so he can be revived by Captain Holly Short. Before he loses consciousness, Butler tells Artemis his first name, Domovoi. This intimate confession later allows him to easily regain the memories he lost. His miraculous resurrection costs him about 15 years of his life, and a patch from his kevlar vest mixes in with the skin over his chest, making it harder for him to breathe and run quickly. Following their mind-wipes, Butler and Artemis are left with no knowledge of how he has aged so rapidly, but Artemis refuses to replace him. The fairies later magically make up for his loss of 15 years so his life span would not be affected.
In Artemis Fowl: The Last Guardian, Butler is hit with a bolt of black magic by the beserkers (spirits under the control of Opal Koboi). He survives due to the kevlar in his chest, but his heart is permanently crippled, ending his career in fieldwork. In the last few pages of Artemis Fowl: The Lost Colony, twelve year old Minerva Paradizo gets Butler started reading fiction. Artemis notices classics including Moby Dick, Gormenghast, The Art of War, and Gone with the Wind on the book shelf of Butler's residence in the fictional village of Duncade, Ireland, where he was awaiting Artemis's return.
Juliet Butler
Juliet Butler is the younger sister of Domovoi Butler. First appearing in Artemis Fowl, she is a charming, clueless girl, who does not help much in the kidnapping of Holly Short, but she occasionally keeps watch on the imprisoned fairy. In Artemis Fowl: The Eternity Code she is training at Madame Ko's academy, learning the skills that her brother mastered. Despite her flighty demeanor, Juliet is able to hit any moving target with any weapon. By the end of her training, Juliet is extremely skilled at dispatching opponents twice her size. Unlike her brother, however, she fails to obtain the blue diamond tattoo awarded to the bodyguards of Madame Ko's Academy, lacking discipline. She then returns to her brother's side after he is shot, saves Artemis from an American hitman hired by Jon Spiro, and participates in the heist of the Spiro Needle to retrieve the C Cube. She reflects that she was not cut out for bodyguard work in the first place, and that the only person she would ever work for would be Artemis. Fortunately, she decides instead to become a professional wrestler, leaving for America at the end of Artemis Fowl: The Eternity Code.
She loses her memories at the end of Artemis Fowl: The Eternity Code, but she is able to regain them when, after being attacked by mesmerized fans of her wrestling troupe, she is saved by her brother.
In The Last Guardian, she is controlled by the beserkers. She is attacked while looking after Myles Fowl and Beckett Fowl, and she almost kills Domovoi Butler while she is under the control of the beserkers.
C
Caballine
Caballine (full name: Caballine Wanderford Paddox Foaly) is Foaly's love interest in Artemis Fowl: The Lost Colony. She is a researcher for PPTV and a sculptor. Foaly gets to know Caballine by talking about his mood blanket invention, and he begins jogging with her every morning, except in cases of emergency.
In Artemis Fowl: The Time Paradox, Foaly and Caballine are married during Artemis' and Holly's three-year absence while time traveling to and from Hybras. Foaly mentions that Caballine's first introduction to him was while she was a suspect his security systems had mistaken as a goblin bank robber. It later becomes a joke between the two of them for Foaly to assure her that she is most definitely the opposite of a goblin bank robber.
In Artemis Fowl: The Last Guardian, Opal Koboi attempts to kill Caballine by sending goblin criminals who had escaped from Howler's Peak. However, her knowledge of the "ancient centaurian martial art of Nine Sticks" delays the goblins enough so that Foaly can rescue her by setting up a time stop.
Briar Cudgeon
Briar Cudgeon first appears in Artemis Fowl as a power-hungry officer in the LEP (Lower Elements Police). During the original mission at Fowl Manor, he plans to backstab Julius Root, hoping to usurp his position as commander. Cudgeon brings in a troll to destroy the whole manor, so he can (in theory) rescue Holly Short after every other inhabitant of the mansion is dead. However, his plan backfires when the troll is defeated by Domovoi Butler, and he is "accidentally" shot by Root, using a tranquilizer finger dart invented by Foaly. The dart's sedative reacts with some illegal brain-enhancing drugs he was experimenting with, and the resulting side effects disfigure his once-handsome looks. He is demoted to the rank of lieutenant and given a job as a recycler.
In Artemis Fowl: The Arctic Incident, Cudgeon begins scheming against the LEP and Root, joining forces with Opal Koboi. He convinces a goblin gang called the B'wa Kell to start a rebellion. They almost defeat the LEP, but are stopped by Artemis Fowl II, Butler, Holly Short, Root, and Foaly. Cudgeon is foiled when Foaly manages to send an audio file to Artemis' mobile phone, revealing how Cudgeon had been planning to betray Koboi. After his planned treachery is revealed, Koboi launches her Hoverboy at him in a rage. He becomes entangled in the safety rail and falls into an open plasma servicing hatch, where he dies instantly, fried by a million radioactive tendrils. Throughout Artemis Fowl: The Arctic Incident, his treasured weapon is a customized Softnose Redboy blaster, which he uses in a failed attempt to assassinate Koboi just before his death.
D
Doodah Day
Doodah Day first appears in Artemis Fowl: The Lost Colony as a pixie criminal legend. He is a fish-smuggler who nearly kills PI Holly Short with a multimixer as she chases him during her time as a bounty hunter. He later claims that all he meant to do was "scare her a little".
Day claims he can drive anything. He has a device called the Mongocharger, which he uses a nuclear battery to boost any vehicle's power. His infamous driving skills lead the LEP to offer him amnesty for his services. He helps Artemis Fowl and Holly Short retrieve No. 1 from Minerva. Three years later, Doodah Day is Mulch Diggums' partner in the private investigation firm, Short and Diggums.
Mulch Diggums
Mulch Diggums first appears in Artemis Fowl as a particularly gifted criminal. He fakes his own death by convincing Foaly he died in a cave-in while tunneling out of Fowl Manor. He puts his iris cam on a rabbit and kills it, indicating to Foaly through the camera's vitals that Mulch himself is deceased. Shortly after his fake death, Mulch tunnels his way up to the surface and steals some ransom gold Holly was able to retrieve.
In Artemis Fowl: The Arctic Incident, Mulch is found living in a penthouse in California, watching 007 DVDs and occasionally going on nighttime walks to steal various Academy Awards. Because of this propensity, the media nicknames him "the Grouch" (after another well-known Oscar). He helps Artemis and friends break into Opal Koboi's lab and escapes again soon after.
Diggums next turns up in Chicago, working as a mobster for the Antonelli family. The gang's next target is Artemis and company, but Mulch foils their plan. He was part of a plan to retrieve the C Cube, a fairy supercomputer. After, Mulch gets caught and goes to a fairy prison. Before he is imprisoned for his past crimes, Artemis gives him an important CD disguised as a gold medallion.
As a dwarf, Mulch has evolved extraordinary talents, which make him an ideal criminal and later enable him to help the LEP. He is able to tunnel through dirt, digest at an accelerated rate, has luminous and sedative saliva, can sense vibrations through his beard hair using sonar, produces gas containing special chemicals which make him immune to decompression sickness (commonly known as the bends), can absorb liquid through his pores (allowing him to scale walls unaided), and is able to break wind with incredible force and accuracy (enabling him to incapacitate Butler in the first book).
Other Facts: Mulch is a kleptomaniac. When he is dehydrated, his pores open up (like most dwarves) allowing him to climb walls.
F
Foaly
Foaly appears first in Artemis Fowl. He is a centaur LEP known for his sarcasm and paranoid tendencies. Foaly is convinced that human intelligence agencies are monitoring his transport and surveillance network. To prevent them from reading his mind, he wears a tinfoil hat at all times. Foaly cannot be fired from the LEP because he is solely responsible for keeping fairy technology ahead of human technology. His inventions repeatedly help his friends, Holly Short and Artemis, through dangerous missions and often aid in capturing the famous dwarf criminal, Mulch Diggums, with whom he does not get along. Foaly is the inventor of the dart finger Root uses to "accidentally" shoot Briar Cudgeon in the first book. His other inventions include the Iris Cam, an in-eye camera used in almost every book; Retimager, a retina scanner, which helped the LEP correctly identify Opal Koboi's clone replacement; and Titanium Pod, a vehicle propelled by magma flares.
Angeline Fowl
Angeline Fowl is Artemis Fowl II's mother. She is described as pretty in her normal state. However, in events prior to the beginning of the series, Artemis' father, Artemis Fowl I, disappears, and she begins to suffer from schizophrenia and apparent bipolar disorder, exhibiting symptoms similar to those of narcotics withdrawal. During this time, she has an aversion to Juliet Butler, to Artemis calling her "Mother", and to any amount of light. She also has frequent hallucinations and delusions that her husband's suit is actually her husband, that Artemis is her father, and that she is back on the day she was married. At the end of the first book, Artemis Fowl gives half of the ransom money from the fairies back to Captain Holly Short to pay for a wish that Holly would heal Mrs. Fowl back to sanity.
In Artemis Fowl: The Opal Deception, Artemis changes drastically in his behavior toward his mother. At the beginning of the series, he barely has a relationship with her, but at the beginning of the fourth book, he feels extreme guilt over lying to his mother in order to obtain a painting.
Angeline Fowl has made appearances, however short, in the first four Artemis Fowl books. (She is only vaguely referred to in Artemis Fowl: The Lost Colony) In Artemis Fowl: The Opal Deception, Artemis II uses a recording of her voice to convince his school of her knowledge of his absence. While Artemis is stuck in Limbo toward the end of the fifth book, Angeline gives birth to twins, Beckett and Myles. She is told about the People by Butler, although the sixth book reveals that she and Artemis I had been mesmerised by Artemis II to forget about the People. In Artemis Fowl: The Time Paradox, Angeline contracts a fatal illness known as Spelltropy, forcing Artemis Fowl II to travel back in time to recover the last known cure, the brain fluid of a lemur Artemis had made extinct when he was 10 years old. It is later revealed that she was possessed by Opal Koboi, who wanted the lemur to increase her powers. At the end of the book, Angeline knows about the existence of the People from Koboi's memories and demands that Artemis II tell her everything. In Artemis Fowl: The Atlantis Complex, Angeline tries to make her son act more like an ordinary teenager, making him call her "mum" and wear jeans and a T-shirt with the word "Randomosity" on it.
Artemis Fowl I
The father of Artemis Fowl II, Artemis Fowl I is a rich Irishman and criminal mastermind who goes missing in Murmansk, Russia, for an extended period of time prior to the events of the first book. The plot of Artemis Fowl: The Arctic Incident centers around the search for Artemis I. While he is mentioned throughout the series, Artemis I appears only in the second book and in Artemis Fowl:The Time Paradox. His desire to be closer to his family after his return repeatedly frustrates Artemis II in his attempts to enact illegal schemes. In Artemis Fowl: The Eternity Code, details in his diary reveal that he is a changed man, who no longer wants to devote his life to crime. In an effort to convince his son of his change, he asks him, "And what about you, Arty? Will you make the journey with me? When the moment comes will you take your chance to be a hero?" Artemis II does not respond and this interaction becomes one the catalysts of his character's further development.
Artemis Fowl II
A criminal mastermind, Artemis Fowl II is the title character and an antihero of the series. He is one of the few humans to know about the existence of the fairies (the others being Domovoi and Juliet Butler). After this discovery, Fowl becomes fluent in the official Fairy language, "Gnommish", in addition to many other languages. Artemis II is ambidextrous (but his left hand is slightly stronger), has the highest IQ in Europe, reads many more psychology textbooks than most psychiatrists, and can divert funds from other accounts into his own. He is the youngest person ever to steal the painting, The Fairy Thief, has beaten the European chess champion in an online chess tournament, and creates excellent forgeries of famous artworks. In Artemis Fowl: The Lost Colony, his left eye is involuntarily swapped with that of Captain Holly Short during the transition from Hybras to Earth, and the middle and index fingers of his left hand are switched around from his first time in the time tunnel.
Beckett Fowl
In 'The Lost Colony', Artemis is gone for 3 years. His parents decides to have babies and when Artemis comes back from his time travel, he discovers that he has twin brothers. Though the two look similar, Beckett Fowl is more docile. He gets called names by Myles, like “simpleton”.
Orion Fowl
Orion Fowl appears in Artemis Fowl: The Atlantis Complex as the alter ego of Artemis Fowl II. While he is suffering from the Atlantis complex, Holly Short shoots Artemis with a jolt of electricity and the impact forces out Orion, a carefree, optimistic alter ego who openly declares his love for Short, but has none of Artemis' intellect. When Orion is in control of Artemis' body, Artemis is able to see and hear everything that is taking place, yet has no control over his body or Orion's actions. Artemis explains that his alter ego Orion is the Greek goddess Artemis' "mortal enemy ... So in [Artemis'] mind, Orion was free from the guilt [Artemis] harbored from various schemes." Orion finally proved himself useful near the end of The Atlantis Complex by making use of the martial arts and marksmanship skills taught to him by Butler which had been ignored by Artemis but stored in his subconscious.
K
Grub Kelp
Grub Kelp is an LEP corporal and the younger brother of Trouble Kelp. Seemingly terrified of almost everything and very sensitive to insult, Kelp mentions in Artemis Fowl: The Opal Deception that he would like nothing better than to have a desk job for the rest of his life. In Artemis Fowl: The Eternity Code, it is revealed that he regularly lodges complaints about petty issues, such as the hangnail he gets from using Plexiglass vacuum cuffs on four goblins during his patrol with Holly Short.
Notorious for wanting his mother, Grub often threatens to tell his "Mommy" about the menial aspects of his brother that bother him. He claims to have single-handedly defeated Domovoi Butler, the most dangerous human known to the fairies. The events of the first book, Artemis Fowl, prove this war story false; Butler actually lets him go unharmed, as a fisherman would a minnow, with a message to the fairies trying to infiltrate Fowl Manor.
Trouble Kelp
Trouble Kelp enters the series as an LEPrecon captain, who is constantly pestered by his younger brother, Grub. Despite this annoyance, he tries to take care of Grub and ultimately thinks of Grub and his other subordinates before himself. He is one of the most decorated officers of the LEP. In Artemis Fowl: The Eternity Code, it is revealed that he is good friends with Holly Short and, as of Artemis Fowl: The Atlantis Complex, that he went on a date with her. He appears throughout the series, becoming commander during Holly's three-year absence in Artemis Fowl: The Lost Colony. In Artemis Fowl: The Last Guardian, he starts dating the LEP's Lily Frond, a girl who Captain Holly Short thinks is an airhead.
Madame Ko
Madame Ko is a Japanese martial artist who leads the academy where Domovoi and Juliet learned their skills. She gives the most valuable reward amongst the bodyguards: the blue diamond tattoo.
Opal Koboi
Opal Koboi is a narcissistic pixie genius and the main antagonist of the series. She uses her intelligence to indulge in criminal activities, such as in Artemis Fowl: The Opal Deception. Foaly is often portrayed as jealous of her genius ideas and inventions. Koboi is responsible for putting her father out of business to found her own company, Koboi Laboratories, and makes her fortune. She attempts to create a war between humans and fairies by undergoing surgery to make her more human. However, the pituitary gland she gets in surgery slowly reduces her magical abilities until, by the end of book, she is forced to use the last of her magic to mesmerize an Italian woman into thinking Koboi is her daughter. Koboi is responsible for the death of Commander Root and General Scalene. Several times throughout the series, she attempts to kill Short, Artemis, and Butler, and almost succeeds. Opal Koboi is voiced by Hong Chau in the 2020 film in an uncredited capacity (dubbing over stand-in actors Emily Brockmann, Jessica Rhodes, and Charlie Cameron), physically portraying Koboi herself in a deleted scene, in which the character is amalgamated with the water sprite of Ho Chi Minh City.
Billy Kong
Billy Kong appears in Artemis Fowl: The Lost Colony and is one of the two main antagonists, along with Leon Abbot.
Born in the early '70s as Jonah Lee, Kong and his family live in the beach town of Malibu, California, and are originally from Taiwan. He is described as having colorful, spiked hair, and he reputedly killed a friend with a kitchen knife.
In the early '80s, Kong is still known by his birth name and lives with his brother, Eric, and his mother, Annie, who worked two jobs to support them. He is left with his 16-year-old brother, who says he was attacked by demons, creatures who attack humans and are able to peel their faces off like masks. The truth comes out that his brother had actually become mixed up in local gang wars and was trying to protect Kong, but he continues to believe the story well after his brother's gang-related death. This belief leads him to the discovery of fairies.
Later, as Billy Kong, he becomes involved in the demon-catching plan of Minerva Paradizo. The demon that Minerva abducts happens to be No. 1, a warlock demon who is not at all bloodthirsty. Billy Kong, the ever vengeful and violent murderer, decides to kill No. 1 and in the process not only jeopardises Fowl's and Minerva's plans, but also No. 1's life.
The last mention of Billy Kong is when Butler (in disguise and accompanied by Minerva) turns him in to the police for an old murder in Taipei, where he is wanted by the police as Jonah Lee.
Dr. Damon Kronski
Damon Kronski is the leader of a cult called the Extinctionists, who believe that any species that does not directly benefit humanity must be wiped out. Every year, he holds a conference in which Extinctionists capture the last member of a species, evaluate its usefulness to humanity, and destroy it if it is judged useless. At the age of 10, Artemis Fowl sells him the last silky sifaka lemur, the only source of a cure for a magical disease that would supposedly infect Artemis' mother several years later. After losing the lemur, Kronski captures Holly Short and makes her the centerpiece of his latest conference. Kronski falls out of favor amongst the Extinctionists when an older Artemis from the future claims that Short is not a new species, but rather a young human girl. His fall from power is completed when an embarrassing video of a young Kronski being attacked by a koala surfaces on the Internet. It is revealed that Kronski was mesmerized by Opal Koboi to help capture the silky sifaka lemur, whose brain fluid had magical time-manipulating properties. He is apparently in a catatonic state when Short uses the last bit of her magic to cure his anosmia. The first smell he ever smells in his life is from the nearby vats of liquid pigeon droppings.
L
Loafers McGuire
Loafers is a Chicago mob hitman sent to capture Artemis Fowl and bring him back, on behalf of the Antonelli crime family, hired out by Jon Spiro. Born in Kilkenny, Ireland, his real name is Aloysius McGuire, but he thinks "Loafers" sounds more Mafia-like than "Aloysius". His five-foot frame is covered in tattoos because "every time I complete a job, I get one". McGuire carries a notebook of witticisms he has made—oddly enough, something Artemis Fowl considered compiling after being at a loss for words when Holly Short slugged him in the first book. Loafers is recruited with Mo Digence (Mulch Diggums under an alias). During the hit, Diggums betrays him to Artemis. Despite Loafers' attempts to gain control of the situation, Loafers is quickly subdued by Juliet. He is later mind-wiped without his tattoos, then relocated to Kenya as Nuru.
N
No. 1
No. 1 is an apprentice warlock demon (imp) and recurring character in the Artemis Fowl series. He first appears in Artemis Fowl and the Lost Colony, where he is one of the main characters. He is featured in every book following The Lost Colony.
No. 1 is a bit of an oddity, even for a warlock. He detests many demon traditions, including eagerness to warp and discrimination against imps. He has nightmares about the spirits of the dead animals he has eaten coming to him and pleading. He first (accidentally) uses magic in a dispute with Leon Abbot, the head of the demons, when he turns a wooden poker from the fireplace into stone and penetrates Abbot's armour after Abbot challenges him to do so. Abbot tries to kill him by mesmerising him to jump into the volcano on Hybras. This, however, fails to kill No. 1, and instead successfully sends him to Earth.
Minerva Paradizo later kidnaps him. Before he is liberated, No. 1 develops the gift of tongues in a conversation with Billy Kong, in which he shrieks, "How can I talk straight, you son of a three-legged dog? I don't speak Taiwanese!" in perfectly fluent Taiwanese. He is liberated by Artemis and his allies, and later plays a part in saving both Paradizo and Hybras. He uses his power of the "gargoyle's touch" to free Qwan, and is one of the five in the magic circle that brings Hybras back to Earth at the end of the book. He allows Qweffor to seize complete control of Abbot's body, to the delight of the newly freed warlock.
No. 1, though intelligent, is somewhat childish in many of his habits. He is quite naive at times, misinterpreting the implications of words said or directed at him. He enjoys stating the obvious, and explaining things of little relevance. He is extremely docile, even by warlock standards and, for a good portion of the fifth book, Artemis Fowl and the Lost Colony, possesses very little self-confidence or pride, often wishing himself away when he is being bullied, rather than wishing the actual bullies away. However, at the end of The Lost Colony, he stands up against Abbot, thus displaying a new strength.
His mentor is Qwan, who sees No. 1 as the most powerful warlock ever to exist. On Hybras, Qwan states, "In 10 years, he will be able to move the island on his own". At that time, it took five magical beings to move the island. At one point, Foaly states that No. 1 sounded like a cheap romance novel, speaking with medieval vocabulary learned from the book Abbot brought to Hybras. He uses over-romanticized phrases such as "...I have no idea where we are and where we're going, but I already feel more at home than I ever have." When agitated, No. 1 uses a large number of synonyms to release his stress. He has a soft spot for a demoness with red markings similar to his own, whom he believes might be his mother.
In Time Paradox, he plays a major role in sending Artemis Fowl II and Holly Short back in time and anchoring them so they can come back with the lemur.
In Atlantis Complex, Turnball Root attempts to force No. 1 to keep his human wife, who is dying of old age, young forever.
No. 1 makes a brief cameo appearance in The Last Guardian, in a flashback.
P
Minerva Paradizo
Minerva Paradizo is a character appearing exclusively in Artemis Fowl and the Lost Colony, where she is 12 years old. She initially served as an antagonist, but after being foiled by Artemis and betrayed by Kong, she allies with Artemis's friends.
She is presented as being equally intelligent as Artemis, a mirror image of himself, but ultimately he is able to best her due to his alliance with the technologically superior fairies, and by playing on the same personality weaknesses he once suffered from. Minerva is a criminal genius who captures the imp No. 1 and tries to present him as her project for the Nobel Prize in Stockholm. She is younger than Artemis but, due to his returning from Limbo three years late, they are now the same age. She believes she can outsmart him when he tries to save the magical world from discovery. According to Domovoi Butler at the end of the book, she has "become quite the beauty", and has developed feelings for Artemis. Minerva is not mentioned in any of the other Artemis Fowl books (though she does come back for one scene in The Fowl Twins: Get What They Deserve. It is revealed that Minerva and Artemis were "an item" as she puts it, and they did not part on the best of terms).
Gaspard Paradizo
Gaspard Paradizo is the father of Minerva Paradizo. He briefly appears in Artemis Fowl and The Lost Colony. Following his successful reclamation of Holly Short and No. 1, he attempts to calm Minerva down after the great siege on Chateau Paradizo, but is knocked out when Billy Kong strikes him with a knife. Gaspard Paradizo is not mentioned in any of the other Artemis Fowl books.
Q
Qwan
Qwan is the last remaining member of the original ring of warlocks. He is the mentor of Qweffor and No.1, and is imprisoned in stone with all the other warlocks (except Qweffor, who is knocked into a volcano by Abbot) while trying to move Hybras into Limbo. Many years later, he and the other warlocks are found by humans, who think that the warlocks are statues. They are transported to Taipei 101 as part of an exhibit until No. 1 sets Qwan free. No. 1 tries to free the others until Qwan informs him that the rest have died. Qwan guides Artemis, Holly, No. 1, and Qweffor in saving Hybras. Despite being over 10,000 years old chronologically, he has a spritely sense of humour similar to Foaly's and Holly's, owing to the fact he was still able to hear people talk at the exhibit while petrified. He is a master warlock, and leads the other warlocks in the spell that lifts Hybras out of time.
Qweffor
{{Infobox character
| name = Qweffor
| series = Artemis Fowl
| image =
| caption =
| first = Book 5: Artemis Fowl and the Lost Colony
| last =
| creator = Eoin Colfer
| species = Demon (Warlock)
| gender = Male
}}
Qweffor is, as of Artemis Fowl and the Lost Colony, Qwan's warlock apprentice. His body is merged with Leon Abbot's after Abbot pushes him into lava during the performance of the spell to lift Hybras out of time. However, he temporarily gains control of Abbot's body and helps save Hybras. No. 1 allows him to take permanent control of Abbot's body, to the delight of the apprentice, who admires Abbot's body, physique, and good genes. The only side effect is that this control is not complete. Qweffor has twitches, shakes and loss of bowel function until Abbot's consciousness is removed and placed into a guinea pig. This condition becomes commonly known as "Abbot's revenge".
Quillius the Great was his father.
R
Julius Root
Commander Julius Root, commonly known as Beetroot among some of the LEPrecon because his facial complexion is frequently purple, was the commander of the LEPrecon at the time Artemis Fowl first discovered the people. Prior to being promoted to Major, he was the most successful field operative in recon history, with many of his exploits involving the criminal dwarf Mulch Diggums. Root arrested Mulch on 8 occasions, one in which Mulch almost beheaded him with a diamond cutter, and the last after Mulch's successful break-in and robbery of Koboi Labs; Mulch was only caught because he tried to sell an experimental alchemy vat to one of Root's informants. This led to Mulch becoming overly familiar with Root, often calling him Julius to annoy the commander. While Commander Root's fearsome temper was his most notable trait, he was universally accepted as the best LEP commander of modern times, thanks to his immense experience, his willingness to get his hands dirty and think outside the box (it was his idea to recruit Mulch Diggums for the Fowl Manor siege), and absolute faith in the abilities of his trusted officers. Although Captain Holly Short thinks he dislikes her due to her being the first female officer in recon, he actually shows strong belief in her abilities, and is determined that she live up to her potential. He also reveals a deep liking for her later in the series, leading some officers to think of their friendship a father to daughter bond. Root threatens to resign when Holly's career is threatened after the Artemis Fowl affair, and is also responsible for her being recommended for the position of Major. However, before he can see this through, Root is killed in Artemis Fowl: The Opal Deception in a trick by Opal Koboi.
Turnball Root
Turnball Root is the elder brother of Julius Root. Turnball Root originally appeared in a short story featured in an exclusive edition of the Time Paradox, but he has since been used as the primary antagonist in Artemis Fowl: The Atlantis Complex. He kills Commander Vinyáya, escapes from jail and attempts to kidnap No.1 to grant his human wife Leonor eternal life. He fails in this mission, and he and his wife die while piloting an ambulance with a bomb into a deep sea trench. His known accomplices include Unix the sprite; Bobb Ragby, a dwarf; Ching Mayle, a goblin; and Leonor, his human wife. He uses thrall runes to enslave his wife; Vishby, his jail guard (whom he later kills); Captain Holly Short and Artemis Fowl II. Artemis escapes the runes' power by goading Ragby into electrocuting him. In the process, he makes Orion, who was free of the runes' control, the dominant personality. Captain Short does not escape the runes' power. She obeys Root and subsequently knocks out Juliet Butler, forcing Orion Fowl to shoot her with Root's chemical gun.
Root was previously a captain serving in LEPrecon, but was forced to quit after he tried to flood a section of Haven City in order to wipe out a competitor who was muscling in on his illegal mining operation. His younger brother stopped him just in time, which forced Root to flee to the surface and spend over five centuries on the run, during which he had 96 residences, including a villa near Nice, France. After the incident, Root has his own page in LEPrecon's Criminally Insane section.
In LEPrecon, Root lures his brother Julius into a trap while testing Holly Short in the Tern Islands, wishing to end Julius' endless chase of him. Along with his two cronies, Bobb Ragby and Unix B'Lob, he traps Holly Short and Trouble Kelp inside a human residence on the island and sets Short up for Julius to "tag" her (which would cause her to fail her test), while Bobb and Unix have their rifles turned at him. Short, however, manages to warn Julius and capture Root. After his capture, Root attempts to commit suicide by swallowing one of his Tunnel Blue spiders, which would rip his body apart from the inside. However, Julius saves his brother by forcing some coffee down Root's throat, which kills the spider.
Root dies in Artemis Fowl: The Atlantis Complex.
S
General Scalene
General Scalene is one of the commanding triad of the B'wa Kell, a criminal group of goblins.
The B'wa Kell performs illegal smuggling of various human merchandise. Scalene is first featured in the second book, Artemis Fowl: The Arctic Incident, where he is flattered by Opal Koboi and Briar Cudgeon with the exaggerated title of "general". Koboi manipulates and involves Scalene and his gang in her plan to seize control of Haven City. They smuggle human-manufactured batteries into the Lower Elements to power their softnose lasers, which they use in their attack on the city. After the failure of the rebellion, Scalene is incarcerated at Howler's Peak Goblin Correctional Facility.
In the fourth book, Artemis Fowl: The Opal Deception, Scalene has a minor role when he is visited in prison by Boohn, one of his thousands of nephews. Boohn covers his uncle in his own shedded skin, disguising Scalene, which allows him to escape from Howler's Peak. Scalene is then mesmerized by a crazed Koboi, whose wit was behind the whole escape. She straps Scalene to a bomb and attracts her enemies, Julius Root and Holly Short, to meet with the dazed Scalene, still under her hypnotic influence. Short and Root are led into the trap, and when the bomb detonates, Scalene and Root are killed instantly, while Short narrowly escapes.
Gola Schweem
Gola Schweem appears in Artemis Fowl: The Opal Deception. Schweem indirectly teaches Opal Koboi to descend into a self-induced coma. Koboi first successfully accomplishes this feat at the age of 14. Koboi uses this knowledge to become catatonic for 11 months while planning the destruction of her enemies.
Holly Short
Captain Holly Short is a female elf who at first works for the LEP as a LEPrecon (reconnaissance). She is exactly 3 feet tall and is slightly shorter than average, such a short stature can be a great advantage for the fairies. Short is talkative and sarcastic, with an auburn crew cut and hazel eyes, as well as the pointed ears and nut-brown skin typical of her species. In Artemis Fowl: The Arctic Incident, she is said to be about 80 years old. Short is the first and only female officer in the organization LEPrecon. Her relationship with Artemis Fowl changes dramatically throughout the series, starting with a hostile and untrusting relationship, then progressing into respect and friendship, maybe even love in the sixth book.
Ark Sool
Commander Ark Sool is the highest-ranking gnome in the Lower Elements Police Internal Affairs department, introduced in Artemis Fowl: The Opal Deception. An unusually tall and thin gnome, without the usual love of golden jewelry, like rings, necklaces and piercings, he is a strict and stubborn adherer to regulations; Holly considers him to be "the king of red-tape" and only interested in his career. His narrow-minded, no-nonsense attitude often pits him against the centaur Foaly, the fairies' chief technical advisor, and inadvertently causes Sool to assume that Captain Holly Short is the only possible murderer of Commander Julius Root.
Throughout the book, he single-mindedly pursues Short without even considering other possible suspects, and either refuses to consider evidence to the contrary, or fits it to see his own version of events. He also hypocritically accuses Foaly of the same act. In reality, Short is innocent; she was set up by the pixie genius and megalomaniac Opal Koboi as part of her plans for revenge. Sool has few friends due to his domineering nature, and is the only one of the eight tribunal members who finds Captain Short guilty. Even after Short is cleared of the crime, Sool intends to keep a close eye on her to catch any infractions. His promotion to LEPrecon commander compels Captain Short to leave the LEP so she can serve the Fairy People without having her every action scrutinized. His leadership also prompts Foaly to quit the LEP for a time in the fifth book, Artemis Fowl and the Lost Colony. Sool prompts a lockdown of forces when he discovers an abduction of a demon has taken place, leaving Holly without any fairy support in the field. Whilst Artemis and Holly save the demons in Limbo, Sool loses his position as head of the LEP after it is revealed that he plans to allow the eighth fairy family (demons) to die off. His successor is Trouble Kelp, an elf formerly after Holly's heart.
In Artemis Fowl: The Atlantis Complex, he is one of Captain Turnball Root's henchmen, looking after his wife until Captain Root escapes from prison.
Jon Spiro
Jon Spiro appears only in Artemis Fowl: The Eternity Code, in which he serves as the main antagonist. He is a notorious Chicago businessman who owns the communications company Fission Chips. He has a bodyguard by the name of Arno Blunt.
Spiro is a wealthy and shady businessman with mob connections, and though it is thought that his company made it to the top with stolen research, it was never proven. Spiro is a power-hungry megalomaniac. An illustration of his abuse of power is when he has the ballroom doors of the sunken Titanic recovered from the ocean floor and brought to the Spiro Needle to be used as his office doors. The Spiro Needle, owned by Spiro, is the headquarters for Fission Chips. He gets very angry at times, taking it out on others.
One of his assistants reveals that Spiro has a brother, but does not want to mention his brother's existence.
Spiro is described as "a middle-aged American, thin as a javelin, and barely taller than Artemis Fowl himself." He usually wears a white linen suit—his trademark—and a large amount of gold jewelry, including an ID bracelet, which was a birthday present to himself. He is on a strict diet and wears a vitamin dispenser on his belt. He has "gut problems," suggesting that he may have ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease. Both diseases are triggered by stress, fitting his personality.
Artemis Fowl arranges a meeting with Spiro at a renowned London seafood restaurant, En Fin, to discuss his invention called the C Cube. During the meeting, however, Spiro outwits Artemis by disguising assassins in the restaurant where they have lunch. He steals the C Cube and leaves his bodyguard Arno Blunt to kill Artemis and Butler. He is eventually set up by Artemis Fowl and arrested by a SWAT team.
V
Chix Verbil
Private Chix Verbil is an amorous sprite who first appears in the later part of Artemis Fowl, the first book of the series. Verbil, like all sprites, has wings, green skin, and loves to fly.
In the first Artemis Fowl novel, Verbil has a very small role: all that is required of him is to blow up the door holding the troll (or, as he puts it: "blowing the door off its damn hinges"), and stand guard over the ransom money, which he fails to do.
In Artemis Fowl: The Arctic Incident, Verbil shows himself to be an amateur Don Juan, and practices his moves unsuccessfully on Captain Holly Short while on a routine surveillance shift on Chute E37, a closed Parisian pressure elevator. While doing a routine flyby and thermal scan, two grey moving objects are detected. Immediately, Captain Short communications with Foaly, who admits that someone may have defeated his system, because when the thermal scan finds a grey zone it means that there are no living organisms. Short quickly commands Verbil to fly up to the surveillance pod, but he is too busy attempting to flirt with his attractive captain to pay much attention. At that moment, a laser fired by the B'wa Kell goblin gang punctures a hole through his wing.
Sprites have seven major arteries in their wings and the wound is large enough to have ruptured at least three. It is life-threatening due to sprites' limited healing powers. Short risks her life to go into the firefight and drag Verbil to safety. She heals the wound, but the injury prevents Verbil from flying long distances again. The healing makes him pledge a debt to Short.
In the Artemis Fowl: The Opal Deception, Verbil (now a captain) interviews kleptomaniac dwarf Mulch Diggums, who breaks into a shuttleport so that he can steal a shuttle. After telling Verbil that Short is alive but in danger, and that Opal Koboi has escaped, Verbil reluctantly allows Diggums to knock him out and steal a shuttle (fulfilling his debt to Short, as Diggums was doing it to help her). Later, Verbil relays Diggums' message to Foaly, who checks on Koboi's status, which leads to the discovery that the Koboi in the clinic was a clone, which prompts Commander Ark Sool to order the launch of the supersonic shuttle.
In Artemis Fowl: Atlantis Complex, he receives a message from Short about the space probe heading for Atlantis. He does not tell Commander Kelp about it immediately because he thinks it's a prank message from his poker buddy Crooz.
Raine Vinyáya
Wing Commander Raine Vinyáya is an elf. She is on the fairy council and is the council chairwoman of the covert organization, Section Eight.
Appearing in minor roles or briefly mentioned in most of the earlier books (completely absent from Artemis Fowl: The Eternity Code) where she is consistently supportive of Holly Short and Julius Root, Vinyáya's first major appearance is in Artemis Fowl and the Lost Colony, in which Short is recruited by Section Eight. Captain Short was one of her pupils for flying courses in the LEP Academy. She quipped in Short's report that "she could pilot a shuttle pod through the gap between your teeth", both a compliment and a subtle jibe, in reference to the fact that the first time Short flew a shuttle she crash-landed it within two feet of Vinyáya.
Commander Vinyáya stops dyeing her hair by Artemis Fowl: The Lost Colony, revealing her natural colour to be silver. According to Artemis Fowl: The Arctic Incident, Vinyáya is an accomplished marksman, demanding an electric rifle with which to help shoot the goblins. Trouble Kelp later comments that "she hadn't missed yet".
In Artemis Fowl: The Atlantis Complex, Commander Vinyáya is killed by a space probe commandeered by Turnball Root. It is revealed she has a brother called Tarpon Vinyáya, who is the warden in the prison at Atlantis who inadvertently allowed Root to escape.
Commander Vinyáya's first name is given as Raine in the first chapter of Artemis Fowl: The Atlantis Complex.
Vishby
Vishby is a water elf prison guard who lives in Atlantis. He first appears in is first mentioned in Artemis Fowl: The Opal Deception, when he is guarding Mulch Diggums in a prison shuttle on its way to the jails in Atlantis. Diggums often refers to him insultingly as "fishboy" because of the similarity of the two names. Vishby's second and last appearance is in Artemis Fowl: The Atlantis Complex, where he is a thrall of the criminal Turnball Root. As a thrall, he provides Root with all the materials he needs to escape jail. Vishby dies after Root leaves him to be crushed by his space probe.
Mikhael Vassikin
Mikhael Vassikin (Russian: Михаил Васикин) is a member of the Russian Mafia, one of two assigned to guard Artemis Fowl I in Artemis Fowl: The Arctic Incident.
Z
Giovanni Zito
Giovanni Zito is a wealthy Italian and a dedicated environmentalist from Sicily. Opal Koboi chooses him as her adopted parent in Artemis Fowl: The Opal Deception, and mesmerizes him into believing he is her father. With his help, Koboi is able to obtain great technology to reveal the existence of fairies. Zito is a very good friend of Artemis Fowl. In Artemis Fowl and the Lost Colony'', he gives Artemis passes for an opera in exchange for a case of Bordeaux so that Artemis may witness a possible demon materialization.
See also
Butler family (Artemis Fowl)
Fowl family (Artemis Fowl)
References
Artemis Fowl
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libration
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Libration
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In lunar astronomy, libration is the wagging or wavering of the Moon perceived by Earth-bound observers and caused by changes in their perspective. It permits an observer to see slightly different hemispheres of the surface at different times. It is similar in both cause and effect to the changes in the Moon's apparent size due to changes in distance. It is caused by three mechanisms detailed below, two of which cause a relatively tiny physical libration via tidal forces exerted by the Earth. Such true librations are known as well for other moons with locked rotation.
The quite different phenomenon of a trojan asteroid's movement has been called Trojan libration; and Trojan libration point means Lagrangian point.
Lunar libration
The Moon keeps one hemisphere of itself facing the Earth, due to tidal locking. Therefore, the first view of the far side of the Moon was not possible until the Soviet probe Luna 3 reached the Moon on October 7, 1959, and further lunar exploration by the United States and the Soviet Union. This simple picture is only approximately true: over time, slightly more than half (about 59% in total) of the Moon's surface is seen from Earth due to libration.
Lunar libration arises from three changes in perspective due to: the non-circular and inclined orbit, the finite size of the Earth, and the orientation of the Moon in space. The first of these is called optical libration, the second is called parallax, and the third is physical libration. Each of these can be divided into two contributions.
The following are the four types of lunar libration:
Libration in longitude results from the eccentricity of the Moon's orbit around Earth; the Moon's rotation sometimes leads and sometimes lags its orbital position. The lunar libration in longitude was discovered by Johannes Hevelius in 1648. It can reach 7°54′ in amplitude.
Libration in latitude results from a slight inclination (about 6.7°) between the Moon's axis of rotation and the normal to the plane of its orbit around Earth. Its origin is analogous to how the seasons arise from Earth's revolution about the Sun. Galileo Galilei is sometimes credited with the discovery of the lunar libration in latitude in 1632, although Thomas Harriot or William Gilbert might have done so before. Note Cassini's laws. It can reach 6°50′ in amplitude. The 6.7º depends on the orbit inclination of 5.15º and the negative equatorial tilt of 1.54º.
Diurnal libration is a small daily oscillation due to Earth's rotation, which carries an observer first to one side and then to the other side of the straight line joining Earth's and the Moon's centers, allowing the observer to look first around one side of the Moon and then around the other—since the observer is on Earth's surface, not at its center. It reaches less than 1° in amplitude. Diurnal libration is one effect of parallax, which depends on both the longitude and latitude of the site.
Physical libration is the oscillation of orientation in space about uniform rotation and precession. There are physical librations about all 3 axes. The sizes are roughly 100 seconds of arc. As seen from the Earth, this amounts to less than 1 second of arc. Forced physical librations can be predicted given the orbit and shape of the Moon. The periods of free physical librations can also be predicted, but their amplitudes and phases cannot be predicted.
Physical libration
The orientation of the Moon exhibits small oscillations of the pole direction in space and rotation about the pole.
Forced physical libration
Cassini’s laws state that:
The Moon rotates uniformly about its polar axis keeping one side toward the Earth.
The Moon’s equator plane is tilted with respect to the ecliptic plane and it precesses uniformly along the ecliptic plane.
The descending node of the equator on the ecliptic matches the ascending node of the orbit plane.
In addition to uniform rotation and uniform precession of the equator plane, the Moon has small oscillations of orientation in space about all 3 axes. These oscillations are called physical librations. Apart from the 1.5427º tilt between equator and ecliptic, the oscillations are approximately ±100 seconds of arc in size. These oscillations can be expressed with trigonometric series that depend on the lunar moments of inertia A < B < C. The sensitive combinations are β = (C – A)/B and γ = (B – A)/C. The oscillation about the polar axis is most sensitive to γ and the 2-dimensional direction of the pole, including the 1.5427° tilt, is most sensitive to β. Consequently, accurate measurements of the physical librations provide accurate determinations of β = and γ = .
The placement of 3 retroreflectors on the Moon by the Lunar Laser Ranging experiment and 2 retroreflectors by Lunokhod rovers allowed accurate measurement of the physical librations by laser ranging to the Moon.
Free physical libration
A free physical libration is similar to the solution of the reduced equation for linear differential equations. The periods of the free librations can be calculated, but their amplitudes must be measured. Lunar Laser Ranging provides the determinations. The two largest free librations were discovered by O. Calame. Modern values are:
1.3 seconds of arc with a 1056 day (2.9 year) period for rotation about the polar axis,
a 74.6 year elliptical wobble of the pole of size 8.18 × 3.31 arcseconds, and
an 81 year rotation of the pole in space that is 0.03 seconds of arc in size.
The fluid core can cause a fourth mode with a period around 4 centuries. The free librations are expected to damp out in times very short compared to the age of the Moon. Consequently, their existence implies that there must be one or more stimulating mechanisms.
See also
Parallactic angle
References
External links
Libration of the Moon from educational website From Stargazers to Starships
Astronomy Picture of the Day: 2005 November 13 – time-lapse animation of the Moon through one complete cycle, hosted by NASA
Libration: 2 years in 2 seconds – 24 full moon pictures taken over two years, compiled in an animation (linked on page) showing the Moon's libration and variations in apparent diameter
Observing the Lunar Libration Zones
Dynamics of the Solar System
Orbit of the Moon
Articles containing video clips
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36844536
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP%20Cloud
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HP Cloud
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HP Cloud was a set of cloud computing services available from Hewlett-Packard (HP) that offered public cloud, private cloud, hybrid cloud, managed private cloud, and other cloud services. It was the combination of the previous HP Converged Cloud business unit and HP Cloud Services, which is the OpenStack technology-based public cloud. It was marketed to enterprise organizations to combine public cloud services with internal IT resources to create hybrid clouds, or a mix of private and public cloud environments, from about 2011 until 2016.
History
HP Converged Cloud was announced in April 2012. HP Converged Cloud is managed under a Hewlett-Packard business unit established in 2013 named The Converged Cloud unit, headed by Saar Gillai as Senior Vice President and general manager of Converged Cloud.
HP Public Cloud was announced on March 14, 2011, and launched as a public beta on May 10, 2012. HP Fellow and MySQL author Brian Aker announced the Relational Database Service on stage at the 2012 MySQL User's Conference. The HP Public Cloud Beta that went live in May 2012 included OpenStack technology-based storage and content delivery network (CDN) components. HP Cloud Object Storage and HP Cloud CDN were moved into general availability on August 1, 2012. HP Cloud DNS as a Service was moved into general availability on July 1, 2013.
The two business units were merged in late 2013 and announced at the HP Discover event in Barcelona, Spain.
On May 7, 2014, HP announced the HP Helion portfolio of products and services, and stated that the company planned to invest over $1 billion in cloud. HP Helion included HP's existing cloud products, new OpenStack technology-based services, and both professional and support services to assist businesses in building and managing hybrid IT environments.
On October 21, 2015, HP announced that it would shut down the HP Cloud in January 2016.
Cloud computing challenges
Moving between clouds
Business organizations that want to use cloud computing have a choice of using a private cloud, which is a cloud infrastructure run specifically for a single organization that it built itself or by a third-party; or a public cloud, whereby a service provider makes available applications, storage, and other resources to the general public. The decision of which to use is based on a number of factors, such as whether the company operates in a highly regulated sector, such as the pharmaceuticals industry that must comply with rules regarding the control and security of data, or if the business must bring services to market quickly, such as a web applications developer. The first would opt for a private cloud for security peace of mind, while the web developer would choose a public cloud offering. Most companies would operate a mixture the two, also known as hybrid cloud delivery.
Employing a hybrid delivery cloud strategy lets organizations use different cloud delivery services for specific applications. For instance, a public cloud may be a more cost-effective service for the compute-intensive task of processing analytics, but the data would remain local, or private, to comply with regulations. Because a hybrid delivery strategy lets organizations run applications and services across different clouds, collocation, and data centers, an example benefit of such a delivery mechanism is that organizations can move an app from one geographic location to another in major storms.
There can be different types of hybrid clouds for specific tasks. The Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) model can be a hybrid cloud in that it could use operating systems and virtualization technologies from both a public and private cloud infrastructure to provide cloud services. Other models that mix on-premises cloud with public cloud technologies include Platform as a service (PaaS), which includes infrastructure services combined with development tools and middleware; and Software as a service (SaaS), which is used to develop packaged software.
However, moving data in the cloud can be a difficult procedure. In the case of Software as a Service (SaaS), it is difficult particularly if the incumbent cloud provider used proprietary software, or if it altered an open source application.
A way to mitigate cloud migration difficulties is to architect applications for the cloud that reduce or eliminate the dependencies between the cloud application stack and the capabilities of the cloud service provider. Another way is to select only generic and higher-level applications to move to the cloud in the first place. Another method is to select open standards for cloud computing.
A best practice for avoiding cloud migration problems is to use a management platform that can support applications in any environment a user organization is likely to use.
Cloud professional services
Companies engage cloud professional services consultants to help them plan how to incorporate cloud services into their business operations. Consultants advise businesses on whether to use public, private, or a hybrid delivery model, and how they should implement or consume those delivery models. For example, cloud professional services consultants might recommend that businesses interested in cost savings place appropriate applications in the public cloud, but keep a higher-security application in a private cloud or Hybrid cloud.
According to research conducted by HP in 2013, 43 percent of companies surveyed indicated that they wanted strategic guidance on how to deploy cloud. In a 2013 competitive vendor analysis report by International Data Corporation, a market research firm, the authors state that cloud professional services can help companies map out both a short-term and a long-term strategy for how to use cloud in a way that aids their business goals.
The most common reason businesses engage cloud professional services are for assistance with incorporating cloud technology into existing IT environments, and to plan how to implement cloud, according to a study published in February 2014 by the independent research firm Technology Business Research, Inc. According to published reports, the use of cloud professional services indicates that businesses do not have adequate internal resources that are knowledgeable about implementing cloud.
HP Cloud characteristics and components
Converged infrastructure
HP Cloud follows the premise of converged infrastructure: the integration of compute, storage, and networking components and technologies into self-provisioning pools of shared resources, and supported by IT services. One of the benefits of a data center based on converged infrastructure, including a converged infrastructure data center that delivers cloud services, is that manual tasks can be automated, thus reducing the time and cost to carry them out.
Open standards
HP Cloud is neutral regarding the manufacturer of cloud components used, such as virtual machine hypervisors, operating systems, and development environments. For example, HP Cloud supports all hypervisors, including those from VMware, Microsoft, and Red Hat.
HP Cloud is based on OpenStack technology. This allows user organizations to move cloud applications between HP cloud systems and other cloud systems based on OpenStack technology. The support for open standards technology enables user organizations to employ a hybrid delivery strategy for their cloud consumption. It also means private clouds based on converged infrastructure are compatible with public cloud platforms based on OpenStack technology, such as RackSpace and Nebula. The benefit is that user organization can decouple their applications from being tied to a particular hardware platform. User organizations may want to do this when they want to move key workloads to another Infrastructure-as-a-Service supplier.
Components
HP CloudSystem is a component of HP Cloud. It enables user organizations to burst workloads to external or internal cloud resources in times of increased workloads or when they want additional compute resources. This function is known as cloud bursting.
Industry sector packages
HP Cloud includes a number of packages for different industry sectors. For instance, HP Cloud Services for Airlines integrates Software as a service (SaaS) and infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS) to the airline industry. Applications for that include HP Passenger Service Solution, which integrates travel and transportation industry applications into a single airline booking and travel SaaS environment.
HP Helion Professional Services
HP Professional Services consultants work with user organizations to help them create cloud environments. Businesses that engage with HP Professional Services are those that want to use hybrid cloud and other cloud configurations. These businesses receive advice on how they can implement cloud in a consistent manner and how to get value from their cloud investment. Businesses also receive advice on how to manage the cloud.
Services
HP Cloud Advisory Services —Delivers information on the possible uses for cloud services and solutions and identifies opportunities to begin implementing cloud.
HP Cloud Strategy Services —Develops a business case for moving to cloud, plans how to shift some resources from traditional IT to cloud resources, and designs a multi-year strategy on how to incorporate private, public, and hybrid cloud with traditional IT environments.
HP Applications Transformation to Cloud Services —Delivers design, development, migration, and testing services to enable new and existing applications and business processes to run in the cloud.
HP Cloud Design Services —Provides user organizations with recommended practices for using cloud and frameworks for building detailed architectures and designs for cloud solutions.
HP Cloud Implementation Services —Helps build, integrate, migrate, and deploy cloud solutions based on detailed design and architecture with a transition to operations.
HP Cloud Operation Services —Provides support services for a company's cloud environment.
HP Cloud Education Services —Trains and certifies a company's IT staff and third-party partners to help them architect, integrate, and administer cloud solutions.
HP Helion OpenStack Professional Services —Consultants help a company plan, implement, and run HP clouds in a hybrid IT environment based on the OpenStack technology.
HP Helion Managed Virtual Private Cloud
HP Enterprise Services was a global division of Hewlett-Packard (and later Hewlett Packard Enterprise) that provided business and technology services. HP Enterprise Services were designed to assist businesses with services that included cloud computing, systems integration, network and systems operations, data center management, and applications development. A Virtual private cloud (VPC) consists of a collection of computing resources that are shared and allotted from within a public cloud installation's Multitenant architecture. The VPC can be configured on demand and allows one VPC user to be isolated from other VPC users.
HP Helion Managed Virtual Private Cloud is a managed cloud providing VPC features. It includes security features for businesses that connect to a public cloud through an on-site network, using Software-defined networking technology. There are five different sizes of VPC installations. Businesses can either manage the VPC themselves or pay a fee to have HP manage it. Multiple copies of a Virtual LAN (VLAN) are supplied with HP Helion Managed Virtual Private Cloud. This provides a method for businesses to connect through the Firewall from their on-site network into the VPC, so that the VPC appears to be part of the on-site network.
Businesses that use HP Helion Managed Virtual Private Cloud receive encrypted backup on a daily basis, performed by HP. The service also performs automated load balancing across the virtual servers in the cloud. Data is stored off-site for the File systems and Server operating systems. User organizations choose to retain this data by HP for 30, 60, or 90 days. HP retains local backups of SQL Server or Oracle databases in the HP data center for 15 or 30 days; offsite backups can be retained for 15 to 90 days. User organizations choose 50GB, 100GB, or one-terabyte blocks of Storage area network (SAN) storage for server nodes, for which high-availability clustering can be added. Instances for Microsoft Windows Server, Red Hat Enterprise Linux, and SUSE Linux Enterprise Server can be provided for HP Helion Managed Virtual Private Cloud.
HP As-a-Service Solution for SAP HANA, a version of HP Helion Managed Virtual Private Cloud, is a service for the SAP HANA in-memory database. Migration services are for businesses that want to move to the SAP HANA platform. The system is designed to enable businesses to analyze big data. Similar services exist for Enterprise Cloud Services for Oracle and HP Enterprise Cloud Services for Microsoft Dynamics CRM. According to published reports, organizations using HP Enterprise Cloud Services for Microsoft Dynamics CRM can use CRM software in a secure fashion and not pay up front for the infrastructure to run it.
Sample installations
In November 2013, HP Enterprise Services opened in Barcelona the first of two planned data centers to host VPC in Spain. According to published reports, the data centers provide disaster recovery services and high availability. Acting as an investment partner in the project, the government of Catalonia has stated that it intends to use the HP Helion Managed Virtual Private Cloud to reduce by 25 to 30 percent the costs of its Centre for Telecommunications and Information Technology.
The offshore drilling company Seadrill migrated its worldwide data center operations to HP Helion Managed Virtual Private Cloud in July 2013. According to published reports, Seadrill chose the HP product over competing IBM and Capgemini products because it believed the HP Helion Managed Virtual Private Cloud was less expensive and configured so that Seadrill could continue to run legacy applications in its own physical data center.
UNIT4 Business Software announced in February 2014 that it has contracted to use HP Helion Managed Virtual Private Cloud as a secure method to deliver services to its education clients in the United Kingdom.
HP Public Cloud
HP Public Cloud was a public cloud service from Hewlett-Packard (HP) that offered compute, storage, and platform services that were accessible via the public Internet to developers, independent software vendors (ISVs), SMBs, and enterprises of all sizes (including public sector). HP built its cloud infrastructure using OpenStack technology, an open source cloud infrastructure project, and planned to deliver end-to-end, converged cloud capabilities that let users manage their cloud deployments across hybrid, private, managed private, and public cloud delivery models with HP Public Cloud offering an open, interoperable, intuitive, and reliable public cloud option.
Cloud solutions
Archival as a Service is the automated movement and retention of unstructured information in the cloud to improve performance, scale, and manageability of applications while conforming to compliance and e-discovery requirements. Data archiving is often confused with data backups, which are copies of active data which is needed for computing on a frequent basis.
Backup as a Service is for organizations of all sizes that need to back-up active data regularly to avoid losses, stay compliant and preserve data integrity.
Collaboration as a Service enables organizations to manage data and enable file/information sharing with minimal latency.
PC and Mobile Backup and Synchronization enables enterprise and SMB workers to use multiple devices to create, share and access data.
Big Data Processing to analyze and index large data volumes in the hundreds of petabytes in size, as well run distributed queries across multiple data sets and then returned in near real time.
Enterprise Application Migration is an open cloud interface based on standards-based OpenStack APIs to support on-premises server migration. It provides a variety of solution tools from HP solution partners to deploy complex multi-tier applications.
Managing Production Workloads
Mobile Application Development and Deployment solutions provides the platform developers need to host existing software on the Internet and to host e-commerce, e-marketing, and SaaS sites as well.
Test & Development solution enables access to dev/test environments on demand, and speed up time to market by deploying computing resources and adding capacity in minutes on a pay-as-you-go basis.
Database Archiving
Bursting to the HP Cloud is a HP Public Cloud solution that provides enterprises a common architecture across private cloud, managed cloud, and public cloud with traditional IT infrastructures to "Burst" from smaller private clouds into the public cloud during peak demand periods. HPCS is integrated with HP CloudSystem, cloud infrastructure from HP that combines storage, servers, networking and software for organizations to build complete private, public and hybrid cloud computing environments.
Cloud products
HP Cloud Compute is a public cloud compute solution that can deliver a virtual server on demand. New virtual servers, or compute instances, can be brought online in seconds and can be fully customized to meet a variety of computing needs. It is built on OpenStack's open source operating environment and enhanced with unique HP technology.
HP Cloud Object Storage is a public cloud storage solution that delivers secure, scalable capacity on demand. Storage capacity can be obtained online in seconds, allowing a flexible, manageable computing environment.
HP Cloud Content Delivery Network (CDN) is a webservice that delivers data from HP Cloud Object Storage to users all around the world. Using an extensive global network of servers from HP and Akamai Technologies, HP Cloud CDN routes content to local servers closest to customers.
HP Cloud Block Storage enables organizations to store data from HP Cloud Compute instances for as long as needed. HP Cloud Block Storage is ideal for applications requiring frequent read/write access such as web applications.
HP Cloud Relational Database is a managed, web-based service that provides users with on-demand access to a relational database in the cloud.
HP Cloud Load Balancers are a managed load balancing service that allow for the automatic distribution of incoming traffic across compute resources.
HP Cloud DNS is an enterprise-grade domain name system featuring anycast routing.
HP Cloud Monitoring delivers fundamental compute and block storage metrics, providing visibility into resource use, application performance, and operational health.
HP Cloud Application Platform as a Service is an application platform for development, deployment, and management of cloud applications using any language on any stack.
Partner ecosystem
HP Public Cloud had created a Cloud Partner Ecosystem that enabled partners to provide services that use the HP Public Cloud infrastructure. The Solution Partners program was designed to help Solution Partners enhance their cloud offering and increase exposure to new customers and markets. Solution Partners offered software, applications and cloud services on top of and/or integrated with HP Public Cloud. The program consisted of a set of tools, best practices, documentation, and support.
References
External links
HP Helion Professional Services
HP Helion Managed Virtual Private Cloud
HP Public Cloud – Public Cloud Only
HP Cloud – official site
HP Cloud Blog
Cloud platforms
Cloud storage
Cloud infrastructure
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20the%20Ripper
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John the Ripper
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John the Ripper is a free password cracking software tool. Originally developed for the Unix operating system, it can run on fifteen different platforms (eleven of which are architecture-specific versions of Unix, DOS, Win32, BeOS, and OpenVMS). It is among the most frequently used password testing and breaking programs as it combines a number of password crackers into one package, autodetects password hash types, and includes a customizable cracker. It can be run against various encrypted password formats including several crypt password hash types most commonly found on various Unix versions (based on DES, MD5, or Blowfish), Kerberos AFS, and Windows NT/2000/XP/2003 LM hash. Additional modules have extended its ability to include MD4-based password hashes and passwords stored in LDAP, MySQL, and others.
Sample output
Here is a sample output in a Debian environment.
$ cat pass.txt
user:AZl.zWwxIh15Q
$ john -w:password.lst pass.txt
Loaded 1 password hash (Traditional DES [24/32 4K])
example (user)
guesses: 1 time: 0:00:00:00 100% c/s: 752 trying: 12345 - pookie
The first line is a command to expand the data stored in the file "pass.txt". The next line is the contents of the file, i.e. the user (AZl) and the hash associated with that user (zWwxIh15Q). The third line is the command for running John the Ripper utilizing the "-w" flag. "password.lst" is the name of a text file full of words the program will use against the hash, pass.txt makes another appearance as the file we want John to work on.
Then we see output from John working. Loaded 1 password hash — the one we saw with the "cat" command — and the type of hash John thinks it is (Traditional DES). We also see that the attempt required one guess at a time of 0 with a 100% guess rate.
Attack types
One of the modes John can use is the dictionary attack. It takes text string samples (usually from a file, called a wordlist, containing words found in a dictionary or real passwords cracked before), encrypting it in the same format as the password being examined (including both the encryption algorithm and key), and comparing the output to the encrypted string. It can also perform a variety of alterations to the dictionary words and try these. Many of these alterations are also used in John's single attack mode, which modifies an associated plaintext (such as a username with an encrypted password) and checks the variations against the hashes.
John also offers a brute force mode. In this type of attack, the program goes through all the possible plaintexts, hashing each one and then comparing it to the input hash. John uses character frequency tables to try plaintexts containing more frequently used characters first. This method is useful for cracking passwords that do not appear in dictionary wordlists, but it takes a long time to run.
See also
Brute-force search
Brute-force attack
Crack (password software)
Computer hacking
Hacking tool
Openwall Project
Password cracking
References
External links
Password cracking software
Free security software
Cross-platform software
Cryptanalytic software
Year of introduction missing
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32115884
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding%20management%20software
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Wedding management software
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Wedding Management Software or Wedding Planning Software is a term covering software related to wedding planning, management and organization. Most such software include modules for estimation and planning, scheduling, book keeping management, task allocation, wedding website, guest management, invites including RSVPs, vendor management, task reminders via emails and SMS, image and video galleries, directions to venues, and multiple template options.
Many describe wedding management as an offshoot of Project management, which is why many wedding management software look and feel similar to Project management software or ERP systems.
Some companies offer software in two versions – one for individuals and families who are planning a personal wedding or event or wedding planners who may be organizing large and multiple weddings.
See also
Event management
References
Wedding industry
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1609147
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PeerGuardian
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PeerGuardian
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PeerGuardian is a free and open source program developed by Phoenix Labs. It is capable of blocking incoming and outgoing connections based on IP blacklists. The aim of its use was to block peers on the same torrent download from any visibility of your own peer connection using IP lists. The system is also capable of blocking custom ranges, depending upon user preferences.
The Windows version of this program has been discontinued in favor of other applications (Phoenix Labs encourage current PeerGuardian users to migrate to PeerBlock which is based on PeerGuardian 2).
History
Development on PeerGuardian started in late 2002, led by programmer Tim Leonard. The first public version was released in 2003, at a time when the music industry started to sue individual file sharing users (a change from its previous stance that it would not target consumers with copyright infringement lawsuits).
Version 1
The original PeerGuardian (1.0) was programmed in Visual Basic and quickly became popular among P2P users despite blocking only the common TCP protocol and being known for high RAM and CPU usage when connected to P2P networks. By December 2003, it had been downloaded 1 million times.
The original version was released for free and the source code was made available under an open source license.
Due to Version 1.0 only blocking TCP ports PeerGuardian.net then shifted to bluetack.co.uk where Protowall, The blocklist Manager, B.I.M.S and the Hosts Manager were developed.
Version 2
After 7 months of development, in February 2005 Version 2 of PeerGuardian was released as a beta. The development of version 2.0 was led by Cory Nelson, and aimed to resolve many of the shortcomings of Version 1. Version 2 enabled support for more protocols (TCP, UDP, ICMP, etc.), multiple block lists, and automatic updates. The installation procedure was also simplified, no longer requiring a system restart and driver installation.
Speed and resource inefficiencies were fixed by re-designing and re-coding Version 2.0 in C++ to consume less processing power and memory. As with most other desktop firewall software for Windows, Version 2.0 is installed as a kernel-level filter in Windows 2000 and later, giving the application direct access to the Windows networking stack and improving performance.
Support for both Windows Vista and IPv6 were in release candidate phase as of May 2009.
Blacklist
The blacklist is stored in a number of different formats:
Binary formats
The binary formats (known as P2B) were created at the release of the first beta version of PeerGuardian 2, in order to create the smallest possible blocklist.
P2B Version 1 – This format was used only in the earliest releases of PeerGuardian 2. It was compressed using the gzip format. Lists are no longer produced in this format.
P2B Version 2 – The most widely used format, this is supported among a number of applications, including eMule and the Linux version of PeerGuardian. It is equivalent to the first version of the P2B format, but instead uses UTF-8 to store names.
P2B Version 3 – The newest version of the P2B format, this is currently supported only on the latest version of the Windows version of PeerGuardian 2. This format uses 7z compression for additional size reduction. The recent adoption of this format made it the least compatible one.
P2P plaintext format
The original format for PeerGuardian version 1.x was a simple plaintext format. Unfortunately this meant that lists became very large and cost a lot of bandwidth to distribute, heralding the construction of the smaller binary formats.
The format is as follows:
RangeName:FirstIP-LastIP
For example:
Localhost:127.0.0.1-127.0.0.1
This format also is used in eMule, in the SafePeer Vuze plugin, ProtoWall, KTorrent, and Transmission.
Blacklist management issues
Since at least 2006, the P2P blocklist used by PeerGuardian has been provided by "Bluetack Internet Security Solutions". ("Bluetack" was the name of the member of the original PeerGuardian team who owned its previous domain peerguardian.net and created the "Block List Manager" used to maintain the list.)
Bluetack.co.uk developed an application called the Bluetack Internet Management System (B.I.M.S) that would spider whois servers to create a map of the internet and all of its IP Addresses.
With this database the admins of the site (Seraphielx, Moore, Firstaid, Tozanno, DeathAngel, R00ted) would search for names of Anti-P2P companies and set a status code in the entry to make the blocklists that would be downloaded by the blocklist manager for import into PeerGuardian, Protowall, and other applications that would block Anti-P2P traffic from accessing your download.
They would also obtain logs from people who were sent letters for downloading "illegal" software, music and videos and figure out who in the list did not belong and flag the entry just to be safe.
The PeerGuardian developers state they have no control over Bluetack's list, and do not promote or link to alternative lists. They have been criticized for overly broad blocking based on unsubstantiated evidence.
PeerGuardian acknowledges that Battlefield 2, Blizzard, Steam, and ArenaNet connectivity is blocked, which creates problems for many online gaming users who are not aware that PeerGuardian will break game connectivity, and are thus directed to read the manual.
With the blocklist manager application, users can add these sites to a "Safe list" allowing them to continue using the Games and websites without interference from PeerGuardian.
In 2007, Bluetack/PeerGuardian 2 were criticized for blocking denis.stalker.h3q.com, the second largest BitTorrent tracker as of December 2007, as an "Anti-P2P" address, and claiming that its maintainers (whose tracking software "Opentracker" is also used by The Pirate Bay) were conspiring with the MPAA and MediaDefender. The maintainers are members of the Chaos Computer Club (CCC), a long-standing association of hackers and freedom of information activists, and had also briefly run their tracker from the CCC's own network. Bluetack also blocked CCC itself, accusing it of doing "anti-P2P work" and being a "threat" to file sharers, while others pointed to the fact that the CCC had been publicly defending P2P for years, and even called for boycotting the music industry to protest its file sharing lawsuits.
Although IP addresses of government and business entities are easily added to a list of IP addresses to be blocked, there is no means for PeerGuardian to block access by a government or business using an undocumented IP address to identify people engaged in copyright infringement or other possibly unlawful activity.
PeerGuardian Lite
PeerGuardian Lite is a derivative of PeerGuardian 2 made to consume as little CPU and RAM as possible. It has no UI or options and consists of a single tray icon. It is no longer developed, with the latest version released on 22 April 2005. It is also open-source, allowing for future derivatives by any party. As its developers reported online, Peerguardian Lite is now continued under the project and program Peerblock, and Peerguardian Lite users were recommended from around 2008 on to switch to Peerblock. Peerblock has some more options, but uses almost as little CPU as Peerguardian Lite did.
Other criticism
Besides the original criticism of Version 1 being slow and buggy, most other criticism of PeerGuardian is around the actual technique used to block peers. Critics have pointed out that the blocklists are open to the public, and thus parties who may wish to circumvent PeerGuardian can actively check the list to see if their IP addresses have been blocked.
The blocklists are also managed by the public, but there is no fool-proof method on checking or reporting why an IP address or range are bad, nor on checking if the blocked IP addresses still remain bad. The list relies on the public to make submissions, and thus is vulnerable to attack itself (see above section on blocklist management issues).
Vista 64 bit and Windows 7 64 bit are listed for application compatibility, but require a work around involving disabling driver signing that may require some degree of computer skill.
References
External links
Official site
Peerblock
Peerblocklist
Infringement FAQ
Effectiveness of PG
P2Partisan - peerguardian style script running on routers with tomato firmware
Firewall software
Free software programmed in C++
Internet privacy software
2003 software
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1078708
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronet
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Synchronet
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Synchronet is a multiplatform BBS software package, with current ports for Microsoft Windows, Linux, and BSD variants. Past versions also ran on MS-DOS and OS/2, but support for those platforms were dropped in version 3.0 (circa 2000).
History
Synchronet was originally written by Rob Swindell (a.k.a. Digital Man) due to his desire for certain features which WWIV lacked, such as support for multiple simultaneous nodes, batch uploads and bidirectional file transfer. The bulk of the programming for the first version of Synchronet was done during a two-month period in 1991 when Swindell was house-ridden while he recovered from surgery. The software was named for its ability to run synchronously on a network.
In July 1991, the author began running his own BBS, Vertrauen, on Synchronet. Initially, he had no intention of releasing Synchronet publicly, but as word of his software spread and he received offers to buy copies of Synchronet, he eventually relented, formed a company called Digital Dynamics, and sold copies of Synchronet at a price of $100 without source code, and $200 with source code. In April 1992, Swindell's employer went out of business and he began to rely exclusively on commercial sales of Synchronet for his livelihood, placing advertisements in the BBS-related magazines Boardwatch and BBS Callers Digest. The first copy of Synchronet sold through the magazine ads was in June 1992.
Synchronet was the first BBS package to support QWK message networking natively without requiring any external utilities, in version 1a revision 10, released June 25, 1992. It was also the first BBS package with RIP support, in version 1b revision 1, released January 23, 1993.
Interest in Synchronet began to dwindle in late 1994, finally becoming nonexistent in 1995. Digital Dynamics effectively went bankrupt in the fall of 1995. Despite this, a beta version of version 2.30 of Synchronet for MS-DOS and an alpha version for OS/2 were released in early 1996. In August 1996, Swindell announced the uncertainty of Synchronet's future. In 1997, version 2.30 of Synchronet was released as freeware, and the source code was released into the public domain later that year.
In April 1999, Swindell revived Synchronet development, revamping it considerably and converting much of the code to C++. Another version, 2.30c, was released in December 1999, fixing Y2K bugs and introducing some minor new features from the upcoming 3.x series. Version 3.00b was released June 25, 2000 and was the first official release of the 3.x series, featuring a native 32-bit Windows version and many new Internet-related features, such as a built-in telnet server. For this release, dial-up support was dropped making it a TCP/IP-only system. In October 2000, Synchronet was released under the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL).
In late 2001, Stephen Hurd (Deuce) joined the project initially as *nix developer. He ported the BBS to FreeBSD and did much of the Linux development work. His first "big" contribution was an implementation of Borlands conio library to allow the configuration utilities which were originally written for DOS to run on the Unix-like platforms.
Around the same time, Swindell started embedding the SpiderMonkey JavaScript engine into Synchronet with an eye towards replacing the aging BAJA language which was used for most BBS customizations. While the BBS still requires BAJA scripts, much can be done with JavaScript. A socket object was added to the JavaScript engine and a "Services" server created which allowed simple TCP/IP services to be written easily. TCP/IP services written in JavaScript bundled with Synchronet include finger, gopher, IRC, and NNTP.
More internet services have been added in the native (C) code: FTP, SMTP and POP3 by Rob Swindell and rlogin, SSH and HTTP by Stephen Hurd.
In an interesting full circle, direct dial-up support for Synchronet is available again as Rob Swindell wrote a modem to telnet gateway program (SEXPOTS) for this purpose. Using this program, SysOps can once again offer their BBSes via direct modem-to-modem connections.
Sub projects
Libraries
xpdev is a cross platform development library which provides such features as threading, .ini file parsing, consistent *printf() functions, and other small utility functions to the rest of the project. Effectively every Synchronet sub project relies on xpdev. The primary developer is Rob Swindell.
ciolib ciolib is clean room implementation of Borland's conio library which supports the display of CP437 using the Win32 console, SDL, X11, curses and ANSI via stdio. It also has an ANSI terminal emulator which supports ANSI-BBS, ANSI Music, Character pacing for ANSI Art animation, VT500 ESC[*r sequence for dynamic speed changes, Commodore 64 PETSCII and Atari 8-bit ATASCII in different screen modes, including 80x25, 80x28, 80x43, 80x50 and 80x60, as well as over 35 fonts imported from the FreeBSD syscons source as well as the ability to customize fonts. The primary developer is Stephen Hurd.
UIFC is a text user interface library which provides the menuing system to the text mode configuration utilities bundled with Synchronet. Initially written by Rob Swindell, it was updated by Stephen Hurd to have it make use of the ciolib. It is considered feature complete, so active development occurs only when new features are required.
comio is a generic serial (COM) port API implementation for Windows and *nix. It was initially designed by Rob Swindell as part of the SEXPOTS project and was ported to *nix by Stephen Hurd.
BBS Utilities
SEXYZ
SEXYZ (Synchronet External X-Modem, Y-Modem, Z-Modem) is an external file transfer program which supports X/Y/ZModem transfers. It was written to break the reliance on old DOS external protocols such as [F]DSZ and CEXYZ. It supports TCP socket and stdio transfers. It is functional and very little additional development on this is planned.
SEXPOTS
SEXPOTS (Synchronet EXternal Plain Old Telephone System) is a modem to telnet gateway. It accepts incoming modem calls and forwards them to the BBS via the Telnet or RLogin protocols.
SyncTERM
SyncTERM is terminal emulator which makes use of xpdev, ciolib, UIFC, and parts of SEXYZ and SEXPOTS. In addition to the platforms supported by Synchronet, it also runs on Solaris and Mac OS X.
Supported connectivity options are Telnet, rlogin, SSH, "Raw" sockets, standard modem connections and direct serial connections (using parts of SEXPOTS), and a pty interface on *nix. File transfer options include the ZMODEM, XMODEM and YMODEM transfer protocols (using parts of SEXYZ.)
SyncDraw
SyncDraw is an ANSI art editor which was initially a cleanup of an old version of MysticDraw. It uses xpdev and ciolib but is not yet complete. It supports the use of TheDraw fonts, and can save to the Synchronet Control-A code format, but is generally considered too incomplete for serious usage.
Third-party software
The Synchronet project has shown a willingness to "adopt" third-party BBS related software into its CVS tree. Generally, the software is updated to use xpdev and run on the platforms that Synchronet does and then is left in the CVS tree without active development.
Domain Entertainment Doors
Domain Entertainment was once one of the major companies which wrote addons specifically for Synchronet. Some of their software has since been released as open source and has been imported into the Synchronet CVS tree under the xtrn directory.
Domain Poker
Domain Poker is a single/multi-player, real-time, 5 card draw poker game.
The game can have up to 6 players per table, and up to 25 tables. Each table
has a configurable bet limit, ante, and table limit. Tables can be password
protected for private games, and the "house" can take a configurable percentage
of the pot from games.
Single player games are played against the computer. The computer can be
turned off completely, or allowed to play only on certain tables (at your
option). You also have the option to not allow the computer to be on password
protected tables (to keep users from hogging the tables for themselves).
The Beast's Domain
The Beast's Domain is a multiplayer, interactive, real-time, Rogue-like ANSI adventure game. The Beast's Domain can handle up to 250 simultaneous players.
OpenDoors
OpenDoors was one of the most popular C "door kits". Support for the DOOR32 drop file format as well as generic sockets was added by Rob Swindell and *nix compatibility was added by Stephen Hurd.
Other Doors
Other door sources that have been adopted include by developers:
The Clans
New York 2008
Smurf Combat
Tasmanian Strategical
Time Port
Virtual BBS 3
Sources for BBSes running Synchronet
The Official Synchronet BBS List
Synchronet developer's system Vertrauen
External links
Synchronet BBS Software Homepage
SyncTERM Website and Download
Bulletin board system software
File sharing software for Linux
Telnet
Windows file sharing software
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8744400
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neumont%20College%20of%20Computer%20Science
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Neumont College of Computer Science
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Neumont College of Computer Science (formerly Neumont University) is a for-profit career college in Salt Lake City, Utah. It was founded in 2003 by Graham Doxey, Scott McKinley, and Marlow Einelund. The school focuses on applied computer science and is currently accredited by the ACCSC.
Academics
Neumont's degree programs focus on the computer sciences offering three-year degrees in Computer Science, Technology Management, Software and Game Development, Web Design and Development, Information Systems, and Software Engineering. The college is accredited by the Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges (ACCSC) to award associate's and bachelor's degrees in the computer sciences.
Recent history
From July through September 2007, Neumont briefly expanded to Virginia, leasing a suite in the Dulles Town Center mall. The expansion was cancelled after one academic quarter.
In August 2012, Neumont University announced plans to relocate its academic facilities and student housing to 143 South Main Street, Salt Lake City, an 11-story art deco building which formerly housed The Salt Lake Tribune. The school officially relocated to its downtown Salt Lake City location in June 2013, with the first new cohort of students beginning classes in October.
On July 28, 2017, president Shaun McAlmont announced the institution's name change from Neumont University to Neumont College of Computer Science.
Presidents
Graham Doxey (2003–2007)
Edward H. Levine (2007–2015)
Shaun McAlmont (2015–2017)
Aaron Reed (2017–present)
References
External links
Official website
Private universities and colleges in Utah
For-profit universities and colleges in the United States
Educational institutions established in 2003
Universities and colleges in Salt Lake County, Utah
2003 establishments in Utah
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831390
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP%20Wrappers
|
TCP Wrappers
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TCP Wrappers (also known as tcp_wrappers) is a host-based networking ACL system, used to filter network access to Internet Protocol servers on (Unix-like) operating systems such as Linux or BSD. It allows host or subnetwork IP addresses, names and/or ident query replies, to be used as tokens on which to filter for access control purposes.
The original code was written by Wietse Venema in 1990 to monitor a cracker's activities on the Unix workstations at the Department of Math and Computer Science at the Eindhoven University of Technology. He maintained it until 1995, and on June 1, 2001, released it under its own BSD-style license.
The tarball includes a library named libwrap that implements the actual functionality. Initially, only services that were spawned for each connection from a super-server (such as inetd) got wrapped, utilizing the tcpd program. However most common network service daemons today can be linked against libwrap directly. This is used by daemons that operate without being spawned from a super-server, or when a single process handles multiple connections. Otherwise, only the first connection attempt would get checked against its ACLs.
When compared to host access control directives often found in daemons' configuration files, TCP Wrappers have the benefit of runtime ACL reconfiguration (i.e., services don't have to be reloaded or restarted) and a generic approach to network administration.
This makes it easy to use for anti-worm scripts, such as DenyHosts or Fail2ban, to add and expire client-blocking rules, when excessive connections and/or many failed login attempts are encountered.
While originally written to protect TCP and UDP accepting services, examples of usage to filter on certain ICMP packets exist too, such as 'pingd' – the userspace ping request responder.
1999 Trojan
In January 1999, the distribution package at Eindhoven University of Technology (the primary distribution site until that day) was replaced by a modified version. The replacement contained a trojaned version of the software that would allow the intruder access to any server that it was installed on. The author spotted this within hours, upon which he relocated the primary distribution to his personal site.
See also
DNS-based blackhole list
Forward-confirmed reverse DNS
Firewall
IP blocking
Nullroute
References
External links
TCP Wrappers source code
Softpanorama TCP Wrappers Information
Unix network-related software
BSD software
Free security software
Wrapper
Internet Protocol based network software
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52330563
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titles%20of%20distinction%20awarded%20by%20the%20University%20of%20Oxford
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Titles of distinction awarded by the University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford introduced Titles of Distinction for senior academics in the 1990s. These are not established chairs, which are posts funded by endowment for academics with a distinguished career in British and European universities. However, since there was a limited number of established chairs in these universities and an abundance of distinguished academics it was decided to introduce these Titles of Distinction. 'Reader' and the more senior 'Professor' were conferred annually.
In the 1994–95 academic year, Oxford's congregation decided to confer the titles of Professor and Reader on distinguished academics without changes to their salaries or duties; the title of professor would be conferred on those whose research was "of outstanding quality", leading "to a significant international reputation". Reader would be conferred on those with "a research record of a high order, the quality of which has gained external recognition". This article provides a list of people upon whom the University of Oxford has conferred the title of professor.
In July 1996, the University announced it had appointed 162 new Professors and 99 Readers as part of this move. In January 2001, Congregation's Personnel Committee recommended that the process for awarding titles of distinction should continue biennially, and in October 2001, details of the application process for the 2001–02 academic year were published to that effect, meaning the next awards would be made in October 2002. Awards were then made in 2004, 2006 and 2008. In 2005, a special task force was set up to report back to the University Council about career progression for academics. It made its recommendations in April 2010, when it was decided that the title of Reader should be discontinued and that the title of Professor should continue to be awarded biennially. These measures were given effect by the Vice-Chancellor in May 2010. The next round of awards would be made after Trinity 2011, but were awarded retrospectively (from October 2010); the names of that cohort were announced in January 2012. The next set of awards were made in 2014, and further sets have been made annually since.
2020
The following were awarded the title of Professor in November 2020:
William Allan, Professor of Greek
Ruben Andersson, Professor of Social Anthropology
Sonia Antoranz Contera, Professor of Biological Physics
Elizabeth Ashley, Professor of Tropical Medicine
Michael Barnes, Professor of Physics
Stephen Baxter, Professor of Medieval History
Rebecca Beasley, Professor of Modernist Studies
Geoffrey Bird, Professor of Cognitive Neuroscience
Stuart Blacksell, Professor of Tropical Microbiology
Lapo Bogani, Professor of Molecular Nanomaterials
Francesca Bufa, Professor of Computational Biology and Cancer Genomics
Erzsebet Bukodi, Professor of Sociology and Social Policy
Álvaro Cartea, Professor of Mathematical Finance
Michael Charles, Professor of Environmental Archaeology
Yulin Chen, Professor of Physics
Morgan Clarke, Professor of Social Anthropology
Mark Coles, Kennedy Professor of Immunology
Garret Cotter, Professor of Physics
Inge Daniels, Professor of Anthropology
Armand D'Angour, Professor of Classics
John Davis, Professor of Pharmaceutical Discovery
Thomas Douglas, Professor of Applied Philosophy
David Doyle, Professor of Comparative Politics
David Dupret, Professor of Neuroscience
Carolin Duttlinger, Professor of German Literature and Culture
David Dwan, Professor of English Literature and Intellectual History
Rebecca Eynon, Professor of Education, the Internet and Society
Dominic Furniss, Professor of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
Jason Gaiger, Professor of Aesthetics and Art Theory
Anthony Gardner, Professor of Contemporary Art History
Jane Gingrich, Professor of Comparative Political Economy
Andrew Gosler, Professor of Ethno-ornithology
David Grifths, Professor of Archaeology
Nina Hallowell, Professor of Social and Ethical Aspects of Genomics
Todd Hancock Hall, Professor of International Relations
Edward Harcourt, Professor of Philosophy
Heather Harrington, Professor of Mathematics
Catherine Holmes, Professor of Medieval History
Jemma Hopewell, Professor of Precision Medicine and Epidemiology
Laura Hoyano, Professor of Law
Antoine Jerusalem, Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Helen Johnson, Professor of Ocean and Climate Science
Polly Jones, Professor of Russian
Lindsay Judson, Professor of Ancient Philosophy
Renaud Lambiotte, Professor of Networks and Nonlinear Systems
Liora Lazarus, Professor in Human Rights Law
Vili Lehdonvirta, Professor of Economic Sociology and Digital Social Research
Jason Lerch, Professor of Neuroscience
Jamie Lorimer, Professor of Environmental Geography
James McCullagh, Professor of Biological Chemistry
Anna-Maria Misra, Professor of Global History
Joe Moshenska, Professor of English Literature
Andreas Münch, Professor of Applied Mathematics
Gina Neff, Professor of Technology and Society
Andrea Nemeth, Professor of Neurogenetics
Jaideep Pandit, Professor of Anaesthesia
Aris Theodosis Papageorghiou, Professor of Fetal Medicine
Sarah Pendlebury, Professor of Medicine and Old Age Neuroscience
Justine Pila, Professor of Law
John Powell, Professor of Digital Health Care
Kazem Rahimi, Professor of Cardiovascular Medicine and Population Health
Jan Rehwinkel, Professor of Innate Immunology
Armin Reichold, Professor of Physics
Laura Rival, Professor of Anthropology of Development
Tatjana Sauka-Spengler, Professor of Developmental Genomics and Gene Regulation
Elena Seiradake, Professor of Molecular Biology
Joel Shapiro, Professor of Financial Economics
Hannah Smithson, Professor of Experimental Psychology
Susannah Speller, Professor of Materials Science
Andrei Starinets, Professor of Physics
Samuel Staton, Professor of Computer Science
Zofa Stemplowska, Professor of Political Theory
Peter Stewart, Professor of Ancient Art
Mark Stokes, Professor of Cognitive Neuroscience
William Swadling, Professor of Law
Pawel Swietach, Professor of Physiology
Helen Swift, Professor of Medieval French Studies
Marion Turner, Professor of English Literature
Ellie Tzima, Professor of Cardiovascular Biology
Carlos Vargas-Silva, Professor in Migration Studies
Manu Vatish, Professor of Obstetrics
Andrea Vedaldi, Professor of Computer Vision and Machine Learning
John Vella, Professor of Law
Richard Williams, Professor of Immunology
Tim Woollings, Professor of Physical Climate Science
2019
The following were awarded the title of Professor in October 2019:
Alessandro Abate, Professor of Verification and Control
Naomi Allen, Professor of Epidemiology
Walter Armbrust, Professor of Modern Middle Eastern Studies
Richard Bailey, Professor of Environmental Systems
Justin Benesch, Professor of Biophysical Chemistry
Dora Biro, Professor of Animal Behaviour
Rafal Bogacz, Professor of Computational Neuroscience
Neil Bowles, Professor of Planetary Science
Holly Bridge, Professor of Neuroscience
Andrea Cipriani, Professor of Psychiatry
David Clifton, Professor of Engineering Science
Rachel Condry, Professor of Criminology
Ben Cooper, Professor of Epidemiology
Cathryn Costello, Professor of Refugee and Migration Law
Xenia de la Ossa, Professor of Mathematical Physics
Julie Dickson, Professor of Legal Philosophy
Susan Downes, Professor of Ophthalmology
Hal Drakesmith, Professor of Iron Biology
Andrew Eggers, Professor of Politics
Richard Ekins, Professor of Law
Jonathan Emberson, Professor of Medical Statistics and Epidemiology
Andrew Farmery, Professor of Anaesthetics
Ian Forrest, Professor of Social and Religious History
Eamonn Gaffney, Professor of Applied Mathematics
Dev Gangjee, Professor of Intellectual Property Law
Constanze Güthenke, Professor of Greek Literature
Claire Gwenlan, Professor of Physics
Richard Haynes, Professor of Renal Medicine and Clinical Trials
Therese Hopfenbeck, Professor of Educational Assessment
Michele Hu, Professor of Clinical Neuroscience
Jim Hughes, Professor of Gene Regulation
Stephen Hyde, Professor of Molecular Therapy
Guy Kahane, Professor of Moral Philosophy
Maureen Kelley, Professor of Bioethics
Tarunabh Khaitan, Professor of Public Law and Legal Theory
Kayla King, Professor of Evolutionary Ecology
Andrew Klevan, Professor of Film Aesthetics
Simon Leedham, Professor of Gastroenterology
Belinda Lennox, Professor of Psychiatry
Marina MacKay, Professor of English Literature
Michèle Mendelssohn, Professor of English and American Literature
Sassy Molyneux, Professor of Global Health
Natalia Nowakowska, Professor of European History
Piero Olliaro, Professor of Poverty Related Infectious Diseases
Michael Osborne, Professor of Machine Learning
Jacqueline Palace, Professor of Neurology
Felix Ignacio Parra Diaz, Professor of Physics
Susan Perkin, Professor of Physical Chemistry
Jeremias Prassl, Professor of Law
Josephine Quinn, Professor of Ancient History
Kristijan Ramadan, Professor of Molecular Medicine
Fraydoon Rastinejad, Professor of Biochemistry and Structural Biology
Moritz Riede, Professor of Soft Functional Nanomaterials
Jacob Rowbottom, Professor of Law
Andrea Ruggeri, Professor of Political Science and International Relations
Rick Schulting, Professor of Scientific and Prehistoric Archaeology
Tim Schwanen, Professor of Transport Studies and Geography
Karin Sigloch, Professor of Geophysics
Claudio Sillero-Zubiri, Professor of Conservation Biology
Michael Smets, Professor of Management
Lorna Smith, Professor of Chemistry
Angela Taylor, Professor of Experimental Astrophysics
Peter Thonemann, Professor of Ancient History
Kate Tunstall, Professor of French
Frank von Delft, Professor of Structural Chemical Biology
Caroline Warman, Professor of French Literature and Thought
Michael Whitworth, Professor of Modern Literature and Culture
Niall Winters, Professor of Education and Technology
Luet Wong, Professor of Chemistry
Sarah Wordsworth, Professor of Health Economics and Genomics
2018
The following were awarded the title of Professor in September 2018:
David Aanensen, Professor of Genomic Epidemiology
Laura Ashe, Professor of English Literature
Miguel Angel Ballester, Professor of Economics
Masooda Bano, Professor of Development Studies
William Barford, Professor of Theoretical Chemistry
Jonathan Barrett, Professor of Quantum Information Science
Dmitry Belyaev, Professor of Mathematics
Louise Bowman, Professor of Medicine and Clinical Trials
Paul Brennan, Professor of Medicinal Chemistry
Christopher Buckley, Professor of Translational Inflammation Research
Felix Budelmann, Professor of Greek Literature
Daron Burrows, Professor of Medieval French
Paul Chaisty, Professor of Russian and East European Politics
Juan-Carlos Conde, Professor of Medieval Spanish Literature and Philology
Simon Dadson, Professor of Hydrology
Wolfgang de Melo, Professor of Classical Philology
Faisal Devji, Professor of Indian History
Cristina Dondi, Professor of Early European Book Heritage
Simon Draper, Professor of Vaccinology and Translational Medicine
Andrea Ferrero, Professor of Economics
Stephen Fletcher, Professor of Chemistry
Gary Ford, Professor of Stroke Medicine
Jonathan Grimes, Professor of Structural Virology
Dan Hicks, Professor of Contemporary Archaeology
Leanne Hodson, Professor of Metabolic Physiology
Rob Hope, Professor of Water Policy
Marie-Chantal Killeen, Professor of French Literature
Nicholas Lakin, Professor of Molecular and Cellular Biology
Sarah Lewington, Professor of Epidemiology and Medical Statistics
Anna Lisa Lora-Wainwright, Professor of the Human Geography of China
James McDougall, Professor of Modern and Contemporary History
Peter McHugh, Professor of Molecular Oncology
Craig MacLean, Professor of Evolution and Microbiology
Lars-Erik Malmberg, Professor of Quantitative Methods in Education
Ivan Martinovic, Professor of Computer Science
Adam Mead, Professor of Haematology
Eric O'Neill, Professor of Cell and Molecular Biology
Stephen John Payne, Professor of Engineering Science
Ludovic Phalippou, Professor of Financial Economics
Ingmar Posner, Professor of Engineering Science (Applied Artificial Intelligence)
Jonathan Prag, Professor of Ancient History
Daniel Prieto-Alhambra, Professor of Pharmaco- and Device Epidemiology
Najib Rahman, Professor of Respiratory Medicine
Felix Reed-Tsochas, Professor of Complex Systems
Angela Russell, Professor of Medicinal Chemistry
Diego Sánchez-Ancochea, Professor of the Political Economy of Development
Clive Siviour, Professor of Engineering Science
Rebeccah Slater, Professor of Paediatric Neuroscience
Ricardo Soares de Oliveira, Professor of the International Politics of Africa
Charlotte Stagg, Professor of Human Neurophysiology
Jin-Chong Tan, Professor of Engineering Science (Nanoscale Engineering)
Christopher Timpson, Professor of Philosophy of Physics
Damian Tyler, Professor of Physiological Metabolism
Holm Uhlig, Professor of Paediatric Gastroenterology
Shimon Whiteson, Professor of Computer Science
Richard Willden, Professor of Engineering Science
Brian Young, Professor of Intellectual History
2017
The following were awarded the title of Professor in September 2017:
Aziz Aboobaker, Professor of Functional and Comparative Genomics
Charalambos Antoniades, Professor of Cardiovascular Medicine
Konstantin Ardakov, Professor of Mathematics
Nicholas Barber, Professor of Constitutional Law and Theory
Karen Barker, Professor of Physiotherapy
Roger Benson, Professor of Palaeobiology
Matthew Bevis, Professor of English Literature
Dan Ciubotaru, Professor of Mathematics
Jacob Dahl, Professor of Assyriology
Jeremy Day, Professor of Infectious Diseases
Marella de Bruijn, Professor of Developmental Haematopoiesis
Xon de Ros, Professor of Modern Spanish Studies
Pavlos Eleftheriadis, Professor of Public Law
Peter Frankopan, Professor of Global History
John Frater, Professor of Infectious Diseases
Peter Gething, Professor of Epidemiology
Deborah Gill, Professor of Gene Medicine
Christina Goldschmidt, Professor of Probability
James Goudkamp, Professor of the Law of Obligations
Sarah Green, Professor of the Law of Obligations
Ulrich Haisch, Professor of Physics
Ester Hammond, Professor of Molecular Cancer Biology
Sondra Hausner, Professor of Anthropology of Religion
Christopher Hays, Professor of Physics
Geraldine Hazbun, Professor of Medieval Spanish Literature
David Hopkin, Professor of European Social History
Mark Howarth, Professor of Protein Nanotechnology
Andrew Judge, Professor of Translational Statistics
Andras Juhasz, Professor of Mathematics
Aris Katzourakis, Professor of Evolution and Genomics
Paulina Kewes, Professor of English Literature
David Kirk, Professor of Sociology
Pramila Krishnan, Professor of Development Economics
Alan Lauder, Professor of Mathematics
Cecilia Lindgren, Professor of Genomic Endocrinology & Metabolism
Elena Lombardi, Professor of Italian Literature
Derek McCormack, Professor of Cultural Geography
Kevin McGerty, Professor of Mathematics
David Mole, Professor of Renal Medicine
Michael Moody, Professor of Materials
Marc Mulholland, Professor of Modern History
Rasmus Kleis Nielsen, Professor of Political Communication
Mohamed Omri, Professor of Arabic and Comparative Literature
Antonis Papachristodoulou, Professor of Engineering Science
David Parrott, Professor of Early Modern European History
Claudia Pazos Alonso, Professor of Portuguese and Gender Studies
Ian Phillips, Professor of Philosophy
Timothy Power, Professor of Latin American Politics
Christoph Reisinger, Professor of Applied Mathematics
Grant Ritchie, Professor of Chemistry
Philip Robins, Professor of Middle East Politics
Eduard Sanders, Professor of Global Health Practice
Nicolai Sinai, Professor of Islamic Studies
Martin Smith, Professor of Organic Chemistry
Gabriel Stylianides, Professor of Mathematics Education
Laura Tunbridge, Professor of Music
Renier van der Hoorn, Professor of Plant Science
Kylie Vincent, Professor of Inorganic Chemistry
Caleb Webber, Professor of Bioinformatics
Jan Westerhoff, Professor of Buddhist Philosophy
Catherine Whistler, Professor of the History of European Art
Rebecca Williams, Professor of Public Law and Criminal Law
Jennifer Yee, Professor of Literature in French
Peijun Zhang, Professor of Structural Biology
2016
The following were awarded the title of Professor in September 2016:
Edward Anderson, Professor of Organic Chemistry
Radu Aricescu, Professor of Molecular Neuroscience
Ash Asudeh, Professor of Semantics
Stephen Baker, Professor of Molecular Microbiology
Giles Barr, Professor of Physics
Helen Barr, Professor of English Literature
Alan Beggs, Professor of Economics
Richard Berry, Professor of Biological Physics
Harish Bhaskaran, Professor of Applied Nanomaterials
Philip Biggin, Professor of Computational Biochemistry
Ben Bollig, Professor of Spanish American Literature
Persephone Borrow, Professor of Viral Immunology
Alexandra Braun, Professor of Comparative Private Law
Mark Buckley, Professor of Behavioural and Cognitive Neuroscience
Michele Cappellari, Professor of Astrophysics
Liz Carpenter, Professor of Membrane Protein Structural Biology
Gary Collins, Professor of Medical Statistics
Patricia Daley, Professor of the Human Geography of Africa
Susan Doran, Professor of Early-Modern British History
Lucy Dorrell, Professor of Immunology
Roel Dullens, Professor of Chemistry
Edith Elkind, Professor of Computer Science
Nick Eyre, Professor of Energy and Climate Policy
Dmitry Filatov, Professor of Evolutionary Genetics
Jose Goicoechea, Professor of Chemistry
Mark Graham, Professor of Internet Geography
Ashleigh Griffin, Professor of Evolutionary Biology
Martyn Harry, Professor of Composition
Thorsten Hesjedal, Professor of Condensed Matter Physics
Anne Kiltie, Professor of Experimental Clinical Oncology
Philipp Kukura, Professor of Chemistry
Carolyne Larrington, Professor of Medieval European Literature
Petros Ligoxygakis, Professor of Innate Immunology
Paul Lodge, Professor of Philosophy
Nikolaj Lubecker, Professor of French and Film Studies
Clare Mackay, Professor of Imaging Neuroscience
Kate McLoughlin, Professor of English Literature
Daria Martin, Professor of Art
Eric T. Meyer, Professor of Social Informatics
Christiaan Monden, Professor of Sociology and Demography
Rachel Murphy, Professor of Chinese Development and Society
Micah Muscolino, Professor of Modern Chinese History
Simon Newstead, Professor of Molecular Membrane Biology
Alis Elena Oancea, Professor of Philosophy of Education and Research Policy
Dan Olteanu, Professor of Computer Science
Hemant Pandit, Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery
Fernanda Pirie, Professor of the Anthropology of Law
Philomen Probert, Professor of Classical Philology and Linguistics
Amar Rangan, Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery
Jeremy Robertson, Professor of Chemistry
Ulrike Roesler, Professor of Tibetan and Himalayan Studies
Gervase Rosser, Professor of the History of Art
Jurgen Schneider, Professor of Medical Imaging
Robert Scotland, Professor of Systematic Botany
Christian Siebold, Professor of Structural Biology
Peter Simmonds, Professor of Virology
Jason Smith, Professor of Photonic Materials and Devices
Adam Smyth, Professor of English Literature and the History of the Book
Shankar Srinivas, Professor of Developmental Biology
Jonny Steinberg, Professor of African Studies
Joel Tarning, Professor of Clinical Pharmacology
Dmitrios Tsomocos, Professor of Financial Economics
Benoit Van den Eynde, Professor of Tumour Immunology
Dominic Vella, Professor of Applied Mathematics
Lisa White, Professor of Modelling and Epidemiology
Dominic Wilkinson, Professor of Medical Ethics
Mark Woolrich, Professor of Computational Neuroscience
James Wright, Professor of Orthopaedics
Alison L. Young, Professor of Public Law
2015
The following were awarded the title of Professor in November 2015:
Lesley Abrams, Professor of Early Medieval History
Colin Akerman, Professor of Neuroscience
Daniel Anthony, Professor of Experimental Neuropathology
Arzhang Ardavan, Professor of Physics
Rhiannon Ash, Professor of Roman Historiography
James Berkley, Professor of Paediatric Infectious Diseases
Alexander Betts, Professor of Forced Migration and International Affairs
Colin Burrow, Professor of English and Comparative Literature
Mark Chapman, Professor of the History of Modern Theology
Mindy Chen-Wishart, Professor of the Law of Contract
Lucie Cluver, Professor of Child and Family Social Work
Roi Cohen Kadosh, Professor of Cognitive Neuroscience
Joseph Conlon, Professor of Theoretical Physics
Cas Cremers, Professor of Information Security
Bernardo Cuenca Grau, Professor of Computer Science
Matt Friedman, Professor of Palaeobiology
Robert Gilbert, Professor of Biophysics
Kathryn Gleadle, Professor of Gender and Women’s History
Stephen Goodwin, Professor of Neurogenetics
Vicente Grau, Professor of Biomedical Image Analysis
Abigail Green, Professor of Modern European History
Steven Gunn, Professor of Early Modern History
Michael Hayward, Professor of Inorganic Chemistry
Stephen Heyworth, Professor of Latin
Jane Hiddleston, Professor of Literatures in French
Matthew Higgins, Professor of Molecular Parasitology
Peter Horby, Professor of Emerging Infectious Diseases and Global Health
Susan Jones, Professor of English Literature
Richard Katz, Professor of Geodynamics
Greger Larson, Professor of Evolutionary Genomics
Sergio Lozano-Perez, Professor of Materials Science
David Lucas, Professor of Physics
Ian Maclachlan, Professor of French Literature
Sophie Marnett, Professor of Medieval French Studies
Ankhi Mukherjee, Professor of English and World Literatures
Simon Myers, Professor of Mathematical Genomics
Donal Nolan, Professor of Private Law
Jan Obloj, Professor of Mathematics
Brian Parkinson, Professor of Social Psychology
Senia Paseta, Professor of Modern History
Eugene Rogan, Professor of Modern Middle Eastern History
Alison Salvesen, Professor of Early Judaism and Christianity
Richard Scholar, Professor of French and Comparative Literature
Nathalie Seddon, Professor of Biodiversity
Kirsten Shepherd-Barr, Professor of English and Theatre Studies
Anna Katharina Simon, Professor of Immunology
Emma Smith, Professor of Shakespeare Studies
Christopher Summerfield, Professor of Cognitive Neuroscience
Denis Talbot, Professor of Cancer Medicine
Madalena Tarsounas, Professor of Molecular and Cell Biology
Caroline Terquem, Professor of Physics
James Tilley, Professor of Politics
Selina Todd, Professor of Modern History
Simon Travis, Professor of Clinical Gastroenterology
Niki Trigoni, Professor of Computer Science
Stephen Tucker, Professor of Biophysics
Martin Turner, Professor of Clinical Neurology & Neuroscience
Christopher Tyerman, Professor of History of the Crusades
Bart van Es, Professor of English Literature
Richard Wade-Martins, Professor of Molecular Neuroscience
Richard Walker, Professor of Earth Sciences
John Wheater, Professor of Physics
Clive Wilson, Professor of Cell and Developmental Genetics
Biao Xiang, Professor of Social Anthropology
Krina Zondervan, Professor of Reproductive & Genomic Epidemiology
2014
The following were awarded the title of Professor by the University in November 2014:
Suzanne Aigrain, Professor of Astrophysics
Dapo Akande, Professor of Public International Law
Roy Allison, Professor of Russian and Eurasian International Relations
Pamela Anderson, Professor of Modern European Philosophy of Religion
John Kevin Baird, Professor of Malariology
Eleanor Barnes, Professor of Hepatology and Experimental Medicine
Alan Barr, Professor of Particle Physics
Philip Bejon, Professor of Tropical Medicine
Simon Benjamin, Professor of Quantum Technologies
David Bennett, Professor of Neurology and Neurobiology
Amy Bogaard, Professor of Neolithic and Bronze Age Archaeology
Michael Bonsall, Professor of Mathematical Biology
Martin Booth, Professor of Engineering Science
Mary Bosworth, Professor of Criminology
Ian Brown, Professor of Information Security and Privacy
Thomas Buchanan, Professor of Modern British and European History
Malcolm Bull, Professor of Art and the History of Ideas,
Philip Bullock, Professor of Russian Literature and Music
Andrew Bunker, Professor of Astrophysics
Martin Bureau, Professor of Astrophysics
Martin Burton, Professor of Otolaryngology
Byron Byrne, Professor of Engineering Science
Marco Capogna, Professor of Cellular Neuropharmacology
William Child, Professor of Philosophy
Tim Claridge, Professor of Magnetic Resonance
Robert Clarke, Professor of Epidemiology and Public Health Medicine
Simon Clarke, Professor of Chemistry
Radu Coldea, Professor of Physics
Christopher Conlon, Professor of Infectious Diseases
Martin Conway, Professor of Contemporary European History
Stephanie Cragg, Professor of Neuroscience
Julie Curtis, Professor of Russian Literature
John Darwin, Professor of Global and Imperial History
Grigory Dianov, Professor of Molecular Biochemistry
Kim Dora, Professor of Microvascular Pharmacology
Robert Douglas-Fairhurst, Professor of English Literature
Jonathan Doye, Professor of Theoretical Chemistry
Joanna Dunkley, Professor of Astrophysics
Mark Edwards, Professor of Early Christian Studies
Christian Eggeling, Professor of Molecular Immunology
John Elsner, Professor of Late Antique Art
Radek Erban, Professor of Mathematics
Colin Espie, Professor of Sleep Medicines
Louise Fawcett, Professor of International Relations
Seena Fazel, Professor of Forensic Psychiatry
Liz Fisher, Professor of Environmental Law
Andrew Fowler, Professor of Applied Mathematics
Susan Fuggle, Professor of Transplant Immunology
Nicola Gardini, Professor of Italian and Comparative Literature
George Garnett, Professor of Medieval History
Christine Gerrard, Professor of English Literature
Matthew Gibney, Professor of Politics and Forced Migration
Susan Gillingham, Professor of the Hebrew Bible
Feliciano Giustino, Professor of Materials
Anna Gloyn, Professor of Molecular Genetics and Metabolism
Sion Glyn-Jones, Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery
Andrew Goodwin, Professor of Materials Chemistry
Manuele Gragnolati, Professor of Italian Literature
Jane Green, Professor of Epidemiology
Daniel Grimley, Professor of Music
Hanneke Grootenboer, Professor of the History of Art
Philippe Guerin, Professor of Epidemiology and Global Health
Nicholas Halmi, Professor of English and Comparative Literature
Anthony Harnden, Professor of Primary Care
Bob Harris, Professor of British History
Ralf Hinze, Professor of Software Engineering
Christopher Hodges, Professor of Justice Systems
Peter Howell, Professor of Applied Mathematics
Joanna Innes, Professor of Modern History
Cigdem Issever, Professor of Particle Physics
Matthew Jarvis, Professor of Astrophysics
Mark Jenkinson, Professor of Neuroimaging
Hugh Jenkyns, Professor of Stratigraphy
Marina Jirotka, Professor of Human Centred Computing
Thomas Johansen, Professor of Ancient Philosophy
Angus Johnston, Professor of Law
Michael Johnston, Professor of Physics
Jane Kaye, Professor of Health, Law and Policy
Stephen Kearsey, Professor of Cell Biology
Neil Kenny, Professor of French
Benedikt Kessler, Professor of Biochemistry and Life Sciences Mass Spectrometry
Robert Klose, Professor of Cell and Molecular Biology
Marian Knight, Professor of Maternal and Child Population Health
Julian Knight, Professor of Geonomic Medicine
Tim Lancaster, Professor of Primary Health Care
Martin Landray, Professor of Medicine and Epidemiology
Trudie Lang, Professor of Global Health Research
Chris Lavy, Professor of Tropical Orthopaedic Surgery
Rhodri Lewis, Professor of English Literature
Owen Lewis, Professor of Ecology
Jane Lucy Lightfoot, Professor of Greek Literature
Christopher Lintott, Professor of Astrophysics
Adriaan Louis, Professor of Theoretical Physics
Conall Mac Niocaill, Professor of Earth Sciences
Peter McCulloch, Professor of Surgical Science and Practice
Peter McDonald, Professor of British and Irish Poetry
Rose McGready, Professor of Tropical Maternal and Child Health
Fiona Macintosh, Professor of Classical Reception
Stuart Mackenzie, Professor of Chemistry
Peter Magill, Professor of Neurobiology
William Mander, Professor of History of Modern Philosophy
Jonathan Marchini, Professor of Statistics
Andrew Martin, Professor of Systems Security
Tamsin Mather, Professor of Earth Sciences
Christopher Melchert, Professor of Arabic and Islamic Studies
Kim Midwood, Professor of Matrix Biology
Karla Miller, Professor of Biomedical Engineering
Peter Mirfield, Professor of the Law of Evidence
Llewelyn Morgan, Professor of Classical Languages and Literature.
Teresa Morgan, Professor of Graeco-Roman History
Boris Motik, Professor of Computer Science
Shona Murphy, Professor of Molecular Genetics
Victoria Murphy, Professor of Applied Linguistics
Paul Newton, Professor of Tropical Medicine
Bent Nielsen, Professor of Econometrics
Heather O'Donoghue, Professor of Old Norse
Colin O'Halloran, Professor of Computer Science
Michael O'Hanlon, Professor of Museum Anthropology
Ray Owens, Professor of Molecular Biology
Deborah Oxley, Professor of Social Science History
Sarah Parish, Professor of Medical Statistics and Epidemiology
Laura Peers, Professor of Museum Anthropology
Rafael Perera-Salazar, Professor of Medical Statistics
Seamus Perry, Professor of English Literature
John Pitcher, Professor of English Literature
Tommaso Pizzari, Professor of Evolutionary Biology
Mason Porter, Professor of Nonlinear and Complex Systems
Eduardo Posada-Carbó, Professor of the History and Politics of Latin America
Thomas Povey, Professor of Engineering Science
David Priestland, Professor of Modern History
Diane Purkiss, Professor of English Literature
Zhongmin Qian, Professor of Mathematics
Maria Quigley, Professor of Statistical Epidemiology
Mike Rayner, Professor of Population Health
David Rechter, Professor of Modern Jewish History
Jonathan Rees, Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery and Musculoskeletal Science
Owen Rees, Professor of Music
Gillian Reeves, Professor of Statistical Epidemiology
Matthew Reynolds, Professor of English and Comparative Criticism
Dimitra Rigopoulou, Professor of Astrophysics
Jens Rittscher, Professor of Engineering Science
Blanca Rodriguez, Professor of Computational Medicine
Timothy Rood, Professor of Greek Literature
Richard Rutherford, Professor of Greek and Latin Literature
Gwendolyn Sasse, Professor of Comparative Politics
Gaia Scerif, Professor of Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience
Alexander Schekochihin, Professor of Theoretical Physics
Julia Schnabel, Professor of Engineering Science
Alison Shaw, Professor of Social Anthropology
Nicola Sibson, Professor of Imaging Neuroscience
Alison Simmons, Professor of Gastroenterology
Lesley Smith, Professor of Medieval Intellectual History
Philip Stier, Professor of Atmospheric Physics
Eleanor Stride, Professor of Engineering Science
David Stuckler, Professor of Political Economy and Sociology
Lee Sweetlove, Professor of Plant Sciences
Balazs Szendroi, Professor of Pure Mathematics
Graham Taylor, Professor of Mathematical Biology
Jonathan Thacker, Professor of Spanish Golden Age Literature
Guy Thwaites, Professor of Infectious Diseases
Christiane Timmel, Professor of Chemistry
Stephen Tuck, Professor of Modern History
Claire Vallance, Professor of Physical Chemistry
Ann Sarah Walker, Professor of Medical Statistics and Epidemiology
David Wallace, Professor of Philosophy of Physics
Bryan Ward-Perkins, Professor of Late Antique History
Jamie Warner, Professor of Materials
Sarah Waters, Professor of Applied Mathematics
Andrew Wathen, Professor of Computational Mathematics
Kate Watkins, Professor of Cognitive Neuroscience
John Watts, Professor of Later Medieval History
Tony Weidberg, Professor of Physics
Joanna Weinberg, Professor of Early Modern Jewish History and Rabbinics
William Whyte, Professor of Social and Architectural History
Giles Wiggs, Professor of Aeolian Geomorphology
Wes Williams, Professor of French Literature
Abigail Williams, Professor of Eighteenth-Century English Literature
Bridget Wills, Professor of Tropical Medicine
Mark Wilson, Professor of Chemistry
Dariusz Wojcik, Professor of Economic Geography
Hongseok Yang, Professor of Computer Science
Nick Yeung, Professor of Cognitive Neuroscience
Zhong You, Professor of Engineering Science
Duncan Young, Professor of Intensive Care Medicine
Johannes Zachhuber, Professor of Historical and Systematic Theology
Oliver Zimmer, Professor of Modern European History
2012
The following were awarded the title of Professor by the University in January 2012, back-dated to the 2010–11 academic year:
Sharon Achinstein, Professor of Renaissance Literature
Christopher Adam, Professor of Development Economics
Simon Aldridge, Professor of Main Group Chemistry
Nigel Arden, Professor of Rheumatic Diseases
Alison Banham, Professor of Haemato-oncology
David Bannerman, Professor of Behavioural Neuroscience
Adrian Banning, Professor of Interventional Cardiology
Andrew Barry, Professor of Political Geography
David Beard, Professor of Musculoskeletal Science
Jim Bennett, Professor of the History of Science
Ben Berks, Professor of Biochemistry
Guido Bonsaver, Professor of Italian Cultural History
Chas Bountra, Professor of Translational Medicine
Paul Bowness, Professor of Experimental Rheumatology
Jo Boyden, Professor of International Development
David Bradshaw, Professor of English Literature
Paul Brand, Professor of English Legal History
Michael Broers, Professor of Western European History
Michael Burden, Professor of Opera Studies
Martin Castell, Professor of Materials
Dawn Chatty, Professor of Anthropology and Forced Migration
Robin Choudhury, Professor of Cardiovascular Medicine
Patricia Clavin, Professor of International History
S P Cobbold, MA Oxf, PhD Camb: Professor of Cellular Immunology
B Coecke, Licentiaat PhD Brussels, Fellow of Wolfson: Professor of Quantum Foundations, Logics and Structures
Z Cooper, BA Cape Town, DPhil Oxf: Professor of Clinical Psychology
G B Dalton, MA DPhil Oxf, Fellow of St Cross: Professor of Astrophysics
A Dancer, BA DPhil Oxf, Fellow of Jesus: Professor of Mathematics
Anne Davies, Professor of Law and Public Policy
C M Deane, MA Oxf, PhD Camb, Fellow of Kellogg: Professor of Structural Bioinformatics
A M Dondorp, PhD Amsterdam: Professor of Tropical Medicine
N J Emptage, BSc UEA, PhD Camb, Fellow of Lincoln: Professor of Neuropharmacology
M C English, MB BChir MA MD Camb: Professor of International Child Health
R W Field, MA MEng PhD Camb, Fellow of Balliol: Professor of Engineering Science
E Fodor, MSc Bratislava, DPhil Oxf, Fellow of Linacre: Professor of Virology
S Gardner, BCL MA Oxf, Fellow of Lincoln: Professor of Law
Joshua Getzler, Professor of Law and Legal History
J Gibbons, BSc Edin, DPhil Oxf, Fellow of Kellogg: Professor of Computing
R J Gibbons, BM BCh MA DPhil Oxf, Fellow of Green Templeton: Professor of Clinical Genetics
S C Gilbert, BSc East Ang, PhD Hull: Professor of Vaccinology
I A Goldin, BA BSc Cape Town, MSc LSE, DPhil Oxf, AMP INSEAD, Fellow of Balliol: Professor of Globalisation and Development
D R Greaves, BSc Brist, PhD Lond, Fellow of Hertford: Professor of Inflammation Biology
N Grobert, DPhil Sus, Fellow of Corpus Christi: Professor of Nanomaterials
L J Gullifer, BCL MA Oxf, Fellow of Harris Manchester: Professor of Commercial Law
V Halbach, MA PhD Munich, Habil Konstanz, Fellow of New College: Professor of Philosophy
T Hanke, BSc MSc McMaster, PhD St And: Professor of Vaccine Immunology
C J Harmer, BSc DPhil York, Fellow of Corpus Christi: Professor of Cognitive Neuroscience
R Harris, BA MA Pennsylvania, MA DPhil Oxf, Fellow of New College: Professor of Modern History
A B Hassan, BSc Lond, BM BCh DPhil Oxf, FRCP, Fellow of Lincoln: Professor of Medical Oncology
A B Hawkins, BA R’dg, PhD Lond, Fellow of Kellogg: Professor of History
A E Henke, DPhil Oxf, Dipl Heidelberg, Fellow of Pembroke: Professor of Mathematics
J J W Herring, BCL MA Oxf, Fellow of Exeter: Professor of Law
L M Herz, PhD Camb, Dipl Bonn, Fellow of Brasenose: Professor of Physics
T T Hien, PhD Open, MD Saigon, FRCP: Professor of Tropical Medicine
T F G Higham, BA MA Otago, DPhil Waikato, Fellow of Keble: Professor of Archaeological Science
E A Holmes, BA Oxf, PhD Camb, DClinPsy Lond: Professor of Clinical Psychology
S C P Horobin, BA PhD Sheff, Fellow of Magdalen: Professor of English Language and Literature
R G Hoyland, MA DPhil Oxf, Fellow of St Cross: Professor of Islamic History
C E Hoyle, BA Kent, MSc DPhil Oxf, Fellow of Green Templeton: Professor of Criminology
E L Hsu, MPhil PhD Camb, PD Habil Heidelberg, Dipl Natwiss ETH Zurich, Fellow of Green Templeton: Professor of Anthropology
P G J Irwin, MA DPhil Oxf, Fellow of St Anne's: Professor of Planetary Physics
D H Jaksch, Mag PhD Innsbruck, Fellow of Keble: Professor of Physics
Beata Javorcik, Professor of International Economics
Heidi Johansen-Berg, Professor of Cognitive Neuroscience
A S Kahn, BA Amherst, MA Harvard, MA DPhil Oxf, Fellow of St Edmund Hall: Professor of Russian Literature
J Kristensen, MA PhD TU Denmark, Fellow of Magdalen: Professor of Mathematics
D Kroening, PhD Saarland, Fellow of Magdalen: Professor of Computer Science
Jennifer Kurinczuk, BSc MB ChB MD Leic, MSc Lond: Professor of Perinatal Epidemiology
E E Leach, MMus Lond, MA DPhil Oxf, Fellow of St Hugh's: Professor of Music
Thomas Lukasiewicz, Professor of Computer Science
P E McCullough, BA California, PhD Princeton, Fellow of Lincoln: Professor of English
P D McDonald, BA MA Rhodes, DPhil Oxf, Fellow of St Hugh's: Professor of English and Related Literature
H I McShane, BSc MB BS PhD Lond: Professor of Vaccinology
G J Mallinson, MA PhD Camb, Fellow of Trinity: Professor of Early Modern French Literature
L Miller, BSc Leic, PhD Camb: Professor of Astrophysics
P J R Millican, BPhil MA Oxf, MSc PhD Leeds, Fellow of Hertford: Professor of Philosophy
M G Moloney, BSc PhD Sydney, Fellow of St Peter's: Professor of Chemistry
P Montgomery, BA Keele, MSc DPhil Oxf, Fellow of Green Templeton: Professor of Psycho-social Intervention
P D Nellist, MA PhD Camb, Fellow of Corpus Christi: Professor of Materials
M G New, BSc Cape Town, MPhil PhD Camb, Student of Christ Church: Professor of Climate Science
P M Newman, MEng Oxf, PhD Sydney, Fellow of New College: Professor of Engineering Science
C J Norbury, MA Oxf, PhD Lond, Fellow of Queen's: Professor of Molecular Pathology
D C O'Brien, MA PhD Camb, Fellow of Balliol: Professor of Engineering Science
C A O'Callaghan, BM BCh MA DPhil DM Oxf, FRCP, Fellow of Queen's: Professor of Medicine
G S Ogg, BM BCh MA DPhil Oxf, Student of Christ Church: Professor of Dermatology
J Ouaknine, BSc MSc McGill, DPhil Oxf, Fellow of St John's: Professor of Computer Science
S D Palfrey, BA ANU, DPhil Oxf, Fellow of Brasenose: Professor of English Literature
J Payne, MA Camb, Fellow of Merton: Professor of Corporate Finance Law
W E Peel, BCL MA Oxf, Fellow of Keble: Professor of Law
M D Petraglia, BA New York, MA PhD New Mexico, Fellow of Linacre: Professor of Human Evolution and Prehistory
A J Price, MB BChir Lond, MA Camb, DPhil Oxf, FRCS(Orth)Eng, Fellow of Worcester: Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery
R N Price, MB BChir MA Camb, FRCP, FRCPath, FRACP: Professor of Tropical Medicine
C Redfield, BA Wellesley, MA PhD Harvard, Fellow of Wolfson: Professor of Molecular Biophysics
I D Reid, BSc Western Australia, DPhil Oxf, Fellow of Exeter: Professor of Engineering Science
R E M Rickaby, MA PhD Camb, Fellow of Wolfson: Professor of Biogeochemistry
I S D Roberts, BSc MB ChB Manc, FRCPath, Student of Christ Church: Professor of Cellular Pathology
J W H Schnupp, BSc Lond, BA Open, DPhil Oxf, Fellow of St Peter's: Professor of Neuroscience
R C Schroeder, BA Williams College, MSc PhD Lond: Professor of Social Science of the Internet
J A G Scott, BA Camb, BM BCh Oxf, MSc DTM&H Lond, FRCP: Professor of Epidemiology
T Sharp, BSc Birm, PhD Nott, Fellow of University College: Professor of Neuropharmacology
S Shepperd, BA Vermont, MSc Harvard, DPhil Oxf: Professor of Health Services Research
C P Simmons, BSc PhD Melbourne: Professor of Infectious Diseases
H W Small, BA Wellington, PhD Camb, Fellow of Pembroke: Professor of English Literature
N Stargardt, BA PhD Camb, Fellow of Magdalen: Professor of Modern European History
M D Stears, BA DPhil Oxf, Fellow of University College: Professor of Political Theory
S Sturgeon, BA Texas, MA PhD Arizona, Fellow of Wadham: Professor of Philosophy
R Thomas, MA Oxf, PhD Lond, Fellow of Balliol: Professor of Ancient Greek History
R I Todd, MA Camb, DPhil Oxf, Fellow of St Catherine's: Professor of Materials
D J Vaux, BM BCh MA DPhil Oxf, Fellow of Lincoln: Professor of Cell Biology
J Villar, MSc Guatemala, MPH Harvard, MD Rosario: Professor of Perinatal Medicine
P Vyas, BA Camb, BM DPhil Oxf, Fellow of St Anne's: Professor of Haematology
Bernd Wannenwetsch, Professor of Systematic Theology and Ethics
R Washington, BA Natal, DPhil Oxf, Fellow of Keble: Professor of Climate Science
D J Watson, MA Camb, PhD Pennsylvania, Fellow of Green Templeton: Professor of Higher Education
T J G Whitmarsh, BA MPhil PhD Camb, Fellow of Corpus Christi: Professor of Ancient Literatures
G R Wilkinson, BSc Lond, DPhil Oxf, Student of Christ Church: Professor of Physics
T N Williams, MB BS PhD Lond, MRCP: Professor of Tropical Medicine
P R Wilshaw, MA Camb, DPhil Oxf, Fellow of St Anne's: Professor of Materials
T H Wilson, MPhil Lond, MA Oxf, Fellow of Balliol: Professor of the Arts of the Renaissance
S L F Wollenberg, MA DPhil Oxf, Fellow of Lady Margaret Hall: Professor of Music
C Wong, SB MIT, MA PhD Berkeley, Fellow of Lady Margaret Hall: Professor of Chinese Public Finance
M J A Wood, BM BCh Cape Town, MA DPhil Oxf, Fellow of Somerville: Professor of Neuroscience
J B Worrell, BA MSc DPhil Oxf, Fellow of Green Templeton: Professor of Computer Science
V Worth-Stylianou, MA DPhil Oxf, Fellow of Trinity: Professor of French
W C M Yip, BA Berkeley, PhD MIT: Professor of Health Policy and Economics
Giulia Zanderighi, Professor of Physics
Nicole Zitzmann, Professor of Virology
2008
The following were awarded the title of Professor by the University in 2008:
J.H. Alexander, BA Princeton, D.Phil. Oxf, Fellow of Linacre College: Professor of Commonwealth Studies
J.M. Armitage, B.Sc. MB BS Lond, FFPH UK, FRCP Lond: Professor of Clinical Trials and Epidemiology
R.M. Ballaster, MA D.Phil. Oxf, Fellow of Mansfield College: Professor of Eighteenth Century Studies
S.D. Biller, BA Michigan, MS Ph.D. California, Fellow of Mansfield College: Professor of Particle Physics
A. Blakeborough, MA Ph.D. Camb, Fellow of Worcester College: Professor of Engineering Science
K.M. Blundell, MA Ph.D. Camb, Fellow of St John’s College: Professor of Astrophysics
N. Bostrom, BA Göteborg, MA Stockholm, Ph.D. Lond, Fellow of St Cross College: Professor of Applied Ethics
C.D. Brewer, MA D.Phil. Oxf, MA Toronto, Fellow of Hertford College: Professor of English Language and Literature
N. Brockdorff, B.Sc. Sus, Ph.D. Glas: Professor of Biochemistry
K.W. Burton, Ph.D. Lond: Professor of Earth Sciences
J. Cartwright, BCL MA Oxf, Student of Christ Church: Professor of the Law of Contract
H. Chapel, MA MD Camb, FRCP, F.R.C.Path., Fellow of Somerville College: Professor of Clinical Immunology
J.S. Coleman, BA D.Phil. York, Fellow of Wolfson College: Professor of Phonetics
M.J. Collins, MA D.Phil. Oxf, Fellow of University College: Professor of Mathematics
A.M. Cooper-Sarkar, MA D.Phil. Oxf, Fellow of St Hilda’s College: Professor of Particle Physics
R.S. Crisp, B.Phil. MA D.Phil. Oxf, Fellow of St Anne’s College: Professor of Moral Philosophy
D.W. M Crook, MB B.Ch. Witwatersrand: Professor of Microbiology
R.J.O. Davies, BM DM S’ton, FRCP Lond, Fellow of Hertford College: Professor of Respiratory Medicine
A.F. Deighton, MA Dip.Ed. Oxf, MA Ph.D. R’dg, Fellow of Wolfson College: Professor of European International Politics
S.E. Dopson, B.Sc. Ph.D. Leic, M.Sc. Lond, MA Oxf, Fellow of Green Templeton College: Professor of Organisational Behaviour
S.S. Douglas-Scott, BA LL.M. Lond, Dip.Law City, Fellow of Lady Margaret Hall: Professor of European and Human Rights Law
S.R. Duncan, MA Camb, M.Sc. Ph.D. Lond, Fellow of St Hugh’s College: Professor of Engineering Science
J.J. Edelman, B.Comm. Murdoch, B.Ec. LL.B. Western Australia, D.Phil. Oxf, Fellow of Keble College: Professor of the Law of Obligations
D.F. Feeny, BA Oxf, MBA Harvard, Fellow of Green Templeton College: Professor of Information Management
P. Ferreira, Lic Lisbon, Ph.D. Imp Lond, Fellow of Oriel College: Professor of Astrophysics
G.D. Flood, BA MA Ph.D. Lanc, Fellow of Wolfson College: Professor of Hindu Studies and Comparative Religion
B. Frellesvig, MA Ph.D. Copenhagen, Fellow of Hertford College: Professor of Japanese Linguistics
E.F. Garman, B.Sc. Durh, D.Phil. Oxf: Professor of Molecular Biophysics
C.R. Goding, B.Sc. Leeds, Ph.D. CNAA: Professor of Oncology
V. Gouverneur, BA M.Sc., Ph.D. Louvain, Fellow of Merton College: Professor of Chemistry
C.A. Greenhalgh, B.Sc. M.Sc. Lond, MA Oxf, Ph.D. Princeton: Fellow of St Peter’s College: Professor of Applied Economics
E. Higginbottom, MA Ph.D. Camb, Fellow of New College: Professor of Choral Music
I.M. Hook, MA Ph.D. Camb, Student of Christ Church: Professor of Astrophysics
S.M. Hooker, MA D.Phil. Oxf, Fellow of Merton College: Professor of Atomic and Laser Physics
H.B. Hotson, BA MA Toronto, D.Phil. Oxf, Fellow of St Anne’s College: Professor of Early Modern Intellectual History
J. Hyman, B.Phil. MA D.Phil. Oxf, Fellow of Queen’s College: Professor of Aesthetics
H. Jones, F.Inst.P, C.Eng., C.Phys.: Professor of Condensed Matter Physics
S. Knapp, Ph.D. Karolinska Institute: Professor of Structural Biology
K.M. Kohl, BA MA Ph.D. Lond, MA CNAA, Fellow of Jesus College: Professor of German Literature
S.M. Lea, MA D.Phil. Oxf, Fellow of Brasenose College: Professor of Chemical Pathology
K.J. Leeder, BA D.Phil. Oxf, Fellow of New College: Professor of Modern German Literature
I.S. Lemos, BA Athens, D.Phil. Oxf, Fellow of Merton College: Professor of Classical Archaeology
J.C. Lennox, MA Ph.D. Camb, MA D.Phil. Oxf, MA Surrey, D.Sc. Wales, Fellow of Green Templeton College: Professor of Mathematics
S.P. Llewelyn, BA Ph.D. Sheff, M.Sc. Leeds, Fellow of Harris Manchester College: Professor of Clinical Psychology
G. Lowe, BA M.Sc. D.Phil., Oxf, Fellow of St Catherine’s College: Professor of Computer Science
A. Lukas, B.Sc. Dipl Wuppertal, Ph.D. Munich, Fellow of Balliol College: Professor of Theoretical Physics
L.E. Maguire, BA Ph.D. Lond, MA Birm, Shakespeare Institute, Fellow of Magdalen College: Professor of English Literature
K. Mayhew, M.Sc. Lond, MA Oxf: Professor of Education and Economic Performance
P.R.A. McGuinness, BA Camb, MA York, D.Phil. Oxf, Fellow of St Anne’s College: Professor of French and Comparative Literature
L. McNay, BA MA Sus, Ph.D. Camb, Fellow of Somerville College: Professor of the Theory of Politics
E.J.C. Mellor, B.Sc. Manc, Ph.D. R’dg, Fellow of Queen’s College: Professor of Biochemistry
R.S.R. Mitter, MA Ph.D. Camb, Fellow of St Cross College: Professor of the History and Politics of Modern China
S.J. Mulhall, BA D.Phil. Oxf, MA Toronto, Fellow of New College: Professor of Philosophy
I.J. Neary, BA Sheff, D.Phil. Sus, Fellow of St Antony’s College: Professor of the Politics of Japan
K. Nicolaïdis, Ph.D. Harvard, Fellow of St Antony’s College: Professor of International Relations
J.R. Ockendon, BA D.Phil. Oxf: Professor of Mathematics
U.C.T. Oppermann, B.Sc. M.Sc. Ph.D. Marburg, Associate Professor, Karolinska Institute: Professor of Molecular Biology
J. Pallot, BA Leeds, Ph.D. Lond, Student of Christ Church: Professor of the Human Geography of Russia
L.L. Peers, BA Trent, MA Winnipeg/Manitoba, Ph.D.
F. Pezzella, MD Rome: Professor of Tumour Pathology
A. Phelan, MA Ph.D. Camb, MA Oxf, Fellow of Keble College: Professor of German Romantic Literature
F.M. Platt, B.Sc. Lond, Ph.D. Bath, Fellow of Merton College: Professor of Biochemistry and Pharmacology
A.J. Pollard, B.Sc. MB BS Ph.D. Lond, DIC, MRCP, FRCPCH, Fellow of St Cross College: Professor of Paediatric Infection and Immunity
D.M. Pyle, MA Ph.D. Camb, Fellow of St Anne’s College: Professor of Earth Sciences
J. Radcliffe Richards, BA Keele, B.Phil. Oxf, MA Calgary: Professor of Practical Philosophy
R.D. Rogers, BA M.Sc. Lond, MA Oxf, Ph.D. Camb, Fellow of Jesus College: Professor of Cognitive Neuroscience
M.F.S. Rushworth, BA D.Phil. Oxf: Professor of Cognitive Neuroscience
S.W. Saunders, MA Oxf, Ph.D. Lond, Fellow of Linacre College: Professor of Philosophy of Physics
R.L. Saxton, B.Mus. D.Mus. Oxf, MA Camb, FGSM, Fellow of Worcester College: Professor of Composition
L.M. Scott, BA MA Ph.D. Texas, MBA SMU, Fellow of Green Templeton College: Professor of Marketing
M.P. Searle, B.Sc. Wales, Ph.D. Open, Fellow of Worcester College: Professor of Earth Sciences
D.J. Siveter, B.Sc. Ph.D. Leic, Fellow of St Cross College: Professor of Earth Sciences
F.J. Stafford, BA Leic, M.Phil. D.Phil. Oxf, Fellow of Somerville College: Professor of English Language and Literature
T.P. Stern, MA Oxf, Ph.D. Camb, Fellow of University College: Professor of Early Modern Drama
M.J. Stevens, MA M.Sc. M.Phil. D.Phil. Oxf, Fellow of Lincoln College: Professor of Economics
J.M. Sykes, BA MA Ph.D. Camb, Fellow of Mansfield College: Professor of Materials
S.A.G. Talmon, LL.M. Camb, MA D.Phil. Oxf, Habil Tübingen, Fellow of St Anne’s College: Professor of Public International Law
R.A. Taylor, MA D.Phil. Oxf, Fellow of Queen’s College: Professor of Condensed Matter Physics
N. Thatte, B.Tech. Bombay, MS Ph.D. Berkeley, Fellow of Keble College: Professor of Astrophysics
I.P. Thompson, B.Sc. Ph.D. Essex: Professor of Engineering Science
C. Trifogli, BA Pisa, Ph.D. Milan, Fellow of All Souls College: Professor of Medieval Philosophy
H.A. Viles, MA Camb, D.Phil. Oxf, Fellow of Worcester College: Professor of Biogeomorphology and Heritage Conservation
A.M. Volfing, MA D.Phil. Oxf, Fellow of Oriel College: Professor of Medieval German Studies
A. Watson, BA M.Sc. Open, D.Phil. Oxf, Fellow of Linacre College: Professor of Mathematics Education
S.M. Watt, B.Sc. New England, Ph.D. Melbourne: Professor of Haematology
M.S. Williams, B.Sc. Ph.D. Brist, MA Oxf, Fellow of New College: Professor of Engineering Science
G. Yassin, B.Sc. M.Sc. Hebrew University Jerusalem, Ph.D. Keele, Fellow of Hertford College: Professor of Astrophysics
2006
The following were awarded the title of Professor by the University in 2006:
G. Abramson, MA, Fellow of St Cross College: Professor of Hebrew and Jewish Studies
D.M. Anderson, MA, Fellow of St Cross College: Professor of African Politics
C. Baigent, BM, B.Ch., MA, Fellow of Green College: Professor of Epidemiology
A. Battacharya, Senior Research Fellow in Engineering and Continuing Education: Professor of Engineering Science with effect from 1 October 2006
H. Becher: Professor of Cardiac Ultrasound
E.K. Bikoff: Professor of Mammalian Genetics
W.J. Blair, MA, Fellow of Queen's College: Professor of Medieval History and Archaeology
A.T. Boothroyd, MA, Fellow of Oriel College: Professor of Physics
S. Bright, BCL, MA, Fellow of New College: Professor of Land Law
P. Brocklehurst, MA status: Professor of Perinatal Epidemiology
M. Brouard, MA, Fellow of Jesus College: Professor of Chemistry
H.R. Brown, MA, Fellow of Wolfson College: Professor of Philosophy of Physics
A.H. Buchanan, MA, Fellow of St Hilda's College: Professor of Social Work
C.P. Buckley, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Balliol College: Professor of Engineering Science
J.V. Byrne, MA status: Professor of Neuroradiology
J. Caplan, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Antony's College: Professor of Modern European History
R.D. Caplan, MA, Fellow of Linacre College: Professor of International Relations
G. Capoccia, MA, Fellow of Corpus Christi College: Professor of Comparative Politics
B. Casadei, MA status: Professor of Cardiovascular Medicine
A. Cavalleri, Fellow of Merton College: Professor of Physics
D.O.M. Charles, B.Phil., MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Oriel College: Professor of Philosophy
Z. Chen: Professor of Epidemiology
R.J. Cornall, BM, B.Ch., MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Corpus Christi College: Professor of Immunology
N. Cronk, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Edmund Hall: Professor of French Literature
J. Cross, MA, Student of Christ Church: Professor of Musicology
M. Dalrymple, Fellow of Linacre College: Professor of Linguistics
B.G. Davis, BA, D.Phil., Fellow of Pembroke: Professor of Chemistry with effect from 10 May 2006
S. Das, MA, Fellow of Exeter College: Professor of Earth Sciences
J.W.M. Davies, MA, Fellow of Kellogg College: Professor of Software Engineeting
N.P.J. Day, BM, B.Chi., DMr: Professor of Tropical Medicine
L. Dreyfus, MA, Fellow of Magdalen College: Professor of Music
F.P.E. Dunne, MA, Fellow of Hertford College: Professor of Engineering Science
S.J. Elston, MA status, Fellow of St John's College: Professor of Engineering Science
T.A.O. Endicott, MA status, M.Phil., D.Phil., Fellow of Balliol College: Professor of Legal Philosophy
F.H.L. Essler, MA, Fellow of Worcester College: Professor of Physics
M. Fafchamps, MA, Fellow of Mansfield College: Professor of Development Economics
J.C.T. Fairbank, MA Status: Professor of Spinal Surgery
J. Farrar, D.Phil.: Professor of Tropical Medicine
E.V.K. FitzGerald, MA, Fellow of St Antony's College: Professor of International Development
E.V. Flynn, MA, Fellow of New College: Professor of Mathematics
R. G. Foster: Professor of circadian Neuroscience
J. Fox, Senior Research Fellow in the Department of Engineering Science: Professor of Engineering Science with effect from 1 January 2007
D. Gaffan, MA: Professor of Behavioural Neuroscience
D. Gauguier: Professor of Mammalian Genetics
P.D. Giles, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Linacre College: Professor of American Literature
M.H. Goldsmith, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Worcester College: Visiting Professor of Computing Science
P.J.R. Goulder: Professor of Immunology
K. Graddy, MA, Fellow of Exeter College: Professor of Applied Economics
J.F. Gregg, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Magdalen College: Professor of Physics
T.C. Guilford, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Merton College: Professor of Animal Behaviour
S. Gupta, MA, Fellow of Linacre College: Professor of Theoretical Epidemiology
H. Hamerow, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Cross College: Professor of Archaeology
M.W. Hankins: Professor of Visual Neuroscience
C.K. Harley, MA, Fellow of St Antony's College: Professor of Economic History
S. Harper, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Nuffield College: Professor of Gerontology
M. Harrison, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Green College: Professor of the History of Medicine
G.M. Henderson, MA, Fellow of University College: Professor of Earth Sciences
S.P. Hesselbo, MA, Fellow of St Peter's College: Professor of Stratigraphy
D.M. Hodgson, MA, Fellow of Oriel College: Professor of Chemistry
J.C.N. Horder, BCL, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Worcester College: Professor of Criminal Law
C.J. Howgego, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Wolfson College: Professor of Greek and Roman Numismatics
W.S. James, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Brasenose College: Professor of Virology
A. Jefferson, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of New College: Professor of French Literature
T.J. Jenkinson, MA, M.Phil., D.Phil., Fellow of Keble College: Professor of Finance
J. Johns, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Wolfson College: Professor of the Art and Archaeology of the Islamic Mediterranean
J.A. Jones, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Brasenose College: Professor of Physics
P. Kennedy, MA status, Fellow of Harris Manchester College: Professor of Clinical Psychology
Y.F. Khong, MA, Fellow of Nuffield College: Professor of International Relations
A.I. Kirkland, Fellow of Linacre: Professor of Materials (Image Analysis) with effect from 1 October 2005
P. Klenerman, BM, B.Ch., D.Phil., Fellow of Brasenose College: Professor of Immunology
A.M. Korsunsky, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Trinity College: Professor of Engineering Science
D. Kramkov, Professor of Mathematical Finance with effect from 1 January 2007
H. Kraus, MA, Fellow of Corpus Christi College: Professor of Physics
M. Lackenby, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Catherine's College: Professor of Mathematics
J.A. Langdale, MA, Fellow of Queen's College: Professor of Plant Development
M. Leigh, MA, Fellow of St Anne's College: Professor of Classical Languages and Literature
G.R. Lock, MA status, Fellow of Kellogg College: Professor of Archaeology
E. Macaro, MA, Fellow of Worcester College: Professor of Applied Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition
J. McDonagh, MA, Fellow of Linacre College: Professor of Victorian Literature
G.A.T. McVean, MA, Fellow of Linacre: Professor of Statistical Genetics with effect from 1 October 2006
J.A. Mee, MA, Fellow of University College: Professor of English Literature of the Romantic Period
P. Mitchell, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Hugh's College: Professor of African Archaeology
R. Mott: Professor of Bioinformatics and Statistical Genetics
P. Mountford, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Edmund Hall: Professor of Chemistry
L.C. Mugglestone, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Pembroke College: Professor of History of English
K.A. Nation, Fellow of St John's College: Professor of Experimental Psychology
A.C. Nobre, MA, Fellow of New College: Professor of Cognitive Neuroscience
F. Nosten: Professor of Tropical Medicine
R. Patient: Professor of Developmental Genetics
P. Podsiadlowski, MA, Fellow of St Edmund Hall: Professor of Physics
H.A. Priestley, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Anne's College: Professor of Mathematics
J. K.-H. Quah, MA, Fellow of St Hugh's College: Professor of Economic Theory
C.B. Ramsey, MA, D.Phil.: Professor of Archaeological Science
J.V. Roberts, Fellow of Worcester College: Professor of Criminology
S.G. Roberts, MA, Fellow of St Edmund Hall: Professor of Materials
E.J. Robertson, MA: Professor of Developmental Biology
C.F. Robinson, MA, Fellow of Wolfson College: Professor of Islamic History
P.F. Roche, MA status, Fellow of Hertford College: Professor of Physics
F.D. Rueda, MA, Fellow of Merton College: Professor of Comparative Politics
S. Sarkar, MA, Fellow of Linacre College: Professor of Physics
D. Sarooshi, Fellow of Queen's College: Professor of Public International Law
Q.J. Sattentau, MA, Fellow of Magdalen College: Professor of Immunology
E. Savage-Smith, MA status, Fellow of St Cross College: Professor of the History of Islamic Science
A.D. Scott, Fellow of Merton College: Professor of Mathematics
C.J. Spence, MA, Fellow of Somerville College: Professor of Experimental Psychology
C.R. Stone, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Somerville College: Professor of Engineering Science
P.H. Taylor, MA, Fellow of Keble College: Professor of Engineering Science
D.A. Terrar, MA, Fellow of Worcester College: Professor of Cardiac Electrophysiology
A.L.R. Thomas, MA, Fellow of Lady Margaret Hall: Professor of Biomechanics
M. Van De Mieroop, Fellow of Wolfson College: Professor of Assyriology
F. Varese, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Linacre College: Professor of Criminology
J. Welsh, M.Phil., MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Somerville College: Professor of International Relations
M.C. Whitby, MA status: Professor of Molecular Genetics
S.D. Whitefield, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Pembroke: Professor of Comparative Russian and East European Politics and Societies with effect from 1 July 2006
S.J. Whittaker, BCL, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St John's College: Professor of European Comparative Law
K.J. Willis, MA, Fellow of Jesus College: Professor of Long-Term Ecology
T. Witelski, Fellow-elect of St Catherine's: Professor of Applied Mathematics with effect from 1 August 2007
J. Wright, MA, D.Phil., Student of Christ Church: Professor of International Relations
R. Zetter, MA, Fellow of Green College: Professor of Refugee Studies with effect from 1 October 2006
J. Zielonka, MA, Fellow of St Antony's College: Professor of European Politics
A.A.S. Zuckerman, MA, Fellow of University College: Professor of Civil Procedure
2004
The following were awarded the title of Professor by the University in 2004:
Dr H. L. Anderson, Keble College: Professor of Chemistry
Dr D. G. Andrews, Lady Margaret Hall: Professor of Physics
Mr T. Z. Aziz: Professor of Neurosurgery
Dr R. N. E. Barton, Hertford College: Professor of Archaeology
Dr D. M. W. Beeson: Professor of Neuroscience
Dr S. Bhattacharya: Professor of Cardiovascular Medicine
Dr R. Bicknell: Professor of Cancer Cell Biology
Dr S. J. Blundell, Mansfield College: Professor of Physics
Mr E. L. Bowie, Corpus Christi College: Professor of Classical Languages and Literature
Mr A. Briggs, St Edmund Hall: Professor of Private International Law
Dr M. Brown, St Peter's College: Professor of Musculoskeletal Science
Mr M. J. Clarke: Professor of Clinical Epidemiology
Dr S. J. Davis: Professor of Molecular Immunology
Dr J. Day, Lady Margaret Hall: Professor of Old Testament Theology
Dr T. J. Donohoe, Magdalen College: Professor of Chemistry
Dr J. A. Endicott, St Cross College: Professor of Structural Biology
Dr T. Enver: Professor of Molecular Haematology
Dr M. Farrall, Keble College: Professor of Cardiovascular Genetics
Dr P. R. Franklin, St Catherine's College: Professor of Music
Dr L. Fugger: Professor of Clinical Immunology
Mr T. Garton Ash, St Antony's College: Professor of European Studies
Dr D. J. Gavaghan, New College: Professor of Computational Biology
Mr G. Gibbs: Professor of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education
Dr V. A. Gillespie, St Anne's College: Professor of English Language and Literature
Dr P. Glasziou, Kellogg College: Professor of Evidence-based Medicine
Dr C. H. Gosden, St Cross College: Professor of Archaeology
Dr C. R. M. Grovenor, St Anne's College: Professor of Materials
Professor K. Gull, Lincoln College: Professor of Molecular Microbiology
Dr S. J. Gurr, Somerville College: Professor of Molecular Plant Pathology
Dr P. A. Handford, St Catherine's College: Professor of Biochemistry
Dr S. J. Harrison, Corpus Christi College: Professor of Classical Languages and Literature
Dr K. O. Hawkins, Oriel College: Professor of Law and Society
Dr K. J. Humphries, All Souls College: Professor of Economic History
Dr P. T. Ireland, St Anne's College: Professor of Engineering Science
Dr D. G. Jackson: Professor of Human Immunology
Dr P. Jeavons, St Anne's College: Professor of Computer Science
Dr A. Jephcoat: Visiting Professor of Earth Sciences
Dr T. Key: Professor of Epidemiology
Dr A. J. King, Merton College: Professor of Neurophysiology
Dr D. W. Macdonald, Lady Margaret Hall: Professor of Wildlife Conservation
Dr M. C. J. Maiden: Professor of Molecular Epidemiology
Dr H. J. Mardon, St Catherine's College: Professor of Reproductive Science
Mr N. J. Mayhew, St Cross College: Professor of Numismatics and Monetary History
Dr D. J. McBarnet, Wolfson College: Professor of Socio-legal Studies
Dr A. R. McLean, St Catherine's College: Professor of Mathematical Biology Dr T.F. Melham, Balliol College: Professor of Computer Science
Dr A. W. Moore, St Hugh's College: Professor of Philosophy
Dr M. F. Murphy: Professor of Blood Transfusion Medicine
Dr H. A. W. Neil, Wolfson College: Professor of Clinical Epidemiology
Dr L. A. Newlyn, St Edmund Hall: Professor of English Language and Literature
Dr M. E. M. Noble: Professor of Structural Biology
Mr M. W. J. Noble, Green College: Professor of Social Policy
Dr D. Nowell, Christ Church Professor of Engineering Science
Dr C. H. L. Ong, Merton College: Professor of Computer Science
Dr M. J. Parker, St Cross College: Professor of Bioethics
Dr F. Powrie: Professor of Immunology
Dr S. G. Rawlings, St Peter's College: Professor of Physics
Dr G. Reinert, Keble College: Professor of Statistics
Dr P. B. Renton: Professor of Physics
Dr S. J. Roberts, Somerville College: Professor of Information Engineering
Dr M. A. Robinson: Professor of Environmental Archaeology
Dr L. A. Roper, Balliol College: Professor of Early Modern History
Dr P. M. Rothwell: Professor of Clinical Neurology
Dr I. L. Sargent, Mansfield College: Professor of Reproductive Science
Dr M. J. Smith, University College: Professor of Egyptology
Dr D. K. Stammers: Professor of Structural Biology
Dr E. Swyngedouw, St Peter's College: Professor of Geography
Dr D. P. Taggart: Professor of Cardiovascular Surgery
Dr S. Ulijaszek, St Cross College: Professor of Human Ecology
Dr P. Wentworth: Professor of Medicinal Chemistry
Dr R. K. Westbrook, St Hugh's College: Professor of Operations Management
Dr R. J. Whittaker, St Edmund Hall: Professor of Biogeography
Dr J. M. G. Williams: Professor of Clinical Psychology
Dr J. S. Wilson: Professor of Mathematics
Dr W. G. Wood: Professor of Haematology
Dr D. Zancani, Balliol College: Professor of Italian
2002
The following were awarded the title of Professor by the University in October 2002:
Dr M. Airs, Kellogg College: Professor of Conservation and the Historic Environment
Dr R.C. Allen, Nuffield College: Professor of Economic History
Dr M.J. Banks, Wolfson College: Professor of Visual Anthropology
Dr P. Battle, St Catherine's College: Professor of Chemistry
Dr A.G.L. Borthwick, St Edmund Hall: Professor of Engineering Science
Dr M.D. Brasier, St Edmund Hall: Professor of Palaeobiology
Dr L.W.B. Brockliss, Magdalen College: Professor of Early Modern French History
Dr L.R. Cardon: Professor of Bioinformatics
Dr S. Castles, Green College: Professor of Migration and Refugee Studies
Dr M. Ceadel, New College: Professor of Politics
Dr A. Cerezo, Wolfson College: Professor of Materials
Dr K. Channon, Lady Margaret Hall: Professor of Cardiovascular Medicine
Ms M. Chevska, Brasenose College: Professor of Fine Art
Dr K. Clarke: Professor of Physiological Biochemistry
Dr D.A. Coleman: Professor of Demography
Dr A. Cooper: Professor of Ancient Biomolecules
Dr O. de Moor, Magdalen College: Professor of Computer Science
Dr A.L. Dexter, Worcester College: Professor of Engineering Science
Dr M. du Sautoy, All Souls College: Professor of Mathematics
Professor M.J. Earl, Templeton College: Professor of Information Management
Dr G.A. Evans, Nuffield College: Professor of the Sociology of Politics
Dr E. Fallaize, St John's College: Professor of French
Dr P.S. Fiddes, Regent's Park College: Professor of Systematic Theology
Dr R.W. Fiddian, Wadham College: Professor of Spanish
Dr J. Flint: Professor of Molecular Psychiatry
Dr C.J. Foot, St Peter's College: Professor of Physics
Dr S. Fuller: Professor of Macromolecular Structure and Assembly
Dr A. Galione, New College: Professor of Pharmacology
Dr D. Gambetta, All Souls College: Professor of Sociology
Dr J. Geddes: Professor of Epidemiological Psychiatry
Dr G.F. Gibbons: Professor of Human Metabolism
Dr R.N. Gildea, Merton College: Professor of Modern French History
Dr M. Goldacre, Magdalen College: Professor of Public Health
Dr A.M. Gray: Professor of Health Economics
Dr G.M. Griffiths: Professor of Experimental Pathology
Dr N. Harnew, St Anne's College: Professor of Physics
Dr M. Hewstone, New College: Professor of Social Psychology
Dr P.J. Hore, Corpus Christi College: Professor of Chemistry
Dr P.W. Jeffreys, Keble College: Professor of Computing
Dr C. Jenkinson: Professor of Health Services Research
Dr N.F. Johnson, Lincoln College: Professor of Physics
Dr D.D. Joyce, Lincoln College: Professor of Mathematics
Dr C. Kelly, New College: Professor of Russian
Dr D.C. Kurtz, Wolfson College: Professor of Classical Art
Dr D.R. Matthews, Harris Manchester College: Professor of Diabetic Medicine
Dr R. McCabe, Merton College: Professor of English Language and Literature
Dr R.C. Miall: Professor of Neuroscience
Dr D. Miller, Nuffield College: Professor of Political Theory
Dr S. Neubauer, Christ Church: Professor of Cardiovascular Medicine
Dr J.A. Noble, Oriel College: Professor of Engineering Science
Dr A.B. Parekh, Keble College: Professor of Physiology
Dr B.E. Parsons, St Cross College: Professor of Geodesy and Geophysics
Dr D.J. Paterson, Merton College: Professor of Cardiovascular Physiology
Dr A.K. Petford-Long, Corpus Christi College: Professor of Materials
Dr C.P. Ponting: Professor of Bioinformatics
Dr J. Poulton, Lady Margaret Hall: Professor of Mitochondrial Genetics
Dr C.W. Pugh, Green College: Professor of Renal Medicine
Dr S.E. Randolph, Oriel College: Professor of Parasite Ecology
Professor S. Rayner: Professor of Science in Society
Dr P.L. Read, Trinity College: Professor of Physics
Dr D. Roberts, Trinity College: Professor of Haematology
Dr D.B. Robertson, St Hugh's College: Professor of Politics
Dr J.W. Sear, Green College: Professor of Anaesthetics
Dr R.J. Service, St Antony's College: Professor of Russian History
Dr A.G. Sherratt, Linacre College: Professor of Archaeology
Dr G.C. Sills, St Catherine's College: Professor of Engineering Science
Dr T.P. Softley, Merton College: Professor of Chemical Physics
Dr A.M. Steane, Exeter College: Professor of Physics
Dr K. Sutherland, St Anne's College: Professor of Bibliography and Textual Criticism
Mr C.C.W. Taylor, Corpus Christi College: Professor of Philosophy
Dr A.J. Turberfield, Magdalen College: Professor of Physics
Dr S. Vertovec, Linacre College: Professor of Transnational Anthropology
Dr M. Vickers, Jesus College: Professor of Archaeology
Dr R. Whittington, New College: Professor of Strategic Management
Dr M.H. Worthington: Professor of Geophysics
Dr D. Wu, St Catherine's College: Professor of English Language and Literature
Dr J.M. Yeomans, St Hilda's College: Professor of Physics
2000
The following were awarded the title of Professor in September 2000:
T. Cavalier-Smith: Professor of Evolutionary Biology
K.P. Day, MA, Fellow of Hertford College: Professor of Molecular Epidemiology
L.C. Mahadevan, MA, Fellow of Trinity College: Professor of Biochemistry
R.G. Ratcliffe, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of New College: Professor of Plant Sciences
A.J. Carr: Professor in Orthopaedic Surgery
V. Cerundolo, MA, Fellow of Merton College: Professor of Immunology
T.J. Elliott, MA: Professor in Immunology
D.J.P. Ferguson, MA status: Professor of Ultrastructural Morphology
D.W.R. Gray, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Oriel College: Professor of Experimental Surgery
P.J. Harrison, DM, Fellow of Wolfson College: Professor of Psychiatry
R.A. Hope, MA, Fellow of St Cross College: Professor of Medical Ethics
N.J. Mortensen, MA status: Professor of Colorectal Surgery
S.L. Rowland-Jones, MA, D.Phil., Student of Christ Church: Professor of Immunology
R.W. Snow: Professor of Tropical Public Health
J.T. Triffitt, MA status: Professor of Bone Metabolism
A.O.M. Wilkie, DM: Professor of Genetics
D. Phillips, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Edmund Hall: Professor of Comparative Education
I. Walford, MA, M.Phil., Fellow of Green College: Professor of Education Policy
I. Rivers, Fellow of St Hugh's College: Professor of English Language and Literature
R.C. Griffiths, MA, Fellow of Lady Margaret Hall: Professor of Mathematical Genetics
U. Tillmann, MA, Fellow of Merton College: Professor of Mathematics
J.C.P. Woodcock, MA, Fellow of Kellogg College: Professor of Software Engineering
A.M. Finch, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Merton College: Professor of French
N. Ferguson, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Jesus College: Professor of Political and Financial History
A.J. Nicholls, B.Phil., MA, Fellow of St Antony's College: Professor of Modern German History
J. Rawson, MA, D.Litt., Fellow of Merton College: Professor of Chinese Art and Archaeology
J.T. Chalker, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Hugh's College: Professor of Physics
R.C. Darton, Fellow of Hertford College: Professor of Engineering Science
R.G. Edgell, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Trinity College: Professor of Inorganic Chemistry
N.A. Jelley, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Lincoln College: Professor of Physics
D.M.P. Mingos, MA, Fellow of St Edmund Hall: Professor of Chemistry
J.S. Wark, MA, Fellow of Trinity College: Professor of Physics
G. Hale: Professor of Therapeutic Immunology
D.R. Moore: Professor of Auditory Neuroscience
D.B. Sattelle: Professor of Molecular Neurobiology
P.A. van der Merwe, MA, Fellow of Trinity College: Professor of Molecular Immunology
R.M.A. Martin, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Edmund Hall: Professor of Abnormal Psychology
B.D. Catling, MA, Fellow of Linacre College: Professor of Fine Art
D. Firth, MA, Fellow of Nuffield College: Professor of Social Statistics
D.A. Vines, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Balliol College: Professor of Economics
C.M. Tuckett, MA, Fellow of Wolfson College: Professor of New Testament Studies
1999
The following were awarded the title of Professor in September 1999:
K. Drickamer: Professor of Biochemistry
A. Grafen, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St John's College: Professor of Theoretical Biology
D.J. Rogers, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Green College: Professor of Ecology
M.S.P. Sansom, MA, D.Phil., Student of Christ Church: Professor of Molecular Biophysics
J.M. Austyn, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Wolfson College: Professor of Immunobiology
D.B. Dunger, MA status: Professor of Paediatric Endocrinology
K.N. Frayn, MA status, Fellow of Green College: Professor of Human Metabolism
A. Harris, MA, Fellow of St Cross College: Professor of Paediatric Molecular Genetics
P.C. Harris: Professor of Medical Genetics
I.D. Hickson: Professor of Molecular Oncology
D.P. Jewell, BM, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Green College: Professor of Gastroenterology
E.Y. Jones, MA, D.Phil.: Professor of Protein Crystallography
H.J. McQuay, MA, DM, Fellow of Balliol College: Professor of Pain Relief
D. Murray, MA status: Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery
T.E.A. Peto, BM, MA, D.Phil.: Professor of Medicine
P. Salkovskis, MA: Professor of Cognitive Psychology
A.H.R.W. Simpson, MA, DM, Fellow of St Peter's College: Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery
G. Stores, MA, Fellow of Linacre College: Professor of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
J.R. Stradling, MA status: Professor of Respiratory Medicine
D.T. Wade, MA status: Professor of Neurological Disability
A.E. Wakefield, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Merton College: Professor of Infectious Diseases
F.T. Wojnarowska, BM, MA, M.Sc.: Professor of Dermatology
R. Hanna, MA, Fellow of Keble College: Professor of Palaeography
R.J.C. Young, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Wadham College: Professor of English and Critical Theory
S.D. Fredman, BCL, MA, Fellow of Exeter College: Professor of Law
J.C. McCrudden, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Lincoln College: Professor of Human Rights Law
R.H.A. Jenkyns, MA, M.Litt., Fellow of Lady Margaret Hall: Professor of the Classical Tradition
A.W. Lintott, MA, D.Litt., Fellow of Worcester College: Professor of Roman History
R.O.A.M. Lyne, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Balliol College: Professor of Classical Languages and Literature
C.J.K. Batty, MA, M.Sc., D.Phil., Fellow of St John's College: Professor of Analysis
M.R. Bridson, MA, Fellow of Pembroke College: Professor of Topology
E. Süli, MA, Fellow of Linacre: Professor of Numerical Analysis
K.P. Tod, MA, M.Sc., D.Phil., Fellow of St John's College: Professor of Mathematical Physics
H.M. Brown, B. Litt., MA, Fellow of St Hilda's College: Professor of German
C.M. Howells, MA, Fellow of Wadham College: Professor of French
R.N.N. Robertson, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St John's College: Professor of German
H. Watanabe-O'Kelly, MA, Fellow of Exeter College: Professor of German Literature
P.A. Slack, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Linacre College: Professor of Early Modern Social History
J.A. Caldwell, B.Mus., MA, D.Phil.: Professor of Music
F.A. Armstrong, MA, Fellow of St John's College: Professor of Chemistry
G.A.D. Briggs, MA, Fellow of Wolfson College: Professor of Materials
R.W. Daniel, MA, Fellow of Brasenose College: Professor of Engineering Science
J.S. Foord, MA, Fellow of St Catherine's College: Professor of Chemistry
J.C. Green, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Hugh's College: Professor of Chemistry
B. Kouvaritakis, MA, Fellow of St Edmund Hall: Professor of Engineering Science
M.L.G. Oldfield, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Keble College: Professor of Engineering Science
C.V. Robinson, Fellow of Wolfson College: Professor of Chemistry
A.P. Zisserman, MA status: Professor of Engineering Science
D.V.M. Bishop, MA, D.Phil.: Professor of Developmental Neuropsychology
S. Lall, B.Phil., MA, Fellow of Green College: Professor of Development Economics
N. Shephard, MA, Fellow of Nuffield College: Professor of Economics
A.E. McGrath, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Wycliffe Hall: Professor of Historical Theology
1998
The following were awarded the title of Professor in October 1998:
S.J. Simpson, MA, Fellow of Jesus College: Professor of Entomology
D.G. Altman: Professor of Statistics in Medicine
W.O.C.M. Cookson, MA, Fellow of Green College: Professor of Genetics
T.J. Crow: Professor of Psychiatry
R.R. Holman, MA status: Professor of Diabetic Medicine
R. Jacoby, MA, Fellow of Linacre College: Professor of Old Age Psychiatry
D. Kwiatkowski, MA: Professor of Tropical Paediatrics
P.M. Matthews, MA, MD, D.Phil., Fellow of St Edmund Hall: Professor of Neurology
K.R. Mills, MA, Fellow of Green College: Professor of Clinical Neurophysiology
A.C. Vincent, MA, Fellow of Somerville College: Professor of Neuroimmunology
J.S. Wainscoat, MA status: Professor of Haematology
J.A.H. Wass, MA, Fellow of Green College: Professor of Endocrinology
H.N.A. Willcox, MA status: Professor of Neurosciences
B.P. Wordsworth, MA, Fellow of Green College: Professor of Rheumatology
K. Sylva, MA, Fellow of Jesus College: Professor of Educational Psychology
R. Bowlby, MA, Fellow of St Hilda's College: Professor of English Language and Literature
M. Butler, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Exeter College: Professor of English Language and Literature
K. Duncan-Jones, B.Litt., MA, Fellow of Somerville College: Professor of English Language and Literature
G.S. Goodwin-Gill, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Wolfson College: Professor of International Refugee Law
A.M. Cameron, MA, Fellow of Keble College: Professor of Late Antique and Byzantine History
G.O. Hutchinson, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Exeter College: Professor of Greek and Latin Languages and Literature
G. Friesecke, MA, Fellow of St Catherine's College: Professor of Mathematics
P.K. Maini, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Brasenose College: Professor of Mathematical Biology
C.J.H. McDiarmid, MA, M.Sc., D.Phil., Fellow of Corpus Christi College: Professor of Combinatorics
R.A. Cooper, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Brasenose College: Professor of French
P.R.J. Hainsworth, MA, Fellow of Lady Margaret Hall: Professor of Italian
R. Sharpe, MA, Fellow of Wadham College: Professor of Diplomatic
N.L. Stepan, MA: Professor of Modern History
D.B. Abraham, MA, D.Sc., Fellow of Wolfson College: Professor of Statistical Mechanics
R.W. Ainsworth, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Catherine's College: Professor of Engineering Science
P.D. Beer, MA, Fellow of Wadham College: Professor of Chemistry
B.J. Bellhouse, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Magdalen College: Professor of Engineering Science
J.R. Dilworth, MA, Fellow of St Anne's College: Professor of Chemistry
D.J. Edwards, MA, Fellow of Wadham College: Professor of Engineering Science
A.K. Ekert, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Merton College: Professor of Physics
D.A. Hills, MA, Fellow of Lincoln College: Professor of Engineering Science
B.J. Howard, MA, Fellow of Pembroke College: Professor of Chemistry
C.J. Knowles: Professor of Engineering Science
D.M. O'Hare, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Balliol College: Professor of Chemistry
C.J. Schofield, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Hertford College: Professor of Chemistry
A.N. Barclay, MA, D.Phil.: Professor of Molecular Immunology
D.W. Mason, BM, MA status: Professor of Cellular Immunology
P. Robbins, BM, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Queen's College: Professor of Physiology
G. Claridge, MA, Fellow of Magdalen College: Professor of Abnormal Psychology
P.L. Harris, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St John's College: Professor of Developmental Psychology
K.R. Plunkett, MA, Fellow of St Hugh's College: Professor of Cognitive Neuroscience
J.N.P. Rawlins, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of University College: Professor of Behavioural Neuroscience
P.A. David, MA, Fellow of All Souls College: Professor of Economics and Economic History
B. Harriss-White, MA, Fellow of Wolfson College: Professor of Development Studies
1997
The following were awarded the title of Professor in September 1997:
C.G. Clarke, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Jesus: Professor of Urban and Social Geography
D.A. Roe, MA, D.Litt., Fellow of St Cross: Professor of Palaeolithic Archaeology
N.H. Gale, MA, Fellow of Nuffield:Professor of Archaeological Science
L.A. Casselton, MA, Fellow of St Cross: Professor of Fungal Genetics
M.E.S. Dawkins, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Somerville: Professor of Animal Behaviour
A. Kacelnik, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Pembroke: Professor of Behavioural Ecology
S.M. Kingsman, MA, Fellow of Trinity: Professor of Molecular Genetics
M.A. Nowak, MA, MA status, Fellow of Keble: Professor of Mathematical Biology
P. Roy, Professor of Molecular Virology
P. Styles, MA status, D.Phil.: Professor of Clinical Magnetic Resonance
M.D. Yudkin, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Kellogg: Professor of Biochemistry
C.J.K. Bulstrode, BM, MA, Fellow of Green College: Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery
P.J. Cowen, MA status: Professor of Psychopharmacology
S.C. Darby, MA status: Professor of Medical Statistics
K.C. Gatter, BM, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St John's: Professor of Pathology
C.E.W. Hahn, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Green College: Professor of Anaesthetic Science
J.J. Harding, MA status: Professor of Ocular Biochemistry
K. Marsh, Professor of Tropical Medicine
J.C. Marshall, MA: Professor of Neuropsychology
D.Y. Mason, DM, Fellow of Pembroke: Professor of Cellular Pathology
R.A. Mayou, BM, MA, M.Sc., Fellow of Nuffield: Professor of Psychiatry
A.P. Monaco, MA status: Professor of Human Genetics
C.I. Newbold, MA, D.Phil.: Professor of Tropical Medicine
N.N. Osborne, MA, Fellow of Green College: Professor of Ocular Neurobiology
R.E. Phillips, MA, Fellow of Wolfson: Professor of Clinical Medicine
B.C. Sykes, MA, Fellow of Wolfson: Professor of Human Genetics
D. Tarin, MA, DM, Fellow of Green College: Professor of Pathology
A.R. Wilkinson, MA status, Fellow of All Souls: Professor of Paediatrics
I.C. Butler, MA, Student of Christ Church: Professor of English Language and Literature
P.F. Cane, BCL, MA, Fellow of Corpus Christi: Professor of Law
M. Giles, MA, Fellow of St Hugh's: Professor of Computational Fluid Dynamics
A.W. Roscoe, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of University College: Professor of Computing Science
D. Segal, MA, Fellow of All Souls: Professor of Mathematics
R.A.G. Pearson, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Queen's: Professor of French
M. Biddle, MA, Fellow of Hertford: Professor of Medieval Archaeology
R. Parker, MA, Fellow of St Hugh's: Professor of Music
A. Jones, MA, Fellow of Pembroke: Professor of Classical Arabic
D.L.T. Anderson, MA, Fellow of Wolfson: Professor of Physics
J.H.D. Eland, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Worcester: Professor of Physical Chemistry
P. Ewart, MA, Fellow of Worcester: Professor of Physics
G.W.J. Fleet, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St John's: Professor of Chemistry
D.W. Murray, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Anne's: Professor of Engineering Science
J.D. Silver, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of New College: Professor of Physics
A.P. Sutton, MA, Fellow of Linacre: Professor of Materials Science
N.W. Tanner, MA, Fellow of Hertford: Professor of Physics
A.M. Tsvelik, MA, Fellow of Brasenose: Professor of Physics
J.P. Bolam, MA status: Professor of Anatomical Neuropharmacology
J. Errington, MA, Fellow of Magdalen: Professor of Microbiology
M.R. Matthews, B.Sc., MA, DM, Fellow of Lady Margaret Hall: Professor of Human Anatomy
R.D. Vaughan-Jones, MA, Fellow of Exeter: Professor of Cellular Physiology
N.P. Emler, MA, Fellow of Wolfson: Professor of Social Psychology
R.E. Passingham, MA, Fellow of Wadham: Professor of Cognitive Neuroscience
R.J. Foot, MA, Fellow of St Antony's: Professor of International Relations
M.S. Freeden, MA status, D.Phil., Fellow of Mansfield: Professor of Politics
J.N.J. Muellbauer, MA, Fellow of Nuffield: Professor of Economics
A.J. Ryan, MA, D.Litt., Warden of New College: Professor of Politics
D.N.J. MacCulloch, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Cross: Professor of the History of the Church
1996
The title of professor was conferred on the following in July 1996:
I.J.R. Aitchison, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Worcester: Professor of Physics
J.E. Allen, MA, D.Sc., Fellow of University: Professor of Engineering Science
J.W. Allan, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Cross: Professor of Eastern Art
W.W.M. Allison, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Keble: Professor of Physics
D.A. Allport, MA, Fellow of St Anne's: Professor of Experimental Psychology
S. Anand, B.Phil., MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Catherine's: Professor of Economics
J.P. Armitage, MA, Fellow of St Hilda's: Professor of Biochemistry
P.W. Atkins, MA, Fellow of Lincoln: Professor of Chemistry
F.M. Ashcroft, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Trinity: Professor of Physiology
C.C. Ashley, MA, D.Sc., Fellow of Corpus Christi: Professor of Physiology
M.R. Ayers, MA, Fellow of Wadham: Professor of Philosophy
M.O.L. Bacharach, MA, D.Phil., Student of Christ Church: Professor of Economics
J.M. Baker, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Merton: Professor of Physics
R.H. Barnes, B.Litt., MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Antony's: Professor of Social Anthropology
V. Beral, MA, Fellow of Green College: Professor of Epidemiology
J.J. Binney, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Merton: Professor of Physics
R.S. Bird, MA, Fellow of Lincoln: Professor of Computing Science
J.A. Blake, MA, Fellow of Exeter: Professor of Engineering Science
V.B. Bogdanor, MA, Fellow of Brasenose: Professor of Politics
A.F. Brading, MA, Fellow of Lady Margaret Hall: Professor of Pharmacology
J.M. Brown, MA, Fellow of Exeter: Professor of Chemistry
D.A.P. Bundy, MA, Fellow of Linacre: Professor of Zoology
J. Burley, MA, Fellow of Green College: Professor of Forestry
K. Burnett, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St John's: Professor of Physics
J. Campbell, MA, Fellow of Worcester: Professor of Modern History
J.L. Cardy, MA, Fellow of All Souls: Professor of Physics
P.A. Charles, MA, Fellow of St Hugh's: Professor of Physics
D.M. Clark, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of University: Professor of Psychiatry
J.B. Clegg, MA status: Professor of Molecular Medicine
R.E. Collins, MA, M.Sc.: Professor of Cardiology
R.G. Compton, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St John's: Professor of Chemistry
P.R. Cook, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Brasenose: Professor of Cell Biology
E.H. Cooper, MA, Fellow of University: Professor of English Language and Literature
I.W. Craig, MA, Fellow of St Catherine's: Professor of Genetics
P.P. Craig, BCL, MA, Fellow of Worcester: Professor of Law
R.J. Crampton, MA, Fellow of St Edmund Hall: Professor of East European History
C.J. Crouch, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Trinity: Professor of Sociology
V.D. Cunningham, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Corpus Christi: Professor of English Language and Literature
M.K. Davies, B.Phil., MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Corpus Christi: Professor of Philosophy
P.L. Davies, MA, Fellow of Balliol: Professor of Law
S.G. Davies, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of New College: Professor of Chemistry
C.R. Dawkins, MA, D.Phil., D.Sc., Fellow of New College: Professor of the Public Understanding of Science
R.G. Denning, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Magdalen: Professor of Chemistry
R.C.E. Devenish, MA, Fellow of Hertford: Professor of Physics
D. Dew-Hughes, MA, D.Sc., Fellow of University: Professor of Engineering Science
C.M. Dobson, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Lady Margaret Hall: Professor of Chemistry
P.J. Dobson, MA, Fellow of Queen's: Professor of Engineering Science
A.J. Downs, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Jesus: Professor of Chemistry
K.G.H. Dyke, MA, Fellow of Wadham: Professor of Microbiology
D.T. Edmonds, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Wadham: Professor of Physics
J.C. Ellory, MA, Fellow of Corpus Christi: Professor of Physiology
M.M. Esiri, DM, Fellow of St Hugh's: Professor of Neuropathology
C.G. Fairburn, MA, DM: Professor of Psychiatry
S.J. Ferguson, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Edmund Hall: Professor of Biochemistry
R.M. Fitzpatrick, MA, Fellow of Nuffield: Professor of R.M. Fitzpatrick
G.H. Fowler, BM, MA, Fellow of Balliol: Professor of General Practice
D.G. Fraser, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Worcester: Professor of Earth Sciences
M.R. Freedland, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St John's: Professor of Law
D.I.D. Gallie, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Nuffield: Professor of Sociology
S.C. Gill, B.Phil., MA, Fellow of Lincoln: Professor of English Language and Literature
J.C. Gittins, MA, D.Sc., Fellow of Keble: Professor of Statistics
A.M. Glazer, MA, Fellow of Jesus: Professor of Physics
M.D. Goodman, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Wolfson: Professor of Jewish Studies
M.J. Goringe, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Pembroke: Professor of Materials Science
J.N. Gray, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Jesus: Professor of Politics
S.A. Greenfield, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Lincoln: Professor of Pharmacology
J.D. Gross, MA status: Professor of Biochemistry
G. Hancock, MA, Fellow of Trinity: Professor of Chemistry
J.F. Harris, MA, Fellow of St Catherine's: Professor of Modern History
J.W. Harris, BCL, MA, Fellow of Keble: Professor of Law
B.H. Harrison, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Corpus Christi: Professor of Modern History
K.E. Hawton, DM, Fellow of Green College: Professor of Psychiatry
R.G. Haydon, MA, Fellow of Brasenose: Professor of Mathematics
A.F. Heath, MA, Fellow of Nuffield: Professor of Sociology
R.E.M. Hedges, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Cross: Professor of Archaeology
J.A. Hiddleston, MA, Fellow of Exeter: Professor of French
D.R. Higgs, MA status: Professor of Haematology
A.V.S. Hill, MA, D.Phil., DM, Fellow of Exeter: Professor of Human Genetics
R.G. Hood, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of All Souls: Professor of Criminology
J.D. Hunt, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Edmund Hall: Professor of Materials Science
J.J.B. Jack, BM, MA, Fellow of University: Professor of Physiology
W.R. James, B.Litt., MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Cross: Professor of Social Anthropology
C. Jordan, MA, Fellow of Somerville: Professor of Physics
J.S. Kelly, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St John's: Professor of English Language and Literature
W.J. Kennedy, MA, Fellow of Wolfson: Professor of Earth Sciences
D.S. King, MA, Fellow of St John's: Professor of Politics
A.J. Kingsman, MA, Fellow of St Catherine's: Professor of Biochemistry
L.J. Kinlen, MA status, D.Phil.: Professor of Epidemiology
F.C. Kirwan, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Balliol: Professor of Mathematics
J.B. Knight, MA, Fellow of St Edmund Hall: Professor of Economics
P. Langford, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Lincoln: Professor of Modern History
G.M. Lathrop: Professor of Human Genetics
J.E. Lewis, Fellow of All Souls: Professor of the History of Medicine
D.E. Logan, MA, Fellow of Balliol: Professor of Chemistry
P.A. Mackridge, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Cross: Professor of Modern Greek
I.W.F. Maclean, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Queen's: Professor of French
P.A. Madden, MA, Fellow of Queen's: Professor of Chemistry
W.F. McColl, MA, Fellow of Wadham: Professor of Computing Science
K.A. McLauchlan, MA, Fellow of Hertford: Professor of Chemistry
I.S. McLean, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Nuffield: Professor of Politics
D.M. Metcalf, MA, D.Phil., D.Litt., Fellow of Wolfson: Professor of Numismatics
J.F. Morris, MA, Fellow of St Hugh's: Professor of Human Anatomy
G.M. Morriss-Kay, MA: Professor of Human Anatomy
P.C. Newell, MA, D.Phil., D.Sc., Fellow of St Peter's: Professor of Biochemistry
E.A. Newsholme, MA, D.Sc., Fellow of Merton: Professor of Biochemistry
R.J. Nicholas, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of University: Professor of Physics
P.A. Nuttall, MA, Fellow of Wolfson: Professor of Virology
J.J. O'Connor, MA, Fellow of St Peter's: Professor of Engineering Science
R.G. Osborne, MA, Fellow of Corpus Christi: Professor of Ancient History
R. J. Parish, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Catherine's: Professor of French
A.J. Parker, MA, Fellow of St John's: Professor of Physiology
M.B. Parkes, B.Litt., MA, D.Litt., Fellow of Keble: Professor of Palaeography
V.H. Perry, MA, D.Phil.: Professor of Pharmacology
J.B. Pethica, MA, Fellow of St Cross: Professor of Materials Science
H.J.O. Pogge von Strandmann, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of University: Professor of Modern History
T. Powell, MA, Fellow of New College: Professor of Physiology
N.J. Proudfoot, MA, Fellow of Brasenose: Professor of Experimental Pathology
C.K. Prout, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Oriel: Professor of Chemistry
P.J. Ratcliffe, MA status, Fellow of Jesus: Professor of Medicine
L.D. Reynolds, MA, Fellow of Brasenose: Professor of Classical Languages and Literature
V. Reynolds, MA, Fellow of Magdalen: Professor of Biological Anthropology
P.G. Rivière, B.Litt., MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Linacre: Professor of Social Anthropology
W.G. Richards, MA, D.Phil., D.Sc., Fellow of Brasenose: Professor of Chemistry
C.F. Robinson, MA, Student of Christ Church: Professor of European Literature
B.J. Rogers, MA, Fellow of Lady Margaret Hall: Professor of Experimental Psychology
E.T. Rolls, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Corpus Christi: Professor of Experimental Psychology Studies
C. Ruiz, MA, Fellow of Exeter: Professor of Engineering Science
J.F. Ryan, MA, Student of Christ Church: Professor of Physics
R. W. Sheppard, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Magdalen: Professor of German
A. Shlaim, MA, Fellow of St Antony's: Professor of International Relations
E. Sim, MA status, D.Phil., Fellow of St Peter's: Professor of Pharmacology
G.D.W. Smith, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Trinity: Professor of Materials Science
G.L. Smith, MA, Fellow of Wadham: Professor of Pathology
J.A.C. Smith, MA, Fellow of Magdalen: Professor of Plant Sciences
P.P. Somogyi, MA status: Professor of Pharmacology
D.N. Stacey, MA, D.Phil., Student of Christ Church: Professor of Physics
J.F. Stein, B.Sc., BM, MA, Fellow of Magdalen: Professor of Physiology
F.J. Stewart, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Somerville: Professor of Development Economics
N.J. Stone, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of St Edmund Hall: Professor of Physics
O.P. Taplin, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Magdalen: Professor of Classical Languages and Literature
J.A. Todd, MA status: Professor of Human Genetics
R.C. Turner, MA, Fellow of Green College: Professor of Medicine
M.A. Vaughan, MA, Fellow of Nuffield: Professor of Commonwealth
M.R. Vaughan-Lee, MA, D.Phil., Student of Christ Church: Professor of Mathematics
A.J. Ware, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Worcester: Professor of Politics
A. Watts, MA, Fellow of St Hugh's: Professor of Biochemistry
R.P. Wayne, MA, Student of Christ Church: Professor of Chemistry
A.J. Wilkie, MA, Fellow of Wolfson: Professor of Mathematical Logic
M. Williams, MA, Fellow of Oriel: Professor of Geography
T. Wilson, MA, D.Phil., Fellow of Hertford: Professor of Engineering Science
N.J. White, MA status: Professor of Tropical Medicine
K.J. Wood, MA status, D.Phil.: Professor of Immunology
J.F. Wordsworth, MA, Fellow of St Catherine's: Professor of English Language and Literature
D.A. Wyatt, MA, Fellow of St Edmund Hall: Professor of Law
References
Lists of people associated with the University of Oxford
Terminology of the University of Oxford
Academic ranks
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2149662
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tel
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.tel
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The domain name .tel is a top-level domain (TLD) in the Domain Name System (DNS) of the Internet. It was approved by ICANN as a sponsored top-level domain, and is operated by Telnic. Telnic announced in January 2011 that over 300,000 domains had been registered since the start of general availability on 24 March 2009. A substantial drop of mostly IDN .tels occurred at the beginning of 2014 - the current total registered .tels as of 21 July 2016 is 98,516.
The domain's purpose is to provide a single name space for Internet communications services. Subdomain registrations serve as a single point of contact for individuals and businesses, providing a global contact directory service by hosting all types of contact information directly in the Domain Name System, without the need to build, host or manage a traditional web service. Additionally, as of July 2010, every .tel domain acts as an OpenID and an increasing number of Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) clients can address a .tel domain name directly. The TLD implementation also supports the hCard micro-format.
Administration of domains
Telnic started publicly accepting applications for name registrations on 3 February 2009 after a closed Sunrise period for trademark holders. Information in .tel can be controlled by the owner through a website control panel that Telnic has created for registrars to provide to their customers, or through free clients for BlackBerry, Microsoft Outlook, iPhone, Android and some third party VoIP softphone clients. With the introduction of support for OAuth in July 2010, however, new third-party clients and services are available to tel registrants for publishing records to their domains securely, including the possibility of editing information offline via SMS gateways. The control panel is an open source application, and can be changed or completely replaced by registrars, as the application programming interfaces required to manage information in the DNS were released by Telnic in October 2008.
When viewed over the Web, all tel domains point directly to a Telnic proxy webpage that is populated on the fly presenting the respective domain name owner's contact data stored within the DNS system. domains can also be accessed without opening a browser on many devices through open source applications or through direct DNS lookups.
Since 13 March 2017 additionally other name servers could be set for tel domains, which allows administration of domain name system records. Now tel domains behave like ordinary domains and could be used for web hosting and email.
Technical overview
In contrast to other top-level domains, .tel information is stored directly within the Domain Name System (DNS), within the actual domain name record, as opposed to the DNS simply returning details (such as IP addresses) of the machines on which information can be found. For example, users who register a .tel domain using Telnic name servers cannot create a type A Resource Record with the IP address of their own host. A user who wants to host a web site or run an own web server has to set own or providers' name servers.
As Telnic has enabled the DNS records to be encrypted using 1024-bit RSA with PKCS#1.5 padding and stored in sub-folders which are hidden until paired with a public private key handshake with individuals, there is protection from spammers. As .tel also supports any type of contact information, concierge services like temporary email addresses, temporary telephone numbers and so on can all be utilized for additional protection of public information.
Reliability of data
The .tel TLD was released to trademark holders only until 3 February 2009, perhaps suggest that the resulting database of contact information can somehow be trusted as the official contact information of the rightful owner of those trademarks. However, after the short period of registrations restricted to trademark holders only (the Sunrise period), anyone willing to pay a premium price was allowed to buy any domain name (the Landrush period) regardless of who owned the trademark.
Furthermore, during General Availability, anyone is able to register any name (assuming that it is available for registration) without paying a premium price.
The information held under the .tel domain is no more accurate or trustworthy than any other user defined data held in the DNS system. It will be down to individual .tel owners to choose what they wish to store there.
As with all other gTLDs, trademark owners can utilize the Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy (UDRP) to claim trademarked domains back.
Differences from domain .mobi
Since some of the services that are expected to use tel domains can be achieved on mobile telephones, there may be overlap with the intended use of the mobi domain, which was also approved by ICANN in the same round.
However, .tel is about publishing contact data: phone numbers, SIP addresses and so on directly in the DNS, not on html-based websites., whereas the focus of the .mobi domain is providing web sites and other content formatted specifically for the user interface available on mobile phones and other mobile devices.
Alternative usage proposal
Pulver.com (operated by Jeff Pulver) also submitted an application for the .tel TLD, but had a different intent. This proposal involved telephone number style numeric identifiers. Alternative viewpoints claimed that this either complemented or conflicted with telephone number mapping (ENUM). Purely numeric identifiers have now been approved for release by Telnic and will be released later in 2011, with the restriction that single-digit .tel domains be withheld in order to avoid confusion with ENUM.
References
External links
Telnic – sponsoring organization
IANA – whois information
Official TelPages Directory
Sponsored top-level domains
Computer-related introductions in 2005
sv:Toppdomän#Generiska toppdomäner
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31505215
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RT-RK
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RT-RK
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RT-RK () is a Serbian R&D company and national research institute that delivers development services and own products in the arena of real time embedded systems, with focus on consumer electronics and automotive industry. Headquartered in Novi Sad, with offices in Belgrade, Banja Luka (Bosnia and Herzegovina) and Osijek (Croatia) with over 550 engineers, RT-RK is one of the biggest development houses in Southeast Europe.
RT-RK is engaged in embedded system design, TV software development, automotive software development, Digital Signal Processing (DSP), UI/UX design, product development including small scale production, testing of Set-Top Box (STB) and multimedia devices, and FPGA rapid prototyping.
History
In 1991, a small group of professors and assistants working at University of Novi Sad Faculty of Technical Sciences, Chair for Computer Engineering, launched first projects for telephony and digital signaling protocols (SSNo7, ISDN on DSS1 D channel). Their interest for business further evolved to automation processes in Serbian oil industry, where they were involved in projects for gas pipeline management. Recognizing the benefits of the University environment, they started a company named FTN-IRAM-RT. Close cooperation of FTN-IRAM-RT with The University of Novi Sad attracted Micronas, German company, to launch MicronasNIT within the same environment and with the same management. Having become a Micronas’ subsidiary MicronasNIT entered the era of expansion in DSP, FPGA and Digital TV technology.
In 2005, Serbia Investment and Export Promotion Agency (SIEPA) awarded MicronasNIT as the biggest exporter of the year in SME (Small and Medium Enterprises) category.
New technologies, customer service, and world-wide market access brought new customers, emerging the need for a new business model to render the services. The new circumstances gave rise to foundation of a new company, RT-RK.
In April 2009, RT-RK bought MicronasNIT, becoming the largest Serbian company for embedded system design.
The Ministry of Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia accredited RT-RK Computer Based Systems LLC as a National Research and Development Institute. In their explanation, Advisory Committee stated that the scientific programs of RT-RK contribute to development of new products and devices, introduce new and improve existing technological processes, systems and services, and perform transfer of knowledge and technology. The company employs scientific researchers, has programs for young developers, and has facilities, equipment, and other resources to implement its programs.
Operations
Automotive
RT-RK is engaged on real time applications involving the major SoCs of the industry such as those of Texas Instruments, Qualcomm, Renesas, NVIDIA and Infineon.
It carries out system software development, AUTOSAR porting and customization, projects complying with ASPICE processes and functional safety, UI/UX development, reference hardware design, and technology transfer to Tier1/OEM. RT-RK is specialized in relevant operating systems and industry standards, such as Linux, ISO26262, Ethernet, FlexRay, MOST, HTML5, GENIVI.
These are the services the company is offering:
Software and operating systems for ECU, based on AUTOSAR and Functional safety standard ISO26262
Software solutions for driver assistance
HMI development for Head Units, Instrument Cluster and Head-up Displays
Development of In-Vehicle Infotainment systems (IVI) – including reception of TV signal and services
Integration, customization, and development services (platform selection, OS, complex device drivers, communication, ECU abstraction, services, microcontroller abstraction, AUTOSAR RTE, and application software components)
Product portfolio and solutions:
Automotive machine vision Middleware enables cross platform execution of ADAS algorithms utilizing various inputs, outputs and multiple processing cores.
Automotive machine vision ALPHA reference board based on System On Chip of Texas Instruments. The board is intended for car manufacturers (OEMs), automotive design houses (Tier1/2/3) for rapid prototyping, TI automotive customers, and algorithm developers for demo purposes.
Digital TV software
The company’s journey in Digital TV began in 2001 with joint venture with Micronas, Germany to develop software for their TVs. With time it transformed from an extended workbench approach towards a system supplier becoming a full Micronas subsidiary to deliver software solutions for Digital TV, and take over significant support responsibility towards Micronas' customers. When Micronas closed down their consumer business unit, it left RT-RK fully independent and continuing with TV software development.
RT-RK was the first company to announce successful porting of the big-endian version of the Android™ operating system for the MIPS® architecture facilitating SoC manufacturers to use Android, targeting market of Digital TVs (DTV), Set-Top Boxes (STB) and for applications in the digital home.
Zoran Corporation singled out RT-RK for porting Android onto their System on Chip (SOC), joining forces in development of multimedia applications and services for connected TV.
In 2011 RT-RK became a shareholder of iWedia, a Swiss-based company and operates as system integrator on Set-Top Box and TV software products based on their DVB middleware.
In 2012 RT-RK announced cooperation with General Satellite on their Set-Top Box GS-8305 deployed on the network of Tricolor TV, which was developed by RT-RK. Mass production of the box in their factory in Kaliningrad has been tested by the RT-RK’s BBT Set-Top Box testing products.
Its Android background was helpful to integrate IPTV and broadcast TV (DVB/ATSC) functionalities inside TV and STB devices powered by the Android operating system called ANDROID4TV, made Google conclude an agreement with the company to provide integration services to Google partners wishing to deploy Google TV in their products.
Android Set-Top Box deployments continue with Swisscom IPTV STB, and Bouygues Telecom Bbox Miami hybrid box with Google Mobile Services (Google Play Store, Google Music, Chrome, YouTube, Google Play Movies) certified by Google.
In September 2014 the company made ANDROID4TV software framework open source facilitating TV operators worldwide with the benefits of leveraging of Android openness, flexibility, and developers' community.
iWedia has many projects, including SAT>IP server and Linux-based H.264 Set-Top Box based on STMicroelectronics’ Liege chipset, both boxes being produced by RT-RK.
RT-RK continues operations providing services to other players in the Digital TV world, some of them being: SmarDTV, Vidmind, and Wyplay.
Home automation
OBLO is an end-to-end home automation solution by RT-RK which enables home automation, including:
Centralized automation via the control hub and the cloud
Automation apps (mobile, web), to control home from any place, any time
Connectivity among home devices like Zigbee, Z-Wave and WiFi.
Set of ready-made devices to automate lighting and energy consumption
Blueprints for adding “smarts” to devices
OBLO is scalable and allows the selection and customization of components to make an automated home.
BBT (Black Box Testing)
The line of RT-RK products codenamed BBT provides testing equipment and services to Set-Top Box and multimedia devices development and production.
RT-RK supports the Digital TV product life cycle, from marketing through to development, production and qualification, superseding human testing labor of 600 man/days monthly, for the largest European and the third largest OEM in the world Vestel.
As announced by the HbbTV Association, an initiative for providing an open standard for the delivery of broadcast and broadband services through connected TVs and set-top boxes, RT-RK is a supplier of majority test cases included in the HbbTV 2.0 test suite, in addition to all the applicable ones from the HbbTV 1/1.5 test suite and other sources. In addition, RT-RK supplies additional tests to cover the differences between HbbTV 2.0 and HbbTV 2.0.1, mostly required for the migration of Italy and the UK from their existing solutions to HbbTV.
Near Shore Development Centre (NSDC)
RT-RK is a strategic partner and Near Shore Development Centre (NSDC) of Cirrus Logic, Imagination Technologies, Wyplay, Zenterio, and Vestel in the consumer electronics industry. In May 2015, TTTech, a technology leader in robust networked safety controls and partner of Audi, announced a strategic partnership with RT-RK in the field of automotive electronics and industrial applications, by acquiring 35% of the company’s share capital.
Locations
References
External links
Consumer electronics
Software companies of Serbia
Serbian brands
Companies established in 1991
Electronic test equipment manufacturers
1991 establishments in Serbia
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42171564
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panoweaver
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Panoweaver
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Panoweaver supports telephoto, normal, wide angle and fisheye lens images into full 360*180 spherical panoramic image. Panoweaver also supports exporting 360 panoramic images into Flash VR, QuickTime VR, Java-based VR tours and swf, and publish on Facebook.
The 'free trial version' of Panoweaver is fully functional but creates panoramas with embedded visible watermarks.
Panoweaver pro also includes HDR and tone mapping support.
List of features
See also
Hugin is an open source alternative also based on Panorama Tools
Further reading
Jacobs, Corinna - Interactive Panoramas: Techniques for Digital Panoramic Photography
Andrews, Philip - 360 Degree Imaging: The Photographers Panoramic Virtual Reality Manual
References
External links
C (programming language) software
C++ software
Panorama software
Windows graphics-related software
MacOS graphics software
Photo stitching software
Photo software
Software that uses wxWidgets
HDR tone mapping software
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8881705
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20vacuum%20tubes
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List of vacuum tubes
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This is a list of vacuum tubes or thermionic valves, and low-pressure gas-filled tubes, or discharge tubes. Before the advent of semiconductor devices, thousands of tube types were used in consumer electronics. Many industrial, military or otherwise professional tubes were also produced. Only a few types are still used today, mainly in high-power, high-frequency applications.
Heater or filament ratings
Receiving tubes have heaters or filaments intended for direct battery operation, parallel operation off a dedicated winding on a supply transformer, or series string operation on transformer-less sets. High-power RF power tubes are directly heated; the heater voltage must be much smaller than the signal voltage on the grid and is therefore in the 5...25 V range, drawing up to hundreds of amperes from a suitable heater transformer. In some valve part number series, the voltage class of the heater is given in the part number, and a similar valve might be available with several different heater voltage ratings.
Tube bases and envelopes
Abbreviations used in this list
ST – Shouldered tube
GT – Glass tube
MT – Miniature tube, such as Noval B9A or Miniature 7-pin B7G
FL – Subminiature all-glass elliptical body and flat bases with long, inline "flying leads" (pigtails) that are soldered into the circuit
SL – Subminiature all-glass elliptical body and flat bases with short inline leads that can be soldered or can be mated with a special socket. (Flying leads can be cut short to fit into inline sockets.)
R8 – Subminiature all-glass round body and base with 8 flying leads or stiff pins arranged in a circle
Numbering systems
North American systems
RETMA receiving tubes system
RETMA is the acronym for the Radio Electronic Television Manufacturers Association formed in 1953 - however the standard itself had already been in use since 1933, when RCA/Cunningham introduced the 1A6, 2A3, 2A5, etc.
The first character group is a number representing the heater voltage rounded to the nearest whole number; 0 indicates a cold-cathode tube.
One or two letters assigned to the devices in order of development.
A single numeral that represents the number of active elements in the tube.
Suffix letters distinguish revisions or variants:
A, B, C – Improved backward compatible versions
E – Export version
G – Glass bulb, ST-12 to ST-16 size
GT – Glass bulb, T-9 size
GT/G – Glass bulb, T-9 size interchangeable with G and GT types
L – Loctal
LM – Loctal-metal
LT – Locking base
M – Metal envelope
MG – Metal-glass
ML – Metal-Loctal
S – Spray shielded
W – Ruggedised, or military grade
WA, WB – Improved, backward compatible military/industrial variants
X – Low loss ceramic base for RF use
Y – Low loss mica-filled phenolic resin ("Micanol") base for RF use
Lastly, manufacturers may decide to combine two type numbers into a single name, which their one device can replace, such as: 6DX8/ECL84 (6DX8 and ECL84 being identical devices under different naming schemes) or 6BC5/6CE5 (sufficiently identical devices within the RETMA naming system) and even 3A3/3B2, or 6AC5-GT/6AC5-G (where the single type number, 6AC5-GT/6AC5-G, supersedes both the 6AC5-G and the 6AC5-GT).
Often designations that differed only in their initial numerals would be identical except for heater characteristics.
For examples see below
RMA professional tubes system
The system was used in 1942–44 and assigned numbers with the base form "1A21", and is therefore also referred to as the "1A21 system".
The first numeric character indicated the filament/heater power rating, the second alphabetic character was a code for the function, and the last 2 digits were sequentially assigned, beginning with 21
For examples see below.
EIA professional tubes system
A four-digit system was maintained by JETEC since 1944, then by EIA since 1957 for special industrial, military and professional vacuum and gas-filled tubes, and all sorts of other devices requiring to be sealed off against the external atmosphere.
Some manufacturers preceded the EIA number with a manufacturer's code:
CK, RK – Raytheon Company
ECG – Philips/Sylvania
F – Federal Telephone and Radio (ITT division)
GL – General Electric Corp. (not British General Electric Company)
ML – Machlett Laboratories, Inc.
NL – National Electronics, Inc. (Geneva, Illinois, USA)
NU – National Union Electric Corp. (Orange, New Jersey, USA)
PL – Philips N.V.
SV – Svetlana:
formerly only PJSC "Svetlana/ПАО Светлана", St. Petersburg, Russia
now also a brand of New Sensor Corp., Long Island City, New York, USA, manufacturing in Saratov, Russia
WL – Westinghouse Electric Corp.
For examples see below.
Eimac transmitting tubes system
Eitel/McCullough and other manufacturers of high power RF tubes use the following code since 1945:
An initial digit denoting the number of electrodes:
2 – Diode
3 – Triode
4 – Tetrode
5 – Pentode
Up to 2 letters denoting the construction type and the cooling method:
R or a hyphen ("-") – Glass envelope, radiation cooling
C – Ceramic envelope
K – (Reflex-)Klystron
P – Primarily for pulse applications
L – External anode, liquid convection cooling
N – External anode, natural convection air cooling
S – External anode, conduction cooling
V – Vapor cooled (anode is immersed in boiling water, and the steam is collected, condensed and recycled)
W – Water cooled (water is pumped through an outer metal jacket thermically connected to the anode)
X – Forced-air cooled (air is blown through cooling fins thermally connected to the anode)
A number to indicate the maximum anode dissipation in watts. This can be exceeded for a short time, as long as the average is not exceeded over the anode's thermal time constant (typically 0.1 sec). In Class-C applications, the amplifier output power delivered to the load may be higher than the device dissipation
One or more manufacturer-proprietary letters denoting the construction variant
An optional digit denoting the gain group:
1 – ≤10
2 – 11...20
3 – 21...30
4 – 31...50
5 – 51...100
6 – 101...200
7 – 201...500
8 – 501...1000
Optionally a slash "/" followed by the RMA or EIA equivalent.
Examples:
3CW5000A3 – 5 kW Ceramic triode, water cooled, variant 'A', gain group 3
3CX100A5 – 100 W Ceramic UHF triode, forced-air cooled, variant 'A', gain group 5; often used by radio amateurs for 23cm-band microwave amplifiers.
3CX1500A7 (8877) – 1.5 kW Ceramic triode, forced air cooled, variant 'A', gain group 7
3CX2500A3 – 2.5 kW Ceramic triode, forced air cooled, variant 'A', gain group 3
4-65A (8165) – 65 W Glass beam tetrode
4-125A (4D21, 6155) – 125 W Glass beam tetrode
4-250A (5D22, 6156) – 110 MHz, 250 W Glass beam tetrode
4-400A – 400 W Glass beam tetrode
4-1000A (8166) – 1 kW Glass beam tetrode popular in broadcast and amateur transmitters.
4CX250B – 250 W Ceramic tetrode, forced-air cooled, version 'B', favored by radio amateurs as a final amplifier.
4CX250DC – 250 W Ceramic tetrode, forced-air cooled, version 'DC'
4CX35000 – Ceramic tetrode used in numerous 50-kW broadcast transmitters, forced-air cooled, often in a Doherty configuration as in the Continental Electronics 317C series.
5-125B/4E27A – 75 MHz, 125 W Glass power pentode
5-500A – 500 W Glass radial-beam pentode
5CX1500A – 110 MHz, 1.5 kW Ceramic radial-beam pentode, forced air cooled
5CX3000A – 150 MHz, 4.0 kW Ceramic radial-beam pentode, forced air cooled
5K70SH – 30 kW S-band Klystron
West European systems
Mullard–Philips system
This system is very descriptive of what type of device (triode, diode, pentode etc.) it is applied to, as well as the heater/filament type and the base type (octal, noval, etc.). Adhering manufacturers include AEG (de), Amperex (us), CdL (1921, French Mazda brand), CIFTE (fr, Mazda-Belvu brand), EdiSwan (uk, British Mazda brand), Radiotechnique (fr, Coprim, Miniwatt-Dario and RTC brands), Lorenz (de), MBLE(fr, nl) (be, Adzam brand), Mullard (uk), Philips (nl, Miniwatt brand), RCA (us), RFT(de, sv) (de), Siemens (de), Telefunken (de), Tesla (cz), Toshiba (ja), Tungsram (hu), Unitra (pl, Dolam, Polam and Telam brands) and Valvo(de, it) (de).
Standard tubes
This part dates back to the joint valve code key () negotiated between Philips and Telefunken in 1933–34. Like the North American system the first symbol describes the heater voltage, in this case, a Roman letter rather than a number. Further Roman letters, up to three, describe the device followed by one to four numerals assigned in a semi-chronological order of type development within number ranges assigned to different base types.
If two devices share the same type designation other than the first letter (e.g. ECL82, PCL82, UCL82) they will usually be identical except for heater specifications; however there are exceptions, particularly with output types (for example, both the PL84 and UL84 differ significantly from the EL84 in certain major characteristics, although they have the same pinout and similar power rating). However, device numbers do not reveal any similarity between different type families; e.g. the triode section of an ECL82 is not related to either triode of an ECC82, whereas the triode section of an ECL86 does happen to be similar to those of an ECC83.
Pro Electron maintained a subset of the M-P system after their establishment in 1966, with only the first letters E, P for the heater, only the second letters A, B, C, D, E, F, H, K, L, M, Y, Z for the type, and issuing only three-digit numbers starting with 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9 for the base.
Notes: Tungsram preceded the M-P designation with the letter T, as in TAD1 for AD1; VATEA Rádiótechnikai és Villamossági Rt.-t. (VATEA Radio Technology and Electric Co. Ltd., Budapest, Hungary) preceded the M-P designation with the letter V, as in VEL5 for EL5.
First letter: heater/filament type
Heater ratings for series-string, AC/DC tubes are given in milliamperes; heater ratings for parallel-string tubes are given in volts
A – 4 V heater for 2-cell lead-acid batteries and for AC mains transformers
B – 180 mA DC series heater
C – 200 mA AC/DC series heater
D – 1.4 V DC filament for Leclanché cells, later low-voltage/low power filament/heater:
0.625 V DC directly heated for NiCd battery, series-heated two-tube designs such as hearing aids. If either filament breaks, further draining of all batteries stops
Wide range 0.9 V to 1.55 V DC directly heated for dry cells
1.25 V DC directly heated for NiCd batteries
1.25 V or 1.4 V AC from a separate heater winding on CRT horizontal-output transformers, in half-indirectly heated EHT rectifiers
E – 6.3 V parallel heater; for 3-cell lead-acid vehicle crank batteries (mobile equipment) and for AC mains or horizontal-output transformers
F – 12.6 V DC parallel heater for 6-cell lead-acid vehicle crank batteries
G – Various heaters between 2.5 and 5.0 V AC (except 4 V) from a separate heater winding on a mains or horizontal-output transformer for the anode voltage rectifier
H – 150 mA AC/DC series heater
In 1938, Philips tried to define this letter as "4 V battery", as opposed to A for "4 V AC"
I – 20 V heater
K – 2.0 V filament for 1-cell lead-acid batteries, later for AC transformers
L – 450 mA AC/DC series heater; was shifted here from Y
M – 1.9 V, directly heated
N – 12.6 V, indirectly heated
O – Cold cathode
by 1955 this also included semiconductors as these had no heater
Philips sold a family of 150mA series heater tubes under this letter in South America
P – 300 mA AC/DC series heater
Q – 2.4 V, indirectly heated
R – Not assigned to avoid any confusion with the older Telefunken "R" system
S – 1.9 V, indirectly heated
T – Custom heater
U – 100 mA AC/DC series heater
V – 50 mA AC/DC series heater
X – 600 mA AC/DC series heater
Y – 450 mA AC/DC series heater, shifted to L to avoid conflicts with the professional tubes system
Z – Cold cathode tube; was shifted here from O after the advent of semiconductors
Second and subsequent letters: system type
<none> or R – Resistive element (ballast tube, barretter, photoresistor)
A – Small signal diode
B – Dual small signal diode
C – Small signal triode
D – Power output triode
E – Small signal tetrode
F – Small signal pentode
H – Mixer hexode, special purpose heptode
K – Mixer heptode or octode
L – Power output, beam tetrode or pentode
M – Optical tuning/level indicator
N – Gas-filled thyratron
P – Secondary emission tube – mostly used as third letter
Q – Nonode
S – Special tube ()
T – Beam deflection tube, or misc.
W – Gas-filled half-wave rectifier
X – Gas-filled full-wave rectifier
Y – Vacuum half-wave rectifier (power diode)
Z – Vacuum full-wave rectifier (dual power diode with common cathode)
E.g. ECCnn is a 6.3 V dual triode; EABCnn has a single detector diode, a common-cathode pair of diodes, and a triode.
Following digits: model number and base type
For signal pentodes, an odd model number most often identified a variable-mu (remote-cutoff) tube, whereas an even number identified a 'high slope' (sharp-cutoff) tube
For power pentodes and triode-pentode combinations, even numbers usually indicate linear (audio power amplifier) devices while odd numbers were more suited to video signals or situations where more distortion could be tolerated.
1–9 – Pinch-type construction tubes, mostly P8 bases (P base, 8-pin side-contact) or European 5-pin (B base) and various other European pre-octal designs
10–19 – 8-pin German metal octal, Y8A
20–29 – Loctal B8G; some octal; some 8-way side contact (exceptions are DAC21, DBC21, DCH21, DF21, DF22, DL21, DLL21, DM21 which have octal bases)
30–39 – International Octal (IEC 67-I-5a), also known as IO or K8A
40–49 – Rimlok (Rimlock) B8A All-glass miniature tubes
41w – Battery-heated bowl tube ()
50–59 – "Special construction types fitted with bases applicable to design features used"; mostly locking bases: "9-pin Loctal" (B9G) or 8-pin Loctal (B8G); but also used for Octal and others (3-pin glass; Disk-seal incl. Lighthouse tubes; German 10-pin with spigot; min. 4-pin; B26A; Magnoval B9D)
60–69 – Pencil tubes – sub-miniature all-glass tubes, pigtailed (inline fly-leads in place of pins)
—Before the 1950s:
60–64 – All-glass tubes fitted with 9-pin Loctal (B9G) bases
70–79 – Pencil tubes with circular pins or fly-leads
—Before the 1950s:
70–79 – 8-pin Loctal (Lorenz)
80–89 – Noval B9A (9-pin; IEC 67-I-12a)
90–99 – "Button" B7G (miniature 7-pin; IEC 67-I-10a)
100–109 – B7G; Wehrmacht base; German PTT base
110–119 – 8-pin German metal octal; Rimlock B8A
130–139 – Octal
150–159 – German 10-pin with spigot; 10-pin glass with one big pin; Octal
160–169 – Inline wire-ended Pencil tubes; 8-pin German metal octal
170–179 – RFT 8-pin; RFT 11-pin all-glass gnome tube with one offset pin
180–189 – Noval B9A
190–199 – Miniature 7-pin B7G
200–209 – Decal B10B; Pro Electron-issued
230–239 – Octal
270–279 – RFT 11-pin all glass with one offset pin
280–289 – Noval B9A
300–399 – Octal; Pro Electron-issued
400–499 – Rimlock B8A
500–529 – Magnoval B9D; Pro Electron-issued
600–699 – Inline wire-ended Pencil tubes
700–799 – Circular wire-ended Pencil tubes
800–899 – Noval B9A; Pro Electron-issued
900–999 – Miniature 7-pin B7G; Pro Electron-issued
—Special quality:
1000– Round wire-ended; special Nuvistor base
2000– Decal B10B
3000– Octal
5000– Magnoval B9D
8000– Noval B9A
For examples see below
Special quality tubes
Vacuum tubes which had special qualities of some sort, very often long-life designs, particularly for computer and telecommunications use, had the numeric part of the designation placed immediately after the first letter. They were usually special-quality versions of standard types. Thus the E82CC was a long-life version of the ECC82 intended for computer and general signal use, and the E88CC a high quality version of the ECC88/6DJ8. While the E80F pentode was a high quality development of the EF80, they were not pin-compatible and could not be interchanged without rewiring the socket (the E80F is commonly sought after as a high quality replacement for the similar EF86 type in guitar amplifiers). The letters "CC" indicated the two triodes and the "F", the single pentode inside these types.
A few special-quality tubes did not have a standard equivalent, e.g. the E55L, a broadband power pentode used as the output stage of oscilloscope amplifiers and the E90CC, a double triode with a common cathode connection and seven pin base for use in cathode-coupled Flip-flops in early computers. The E91H is a special heptode with a passivated third grid designed to reduce secondary emission; this device was used as a "gate", allowing or blocking pulses applied to the first, (control) grid by changing the voltage on the third grid, in early computer circuits (similar in function to the U.S. 6AS6).
Many of these types had gold-plated base pins and special heater configurations inside the nickel cathode tube designed to reduce hum pickup from the A.C. heater supply, and also had improved oxide insulation between the heater and cathode so the cathode could be elevated to a greater voltage above the heater supply. (Note that elevating the cathode voltage above the average heater voltage, which in well-designed equipment was supplied from a transformer with an earthed center-tapped secondary, was less detrimental to the oxide insulation between heater and cathode than lowering the cathode voltage below the heater voltage, helping to prevent pyrometallurgical electrolytic chemical reactions where the oxide touched the nickel cathode that could form conductive aluminium tungstate and which could ultimately develop into a heater-cathode short circuit.)
Better, often dual, getters were implemented to maintain a better vacuum, and more-rigid electrode supports introduced to reduce microphonics and improve vibration and shock resistance. The mica spacers used in "SQ" and "PQ" types did not possess sharp protrusions which could flake off and become loose inside the bulb, possibly lodging between the grids and thus changing the characteristics of the device. Some types, particularly the E80F, E88CC and E90CC, had a constricted section of bulb to firmly hold specially shaped flakeless mica spacers.
For examples see below, starting at DC
Later special-quality tubes had not base and function swapped but were assigned a 4-digit number, such as ECC2000 or ED8000, the first digit of which again denoting the base:
1 – Miscellaneous
2 – Miniature 10-pin base (JEDEC F10-61)
3 – Octal base (IEC 67-1-5a)
5 – Novar/magnoval base (JEDEC E9-75 and E9-23)
8 – Noval base (IEC 67-1-12a)
9 – Miniature 7-pin base (IEC 67-1-10a)
For examples see below, starting at EC
"Z" Cold-cathode SQ tubes had a different function letter scheme:
A – Arc discharge tube
B – Binary counter or switching tube
C – Common-cathode Counter Dekatron that makes only carry/borrow cathodes separately available for cascading
E – Electrometer tube
G – Gating tube
M – Optical indicator
S – Separate-cathode Counter/Selector Dekatron that makes all cathodes available on individual pins for displaying, divide-by-n counter/timer/prescalers, etc.
T – Relay triode, a low-power triode thyratron, one starter electrode, may need illumination for proper operation if not radioactively primed
U – Low-power tetrode thyratron, may mean:
Trigger tetrode, one starter electrode and a primer (keep-alive) electrode for ion availability to keep the ignition voltage constant, for analog RC timers, voltage triggers, etc.
Relay tetrode, two starter electrodes to make counters bidirectional or resettable
W – Trigger pentode, two starter electrodes and a primer electrode
X – Shielded Trigger pentode, two starter electrodes, a primer electrode and a conductive coating of the glass envelope inside connected to a separate pin
For examples, see below under Z
Professional tubes
In use since at least 1961, this system was maintained by Pro Electron after their establishment in 1966.
Both letters together indicate the type:
X – High vacuum electro-optical devices
XA – Phototube
XG – Miscellaneous
XM – Character generating cathode ray tube
XP – Photomultiplier
XQ – Camera tube
XR – Monoscope
XS – Cathode ray charge storage tube
XT – Memory display tube
XV – Infrared detector
XW – Infrared imaging device
XX – Image intensifier or image converter
Y – Vacuum tubes
YA – Diode
YD – Transmitting or industrial, single or dual triode
YG – Electrometer tube, vacuum gauge
YH – Traveling-wave tube
YJ – Magnetron
YK – Klystron
YL – Transmitting or industrial, single or dual tetrode or pentode
YN – Backward-wave oscillator
YP – Electron multiplier
YR – Crossed-field amplifier
YT – Pulse modulator tube
YY – High vacuum rectifier
Z – Gas-filled tubes not employing photosensitive materials
ZA – Cold cathode indicator tube
ZB – Microwave switching tube (TR/ATR cells, etc.)
ZC – Trigger tube
ZD – Surge arrester
ZE – Glow modulator tube, a linear light source for rotating-drum FAX receivers, film soundtrack recording, etc.
ZF – Flash tube
ZL – Gas laser
ZM – Cold cathode character display tube or counter display tube
ZP – Radiation counter tube (Geiger-Müller counter tube or proportional counter tube)
ZQ – Mixed analogue and digital display
ZR – Plasma display panel
ZS – Bar graph
ZT – Thyratron
ZX – Ignitron
ZY – Mercury-vapor rectifier
ZZ – Voltage stabilizer or corona discharge tube
Then follows a 4-digit sequentially assigned number.
Optional suffixes for camera tubes:
Version letter:
B – Blue
G – Green
L – Luminance
R – Red
T – Reticule
X – Medical X-ray
Letter for variants derived by selection:
D – High resolution
M – Blemish standard
For examples see below
Transmitting tubes
The first letter (or letter pair, in the case of a dual-system device) indicates the general type:
B – Backward-wave amplifier
D – Rectifier, including grid-controlled types
J – Magnetron
K – Klystron
L – Traveling-wave tube
M – Triode (AF amplifier or modulator)
P – Pentode
Q – Tetrode
R – Rectifier
T – Triode (RF, oscillator)
X – Large thyratron (including all hydrogen thyratrons and high-current types)
The following letter indicates the filament or cathode type, or the fill gas or other construction detail. The coding for vacuum devices differs between Philips (and other Continental European manufacturers) on the one hand and its Mullard subsidiary on the other.
Philips vacuum devices:
A
Microwave tubes: Output power <1W
Other tubes: Directly heated tungsten filament
B
Microwave tubes: Output power ≥1W
Other tubes: Directly heated thoriated tungsten filament
C – Directly heated oxide-coated filament
D – Disk-seal construction
E – Indirectly heated oxide-coated cathode
Mullard vacuum devices:
G – Directly heated oxide-coated filament (only mercury-vapor rectifiers)
N – External magnet required (magnetrons)
P – Packaged construction (magnetrons)
S – Reflex klystron
T – Multiple resonator (klystrons)
V – Indirectly heated oxide-coated cathode
X – Directly heated tungsten filament
Y – Directly heated thoriated tungsten filament
Z – Directly heated oxide-coated filament (except mercury-vapor rectifiers)
Gas-filled devices:
G – Mercury-vapor filling
H – Hydrogen filling
R – Inert-gas filling
X – Xenon filling
The next letter indicates the cooling method or other significant characteristic:
H – Helix or other integral cooler
L – Forced-air cooling
Q – Shield-grid (tetrode) thyratron (thyratrons only)
S – Silica envelope, to allow for a glowing anode
T – Tunable microwave device
W – Water cooling
The following group of digits indicate:
Microwave tubes: Frequency in GHz
Rectifying tubes: DC output voltage in kV in a three-phase half-wave configuration
Thyratrons: Peak inverse voltage in kV
Transmitting tubes: Maximum anode voltage in kV
The following group of digits indicate the power:
Backward-wave amplifier or Traveling-wave tube: Output power
2nd letter: A – in mW
2nd letter: B – in W
Klystrons: Output power in W
Reflex Klystrons: Output power in mW
Magnetrons: Pulse output power in kW
Continuously transmitting tubes: Maximum anode dissipation in W or kW in Class-C amplifier telegraphy
Pulsed transmitting tubes: Maximum peak anode current in A (number preceded by "P")
Rectifiers: Maximum average anode current in mA
Thyratrons: Maximum average anode current:
Less than 3 digits: in mA
3 or more digits:
1st digit: =0 – in mA
1st digit: >0 – in A
An optional following letter indicates the base or connection method:
B – Cables
E – Medium 7-pin base
ED – Edison screw lamp base
EG – Goliath base
F – Medium 8-pin base
G – Medium 4-pin base
GB – Jumbo 4-pin base
GS – Super jumbo 4-pin base
N – Medium 5-pin base
P – P-base
For examples see below
Phototubes and photomultipliers
The first digit indicates the tube base:
2 – Loctal 8-pin base
3 – Octal 8-pin base
5, 6 – Special base or flying leads
8 – Noval base
9 – Miniature 7-pin base
The second digit is a sequentially assigned number.
The following letter indicates the photocathode type:
A – Caesium-activated antimony cathode. Used for reflective-mode photocathodes. Response range from ultraviolet to visible. Widely used.
C – Caesium-on-oxidated-silver cathode, also called S1. Transmission-mode, sensitive from 300...1200 nm. High dark current; used mainly in near-infrared, with the photocathode cooled.
T – Trialkali sodium-potassium-antimony-caesium cathode, wide spectral response from ultraviolet to near-infrared; special cathode processing can extend range to 930 nm. Used in broadband spectrophotometers.
U – Caesium-antimony cathode with a quartz window
The following letter indicates the filling:
G – Gas-filled
V – High-vacuum
A following letter P indicates a photomultiplier.
Examples:
50AVP – 11-stage photomultiplier for scintillation counters, duodecal base
51UVP – 11-stage photomultiplier, duodecal base
52AVP/XP1180 – 10-stage photomultiplier, 13-pin base
53AVP, 153AVP – 10-stage photomultiplier, diheptal 14-pin base
53UVP – 11-stage photomultiplier, diheptal 14-pin base
54AVP – 11-stage photomultiplier, diheptal 14-pin base
55AVP – 15-stage photomultiplier, bidecal 20-pin base
56AVP – 14-stage photomultiplier, bidecal 20-pin base
56UVP – 14-stage photomultiplier, duodecal base
57AVP – 11-stage photomultiplier, bidecal 20-pin base
58AVP – 14-stage photomultiplier, bidecal 20-pin base
150AVP – 10-stage photomultiplier, bidecal 20-pin base
150CVP – 10-stage photomultiplier, bidecal 20-pin base
57CV – Photometric cell
58CG – Gas-filled phototube, Red/IR sensitive, all-glass pigtailed
58CV – Vacuum phototube, Red/IR sensitive, all-glass pigtailed
90AG – Gas-filled phototube, daylight/blue sensitive, miniature 7-pin base
90AV – Vacuum phototube, blue sensitive, miniature 7-pin base
90CG – Gas-filled phototube, Red/IR sensitive, miniature 7-pin base
90CV – Vacuum phototube, Red/IR sensitive, miniature 7-pin base
92AG – Gas-filled phototube, blue sensitive, miniature 7-pin base
92AV – Vacuum phototube, blue sensitive, miniature 7-pin base
61SV/7634 – PbS infrared (300...3500 nm) photoresistor, 2-pin all-glass pigtailed
Voltage stabilizers
The first number indicates the burning voltage
The following letter indicates the current range:
A – max. 10mA
B – max. 22mA
C – max. 40mA
D – max. 100mA
E – max. 200mA
The following digit is a sequentially assigned number.
An optional, following letter indicates the base:
E – Edison screw lamp base
K – Octal base
P – Side-contact 8-pin base
Examples:
75B1 – Voltage reference tube, miniature 7-pin base
75C1 – Voltage reference tube, miniature 7-pin base
83A1 – Voltage reference tube, miniature 7-pin base
85A1/0E3 – Voltage reference tube, Loctal B8G base
85A2/0G3 – Voltage reference tube, miniature 7-pin base
90C1 – Voltage reference tube, miniature 7-pin base
95A1 – Voltage reference tube, miniature 7-pin base
100E1 – Voltage reference tube, "A" Base
108C1/0B2 – Voltage reference tube, miniature 7-pin base
150A1 – Voltage reference tube, "P" base
150B2 – Voltage reference tube, miniature 7-pin base
150B3 – Voltage reference tube, miniature 7-pin base
150C1 – Voltage reference tube, "P" base
150C2/0A2 – Voltage reference tube, miniature 7-pin base
150C4 – Voltage reference tube, miniature 7-pin base
Compagnie des Lampes (1888, "Métal") system
The first (1888) incarnation of La Compagnie des Lampes produced the TM tube since 1915 and defined one of the first French systems; not to be confused with Compagnie des Lampes (1921, "French Mazda", see below).
First letter: Heater or filament voltage
A – 1 V
B – 2 V
D – 4 V
E – 5 V
F – 6 V
G – 7 V
Second letter: Heater or filament current
W – ≥200 mA
X – 150 mA
Y – 100...140 mA
Z – 50 mA
Next number: Gain
Next number: Internal resistance in kΩ
Examples:
BW604 – Métal secteur indirectly AC-heated AF power triode
BW1010 – Métal secteur indirectly AC-heated AF triode
EdiSwan ("British Mazda") systems
{| class="wikitable floatright" style="width: 30%;"
|-
| EdiSwan (British Mazda) is not to be confused with other licensees of General Electric's Mazda brand:
GE's own subsidiary British Thomson-Houston
Cie des Lampes (1921, French Mazda, see below)
Cie Industrielle Française des Tubes Electroniques – CIFTE (Mazda-Belvu – originating from Societé Radio Belvu; see below)
Manufacture Belge des Lampes Électriques,(fr, nl) producing:
Light bulbs since 1911 under the Belgian Mazda brand
Electronic tubes since 1924 under the Adzam ("Mazda" spelled backwards) brand
|}
Note: EdiSwan also used the Mullard–Philips scheme.
Signal tubes
First number: Heater or filament rating
0 – Misc. higher voltages
1 – 1.4 V
6 – 6.3 V
10 – 100 mA
20 – 200 mA
30 – 300 mA
Following letter or letter sequence: Type
C – Frequency changer with special oscillator section
D – Signal diode(s)
F – Tetrode or pentode
FD – Tetrode or pentode and diode(s)
FL – Tetrode or pentode, and triode
K – Small gas triode or tetrode thyratron
L – Single or dual triode, including oscillator triode
LD – Triode and diode(s)
M – Optical tuning/level indicator
P – Power tetrode or pentode
PL – Power tetrode or pentode, and signal triode
Final number: Sequentially assigned number
Power tubes
Letter(s): Type
U – High-vacuum half-wave rectifier
UU – High-vacuum full-wave rectifier
Number: Sequentially assigned number
Examples:
Note: "AC/"-series receiver tubes are listed under other letter tubes - AC/
6C10 (6CU7/ECH42) – Triode/hexode frequency converter, 8-pin Rimlock base
6F22 (6267/EF86) – Low-noise A.F. pentode, 9-pin noval base
6F33 – Shielded pentode, 7-pin base
6L12 (6AQ8/ECC85) – Dual triode, 9-pin noval base
6L19 – Dual triode, 8-pin base
6M2 (6CD7/EM34) – Dual-sensitivity tuning indicator, 8-pin octal base
6P9 (6BM5) – Power pentode, 7-pin base
6P15 (6BQ5/EL84) – Power pentode, 9-pin noval base
10PL12 (50BM8/UCL82) – Triode/power pentode, 9-pin noval base
U381 (38A3/UY85) – Half-wave rectifier, 9-pin noval base
UU9 (6BT4/EZ40) – Full-wave rectifier, 8-pin rimlock base
EEV system
This system consists of one or more letters followed by a sequentially assigned number
A – High vacuum rectifier
AFX – Rare gas filled triode thyratron
AH – Mercury-vapor rectifier
AX – Xenon filled rectifier
B – Radiation-cooled triode
BD – Mercury vapor rectifier
BK – Ignitron
BM – Magnetron
BR – Forced air cooled triode
BS – TR (Transmit/receive) cell, TB cell, Solid-state microwave device
BT – Mercury vapor or xenon filled thyratron
BW – Water cooled triode
BY – Vapor cooled triode
C – Radiation-cooled tetrode
CR – Forced air cooled tetrode
CW – Water cooled tetrode
CX – Hydrogen tetrode thyratron
E – Storage tube
FX – Hydrogen triode thyratron
GX – Spark gap
K – Klystron
M – Magnetron
NFT – Nernst filament, a source of mid-infrared radiation
P – Video camera tube
QS – Voltage-regulator tube
QT – Cold-cathode trigger tube
T – CRT
U – Vacuum capacitor
XL – Glow modulator tube, flash tube, gas laser
Examples:
B142 – 400 W RF power triode up to 50 MHz similar to 833A
B1109 = 3C24 – 25 W VHF power triode up to 60 MHz
B1135 = 5867 = CV1350 – VHF power triode up to 100 MHz
B1152 – 500W RF power triode up to 50 MHz
QT1257 – Touch button tube, an illuminated capacitance touch switch; a cold-cathode DC relay tube, external (capacitive) starter activated by touching; then the cathode glow is visible. 6-pin octal base
XL601, XL602, XL603, XL627, XL628, XL631 and XL632 – Cold-cathode, linear light source (glow modulator tube), gas diode with a blue-violet glow, modulation up to 1 MHz, 8-pin base, for rotating-drum FAX receivers, etc.
ETL computing tubes system
The British Ericsson Telephones Limited (ETL), of Beeston, Nottingham (not to be confused with the Swedish TelefonAB Ericsson), original holder of the now-generic trademark Dekatron, used the following system:
An initial letter denoting the filling:
G – Gas-filled
V – Vacuum
One letter denoting the type:
C – Common-cathode Counter Dekatron that makes only carry/borrow cathodes separately available for cascading
D – Diode, voltage reference, etc.
R – Register (Readout) – Digital indicator
S – Trochotron or Separate-cathode Counter/Selector Dekatron that makes all cathodes available on individual pins for displaying, divide-by-n counter/timer/prescalers, etc.
TE – Trigger tetrode, one starter electrode and a keep-alive (primer) electrode for ion availability
TR – Trigger triode, one starter electrode only
A digit group:
Dekatrons: Stage count
Digital indicators: Display cathode count
Diodes, voltage references: Nominal voltage
Trigger tubes: Ignition voltage
An optional digit group after a slash: Pin count
One letter denoting the type:
A – Plastic base
B – Plastic base
C – Plastic base
D – Plastic base
E – Plastic base
G – 26-pin B26A base
H – 27-pin B27A base
M – B7G base
P – B7G base
Q – B7G base
W – Pigtails
X – Pigtails
Y – Pigtails
Examples:
GC10/2P – Neon-filled, 1 kHz Miniature decade Counter Dekatron, a gas-filled, bidirecional decade counter tube
GC10A – Helium-filled, decade Counter Dekatron
GC10B – Neon-filled, 4 kHz Long life, decade Counter Dekatron
GC10/4B – 4 kHz Decade Computing Counter Dekatron with carry/borrow cathodes "0" and "9" and intermediate cathodes "3" and "5" wired to separate pins
GC10D – 20 kHz Decade Counter Dekatron, for single-pulse operation
GC12/4B – 4 kHz Duodecimal Counter Dekatron with carry/borrow cathodes 11 and 12 and intermediate cathodes 6 and 8 wired to separate pins
GCA10G – 10 kHz max. Decade Counter Dekatron with routing guides and aux anodes to directly drive Nixie tubes, B27A base without the inner pin ring
GD2V – 2 kV, 16 J discharge tube, all-glass studded
GD75P – 75 V Voltage reference, miniature 7-pin base
GD90M – 90 V Voltage reference, miniature 7-pin base
GD340X – 345 V/3...200 μA Corona voltage reference, all-glass pigtailed
GD350X, GD350Y – 350 V/3...200 μA Corona voltage reference, all-glass pigtailed
GD550W – 550 V, 1.5 J Discharge tube, e.g. for power relaxation oscillators, all-glass pigtailed
GDT120M – 9 mA Gas-filled cold-cathode DC triode, one starter and a separate glow diode acting as an optical primer, miniature 7-pin base
GR2G – + - Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 18 x 18 mm characters, side-viewing
GR2H – + - Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 20 x 20 mm characters, top-viewing
GR4G – 1 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 18 x 30 mm characters, side-viewing
GR7M – + - V A Ω % ~ Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 15.5 mm character height, top-viewing
GR10A – Gas-filled digital indicator tube with a dekatron-type readout
GR10G – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 16.86 x 30 mm characters, side-viewing
GR10H – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 12 x 19 mm characters, top-viewing
GR10J – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 16.86 x 30 mm characters, side-viewing
GR10K – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 12 x 19 mm characters, top-viewing
GR10M – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 10 x 15.5 mm characters, top-viewing
GR10W – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 8.42 x 15 mm characters, side-viewing, all-glass pigtailed
GR12G – A B C D E F G H I J K L Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 16 x 30 mm characters, side-viewing
GR12H – E L M N P R S T U V W X Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 16 x 30 mm characters, side-viewing
Note: More Nixie tubes under standard - ZM and professional - ZM
GS10C – 4 kHz max. Decade Counter/Selector Dekatron, top-viewing, duodecal base
GS10D – Hydrogen-filled, 20 kHz max. Decade Counter/Selector Dekatron, duodecal base
GS10H – 4 kHz max. Decade Counter/Selector Dekatron with routing guides, B17A base
GS12C – 4 kHz max. Duodecimal Counter/Selector Dekatron, with solder lugs
GS12D – Neon-filled, 4 kHz max. duodecimal Counter/Selector Dekatron, duodecal base with two additional pigtails for the guide electrodes
GSA10G – 10 kHz max. Decade Counter/Selector Dekatron with routing guides and aux anodes to directly drive Nixie tubes, B27A base
GTE120Y – 5 mA Subminiature DC trigger tetrode, one starter and one primer, all-glass pigtailed
GTE130T – 8 mApeak DC trigger tetrode, one starter and one primer, close tolerance, low aging, quadrant I operation only, noval base
GTE175M – 3.5 mAavg, 50 mApeak DC Trigger tetrode, one starter and one primer, miniature 7-pin base, for Dekatron coupling circuits
GTR120W – 9 mA Subminiature DC trigger triode, 3-pin all-glass pigtailed, for computer applications
GTR75M – 75 V Voltage reference, Miniature 7-pin
GTR95M/S – 95 V Voltage reference, Miniature 7-pin
GTR150 – Subminiature, primed 150 V voltage reference, all-glass pigtailed
VS10G – Trochotron, an electron-beam decade counter tube
VS10G-M – VS10G with a magnetic shield
VS10H – High-current trochotron
VS10K – Low-voltage trochotron
Marconi-Osram system
The British GEC–Marconi–Osram designation from the 1920s uses one or two letter(s) followed by two numerals and sometimes by a second letter identifying different versions of a particular type.
The letter(s) generally denote the type or use:
Note: A preceding letter M indicates a 4-volts AC indirectly heated tube
A – General professional tube
B – Dual triode
D – Detector diode
GT – Gas-filled triode
GU – Gas-filled rectifier
H – High-impedance signal triode
KT – Kinkless Tetrode - beam power tube
L – Low-impedance signal triode
N – Power pentode
P – Power triode up to 3 W
PT – Power pentode
PX – 3...25 W Power triode
QP – Dual pentode
S – Tetrode
U – Rectifier
VS – Remote-cutoff tetrode
W – Remote-cutoff pentode
X – Triode/hexode frequency-changer
Y – Optical tuning/level indicator
Z – Sharp-cutoff RF pentode
The following numbers are sequentially assigned for each new device.
Examples:
A1834 = 6AS7G/ECC230 = CV2523 – Dual power triode (series regulator), octal base.
B309 = 12AT7/ECC81 – High-mu dual triode. Commonly used as R.F. amplifier/mixer in VHF circuits.
B719 = 6AQ8/ECC85 – Dual RF triode, RF Amp & Mixer in FM receivers, noval base.
D41 = V914 – Indirectly heated, Double Detector Diode, British 5-pin base.
D42 – Indirectly heated, Single Detector Diode, British 4-pin base.
GU21 = AH221 = RG4-1250 – Half-wave mercury-vapor rectifier, Edison screw lamp base.
H63 = 6F5 – High-mu triode, octal base.
H610 – Directly heated, high-mu AF triode, British 4-pin base.
KT32 (25L6, 25L6G, 25L6GT and 25W6GT)
KT33 (25A6GT)
KT41
KT61 (6M6G) in parallel filament circuits
KT63 (6F6, 6F6G, 6F6GT)
KT66 (6L6GC)
KT67 – Small transmitting valve
KT71 (50L6GT)
KT77 – Similar to EL34, 6CA7
KT81
KT88 = 6550A = CV5220 (12E13, 7D11) – AF beam power tube, two tubes are capable of providing 100W output, Class-AB1, octal base
L63 = 6J5 – Low-mu triode, octal base.
L610 – Directly heated, Low-mu RF triode, British 4-pin base.
MT7A, MT7B – Large radiation-cooled transmitting triodes used in the 1920s and 1930s.
MU14 = UU5 = IW4-500 – Indirectly heated full-wave rectifier, British 4-pin base.
N77 = 6AM5/EL91 – Power pentode, 7-pin miniature base.
P425 = PM254 – Power triode with a 4 V/200 mA battery heater and a British 4-pin base
P610 – Directly heated, AF power triode, British 4-pin base.
P625 – AF power triode.
PX4 – AF power triode designed in the 1930s. Capable of providing about 4.5 W of audio.
QP21 – Directly heated, dual AF (push-pull) power pentode, British 7-pin base.
QP240 – Directly heated, dual AF (push-pull) power pentode, British 9-pin base.
S610 – Directly heated, Sharp-cutoff RF tetrode, British 4-pin base.
U52 = 5U4G = 5AS4A/5U4GB – Full-wave rectifier, octal base.
VS24 – Directly heated, Remote-cutoff RF tetrode, British 4-pin base.
W727 = 6BA6/EF93 = 5749 – Remote-cutoff RF pentode, 7-pin miniature base.
X41 – Triode/hexode mixer designed to be a direct plug-in replacement for the MX40 pentagrid converter.
X61, X61M = 6J8G – British triode/heptode mixer, octal based.
X63 = 6A8 – Heptode pentagrid converter, octal based.
X727 = 6BE6/EK90 = 5750 – Pentagrid converter, 7-pin miniature base.
Y61, Y63 = 6U5G = VI103 – Optical tuning/level indicator, octal base, similar to 6G5.
Z77 = 6AM6/EF91 – Sharp-cutoff RF pentode, 7-pin miniature base.
Mullard designations before 1934
Older Mullard tubes were mostly designated PM, followed by a number containing the filament voltage.
Many later tubes were designated one to three semi-intuitive letters, followed by a number containing the heater voltage. This was phased out after 1934 when Mullard adopted the Mullard–Philips scheme.
Examples:
2D4 – Dual Diode with a 4 V/650 mA heater and a British 5-pin base
AP4 = 4676 – Acorn UHF pentode up to 430 MHz, 4 Volts heater
AT4 = 4675 – Acorn UHF triode up to 430 MHz, 4 Volts heater
FC4 = MX40 – Octode Frequency Converter with a 4 V/650 mA heater and a British 7-pin base
Pen20 – Power Pentode with a 20 V/180 mA heater and a British 5- or 7-pin base
PM254 = P425 – "Super Power" triode with a 4 V/200 mA battery heater and a British 4-pin base
TDD4 = MHD4 = AC/HLDD – Triode, dual Diode with a 4 V/550 mA heater and a British 7-pin base
TH21C – Triode/Hexode frequency converter with a 21 V/200 mA series heater and a British 7-pin base
TP4 = AC/TP – Triode, Pentode with a 4 V/1.25 A heater and a British 7-pin base
VP2 = VP21 = VP215 – Variable-mu Pentode with a 2 V/180 mA heater and a British 7-pin base
Philips system before 1934
The system consisted of one letter followed by 3 or 4 digits. It was phased out after 1934 when Philips adopted the Mullard–Philips scheme.
1st letter: Heater current
A – 60...90 mA
B – 100...190 mA (This designation lived on as the "B" (180 mA) in the Mullard–Philips system)
C – 200...390 mA (This designation lived on as the "C" (200 mA) in the Mullard–Philips system)
D – 400...690 mA
E – 700...990 mA
F – 1...2 A
1 or 2 digit(s): Heater voltage
Last 2 digits: Type
00–40, 99: Triode amplification factor
41–98:
second-last digit: sequentially assigned, starting at 4
last digit:
1 – Tetrode with a space charge grid (the 2nd grid is the control grid)
2 – Tetrode with a screen grid (the 1st grid is the control grid)
3 – Power pentode
4 – Binode, a diode/triode or diode/tetrode
5 – Remote-cutoff RF tetrode
6 – Signal pentode
7 – Remote-cutoff RF pentode
8 – Sharp-cutoff hexode frequency changer
9 – Remote-cutoff hexode
Examples:
A106 – Directly heated triode, 1 V, 60 mA filament, amplification factor = 6
A425 = RE034 = HR406 – RF triode, 4 V, 60 mA filament
A435 – Directly heated triode, 4 V, 60 mA filament, amplification factor = 35
A441 – Directly heated tetrode with a space charge grid, 4 V, 60 mA filament
A442 = RES094 = S406 – Directly heated tetrode with a screen grid, 4 V, 60 mA filament
B409 = RE134 = L414 – Triode, 4 Volt, 140 mA filament
B2038 = REN1821 = R2018 = A2118 – Triode, 180 mA heater
B2043 = RENS1823D = PP2018D = L2318D – Indirectly heated power pentode, 20 V, 180 mA DC series heater
B2044 = RENS1854 = DS2218 – Indirectly heated diode/tetrode, 20 V, 180 mA DC series heater
B2044S = REN1826 – Indirectly heated diode/triode, 20 V, 180 mA DC series heater
B2045 = RENS1819 – Indirectly heated remote-cutoff RF tetrode, 20 V, 180 mA DC series heater
B2048 = RENS1824 = MH2018 – Hexode mixer, 20 V, 180 mA heater
B2099 = REN1814 – Indirectly heated triode, 20 V, 180 mA DC series heater, amplification factor = 99
E443H = RES964 = PP4101 = L496D – Power pentode, 4 V heater
E446 = RENS1284 = HP4101 – Indirectly heated RF pentode, 4 V, 1.1 A heater
E447 = RENS1294 = HP4106 – Indirectly heated remote-cutoff RF pentode, 4 V, 1.1 A heater
E448 = RENS1224 = MH4100 – Indirectly heated sharp-cutoff hexode frequency changer, 4 V, 1.2 A heater
E449 = RENS1234 = FH4105 – Indirectly heated remote-cutoff hexode, 4 V, 1.2 A heater
F215 – Indirectly heated triode, 2.5 V, 1.5 A heater, amplification factor = 15
STC/Brimar receiving tubes system
First number: Type
1 – Half-wave rectifier
2 – Diode
3 – Power triode
4 – High-mu triode
5 – Sharp-cutoff tetrode
6 – Vari-mu tetrode
7 – Power or video pentode
8 – Sharp-cutoff RF pentode
9 – Vari-mu RF pentode
10 – Dual diode
11 – Triode and dual diode
12 – AF Pentode and dual diode
13 – Dual high-mu triode
14 – Dual Class-B power triode
15 – Heptode
16 – DC-coupled power triode
17 – RF pentode and dual diode
18 – Pentode and triode
20 – Hexode/heptode and triode
Next letter: Heater rating
A – 3.6 to 4.4 V Indirectly heated
B – 2 V Directly heated
C – Directly heated other than 2 or 4 V
D – All other heater ratings, indirectly heated other than 4 V
Number: Sequentially assigned number
Examples:
1D6 – Indirectly heated, half-wave rectifier, 5-pin base
4D1 – Indirectly heated triode, 7-pin base
7A3 – Indirectly heated power pentode, 7-pin base
8A1 – Indirectly heated RF sharp-cutoff pentode, 5-pin base with anode top cap
9A1 – Indirectly heated RF/IF remote-cutoff pentode, 5-pin base with anode top cap
10D1 – Indirectly heated, common-cathode dual diode, 5-pin base
11A2 – Indirectly heated, common-cathode dual diode and triode, 7-pin base
13D3 – Indirectly heated, common-cathode dual triode, 9-pin base
15A2 – Indirectly heated, heptode pentagrid converter, 7-pin base
20D4 – Indirectly heated, triode/heptode frequency mixer, 9-pin base
Valvo system before 1934
Valvo(de, it) was a major German electronic components manufacturer from 1924 to 1989; a Philips subsidiary since 1927, Valvo was one of the predecessors of NXP Semiconductors.
The system consisted of one or two letters followed by 3 or 4 digits. It was phased out after 1934 when Valvo adopted the Mullard–Philips scheme.
First letter(s): Type
A – Triode
AN – Binode, a diode/triode or diode/tetrode
G – Rectifier
H – RF tube
L – Power tube
LK – Power amplifier
U – Triode with a space charge grid
W – Triode for resistor-coupled amplifiers
X – Hexode
Number:
If the first digit is 4, the tube has a 4 V heater
Otherwise, the last two digits give the heater current in tens of mA.
A following letter D indicates more than one grid, not counting a space charge grid
Examples:
A2118 = B2038 = REN1821 = R2018 – Triode, 180 mA (=18×10 mA) heater
H2018D = B2042 = RENS1820 = S2018 – RF Tetrode, 180 mA heater
L496D = E443H = RES964 = PP4101 – Power pentode, 4 V heater
L2318D = B2043 = RENS1823D = PP2018D – Power pentode, 180 mA heater
East European systems
Lamina transmitting tubes system
Polish Lamina(pl) transmitting tube designations consist of one or two letters, a group of digits and an optional letter and/or two digits preceded by a "/" sign.
The first letter indicates the tube type, two equal letters denoting a dual tube:
P – Pentode
Q – Tetrode
T – Triode
A group of digits represents the maximum anode power dissipation in kW
An optional letter specifies the cooling method:
<none> – Radiation
P – Forced air
W – Water
The first of the two digits after the "/" sign means:
1 – Tube for radio broadcasting and radiocommunication equipment
2 – Tube for industrial equipment
3 – Tube used in TV broadcasting equipment
4 – Tube for radiocommunication equipment with unbalanced modulation
5 – Modulator or pulse tube
The second digit after the "/" is sequentially assigned.
Examples:
Q01 – Power tetrode up to 125 MHz, 0.1 kW (=100 W)
Q3.5 – Power tetrode up to 220 MHz, 3.5 kW
QQ-004/11 – Dual beam power tetrode up to 500 MHz, 0.04 kW (=40 W)
T01 – Power triode up to 200 MHz, 135 W
T015/21 – Power triode up to 150 MHz, 150 W
T02 – Power triode up to 60 MHz, 200 W
T05P/31 – Forced air cooled power triode up to 1 GHz, 1 kW
T2/22 – Power triode up to 60 MHz, 3 kW
T6 – Power triode up to 30 MHz, 6 kW
T8P/21 – Forced air cooled power triode up to 120 MHz, 8 kW
T10P/22 – Power triode up to 30 MHz, 10 kW
T-25P – Forced air cooled power triode up to 30 MHz, 25 kW
T60W/21 – Water cooled power triode up to 30 MHz, 6 kW
RFT transmitting tubes system
Rundfunk- und Fernmelde-Technik(de, sv) was the brand of a group of telecommunications manufacturers in the German Democratic Republic. The designation consists of a group of three letters and a group of three or four digits.
The first two letters determine the tube type:
GR – Rectifier tube
SR – Transmitter tube
VR – Amplifier tube
The third letter specifies the cooling method:
L – Forced air
S – Radiation
V – Vapor (the anode is immersed in evaporating water, and the steam is collected, condensed and recycled)
W – Water
The first digit (or the first two digits in double tubes) indicates the number of electrodes:
2 – Diode
3 – Triode
4 – Tetrode
5 – Pentode
The last two digits are sequentially assigned.
Examples:
SRS301 – Radiation-cooled triode up to 40 MHz, 900 W
SRS464 – Radiation-cooled, vibration-resistant pulse tetrode up to 300 kW
SRS4451 – Radiation-cooled dual tetrode up to 500 MHz, 60 W
SRS4452 = QQE03/20 = 6252 – Radiation-cooled dual tetrode up to 600 MHz, 20 W
SRS4452 – Radiation-cooled dual tetrode up to 600 MHz, 20 W
SRS501 – Radiation-cooled pentode up to 50 MHz, 100 W
SRS552N = ГУ-50 – Radiation-cooled pentode up to 120 MHz, 50 W
VRS303 – Radiation-cooled AF triode, 1 kW
VRS328 – Radiation-cooled AF triode, 150 W
VRS331 – Radiation-cooled AF triode, 450 W
Note: RFT used the Mullard–Philips and RETMA schemes for their low-power tubes.
Tesla systems (Czechoslovakia)
Signal tubes
Besides the genuine Mullard–Philips system, Tesla also used an M-P/RETMA hybrid scheme:
First number: Heater voltage, as in the RETMA system
Next letter(s): Type, subset of the Mullard–Philips system
Next digit: Base
1 – Octal K8A
2 – Loctal W8A
3 – Miniature 7-pin B7G
4 – Noval B9A
5 – Special, mostly 9 out of 10 1.25mm pins on a 25mm-diameter circle
6 – Submagnal B11A
7 – Duodecal B12A
8 – Diheptal B14A
9 – Pigtails
Last digit: Sequentially assigned number
Examples:
1M90 (DM70/1M3) – Subminiature indicator tube, 1.4V/25 mA filament, all-glass pigtailed
1Y32 – 7-pin Miniature High-voltage directly heated rectifier with 1.4 V/265 mA WTh filament. Type 1Y32T has oxide cathode.
4L20 – Directly heated RF power pentode; center-tapped 4.2 V/325 mA filament; Soviet 4P1L (4П1Л), German RL4,2P6 with Loctal base
6B31 – Dual diode up to 700 MHz; 6.3V/300mA heater, miniature 7-pin base
6BC32 (6AV6, EBC91) – Dual diode and triode; 6.3V/300mA heater, miniature 7-pin base
6CC31 (6J6, ECC91) – 600 MHz dual triode; 6.3V/450mA heater, miniature 7-pin base
6CC42 (2C51) – VHF dual triode; 6.3V/350mA heater, noval base
6F24 – Telecom pentode, 6.3V/450mA heater, Loctal base
6F36 (6AH6) – Sharp-cutoff IF/video pentode, 6.3V/450mA heater, miniature 7-pin base
6H31 (6BE6, EK90) – Heptode mixer; 6.3V/300mA heater, miniature 7-pin base
6L36 (6AQ5, EL90) – Power pentode, 6.3V/450mA heater, miniature 7-pin base
6L41 (5763) – Beam tetrode, 6.3V/750mA heater, noval base
35Y31 – Half-wave rectifier, 35V/150mA series heater; UY1N with miniature 7-pin base
Power tubes
First letter:
R – Rectifier or RF tube
U – Gas-filled power rectifier
Z – Modulator tube
Next letter(s): Type, subset of the Mullard–Philips scheme
Next number: Anode dissipation in W (if radiation cooled) or kW (otherwise)
The next letter specifies the cooling method:
<none> – Radiation
V – Vapor
X – Forced air
Y – Water
Examples:
RA0007B – Directly heated saturated-emission ballast diode. Acts as a heating current-controlled, variable series resistor in voltage/current stabilizer circuits; UAmax 600 V IAmax 700 μA, miniature 9-pin noval base
RA100A – 40 kV, 100 mA Half-wave rectifier with an E40 Goliath Edison screw lamp base and an anode top cap
RC5B – Bowl-type UHF power triode up to 5 W
RD27AS – Radiation-cooled power triode up to 25 MHz, 27 W
RD200B – Radiation-cooled power triode up to 60 MHz, 200 W
RD300S – Radiation-cooled power triode up to 200 MHz, 300 W
RD150YA – Water-cooled power triode up to 3 MHz, 150 kW
RE40AK = KT88
RE65A – Radiation-cooled beam tetrode up to 260 MHz, 65 W
RE125C – Radiation-cooled beam tetrode up to 235 MHz, 125 W
RE400C – Radiation-cooled beam tetrode up to 235 MHz, 400 W
RE20XL – Air-cooled beam tetrode up to 220 MHz, 20 kW
REE30A – Radiation-cooled dual beam tetrode up to 250 MHz, 20 W
RL15A – Radiation-cooled power pentode up to 60 MHz, 20 W
RL40A – Radiation-cooled power pentode up to 120 MHz, 40 W
RL65A – Radiation-cooled power pentode up to 15 MHz, 65 W
UA025A – 10 kV, 250 mA Argon-filled, half-wave rectifier with an E27 Edison screw lamp base and an anode screw top cap
UA5A – 11 kV, 5 A Half-wave mercury-vapor rectifier with a 2-pin base and an anode screw top cap
ZD1000F – Radiation-cooled power triode up to 60 MHz, 1 kW
ZD1XB – Air-cooled AF power triode up to 1.2 kW
ZD3XH – Air-cooled power triode up to 60 MHz, 3 kW
ZD8XA – Air-cooled power triode up to 20 MHz, 8 kW
ZD12YA – Air-cooled AF power triode up to 20 MHz, 12 kW
ZE025XS – Air-cooled beam tetrode up to 400 MHz, 250 W
Tungsram receiving tubes system before 1934
The Tungsram system was composed of a maximum of three letters and three or four digits. It was phased out after 1934 when Tungsram adopted the Mullard–Philips scheme, frequently preceding it with the letter T, as in TAD1 for AD1.
Letter: System type:
Note: A preceding letter A indicates an indirectly heated tube
D – Detector diode
DD – Dual diode
DG – Tetrode with a space charge grid (the 2nd grid is the control grid)
DS – Diode-tetrode
FH – Remote-cutoff hexode pentagrid converter
G – Preamplifier triode
H – Voltage amplifier triode or grid-leak detector
HP – RF pentode
HR – RF triode
L – AF power triode
MH – Hexode pentagrid converter
MO – Octode pentagrid converter
O – Transmitting tube
P – Power triode
PP – Power pentode
PV – Full-wave rectifier
R – High-Mu triode
S – Tetrode
V – Half-wave rectifier
X – US-licensed tube
Number:
First digit (or the first two digits): Heater voltage
Remaining digits: Heater current in tens of mA, but the last digit is sequentially assigned
Examples:
AS4100 – Tetrode, 4 V, 1 A (=100×10 mA) indirect heater
FH4105 = E449 = RENS1234 – Indirectly heated remote-cutoff hexode, 4 V, 1.2 A heater
HP4101 = E446 = RENS1284 – RF pentode, 4 V, 1 A filament
HP4106 = E447 = RENS1294 – Indirectly heated remote-cutoff RF pentode, 4 V, 1.1 A heater
HR406 = A425 = RE034 – RF triode, 4 V, 60 mA (=6×10 mA) filament
L414 = B409 = RE134 – Triode, 4 Volt, 140 mA (=14×10 mA) filament
MH2018 = B2048 = RENS1824 – Hexode mixer, 20 V, 180 mA (=18×10 mA) heater
MH4100 = E448 = RENS1224 – Indirectly heated sharp-cutoff hexode frequency changer, 4 V, 1.2 A heater
PP2018D = B2043 = RENS1823D = L2318D – Indirectly heated power pentode, 20 V, 180 mA DC series heater
PP4101 = E443H = RES964 = L496D – Power pentode, 4 V heater
PV4200 – Full-wave rectifier, 4 V, 2 A (=200×10 mA) filament
R2018 = B2038 = REN1821 = A2118 – Triode, 180 mA heater
S406 = A442 = RES094 – Directly heated tetrode with a screen grid, 4 V, 60 mA filament
S2018 = B2042 = RENS1820 = H2018D – RF Tetrode, 180 mA heater
Russian systems
Vacuum tubes produced in the former Soviet Union and in present-day Russia are designated in Cyrillic. Some confusion has been created in transliterating these designations to Latin.
The first system was introduced in 1929. It consisted of one or two letters (designating system type and, optionally, type of cathode), a hyphen, then a sequentially assigned number with up to 3 digits.
In 1937, the Soviet Union purchased a tube assembly line from RCA (who at the time had difficulties raising funds for their basic operations), including production licenses and initial staff training, and installed it on the Svetlana/Светлана plant in St. Petersburg, Russia. US-licensed tubes were produced since then under an adapted RETMA scheme.
Examples:
6Ф5 = 6F5 – High-mu triode
6Ф6 = 6F6 – Power pentode
6Х6 = 6H6 – Dual diode
6Ж7 = 6J7/EF37 – Sharp-cutoff pentode
6Л6 = 6L6 – Beam tetrode
6Л7 = 6L7 – Pentagrid converter
6Н7 = 6N7 – Dual power triode
GOST standard tubes system
In the 1950s a 5-element system ( "State standard" ГОСТ/GOST 5461–59, later 13393–76) was adopted in the (then) Soviet Union for designating receiver vacuum tubes.
The first element is a number specifying filament voltage. The second element is a Cyrillic letter specifying the type of device. The third element is a sequentially assigned number that distinguishes between different devices of the same type.
The fourth element denotes the type of envelope. An optional fifth element consists of a hyphen followed by one or more characters to designate special characteristics of the tube. This usually implies construction differences, not just selection from regular quality production.
Professional tubes system
There is another designation system for professional tubes such as transmitter ones.
The first element designates function. The next elements varies in interpretation. For ignitrons, rectifiers, and thyratrons, there is a digit, then hyphen, then the anode current in amperes, a slash, anode voltage in kV. A letter may be attached to designate water cooling (no letter designates a radiation cooled device). For transmitting tubes in this system, the second element starts with a hyphen, a sequentially assigned number, then an optional letter specifying cooling method. For phototubes and photomultipliers, the second element is a sequential number and then a letter code identifying vacuum or gas fill and the type of cathode.
Japanese systems
Older numbering system 1930s–40s
A letter: Structure and usage
E – Electron ray tube
K – Kenotron (rectifier)
U – General-purpose tube
Then a letter: Base and outline
N – Pigtailed (Acorn tubes, etc.)
S – Octal glass or metal
T – ST large 7-pin
t – ST small 7-pin
V – 4-pin
X – S/ST 4-pin
x – Peanut 4-pin
Y – S/ST 5-pin
y – Peanut 5-pin
Z – S/ST 6-pin U6A
Then a hyphen ("-"), followed by a sequentially assigned number or the designation of the American original
Then an optional hyphen ("-"), followed by a letter: Version
Examples:
EZ-6G5 = 6G5 – Variable-mu "Magic Eye"-type tuning indicator
KX-80-B – Kenotron
UN-954 = 954 – Acorn sharp-cutoff pentode
UN-955 = 955 – Acorn triode
US-6A8 = 6A8 – Pentagrid converter
US-6L7G = 6L7G – Pentagrid converter
UX-26-B – Medium-mu RF triode
UX-167 – Sharp-cutoff RF pentode
UY-47B – Pentode
UZ-58-A – Remote-cutoff RF/IF pentode
JIS C 7001 system
JIS C 7001 was published in 1951 and modified in 1965 and 1970
A number: Heater voltage range, as in the RETMA scheme
1 – 1 V ≤ Uf < 2 V
2 – 2 V ≤ Uf < 2.5 V
3 – 2.5 V ≤ Uf < 4 V
4 – 4 V ≤ Uf < 5 V
5 – 5 V ≤ Uf < 6 V
6 – 6 V ≤ Uf < 7 V
etc.
Then a letter: Base and Outline
A – Special base
B – Other
C – Compactron (Duodecar)
D – Subminiature button base
E – Subminiature flat base
F – European 4-pin ST
G – Octal base glass tube (GT)
H – Magnoval
K – Ceramic
L – Lock-In (Loctal)
M – Miniature (7-pin)
N – Nuvistor
Q – Acorn tube
R – Noval (9-pin miniature) or Neonoval (9T9)
S – Octal (US)
T – Large 7-pin ST
W – 7-pin ST
X – 4-pin ST
Y – 5-pin ST
Z – 6-pin ST
Then a hyphen ("-"), followed by a letter: Structure and usage
A – Power triode
B – Beam power tube
C – Pentagrid converter
D – Diode
E – Optical tuning/level indicator
G – Gas-filled rectifier
H – High-mu triode (μ>30)
K – Kenotron (rectifier)
Even number after K: Full-wave rectifier
Odd number after K: Half-wave rectifier
L – Low-mu triode (μ<30)
P – Power tetrode or pentode
R – Sharp-cutoff tetrode or pentode
S – Tetrode with a space charge grid (the 2nd grid is the control grid)
T – Gas-filled, grid-controlled
V – Variable-mu (remote-cutoff) tetrode and pentode
X – Other
Then a sequentially assigned number
Then an optional letter: Version
Examples:
2N-H12 – Nuvistor
2X-L2A – Low-mu triode
6C-A10 – Power triode
6G-A4 – Power triode
6G-B8 – Beam power tube
6G-E12A – 2-channel "Magic Eye"-type tuning indicator, rectangular target
6H-B26 – Beam power tube
6M-DE1 – Diode and "Magic Eye"-type tuning indicator, miniature 7-pin base B7G
6M-E4 – "Magic Finger"-type tuning indicator, miniature 7-pin base B7G
6M-E5 = 6ME5 – "Magic Eye"-type tuning indicator, miniature 7-pin base B7G
6M-E10 – "Magic Eye"-type tuning indicator, miniature 7-pin base B7G
6N-H10 – Nuvistor
6R-A8 – Power triode
6R-B10 – Beam power tube
6R-B11 – Beam power tube
Military naming systems
British CV and M8000s naming systems
This system prefixes a three- or four-digit number with the letters "CV", meaning "civilian valve" i.e. common to all three armed services. It was introduced during the Second World War to rationalise the previous nomenclatures maintained separately by the War Office/Ministry of Supply, Admiralty and Air Ministry/Ministry of Aircraft Production on behalf of the three armed services (e.g. "ACR~", "AR~", "AT~", etc. for CRTs, receiving and transmitting valves used in army equipments, "NC~", "NR~" and "NT~" similarly for navy equipments and "VCR~", "VR~" and "VT~" etc. for air force equipments), in which three separate designations could in principle apply to the same valve (which often had at least one prototype commercial designation as well). These numbers generally have identical equivalents in both the North American, RETMA, and West European, Mullard–Philips, systems but they bear no resemblance to the assigned "CV" number.
Examples:
CV1988 = 6SN7GT = ECC32 (not a direct equivalent as heater current is different and bulb is larger)
CV2729 = E80F – An SQ version of EF80 but with revised pin-out and a base screen substituted for the RF screen
The "4000" numbers identify special-quality valves though SQ valves CV numbered before that rule came in retain their original CV number:
CV4007 = E91AA – SQ version of 6AL5
CV4010 = E95F – SQ version of 6AK5 or EF95
CV4014 = M8083
The "M" in the part number denotes that it was developed by the military:
M8083 – Sharp-cutoff pentode, miniature 7-pin base (SQ version of EF91 = 6AM6 = Z77)
M8162 = 6060 – High-mu dual triode, for use as RF amplifier/mixer in VHF circuits, Noval base (SQ versions of ECC81 = 12AT7 = B309)
The principle behind the CV numbering scheme was also adopted by the US Joint Army-Navy JAN numbering scheme which was later considerably expanded into the US Federal and then NATO Stock Number system used by all NATO countries. This part-identification system ensures that every particular spare part (not merely thermionic valves) receives a unique stock number across the whole of NATO irrespective of the source, and hence is not held inefficiently as separate stores. In the case of CV valves, the stock number is always of the format 5960-99-000-XXXX where XXXX is the CV number (with a leading 0 if the CV number only has 3 digits).
U.S. naming systems
One system prefixes a three-digit number with the letters "VT", presumably meaning "Vacuum Tube". Other systems prefix the number with the letters "JHS" or "JAN". The numbers following these prefixes can be "special" four-digit numbers, or domestic two- or three-digit numbers or simply the domestic North American "RETMA" numbering system. Like the British military system, these have many direct equivalents in the civilian types.
Confusingly, the British also had two entirely different "VT" nomenclatures, one used by the Royal Air Force (see the preceding section) and the other used by the General Post Office, responsible for post and telecommunications at the time, where it may have stood for "valve, telephone"; none of these schemes corresponded in any way with each other.
Examples:
"VT" numbering systems
North American VT90 = 6H6
British (RAF) VT90 – VHF Transmitting triode
British (GPO) VT90 = ML4 = CV1732 – Power triode
VT104 – RF pentode
VT105 – RF triode
Other numeral-only systems
Various numeral-only systems exist. These tend to be used for devices used in commercial or industrial equipment. The oldest numbering systems date back to the early 1920s, such as a two-digit numbering system, starting with the UV-201A, which was considered as "type 01", and extended almost continuously up into the 1980s. Three- and four-digit numeral-only systems were maintained by R.C.A., but also adopted by many other manufacturers, and typically encompassed rectifiers and radio transmitter output devices. Devices in the low 800s tend to be transmitter output types, those in the higher 800s are not vacuum tubes, but gas-filled rectifiers and thyratrons, and those in the 900s tend to be special-purpose and high-frequency devices. Use was not rigorously systematic: the 807 had variants 1624, 1625, and 807W.
Other letter followed by numerals
There are quite a number of these systems from different geographical realms, such as those used on devices from contemporary Russian and Chinese production. Other compound numbering systems were used to mark higher-reliability types used in industrial or commercial applications. Computers and telecommunication equipment also required tubes of greater quality and reliability than for domestic and consumer equipment.
Some letter prefixes are manufacturer's codes:
C – RCA/Cunningham
CK, QK, RK – Raytheon Company
ECG – Philips/Sylvania
EM – Eitel McCullough
F – Federal Telephone and Radio
GE, GL – General Electric Corp. (not British General Electric Company)
HK – Heintz & Kaufman, Ltd. (San Francisco, California, USA)
HY – CBS/Hytron
ML – Machlett Laboratories, Inc.
NL – National Electronics, Inc.
NU – National Union Electric Corp.
PL – Philips N.V.
RCA – RCA/Radiotron
SV – Svetlana/Светлана
SY – Standard Telephones and Cables Ltd./Brimar
TH – Compagnie Française Thomson-Houston
WE – Western Electric Company
WL – Westinghouse Electric Corp.
XD – Central Electronic Manufacturers (Denville, New Jersey, USA)
For examples, see below
Some designations are derived from the behavior of devices considered to be exceptional.
Mazda/EdiSwan sold their first tubes for 4-volts AC mains transformer (as opposed to home storage battery) heating with the prefix AC/ (for examples see below).
The first beam tetrodes manufactured in the UK in the late 1930s by M-OV, carried a "KT" prefix meaning Kinkless Tetrode (for examples see above).
List of American RETMA tubes
Note: Typecode explained above. See also RETMA tube designation
"0 volt" gas-filled cold cathode tubes
First character is numeric zero, not letter O.
Voltage stabilisers and references
Function in a similar way to a Zener diode, at higher voltages. Letter order (A-B-C) indicates increasing voltage ratings on octal-based regulators and decreasing voltage ratings on miniature-based regulators.
0A2 – 150 volt regulator, 7-pin miniature base
0A3 – 75 volt regulator, octal base, aka VR75
0B2 – 105 volt regulator, 7-pin miniature base
0B3 – 90 volt regulator, octal base, aka VR90
0C2 – 75 volt regulator, 7-pin miniature base
0C3 – 105 volt regulator, octal base, aka VR105
0D3 – 150 volt regulator, octal base, aka VR150
Other cold-cathode tubes
0A4G – 25 mAavg, 100mApeak Gas triode designed for use as a ripple control receiver; with the cathode tied to the midpoint of a series-resonance LC circuit across live mains, it would activate a relay in its anode circuit while fres is present
0Y4 – 40 ≤ I ≤ 75 mA Half-wave gas rectifier with a starter anode, 5-pin octal base
0Z4 – 30 ≤ I ≤ 90 mA Argon-filled, full-wave gas rectifier, octal base. Widely used in vibrator power supplies in early automobile radio receivers.
1 volt heater/filament tubes
1.25 volt DC filament subminiature tubes
The following tubes were used in post-World War II walkie-talkies and pocket-sized portable radios. All have 1.25 volt DC filaments and directly heated cathodes. Some specify which end of the filament is to be powered by the positive side of the filament power supply (usually a battery). All have glass bodies that measure from wide, and from in overall length.
1AC5 – Power pentode, FL
1AD4 – Sharp-cutoff pentode, FL
1AD5 – Sharp-cutoff pentode, R8
1AE5 – Heptode mixer, FL
1AG4 – Power pentode, FL
1AG5 – Diode, pentode, FL
1AH4 – RF pentode, FL
1AJ5 – Diode, sharp-cutoff pentode, FL
1AK4 – Sharp-cutoff pentode, FL
1AK5 – Diode, sharp-cutoff pentode, FL
1C8 – Pentagrid converter, R8
1D3 – Low-mu high-frequency triode, R8
1E8 – Pentagrid converter, R8
1Q6 – Diode, pentode, R8
1S6 – Diode, pentode, R8
1T6 – Diode, pentode, R8
1V5 – Power pentode, R8
1V6 – Triode-pentode converter, FL
1W5 – Sharp-cutoff pentode, R8
1.4 volt DC filament tubes
1A3 – High frequency diode with indirectly heated cathode. Used as a detector in some portable AM/FM receivers.
1A7GT/DK32 – Pentagrid converter, re-engineered version of types 1A6 and 1D7-G, designed for use in portable AC/DC/Dry-cell battery radios introduced in 1938. Has 1.4 V/50 mA filament.
1B7-GT – Re-engineered version of types 1C6 and 1C7-G, designed for use in dry-cell battery radios with shortwave bands. Has 1.4 V/100 mA filament
1G6-G – Dual power triode. "GT" version also available.
1L6 – Pentagrid frequency changer for battery radios with 50 mA filament
1LA6 (Loctal) and later 1L6 (7-pin miniature) – Battery pentagrid converter for Zenith Trans-Oceanic shortwave radio, 50 mA filament
1LB6 – Superheterodyne mixer for battery-operated radios
1LC6 – Similar to type 1LA6, but with higher conversion transconductance
1R5/DK91 – Pentagrid converter, anode voltage in the 45...90 volt range.
1S4 – Power output pentode Class-A amplifier, anode voltage in the 45...90 volt range.
1S5 – Sharp-cutoff pentode Class-A amplifier, and diode, used as detector and first A.F. stage in battery radio receivers. Anode voltage in the 67...90 volt range.
1T4/DF91 – Remote-cutoff R.F. Pentode Class-A amplifier, used as R.F. and I.F. amplifier in battery radio receivers (B7G base).
1U4 – Sharp-cutoff R.F. Pentode Class-A amplifier, used as R.F. and I.F. amplifier in battery radio receivers, similar characteristics to 6BA6 (B7G base).
1U6 – Nearly identical to type 1L6, but with a 1.4 V/25 mA filament
"1" prefix for home receivers
These tubes were made for home storage battery receivers manufactured during the early to mid-1930s. The numbers of the following tubes all start with 1, but these tubes all have 2.0 volt DC filaments. This numbering scheme was intended to differentiate these tubes from the tubes with 2.5 volt AC heaters listed below.
1A4-p – Remote-cutoff pentode
1A4-t – Remote-cutoff tetrode
1A6 – Pentagrid converter up to only 10 MHz due to low heater power (2 V/60 mA) and consequent low emission in the oscillator section; also occasionally used as a grid-leak detector
1B4-p – Sharp-cutoff pentode
1B4-t – Sharp-cutoff tetrode
1B5 – Dual detector diode, medium-mu triode. Usually numbered 1B5/25S
1C5 – Power pentode (similar to 3Q5 except for filament)
1C6 – Pentagrid converter; 1A6, with double the heater power and double the frequency range
1C7-G – Octal version of type 1C6.
1D5-Gp – Octal version of type 1A4-p.
1D5-Gt – Octal version of type 1A4-t. (Note: This is a shouldered "G" octal, not a cylindrical "GT" octal.)
1D7-G – Octal version of type 1A6.
1E5-Gp – Octal version of type 1B4-p.
1E5-Gt – Octal version of type 1B4-t. (Note: This is a shouldered "G" octal, not a cylindrical "GT" octal.)
1E7-G – Dual power pentode for use as a driver when parallel-connected, or as a push-pull output. "GT" version also available
1F4 – Power pentode
1F5-G – Octal version of 1F4.
1F6 – Duplex diode, sharp-cutoff pentode
1F7-G – Octal version of type 1F6
1G5-G – Power pentode
1H4-G – Medium-mu triode, can be used as a power triode. Octal version of type 30, which is an upgraded version of type 01-A. "GT" version also available.
1H6-G – Octal version of type 1B5/25S. "GT" version also available.
1J5-G (950) – AF Power pentode
1J6-G – Dual power triode, octal version of type 19. "GT" version also available.
CRT anode rectifiers
1AD2 – Compactron High-voltage rectifier with 1.25 V/200 mA filament. Type 1AD2A has X-Radiation Shielding.
1AJ2 – Compactron High-voltage rectifier with 1.25 V/200 mA filament
1AY2 – 2-pin "Duopin" base High-voltage rectifier. Has similar electrical characteristics as 1B3GT.
1B3GT – Octal High-voltage rectifier diode with 1.25 V filament common in monochrome TV receivers of the 1950s and early 1960s. Peak inverse voltage of 30 kV. Anode current 2 mA average, 17 mA peak. Derived from the earlier industrial type 8016. Many listed and labeled as 1B3GT/1G3GT.
1BC2 – 9 pin Miniature High-voltage rectifier with 1.25 V/200 mA filament. Types 1BC2A and 1BC2B have X-Radiation Shielding.
1BG2 – Subminiature High-voltage rectifier with 1.4 V/575 mA filament. Has flexible leads.
1BQ2 – 9 pin Miniature High-voltage rectifier with 1.4 V/600 mA filament
1BY2 – Compactron High-voltage rectifier with 1.25 V/200 mA filament. Type 1BY2A has X-Radiation Shielding.
1G3GT – Octal High-voltage rectifier. Same Characteristics as 1B3GT. Many listed and labeled as 1B3GT/1G3GT.
1H2 – 9 pin Miniature High-voltage rectifier with 1.4 V/550 mA filament
1J3GT – Octal High-voltage rectifier. Same Characteristics as 1B3GT. Has filament-plate shorting protection. Many listed and labeled as 1J3GT/1K3GT.
1K3GT – Octal High-voltage rectifier. Same Characteristics as 1B3GT. Has filament-plate shorting protection. Many listed and labeled as 1J3GT/1K3GT.
1S2A – 9 pin Miniature High-voltage rectifier with 1.4 V/550 mA filament. Similar to DY86, DY87, DY802, 1R10, and 1R12.
1T2 = R16 – Subminiature High-voltage rectifier with 1.4 V/140 mA filament. Has flexible leads.
1V2 – High-voltage rectifier with 0.625 V/300 mA filament (B7G base)
1X2 – 9 pin Miniature High-voltage rectifier with 1.25 V/200 mA filament. 1X2A, 1X2B and 1X2C have X-Radiation Shielding. Similar to DY80 and R19.
1Y2 – 4 pin High-voltage rectifier with 1.5 V/290 mA filament. 50KV max PIV, 10mA peak, 2mA average. Usable up to 1 MHz.
1Z1 – Octal High-voltage rectifier with 0.7 V/180 mA filament.
1Z2 – 9 pin Miniature High-voltage rectifier with 1.25 V/265 mA filament.
2 volt heater/filament tubes
2.5 volt AC heater tubes
Tubes used in AC-powered radio receivers of the early 1930s
2A3 – Directly heated power triode, used for AF output stages in 1930s–1940s audio amplifiers and radios.
2A5 – Power Pentode (Except for heater, electronically identical to types 42 and 6F6)
2A6 – Dual diode, high-mu triode (Except for heater, electronically identical to type 75)
2A7 – Dual-tetrode-style pentagrid converter (Except for heater, electronically identical to types 6A7, 6A8 and 12A8)
2B7 – Dual diode and remote-cutoff pentode (Except for heater, electronically identical to type 6B7)
2E5 and 2G5 – Electron-ray indicators ("Eye tube") with integrated control triode. (Except for heater, electronically identical to types 6E5 and 6G5)
CRT anode rectifiers
2X2 – High Vacuum High Peak inverse voltage diode, used as rectifier in CRT EHT supplies. Similar to 1B3 and 1S2 except for heater voltage.
3 volt heater/filament tubes
3A3/3B2/3AW3 - High Voltage rectifier. An octal type used in color television sets. The heater power is 3.15 volts and 0.22 amps.
3CA3 - High Voltage rectifier. An octal type used in color television sets. The heater power is 3.6 volts and 0.225 amps.
3CN3 - High Voltage rectifier. An octal type used in color television sets. The heater power is 3.15 volts and 0.48 amps. The large current is for the advantage of fast warm-up.
3CU3 - High Voltage rectifier. An octal type used in color television sets. The heater power is 3.15 volts and 0.28 amps.
3CZ3 - High Voltage rectifier. An octal type used in color television sets. The heater power is 3.15 volts and 0.48 amps. The large current is for the advantage of fast warm-up.
3AT2 - High Voltage rectifier. A compactron used in television sets to supply power to the anode of the picture tube. It comes in the variation as the 3AT2B, mainly for color television sets with a large picture tube. The 3AT2B comes with X-radiation shielding on the inside. The heater power is 3.15 volts and 0.22 amps.
3AW2 - High Voltage rectifier. A compactron used for color and black and white television sets. It comes in the variation as the 3AW2A as a replacement for the 3AW2 after the 1967 General Electric X-radiation scandal. The 3AW2A comes with X-radiation shielding on the inside. The heater power is 3.15 volts and 0.22 amps.
3BF2 - High Voltage rectifier. A compactron used in television sets to supply power to the anode of the picture tube. This tube is very rare, and very special, because it implements an indirectly heated cathode, not connected to the filament. No data is found on this tube, except for the filament power (which is 3.6 volts, 0.225 amps) and the base (which is the 12GQ type). The only reason why we know it is a high voltage rectifier is that the base tells us so.
3BL2 - High Voltage rectifier. A compactron used in television sets to supply power to the anode of the picture tube. It comes in the variation as the 3BL2A as a replacement for the 3BL2 after the 1967 General Electric X-radiation scandal. The 3BL2A comes with X-radiation shielding on the inside. The heater power is 3.3 volts and 0.285 amps.
3BM2 - High Voltage rectifier. A compactron used in television sets to supply power to the anode of the picture tube. It comes in the variation as the 3BM2A as a replacement for the 3BM2 after the 1967 General Electric X-radiation scandal. The 3BM2A comes with X-radiation shielding on the inside. The heater power is 3 volts and 0.3 amps.
3BN2 - High Voltage rectifier. A compactron used for color television sets. It comes in the variation as the 3BN2A as a replacement for the 3BN2 after the 1967 General Electric X-radiation scandal. The 3BN2A comes with X-radiation shielding on the inside. The heater power is 3.15 volts and 0.22 amps.
3BS2 - High Voltage rectifier. A compactron used for color television sets. It comes in the variation as the 3BS2A and 3BS2B as a replacement for the 3BN2 after the 1967 General Electric X-radiation scandal. The 3BS2A and 3BS2B tubes are identical, maybe a small difference in ratings and characteristics. We do not know these differences as the 3BS2B tube data is not available. The 3BS2A and 3BS2B comes with X-radiation shielding on the inside. The heater power is 3.15 volts and 0.48 amps. The large current is for the advantage of fast warm-up.
3BT2 - High Voltage rectifier. A compactron used for color television sets. It comes in the variation as the 3BT2A as a replacement for the 3BT2 after the 1967 General Electric X-radiation scandal. The 3BT2A comes with X-radiation shielding on the inside. The heater power is 3.15 volts and 0.48 amps. The large current is for the advantage of fast warm-up.
3BW2 - High Voltage rectifier. A compactron used for color and black and white television sets. The 3BW2 comes with X-radiation shielding on the inside. It also comes with diffusion bonded cathode (a type of cathode that prevents the back-emission of the anode). This tube was designed in December 1970, after the 1967 General Electric X-radiation scandal. All high voltage rectifier tube types that were designed before 1967 had no X-radiation protection internally. That is why all these tubes made during and after 1967 have a suffix showing they had internal X-radiation protection. This is why there is no '3BW2A' type since it was made after 1967. The heater power is 3.15 volts and 0.22 amps.
5 volt heater/filament tubes
5AR4, GZ34 – Full wave rectifier
5AS4 – Full wave rectifier
5R4 – Full wave rectifier
5U4 – Full wave rectifier
5V4, GZ32 – Full wave rectifier
5Y3 – Full-wave rectifier, octal base version of type 80
6 volt heater tubes
6A6 – Dual Power Triode, used as a Class-A audio driver or a Class-B audio output. UX6 base. 6.3 volt heater version of type 53 which had a 2.5 volt heater. Octal version – 6N7.
6A7 and 6A8 (PH4, X63) – Superheterodyne Pentagrid converter – dual tetrode style. Based on type 2A7, which had a 2.5 volt heater. 6A7 has a UX7 base with top cap connection for control grid (grid 4). 6A8 is octal version with top cap connection for control grid. Loctal version: type 7B8.
6AB4/EC92 – High-mu triode (Pinout same as 6C4 except for pin 5 not having a connection)
6AB5/6N5 – "Magic Eye" cathode ray tuning indicator
6AC5-G – High-mu Power Triode
6AC7, 1852 – TV sharp-cutoff R.F. Pentode. (Often encountered in a black metal envelope, not to be confused with the 6CA7.)
6AC10 – Compactron High-mu triple triode for use as NTSC chroma signal demodulator matrix in analog color TV receivers, 12-pin base
6AD6-G and 6AF6-G – "Magic Eye" tuning indicators. Both have two "pie wedge" shadow indicators, one each on opposite sides of a single circular indicator target. Both shadows may be used in tandem or may be driven by two different signal sources. Type 6AE6-G is specifically made to drive each indicator with different signals. May also be driven by separate pentodes with different characteristics. E.g., a sharp-cutoff pentode like a 6J7 – which would be hyper-sensitive to any signal change – would drive one shadow, while a remote-cutoff pentode like a 6K7 – which would only react to stronger signals – would drive the other shadow. Both tubes have octal bases. Type 6AD6-G, with a target voltage rated from 100 to 150 volt, is designed for AC/DC radios. Type 6AF6-G, with a target voltage rated at 250 volt, is designed for larger AC radios.
6AE6-G – A driver triode specially designed for "Magic Eye" tuning indicator types 6AD6-G and 6AF6-G. Has a common heater and indirectly heated cathode, two internally connected triode grids – one with sharp-cutoff characteristics, one with remote-cutoff characteristics – and two anodes, one for each grid. The sharp-cutoff grid reacts to any signal change, while the remote-cutoff grid reacts only to stronger signal changes.
6AE7-GT – Dual Triode with a common, single anode, for use as a power triode driver
6AF4 – UHF Medium-mu Triode, commonly found in TV UHF tuners and converters.
6AF11 – Compactron High-mu dual triode and sharp-cutoff pentode
6AG11 – Compactron High-mu dual triode and dual diode
6AH5-G – Beam power tube for early TV use. Same as type 6L6-G, but with scrambled pinout. Used in some Philco receivers.
6AK5, EF95, 5654, CV4010, 6J1P (6Ж1П) – Miniature V.H.F. Sharp-cutoff pentode (Used in old Radiosonde weather balloon transmitters, receiver front ends and contemporary audio equipment) B7G, (Miniature 7-pin) base
6AK6 – Power pentode. 7-pin miniature version of type 6G6-G. Unusual low-power consumption output tube with 150 mA heater.
/EABC80 – Triple Diode, High-mu Triode. Diodes have identical characteristics – two have cathodes connected to the triode's cathode, one has a separate cathode. Used as a combination AM detector/AVC rectifier/FM ratio detector/A.F. amplifier in AM/FM radios manufactured outside of North America. Triode amplification factor: 70. North American type 6T8 is identical (but for a shorter glass envelope) and may be used as a substitute.
6AK9 – Compactron 1x high-mu + 1x medium-mu dual triode and beam power pentode, 12-pin base
6AK10 – Compactron High-mu triple triode for use as NTSC chroma signal demodulator matrix in analog color TV receivers, 12-pin base
6AL3, EY88 – TV "Damper/Efficiency" Diode
6AL5, EAA91, D77 – Dual Diode, Detector. Often used in vacuum tube volt meters (VTVMs). Miniature version of type 6H6.
6AL6-G – Beam power tube for early TV use. Same as type 6L6-G, but with scrambled pinout and anode connected to top cap.
6AL7-GT – Tuning indicator used in many early AM/FM Hi-Fi radios. Similar in function to "Magic Eye" tubes. Has two bar-shaped shadows; one grows to indicate signal strength, the other moves to indicate center tuning on FM.
6AM6, EF91, Z77 – Sharp-cutoff R.F. pentode used in receiver front ends and test gear such as VTVMs and TV broadcast modulation monitors.
6AN7, – Triode-Hexode Oscillator/Mixer (radio)
6AN8, – Triode-Pentode used in frame timebase circuits for television. Electrically fairly similar to ECL80 but with a different pinout.
6AQ5 – Beam-power pentode, 7-pin miniature similar of type 6V6.
6AQ8/ECC85 – Dual triode with internal shield. Designed for use as oscillator and mixer in FM receivers. The heater to cathode insulation is inadequate for use in cascode operation
6AR8, 6JH8, 6ME8 – Beam deflection tubes for use as NTSC chroma signal demodulators in analog color TV receivers
6AS6 – Pentode with a fine-pitched suppressor grid which could serve as a second control grid. Used in radar phantastron circuits.
6AS7, 6080 – Dual low-mu Triode, low impedance, mostly used for voltage regulation circuits.
6AS11 – Compactron 1x high-mu + 1x medium-mu dual triode and sharp-cutoff pentode, 12-pin base
6AT6 – Dual Diode, High-mu Triode, miniature version of type 6Q7. Triode amplification factor: 70.
6AU4 – TV "Damper/Efficiency" Diode
6AU6, EF94, 6AU6A – Sharp-cutoff pentode
6AV6 – Dual Diode, High-mu Triode, miniature version of type 75. Triode amplification factor: 100. (Triode section similar in characteristics to one half of a 12AX7.)
6AV11 – Compactron Medium-mu triple triode, 12-pin base
6AX4 – TV "Damper/Efficiency" Diode
6AX5 – Full-wave rectifier. Octal base. Similar in structure to type 6X5, but with higher voltage and current ratings which are comparable to those of types 5Y3 and 80.
6B6-G – Double-Diode High-mu Triode. Octal version of type 75. Has top-cap connection for triode grid. Later octal version, type 6SQ7, has under-chassis connection for triode grid. Miniature version: 6AV6.
6B7 and 6B8 (EBF32) – Double-Diode, Semiremote-cutoff Pentodes. Based on type 2B7 which had a 2.5 volt heater. Type 6B7 has a UX7 base with a top-cap connection for the control grid (grid 1). Type 6B8 has an octal base with a top cap. The diode anodes are most commonly used as (second) detectors and AVC rectification in superheterodyne receivers. Because their control grids have both sharp-cutoff and remote-cutoff characteristics, these types were used as I.F. amplifiers with AVC bias to the control grid, and as A.F. amplifiers. These types were also used in reflex radios. In a typical 2B7/6B7/6B8 reflex circuit, the I.F. signal from the converter is injected into the pentode and is amplified. The diodes then act as detectors, separating the A.F. signal from the R.F. signal. The A.F. signal is then re-injected into the pentode, amplified, and sent to the audio output tube.
6BA6, EF93, W727, 5790 – Semiremote-cutoff R.F. Pentode (Often encountered in car radios)
6BD11 – Compactron 1x high-mu + 1x medium-mu dual triode and sharp-cutoff pentode, 12-pin base
6BE6, EK90, 5750, X727 – Pentagrid Converter (Often encountered in car radios)
6BF6 – Dual Diode, Medium-mu triode. Miniature version of octal type 6R7.
6BF8 – Sextuple diode with a common cathode
6BG6 – Beam tetrode, anode cap. Used in early TV magnetic-deflection horizontal-output stage.
6BH11 – Compactron Medium-mu dual triode and sharp-cutoff pentode
6BK4 – High Voltage beam Triode (30 kV anode voltage). Used as shunt regulator in color TV receivers and measurement equipment such as high voltage meters
6BK7 – Dual Triode with Internal shield between each section, used in RF circuits (Similar to 6BQ7)
6BK8, EF86, Z729 – Audio Pentode used in microphone preamplifiers and audiophile equipment
6BK11 – Compactron 2x High-mu + 1x medium-mu triple triode preamplifier, 12-pin base; used in some guitar amps made by Ampeg.
6BL6 (5836) – Sutton tube, a reflex klystron used as a 250 mW CW microwave source, 1.6 to 6.5 GHz depending upon an external cavity. 4-pin peewee base with cavity contact rings and top cap
6BL8, ECF80 – General-purpose Triode pentode used in TV, audio and test gear
6BM6 (5837) – Sutton tube used as a 150 mW CW microwave source, 550 MHz to 3.8 GHz depending upon an external cavity. 4-pin peewee base with cavity contact rings and top cap
6BM8, ECL82 – Triode pentode used as the driver and output stages in audio amplifiers, audio output and vertical output stages in TV receivers and has even been seen in an electronic nerve stimulator.
6BN6 – Gated-beam discriminator pentode, used in radar, dual channel oscilloscopes and F.M. quadrature detectors (cf. 6DT6, nonode).
6BQ5, EL84,(N709) – 5.7 Watts AF Power pentode, noval base
6BQ6-GT – Beam Power Pentode, used as a Horizontal Deflection Output tube in monochrome TV receivers of the 1950s. Most commonly used in receivers with diagonal screen sizes less than . (However, may be found in some larger models.) Larger receivers often used similar type 6DQ6. Later versions of this tube branded as 6BQ6-GTB/6CU6.
6BQ7 – Dual RF/VHF triode with internal screen. The two sections can be used independently or in a cascode stage
6BQ7A – Improved 6BQ7 capable of operation at UHF frequencies
6BU8 – Split Anode TV Sync Separator
6BX6, EF80 – Sharp-cutoff RF/IF/Video pentode, noval base
6BY6 – Similar to type 6CS6, but with higher transconductance. 3BY6 with a different heater
6BY7, EF85, W719 – Remote-cutoff R.F. Pentode (TV IF)
6BZ6 – Sharp-cutoff R.F. pentode used in video I.F. circuits of the 1960s.
6BZ7 – Dual Triode. See 6BK7
6C4/EC90 – 3.6 W small-power V.H.F. triode up to 150 MHz; single 12AU7/ECC82 system
6C6 – Sharp-cutoff R.F. Pentode. Most common commercial uses were as a tuned R.F. amplifier, a detector, and an A.F. amplifier. Also used in test equipment. Has UX6 base with top cap. Based on type 57, which had a 2.5 volt heater. Similar to types 1603, 77 and octal types 6J7 and 6SJ7
6C10 – Compactron High-mu triple triode, 12-pin base – not related to the Mazda/EdiSwan 6C10 triode-hexode
6CA4, EZ81 – Full Wave Rectifier
6CA7, EL34 – Audio Power Output Pentode
6CA11 – Compactron High-mu dual triode and sharp-cutoff pentode
6CB6 – Remote-cutoff R.F. Pentode used in video I.F. circuits of the 1950s and early 1960s.
6CG7 – Dual Triode (used in TV and some audio amplifiers including modern solid-state designs often as a cathode follower, similar to 6SN7)
6CJ6 – Line Output Pentode
6CL6 – Power pentode
6CM5, EL36, EL360 – Audio and TV Line Output Beam Power Tetrode.
6CW4 – Nuvistor high-mu VHF triode, most common one in consumer electronics
6CZ5 – Beam pentode for use in vertical deflection or audio amplifier. In certain applications, it can be used in place of a 6973.
6D4 – 25 mAavg, 100 mApeak Indirectly heated, argon triode thyratron, negative starter voltage, miniature 7-pin base; found an additional use as a 0 to 10 MHz noise source, when operated as a diode (starter tied to cathode) in a transverse 375 G magnetic field. Sufficiently filtered for "flatness" ("white noise") in a band of interest, such noise was used for testing radio receivers, servo systems and occasionally in analog computing as a random value source.
6D6 – Remote-Cutoff R.F. Pentode. Most common commercial uses were as an I.F. amplifier or as a superheterodyne mixer, aka 1st detector. Also used in test equipment. Has UX6 base with top cap. Based on type 58, which had a 2.5 volt heater. Similar to type 78. Octal version: 6U7-G.
6D8-G – Superheterodyne Pentagrid converter, similar to type 6A8. Octal base with top cap. Has 150 mA heater. Used in pre-war 6-volt farm radios.
6D10 – High-mu triple triode for use as oscillator, mixer, amplifier or AGC tube, 12-pin base
6DA6, EF89 – R.F. Pentode used in AM/FM radios manufactured outside North America.
6DJ8, ECC88, E88CC, 6922, 6N23P, 6N11 – Dual Audio and R.F. Triode (often used in TV broadcast equipment, test gear, oscilloscopes and audiophile gear) similar to 6ES8
6DQ6 – Beam Power Pentode, used as a Horizontal Deflection Output tube in monochrome TV receivers of the 1950s. Most often found in receivers with diagonal screen measurements larger than . Smaller receivers often used similar type 6BQ6-GT. Also used as Audio Output tubes in Standel guitar amplifiers. Later versions branded as 6DQ6-B/6GW6.
6DR8, EBF83 – R.F. pentode which will operate with 12 V anode supply, used as I.F. amplifier in car radios which run directly off the 13.5 volt supply.
6DS4 – Nuvistor R.F. triode used in TV tuners immediately prior to the introduction of solid state tuning circuits. (RCA TVs equipped with a 6DS4 tuner bore the trademark "Nu-Vista Vision"); successor of the 6CW4.
6DS8, ECH83 – Triode-heptode Local oscillator-Mixer which will operate with 12 V anode supply, used in car radios which run directly off the 13.5 volt supply.
6DT6 – Quadrature detector used in TV audio circuits of the 1950s and early 1960s; cf. 6BN6, nonode.
6DV4 – Medium-mu Nuvistor triode for UHF oscillators; some versions had a gold-plated envelope
6DX8 – Triode pentode
6E5 – "Magic Eye" Tuning indicator. Has incorporated driver triode with sharp-cutoff grid which makes it extremely sensitive to any changes in signal strength. Has UX6 base. Based on type 2E5, which had a 2.5 volt heater.
6EM5 – TV Vertical Output Pentode
6ES6, EF98 – R.F. pentode which will operate with 12 V anode supply, used as tuned R.F. amplifier in car radios which run directly off the 13.5 volt supply.
6ES8, ECC89, E89CC – Dual Triode used as cascode R.F. amplifier in TV tuners and V.H.F. receiver front ends, also used as general-purpose dual triode in test gear, similar to 6DJ8
6EZ8 – High-mu triple triode, 9-pin base
6F4 – Acorn UHF triode up to 1.2 GHz, for use as an oscillator
6F5 – High-mu triode, equal to triode section of type 6Q7
6F6 (KT63) – Power Pentode. Octal base version of type 42. Moderate power output rating – 9 watts max. (Single-ended Class-A circuit); 11 watts max. (Push-pull Class-A circuit); 19 watts max. (push-pull Class-AB2 circuit). Available in metal (numbered "6F6"), shouldered glass ("6F6-G"), and cylindrical glass ("6F6-GT"). Sometimes used as a transformer-coupled audio driver for types 6L6-GC and 807 when those tubes were used in Class-AB2 or Class-B amplifiers. Also used as a Class-C oscillator/amplifier in transmitters.
6F7 – Remote-cutoff Pentode, Medium-mu Triode. Has UX7 base with top-cap connection for the pentode's control grid (grid 1). Most common uses were as superheterodyne mixer ("first detector") and local oscillator, or as a combination I.F. amplifier (pentode) and (second) detector or A.F. amplifier (triode). Octal version: 6P7-G.
6FH8 – Medium-mu triode and three-anode sharp-cutoff tetrode for use in TV receivers and complex wave generators
6G5 – "Magic Eye" Tuning indicator. Has incorporated triode with remote-cutoff grid, which makes it less reactive to low-level changes in signal strength. Has UX6 base. Electronically identical to type 6U5 except for indicator. Both types had "pie wedge" shadow indicators. At first, the shadow indicator for type 6G5 was fully closed at zero signal and opened as signal strength increased. For type 6U5, the shadow indicator was fully open at zero signal and closed as signal strength increased. After World War II, type 6G5 was discontinued as a unique tube and all 6U5s were doubled branded either as 6G5/6U5 or 6U5/6G5.
6G6-G – Power pentode. Octal base. Low power output – 1.1 watt max. output. Has 150 mA heater. Used in pre-war 6-volt farm radios. Miniature version – 6AK6.
6G8-G – Double-Diode Sharp-cutoff Pentode (Used as Detector and first A.F. stage in Australian 1940s radios)
6GK5 – Miniature V.H.F. triode (Used as V.H.F. local oscillator in some T.V. Turret Tuners)
6GM5 – Beam power pentode, identical to 7591 and 7868 with a mini-noval pin base
6GV8, ECL85 – Triode Pentode (TV vertical output)
6GW8, ECL86 – Audio Triode Pentode (audio, TV vertical output)
6GY8 – High-mu triple triode for use as oscillator, mixer, RF amplifier or AGC tube, 9-pin base
6H6, D63, EB34, OSW3109 – Dual diode. Octal base. Most commonly found as a "stubby" metal envelope tube. Glass versions 6H6-G and 6H6-GT are also found.
6HS8 – Dual-anode pentode for TV receiver sync separation service or as a two-channel VCA
6J5, L63 – Medium-mu triode.
6J5WGT – Heater cathode type, medium-mu triode, identical to 12J5WGT except heater characteristics
6J6 – Dual general purpose RF triode with common cathodes, operates over much of the UHF band (up to 600 MHz), equivalent to ECC91
6J7, EF37 – Sharp-cutoff Pentode. Most common commercial uses were as a tuned R.F. amplifier, a (second) detector, or an A.F. amplifier. Octal version of type 77. This type included a top-cap connection for the control grid. Later version, type 6SJ7, had its control grid connection on pin 4.
6J8-G – Triode-Heptode (radio local oscillator/mixer)
6JU8A – 9 mA, Four-diode bridge rectifier
6K6-G – Power Pentode, octal version of type 41. Low-to-moderate power output rating – 0.35 to 4.5 watts (single-ended Class-A circuit); 10.5 watts max. (push-pull Class-A circuit).
6K7, EF39 – Remote-cutoff R.F. pentode. Most common commercial uses were as an I.F. amplifier or as a superheterodyne mixer, aka 1st detector. Also used in test equipment. Octal version of type 78. This type included a top-cap connection for the control grid. Later version, type 6SK7, had its control grid connection on pin 4.
6K8 and 12K8 – American Triode-Hexode mixer, 1938
6K11 – Compactron 2x High-mu + 1x medium-mu triple triode, 12-pin base
6KM8 – Diode and three-anode sharp-cutoff tetrode for use in musical instruments, frequency dividers and complex wave generators
6L4 – Acorn UHF triode for use as an oscillator
6L5-G – Medium-mu triode (Similar to type 6J5-G, available only in ST shape)
6L6 (EL37) – High-powered beam tetrode.
There are several variations. Except for types 6L6-GC and 6L6-GX, all have the same maximum output ratings:
11.5 watts (single-ended Class-A circuit)
14.5 watts (push-pull Class-A circuit)
34 watts (push-pull Class-AB1 circuit)
60 watts (push-pull Class-AB2 circuit)
6L6 (metal envelope) and 6L6-G (shouldered glass envelope) were used in pre-World War II radios and Public Address amplifiers.
6L6 and 25L6 were introduced in 1935 as the first beam tetrodes. Both types were branded with the L6 ending to signify their (then) uniqueness among audio output tubes. However, this is the only similarity between the two tubes. (Type 6W6-GT is the 6.3 volt heater version of types 25L6-GT and 50L6-GT.)
6L6GA – Post-war version of type 6L6-G, in smaller ST-14 shape with Shouldered Tubular, (ST), shaped bulb, revision A.
6L6GB – Post-war improved version in a cylindrical glass envelope. Similar to type 5881.
6L6GTB – 6L6 with Tubular, (T), shaped bulb, revision B, (higher power rating, as it happens. The 6L6GTB can always replace the 6L6, 6L6G, and 6L6GT, but a 6L6GTB running at maximum rating should not be replaced with another subtype).
6L6-WGB – "Industrial" version of type 6L6GB.
6L6GC – Final and highest-powered audio version of the tube. Max. outputs:
17.5 watts (single-ended Class-A circuit)
32 watts (push-pull Class-A circuit)
55 watts (push-pull Class-AB1 circuit)
60 watts (push-pull Class-AB2 circuit)
6L6-GX – Class-C oscillator/amplifier used in transmitters. Max. output 30 watts. (All versions may be used as a Class-C oscillator/amplifier, but this version is specifically designed for this purpose, has a special ceramic base.)
6L7 – Pentagrid converter often used in console radios of the late 1930s. Similar in structure to pentode-triode pentagrid converters 6SA7 and 6BE6, except that a separate oscillator – usually type 6C5 – is required. Also, grid 1 is remote-cutoff control grid, grid 3 is oscillator input grid. (In types 6SA7 and 6BE6, grid 1 is the internal oscillator grid, grid 3 is the control grid.) Because of low conversion transconductance, radios using type 6L7 typically have either a tuned RF pre-amplifier stage, or at least two stages of I.F. amplification. (A few models have both.)
6LF6 – Beam power tetrode with a duodecar Compactron base and anode cap, for CRT horizontal-deflection amplifiers
6M5 – Audio Output Pentode (Used as Class-A or C output stages of 1950s Australian radiograms) similar to 6BQ5
6M11 – Compactron Dual triode and pentode
6MD8 – Medium-mu triple triode for use as NTSC chroma signal demodulator matrix in analog color TV receivers, 9-pin base
6ME5 – "Magic Eye"-type tuning indicator, miniature 7-pin base B7G
6MK8 – Dual-anode pentode for TV receiver sync separation service or as a two-channel VCA
6MJ8 – Medium-mu triple triode for use as NTSC chroma signal demodulator matrix in analog color TV receivers, 12-pin base
6MN8 – High-mu triple triode for use as NTSC chroma signal demodulator matrix in analog color TV receivers, 12-pin base
6N3, EY82 – Half-Wave Rectifier
6N5 – Tuning indicator
6N7 – Dual Power Triode, used as Class-A audio driver or as Class-B power output (also 6N7-G and 6N7-GT). Max. output (Class-B) – 10 watts. Octal version of type 6A6.
6N8, EBF80 – Remote-cutoff pentode, dual diode. (detector plus RF or AF amplifier in radios)
6P5-G/GT – Medium-mu triode, Octal version of type 76, often used as driver for type 6AC5-G.
6P7-G – Rarely seen octal version of type 6F7.
6Q5-G – Triode gas thyratron used in DuMont oscilloscopes as a sweep generator. Identical to type 884.
6Q11 – Medium-mu triple triode, 12-pin base, for use as a sync clipper and gated AGC amplifier in TV receivers
6R3, EY81 – TV "Damper/Efficiency" Diode
6R7 – Dual Diode, Medium-mu Triode (also 6R7-G and 6R7-GT). Octal base with top cap. Miniature version – 6BF6. Amplification factor: 16.
6S7-G – Remote-cutoff RF Pentode, similar to type 6K7. Octal base with top cap. Has 150 ms heater. Used in pre-war 6-volt farm radios.
6S8-GT – Triple Diode, High-mu Triode. Octal tube with top-cap connection to triode grid. Has three identical diodes – two diodes share a cathode with the triode, one has a separate cathode. Used as a combined AM detector/AVC rectifier/FM ratio detector/A.F. amplifier in AM/FM radios. Typically, all sections of this tube are arranged around a single heater.
6SA7 – First pentode-triode style pentagrid converter. Octal type. Miniature version: 6BE6.
6SB7Y (octal), 6BA7 and 12BA7 (9-pin miniatures) – VHF pentagrids, 1946
6SC7 – High-mu dual triode (Both sections share a single cathode)
6SK7 – Remote-cutoff pentode (Used in I.F. stages of North American radios) Miniature version: 6BD6
6SL7, ECC35 – Dual triode (Used in TV and general electronics)
6SN7, ECC32, B65, 13D2, CV1986, 6042? – Medium-mu dual triode (Used in Audio Amplifiers, Hammond Organs and Television; extensive use in World War II radar) Each section is equivalent to a 6J5. Miniature version: 12AU7
6SS7 – Remote-cutoff pentode (150 mA heater version of the 6SK7, found in some AA6 radios as both the RF amplifier and first IF). This is the only tube to have two of the same letters in its type.
6T5 – "Magic Eye" Tuning indicator. Has incorporated driver triode with remote-cutoff grid. Has UX6 base. Shadow indicator is fully closed at zero signal. As signal increases, shadow grows outward from the center, covering the entire circumference of the indicator. Electronically identical to types 6G5 and 6U5, which may be used as substitutes.
6T7-G – Dual diode, high-mu triode, similar to type 6Q7. Octal base with top cap. Has 150 mA heater. Used in pre-war farm radios.
– Triple Diode, High-mu Triode. Has three identical diodes – two have cathodes connected to the triode's cathode, one has a separate cathode. Triode amplification factor: 70. Used as an AM detector/AVC rectifier/FM ratio detector/A.F. amplifier in North American AM/FM radios. Identical to type 6AK8/EABC80, but with a shorter glass envelope.
6U5 – "Magic Eye" Tuning indicator. Has incorporated driver triode with remote-cutoff grid. Has UX6 base. Has "pie wedge" shadow indicator that is open at zero signal and closes as signal increases. Electronically identical to types 6G5 and 6T5 and may be used as a substitute for those types. After World War II, most new 6U5s were double-branded as either 6G5/6U5 or 6U5/6G5.
6U5G – "Magic Eye" Tuning indicator with triode, International Octal, (IO), base
6U7-G – Remote-cutoff R.F. Pentode. Most common commercial uses were as an I.F. amplifier or as a superheterodyne mixer, aka 1st detector. Also used in test equipment. Octal version of type 6D6. Most direct substitute: 6K7. Similar to types 58, 78 and 6SK7.
6U8A – Split triode-pentode, mini-noval pinbase. Audio preamplifier.
6U10 – 1x High-mu + 2x medium-mu triple triode, 12-pin base
6V4 (EZ80) – Noval-base, indirectly heated, full-wave rectifier. EZ80 rated at 90mA, but 6V4 only rated for 70. Some brands were identical.
6V6 – Beam power tetrode, used in single-ended Class-A audio output stages of radios and sometimes seen in Class-B audio amplifiers (see also: 5V6 and 12V6). Electrically similar to 6AQ5/EL90.
6V6G – 6V6 with Shouldered Tubular, (ST), shaped bulb.
6V6GT – 6V6 with Tubular, (T), shaped bulb.
6V7-G – Dual diode, Medium-mu Triode. Octal version of type 85. Amplification factor: 8.3. Similar to type 6R7.
6W6-GT – Beam power pentode, used most often as a Vertical Deflection Output tube in monochrome TV receivers of the 1950s. Can also used as an Audio Output tube. This is the 6.3 volt heater version of types 25L6-GT and 50L6-GT.
6X4 (EZ90) and 6X5 (EZ35) – Full-wave rectifiers with indirectly heated common cathode. Type 6X4 has a 7-pin miniature base, the 6X5 has an octal base. Based on type 84/6Z4. No longer in production.
"7" prefix Loctal tubes
These tubes all have 6.3 volt AC/DC heaters.
7A4 – Medium-mu triode, Loctal version of type 6J5, often numbered 7A4/XXL
7A5 – Beam power pentode, Loctal version of type 6U6GT
7A6 – Dual detector diode, similar to type 6H6
7A7 – Remote-cutoff pentode, Loctal version of type 6SK7
7A8 – The only octode pentagrid converter produced in America by Sylvania, 1939. Used mostly in Philco radios.
7AB7 – Sharp-cutoff pentode
7AD7 – Power pentode
7AF7 – Dual medium-mu triode
7AG7 – Sharp-cutoff pentode
7AH7 – Remote-cutoff pentode
7AJ7 – Sharp-cutoff pentode
7AK7 – Sharp-cutoff, dual control pentode for computer service. Perhaps the first active device specifically designed for computer use.
7B4 – High-mu triode, Loctal version of types 6F5 and 6SF5
7B5 – Power pentode, Loctal version of types 6K6 and 41
7B6 – High-mu triode, dual detector diodes, Loctal version of type 75, similar to types 6AV6 and 6SQ7
7B7 – Remote-cutoff pentode
7B8 – Pentagrid converter, Loctal version of types 6A7 and 6A8
7C4 – High frequency diode
7C5 – Beam power pentode, Loctal version of type 6V6
7C6 – High-mu triode, dual detector diode
7C7 – Sharp-cutoff pentode
7E5 – Medium-mu high-frequency triode
7E6 – Medium-mu triode, dual detector diode, Loctal version of types 6R7 and 6SR7, electronically identical to miniature type 6BF6.
7E7 – Semiremote-cutoff pentode, dual detector diode, similar to types 6B7 and 6B8
7F7 – High-mu dual triode, Loctal version of type 6SL7-GT
7F8 – Medium-mu high-frequency triode, used as FM RF amplifier and converter
7G7 – Sharp-cutoff pentode
7G8 – Sharp-cutoff dual tetrode
7H7 – Semiremote-cutoff pentode
7J7 – Triode-heptode converter, similar to type 6J8-G
7K7 – High-mu triode, dual detector diode, similar to types 6AT6 and 6Q7
7L7 – Sharp-cutoff pentode
7N7 – Dual medium-mu triode, Loctal version of type 6SN7-GT
7Q7 – Pentagrid converter, similar to type 6SA7
7R7 – Remote-cutoff pentode, dual detector diode
7S7 – Triode-heptode converter
7T7 – Sharp-cutoff pentode
7V7 – Sharp-cutoff pentode
7W7 – Sharp-cutoff pentode
Note: Types 7V7 and 7W7 are electronically identical except for base connections of pins 4, 5 and 7. On type 7V7, the suppressor grid (grid 3) is connected to pin 4, an internal shield is connected to pin 5, and the cathode is connected to pin 7. On type 7W7, the suppressor grid and internal shield are connected to pin 5, and the cathode is connected to pins 4 and 7. All other pin connections are the same. If interchanging these tube types is necessary, confirm that pins 4 and 7 are connected at the socket. (Pin 5 is usually connected to the chassis.)
7X6 – Dual rectifier diode
7X7 – High-mu triode, dual detector diodes on separate cathodes, used as FM discriminator and AF amplifier, often numbered 7X7/XXFM
7Y4 – Dual rectifier diode
7Z4 – Dual rectifier diode
12 volt heater tubes
12A5 – Power pentode. UX7 base. Single-section tube with two side-by-side 6.3 volt heater-cathode structures. Each is connected together to form (1) a 12.6 volt 300 mA heater for series heater strings, or (2) a 6.3 volt 600 mA heater for parallel heater circuits. Mostly used in pre-war car radios.
12A7 – Power pentode, rectifier diode. Pentode section is similar to type 38. Diode has a low power rating – 120 volt, 30 mA – that limits the number of tubes that can be tied to its B+ circuit. Used in one-tube portable phonographs and a few two- and three-tube radios. Forerunner of such types as 32L7-GT, 70L7-GT and 117L7-GT. UX7 base with top cap. Not related to types 2A7 and 6A7.
12AB5 – Beam Power Tube
12AC10 – Compactron High-mu triple triode for use as NTSC chroma signal demodulator matrix in analog color TV receivers, 12-pin base
12AE10 – Compactron Beam power tube and sharp-cutoff pentode
12AL5 – Dual diode (similar to 6AL5 except for heater)
12AT6 – Dual diode/triode (Commonly replaced by 12AV6 in consumer radios)
12AT7, ECC81, 6060, B309, M8162 – High-mu dual triode. Commonly used as R.F. amplifier/mixer in VHF circuits.
12AU7, ECC82, 6067, B329, M8136 – Medium-mu dual triode. Two 6C4/EC90s in one envelope; however, it is only specified as an audio frequency device. Commonly used in audio applications and TV receivers.
12AV6 – Dual diode/High-mu triode (see also: 6AV6)
12AV7, 5965 – Medium-mu dual triode. Principally designed for VHF amplifier/mixer operation.
12AX7, ECC83, 6057, B327, M8137 – High-mu dual triode. Very similar to triode section of 6AV6. Commonly used in high-gain audio stages.
12AY7 – Dual Triode. Medium gain but low noise, intended for low-level/preamplifier use.
12AZ7 – Double Triode. Medium-mu, AF Amplifier, or combined oscillator and mixer, 9-pin.
12B4A – Low-mu triode, noval base.
12BA6 – Remote-cutoff pentode, 6BA6/EF93 with a different heater
12BE6 – Pentagrid converter, 6BE6/EK90 with a different heater
12BH7 – Dual Triode, Medium-mu, designed for use in equipment having series heater-string arrangement.
12BY7 – Video Amplifier Pentode
12DT5 – Beam Power Pentode
12DT6 – Sharp-cutoff pentode
12DW7 – Dissimilar triodes. One half 12AX7 value, other half 12AU7 value. (also known as 7247 or ECC832)
12EG6 – Pentagrid converter, both grids 1 and 3 are sharp-cutoff, has 12.6 volt anode and screen grid voltage, for use with audio equipment powered by a car battery
12FA6 – Low-anode voltage, car radio version of 12BE6 pentagrid converter
12FQ8 – Common-cathode, dual split-anode triode for use in musical instruments, frequency dividers and complex wave generators
12FX8 – Low-anode voltage, triode-heptode converter for car radios
12GA6 – Similar to type 12FA6, but with lower conversion transconductance
12J5WGT – Heater cathode type, medium-mu triode, identical to 6J5WGT except heater characteristics
12K5 – Tetrode with a space charge grid, one of a few tubes that can function with low anode voltages
12MD8 – Medium-mu triple triode for use as NTSC chroma signal demodulator matrix in analog color TV receivers, 9-pin base
12MN8 – High-mu triple triode for use as NTSC chroma signal demodulator matrix in analog color TV receivers, 12-pin base
12SA7 – Pentagrid converter (Octal version of 12BE6)
12SK7 – Remote-cutoff Pentode (Octal version of 12BA6)
12SQ7 – Dual diode, triode (Octal version of 12AV6)
12U5G – Tuning indicator identical to 6U5G except heater characteristics
12Z3 – Half-wave rectifier, UX4 base
"14" prefix Loctal tubes
These tubes all have 12.6 volt AC/DC heaters
14A4 – Medium-mu triode, Loctal version of type 12J5
14A5 – Beam power pentode
14A7 – Remote-cutoff pentode, often numbered 14A7/12B7
14AF7 – Dual medium-mu triodes, often numbered 14AF7/XXD
14B6 – High-mu triode, dual detector diode, similar to types 12AV6 and 12SQ7
14B8 – Pentagrid converter, Loctal version of type 12A8
14C5 – Beam power pentode, Loctal version of type 12V6-GT
14C7 – Sharp-cutoff pentode
14E6 – Medium-mu triode, dual detector diode, Loctal version of 12SR7
14E7 – Semiremote-cutoff pentode, dual detector diode, similar to type 12C8
14F7 – High-mu dual triode, Loctal version of type 12SL7-GT
14F8 – Medium-mu high frequency triode, used as FM RF amplifier and converter
14H7 – Semiremote-cutoff pentode
14J7 – Triode-heptode converter
14N7 – Dual medium-mu triode, Loctal version of type 12SN7-GT
14Q7 – Pentagrid converter, similar to type 12SA7
14R7 – Remote-cutoff pentode, dual detector diode
14S7 – Triode-heptode converter
14W7 – Sharp-cutoff pentode
14X7 – High-mu triode, dual detector diodes on separate cathodes, used as FM discriminator and AF amplifier
14Y4 – Dual rectifier diode
25 volt series heater tubes
25A6 – Power pentode, octal version of type 43
25C5 – Beam Power Pentode (Identical to the 50C5 but with a 25 V 300 mA heater)
25F5 – Beam Power Pentode (Identical to the 50C5, but with a 25 V 150 mA heater, used in some AA5 type radios using push-pull output)
25L6 – Beam-power pentode (Except for heater, electrically identical to type 50L6)
25Z5 – Dual rectifier diode
25Z6 – Octal version of 25Z5
35 volt series heater tubes
35A5 – Beam Power Tube (Loctal, Similar to 35L6)
35B5 – Beam power tube
35C5 – Identical to 35B5 except for basing ("pin-out") arrangement (HL92)
35HB8 – Triode/Beam Power tube (Used primarily as both the audio amplifier and output)
35DZ8 – High-mu Triode/Beam Power tube (Like the 35HB8, used for audio)
35L6-GT – Beam power pentode similar to, but not electronically identical to, types 25L6-GT and 50L6-GT
35W4 – Rectifier diode
35Z4-GT – Rectifier diode
35Z5-GT – Similar to 35Z4-GT, but equipped with a heater tap used to power a pilot light
35Z3 – Rectifier Diode (Loctal, Similar to 35Z4)
35Y4 – Rectifier Diode (Loctal, similar to 35Z5)
50 volt series heater tubes
50B5 – Beam power tube, similar to 35B5 but with 50 volt heater
50C5 – Similar to 35C5 but with 50 volt heater, and 50B5 except for basing ("pin-out") arrangement (HL92)
50EH5 – Beam Power tube, (Similar to 50C5 but with higher gain, some radios that use this tube do not have an audio amplifier section.)
50L6 – Beam power tube (see also 25L6)
50HK6 – Power pentode (Filament is tapped for use with a dial lamp)
50A5 – Beam Power Tube (Loctal, similar to 50L6)
50X6 – Dual Diode (Loctal, commonly used as a rectifier-doubler)
50DC4 – Rectifier diode (Similar to 35W4 except for heater)
117 volt heater tubes
All of the following tubes are designed to operate with their heaters connected directly to the 117 volt (now 120 volt) electrical mains of North America. All of them use indirectly heated cathodes. All of them incorporate at least one rectifier diode.
Rectifier diode – Beam power pentode combinations
117L7GT
117M7GT
117N7GT
117P7GT
Rectifier tubes
117Z3 – Single diode, 7-pin miniature version of 117Z4GT
117Z4GT
117Z6GT – Dual diode, can be used as a voltage doubler
Other tubes with nonstandard heater voltages
The tubes in this list are most commonly used in series-wired circuits.
2AF4 – UHF triode oscillator
2BN4 – VHF/RF triode
2CW4 – Nuvistor high-mu VHF triode, 6CW4 with a 2.1 volt/450 mA heater; used in TV receivers with series heater strings
2CY5 – VHF sharp-cutoff RF tetrode
2EA5 – VHF sharp-cutoff RF tetrode
2EN5 – Dual-diode
2ER5 – VHF RF triode
2ES5 – VHF RF triode
2EV5 – VHF sharp-cutoff RF tetrode
2FH5 – VHF RF triode
2FQ5 – VHF RF triode
2FV6 – VHF sharp-cutoff RF tetrode
2FY5 – VHF RF triode
4CB6 – Sharp-cutoff pentode
5J6 – General purpose RF dual triode with common cathodes, a 6J6 with a 4.7 volt/600 mA controlled warm-up heater
7AU7 – Medium-mu Dual triode with a center-tapped 7.0/3.5 V heater, like the 12AU7
7KY6 – Sharp-cutoff frame-grid pentode with a 7.3 volt nominal heater voltage for use as video output tube in TV receivers, 9-pin miniature socket
8AC10 – Compactron High-mu triple triode for use as NTSC chroma signal demodulator matrix in analog color TV receivers, 12-pin base
8B10 – Compactron Dual triode and dual diode
8FQ7/8CG7 – Dual triode (8 V version of the common 6CG7)
10DE7 – Dual triode (dissimilar triode sections)
11DS5 – Beam Power tube (11 V heater version of the 50B5/35B5)
13CW4 – Nuvistor used as a preamplifier in Neumann condenser microphones U-47 and U-48 after the production of the VF14 ceased
18FX6 – Pentagrid converter (18 V version of the 12BE6)
18FY6 – Dual diode/triode (18 V version of the 12AV6)
34GD5 – Beam power tube (34 V version of the 35C5/50C5)
36AM3 – Half-wave rectifier (36 V version of the 35W4)
38HE7 – Compactron Diode and beam power tube
38HK7 – Compactron Diode and beam power tube
List of RMA professional tubes
1B23 – 20 kW, 400 to 1500 MHz Gas-filled, cold-cathode Transmit/Receive Tube (TR cell)
1B41 – Gas-filled, cold-cathode 9.5 kV, 450 A spark gap
1B45 – Gas-filled, cold-cathode 14 kV, 450 A spark gap
1B49 – Gas-filled, cold-cathode 12 kV, 450 A spark gap
1C21 – Gas-filled, 25 mAavg, 100 mApeak, triode thyratron
1D21 – Strobotron Gas-filled, 50 mAavg, 5 Apeak, luminiscent tetrode thyratron for use as a stroboscope lamp
1P21 – 9-stage Photomultiplier, spectral S4 response, 11-pin base
1P25 – Infrared image converter used in World War II night vision "sniperscopes".
1P29 – Gas-filled phototube, spectral S3 response, 4-pin base
1P39 – Vacuum Phototube, spectral S4 response, 4-pin base
1S22 – 10 kV, 20 A Vacuum SPDT switch
2C21 – Dual transmitting triode, indirectly heated, 7-pin base plus a single top cap for one of the grids
2C22 – Transmitting triode, indirectly heated, 8-pin base plus dual top cap for grid and anode
2C36 – Rocket-type disk-seal UHF triode with an internal feedback circuit between cathode and anode, for use as UHF oscillator up to 1.75 GHz
2C37 – Rocket triode for use as SHF oscillator up to 3.3 GHz
2C39A – Oil can-type disk-seal UHF power triode with glass spacers up to 3 GHz, Panode = 100 W
2C39B – 2C39A with ceramic spacers
2C40 – Lighthouse-type disk-seal UHF power triode for continuous operation, Panode = 6.5 W at 3370 MHz
2C41 – Oil can UHF power triode for pulsed operation, 2200 Wpeak at 3 GHz
2C42 – Lighthouse UHF power triode for pulsed operation, 1750 Wpeak at 1050 MHz; improved 446
2C43 – Lighthouse UHF power triode, indirectly heated, up to 3.37 GHz, 6-pin base
2C46 – Lighthouse UHF power triode
2C51 – Dual shielded triode, indirectly heated, 9-pin base
/EN91 (PL21, PL2D21, CV797) – 100 mAavg, 500 mApeak, 10 Asurge, Gas-filled, indirectly heated tetrode thyratron, negative starter voltage, miniature 7-pin base, for relay and grid-controlled rectifier service, used in jukeboxes and computer equipment.
2E22 – 53 W Power pentode, 5-pin base with anode on top cap
2E26 – Popular amateur 5.3 W VHF beam power tetrode up to 175 MHz, octal base
– 10 W Directly heated beam power tetrode with deflection screens available on separate pin, miniature 7-pin base
2E31 – Subminiature, directly heated, fully shielded sharp-cutoff RF/IF pentode, 5-pin all-glass pigtailed, FL
2E32 – Similar to 2E31, SL
2E35 – 6 mW Subminiature directly heated power pentode, 5-pin all-glass pigtailed, FL
2E36 – Similar to 2E35, SL
2E41 – Diode, pentode, FL
2E42 – Similar to 2E42, SL
2F21 – Indirectly heated hexode monoscope, Indian Head test pattern, 6-pin base with dual top caps for grid4 and anode
2G21 – Directly heated triode-heptode mixer, 7-pin all-glass pigtailed
2G41 – Triode-heptode converter, FL
2G42 – Similar to type 2G42, SL
2H21 – Phasitron, a magnetically controlled beam-deflection phase modulator tube similar to the 5593, used in early FM broadcast transmitters
2J30 to 2J34 – 300 kW S-band Magnetrons
2J55 and 2J56 – 40 kW X-band Magnetrons for use as pulsed oscillator
2K25 – 25 mW 8.5 to 9.66 GHz Reflex Klystron
2K50 – 15 mW 23.5 to 24.5 GHz Reflex Klystron
2P23 – Early image orthicon TV camera tube.
3B28 – Xenon half wave rectifier; ruggedized replacement for mercury vapor type 866.
3C22 – Disk-seal UHF power triode, Panode = 125 W with forced-air cooling, 1.4 GHz
3C23 – 1.5 Aavg, 6 Apeak, Mercury-vapor triode thyratron, 4-pin base with anode top cap
3C45 – 45 mAavg, 1.5 ARMS, 35 Apeak, Half-indirectly heated hydrogen triode thyratron, 4-pin base with anode top cap
3D21 – Indirectly heated beam power tetrode, 8-pin base with anode top cap
3D22 – Gas-filled, 800 mAavg, 8 Apeak, tetrode thyratron, 7-pin base
3E29 – Dual beam power tube used in radar equipment; a pulse rated variant of the earlier 829B, 7-pin base with dual anode top cap.
4B32 – 10 kV, 1.25 Aavg, 5 Apeak Xenon half wave rectifier
4D21 (6155, Eimac 4-125A) – 125 W Glass VHF beam power tetrode
4E27 – 125 W Glass radial-beam power pentode
4J31 to 4J35 – 1 MW S-band Magnetrons
5B24 – Tungar bulb, a low-voltage, mercury-vapor, full wave rectifier for charging 60-cell lead-acid batteries at 6 A; 2.5 V, 24 A heater
5C22 – Half-indirectly heated, hydrogen triode thyratron for radar modulators.
5D22 (6156, Eimac 4-250A) – 250 W, 110 MHz Glass beam power tetrode
5J26 – 500 kW, 1.22 to 1.35 GHz S-band Magnetrons
6C21 – Triode radar modulator for "hard tube" pulsers.
7C23 – 120 kW Power triode for high voltage pulse operation.
8D21 – Internally water cooled dual tetrode used in early VHF TV transmitters.
9C21 – 100 kW Water-cooled power triode, directly heated, 4-pin base with dual top caps for grid and anode
List of EIA professional tubes
Note: Most of these are special quality versions of the equivalents given. Some manufacturers preceded the EIA number with a manufacturer's code, as explained above.
5000s
5331, 5332, 5514 – Directly heated power triodes, 4-pin base with anode top cap
5556 – Directly heated power triode, 4-pin base
5593 – Phasitron, a magnetically controlled beam-deflection phase modulator tube similar to the 2H21, used in early FM broadcast transmitters
5608 – Double power triode, designed for use with AC anode voltage and critical grid leak requirements
5651 – 86-volts, cold-cathode, glow-discharge voltage reference, 7-pin miniature base
5654, 6AK5, EF95, CV4010, 6J1P (6Ж1П), 408A – VHF pentode; common in vintage radar IF amplifiers.
5678 (CK5678 Raytheon) – 5 leads subminiature shielded pentode for RF applications
5691 – Special Red ruggedized long-life high-mu triode for industrial applications
5692 – Special Red ruggedized long-life medium-mu triode for industrial applications
5693 – Special Red ruggedized long-life sharp-cutoff pentode for industrial applications
5704 – Subminiature diode, all-glass pigtailed
5727 – 650 V, 100 mAavg, 500 mApeak, 10 Asurge Indirectly heated tetrode thyratron, positive starter voltage, miniature 7-pin base
5729 – Beam-deflection, 30-channel analog multiplexer for telecomms transmitting channel banks, internal electrostatic focusing and deflection to determine through which one out of 30 grids the electron beam passes to the common anode. Cf. 5738, 6090, 6091, 6170, 6324
5731 – Narrow-tolerance selected 955 Acorn triode for use in Radiosonde weather balloon transmitters
5734 – Mechano-electronic displacement sensor; a vacuum triode with its anode mounted on a shaft that extends through a thin, flexible metal diaphragm; shaft movement is reflected in anode current; Fres = 12 kHz
5738 – Beam-deflection, secondary emission, 25-channel analog multiplexer, internal electrostatic focusing and deflection to determine which one out of 25 individually controllable dynodes receives the electron beam controlled by a common grid. Cf. 5729, 6090, 6091, 6170, 6324
5749, 6BA6, EF93, W727 – RF pentode
5750, 6BE6, EK90, X727 – Heptode mixer
5751 – Low-voltage, low-noise avionics dual triode with separate cathodes
5814A – Industrial, computer-rated version of 12AU7/ECC82
5836, 6BL6 – Sutton tube, a reflex klystron used as a 250 mW CW microwave source, 1.6 to 6.5 GHz depending upon an external cavity. 4-pin peewee base with cavity contact rings and top cap
5837, 6BM6 – Sutton tube used as a 150 mW CW microwave source, 550 MHz to 3.8 GHz depending upon an external cavity. 4-pin peewee base with cavity contact rings and top cap
5845 – Dual directly heated saturated-emission diode. Acts as a heating current-controlled, variable series resistor in voltage/current stabilizer circuits.
5876A – Glass pencil-type disk-seal UHF power triode up to 2 GHz
5930 – Ruggedized, directly heated power triode, 4-pin base
5962 – 700 V/2...55 μA Corona voltage reference, miniature 7-pin base with anode top cap
5963, 5964, 5965 – Dual triode, designed for high speed digital computers, has a high zero-bias anode current, identical to 12AV7
5998, 6336A, 6394, 6520, 6528, 7802 – Double power triodes, designed for series voltage regulator applications
6000s
6047 – Additron, a triple-control grid, split-anode tetrode for use as a single-bit digital full adder (technically a hexode)
6057, 12AX7, ECC83, M8137, B339 – High-mu double triode
6059, 6BR7 – Low-microphonics pentode
6060, 12AT7, ECC81, M8162, B309 – High-mu double triode
6064, 6AM6, EF91, M8083, Z77 – R.F. pentode
6067, 12AU7, ECC82, M8136, B329 – Medium-mu double triode
6080, 6AS7 – Very-low impedance double power triode, designed for series voltage regulator applications, now popular for output transformerless audio amplifiers
6082 – Ruggedized, indirectly heated power triode, octal base
6090 – Beam-deflection, 18-channel analog demultiplexer for telecomms receiving channel banks, internal electrostatic focusing and deflection to determine which one out of 18 anodes receives the electron beam controlled by a common grid. Cf. 5729, 5738, 6091, 6170, 6324
6091 – Beam-deflection, 25-channel analog multiplexer for telecomms transmitting channel banks, internal electrostatic focusing and deflection to determine through which one out of 25 grids the electron beam passes to the common anode. Cf. 5729, 5738, 6090, 6170, 6324
6146 – 60 MHz, 120 W Power AF/RF/VHF beam pentode
6146B (8298A) – Improved version of 6146, 6146A and 8298.
6170 and 6324 – Beam-deflection, 25-channel analog multiplexer for telecomms transmitting channel banks, external focusing and deflection by a multiphase, rotating magnetic field to determine through which one out of 25 grids the electron beam passes to the common anode. Cf. 5729, 5738, 6090, 6091
6173 – Pencil-type disk-seal UHF diode up to 3.3 GHz
6196 – Directly heated dual, compensating electrometer tetrode with space charge grids for use in the 2 branches of a differential-in, differential-out bridge circuit
6218/E80T (CV5724) – Modulated, single-anode beam deflection tube for pulse generation up to 375 MHz; shock resistant up to 500 g
6263 – Pencil-type disk-seal UHF power triode up to 500 MHz, Panode = 8 W
6351 – Secondary emission pentode for wide band RF amplifiers
6353 – 19.3 kV/25...1000 μA Corona voltage reference, miniature 7-pin base with anode top cap
6361 – Convectron, an inclinometer tube that senses tilt from the vertical by means of different gas convections around a heating wire in a glass envelope, of two 6361s aligned in a 90° V-shaped position to each other and the heating wires connected in a bridge circuit
6391 – Subminiature low-microphonics pentode, 8-pin all-glass pigtailed
6441 – 650 V, 100 mAavg, 300 mAsurge Tacitron, a grid turn-off hydrogen thyratron with a grid that forms a shield around both the cathode and anode and separates the two by a wire mesh, so the arc discharge can be extinguished by a negative grid that surrounds the positive anode with a field of opposing polarity and inhibits conduction, taking over part of the anode current during deionisation – similar to today's GTOs; Octal base
6462 – Magnetic pickup tube, a 1-axis beam-deflection magnetometer with approx. resolution; an electron beam is electrostatically centered between two anodes while no magnetic field is present; the magnetic field to be detected will then deflect the beam more towards one of the anodes, resulting in an imbalance between the two anode currents
6550 – 20 W AF beam tetrode for high fidelity amplifiers
6550A – Improved 6550 42 watt anode
6571 – Williams-type computer memory tube
6577 – Typotron, a charactron for text mode video rendering in early computer monitors
6700 – 200 ns Decade counter Magnetron Beam Switching Tube, 6.3 V, 300 mA heater
6701 – Low-voltage 500 ns decade counter Magnetron Beam Switching Tube, 6.3 V, 300 mA heater
6703 – 500 ns Decade counter Magnetron Beam Switching Tube, 6.3 V, 300 mA heater
6704 – 100 ns Decade counter Magnetron Beam Switching Tube with internal spade load resistors, 6.3 V, 300 mA heater
6710, 6711, 6712 (High current), 6714 (Low voltage) – 2 MHz Decade counter Beam-X Switch, 6.3 V heater
6762 – Wamoscope, a TWT/CRT combination used to directly visualize an incoming microwave signal by electron velocity-sorting
6835, 7570, 7571 – Single-electron gun recording storage tube, an analog video frame freezer tube. This was achieved by a CRT that writes the video image onto a thin, dielectric target and subsequently can read the generated charge pattern up to 30000 times from that target, producing a video signal containing a static shot that resembles a still photograph
6846 – Gas-filled, three-cathode 1-bit binary counter or switching tube, 7-pin base
6877, 7233 – Power triodes, designed for series voltage regulator applications
6900 – Dual power triode for pulse applications in missiles, avionics and industrial systems; noval base
6922 (E88CC, industrial version of 6DJ8/ECC88)
6973 – Power pentode similar in shape, size, and pinbase to the EL84/6BQ5, but with a high gain for more than double the output range. Popular in some makes of 1960s era guitar amplifiers, though rarely implemented in modern times.
7000s
7025/12AX7 – Miniature Low-hum, noise and microphonics version of 12AX7
7027 – AF Power pentode improved 6L6 with a 25 Watt anode and different pinout
7027A – Improved 7027 35 watt anode
7077 – Miniature all-ceramic disk-seal UHF triode
7105 – 12.6-volts version of 6080
7189/6BQ5/EL84 – AF Power pentode
7189A – Improved 7189
7199 – Split triode-pentode, noval pinbase. Similar to 6U8.
7229, 7230, 7231, 7232, 7439, 7440, 7441, 7595, 7596, 7597, 7598, 7599, 7600, 7602 – Krytrons, cold-cathode gas-filled trigger tubes with a primer electrode for use as a very high-speed, high-surge current switch – second source to EG&G
7236 – Double power triode for use as long-life power amplifier in computer applications
7241, 7242 – Triple-grid/cathode power triodes, designed for hi-rel series voltage regulator applications
7266 – Miniature all-ceramic disk-seal UHF diode
7289 – 3 GHz, 40 W UHF planar power triode
7308/E188CC – Premium version of 6922
– Beam deflection tube, used as balanced modulator/mixer up to 100 MHz
7414 – Time Totalizer, a metal-vapor coulometer, a cold-cathode gas-discharge tube where metal is constantly sputtered off the cathode and deposited on a collector element whose resistance therefore decreases with elapsed time
7430 – Flat-envelope version of the 6AK5/EF95 sharp-cutoff pentode for use on PCBs in Radiosonde weather balloon transmitters
7548 – Secondary emission hexode for pulse generator and pulse amplifier applications
7551 – Noval-base beam power pentode with 12-15 volt heater. 6.3 volt heater version was 7558. Used in telephony, RF amplification, and more rarely AF amplification.
7554 – Ceramic/metal pencil-type disk-seal SHF power triode up to 5 GHz
7572, 7575, 7702 – Dual-electron gun recording storage tube, a realtime analog video frame freezer tube with simultaneous R/W, and storing capability. This was achieved by a CRT/camera tube combination; the CRT part writes the video signal onto a thin, dielectric target, which can hold the generated charge pattern for many hours; the camera part reads the charge pattern from the back side of this target, producing a video signal containing a static shot that resembles a still photograph
7586 – First Nuvistor available on the market, medium-mu triode
7587 – Nuvistor Sharp cutoff tetrode
7591 – Beam power pentode, octal pinbase. Found in many guitar amps made by Gibson and Ampeg.
7688, 7690 (Medium-mu), 7689 (high-mu) – triple triodes
7699 – Dual tetrode for wide band push-pull amplifiers
7762 – Shock-proof avionics AF beam power pentode
7763 – Beam deflection tube, used as IF amplifier/limiter where a constant phase shift over a wide range of input signal amplitudes is required
7768 – Miniature all-ceramic disk-seal SHF triode up to 4 GHz
7868 – Beam power pentode, magnoval pinbase version of 7591. Found in many of the once popular Challenger series PA amps made by Bogen Communications, also found in some guitar amplifiers made by Ampeg.
7895 – Improved 7586 Nuvistor with higher mu
8000s
8011 – Micropup-type UHF power triode up to 600 MHz
8056 – Nuvistor triode for low supply voltage
8058 – Nuvistor triode with grid on envelope and an anode cap, for grounded-grid UHF circuits
8069 – 8 kV/23...1000 μA Corona voltage reference, cathode cylinder and anode top cap
8089 – 1.6 kV/20...800 μA Corona voltage reference, 2-pin all-glass pigtailed
8090 – 3.5 kV/50...1000 μA Corona voltage reference, 9-pin with anode top cap
8091 – 4 kV/50...1000 μA Corona voltage reference, 9-pin with anode top cap
8122 – Forced-air cooled, 300 W@470 MHz beam power tetrode
8256 – 3.5 kV/35...1900 μA Corona voltage reference, 2-pin all-glass pigtailed
8257 – 1.2 kV/15...750 μA Corona voltage reference, 2-pin all-glass pigtailed
8393 – Nuvistor Medium-mu triode, used in Tektronix oscilloscopes, 12.6 Volt heater
8469 – 400 V/5...400 μA Corona voltage reference, 2-pin all-glass pigtailed
8506 – Miniature all-ceramic disk-seal UHF triode
8514 – 1 kV/10...800 μA Corona voltage reference, 7-pin with anode top cap
8515 – 1.6 kV/20...950 μA Corona voltage reference, 7-pin with anode top cap
8526 – Nuvistor-type medium-mu dual triode
8873 – 500 MHz, 200 W anode dissipation power triode
8874 – 500 MHz, 400 W anode dissipation power triode
8875 – 500 MHz, 300 W anode dissipation power triode
8877 = 3CX1500A7 – Ceramic, forced air cooled, 1.5 kW power triode
8974 (X-2159) – Giant water-cooled megawatt-class tetrode used for very high-power broadcast and industrial service; possibly the most powerful tube ever commercially produced
List of European Mullard–Philips tubes
List of Pro Electron professional tubes
Note: Typecode explained above.
X - Electro-optical devices
XA
XA1003 – Phototube, caesium-on-oxydated-silver cathode, 2-pin all-glass pigtailed
XG
XG2000 – Image converter for x-ray diagnostics
XL
XL7900 – Vibrating-capacitor chopper front end for dosimeters, electrometers, pH meters etc., Magnoval base with gold-plated pins
XM
XM1000 – Nimo tube, directly heated cathode-ray 1-digit numeric display tube, decimal points on both sides, hence 12 stenciled electron guns, top-viewing, green, 15 mm high Futura Medium font, oval envelope for easy horizontal stacking, 14-pin base
XP
XP1000 – 10-stage photomultiplier, blue-sensitive Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes, diheptal (14-pin) base
XP1001 – 10-stage photomultiplier for gamma ray scintillation spectrometry, Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes
XP1002 – 10-stage photomultiplier, blue/green/yellow/orange-sensitive Sb-Na-K-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes, diheptal base
XP1003 – 10-stage photomultiplier with quartz window, UV/blue/green/yellow/orange-sensitive Sb-Na-K-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes, diheptal base
XP1004 – 10-stage photomultiplier with quartz window, UV/blue-sensitive Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes, diheptal base
XP1005 – 10-stage Ag-O-Cs (800±100 nm) photomultiplier, IR/red-sensitive Ag-O-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes, diheptal base
XP1010 – 10-stage photomultiplier for r-ray and gamma ray scintillation spectrometry, selected 150AVP for low noise and resolution, blue-sensitive Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes, duodecal (12-pin) base
XP1011 – 10-stage photomultiplier, blue-sensitive Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes, shock and vibration-proof, duodecal base
XP1020 – 12-stage photomultiplier, blue-sensitive Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes, 100 Ω output, duodecal (20-pin) base
XP1021 – 12-stage photomultiplier, UV/blue-sensitive Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes, 50 Ω output, duodecal base
XP1023 – 12-stage photomultiplier with quartz window Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes, UV/blue-sensitive, 50 Ω output, duodecal base
XP1030 – 10-stage photomultiplier, blue-sensitive Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes, diheptal (14-pin) base
XP1031 – 10-stage photomultiplier, blue-sensitive Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes, for gamma ray scintillation spectrometry
XP1032 – 10-stage photomultiplier with 3 mm quartz window, UV/blue-sensitive Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes, diheptal base
XP1033 – 10-stage photomultiplier with 10 mm quartz window, UV/blue-sensitive Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes, diheptal base
XP1040 – 14-stage photomultiplier, blue-sensitive Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes, concave window, duodecal base
XP1110 – Photomultiplier, blue-sensitive Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes
XP1111 – Photomultiplier, blue-sensitive Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes, pigtails
XP1113 – 6-stage Photomultiplier, blue-sensitive Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes
XP1114 – 4-stage Photomultiplier, blue-sensitive Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes
XP1115 – Photomultiplier, blue-sensitive Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes, pigtails, shock and vibration-proof
XP1116 – Photomultiplier, red-sensitive Ag-O-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes, shock and vibration-proof
XP1117 – 9-stage photomultiplier, blue/green/yellow/orange-sensitive Sb-Na-K-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes
XP1118 – Photomultiplier with quartz window, UV/blue-sensitive Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes
XP1120 – 17-stage photomultiplier for x-ray (λ > 200 pm) or UV (λ < 150 nm) photon counting in a high-vacuum environment, Nickel cathode, Cu-Be-O dynodes, coaxial outputs, built-in resistor ladder
XP1121 – 17-stage photomultiplier for ion (> 10 keV) or electron (0.1...10 keV) photon counting in a high-vacuum environment, Cu-Be-O cathode and dynodes, coaxial outputs, built-in resistor ladder
XP1122 – 17-stage photomultiplier for x-ray (λ > 200 pm) or UV (λ < 150 nm) photon counting in a high-vacuum environment, Nickel cathode, Cu-Be-O dynodes, coaxial outputs, built-in resistor ladder
XP1123 – 17-stage photomultiplier for ion (> 10 keV) or electron (0.1...10 keV) photon counting in a high-vacuum environment, Cu-Be-O cathode and dynodes, coaxial outputs, built-in resistor ladder
XP1130 – 17-stage photomultiplier for x-ray (λ > 200 pm) or UV (λ < 150 nm) photon counting in a high-vacuum environment, Nickel cathode, Cu-Be-O dynodes, coaxial outputs, built-in resistor ladder
XP1131 – 17-stage photomultiplier for ion (> 10 keV) or electron (0.1...10 keV) photon counting in a high-vacuum environment, Cu-Be-O cathode and dynodes, coaxial outputs, built-in resistor ladder
XP1140 – 6-stage photomultiplier, blue-sensitive Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes, fast, diheptal base
XP1141 – 7-stage photomultiplier, blue-sensitive Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes, fast, diheptal base
XP1180/52AVP – 10-stage photomultiplier, blue-sensitive Sb-Cs cathode, Ag-Mg-O-Cs dynodes, fast, diheptal base
XP1240 – Photomultiplier
XQ
XQ1023 – Camera tube
XQ1029R – Camera tube, red channel
XQ1032 – 1" Vidicon; magnetic focusing and deflection
XQ1053 – Camera tube
XQ1072 – 1" Plumbicon
XQ1073 – XQ1072 with higher resolution and improved low level contrast
XQ1200 – Vidicon, silicon target
XQ1270 – " Vidicon; Overall length 108mm (4")
XQ1272 – " Vidicon
XQ1274 – " Newvicon, magnetic focussing and deflection, ZnSe+CdZnTe target
XQ1275 – Vidicon, silicon target
XQ1276 – XQ1274 with high sensitivity into the near infrared
XQ1277 – XQ1275 with high sensitivity into the near infrared
XQ1278 – XQ1275 with better geometry and uniform signal
XQ1285 – 1" Vidicon; magnetic focusing and deflection, precision electron gun
XQ1290 – 1" Resistron camera tube
XQ1293 – Camera tube
XQ1300 – Saticon Camera Tube
XQ1340 – Low-light Vidicon
XQ1371 – Resistron
XQ1380 – XQ1274 with radiation resistant (anti-browning) faceplate
XQ1381 – " Newvicon; electrostatioc focusing and magnetic deflection with radiation-resistant (anti-browning) faceplate
XQ1395 – High-resolution Resistron camera tube
XQ1410B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ1412 – 6/5" Plumbicon; low lag, unity gamma matched to P20 phosphor
XQ1413B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ1415B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ1427 – " Plumbicon; low lag
XQ1427B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ1430B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ1435B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ1440 – 1" Newvicon, separate mesh, ZnSe+CdZnTe target
XQ1500B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ1505B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ1560 – 1" Saticon
XQ1565 – 1" Saticon
XQ1570 – 1" Saticon
XQ1575 – 1" Saticon
XQ1585 – 1" Saticon
XQ1600 – " Vidicon; separate mesh, electrostatic focusing and magnetic deflection
XQ1601 – " Newvicon; separate mesh, electrostatic focusing and magnetic deflection
XQ2070/02B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ2070/05B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ2075/02B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ2075/05B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ2172 – 1" Plumbicon; wide dynamic range matched to digital radiography applications
XQ2182 – 1" Plumbicon; wide dynamic range matched to digital radiography applications
XQ2427B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ3070/02B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ3070/05B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ3075/02B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ3075/05B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ3427B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ3430B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ3435B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ3440B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ3445B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ3457B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ3467B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ3477B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ3487B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ3550B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ3555B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ4187B/G/R – Plumbicon for color TV broadcast
XQ4502 – 2" Plumbicon; Highest resolution, low lag
XQ5002 – 2" Plumbicon; Electrostsatic deflection for improved corner resolution, low output capacitance
XQ7002 – 1" Plumbicon; Low output capacitance
XQ8002 – 1" Plumbicon
XQ9002 – 1" Plumbicon
XR
XR1000 – Monoscope, test pattern specified by suffix
XX
XX1000 – 2-stage image intensifier
XX1010 – Image intensifier
XX1020 – Image intensifier
XX1030 – Image intensifier
XX1050 – Image intensifier
XX1060 – Image intensifier
XX1066 – 1. Gen. 3-stage image intensifier
XX1140 – 1. Gen. 3-stage image intensifier
XX1190 – 1. Gen. inverter, 1-stage image intensifier
XX1192 – 1. Gen. inverter, 1-stage image intensifier
XX1200 – 1. Gen. inverter, 1-stage image intensifier
XX1211 – 1. Gen. inverter, 3-stage image intensifier
XX1270 – 1. Gen. inverter, 2-stage image intensifier
XX1400 – 2. Gen. inverter, 1-stage image intensifier
XX1430 – 1. Gen. inverter, 1-stage image intensifier
XX1510 – 1. Gen. 3-stage image intensifier
XX1610 – 2. Gen. image intensifier
XX1800 – 2. Gen. proximity focused, 1-stage image intensifier
Y - Vacuum tubes
YA
YA1000 – 5 kV, 5mA, Directly heated saturated-emission diode with pure-metal cathode for use in RMS converters of AC voltage/current stabilizer circuits, noval base
YD
YD1000 – 120 kW, Water-cooled RF power triode
YD1001 – 120 kW, Air-cooled RF power triode
YD1012 – 360 kW, Vapor-cooled RF power triode
YD1130 – 580 W, Air-cooled, linear RF/AF power triode
YD1252 (RS 2051 V) – 420 kW, Water-cooled, modulator power triode
YD1300 – 35 W, Air-cooled, UHF power triode
YD1301 – 50 W, Air-cooled, UHF power triode
YD1302 – 55 W, Air-cooled, UHF power triode
YD1332 – 250 W, Air-cooled, UHF power triode
YD1333 – 100 W, Air-cooled, UHF power triode
YD1334 – 110 W, Air-cooled, UHF power triode
YD1335 – 550 W, Air-cooled, UHF power triode
YD1336 – 220 W, Air-cooled, UHF power triode
YD1342 – 30 MHz, 530 kW, Water-cooled RF power triode
YD1352S (8867, DX334) – 5 MHz, 3 kW, Water-cooled Neotron, a gridless field-effect tube where a magnetically focused electron beam is modulated by varying the voltage of a gate electrode surrounding it. Used as RF power amplifier or oscillator
YG
YG1000 – Directly heated electrometer tetrode with an oxide cathode and a space charge grid, grid current ≤600 fA, magnoval base with input grid on top cap
YH
YH1000 – Traveling-wave tube
YH1050 – Traveling-wave tube
YH1110 – Traveling-wave tube
YH1120 – Traveling-wave tube, >5 GHz
YH1131 – Traveling-wave tube, >11 GHz
YH1150 – Traveling-wave tube
YH1160 – Traveling-wave tube, >3 GHz
YH1181 – Traveling-wave tube, >4 GHz
YH1190 – Traveling-wave tube, >11 GHz
YH1200 – Traveling-wave tube, >5 GHz
YJ
YJ1000 – Indirectly heated, 2.5 kW magnetron for use as a pulsed X-band oscillator between 9.19 and 9.32 GHz
YJ1462 – Indirectly heated, 28 kW coaxial magnetron for use as a pulsed X-band oscillator at 9.375 GHz
YK
YK1000 – Water-cooled, permanent-magnet 11 kW UHF linear-beam Klystron for use in TV transmitters between 400 and 620 MHz
YK1004 – Water-cooled, permanent-magnet 11 kW UHF linear-beam Klystron for use in TV transmitters between 610 and 790 MHz
YK1005 – Water-cooled, permanent-magnet 11 kW UHF linear-beam Klystron for use in TV transmitters between 470 and 860 MHz
YK1046 – 35 mW X-band Reflex Klystron, 9.16 to 9.34 GHz
YK1151 – Forced-air cooled, permanent-magnet 25 kW UHF linear-beam Klystron for use in TV transmitters between 470 and 860 MHz
YK1190 – Water-cooled 40 kW UHF linear-beam Klystron for use in TV transmitters between 470 and 610 MHz
YK1191 – Water-cooled 40 kW UHF linear-beam Klystron for use in TV transmitters between 590 and 720 MHz
YK1192 – Water-cooled 40 kW UHF linear-beam Klystron for use in TV transmitters between 710 and 860 MHz
YL
YL1000/8463 – RF power pentode
YL1020/8118 – See QQZ03/20
YL1030 – See QQZ06/40
YL1050 – UHF power tetrode
YL1060/7854 – See QQE06/40
YL1070/8117 – Dual RF power tetrode
YL1071 – YL1070 with a different heater
YL1080/8348 – Dual VHF power tetrode
YL1120 – RF power tetrode
YL1130/8408 – Dual VHF power pentode
YL1150/8579 – RF beam power tetrode
YL1190/8580 – Dual UHF power tetrode
YL1200 – See PE1/100
YL1210 – QQE03/12 with a different heater
YL1220 – QQE02/5 with a different heater
YL1240/8458 – Dual VHF power tetrode
YL1250/8505 – VHF beam power tetrode
YL1270/8581 – Dual UHF power tetrode
YL1290 – QE08/200 with a different heater
YL1310/8603 – RF beam power tetrode
YL1360 – QQE04/5 with a different heater
YL1570 (RS 1084 CJ) – VHF power tetrode
Z - Gas-filled tubes
Note: See also standard M-P tubes under Z
ZA
ZA1000 – Neon-filled, coaxial, tritium-primed (half-life: 12.32 years), sputtered-molybdenum cold-cathode switching diode, meshed cylinder anode, all-glass pigtailed
ZA1001 – Neon-filled, coaxial, tritium-primed, sputtered-molybdenum cold-cathode switching diode with traces of heavy gas (krypton/xenon) for slow de-ionization, e.g. for low-frequency relaxation oscillators; meshed cylinder anode, all-glass pigtailed
ZA1002 – Neon-filled, coaxial, tritium-primed, sputtered-molybdenum cold-cathode switching diode, large difference between burning and ignition voltage, meshed cylinder anode, 3-pin all-glass pigtailed
ZA1003 – Neon-filled, coaxial, tritium-primed, sputtered-molybdenum cold-cathode switching diode for use as indicator tube in transistorized circuits, meshed cylinder anode, 3-pin all-glass pigtailed
ZA1004 – Neon-filled, coaxial, tritium-primed, sputtered-molybdenum cold-cathode switching diode, small difference between burning and ignition voltage, for use as indicator tube in transistorized circuits or as 86.4 V Voltage reference, meshed cylinder anode, 3-pin all-glass pigtailed
ZA1005 – Neon-filled, coaxial, tritium-primed, sputtered-molybdenum cold-cathode switching diode for use like a DIAC in thyristor circuits, meshed cylinder anode, 2-pin all-glass pigtailed
ZC
ZC1010 (Z661W) – 8 mAavg, 50 mApeak, Gas-filled, cold-cathode AC trigger pentode, two starters and a primer electrode, positive starter voltage, 5-pin all-glass pigtailed, envelope inside radioactively coated for a constant ignition voltage, for use in bidirectional counters
ZC1040 – 25 mA, Gas-filled, cold-cathode AC trigger tetrode, one starter and a primer electrode, positive starter voltage, noval base
ZC1050 – 2 mA, Gas-filled, cold-cathode, luminiscent trigger tetrode, one starter and a primer, 300 mlm light output for use as self-displaying shift register cells in large-format, crawling-text dot-matrix displays; all-glass pigtailed
ZC1060 – 20 mAavg, 5 kApeak, Gas-filled, cold-cathode, high-current trigger triode for e.g. capacitor discharge circuits. One external (capacitive) starter electrode
ZM
ZM1000 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 14 mm character height side-viewing, left decimal point
ZM1000R – ZM1000 with a red contrast filter coating
ZM1001 – + - ~ Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 14mmCH side-viewing, for use with ZM1000
ZM1001R – ZM1001 with a red contrast filter coating, for use with ZM1000R
ZM1002 – ns μs ms s Hz kHz MHz Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 13mmCH side viewing, for use with ZM1000 in digital frequency counters
ZM1003 – 1 - + Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 14mmCH side-viewing, for use with ZM1000
ZM1005 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Long-life neon-filled digital indicator tube, 14mmCH side-viewing, left decimal point, multiplex-capable
ZM1005R – ZM1005 with a red contrast filter coating
ZM1006 – 1 2 3 4 5 6 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, side-viewing, left and right decimal point, for use in TV receivers
ZM1008 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 14mmCH side-viewing
ZM1010 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 14mmCH side-viewing, left decimal point
ZM1012 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 14mmCH side-viewing
ZM1015 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 14mmCH side-viewing
(Z520M) – ZM1022 with a red contrast filter coating
(Z521M) – ZM1023 with a red contrast filter coating, for use with ZM1020
– 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 15.5mmCH top-viewing, no decimal point
ZM1023 – A V Ω % + - ~ Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 15.5mmCH top-viewing, for use with ZM1022 in digital multimeters
ZM1024 – ZM1025 with a red contrast filter coating, for use with ZM1020
ZM1025 – μs ms ns s Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 15.5mmCH top-viewing, for use with ZM1022 in digital frequency counters
ZM1030 – ZM1032 with a red contrast filter coating
ZM1031 – ZM1031/01 without the ~
ZM1031/01 – ZM1033/01 with a red contrast filter coating, for use with ZM1030
ZM1032 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 15.5mmCH side-viewing, no decimal point, 5 dual cathodes and separate odd/even anode compartments for biquinary multiplexing
ZM1033/01 – + - ~ Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 15.5mmCH side-viewing, separate anode compartment for + , for use with ZM1032
(Z522M) – ZM1042 with a red contrast filter coating
ZM1041 – ZM1043 with a red contrast filter coating, for use with ZM1040
ZM1041S – ZM1043S with a red contrast filter coating, for use with ZM1040
(Z5220M) – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 30mmCH side-viewing, no decimal point
ZM1043 – + - Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 30mmCH side-viewing, for use with ZM1042
ZM1043S – Y X + W U Z - Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 30mmCH side-viewing, for use with ZM1042
ZM1047 – ZM1049 with a red contrast filter coating, for use with ZM1040
ZM1049 – T F S N Z Y G H M X Neon-filled digital indicator tube, side-viewing, for use with ZM1042 in numerical control systems
(Z550M, 8453) – Neon-filled digital indicator tube, top-viewing, dekatron-type readout with common anode and common cathodes, pulsating anode voltage, controlled by 5-volts sensitive starter electrodes, for transistorized circuits
ZM1060 (Z505S) – Argon-filled, 50 kHz decade Counter/Selector Dekatron
ZM1070 (Z504S, 8433) – Neon-filled, 5 kHz decade Counter/Selector Dekatron
ZM1080 – ZM1082 with a red contrast filter coating
ZM1081 – ZM1083 with a red contrast filter coating, for use with ZM1080
ZM1082 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 14mmCH side-viewing, no decimal point, probe electrode
ZM1083 – + - ~ Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 14mmCH side-viewing, for use with ZM1082
ZM1100 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 15.5mmCH top-viewing
ZM1120 – ZM1122 with a red contrast filter coating
ZM1122 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Miniature neon-filled digital indicator tube, 7.8mmCH top-viewing
ZM1130 – ZM1132 with a red contrast filter coating
ZM1131 – ZM1133 with a red contrast filter coating, for use with ZM1080
ZM1132 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, side-viewing, left and right decimal point
ZM1133 – + - ~ Neon-filled digital indicator tube, side-viewing, for use with ZM1132
ZM1136L/R – ZM1138L/R with a red contrast filter coating
ZM1137 – ZM1139 with a red contrast filter coating, for use with ZM1136L/R
ZM1138L/R – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 13mmCH side-viewing, left or right decimal points (specify)
ZM1139 – + - ~ Ω Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 13mmCH side-viewing, for use with ZM1138 in digital multimeters
ZM1162 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Long-life neon-filled digital indicator tube, 15.5mmCH top-viewing, no decimal point, rectangular envelope for close stacking in both axes
ZM1170 – ZM1172 with a red contrast filter coating
ZM1172 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 15.5mmCH side-viewing, no decimal point
ZM1174 – ZM1175 with a red contrast filter coating
ZM1175 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 15.5mmCH side-viewing, left decimal point
ZM1176 – ZM1177 with a red contrast filter coating
ZM1177 – ZM1175, but right decimal point
ZM1180 – ZM1182 with a red contrast filter coating
ZM1181 – ZM1183 with a red contrast filter coating, for use with ZM1180
ZM1182 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 16mmCH top-viewing, no decimal point, semi-rectangular envelope for close horizontal stacking
ZM1183 – + - ~ Ω Neon-filled digital indicator tube, top-viewing, 13mmCH for use with ZM1182 in digital multimeters
ZM1184D – ZM1185D with a red contrast filter coating
ZM1185A (GR1420) – 1 2 3 4 5 6 U K E R Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 16mmCH top-viewing
ZM1185D (GR1430) – ∇ Δ Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 16mmCH top-viewing, for use in elevators
ZM1185E (GR1472) – 0 1 2 3 4 5 - t kg + Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 16mmCH top-viewing
ZM1200 – Pandicon, multiplexed 14-digit display tube with decimal points and punctuation marks, pin connections on both ends
ZM1202 – 12-Digit Pandicon
ZM1204 – 10-Digit Pandicon
ZM1206 – 8-Digit Pandicon
ZM1210 – ZM1212 with a red contrast filter coating
ZM1212 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 15.5mmCH side-viewing, left decimal point, all-glass pigtailed
ZM1220 – ZM1222 with a red contrast filter coating
ZM1222 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Large neon-filled digital indicator tube, 40mmCH side-viewing
ZM1230 – ZM1232 with a red contrast filter coating
ZM1232 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 15.5mmCH upside-down side-viewing, no decimal point
ZM1240 – ZM1242 with a red contrast filter coating
ZM1241 – ZM1243 with a red contrast filter coating, for use with ZM1240
ZM1242 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 16mmCH side-viewing, right decimal point
ZM1243 – + - ~ Ω Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 16mmCH side-viewing, for use with ZM1242 in digital multimeters
ZM1263 – ~ ⚫ Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 10mmCH side-viewing
ZM1290 – ZM1292 with a red contrast filter coating
ZM1292 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 10mmCH side-viewing
ZM1330 – ZM1332 with a red contrast filter coating
ZM1331 – ZM1333 with a red contrast filter coating, for use with ZM1330
ZM1332 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 13.1mmCH side-viewing, left and right decimal points, all-glass pigtailed
ZM1333 – + - ~ Ω Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 13.1mmCH side-viewing, all-glass pigtailed, for use with ZM1332 in digital multimeters
ZM1334 – ZM1336 with a red contrast filter coating
ZM1335 – ZM1337 with a red contrast filter coating, for use with ZM1334
ZM1336 – 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 13.1mmCH side-viewing, left and right decimal points, multiplex-capable
ZM1337 – + - ~ Ω Neon-filled digital indicator tube, 13.0mmCH side-viewing, right decimal point (!), all-glass pigtailed, red contrast filter coating, for use with ZM1336 in digital multimeters
ZM1350 – Varisymbol, planar neon-filled digital 40mm x 27mm fourteen-segment display tube, right decimal point, separate underscore text cursor, keep-alive cathode, multiplex-capable, viewing angle 160°
ZM1360 – ZM1350 with 60mm x 40mm characters
ZM1370 – ZM1350 with 20mm x 13mm characters
ZM1410 – ZM1412 with a red contrast filter coating
ZM1412 – Neon-filled digital seven-segment display tube, 8.6mmCH side-viewing, right decimal point and left punctuation mark, all-glass pigtailed
ZM1500 – Pandicon, multiplexed 12-digit, 7-segment display tube
ZM1550 – Planar neon-filled digital two-digit seven-segment display tube, right decimal points
ZM1551 – Planar neon-filled digital 1-digit seven-segment display tube with + and - signs, right decimal points
Note: More Nixie tubes under standard - ZM and ETL examples
ZP
ZP1000 – Boron trifluoride-filled Geiger-Müller tube, thermal neutrons
ZP1010 – Boron trifluoride-filled Geiger-Müller tube, thermal neutrons
ZP1020 – Boron trifluoride-filled Geiger-Müller tube, thermal neutrons
ZP1070 – Subminiature Geiger-Müller tube, all-glass pigtailed
ZP1080 – Halogen-quenched Geiger-Müller tube, β and γ
ZP1100 – Halogen-quenched Geiger-Müller tube, γ; pigtailed
ZP1200 – Halogen-quenched Geiger-Müller tube, γ
ZP1300 – Halogen-quenched Geiger-Müller tube, γ and high-energy β
ZP1330 – Halogen-quenched Geiger-Müller tube, for use in damp and/or saline atmosphere, β and γ
ZP1400 – Halogen-quenched Geiger-Müller tube, 9mm diameter mica window, β and γ
ZP1430 – Halogen-quenched Geiger-Müller tube, 27.8mm diameter mica window, α, β, γ
ZP1490 – Halogen-quenched Geiger-Müller tube, 28mm diameter mica window, low-level α, β and γ
ZP1600 – Halogen-quenched Geiger-Müller tube, 19.8 mm diameter mica window, X-rays, 6.0 to 20 keV energy, 60 to 200 pm wavelength range
ZP1610 – Side window, organically quenched Geiger-Müller tube. 7 x 18 mm mica window; X-rays, 2.5 to 40 keV energy, 30 to 500 pm wavelength range
ZP1700 – Halogen-quenched, cosmic-ray guard counter tube for low-background measurements; to be used with another radiation counter tube in an anticoincidence circuit
ZP1800 – Halogen-quenched Geiger-Müller tube for use at temperatures up to 200 °C, γ
ZP1810 – Halogen-quenched Geiger-Müller tube for use at temperatures up to 200 °C, γ, low sensitivity, up to 40 mGy/h
ZP1860 – Halogen-quenched Geiger-Müller tube, β and γ
ZT
ZT1000 – 21 kV, 10 A Mercury vapor triode thyratron
ZX
ZX1000 – 800 V, 1140 Apk, 13Aavg Ignitron
ZX1051 – Water-cooled, 56 Aavg Ignitron
ZX1052 – Water-cooled, 140 Aavg Ignitron
ZX1053 – Water-cooled, 355 Aavg Ignitron
ZX1060 – Water-cooled, 10 Aavg Ignitron
ZX1061 – Water-cooled, 10 Aavg Ignitron
ZX1062 – Water-cooled, 10 Aavg Ignitron
ZX1063 – Water-cooled, 10 Aavg Ignitron
ZY
ZY1000 (872B) – High voltage, half-wave mercury-vapor rectifier
ZY1001/8008A – High voltage, half-wave mercury-vapor rectifier, 4-pin base with anode top cap
ZY1002 – High voltage, half-wave mercury-vapor rectifier, E40 (Goliath) Edison screw lamp base with anode top cap
ZZ
ZZ1000 – 81 V Voltage reference, 2-pin all-glass pigtailed
ZZ1010 – 85 V Voltage reference
ZZ1020 (STV85-8) – 82 V Voltage reference with primer electrode, 3-pin all-glass pigtailed
ZZ1030 (STV500-0,1) – Quad 125 V Voltage references, noval base
ZZ1031 – Quad Voltage reference, noval base
ZZ1040 (STV100-60Z) – 100 V Voltage reference with primer electrode
ZZ1050 – 82 V Voltage reference, 2-pin all-glass pigtailed
List of European transmitting tubes
Note: Typecode explained above.
B - Backward-wave amplifier
BA
BA9/20 – X-band, 20 mW, Forced-air cooled backward-wave oscillator
D - Rectifier incl. grid-controlled
DA
DA1.5/75 – 1.5 kV, 75 W Half-wave power rectifier, triode TA1.5/75 without grid
DA12/24000 – 12 kV, 24 kW Water-cooled half-wave power rectifier
DC
DC1/50 – 1 kV, 50 mA Full-wave power rectifier, DC1/60 with dual anode top cap
DC1/60 – 1 kV, 60 mA Full-wave power rectifier
DC2/200 – 2 kV, 200 mA Full-wave power rectifier with dual anode top cap
DCG
DCG1/125 – 1 kV, 125 mA Half-wave mercury-vapor rectifier with Edison screw lamp base and anode top cap
DCG12/30 – 12 kV, 30 A Grid-controlled, half-wave mercury-vapor rectifier with anode top cap
DCX
DCX4/1000 – 4 kV, 1 kW Half-wave xenon rectifier with anode top cap
DCX4/5000 – 4 kV, 5 kW Half-wave xenon rectifier with anode top cap
DE
DE2/200 – 2 kV, 200 W Full-wave power rectifier with dual anode top cap
J - Magnetron
JP
JP8/02B – 8.8 GHz, 25 W Magnetron
JP9/15 – 9.345 to 9.405 GHz, 15 kW Forced-air cooled magnetron for pulsed service
JPT
JPT9/01 – 9.15 to 9.60 GHz, 5 W Magnetron
K - Klystron
KB
KB9/150W – X-band, 150 W Water-cooled, dual-resonator klystron
KS
KS7/85 – 6.5 to 7.5 GHz, 85 mW Reflex klystron
L - Traveling-wave tube
LA
LA9/3 – 7 to 11.5 GHz Forward-wave amplifier
LA16/2 – 11.5 to 18 GHz Forward-wave amplifier
M - AF modulator Triode
MA
MA4/600 – 4 kV, 600 W Radiation-cooled triode
MB
MB1/50 – 1 kV, 50 W Radiation-cooled triode
MB2/200 – 2 kV, 200 W Radiation-cooled triode
MY
MY3/275 – 3 kV, 275 W Radiation-cooled triode
MZ
MZ2/200 – 2 kV, 200 W Radiation-cooled triode
P - Pentode
PA
PA12/15 – 15 kW Water-cooled shortwave pentode
PA12/20 – 20 kW Water-cooled pentode made by Philips and used in the 1930s and 1940s
PAL
PAL12/15 – Air-cooled version of PAW12/15
PAW
PAW12/15 – 15 kW Water-cooled shortwave pentode
PB
PB2/200 – 200 W Shortwave pentode
PB3/1000 – 1 kW Shortwave pentode
PC
PC03/3 – 3 W Shortwave pentode
PC3/1000 – 1 kW Shortwave pentode
PE
PE04/10 – 10 W Shortwave pentode
(YL1200) – 100 W Shortwave pentode
Q - Tetrode
QB
QB2/75 – 75 W Beam-tetrode
QB5/2000 – 2 kW Beam-tetrode
QBL
QBL4/800 – Air-cooled 800 W beam-tetrode
QBL5/3500 – Air-cooled 3500 W beam-tetrode
QBW
QBW5/3500 – Water-cooled 3500 W beam-tetrode
QC
QC05/15 – 15 W Beam-tetrode
QC05/35 – 35 W Beam-tetrode
QE
QE04/10 – 10 W Beam-tetrode
QE05/40 (6146) – 40 W Radiation-cooled output beam-tetrode, popular amongst radio amateurs as a final RF amplifier
– 200 W Beam-tetrode
QEL
QEL1/150 – Air-cooled 150 W beam-tetrode
QEL1/250 – Air-cooled 250 W beam-tetrode
QEP
QEP20/18 – 18 W Beam-tetrode for use as a pulse modulator
QQC
QQC03/14 – 14 W Dual beam-tetrode
QQE
(6939) – 5 W Dual beam-tetrode
(6360) – 12 W Dual beam-tetrode
QQE03/20 (6252) – 20 W Dual beam-tetrode
(7377) – 5 W Dual beam-tetrode
(5894, YL1060) – 40 W dual beam-tetrode, internally neutralized, Septar base with dual anode top cap
QQV
QQV02/6 – 6 W dual beam-tetrode
QQV03/20A – 20 W Radiation-cooled split-anode tetrode made by Mullard and used in the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s as a VHF frequency-doubling output stage with balanced output.
QQV07/50 – 50 W Dual beam-tetrode
QQZ
(8118, YL1020) – 20 W Dual beam-tetrode
(YL1030) – 40 W Dual beam-tetrode
QV
QV04/7 – 7 W Beam-tetrode
QV05/25 (807) – 25 W Radiation-cooled output beam-tetrode made by Mullard.
QV2/250C – 250 W Beam-tetrode
QY
QY3/65 – 65 W Beam-tetrode
QY5/3000A – 3 kW Beam-tetrode
QY5/3000W – Water-cooled version of QY5-3000A
QYS
QYS50/P40 – Pulsed power tetrode, Silica envelope, 50 kV anode voltage, considerable x-radiation, 810 °C anode temperature at 700 W anode dissipation, 40 A anode current at duty factor 0.0005, Vg1Cut-off (IA=1 mA@VA=55 kV): > -3.4 kV, gm: 38 mS
QZ
QZ06/20 – 25 W VHF Power tetrode up to 175 MHz
R - Rectifier
RG
RG1000/3000 – 1 kV, 3 A Half-wave mercury-vapor rectifier with anode top cap
RGQ
RGQ7.5/0.6 – 7.5 kV, 600 mA Half-wave mercury-vapor rectifier with anode top cap
RGQ20/5 – 20 kV, 5 A Half-wave mercury-vapor rectifier with anode top cap
T - AF/RF/oscillator Triode
TA
TA04/5 – 400 V, 50 W Radiation-cooled power triode
TA1.5/75 – 1.5 kV, 75 W Radiation-cooled power triode
TA4/2000K – 4 kV, 2 kW Air-cooled power triode made by Philips in the 1930s
TA18/100000 – 18 kV, 100 kW Water-cooled power triode
TB
TB04/8 – Directly heated Doorknob VHF power triode up to 600 MHz
TB2.5/400 – 2.5 kV, 300 W Radiation-cooled power triode
TB5/2500 – 5 kV, 2.5 kW Radiation-cooled power triode
TBL
TBL2/300 – 2 kV, 300 W Forced air-cooled power triode
TBL15/125 – 15 kV, 125 kW Forced air-cooled power triode, 3-phase filament structure
TBW
TBW6/14 – 6 kV, 14 kW Water-cooled power triode
TBW15/125 – 15 kV, 125 kW Water-cooled power triode, 3-phase filament structure
TC
TC03/5 – RF power triode up to 85 MHz, 5 W
TC2/250 – RF power triode up to 20 MHz, 250 W
TD
TD03/5 – Indirectly heated disk-seal UHF power triode up to 2 GHz
TD03/10 – Indirectly heated disk-seal UHF power triode up to 2.8 W, 3.75 GHz
TD03/10F – TD03/10 with internal feedback for use as an oscillator
TD04/20 – Indirectly heated disk-seal UHF power triode up to 13.5 W, 1 GHz
TD1/100C = 2C39BA – Indirectly heated, ceramic disk-seal UHF power triode up to 24 W, 3.5 GHz
TD2/400 – Directly heated, ceramic disk-seal UHF power triode up to 600 W, 900 MHz
TD2/500 – Directly heated, ceramic disk-seal UHF power triode up to 500 W, 940 MHz
TE
TE05/10 – RF power triode up to 150 MHz
TX
TX12/12W – Water-cooled RF power triode
TX12/20W – Water-cooled RF power triode
TX10/4000 – Power triode, Silica envelope, 12 kV anode voltage, 4 kW anode dissipation, 1.6 A cathode current, gm: 4.5 mS, for use as self-excited high-power oscillator in induction heating equipment.
TY
TY2/125 – 135 W VHF power triode up to 200 MHz
TY12/50A – Forced-air cooled 45 kW RF power triode up to 30 MHz
TY12/50W – Water-cooled 50 kW RF power triode up to 30 MHz
TYS
TYS2/250 – Power triode, Silica envelope, 2.5 kV anode voltage, 250 W anode dissipation
TYS4/500 – Power triode, Silica envelope
TYS5/1000 – Power triode, Silica envelope
TYS5/2000 – Power triode, Silica envelope
TYS5/3000 – Power triode, Silica envelope, 6 kV anode voltage, 950 °C anode temperature at 3.5 kW anode dissipation, 2.8 A cathode current, gm: 15 mS. Used in RF generators for induction hardening.
X - Thyratron
XGQ
XGQ2/6400 – 2 kV, 6.4 kW Mercury-vapor tetrode thyratron with anode and grid1 top caps
XR
XR1/1600 (5545) – 1 kV, 1.6 kW Inert gas-filled triode thyratron with anode top cap
XR1/6400 – 1 kV, 6.4 kW Inert gas-filled triode thyratron with anode top cap
List of other number tubes
1
175HQ – Ultra high reliability pentode for use in long-haul submarine communications cable repeaters
1600s
1602 – Directly heated triode used for A.F. amplification with low microphonics. 7.5 volt heater/filament. 12 watts of A.F. operating in Class-A. 15 watts of low R.F. operating in Class-C. Similar to type 10.
1603 – Indirectly heated pentode used for A.F. amplification with low microphonics. Similar to types 6U7, 57, 6D6 and 6C6. UX6 Base.
1608 – Directly heated triode giving 20 watts at up to 45 MHz. 2.5 volt heater/filament. UX base.
1609 – Directly heated pentode used for A.F. amplification with low microphonics. American 5-Pin(UY)base.
1610 – Directly heated pentode specially designed for use as a crystal oscillator. 2.5 volt heater/filament, American 5-Pin base.
1612 – Pentagrid converter; low-microphonics version of type 6L7. Both control grids (1 and 3) are sharp-cutoff.
1619 – Beam Power Tetrode, similar to 6L6 with directly heated filament, common in World War II battle tank transmitters.
1624, 1625 – Very similar to the 807, but with different heater voltage
1626 – RF triode, very similar to 6J5 but with 12.6 volt filament
1629 – Tuning indicator tube with DC amplifier triode unit
1630 – Indirectly heated, orbital-beam, secondary-emission, 12-pin Jumbo Acorn-type UHF hexode
1633 – Dual triode, equivalent to 6SN7 with 25 volt heater (World War II aircraft use)
1635 – Indirectly heated, 10.4 W dual AF power triode, 8-pin base
1636 – Secondary emission UHF beam deflection tube, used as a balanced mixer up to 600 MHz
1650 – High-altitude version of the 955 Acorn-type triode
1680 – Dual-control heptode for use as a NAND gate in a coincidence circuit in IBM computers, 6BE6/EK90 with a sharp-cutoff grid no.3
2
24B1 – Trigatron
24B9 – Trigatron
29C1 – Directly heated saturated-emission diode; acts as a heating current-controlled, variable series resistor in voltage/current stabilizer circuits.
200s
203A – 40 W, Directly heated RF transmitter power triode, 4-pin base, anode on top cap
204A – 450 W, Directly heated RF transmitter power triode, 3-pin base, anode on top cap
205D – 14 W, Directly heated AF or modulator power triode, 4-pin base
207 – 22.5 kW, Water-cooled, directly heated RF transmitter power triode
210T – Directly heated RF transmitter power triode, 4-pin base, similar to type 10 triode with an isolantite base
210DET – Cossor directly heated, 2 volts, special detector
210HF – Cossor, directly heated, 2 volts, triode
210HL – Cossor, directly heated, 2 volts, triode
210LF – Cossor, directly heated, 2 volts, triode
210PG – Cossor, directly heated, 2 volts, variable-mu pentagrid
210RC – Cossor, directly heated, 2 volts, very high impedance triode
210SPT – Cossor, directly heated, 2 volts, HF pentode
210VPT – Cossor, directly heated, 2 volts, HF variable-mu shielded pentode
211 – 260 W, Directly heated AF or modulator power triode now favored by audiophiles; 4-pin base
212E – 250 W, Directly heated RF transmitter power triode, 4-pin base
215P – Cossor, directly heated AF power triode
220B – 5 kW, Water-cooled, directly heated AF/modulator power triode
228 – 2.5 kW, Directly heated RF/AF power triode
230XP – Cossor, directly heated power triode
232C – 8.5 kW, Water-cooled, directly heated RF transmitter power triode
236A – 12 kW, Water-cooled, directly heated RF transmitter power triode
240B – Cossor, directly heated dual AF power triode
241B – 300 W, Directly heated AF/modulator power triode, 3-pin base, anode on top cap
242A – Directly heated AF/modulator power triode, 4-pin base
250TH – 1.1 kW, Directly heated AF/modulator power triode, 4-pin base, anode on top cap
254A – 14 W, Directly heated RF transmitter power triode, 4-pin base, anode on top cap
261A – 170 W, Directly heated AF/modulator power triode, 4-pin base
268A – 20 W, Directly heated power triode, 4-pin base, anode on top cap
270A – 350 W, Directly heated AF/RF power triode, 4-pin base, anode on top cap
275A – 3 W, Directly heated AF power triode, 4-pin base
276A – 170 W, Directly heated AF/RF power triode, 4-pin base
279A – 1.75 kW, Directly heated AF/RF power triode
295A – 125 W, Directly heated AF/RF power triode, 4-pin base
298A – 5 kW, Water-cooled, directly heated power triode
3
300s
300B – 40 watt directly heated power triode, 4-pin base
316A = VT191 – Directly heated Doorknob-type UHF power triode up to 750 MHz
322 – Oil can-type disk-seal UHF clipper power diode, 800 VPIV, 15 W, 1500 MHz
328 – Tungar bulb, a low-voltage, gas-filled, full wave rectifier for charging 12V lead-acid batteries at 1.3 A
368A – Directly heated Doorknob UHF power triode, graphite anode, up to 1.7 GHz
388A – Directly heated Doorknob UHF power triode, graphite anode, up to 1.7 GHz
4
4XP – Cossor, directly heated power triode
41MP – Cossor, indirectly heated power triode
400s
402P – Cossor, indirectly heated power triode, 7-pin base
416B – Planar SHF power triode, 500 mW output at 4 GHz
416D – Planar SHF power triode with BeO spacers, 5 W output at 4 GHz
446A – Early Lighthouse UHF triode, 10 dB noise figure at 1 GHz
450TH – Early Eimac high-mu power triode, 450 watt anode dissipation to 40 MHz
455A – Ultra high reliability pentode for use in submarine communications cable repeaters
4000s
Philips:
4065 – Directly heated electrometer triode, grid current ≤125 fA, 4-pin all-glass pigtail, for probe amplifiers
4613 – Directly heated power triode, 4-pin base
4614 – Indirectly heated power triode, 5-pin base
4641 – Directly heated power triode, 4-pin base
4671/E1C (955) – Indirectly heated Acorn triode
4672/E1F (954) – Indirectly heated Acorn pentode
4674 – Indirectly heated Acorn diode
4675 – 4671/E1C with a 4 Volts heater
4676 – 4672/E1F with a 4 Volts heater
4678 (EM1) – Indirectly heated tuning indicator
4683 – Directly heated power triode, 8-pin base
4695/E2F (956) – Indirectly heated Acorn pentode
RCA:
4042 – Ceramic/metal pencil-type disk-seal UHF power triode for pulsed operation up to 425 W
4062A – Ceramic/metal pencil-type disk-seal SHF power triode up to 4 GHz, mu = 100, Panode = 10 W
4560 – Character generator monoscope for text mode video rendering in early computer monitors, with a square target having letters, digits and symbols stenciled into it in a customer-supplied 8x8 array. An electron beam selects and scans a character, both by appropriate electrostatic deflection, and generates an analog video signal; cf. CK1414, TH9503
4598, 7539, 7828, 8087, 8098 – Graphechon dual-electron gun scan conversion tubes, analog video transcoders with simultaneous R/W capability for realtime resolution and frame rate transcoding between different analog video standards. This was achieved by a CRT/camera tube combination; the CRT part writes onto a thin, dielectric target; the camera part reads the generated charge pattern at a different scan rate from the back side of this target. The setup could also be used as a genlock
Standard Telephones and Cables:
4205E = 205E – Directly heated power triode, 4-pin bayonet base with offset pin
4270A = 270A = 3C/350E – Directly heated power triode, 4-pin base
4275A = 275A – Directly heated power triode, 4-pin base
4300A = 300A – Directly heated power triode, 4-pin base
4307A = 307A – Power pentode similar to the output beam-tetrode type 807. It differs from an 807 by being a directly heated pentode rather than an indirectly heated beam-tetrode. Both types are contained in an ST-16 bulb with an anode cap and 5-pin "American" UY base
The SY4307A is historically notable because a pair of them in parallel Class-C was used as the output stage in a transmitter built in secret by Australian soldiers in Japanese-occupied Portuguese Timor during World War II in 1942. This transmitter, now reconstructed and on display at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra, was called "Winnie the War Winner".
4307AF – 4307A qualified for use in standard aircraft radio
5
5BP4 – Five-inch CRT used in pre-World War II television receivers, such as the RCA TRK-5 and in early radars such as the SCR-268 and SCR-270.
5CEP11 (blue, short persistence); 10VP15, 5AKP15, 5DKP15, 5ZP15 (blue-green, extremely short); 5BNP16, 5CEP16, 5DKP16, 5ZP16 (violet/near-ultraviolet, very short); 5AKP24, 5AUP24, 5DKP24, 5ZP24 (green, short); 131QP55 (blue-green, very short); 131QP56 (blue-violet, very short) – CRT-type flying-spot scanners for use in a telecine
500s
527 – High-mu power triode up to 900 W
559 – Lighthouse-type disk-seal UHF diode
592 = 3-200A3 – Medium-mu power triode up to 200 W, 150 MHz
6
6P10 – Ultra high reliability pentode for use in short-haul submarine communications cable repeaters
6P12 – Ultra high reliability pentode for use in long-haul submarine communications cable repeaters
7
7JP1 – Monochrome cathode ray tube for use in early postwar oscilloscopes. Electrostatic deflection, P1 green, short-persistence phosphor, screen.
7JP4 – Monochrome cathode ray tube common in early postwar TV receivers. Electrostatic deflection, P4 white, medium-persistence phosphor, screen.
7JP7 – Monochrome cathode ray tube for use in early postwar radar displays. Electrostatic deflection, P7 blue-white, long-persistence phosphor, screen.
700s
703A – Directly heated Doorknob UHF power triode up to 1.5 GHz
713A – Indirectly heated Little Doorknob UHF pentode, Bakelite Octal base
717A (CV3594, VT269) – 713A with a metal shield and a low loss mica-filled phenolic resin Octal base
8
800s
800 – Directly heated V.H.F. power triode, giving 35 watts up to 60 MHz and 18 watts at 180 MHz. American 4-Pin(UX)base with side locating pin.
801 – Directly heated power triode, used in pairs in Class-B in A.M. modulation sections of transmitters giving up to 45 watts of power at 60 MHz and 22 watts at 120 MHz.
802 – Indirectly heated H.F. power pentode, giving 8 watts up to 30 MHz and 4 watts at 110 MHz.
803 – Directly heated H.F. power pentode, giving 50 watts up to 20 MHz and 25 watts at 70 MHz.
804 – Directly heated H.F. power pentode, giving 20 watts up to 15 MHz and 10 watts at 10 MHz.
805 – Directly heated H.F. high-mu triode, giving 140 watts up to 30 MHz and 70 watts at 85 MHz.
806 – Directly heated H.F. high-mu triode, giving 390 watts up to 30 MHz 195 watts at 100 MHz.
807 – Indirectly heated H.F. beam power tetrode, giving 25 watts up to 30 MHz and 12 watts at 125 MHz. A variation of type 6L6 originally designed as a Class-C transmitter tube. Later used in pairs as push-pull outputs for high-wattage Class-AB2 audio amplifiers. Also used as a horizontal output tube in early TV receivers. One of the first commercial tubes that used the top cap to connect the anode (instead of the control grid) to the circuit.
808 – Directly heated H.F. high-mu triode, giving 140 watts up to 30 MHz and 70 watts at 130 MHz.
809 – Directly heated H.F. high-mu triode, giving 55 watts up to 27 MHz and 30 watts at 100 MHz.
810 – Directly heated H.F. triode, 10 volt filament and Zirconium Carbide anode. Base fits R.C.A. UT-541A Socket.
811A – Directly heated H.F. triode, 6.3 volt filament, 88 watts
813 – Beam Power Tetrode possessing about 5 times the Anode dissipation of an 807.
814 – A directly heated Beam Power Tetrode giving about 130 watts at 30 MHz and 65 watts at 100 MHz operating in Class-C.
815 – An indirectly heated dual Pentode. International Octal, (IO), base.
825 – First commercially available klystrode, a VHF/UHF linear-beam transmitting tube, similar to a klystron
829 – A dual indirectly heated beam power tetrode. Two 6.3 volt heaters sharing a common tap.
830 – A directly heated triode giving about 50 watts at 15 MHz and 7.5 watts at 60 MHz operating in Class-C.
831 – A directly heated triode giving about 400 watts at 20 MHz and 200 watts at 60 MHz operating in Class-C. 11 volt heater/filament.
833 – A larger directly heated high-mu triode giving about 1 kW at 30 MHz and 500 watts at 45 MHz operating in Class-C. Usable up to 100 MHz at reduced power, (400 W). 10 volt heater/filament drawing 10 A. The anode of this device is fabricated from tantalum. Anode current of 800 mA with an anode voltage of 3 kV and grid voltage of zero. Anode current of 4.3 A at a voltage of 750 with 350 volt on the grid. Uses two-part R.C.A socket assembly UT-103.
833A – Improved 833.
834 – A directly heated triode giving 58 watts at 100 MHz and 25 watts at 350 MHz operating in Class-C. 7.5 volt heater/filament. Fitted with an American 4-Pin, (UX4), base with side locating pin.
836 – An indirectly heated high vacuum rectifier with a peak inverse voltage of 5 kV and peak anode current of 1 ampere. 2.5 volt heater.
837 – An indirectly heated pentode giving 11 watts at 20 MHz and 5 watts at 80 MHz. operating in Class-C. 12.6 volt heater.
838 – A directly heated triode giving about 100 watts at 30 MHz operating in Class-C. 10 volt heater/filament.
841 – A directly heated high-mu triode giving about 10 watts at 6 MHz and 5 watts at 170 MHz operating in Class-C. 7.5 volt heater/filament.
842 – A directly heated triode giving about 3 watts at 6 MHz operating in Class-C. 7.5 volt heater/filament.
843 – An indirectly heated tetrode giving gain at 6 MHz and usable up to 200 MHz operating in Class-C. 2.5 volt heater/filament.
844 – A directly heated triode giving gain at 6 MHz and usable up to 155 MHz operating in Class-C. 2.5 volt heater/filament.
845 – A directly heated triode giving up to 24 watts of undistorted power in Class-A at audio frequency with an anode voltage of 1250. 10 volt heater/filament.
849 – A directly heated triode giving gain at 3 MHz operating in Class-C. Two 849s, working in push-pull Class-B are capable of delivering 1.1 kW of audio output with an anode voltage of 3 kV. Usable up to 30 MHz. 11 volt filament/heater.
850 – A directly heated tetrode giving 120 watts of power gain up to 13 MHz and 50 watts at 100 MHz, operating in Class-C. 10 volt heater/filament.
851 – A directly heated triode giving 1.5 kW of power up to 3 MHz operating in Class-C. 11 volt heater/filament.
852 – A directly heated triode giving 75 W of power up to 30 MHz operating in Class-C. 10 volt heater/filament.
857B – Large mercury-vapor rectifier used in 50 kW class broadcast transmitters. 22 kV anode voltage, 10 A anode current. Filament 5 V @ 30 A
860 – A directly heated tetrode giving 105 W of power up to 30 MHz and 50 watts at 120 MHz operating in Class-C. 10 volt heater/filament.
861 – A directly heated triode giving 400 W of power up to 20 MHz and 200 watts at 60 MHz operating in Class-C. 11 volt heater/filament.
862 – Large water-cooled triode for broadcast/industrial applications. Used in experimental 500 kW transmitter at WLW.
864 – A directly heated general-purpose, low-microphonics triode with a maximum anode voltage of 135 volts and anode current of 3.5 mA. 1.1 volt heater/filament.
865 – A directly heated tetrode giving 30 W of power up to 15 MHz 15 watts at 70 MHz operating in Class-C. 7.5 volt heater/filament.
866 – A mercury-vapor rectifier with a peak inverse voltage of 5 kV and peak anode current of 1 ampere. Average anode current, 250 mA, forward drop, 15 volt. Heater voltage and current, 2.5 at 5 A. American 4-Pin(UX) base.
866A – Improved 866 with a peak inverse voltage of 10 kV and a forward drop of 10 volt.
– A mercury-vapor rectifier with a peak inverse voltage of 5 kV and peak anode current of 5 amperes. Average anode current, 1250 mA, forward drop, 15 volt. Heater voltage, 5.0 at 10 A. Base fits R.C.A. UT-541A Socket.
872A – Improved 872 with a peak inverse voltage of 10 kV, a forward drop of 10 volt and a heater current of 6.25 A.
879 – A high vacuum rectifier with a peak inverse voltage of ca. 15 kV and peak anode current of ca. 5 mA. 2.5 volt heater and American 4-Pin, (UX) base. Used as half wave rectifier for high voltage cathode ray tube supplies. Similar to type 2X2.
884 – An indirectly heated triode thyratron. 6.3 volt heater/filament, International Octal, (IO), base. Electrically similar to type 885. Once commonly used as a sawtooth horizontal sweep waveform generator in recurrent-sweep oscilloscopes. Marketed by DuMont under the type number 6Q5.
885 – An indirectly heated triode thyratron. 2.5 volt heater/filament, American 5-Pin (UY) base. Otherwise similar to type 884.
898 – Large water-cooled triode for broadcast/industrial applications. Updated version of 862, with 3-phase filament structure.
9
900s
934 – Vacuum Phototube, spectral S4 response (maximum sensitivity at 400±50 nm), 3-pin Small-Shell Peewee base
935 – Vacuum Phototube, spectral S5 response (maximum sensitivity at 340±50 nm), 4-pin octal base
950 – Power pentode with directly heated cathode, used in storage battery home radios with 2.0 volt filament supply. Similar to types 1F4 and 1J5G
951 – Sharp-cutoff pentode with directly heated cathode, used in storage battery home radios with 2.0 volt filament supply. Similar to type 1B4P
953 – Acorn-type UHF diode; 6.3 V heater
954 (4672/E1F) – Indirectly heated Acorn-type sharp-cutoff pentode giving gains of 2...3 up to 300 MHz operating in Class-A and usable up to 600 MHz with careful stage design; 6.3 V heater
955 (4671/E1C) – Indirectly heated Acorn-type triode giving a power of 135 mW up to 600 MHz operating in Class-A and 500 mW in Class-C with careful stage design; 6.3 V heater
956 (4695/E2F) – Indirectly heated Acorn-type remote-cutoff pentode giving gains of 3...4 up to 600 MHz operating in Class-A with careful stage design; 6.3 V heater
957 (D1C) – Directly heated Acorn-type UHF receiving triode; 1.25 V filament for portable equipment
958 (D2C) – Directly heated Acorn-type UHF transmitting triode with dual, paralleled 1.25 V filaments for increased emission, for portable equipment
958A – 958 with tightened emission specs
959 (D3F) – Directly heated Acorn-type sharp-cutoff UHF pentode; 1.25 V filament for portable equipment
991 – 60-Volts Voltage reference, T4 lightbulb with dual-contact, bayonet candelabra mount
9000s
9001 – 954 with a miniature 7-pin base
9002 – 955 with a miniature 7-pin base
9003 – 956 with a miniature 7-pin base
9004 – Acorn UHF diode
9005 – Acorn UHF diode with a 3.6 V heater
9006 – Detector diode with a miniature 7-pin base
List of other letter tubes
A
Edison and Swan Electric Light Company (British Mazda/EdiSwan):
A40 – Acorn UHF triode up to 600 MHz, 4 Volts heater
A41 – Acorn UHF pentode up to 600 MHz, 4 Volts heater
AC*/
Mazda/EdiSwan 4-volts AC, indirectly heated receiver tubes:
AC/HL – AF triode, British 5-pin base
AC/HLDD = TDD4 = MHD4 – Dual diode and AF triode, British 7-pin base
AC/ME – Tuning indicator, British 7-pin base
AC/P, AC/P1 – AF triode, British 5-pin base
AC/P4 – CRT electrostatic-deflection output power triode, British 5-pin base
AC/PEN – AF power pentode, British 7-pin base
AC/S2PEN – RF pentode, British 7-pin base
AC/SP1 – RF pentode for use in squelch circuits or, as the reactance tube, in AFC circuits, British 7-pin base
AC/SP3 – RF pentode for shortwave and TV receivers, British 7-pin base
AC/SP3/RH – Low-noise, low-microphonics RF pentode for shortwave and TV receivers, British 7-pin base
AC/TH1 – Triode/hexode oscillator/mixer, British 9-pin base
AC/TP = TP4 – Triode/pentode oscillator/mixer, British 7-pin base
AC/VP1, AC/VP2 – RF pentode, British 7-pin base
AC2/HL – High-mu triode
AC2/PEN – AF Power pentode
AC2/PEN.DD – Dual diode and AF Power pentode
AC4/PEN – AF Beam power pentode
AC5/PEN – AF Beam power pentode
AC5/PEN.DD – Dual diode and AF Beam power pentode
AC6/PEN – Beam power pentode for use as a magnetic horizontal-deflection output amplifier
ACT
Marconi-Osram Valve Company
ACT9 – 800 W Air cooled transmitting triode up to 15 MHz, with derating up to 80 MHz
B
BA
Industrial Electronics Engineers:
BA-0000-P31 – Nimo tube, cathode-ray 1-digit numeric display tube, 10 stenciled electron guns aiming at a P31-phosphor (green, medium-persistence) fluorescent screen, top-viewing, Futura Medium font, 2.5 kV anode voltage, 12-pin base
BG
Burroughs Neon-filled planar glow-transfer plasma bar graph displays:
BG08220-K – 120-Segment circular with five cathode strings plus a Reset cathode, 1-in-5 major/minor graduation, for use e.g. in direction-finding equipment
BG12201 = Dale PBG12201 – Dual 201-segment linear with three cathode strings plus a Reset cathode, for use in VU meters etc.
BG12203 = PBG12203 – Dual 203-segment linear bidirectional with three cathode strings plus two Reset cathodes
BG12205 = PBG12205 – Dual 201-segment linear with five cathode strings plus a Reset cathode, for use in VU meters etc.
BG16101 = PBG16101 – Dual 101-segment linear with three cathode strings plus a Reset cathode, for use in VU meters etc.; cf. ИН-33
BT
British Thomson-Houston (General Electric subsidiary):
BT1 – Thyratron used in Wynn-Williams' binary prescaler for the alpha particle counter that Rutherford, Chadwick et al. used for their nuclear research at the Cavendish Laboratory in the 1930s
C
CH
Tung-Sol:
CH1027 – Curristor – Four types of nitrogen-filled, radioactive constant-current tubes with a current plateau from 25 to 500 V, all-glass pigtailed, active material is 226Ra with a half-life of 1601 years, for linear capacitor charging and draining in missile and ordnance mine timing circuits, instrumentation biasing, as current reference, etc.:
CH1027-9 – 10−9 A,
CH1027-10 – 10−10 A,
CH1027-11 – 10−11 A,
CH1027-12 – 10−12 A,
CK
Raytheon:
CK1022 – 1 kV/5...55 μA Corona voltage reference, miniature 7-pin base with anode top cap
CK1037 = 6437 – 700 V/5...125 μA Corona voltage reference, 3-pin all-glass pigtailed
CK1038 – 900 V/5...55 μA Corona voltage reference, 3-pin all-glass pigtailed
CK1039 = 6438 – 1.2 kV/5...125 μA Corona voltage reference, 3-pin all-glass pigtailed
CK1366, CK1367, CK1368, CK1369 – CRTs with an unphosphored front glass but with fine wires embedded in it for use as electrostatic print heads; the wires would pass the electron beam current through the glass onto a sheet of paper where the desired content was therefore deposited as an electrical charge pattern. The paper was then passed near a pool of liquid ink with the opposite charge. The charged areas of the paper attract the ink and thus form the image.
CK1383 – Dual-electron gun recording storage tube, a realtime polar, radar PPI-to-rectangular, TV-type analog video transcoder similar to the 7702, with simultaneous R/W, and storing capability. This was achieved by a CRT/camera tube combination; the CRT part writes the PPI-format image onto a thin, dielectric target; the camera part reads the generated charge pattern in TV format from the back side of this target.
CK1414 – Symbolray character generator monoscope for text mode video rendering in early computer monitors, with a square target having letters, digits and symbols patterned on it in a customer-supplied 8x8 or 8x12 array. An electron beam selects and scans a character, both by appropriate electrostatic deflection, and generates an analog video signal; cf. 4560, TH9503
CL
Ferranti:
CL40 and CL41 – Indirectly heated, linear light source (glow modulator tube), mercury/argon-filled gas diode with primer electrode, 8-pin base, for rotating-drum FAX receivers, film soundtrack recording, etc.
CL42 and CL43 – Indirectly heated, low-noise linear light source, helium-filled gas diode with primer electrode, 8-pin base, for film soundtrack recording, interferometers, etc.
CL44 – Indirectly heated, low-noise linear light source, neon-filled gas diode with primer electrode, 8-pin base
CL50 and CL52 – Indirectly heated, linear light source, gas-filled diode with primer electrode, 7-pin base, for rotating-drum FAX receivers, film soundtrack recording, etc.
CL55 – Indirectly heated, spectrally pure light source, helium-filled gas diode with primer electrode, 7-pin base with anode top cap
CL56 – Indirectly heated, spectrally pure light source, krypton-filled gas diode with primer electrode, 7-pin base with anode top cap
CL57 – Indirectly heated, spectrally pure light source, neon-filled gas diode with primer electrode, 7-pin base with anode top cap
CL58 – Indirectly heated, spectrally pure light source, xenon-filled gas diode with primer electrode, 7-pin base with anode top cap
CL60 – Indirectly heated triode flood beam CRT-type stroboscope lamp with a green A-type phosphor with <1 μs decay time and 10 kCd light output, 20 kV anode voltage, 7-pin duodecal base
CL61 – CL60 with a blue P-type phosphor with 5 μs decay time and 16 kCd light output
CL62 – CL60 with an UV Q-type phosphor with 100 ns decay time and 240 Cd light output
CL63 – CL60 with a yellow-green C-type phosphor with 6 μs decay time and 24 kCd light output
CL64 – CL60 with a yellow V-type phosphor with 5 μs decay time and 12 kCd light output
CL65 – CL60 with a red R-type phosphor with 2 μs decay time and 14 kCd light output
CL66 – CL60 with a white T-type phosphor with 5 μs decay time and 12 kCd light output
D
Philips:
D1 – Early directly heated triode used in 1920s TRF and regenerative radios
DDR
Mullard:
DDR100 – 100 g max., 250 Hz max., 1-axis accelerometer double diode with elastically supported anodes, 6.3V/600mA indirect heater, fres = 1 kHz, B8G base
DZ
Cerberus:
DZ10 – 3 kHz max. Decade Counter/Selector Dekatron, 14-pin diheptal base
E
EN
Ferranti:
EN10 – Neostron, 400 Apk Gas-filled, cold-cathode tetrode thyratron, differential trigger electrodes, 8-pin base, for use as a relay or as a reddish 700 Cd stroboscope lamp
EN15 – 80 Aavg Neon-filled, cold-cathode tetrode thyratron, differential trigger electrodes, miniature 9-pin base, for use as a stroboscope lamp
EN30 – 250 Apk Gas-filled, arc-discharge cold-cathode tetrode thyratron, differential trigger electrodes, miniature 7-pin base with anode cap, for use as a relay or as a stroboscope lamp
EN40 – 250 Apk Gas-filled, cold-cathode tetrode thyratron, differential trigger electrodes, 8-pin base, for use as a whitish stroboscope lamp with a high actinism for photographic film
EN55 Single, EDN10 dual xenon-filled, arc-discharge cold-cathode tetrode thyratron, external (capacitive) trigger, 12-pin base, for use as a white 140 kCd stroboscope lamp
EN60 – Gas-filled, arc-discharge cold-cathode tetrode thyratron, external (capacitive) trigger, Edison screw lamp base with anode cap, for use as a white 900 klm@10μF@800V stroboscope lamp
G
Standard Telephones and Cables/Brimar:
G10/241E – Nomotron, a unidirectional Dekatron with multi-alloy cathodes
Cerberus:
G11 – 5 mA Gas-filled, cold-cathode switching diode e.g. for relaxation oscillators, 2-pin all-glass pigtailed
G42 – 35 mApeak Gas-filled switching diode e.g. for relaxation oscillators, 2-pin all-glass pigtailed
GE
Ferranti:
GE10 – Directly heated saturated-emission diode. Acts as a heating current-controlled, variable series resistor in voltage/current stabilizer circuits. It has two shorted pins that can be used to disable the circuit if the tube is removed from its socket
GK
Cerberus:
GK11 – Touch button tube, an illuminated capacitance touch switch; a cold-cathode DC relay tube, external (capacitive) starter activated by touching; then the cathode glow is visible as an orange ring. 2-pin all-glass pigtailed
GN
Ferranti:
GN10 – 250 Amps pulse-current, cold-cathode tetrode thyratron. Octal base
GR
Cerberus:
GR15 – 15 mA Gas-filled cold-cathode DC tetrode, one starter and one electrical primer and tritium-primed (half-life: 12.32 years), noval base, for voltage triggers, RC timers etc.
GR16 – 20 mA Gas-filled, cold-cathode, tritium-primed AC/DC triode, one starter and an EM shield, noval base, for voltage triggers, RC timers etc.
GR17 – 15 mA Gas-filled cold-cathode AC triode, one starter and an EM shield, noval base, for voltage triggers, RC timers etc.
GR31 – 15 mA Gas-filled cold-cathode DC tetrode, one starter and one electrical primer plus a tritium primer, noval base
GR44 – 12 mA Subminiature gas-filled cold-cathode DC pentode, two starters and one primer electrode plus a tritium primer, 5-pin all-glass pigtailed
GR46 – 12 mA Subminiature gas-filled cold-cathode DC tetrode, one starter and one primer electrode, 4-pin all-glass pigtailed
GRD
Ferranti:
GRD7 – Educational, directly heated saturated-emission guard ring diode
K
KN
Edgerton, Germeshausen, and Grier:
KN2 – 4 kV, 500 Asurge Krytron, a cold-cathode gas-filled tube with a primer electrode, for use as a very high-speed, high-surge current switch; similar to a thyratron, lifespan 107 shots, 4-pin all-glass pigtailed
KN4 – 5 kV, 2.5 kAsurge Krytron with a primer electrode, lifespan 25000 shots, 4-pin all-glass pigtailed
KN6 – 5 kV, 3 kAsurge Krytron with a primer electrode, lifespan 35000 shots, 4-pin all-glass pigtailed
KN6B – 8 kV, 3 kAsurge Krytron with a primer electrode, lifespan 35000 shots, 4-pin all-glass pigtailed
KN9 – 4 kV, 500 Asurge Krytron with a primer electrode, lifespan 1.5×107 shots, 4-pin all-glass pigtailed
KN11B – 2.5 kV, 1.5 kAsurge Sprytron, lifespan 2000 shots, 3-pin all-glass pigtailed
KN12 – 5 kV, 3 kAsurge Sprytron, lifespan 500 shots, 3-pin all-glass pigtailed
KN22 – 5 kV, 100 Asurge Krytron with a primer electrode, lifespan 2×107 shots, 4-pin all-glass pigtailed, for laser pumping, to drive Pockels cells, also for educational purposes
KN26 – 5 kV, 3 kAsurge Krytron with a primer electrode, lifespan 75000 shots, 4-pin all-glass pigtailed
KT
"Tung-Sol":
KT90
KT120 – New production tube
KT150 – New production tube
KT170 – New production tube
M
MC
Philips:
MC6-16, MC13-16 – CRT-type flying-spot scanners, P16-type phosphor (violet/near-ultraviolet, very short persistence), for use in a telecine
ME
Edison and Swan Electric Light Company (British Mazda/EdiSwan):
ME91 – AC/DC mains tuning indicator
P
PD
Edison and Swan Electric Light Company (British Mazda/EdiSwan):
PD220 – Dual AF power triode for battery-supplied equipment (1939)
PL
Philips:
PL21 = 2D21 = EN91 – 100 mAavg, 500 mApeak, 10 Asurge, Gas-filled, indirectly heated tetrode thyratron, negative starter voltage, miniature 7-pin base, for relay and grid-controlled rectifier service
PL323 = 3C23 – 1.5 Aavg, 6 Apeak, Mercury-vapor triode thyratron, 4-pin base with anode top cap
PL5727 = 5727 – 100 mAavg, 500 mApeak, 10 Asurge, Tetrode thyratron, 7-pin miniature base
Q
Philips:
Q13-110GU – CRT-type flying-spot scanner, white phosphor, for use in a telecine
QK
Raytheon:
QK329 – Beam-deflection square-law tube for use as a function generator in analog computers. A flat sheet beam is electrostatically deflected across the anode which is partially covered by a parabolically stenciled screen "grid" that acts as the tube's output. Two tubes may be combined to form a 1-quadrant analog multiplier using the equation where the deflection electrode signals and can be obtained directly from a fully balanced resistor bridge
R
Marconi-Osram Valve Company:
R – Early directly heated triode derived from the French TM tube and used by many amateurs in the 1920s
RK
Raytheon:
RK61 – Miniature, gas-filled, directly heated thyratron designed specifically to operate like a vacuum triode below its ignition voltage, allowing it to both amplify analog signals and work as a relaxation oscillator, for use as a self-quenching superregenreative detector up tp 100 MHz in radio control receivers, activating a relay in its anode circuit when a carrier wave is received; 4-pin all-glass pigtailed, 1.4 V, 45 mA filament, Ua=45 V, Ia=1.5 mA.
RK62 – RK61's predecessor, marketed since 1938; this was the major technical development which led to the wartime development of radio-controlled weapons and the parallel development of radio controlled modelling as a hobby.
S
SB
Radio Corporation of America:
SB256 – 256-bit Selectron tube, an early form of digital computer memory
SU
Cossor:
SU25 – EHT rectifier
SU2150 (CV1120) – High-voltage vacuum half-wave rectifier for use in CRT power supplies
T
British General Electric Company:
TuneOn – Early neon-filled bar graph tuning indicator, a glass tube with a short wire anode and a long wire cathode that glows partially; the glow length is proportional to the tube current
TuneOn Button – Early glow modulator used as a budget-priced tuning indicator – a neon lamp whose brightness is proportional to the tube current
Standard Telephones and Cables/Brimar:
Tunograph – Precursor of the "Magic Eye" tuning indicator first introduced in 1933; a tiny CRT with 1-axis electrostatic deflection and a phosphored target at 45° to the electron beam, so the projected green dot can be observed from the side
TH
Compagnie Française Thomson-Houston:
TH9503 – Scripticon, a character generator monoscope for text mode video rendering in early computer monitors, with a square target having letters, digits and symbols patterned on it in an (optionally customer-supplied) 8x8 array. An electron beam selects and scans a character, both by appropriate magnetic deflection, and generates an analog video signal; cf. 4560, CK1414
TM
E.C.&A. Grammont and Compagnie des Lampes (1888):
TM – Vacuum triode for amplification and detection of radio signals, developed in France and made since 1915. It became the standard receiving and amplifying tube of the Entente countries during World War I, and the first mass-produced radio tube. TM's production volume in France alone is estimated at 1.1 million units; in addition, the production of TM and/or improved versions was started in the UK (Marconi–Osram R tube), the Netherlands (Philips E tube), the United States and the Soviet Union (R-5, Russian: Р-5).(ru)
The TM was developed in 1914–15 by the French military telecommunications service Télégraphie Militaire on the initiative of their technical director Gustave-Auguste Ferrié. He and his assistant, physicist Henri Abraham, visited the American laboratories on a number of occasions and were aware of the works of Lee de Forest, Reginald A. Fessenden and Irving Langmuir. They knew that de Forest's Audion and Henry Round's British tube were unreliable and imperfect, and Langmuir's Pliotron was too complex for mass production. They also knew about the latest German developments: Soon after the outbreak of the war, Ferrié received extensive information from a former Telefunken employee, the Frenchman Paul Pichon, who, upon return from a mission from his German employer to gather samples of the latest triodes from the USA, had to surrender himself and the samples to the French. The samples Pichon brought performed poorly due to insufficient vacuum. Following the ideas of Langmuir, Ferrié required the industry to guarantee a high vacuum in series production.
In October 1914, Ferrié, Abraham and François Péri from the radiotelegraph centre in Lyon/La-Doua(fr) went to the light bulb department of Société des Téléphones E.C.&Alexandre Grammont in Lyon to develop with them a triode suitable for mass production. The first prototypes, mere copies of de Forest's Audion, proved to be unreliable and unstable; the next ones were rejected for being too complex. Only the fourth prototype developed in December 1914, with a vertical coaxial system, an Edison screw lamp base for the filament and additional side terminals for anode and grid, was deemed suitable for series production, which started in February 1915 and stopped in October 1915 when it became clear that the vertical structure of "Abraham's Lamp" was too fragile and too many tubes were damaged during transport. Ferrié asked Péri to resolve the problem, and two days later Péri and Jacques Biguet came up with a horizontal coaxial system on the latest four-pin type "A" base. The series production of the Péri/Biguet tubes, named TM after Ferrié's service unit, began in November 1915 under Grammont's Radio Fotos brand; this variant became highly successful, and when demand started to exceed Grammont's production capacity, Compagnie des Lampes (1888) in Ivry-sur-Seine also started production under their Métal brand. Ferrié and Abraham were nominated for the 1916 Nobel Prize in Physics for their work in the field of radio communications.
The TM is a cylindrical/coaxial triode; the directly-heated cathode is a filament made of pure tungsten with a diameter of 60 μm, the anode is a nickel cylinder with a diameter of 10 mm and a length of 15 mm. The dimensions and material of the grid depend on the place of production – the Grammont plant in Lyon used molybdenum wire, the CdL plant in Ivry-sur-Seine used nickel. The diameter of the grid spiral is 4 resp. 4.5 mm. The filament required 4 V and 700 mA to bring it up to white heat; the bright glow prompted Grammont in 1923 to start producing TM tubes with dark blue glass envelopes to protect the eyes of radio operators from the blinding glare, and hide the harmless, but unsightly plaque of metal particles inevitably deposited on the inner wall of the bulb while evacuating during production – but also prevented the triodes' previous, secondary use as light sources, which had earned them their nickname Loupiote ("little lamp").
The TM could be used for their intended purpose, amplifying and detecting signals in radio receivers, or as power oscillators in low-power radio transmitters, and also, by paralleling of several tubes, as AF power amplifiers. The Soviet analogue of the TM, the triode R-5, could withstand anode voltages of up to 500...800 V, and was able to deliver a power of up to 1 W in Class-C mode, but only 40 mW in Class-A mode. A typical single-TM radio receiver of World War I ran at Ua=40 V, Ug=0 V, Ia≈2 mA, gm=400 μS, Ri=25 kΩ, μ=10. With an anode voltage of 160 V and a grid bias of -2 V, the anode current was 3...6 mA, while the reverse grid current reached 1 μA.
The problem of TM tubes was their short service life of 100 hours maximum – if the tube was manufactured in strict accordance with the specifications. In wartime, this was not always possible; due to raw materials supply problems, plants sometimes had to use substandard materials. Such tubes were marked with a cross; they differed from the standard by a higher noise level and were prone to catastrophic failures due to cracks in the glass envelope.
TT
Bendix:
TT8, TT9, TT13, TT15, TT17, TT18, TT20, TT21, TT22 – Chronotron, integrating, balanced-bridge hot-wire/PTC time delay devices
Marconi-Osram Valve Company:
TT11 – Low power VHF transmitting beam tetrode
TT21 – RF power beam-tetrode derived from KT88
TT100 – RF power beam-tetrode
V
VHT
Ferranti:
VHT1 – Pentagrid converter, 1933
Lettered Loctal tubes used in Philco radios
FM1000 – Unusual pentagrid for use as oscillator and coincidence-type phase detector in a PLL FM quadrature detector. The anode signal is loosely coupled into the oscillator tank and pulls it to stay quadrature-phase-locked with the IF; manufactured by Sylvania and used in Philco AM/FM radios of the late 1940s and early 1950s. Predecessor of the nonode approach
XXB – Medium-mu twin triode, also numbered 3C6/XXB
XXD – Medium-mu twin triode, also numbered 14AF7/XXD
XXFM – High-mu triode, twin diode (one shares its cathode with the triode, one with separate cathode), also numbered 7X7/XXFM
XXL – Medium-mu triode, also numbered 7A4/XXL
List of tubes used in 1920s and 1930s radio receivers
Tubes with directly heated cathodes
Used with AC, DC or home-based storage battery power supplies (1927–31)
With a 1.1 Volt DC filament
Used in 1920s home radios. Filaments powered by 1.5 volt dry cells, anodes powered by storage batteries.
WD-11 – triode/detector
With a 2 Volts DC filament
Used in 1930s home radios powered by storage batteries.
19 – Dual power triode – also used in farm radios with 6-volt vibrator power supplies. Early version of octal type 1J6G.
20 – Power triode – Early versions numbered UX-120.
22 – Sharp-cutoff tetrode – Early versions numbered UX-222 or CX-322.
25S – Dual detector diode, medium-mu triode. Identical to type 1B5. Usually numbered 1B5/25S.
30 – Medium-mu triode, An upgraded version of type 01-A – Early versions numbered RCA-230 or CX-330. Can also be used as a power triode. The type 30 was popular amongst amateurs of the day. Early UX4 based version of octal type 1H4G.
31 – Power triode, UX4 based – Early versions numbered RCA-231 or CX-331.
32 – Sharp-cutoff tetrode – Early versions numbered RCA-232 or CX-332.
33 – Power pentode – Early versions numbered RCA-233 or C-333.
34 – Remote-cutoff tetrode – Early versions numbered RCA-234 or CX-334.
49 – Dual-grid power triode, similar to type 46
With a 3.3 Volts DC filament
Used in 1920s home radios powered by dry cells (filaments) and storage batteries (B-plus voltage).
V99 – Low-mu triode. Except for stub-pin bayonet base and pinout, electronically similar to X99
X99 – Similar to V99, but with standard pins and different basing arrangement (pinout).
With a 4 Volts DC filament
3NF – Tube-based "integrated circuit" with 3 triodes and passive components in the same envelope. 4V heater
With a 5 Volts DC filament
Used in 1920s home radios powered by storage batteries.
00-A – Detector triode with a trace of argon. "00-A" is the number used in most tube manuals. Numbers for earlier versions include UX-200-A and CX-300-A (long pins, push-in socket) and UV-200-A (stub pins, bayonet socket).
01-A – All-purpose low-mu triode, used as RF amplifier, detector, AF amplifier and power triode. The most popular tube of the 1920s. "01-A" is the number used for replacements manufactured after 1930 and in tube manuals. Numbers for early versions include UX-201-A and CX-301-A (long pins, push in socket) and UV-201-A (stub pins, bayonet socket).
Note: There were four tubes in the "01" series, each with different current ratings for their filaments. Type 01-A was the most commonly used.
Types UV 201 and UX 201 – 1.0 ampere
Type 01-A (UV 201-A, UX 201-A, etc.) – 250 milliampere
Type UX 201-B – 125 milliampere
Type UX 201-C – 60 milliampere
12-A – Medium-mu triode, often used as detector, audio driver or audio output, but not as an RF amplifier. This type is listed in tube manuals after 1930 for replacements purposes. Also referred to as type 112-A. Many early versions are marked UX-112-A or CX-112-A.
40 – Medium-mu triode – Early versions numbered UX-240. Introduced in 1927, this was an upgraded version of the "01" series. The "01" series had an amplification factor of 8, while type 40 had an amplification factor of 30. (By comparison, the two AC triodes introduced in the same time period – types 26 and 27 – had amplification factors of 8.3 and 9, respectively.) Because this was the highest-amplification triode available, advertising literature of the time lists it as a high-mu triode, although it is now classified as a medium-mu triode. Type 40 had the highest amplification factor of any triode until the introduction in 1932 of diode/triode complex type 2A6, which had an amplification factor of 100. It also had the highest amplification factor of any DC filament triode until the introduction in 1939 of complementary diode/triode complex types 1H5GT (octal) and 1LH4 (Loctal), which both had amplification factors of 65.
Directly AC-heated power tubes
10 – Power triode – Early versions numbered UX-210 or CX-310.
26 – Medium-mu triode, used in early AC radio receivers manufactured in the late 1920s. Used as an RF or AF amplifier, but not as a detector or power output tube – Early versions numbered UX-226 or CX-326.
45 – Power triode – Early versions numbered UX-245 or CX-345.
46 – Dual grid power triode – Grids 1 and 2 connected together for use as push-pull Class-B outputs, Grid 2 and anode connected together for use as single-tube audio driver.
47 – Power pentode – Early versions numbered RCA-247 or C-347.
50 – Power triode – Early versions numbered UX-250 or CX-350.
71-A – Power triode – This type listed in tube manuals after 1930 for replacements purposes. Also referred to as 171-A. Many early versions numbered as UX-171-A or CX-371-A.
Directly AC-heated rectifier tubes
80 – Full-wave rectifier used in early power supplies or battery eliminators (electronically similar to 5Y3G) – Early versions numbered UX-280 or CX-380
81 – Half-wave rectifier – Early versions numbered UX-281 or CX-381.
82 – Full-wave mercury-vapor rectifier
83 – Full-wave mercury-vapor rectifier
83-V – High-vacuum version of type 83, Early UX4 based version of octal type 5V4G.
Tubes with indirectly heated cathodes
With a DC heater
15 – Sharp-cutoff pentode, used in farm radios, in autodyne circuits requiring a separate cathode.
48 – Power tetrode, used in 32-volt farm radios. When two are parallel-connected, they can operate with anode and screen voltages as low as 28 volt.
With a 2.5 Volts heater
Powered by an AC transformer
24 – Sharp-cutoff tetrode, UX5 based, Early versions numbered UY-224 and C-324
24-A – an upgraded version of type 24, see type 24 above. Early versions numbered UY-224A and C-324A
27 – Medium-mu triode, UX5 based, Early versions numbered UY-227 and C-327. The first North American tube with an indirectly heated cathode, which is necessary for detector circuits in AC powered tube radios.
35 – Remote-cutoff tetrode, UX5 based, (Commonly branded as 35/51). Early versions numbered UY-235 or C-335
51 – Similar to 35, see type 35 above. (Commonly branded as 35/51)
53 – Dual power triodes, Class-B, UX7 based, (Except for heater, electronically similar to 6A6 and octal based 6N7)
55 – Dual-diode, medium-mu triode, UX6 based, (Except for heater, electronically similar to type 85, and octal based 6V7G, but not to 75)
56 – Medium-mu triode, UX5 based, (Except for heater, electronically similar to 76, and octal based 6P5G)
57 – Sharp-cutoff pentode used in cabinet and mantel radio receivers, UX6 based, (Except for heater, electronically similar to 6C6 and octal based 6J7G, and somewhat similar to type 77)
58 – Remote-cutoff pentode, UX6 based, (Except for heater, electronically similar to 6D6 and octal based 6U7G, but not to 78)
59 – Power pentode, UX7 based.
With a 4 Volts heater
2HF – Tube-based "integrated circuit" with 2 tetrodes and passive components in the same envelope
With a 6.3 Volts heater
Powered by an AC transformer or a vehicle crank battery
1-V – Half-wave rectifier, UX4 based, (often branded as type 1V/6Z3). Early version was KR-1.
36 – Sharp-cutoff tetrode, UX5 based. Early versions numbered RCA-236 or C-336
37 – Medium-mu triode, UX5 based. Early versions numbered RCA-237 or C-337
38 – Power pentode, UX5 based. Early versions numbered RCA-238
39 – Remote-cutoff pentode, UX5 based (Commonly branded as 39/44).
41 – Power pentode, Early UX6 based version of octal type 6K6G, and Loctal type 7B5.
42 – Power pentode, Early UX6 based version of octal type 6F6G, Except for heater, similar to types 2A5 and 18.
44 – Similar to type 39, see type 39 above. (Commonly branded as 39/44).
75 – Dual-diode, high-mu triode. Early UX6 based version of octal types 6B6G & 6SQ7GT, and Loctal type 7B6, and 7-pin miniature type 6AV6. Also except for heater, electronically similar to 2A6.
76 – Medium-mu triode, Early UX5 based version of octal type 6P5G.
77 – Sharp-cutoff pentode, Early UX6 based version of octal type 6J7G.
78 – Remote-cutoff pentode, Early UX6 based version of octal type 6K7G.
79 – Dual power triode, Early UX6 based version of octal type 6Y7G.
84 – Full-wave rectifier, often branded as type 84/6Z4. Early UX5 based version of octal type 6X5GT, and Loctal 7Y4, and 7-pin miniature 6X4.
85 – Dual-diode, medium-mu triode. Early UX6 based version of octal type 6V7G, except for heater voltage similar to type 55. Also somewhat similar to octal type 6SR7GT and 7-pin miniature types 6BF6.
89 – Power pentode, UX6 based.
With an AC/DC series heater
43 – Power pentode, Early UX6 based version of octal type 25A6G
WG38 – Tube-based "integrated circuit" with 2 pentodes, a triode and passive components in the same envelope
Shielded tubes for Majestic radios
In the early 1930s, the Grigsby-Grunow Company – makers of Majestic brand radios – introduced the first American-made tubes to incorporate metal shields. These tubes had metal particles sprayed onto the glass envelope, copying a design common to European tubes of the time. Early types were shielded versions of tube types already in use. (The shield was connected to the cathode.) The Majestic numbers of these tube types, which are usually etched on the tube's base, have a "G" prefix (for Grigsby-Grunow) and an "S" suffix (for shielded). Later types incorporated an extra pin in the base so that the shield could be connected directly to the chassis.
Replacement versions from other manufacturers, such as Sylvania or General Electric, tend to incorporate the less expensive, form-fitting Goat brand shields that are cemented to the glass envelope.
Grigsby-Grunow did not shield rectifier tubes (except for type 6Y5 listed below) or power output tubes.
Early types based on existing tubes. (Non-shielded versions may be used, but add-on shielding is recommended.)
G-2A7-S – Pentagrid converter
G-2B7-S – Semiremote-cutoff pentode, dual detector diode
G-6A7-S – Pentagrid converter
G-6B7-S – Semiremote-cutoff pentode, dual detector diode
G-6F7-S – Remote-cutoff pentode, medium-mu triode
G-25-S – Medium-mu triode, dual detector diode for 2.0 volt storage battery radios. Glass type 1B5/25S used for replacement.
G-51-S – Remote-cutoff tetrode
G-55-S – Medium-mu triode, dual detector diode
G-56-S – Medium-mu triode
G-56A-S – Medium-mu triode, original version of type 76, but with 400 milliampere heater. (Not to be confused with types 56 or G-56-S, which has a 2.5 volt, 1.0 ampere heater.)
G-57-S – Sharp-cutoff pentode
G-57A-S – Sharp-cutoff pentode, original version of type 6C6, but with 400 milliampere heater. (Not to be confused with types 57 or G-57-S, which has a 2.5 volt, 1.0 ampere heater.)
G-58-S – Remote-cutoff pentode
G-58A-S – Remote-cutoff pentode, original version of type 6D6, but with 400 milliampere heater. (Not to be confused with types 58 or G-58-S, which has a 2.5 volt, 1.0 ampere heater.)
G-85-S – Similar to G-55-S, but with 6.3 volt heater.
Later types
6C7 – Medium-mu triode, dual detector diode, similar to later octal types 6R7 and 6SR7. Seven pin base. (Shield to pin 3.)
6D7 – Sharp-cutoff pentode, identical to type 6C6, but with 7-pin base. (Shield to pin 5.)
6E7 – Remote-cutoff pentode, identical to type 6D6, but with 7-pin base. (Shield to pin 5.)
6Y5 – Dual rectifier diode, similar to type 84/6Z4, but with 6-pin base. (Shield to pin 2.)
Other tubes unique to Majestic radios
G-2-S and G-4-S – Dual detector diodes with common cathodes. The first detector diodes packaged in a separate tube. Forerunners of octal type 6H6. Spray-shielded. Both tubes have 2.5 volt heaters. G-2-S is larger and has a 1.75 ampere heater. Type G-4-S has a 1.0 ampere heater. Later Sylvania replacement type 2S/4S has a 1.35 ampere heater.
2Z2/G-84 – Half-wave rectifier diode with 2.5 volt indirectly heated cathode. A lower-voltage version of type 81. Not interchangeable with type 6Z4/84.
6Z5 – Full-wave rectifier, similar to types 6Z4/84 and 6X5, but with 12.6 volt center-tapped heater.
Rarely used tubes
14 – Similar to 24-A but with a 14 volt, 300 milliampere heater. Used in Philco models 46 and 46E
17 – Similar to 27 but with a 14 volt, 300 milliampere heater. Used in Philco models 46 and 46E
18 – Similar to 2A5 and 42 but with a 14 volt, 300 milliampere heater. No known commercial use.
29 – Wunderlich detector. Known to have been manufactured by Sylvania.
52 – Dual grid power triode similar to types 46 and 49. Has 6.3 volt filament. Most commonly used in early car radios.
64 – Sharp-cutoff tetrode (Except for 400 milliampere heater, similar to 36)
65 – Remote-cutoff pentode (Except for 400 milliampere heater, similar to 39)
67 – Medium-mu triode (Except for 400 milliampere heater, similar 37)
68 – Power pentode (Except for 400 milliampere heater, similar to 38)
69 – Wunderlich detector
70 – Wunderlich detector used in Mission Bell model 19 car radio. Listed in early Philco tube lists.
90 – Wunderlich detector
92 – Wunderlich detector
95 – Original number of type 2A5
181 – Power triode
182-B – Similar to 482-B below.
183 – Similar to 483 below.
213 – Early version of type 80 – Often numbered UX-213
216 – Early version of type 81 – Often numbered as UX-216-B
482-B – Power triode with directly heated cathode. Used in Sparton AC radios, circa 1929. Replacements often numbered 182-B/482-B. Similar to type 71-A, but with higher anode voltage.
483 – Power triode with directly heated cathode. Used in Sparton AC radios, circa 1929. Replacements often numbered 183/483. Similar to type 45, but with a 5.0 volt, 1.25 ampere heater.
485 – Medium-mu triode with indirectly heated cathode. Used in Sparton AC radios, circa 1929. Similar to types 56 and 76, but with a 3.0 volt, 1.25 ampere heater, and lower anode voltage.
List of Russian tubes
Standard tubes
Note: Typecode explained above.
6J1J 6Ж1Ж (954) – Indirectly heated Acorn-type sharp-cutoff pentode, 6.3 V heater
6K1J 6К1Ж (956) – Indirectly heated Acorn-type remote-cutoff pentode, 6.3 V heater
6L1P 6Л1П – Nonode for FM quadrature detection
6N1P 6Н1П – Dual triode, similar to 6DJ8/ECC88
6N2P 6Н2П – Dual triode, similar to 12AX7/ECC83
6N3P 6Н3П (2C51) – Dual triode
6N8S 6Н8С (6SN7/ECC33) – Dual triode
6N9S 6Н9С (6SL7) – Dual triode
6N13S 6Н13С (6AS7G) – Dual power triode
6N14P 6Н14П – Dual RF/VHF triode, similar to ECC84/6CW7
6N23P 6Н23П (6DJ8/ECC88) – Dual triode
6N24P 6Н24П (ECC89/6FC7/6ES8) – Dual RF/VHF triode for cascode amps
6P1P 6П1П – Power pentode, similar to 6AQ5/EL90
6P3S 6П3С – Beam-power tetrode, similar to 6L6GB
6P3S-E 6П3С-Е – Beam-power tetrode, similar to 5881/6L6WGB
6P6S 6П6С (6V6) – Beam-power tetrode
6P14P 6П14П (6BQ5/EL84) – Power pentode
6S1J 6С1Ж (955) – Indirectly heated Acorn-type triode, 6.3 V heater
6S19P 6С19П – Output triode
Professional tubes
Note: Typecode explained above.
V1-0.15/55 В1-0.15/55 – 55 kV, 150 mA Half-wave rectifier
VI1-5/20 ВИ1-5/20 – 20 kV, 5 A Half-wave pulse rectifier
G-807 Г-807 – Shortwave transmitter tube (the Russian 807 analogue).
GI-7B ГИ-7Б – Impulse tube
GM-70 ГМ-70 – Modulator tube
GS-31B ГС-31Б – UHF transmitter tube
GU-29 ГУ-29 – VHF transmitter tube
GU-50 ГУ-50 – VHF transmitter pentode, similar to the German LS-50 (no direct U.S. equivalent)
GU-78B ГУ-78Б – VHF transmitter tetrode
I3-70-0.8A И3-70-0.8 – 800 V, 70 A Ignitron
I3-200-1.5A И3-200-1.5 – 1.5 kV, 200 A Ignitron
LP-4 ЛП-4 – Linear trochotron, 26-pin Acorn-type all-glass pigtaled,
SG203K СГ203К – 82 V Voltage reference
SG204K СГ204К – 164 V Voltage reference
TGI1-270/12 ТГИ1-270/12 – 12 kV, 270 A Hydrogen thyratron
Indicator tubes
IN-33 ИН-33 – Neon-filled, planar, dual 105-segment linear glow-transfer plasma bar graph display with three cathode strings, for use in VU meters etc.; similar to BG16101
ITM2-M ИТМ2-М – Four-color phosphored-thyratron latching pixel; 4x4 array of 4 subminiature dual-starter luminiscent thyratrons each for the colors red, yellow, green and blue (thus, 5 intensities per color yields 54 = 625 colors), 4x4 matrix of 10-volts sensitive starter electrodes, cubic envelope for easy stacking in both axes, 12-pin all-glass pigtaled, similar to today's RGBA LEDs
ITS1 ИТС1 – Green phosphored-thyratron latching seven-segment display, no decimal point, 5-volts sensitive starter electrodes, all-glass pigtaled, rectangular envelope for easy stacking in both axes
MTX-90 МТХ-90 – Small neon-filled thyratron for use as a latching single-dot indicator, top-viewing, top of envelope acts as a magnifier, all-glass pigtaled, comes with a blob of solder on the end of each wire for rapid installing, like today's ball grid arrays
Compagnie des Lampes (1921, "French Mazda") and Mazda-Belvu
Not to be confused with Compagnie des Lampes (1888, see above) nor with British Mazda (see above).
The 1921 incarnation of La Compagnie des Lampes (since 1953 as Lampe Mazda) made light bulbs and electronic tubes under the French Mazda brand. Many of their tubes were also available from Compagnie Industrielle Française des Tubes Electroniques (CIFTE) under their Mazda-Belvu brand, which otherwise used mostly EIA, RETMA and Mullard–Philips tube designations.
Examples:
Before 1949:
1883 – Indirectly heated, 350 V/125 mA full-wave rectifier, 5 V/1.6 A heater
2XM600 – Directly heated, 10 kV/250 mA half-wave mercury-vapor rectifier, 2.5 V/5 A heater
4Y25 = 807 – Indirectly heated beam tetrode
RETMA tube 6H8G
RCA-800 tubes 879, 884
Since 1949 with a fire pot logo:
RMA tube 2E30
3T20 – Directly heated power triode, graphite anode
3T100 – Directly heated power triode, graphite anode
4Y50 – Indirectly heated beam tetrode
E1 – Electrometer tetrode
E2 – Dual electrometer tetrode
ST130 – 130 V Neon-filled voltage reference
Since 1953 as LAMPE MAZDA:
RMA tube 2G21
4Y100 = 7745 – Dual beam tetrode
RCA-800 tubes 829, 832
927 – Gas-filled phototube
929 – Vacuum phototube
EIA tubes 6196, 6250
E5 – Subminiature electrometer tetrode, all-glass pigtailed
Since 1959 with a Faravahar logo related to Ahura Mazda:
3T50 – Directly heated power triode, thoriated-tungsten filament, graphite anode
4Y75 – Directly heated power triode
RETMA tube 6K8
78A – Directly heated, educational diode
EIA tubes 7233, 7242, 7377, 8418
E6 – Subminiature dual electrometer tetrode, all-glass pigtailed
E7, E9 – Subminiature electrometer pentodes, all-glass pigtailed
Mullard–Philips tubes ECF202, ECL802, ED501, EF816, EL503, EY81F, EY802, GY86, GY802, PY81F
F7024A (Diode), F7024C (Triode), F7024E (Tetrode), F7024L (Pentode) – Set of 4 educational tubes
F9116 – Electrometer tetrode
K25000A1 – Directly heated, 25 kV/70 mA half-wave rectifier, 2.5 V/9 A heater
References and footnotes
Specific items
General literature and data sheets
Frank Philipse's Tube Datasheet Archive
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Settlers%20IV
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The Settlers IV
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The Settlers IV (), released as The Settlers: Fourth Edition in North America, is a real-time strategy video game with city-building elements, developed by Blue Byte and published by Ubi Soft. Released in Germany for Microsoft Windows in February 2001, in the United Kingdom in March, and in North America in August, it is the fourth game in The Settlers series, following The Settlers (1993), The Settlers II (1996) and The Settlers III (1998). In August, Blue Byte released an expansion, The Settlers IV Mission CD, featuring new single-player campaign missions, new maps for both single-player and multiplayer modes, a random map generator and map editor, gameplay improvements, and bug fixes. In December, they released a second expansion, The Settlers IV: The Trojans and the Elixir of Power (), containing new single-player campaigns, additional single and multiplayer maps, improved graphics, and additional gameplay tweaks. In March 2002, The Settlers IV: Gold Edition was released, containing the original game and both expansions, plus fan-made maps for multiplayer mode, and two minigames. In November 2009, Gameloft ported the original game to iOS, under the title The Settlers. Although featuring updated graphics and utilising touch controls, the gameplay, game mechanics and storyline are identical to the original. In April 2010, The Settlers was released for webOS, specifically optimised for the Palm Pre. Gameloft later released HD versions for iPad, bada, Symbian and Android. In 2013, the Gold Edition was released on GOG.com. In 2018, the game was re-released as The Settlers IV: History Edition.
In the game's single-player campaign, the player controls three races (Romans, Vikings and Mayans) as they initially fight one another, before joining forces to combat the much greater threat posed to each of them by the exiled god Morbus, who has been banished to Earth after instigating a failed rebellion against the great god, HE. Unable to bear touching foliage, Morbus leads the mysterious Dark Tribe as he sets about attempting to erase all natural greenery from the planet's surface. The Trojans and the Elixir of Power takes place many centuries later, when the war against the Dark Tribe has faded from memory, and the three victorious civilisations have returned to fighting with one another. However, when Morbus once more proves a threat, attempting to permanently cure his allergy of greenery by creating a powerful elixir, it falls to the Trojans to unite the others, and stand against him and the Dark Tribe.
Acting on feedback from fans who had felt Settlers III was too focused on combat, the designers aimed for a return to the core supply and demand-based gameplay of the first two titles in the series. As a result, the game was designed to strike a balance between economic planning and military conquest. Although the basic gameplay remains relatively unchanged from Settlers III, some of the game mechanics have been altered. For example, for the first time in the series, the offensive strength of the player's military is tied to the economic value of their settlement; the player has access to each rank of soldier from the beginning of each mission, with the ability to select the rank of every soldier prior to recruitment; the game's single-player campaign focuses on a race that cannot be defeated solely by military means; and specialty units and squad leaders have been added to enhance the tactical aspects of combat, with warships also made available, allowing for combat at sea.
The Settlers IV received mixed reviews, with most critics feeling it was too similar to The Settlers III, and many opining that Blue Byte had failed to steer the gameplay away from an over-reliance on combat. Although the graphics and animations were generally praised, the AI, mission variety, and limited combat strategy were criticised, with reviews comparing the game unfavourably to titles such as Age of Empires II and Zeus: Master of Olympus. The handheld version received more positive reviews, and was lauded for replicating the original game on a portable device, and for successfully adapting the controls to a touchscreen. The most common criticism concerned the lack of free play and multiplayer modes.
Gameplay
The Settlers IV is a real-time strategy game with city-building elements, controlled via a point and click interface. The general gameplay and game mechanics are very similar to The Settlers III, and the primary goal on most maps is to build a settlement with a functioning economy, producing sufficient military and/or specialist units so as to conquer rival territories. To achieve this end, the player must engage in economic micromanagement, construct buildings, and generate resources.
Game modes
The game can be played in one of two modes; single-player or multiplayer. In single-player mode, the player can play either campaign missions or individual non-campaign games ("Free Maps"). In campaign mode, the player must complete a series of missions, the goal of most of which is to defeat the computer controlled opponent or opponents by gaining possession of their territory, or, in the case of the Dark Tribe, by destroying their temple using gardeners. In the original release of the game, there were three separate campaigns of three missions each (one campaign each for the Romans, Vikings, and Mayans), and a fourth campaign of twelve missions in which the player controls all three races as they fight against the Dark Tribe. The Mission CD expansion added three additional campaigns of five missions for each race, plus three "Settlement" missions and three "Conflict" missions. The Trojans and the Elixir of Power expansion added three campaigns of four missions for each of the original three races, four Settlement missions, and a new campaign of twelve missions in which the player controls the Trojans against the Dark Tribe.
In Free Maps and multiplayer mode, which can be played via a LAN or online, the player chooses the map on which to play, and then refines the game in various ways, such as adjusting the number of computer controlled opponents, the amount of raw materials available at the start of the game, and/or the victory conditions. The player can also select the type of game to be played, choosing from "Conflict Mode" (each player/race competes against one another), "Ranking List" (players receive points at the end of the game for ranking on Blue Byte's online league table); "Cooperation Mode" (players combine forces to achieve a predetermined objective against computer controlled races), "Economic Mode" (the winner is the player to produce the most goods in at least four out of seven categories within a time limit), "Settlefest" (players compete on separate, but identical, single-player maps to be the first to reach a given objective), or "Free Settle Mode" (one player/race).
Settlers and transportation
Whether playing single-player or multiplayer mode, each game begins the same way; the player has a small settlement, a set amount of raw materials and tools, and a predetermined number of settlers. The basic gameplay revolves around serfs (the titular "settlers"), who transport materials, tools and produce, and who populate and perform the requisite task of each building. As in The Settlers III, new settlers can only be acquired by the construction of residences.
At no point does the player directly control any normal settler - instead, general orders are issued (such as ordering the construction of a building), with the AI handling the delegation of orders to specific settlers. However, the player can control specialist settlers, of which there are four types; pioneers (extend the player's territory by digging at the border), thieves (scout enemy territory and steal resources), geologists (test mountainous ground for raw materials), and gardeners (reclaim terrain corrupted by the Dark Tribe). When playing a multiplayer game, the player also has access to a fifth specialist unit; the Saboteur, who can attack and destroy all enemy buildings, not just military installations.
As in The Settlers III, players do not have to construct a road network. Instead, settlers can walk freely around the player's territory, with the AI handling pathfinding. Like all previous games in the series, The Settlers IV has an adjustable goods priority system, which determines the order in which items are transported. Players can also build marketplaces, which allow for the establishment of trade routes between areas on the same geographical region, and shipyards, which allow for the manufacture of warships, ferries (can transport specialist settlers, soldiers and war machines) and trade ships (can transport items from a landing dock to a different geographical region).
Races and economy
In the original game, the player controlled three races; Romans, Vikings and Mayans. The Trojans and the Elixir of Power added the Trojans as a fourth race. As in Settlers III, each race has a slightly different economic model. For example, the Romans' and Trojans' construction industries require roughly equal amounts of wood and stone, the Vikings' more wood than stone, and the Mayans' more stone than wood. Each race also has specific skills; for example, only the Romans can produce manna using only two buildings; only the Vikings can build war machines and warships which use manna rather than physical ammunition; and only the Mayans can utilise desert terrain (to grow agave plants necessary for the production of tequila).
The economy is under the player's control throughout the game. For example, the player can control the distribution of goods by selecting which percentage of a given resource is transported to a given building. In a similar manner, the player can select what tools are made when. Tool production is important insofar as all buildings require raw materials and a worker with the right tool. For example, if the player has built a mine, and the building is still empty despite the presence of idle settlers, a pickaxe will need to be manufactured in the toolsmith. The game also uses a notification system that alerts the player if a building cannot be occupied either due to a lack of the right tool or the absence of available settlers.
As in The Settlers III, the game features magic, whereby each race can call upon their deities for economic and/or military assistance. Once the player has both manna and priests, they have finite access to a number of spells, the nature of which depends on the race. These spells include tuning fish to stone, turning enemy soldiers to allies (Romans), turning stone to iron, temporarily freezing enemies (Vikings), turning wood to gold, turning enemy bowmen into butterflies (Mayans), turning sulphur to iron, and turning enemy soldiers into normal settlers (Trojans).
Military
The player's territory can only be expanded by using pioneers or building a military complex near the territory border. Each complex must have at least one soldier garrisoned for the territory to expand. To recruit soldiers, the player must build a barracks, with each individual soldier requiring their requisite weapon to transition from settler to soldier. The player can also build lookout towers, which are manned by regular settlers, and which can see for great distances, but don't grant new territory.
There are three classes of soldier common to all races: swordsmen, bowmen and squad leaders. The level of swordsmen and bowmen is set by the player prior to recruitment, with both types of soldier having three ranks, determined by the amount of gold necessary for recruitment (no gold for Level 1, one gold bar for Level 2 and two gold bars for Level 3). Squad leaders are available in only one rank, and require a sword, a suit of armour and three gold bars to recruit. As well as being stronger and having more health than a Level 3 swordsman, they also affect the troops around them; improving their formations, increasing their combat strategy, and enhancing their abilities. Additionally, if the player assigns a squad leader to a group of soldiers, orders need to be issued to the squad leader only; the squad will automatically follow him to the destination ordered by the player. Each race can also produce warships, war machines (catapults for the Romans, magical lightning generators for the Vikings, canons for the Mayans, and ballistae for the Trojans), and special military units (medics for the Romans, axe warriors for the Vikings, blowgun warriors for the Mayans, and backpack catapultists for the Trojans). As with swordmen and bowmen, special military units have three levels of recruitment.
In order for the player to attack an enemy building, they must click near that building with soldiers selected. If the player's units defeat all soldiers stationed in the building, they will occupy it, with the player's territory increasing according to the building's radius. Defense of the player's military buildings is automatic; as enemies attack, any soldiers stationed in the building defend. Any nearby soldiers will also defend the building, unless ordered not to. When soldiers are fighting within their own territory, their strength is always 100%. When they are fighting outside, their strength is tied to the economic value of the settlement itself. Of especial importance in improving the strength of one's army are "Eyecatchers" (decorative monuments), which are worth double their construction value in relation to the player's military strength.
Plot
The game begins shortly after the failure of a rebellion instigated by the dark god Morbus against the great god HE. For his treachery, HE banishes Morbus to Earth, Morbus's most hated place in the universe, due to its vast amounts of greenery. Unable to bear touching foliage, Morbus determines to destroy all of Earth's plant life. His dark gardener eventually develops a substance known as shadow-weed, which sucks the energy out of the land, killing all nearby foliage, and transforming the terrain into a blackened wasteland: the Dark Lands.
Meanwhile, unaware of the presence of Morbus, a war is raging between three races who have recently come into contact with one another; the Romans, the Vikings and the Mayans. The first to encounter the Dark Lands are the Romans, whose scouts return word of the effects of shadow-weed, which they initially believe to be a new Mayan weapon. As a result, the Romans attack and destroy a nearby Mayan colony, but quickly realise the Dark Lands are not the Mayans' doing. When the Mayans, who have also encountered the Dark Lands, suggest a temporary alliance, the Romans reluctantly agree. However, as they begin to investigate the Dark Lands further, the Mayans turn on them.
Elsewhere, the Vikings also encounter the effects of shadow-weed, when they discover one of their most sacred burial grounds surrounded by the Dark Lands. Setting out to reclaim their territory, they are attacked by an army of mindless soldiers. Nearby, the Romans learn the secret of how the Dark Army is created - human settlers are converted by Shamans into servants of Morbus, thus forming the Dark Tribe. They are then put to work on mushroom farms, converting mushroom spores into manna, which is transported to the nearest Dark Temple, where it is used to create the Dark Army. With this clearer understanding of the Dark Tribe, the Romans ally with the Vikings, and determine to destroy the farms.
However, the Mayans see the alliance between the Romans and the Vikings as a direct threat. Only after attacking colonies belonging to both do they realise the alliance was not focused on attacking them, but on combating the Dark Tribe. By this time, however, they find themselves surrounded by the Dark Lands. Despite their previous animosity, the Romans and the Vikings save the Mayans, and the three unite, going on the offensive in an effort to wipe out the Dark Tribe.
Eventually, the Vikings locate what they believe to be the final Dark Temple. They destroy it, but the remnants of the Dark Tribe survive, and rally for a final battle. Secure in the knowledge that one more victory is all that is required, the Mayans launch an attack. They prove victorious, and with all of the Dark Tribe's temples and farms eradicated, and no way of breeding new troops, Morbus retreats to his lair. Begging HE for mercy, Morbus is horrified to see vines infesting the building, quickly wrapping themselves around him, and turning him to stone.
The Trojans and the Elixir of Power
The Trojans and the Elixir of Power begins many centuries after the events of the main game. Morbus remains in a petrified state in territory now controlled by the Trojans, who are unaware of the other races, of Morbus's identity, or of the war against the Dark Tribe. The story begins when Morbus's assistant, Q'nqüra, spreads shadow-weed around the statue, releasing him. When the Trojans discover the statue gone and the effects of shadow-weed spreading, they elect to abandon the area. Landing on a new island, they encounter friendly Romans and hostile Mayans. Allying with the Romans, the Trojans tell them of the disappearance of Morbus's statue, and the Romans tell them the history of the war, and call a meeting of all four races. They are all shocked, however, when they learn the Dark Tribe are now using aerial vehicles, dubbed manacopters, to easily infiltrate their lines and inflict huge losses.
After the Romans, Vikings, and Mayans are all attacked, the Trojans are tasked with destroying the Dark Tribe's research lab and, with it, the manacopter blueprints. When they raid the lab, they discover Morbus's plan; his dark gardeners are attempting to create an elixir to cure his inability to touch greenery by using a complex combination of herbs, and are only one herb from a final breakthrough.
The four races divide the land up into sectors to search for the final herb, and shortly thereafter, the Vikings locate it. Their priests begin to harvest it, but the Dark Tribe soon arrive, and the Trojans develop a poison to use on the herb should the Vikings be unable to harvest it in time. The Viking priest is ambushed and killed, and the Dark Tribe acquire the herb, but it remains unclear if the priest was able to use the poison before his death. Meanwhile, Morbus's temple is located, and the Trojans lead an assault. They succeed in destroying it, but not before Morbus is able to create and drink the elixir. Emerging from the ruins of his temple to see the greenery surrounding it, he laughs and declares "nothing can stop me now". The game then cuts to some time later; on the site of the temple now stands a small cottage with a garden full of blooming flowers. Morbus then emerges from the cottage and happily attends to his garden, fully cured of his hatred of foliage.
Development
Announcement and gameplay
The Settlers IV was announced by Blue Byte at the ECTS in August 1999. Volker Wertich, who had created The Settlers series, and designed and programmed both the original Settlers and The Settlers III, was not involved in development, because, as he later explained, "Blue Byte wanted to have it ready for release by Christmas 2000, which, in my opinion, was not sufficient time to create a worthy title".
The game was first shown at the E3 event in May 2000, where Blue Byte stated that gameplay would emphasise economic planning over military conquest. Citing negative feedback from fans who felt Settlers III was too combat-orientated, the designers intended the new game as a return to the core supply and demand-based gameplay of The Settlers and The Settlers II. They also revealed the game would feature three playable races (Romans, Vikings and Mayans) and a new non-playable race (the Dark Tribe). Speaking of the importance of the Dark Tribe to the economic-based gameplay, project manager and co-designer Hans-Jürgen Brändle explained:
In an interview with GamesZone, Brändle further stated, "we have made sure there is a balance between settling and combat with virtually every rule change and new feature". Addressing why the game would feature nearly identical economic processes as Settlers III despite the refocused gameplay, he explained: "The majority of the feedback gave us a clear understanding that the economy in Settlers is simply great as it is, and that the game should not be artificially inflated with new goods or people. The fun, the ease of playing, should not be overwhelmed by unnecessarily complex contexts".
Speaking to IGN later in the year, Brändle reiterated the designers' hopes that the game would more fully integrate economic-based settling with combat than had the previous title:
Of the three races in the game, Brändle explained the developers chose the Romans as they were a "traditional" Settlers race, the Vikings as they were the most fan-requested race, and the Mayans as they needed a race than used more stone than wood in their construction industry, and because the developers felt that the Mayans are a somewhat historically mysterious culture.
Graphics
In the GamesZone interview, Brändle also addressed the issue of the similarity in graphics between the new game and Settlers III: "We have deliberately programmed an engine that is very much like the previous one. We wanted to make the fans feel like they were back in the familiar world of The Settlers".
As with Settlers III, the buildings in the game were created using 3D Studio Max, with Adobe Photoshop used to create the textures. Each race was assigned their own specific artist, who worked on nothing except the buildings for that particular race. According to lead artist/co-designer/co-writer Torsten Hess, this was done "so that the style of the buildings within a people is uniform". However, there were certain overriding rules to which the individual artists had to adhere. One of the most important was a technique Hess had employed on Settlers III; after the textures were applied, they were "dirtied" so as to create a lived-in, real-world sense. Hess explains, was: "Rigid and straight edges should be avoided. Beautiful curves and moving lines are instead used to suggest life in the settlers world. For the textures, this means stronger colours, a slightly higher contrast than the figures, as well as a lot of detail and the use of many different colour families. We definitely want to avoid a sterile look. We also draw all the textures by hand".
For the settlers themselves, the designers also used the same basic techniques as developed on Settlers III; the figures couldn't be too graphically complex, since small details would be lost, given their size (32 pixels in height). At the same time, the designs had to be detailed enough so as to seem at least somewhat realistic, even at such a small size. To solve this problem, the settlers' proportions were exaggerated, and their weapons and tools designed so as to be proportionally too big, as correctly sized implements would be far too small to be seen. For the process of animating the settlers, character animator/co-writer Thorsten Wallner explains, "We place a skeleton behind each settler, which controls the movement sequences. Each skeleton dictates the standard movements, such as bending, running or standing. Additional animations can then be added to individual characters. With this technology, we do not need to animate every settler anew, but only add additional animations".
Promotion and delay
In July 2000, Blue Byte advertised for 5,000 participants for an online closed beta. However, the beta was postponed in early August, due to "technical issues related to the lobby software causing disruption to Battle Isle: The Andosia War". In late August, Blue Byte revealed it would be at least mid-September before the beta began.
In October, Blue Byte released "Smack a Thief", a minigame designed to promote the main game. A variation on Whac-A-Mole, in "Smack a Thief", the player must click on Viking thieves before they can raid the Roman stores and escape. Available as a free download from Blue Byte's website, the game allowed players to upload their high scores to a global high score table.
In early November, the online beta was cancelled, with Blue Byte's stating, "We have decided to take this step to concentrate on completing the game. Conducting a large, public beta test requires a lot of additional resources, which we now want to invest more specifically in development. Quality assurance will instead be ensured by our own internal testing department". In an interview with Planet of Games, Brändle clarified: "We do not have the resources to filter and sort all of the anticipated feedback from a beta test. We are currently concentrating exclusively on completion of the product".
The following week, Blue Byte announced the slated December release had been pushed back to January 2001, with Thomas Hertzler (Blue Byte CEO and the series producer) explaining, "we know that many gamers were particularly looking forward to The Settlers IV this year and, of course, we understand if Settlerss fans are disappointed. In the end, however, we made our decision with the players in mind. The Settlers IV will not be on shelves before Christmas, but fans will receive a game that corresponds to Blue Byte's high quality standard".
Release and Ubisoft takeover
In January, the German release date was pushed back to February 15. On February 6, Ubi Soft acquired Blue Byte, revealing their plans to publish the game internationally, with president and CEO, Yves Guillemot, stating:
On February 15, the game was released in Germany as planned. However, it suffered from numerous bugs, leading to a negative reaction from fans, and criticism of both the game and Blue Byte in the German gaming press. Although Blue Byte issued a patch the same day the game was released, it introduced additional problems, leading to further negative press. A second patch was released four days later to correct the problems introduced by the first patch. According to German magazine PC Games, 76% of players experienced technical difficulties with the release version of the game. Co-designer Thorsten Mutschall later admitted it had not been ready for release in February and should have been held back for additional playtesting and programming.
On March 19, Ubi Soft announced the game would be released throughout Europe at the end of the month, explaining "the reasons behind the unfortunate delay of the product were essentially quality assurance issues".
Portable versions
In November 2009, working in conjunction with Blue Byte, under license from Ubisoft, Gameloft ported the game to iOS, released under the title The Settlers. In April 2010, the game was ported to webOS, specifically optimised for use with the Palm Pre. In September, Gameloft released HD versions for iPad and bada (optimised for the Wave S8500). The Settlers HD was later released for Symbian in January 2011, and for Android in May.
Although the handheld versions of the game feature updated graphics, the gameplay and game mechanics are identical to the original, with the storyline including the full twenty-one single-player missions from the original release (three Roman missions, three Viking missions, three Mayan missions, and a twelve mission Dark Tribe campaign). The main change to the game involves the HUD, which was redesigned so as to accommodate touchscreen controls.
For example, rather than the building menu always present onscreen, it is accessed by pressing an icon which opens the "Build Menu". From within this menu, the player then has access to various submenus, such as "Basic Buildings", "Food Buildings" and "Military Buildings". Similarly, to access the menu to control specialist settlers, the player touches another icon, which is only available if the player has any such settlers available. Pressing down on any icon for two seconds brings up a brief help screen for that icon, and pausing the game allows the player to access a full help menu, replacing the "Extended tool tips" which appeared on-screen in the original.
Reception
The Settlers IV received "mixed or average" reviews, with an aggregate score of 74 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on five reviews, and 71% on GameRankings, based on seventeen reviews. The iOS version was received more positively, with an aggregate score of 79% on GameRankings, based on six reviews.
PC Players Damian Knaus scored the original game 85 out of 100, giving it a "Gold Player" award. Although he was impressed with the Dark Tribe, he criticised the integration of gardeners into the gameplay, calling them an "unnecessary extravagance". He was also critical of the lack of any "real innovations" and the absence of female settlers. However, despite these reservations, he felt the game was the best Settlers title thus far, and was especially impressed with the graphics.
PC Games Rüdiger Steidle scored it 77%, the lowest score the magazine had ever given to a Settlers title. The issue in which the review appeared had both an editorial justifying the score, and a text box within the review, titled "Why only 77%", in which the magazine wrote:
In his review, Steidle criticised the game's similarity to Settlers III, writing that "Blue Byte has not altered the concept at all". Although he praised the graphics, the tutorials, and the variety of mission objectives, he was critical of the bugs, writing, "in typical Blue Byte fashion, the game has appeared in time for the first patch". He concluded that "anyone who is, like me, a fan of the series, will be disappointed".
PC Gamers Jim Preston scored it 72%. Although he praised the economic system on which the game is built, he criticised the lack of variety within it, writing, "you're forced to create the entire supporting infrastructure for your settlement the same way every time." He also referred to the gameplay as "complication masquerading as depth".
IGNs Dan Adams scored it 7 out of 10, comparing it unfavourably to Zeus: Master of Olympus. His biggest criticism concerned the lack of differentiation from Settlers III, writing that "aside from some improved graphics and small additions, it's hard to tell this is really a new game". He was also critical of the AI, pathfinding, and repetitive missions, and he felt the designers had failed to steer the gameplay away from an over-reliance on combat. While praising the graphics, animations, and the game's "great personality", he concluded: "Blue Byte hasn't managed to find [any] new ideas that might keep the series from becoming the serious pool of stagnant gaming that it is quickly becoming".
GameSpys Bernard Dy scored it 67 out of 100, comparing it unfavourably to Age of Empires II. Like Adams, he felt it was too similar to Settlers III, and although he praised the "appealing" graphics and "fascinating" animations, he felt Blue Byte had failed to return the gameplay to an economic focus, writing "nearly every scenario is a race to build a military". He also criticised the AI, lack of combat strategy, and mission variety. He did, however, praise Free Settle and multiplayer modes, concluding that "Settlers: Fourth Edition has charming moments, but has been long surpassed by games with better character and superior combat".
GameSpots Ron Dulin scored it 6.4 out of 10, finding similar problems to Adams and Dy, and comparing it unfavourably to Impressions Games' City Building series. Finding it too similar to Settlers III, he felt Blue Byte had failed to move away from a reliance on combat. He also criticised the mission variety and the lack of combat strategy, writing, "it's never more complex than moving all of your units slowly through enemy territory, hoping you'll have some left after your opponent doesn't". Although praising the basic supply and demand-based gameplay and the graphics, he wrote "The Settlers: Fourth Edition is really just the same old game with the same old problems".
Computer Gaming Worlds Mark Asher scored it 3 out of 5, criticising "scenarios that differ in only minor ways", and arguing the best part of the game was Free Settler mode. Although he praised the graphics, and called the game a "pleasant enough experience", he noted it offered no major differences from previous Settlers titles, and would interest only the existing fanbase, who, he opined, may be getting bored of the same formula.
Sales
The game was a commercial success, and 2001's highest selling German-developed game. In February 2002, it was awarded the "Platinum Award" by the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland e.V. (VUD); an award given to titles costing DM55 or more, which sell over 200,000 units nationally within the first twelve months of their release. By August 2002, the game had sold over 300,000 units in Germany.
Portable
AppSpys Andrew Nesvadba scored the iOS version 5 out of 5, praising the graphics and touchscreen controls: "The Settlers is everything great about strategy games. It's easy enough to jump in and muck around while progressing, but ultimately there's a complex and amazingly detailed set of interactions for players to learn". Arron Hirst of 148Apps scored it 4 out of 5. Although he was critical of the lack of free play and multiplayer modes, he praised the controls and the replication of the original game mechanics, saying "the game is both immersive and addicting". TouchArcade also scored it 4 out of 5, criticising the lack of free play, but praising the graphics and sound effects, and calling the game "a solid experience".
Pocket Gamers Tracy Erickson scored it 4 out of 5, giving it a "Silver Award", and calling it "surprisingly good" and "largely positive". Although he was critical of the lack of free play and multiplayer modes, and felt the playing area was oftentimes too cluttered with icons and menus, he concluded by praising the "deep economic strategy gameplay".
Pocket Gamers Wayne Turton scored the bada version of The Settlers HD 3.5 out of 5, giving it a "Bronze Award" and praising the tutorials, controls, and graphics. In contrast, he was critical of the absence of non-campaign missions and multiplayer mode, and of the combat system, writing victory "usually comes down to which side can field the most units". He concluded, "there's a magical quality to The Settlers HD that draws you in, and a depth that will keep you playing". All About Symbians Ewan Spence scored the Symbian version 76%. Although critical of the AI, and feeling that the screen becomes too cluttered, especially during combat, he concluded that "it hits all the required marks in a game like this". Pocket Gamers Brendan Caldwell scored the Android version 4 out of 5, giving it a "Silver Award", and calling it "an almost resounding victory". Although critical of the tutorials, which he felt didn't adequately explain the intricacies of the game, and the controls, which he argued "don't quite have the accuracy or speed to truly emulate the traditional mouse and keyboard setup," he concluded, "with a depth not often enjoyed by Android titles, Settlers HD can be an enthralling game".
Expansions
Mission CD
The game's first expansion was The Settlers IV Mission CD, released in Germany in August 2001, and featuring three five-mission single-player campaigns, three "Settlement" missions (focusing on building up the player's settlement and achieving economic goals, as opposed to military conquest), three "Conflict" missions (focusing on combat), sixteen new maps for single-player mode, and eighteen new maps for multiplayer mode. In terms of gameplay, the Mission CD features improved AI, more varied mission objectives, more sophisticated scripting within missions, and higher difficulty in single-player games. The expansion also features a random map generator, and map editor, and numerous bug fixes and stabilisations.
The Trojans and the Elixir of Power
Blue Byte released a second expansion, The Settlers IV: The Trojans and the Elixir of Power, in December, featuring thirteen new maps for single-player mode, thirteen new maps for multiplayer mode, three new four-mission single-player campaigns for each of the original three races, four Settlement missions, and a new twelve-mission campaign, in which the player controls a new race, the Trojans. The expansion also features improved graphics, adjustable difficulty, and the random map generator and map editor included with the Mission CD. In terms of gameplay, the importance of eyecatchers has been modified. Whereas in the original game, the player could increase their offensive strength beyond 100% by building enough eyectachers, or by building large numbers of a single eyectacher, in The Trojans and the Elixir of Power the maximum offensive strength achievable is 100%, which can only be reached if the player builds at least one of every eyecatcher.
Gold Edition
Released in March 2002, The Settlers IV: Gold Edition contains the original game, the Mission CD and The Trojans and the Elixir of Power. It also features fan-made maps for multiplayer mode, the "Smack a Thief" minigame, a new minigame ("The Dark Side"), Microsoft Windows wallpapers, and Settlers-themed skins for Winamp and ICQ. In 2013, the Gold Edition was released on GOG.com.
Die Neue Welt and Community Pack
Blue Byte later released two German-language expansions. In November 2002, they released Die Siedler IV: Die Neue Welt (). Set shortly after the Vikings discover America, the game begins with the Mayans organising a feast for the Vikings, before travelling to Europe with the aim of taking possession of the Wonders of the World, beginning with the Colossus of Rhodes. The Vikings, meanwhile, discover a map amongst the Mayans' possessions leading to a mythological island inhabited only by women, which they promptly set out to find. The Trojans, having been expelled from Troy by the Romans, are searching for a new homeland, and so head west. At the same time, the Romans are attempting to reconquer the world, beginning with the newly discovered continent. The expansion features four five-mission single-player campaigns (one for each of the three original races, and one for the Trojans), each with multiple objectives, many of which are optional, and most of which are economic-based rather than military-based. There are also two new single-player maps, and three new multiplayer maps, all with enhanced graphics and textures.
In November 2003, they released Die Siedler IV: Community Pack. The expansion features four fan-created single-player campaigns based on real historical conflicts; the Roman attack on Carthage during the Third Punic War, the Viking invasion of England, the Huaxtec resistance against Spanish Conquistadors, and the battle for Troad during the Wars of the Diadochi.
History Edition
In November 2018, Ubisoft re-released the game as both a standalone History Edition and as part of The Settlers: History Collection. Optimised for Windows 10, the re-release contains the original game, the Mission CD, The Trojans and the Elixir of Power, Die Neue Welt, Community Pack, and the "Smack a Thief" minigame, and features autosave, 4K monitor support, dual monitor support, adjustable resolutions and texture quality, vsync, and online multiplayer. Available only on Uplay, the History Collection also includes re-releases of The Settlers, The Settlers II, The Settlers III, The Settlers: Heritage of Kings, The Settlers: Rise of an Empire, and The Settlers 7: Paths to a Kingdom.
References
External links
(site dead; )
(site dead; )
()
2001 video games
Android (operating system) games
Bada games
Blue Byte games
City-building games
Gameloft games
IOS games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Multiplayer online games
Real-time strategy video games
Symbian games
The Settlers
Ubisoft games
Video game sequels
Video games developed in Germany
Video games set in antiquity
Video games set in the Roman Empire
Video games set in the Viking Age
Video games with historical settings
Video games with expansion packs
Video games with isometric graphics
WebOS games
Windows games
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8041438
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice%20modem%20command%20set
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Voice modem command set
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A voice modem is an analog telephone data modem with a built-in capability of transmitting and receiving voice recordings over the phone line. Voice modems are used for telephony and answering machine applications. Similar to the Hayes command set used for data modems, in which the host PC commands the modem via a series of commands known as AT commands, there exists a well-defined set of common voice AT commands that are somewhat consistent throughout the industry.
Implementation problems
Because voice mode is not the typical use for a modem, many modems on the market have poor or buggy support for their voice modes. Characteristics of a good voice modem depend greatly upon the intended application, and include:
Reliable operation. Many modems simply "lock up" or crash the host PC, though this is more common with Winmodems. Others have flow control bugs and other implementation bugs, possibly causing calls to hang, audio to skip, or audio to keep playing after an attempted abort.
Good audio characteristics. Some modems have an uncorrectably low signal volume or produce audio noise. Some modems are unable to recognize all but the best DTMF signals. Some modems do a poor job of recording, or detecting and reporting silence or the end-of-call voltage reversal, which some applications need.
Support for caller ID, if needed. "Type-1 caller ID" as used in North America is missing from the vast majority of modems. Nearly all modem chipsets support caller ID, but because the typical dial-up Internet user doesn't need caller ID, the extra components needed to support caller ID are often omitted for cost reasons.
Support for multiple instances. The drivers for many internal modems (typically Winmodems) cannot tolerate more than one of the same device inside a single computer. Symptoms of incompatibility include crashes, blue screens of death, or simple inoperability of all but a single modem. External RS-232-based (serial) modems do not have this limitation because each modem contains its own microprocessor and is unaware of other modems on the same host. USB modems may or may not have this problem, because some USB modems are simply serial modems with a "USB-to-serial" converter chipset (in which case there should be no problem), and other USB modems are "host-controlled" and are essentially externally attached Winmodems (in which case the problem may persist).
Plus versus Hash
Each voice modem platform tends to support either one of two sets of voice commands—in particular, one flavor of the command set contains a plus (+) sign, and the other contains a hash (#) sign.
Detecting voice mode
Support for voice mode can be detected on a modem by issuing the following command: AT+FCLASS=?
This command is usually supported containing the plus sign whether a modem supports "plus" or the "hash" command set, because the command (which stands for "fax class") is part of the industry-standard fax commands which always use the plus.
A modem supporting voice will respond with a comma-delimited list of numbers that includes the number 8. A modem not supporting voice will respond with ERROR, or with a list of numbers not including 8. (Many modems will report 0,1,2 indicating support for data (0), and class 1 and 2 faxes—this is an indication that voice support is not present.)
Modems supporting the "hash" command set usually respond to AT#CLS=? as well.
Entering voice mode
The command AT+FCLASS=8 or AT#CLS=8 will put the modem in voice mode. Most modems still remain on-hook and respond with OK. Once this command has been accepted, most modems will respond with Data Link Escape (DLE) messages instead of or in addition to normal modem responses. For example, instead of reporting a phone line ringing with the RING message, many modems will instead send the DLE ASCII character, followed by the letter R. The specific set of DLE events reported by each modem is specific to its chipset and documented in its reference guide.
Querying the modem's capabilities
The command AT+VLS=? or AT#VLS=? usually returns a list of operating modes that are specific to each modem. Each of these numbered modes determines the telephone line's on-hook or off-hook status, as well as sound routing between each of the following:
Recording/playback
Telephone handset
Speakerphone jack (which could simply be hard-wired as an audio input on the PC's sound card instead of being a discrete jack)
Microphone jack (available on some voice modems)
Many chipsets offer a listing of all the possible combinations of modes even if the specific modem board doesn't support them all. That's because the board manufacturer is almost always different from the chipset maker, and the chipset comes pre-configured to support all possible hardware, even if not implemented on the circuit board.
Example of response to AT+VLS=? from a modem on the market in 2006:
AT+VLS=?
0,"",0000000000,0000000000,B084008000
1,"T",0B8418E000,0FE418E000,0B8419E000
2,"L",0884008000,0CE4008000,0884018000
3,"LT",0B8418E000,0FE418E000,0B8419E000
4,"S",0084008000,0484008000,3084018000
5,"ST",0B8418E000,0FE418E000,0B8419E000
6,"M",0084008000,04E4008000,3084008000
7,"MST",0B8418E000,0FE418E000,0B8419E000
8,"S1",0084008000,0484008000,3084018000
9,"S1T",0B8418E000,0FE418E000,0B8419E000
10,"MS1T",0B8418E000,0FE418E000,0B8419E000
11,"M1",0084008000,04E4008000,3084008000
13,"M1S1T",0B8418E000,0FE418E000,0B8419E000
14,"H",0084008000,04E4008000,3084018000
15,"HT",0B8418E000,0FE418E000,0B8419E000
16,"MS",0084008000,04E4008000,3084018000
17,"MS1",0084008000,04E4008000,3084018000
19,"M1S1",0084008000,04E4008000,3084018000
20,"t",0B8418E000,0FE418E000,BB8419E000
While every modem is different, usually mode 0 means on-hook (hung up) and mode 1 is sufficient to pick up the phone, record/playback audio, and detect DTMF (touch tones).
The command AT+VSM=? or AT#VSM=? usually returns a list of audio data formats supported by the modem. Each format includes a name (such as PCM, ADPCM, μ-law, A-law), a number of bits per sample (usually 2, 3, 4, 8, or 16) and an audio sampling rate (usually 7,200, 8,000, or 11,025 Hertz). These are industry-standard audio codecs whose implementations are well published. The ADPCM standard is an exception. Modems claiming to support ADPCM almost always support Dialogic ADPCM, also known as "VOX", which is similar but not compatible with other ADPCM implementations, including Interactive Multimedia Association (IMA) ADPCM as well as MS ADPCM (a Microsoft implementation used in WAV files). Modems may support these as well, if a qualifier is listed—otherwise, by default, ADPCM means Dialogic.
Example response to AT+VSM=? from a modem on the market in 2006:
AT+VSM=?
1,"UNSIGNED PCM",8,0,8000,0,0
129,"IMA ADPCM",4,0,8000,0,0
130,"UNSIGNED PCM",8,0,8000,0,0
140,"2 Bit ADPCM",2,0,8000,
141,"4 Bit ADPCM",4,0,8000,0,0
The desired audio data format is selected using the same command but with a number instead of a question mark. It is used for both sending and receiving.
Answering calls
Answering calls is usually done with either the AT+VLS=n or AT#VLS=n commands, where n is a number representing the modem's mode. For the vast majority of modems, this number will be 1 to answer a telephone call, and 0 to hang up; other numbers activate other functionality when present, such as speakerphone. Some modems answer in response to ATA—the standard data-mode answer command—but other modems will interpret this as a command to actually answer in data and not voice mode.
Transmitting audio data
To begin transmitting audio data, the host sends the command AT+VTX or AT#VTX. This results in a response from the modem of CONNECT or VCON. (Modems using the "plus" command set usually respond CONNECT, while those using the "hash" set respond VCON, which stands for voice connect.)
From then on, the modem interprets any data sent from the computer as wave audio data, using the codec selected by the AT+VSM or AT#VSM command.
The audio data is always sent to the modem slightly faster than it can play it, so the modem may buffer a small portion of it and play it smoothly with no clicks or pops caused by delays in the computer's operating system. For example, during playback of an 8 kHz audio file at 8-bit resolution (which creates 8,000 bytes, or 80,000 bits when including start/stop bits, per second), the data must travel over the serial port at a minimum of 115,200 bits per second. (115,200 bit/s is the first setting of a typical computer serial port that's greater than 80,000.) In addition, due to some extra overhead involved in doubling DLE bytes in the stream (mentioned below), a small amount of extra bandwidth is mandatory to allow for this.
When the modem wants the computer to temporarily pause so the playback can catch up, it temporarily lowers the CTS (Clear to Send) signal on the RS-232 serial port. The modem re-raises the signal in time for the computer to resume sending audio data before the playback buffer becomes completely empty.
When the computer wants to signal the end of audio data, most modems expect to see an ASCII DLE character (0x10), followed by the ! character.
Because the DLE byte can and often does occur in normal audio data, it must be sent twice to the modem when it is to be interpreted as a byte of audio data.
Most modems also accept a sequence of DLE + CAN (cancel) as a signal to cancel audio playback. The distinction is that the modem is to understand that it is to immediately abort playback now, rather than let remaining data in the playback buffer run to completion.
When the modem is done playback, it responds OK.
Throttling playback
During playback, it is necessary to send the audio data at a rate that keeps the audio playing smoothly, but without sending it faster than the modem can handle it. It is also desirable to make sure the modem can always abort playback and discard any buffered audio in case a message is to be canceled. Message cancellation is expected by callers who already know the answers to voice prompts and provide their answer early (and who would become irritated at being forced to listen to a prompt they've already responded to).
There are several ways to keep the computer sending audio data to the modem at a rate to keep up with playback without overrunning the audio buffer.
The most straightforward is to use CTS flow control. The following caveats exist.
Some voice modems have bugs in their implementation of flow control. In particular, a large number of Conexant chipsets will sometimes drop their CTS line and never bring it back up during playback. Conexant is a hugely popular chipset in voice modems today and they otherwise implement voice commands well, making it worthwhile to consider working around this bug. Some Conexant chipsets will also not bring CTS back up if the "playback abort" command is sent or processed by the modem while CTS is down.
Some voice modems offer a very large transmit buffer (for example, 4 seconds' worth of audio) coupled with a bug that prevents the host from requesting an "abort playback". The result is that if a caller presses a touch-tone that's supposed to interrupt a message, and the host is providing unlimited audio data mediated by CTS alone, the end result is that the message can't be interrupted for at least 4 seconds.
A second way to throttle playback involves polling a "tick" timer provided by the host computer's operating system and based on a hardware clock that's independent of the host's CPU load. This may or may not be available, and it depends entirely on the host operating system. However, when available, it is extremely reliable. It is reasonable to assume that the PC needs to stay ahead of the playback by a couple of hundred bytes and that the modem will buffer this. (The commands AT+VBQ or AT#VBQ on voice modems will often reveal the size of the buffer in bytes, and 1 to 2 kilobytes is a typical response.)
A third way to throttle playback involves inserting dummy DLE messages into the output stream such that the audio data takes a known amount of time to transmit through the serial port, and the playback is essentially clocked by the UART in the serial port.
For example, when considering using dummy DLE stuffing, a few things must first be noted. In a typical scenario, one second of audio might be 8,000 one-byte samples, and with a small percentage of the samples being equal to the DLE byte and must be doubled, a typical second of audio might be 8,050 bytes. The trick involves inserting enough meaningless DLE messages into the bytes that the modem will discard (that is, a DLE followed by a byte without any specific meaning) so that there are exactly 11,520 bytes (assuming a serial port locked at 115,200 bit/s) which will take exactly 1 second to transmit through the serial port. Although it is possible that interrupt latency on the host PC may cause slightly less than 11,520 bytes to be sent per second, most voice modems will buffer enough bytes before actually starting playback to permit a small skew here. Also the PC can be programmed to convert a second of audio into slightly fewer than 11,520 bytes (all voice modems will buffer a small overrun without the need for flow control as long as it is no more than a few hundred bytes).
Dummy DLE stuffing is unlikely to work with "Winmodems" that have no physical UART. It makes sense only with external serial modems that are physically clocked to a specific bit rate by a clock generator behind the external serial port.
Recording audio data
The method for recording audio data is the same, except that the command is AT+VRX, or AT#VRX, and the modem transmits audio data while the computer receives it. The RTS/CTS flow control are not used here (the computer must accept all the audio data it receives, and the modem automatically paces its transmission to match the audio sampling rate).
The modem never stops transmitting until the computer tells it to stop, which is usually with CTRL-C. The data is always terminated with DLE+!, and all DLE bytes naturally occurring in the stream are sent twice to differentiate them from normal DLE messages.
Before, during, and after recording, the modem may notify the computer host of specific events including, but not limited to, the following:
Touch-tone keypresses detected
Silence detected
Line polarity reversal detected (often meaning caller hang-up)
Dial tone detected
Fax tone detected
When the modem wants to tell the host about these, it sends a DLE byte, plus a (usually) 1-byte message describing the event. The list of supported events varies by modem, but usually a digit (as well as * and #) mean touch-tones pressed, and the letter "s" means silence detected. Some modems report only one event for each touch-tone keypress, while others report a keypress repeatedly until the key is released, and then a special "key released" event.
Terminating a voice call
Any of the following commands usually cause the modem to hang up and terminate a voice call: AT+VLS=0, AT#VLS=0, ATH, ATZ. Dropping the RS-232 DTR (data terminal ready) signal often accomplishes this as well. The modem remains in voice mode (except in the case of ATZ).
Voice modems do not automatically hang up even when the caller on the other end does. They may report the hangup, dialtone, or silence events, but it is up to the computer to act upon them. If when the modem is recording, the caller hangs up and the computer doesn't react, the modem will continue providing the audio recording everything else heard on the line, such as dial tones, telephone company error messages, and so forth.
See also
Hayes command set
List of ITU-T V-series recommendations
Telephony
References
AT command reference manual for Rockwell, Conexant, and Lucent chipsets. (Each chipset manufacturer produces a manual with this same title, followed by the name of the product to which it applies)
Zoom Tech Support Documentation, AT Command References
Modems
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35416041
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library%20Oriented%20Architecture
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Library Oriented Architecture
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In software engineering, a Library Oriented Architecture (LOA) is a set of principles and methodologies for designing and developing software in the form of reusable software libraries constrained in a specific ontology domain. LOA provides one of the many alternate methodologies that enable the further exposure of software through a service-oriented architecture. Library orientation dictates the ontological boundaries of a library that exposes business functionality through a set of public APIs. Library Oriented Architecture further promotes practices similar to Modular Programming, and encourages the maintenance of internal libraries and modules with independent internal open-source life-cycles. This approach promotes good software engineering principles and patterns such as separation of concerns and designing to interfaces as opposed to implementations.
Principles
Three principles rule Library Oriented Architecture frameworks:
A software library implementation and subject area expertise must be constrained to only one ontology domain.
A software library that needs to use concepts and artifacts from a different ontology domain than the one it belongs to, must interface and reuse the library corresponding to that specific ontology domain.
All domain specific software libraries must be maintained and supported with separate life-cycles.
Benefits
Library Oriented Architecture may provide different process improvements to existing software engineering practices and software development life-cycle. Some tangible benefits from its adoption are:
Simplify configuration management of distributed systems.
Build highly reliable software systems because of the inherent properties and constraints of the LOA principles.
Information Systems built using LOA are technology-independent. These systems can easily replace or swap entire libraries and domain implementations with localized impact and minimal upstream ripple effect.
Increase the Maintainability Index of your distributed systems and integration repositories.
Minimize the risk of high coupling, this can be more evident on large enterprise systems.
Bring developers up to speed orders of magnitude more quickly than a traditional system. Move developers and teams across libraries and domain ontologies and collaborate seamlessly.
Spot bugs and zero-in on the problem almost instantly. There is something to be said about the amount of time a developer spends debugging.
Maximization of the Bus Factor of the software engineering team.
See also
Ontology (information science)
Service-oriented architecture
Distributed system
Modular programming
Software library
Software design pattern
Writing Elegant Code and the Maintainability Index
Code Metrics – Maintainability Index
References
Software architecture
Enterprise application integration
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6646510
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linda%20Shapiro
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Linda Shapiro
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Linda G. Shapiro is a professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering, a Professor of Electrical Engineering, and Adjunct Professor of Biomedical Informatics and Medical Education at the University of Washington.
Education and Experience
Shapiro graduated with a B.S. with highest distinction in Mathematics and Computer Science from the University of Illinois in 1970. She completed her M.S. in Computer Science from University of Iowa in 1972 and her Ph.D. in Computer Science from University of Iowa in 1974. She was a faculty member in Computer Science at Kansas State University from 1974 to 1978 and at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University from 1979 to 1984. She then spent two years as Director of Intelligent Systems at Machine Vision International in Ann Arbor, Michigan. She has been an IEEE Fellow since 1995, an IAPR fellow since 2000, and has been editor-in-chief of CVGIP: Image Understanding. Professor Shapiro received the Pattern Recognition Society Best Paper Awards in 1989 and 1995.
Research Interests
Shapiro's research interests include computer vision, medical image analysis, artificial intelligence, biomedical informatics, pattern recognition, and content-based image retrieval. According to her research laboratory website, her recent research projects include Efficient Convolutional Neural Networks for Mobile Devices, Expression Recognition using Deep Neural Nets, and Digital Pathology: Accuracy, Viewing Behavior and Image Characterization.
Publications
Haralock, Robert M. and L. Shapiro. “Computer and Robot Vision.” (1991).
Robert M. Haralick, Linda G. Shapiro. "Image segmentation techniques." Computer Vision, Graphics, and Image Processing, Volume 29, Issue 1, 1985, Pages 100–132, ISSN 0734-189X, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0734-189X(85)90153-7.
L. G. Shapiro and R. M. Haralick, "Structural Descriptions and Inexact Matching," in IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, vol. PAMI-3, no. 5, pp. 504–519, September 1981, doi: 10.1109/TPAMI.1981.4767144.
References
External links
University of Washington, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Linda Shapiro homepage (accessed October 2013)
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
University of Washington faculty
Fellow Members of the IEEE
Computer vision researchers
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3471187
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain%20analysis
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Domain analysis
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In software engineering, domain analysis, or product line analysis, is the process of analyzing related software systems in a domain to find their common and variable parts. It is a model of wider business context for the system. The term was coined in the early 1980s by James Neighbors. Domain analysis is the first phase of domain engineering. It is a key method for realizing systematic software reuse.
Domain analysis produces domain models using methodologies such as domain specific languages, feature tables, facet tables, facet templates, and generic architectures, which describe all of the systems in a domain. Several methodologies for domain analysis have been proposed.
The products, or "artifacts", of a domain analysis are sometimes object-oriented models (e.g. represented with the Unified Modeling Language (UML)) or data models represented with entity-relationship diagrams (ERD). Software developers can use these models as a basis for the implementation of software architectures and applications. This approach to domain analysis is sometimes called model-driven engineering.
In information science, the term "domain analysis" was suggested in 1995 by Birger Hjørland and H. Albrechtsen.
Domain analysis techniques
Several domain analysis techniques have been identified, proposed and developed due to the diversity of goals, domains, and involved processes.
DARE: Domain Analysis and Reuse Environment ,
Feature-Oriented Domain Analysis (FODA)
IDEF0 for Domain Analysis
Model Oriented Domain Analysis and Engineering
References
See also
Domain engineering
Feature Model
Product Family Engineering
Domain-specific language
Model-driven engineering
Software design
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4194362
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working%20men%27s%20club
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Working men's club
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Working men's clubs are a type of private social club first created in the 19th century in industrialised areas of the United Kingdom, particularly the North of England, the Midlands, Scotland and many parts of the South Wales Valleys, to provide recreation and education for working class men and their families. They also began at this time in Australia, with a small number in Ireland, primarily Dublin.
History
The first recorded working men's club opened in 1857 in Reddish. Gregg set it up for his workers. He identified that many of his workers were shut out of their lodging throughout the day and evening, with nowhere to cook or even read a newspaper, and were forced to spend their non-working lives in a public house. Greggs Reddish Working Man club aimed to give them somewhere to relax. There are three working men's clubs in Reddish: this one, the North Reddish Working Men's Club and the architecturally significant Houldsworth Working Men's Club.
The Wisbech Working Men's Club & Institute was formed from an inaugural meeting held on 5 January, 1864 in Wisbech, Isle of Ely. The club celebrated its 150th anniversary in 2014. The club moved to its present site in 1867. It was once described as the most financially successful of all the clubs in England, with over 1,300 members in 1904.
Despite the original educational ambitions, most working men's clubs are now mainly recreational. Typically, a club would have a room, often referred to (especially in Northern England) as a vault, with a bar for the sale and consumption of alcohol, snooker, pool or bar billiards tables, as well as televisions for sport entertainment; many provide food. A much larger room would be connected, often called the concert or entertainment room, with a stage and a layout of tables, stools and backrest sofas. They often provide night time entertainment, mainly on the weekends such as bingo, raffles, live music cabaret and comedy, playing popular music. They are also known for their charitable works.
In recent years, declining membership has seen many clubs close down and others struggle to remain open. Some groups try to raise the profile of clubs, pointing to their historical legacies and their community roles.
Twenty-first century
Meanwhile, the nineteenth and early twentieth century educational ambitions of working men's clubs have now returned in new organisations such as the men's shed movement that started in Australasia and has spread to Europe and appeals to much the same community as working men's clubs. Similarly the growing hackerspace movement appeals mostly to younger working men and women, who forty years ago would have worked on their interests in their garden shed or garage and then met others of like mind at their local working men's club. However, with the rise in housing costs few younger people have access to such spaces, and instead were forced to use public spaces such as cafes prior to the introduction of shared facilities such as hackerspaces and men's sheds.
Membership and structure
Working men's clubs are cooperatives run by their members through a committee, usually elected annually. Each club has rules that tend to be vigorously enforced. The committee will discipline members (common punishments being a warning, or a ban for a period) for violations. Despite the name, women are allowed to be members in many clubs, and virtually all clubs allow entry to women. Non-members are not allowed entry unless signed in by a member.
In the UK they are registered as co-operatives under the Co-operative and Community Benefit Societies Act 2014, normally using model rules supplied by the Clubs and Institutes Union.
A dispute at Wakefield City Workingmen's Club in 1978 led to a national campaign for equal membership rights for women. Sheila Capstick, whose husband was an activist in the NUM, had been a regular snooker player at the club before a ban was instituted on women playing snooker. Her protest, A Woman's Right to Cues, developed into a nationwide campaign for equal rights: ERICCA – Equal Rights in Clubs Campaign for Action. In April 2007, after the resolution had been consistently rejected over years, the Club and Institutes Union accepted equal membership rights for women.
Club and Institute Union
Most clubs affiliate to the Working Men's Club and Institute Union (commonly known as the CIU or C&IU). The CIU is affiliated to the Committee of Registered Clubs Associations or CORCA. A member of one affiliated club is entitled to use the facilities of other clubs. There are 2,200 affiliated working men's clubs in the UK.
The CIU has two purposes: to provide a national voice for clubs, and to provide discounted products and services for clubs.
Brewery
Until 2004, clubs ran a brewery at Dunston, Tyne and Wear, which brewed ales and lagers under the Federation brand. The brewery and brands were sold to Scottish & Newcastle for £16.2 million, although CIU clubs still receive discounted beer. These discounts are passed on to members.
Impact of July 2007 smoking ban
In December 2007 a poll by the British Institute of Innkeeping and the Federation of Licensed Victuallers Associations found that overall revenue was 7.3 per cent down as more men opted to drink at home, where they could also smoke.
See also
Association of Conservative Clubs
National Union of Labour and Socialist Clubs
Men's shed
Hackerspace
Mechanics' Institutes
Women's Institutes
YMCA
YWCA
References
External links
Club Historians website
Clubs and societies in the United Kingdom
Clubs and societies in Australia
Clubs and societies in New Zealand
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persystent%20Software
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Persystent Software
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Utopic Software is a privately held computer software company with offices in Tampa, Florida, USA, specializing in automated PC repair, self-healing operating system repair, imaging and secure hard drive wipe.
Utopic Software acquired Persystent Technologies in 2012. Utopic retained the Persystent brand and rebuilt the solution as a cohesive and centralized suite of features.
Utopic Software developed patented technology that restores application and operating system (O/S) files in as little as 45 seconds. The product is called Persystent Suite for Windows-based PCs. The PC repair technology can be automated to perform repair upon each reboot or it can be managed on demand for more flexibility.
References
Notes
Software companies based in Florida
Companies based in Tampa, Florida
Software companies of the United States
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66845411
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990%E2%80%9391%20USC%20Trojans%20men%27s%20basketball%20team
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1990–91 USC Trojans men's basketball team
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The 1990–91 USC Trojans men's basketball team represented the University of Southern California during the 1990–91 NCAA Division I men's basketball season. Led by head coach George Raveling, they played their home games at the L. A. Sports Arena in Los Angeles, California as members of the Pac-10 Conference.
Roster
Schedule and results
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!colspan=9 style=| Non-conference regular season
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!colspan=9 style=| Pac-10 regular season
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!colspan=9 style=| NCAA Tournament
Rankings
Awards and honors
Harold Miner – Honorable Mention All-American (AP)
References
Usc Trojans
USC Trojans men's basketball seasons
USC
USC Trojans
USC Trojans
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24368436
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.EXE%20Magazine
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.EXE Magazine
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.EXE Magazine was a monthly computer software magazine published in the United Kingdom from 1986 to 2000.
History and profile
Founded in 1986 by Mark Adams, former co-founder of PR agency Text 100, .EXE (rhymes with 'not sexy' as the magazine's official pronunciation guide states) was inspired by Dr. Dobb's Journal, the PC Tech Journal and the C Users Group Newsletter. It was conceived as a title aimed at professional programmers, in contrast to the majority of hobbyist-oriented computer magazines of the period. Adams served as the magazine's first editor.
The magazine's heyday coincided with the availability of cheap PC clones running MS-DOS and the first widely adopted version of Windows, both factors which encouraged the spread of programming into smaller businesses and created an audience for .EXE and similar titles that followed. Unusually for the UK, the magazine was sold primarily by postal subscription and controlled circulation, rather than in retail newsagents. This reflected its focus on a professional audience, as many readers obtained their copies through their employment.
.EXE′s content consisted largely of practical how-to articles focusing on particular platforms or techniques, along with more general software development content, news, book reviews and regular columns. With an audience consisting primarily of PC software developers, the content was largely for the DOS and Windows platforms, although over the years .EXE published articles on OS/2, Modula-2, Smalltalk and PalmPilot development, among others. The magazine featured regular columns on C++, Java, Visual Basic and Unix and took an early interest in Linux and open source more generally, particularly under the editorship of David Mery, featuring interviews with prominent open source and free software proponents including Eric Raymond and Richard Stallman.
In 1992 the magazine's publisher Process Communications was sold to Centaur Communications (now Centaur Media), ostensibly because Centaur was interested in a Process title called Software Management. In the end, Centaur elected to keep .EXE running and closed Software Management and the third Process title, BASIC Magazine. This left .EXE as the only print title aimed at software professionals at Centaur, and the only title focused on computing and technology, at least until New Media Age debuted in 1995.
In 1995 the magazine was re-branded as EXE Magazine, dropping the dot, which caused some controversy among regular readers and spawned the nickname 'Dotless' for the new version. At around the same time the magazine launched an online venture called EXplodE - later EXE Online - which started as a companion title with its own editor, but was later taken over by the print editorial team and evolved into an online archive of content and a marketing vehicle for the print title.
Several of EXE′s editorial staff were well known in the UK technology community as journalists or otherwise. The magazine's second editor, Robert Schifreen, had previously been notorious for his involvement in the hacking of a Telecom Gold account belonging to Prince Philip. Other editors or staff writers included Will Watts, Danny O'Brien, Cliff Saran and Hobbit Coward.
In later years, EXE began to feature more product reviews and 'advertorial' content such as salary surveys, as its publishers sought to make the magazine more commercially focused. The magazine partnered with the UK-based Association of C and C++ Users to produce conference events. However, the market for computer magazines in general was in decline, and as knowledge and technical information about software development began to move primarily online, print titles like EXE began to lose readers and advertisers. Centaur shuttered the magazine in the summer of 2000, selling its content and branding - perhaps ironically - to the magazine that inspired its creation, Dr. Dobb's Journal.
EXE was also the first home of satirical columnist Verity Stob, who went on to write for Dr Dobbs and, latterly The Register.
Other contemporary magazines
Byte
Dr. Dobb's Journal
Visual Systems Journal
PC Magazine
Personal Computer World (PCW)
References
1986 establishments in the United Kingdom
2000 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Monthly magazines published in the United Kingdom
Defunct computer magazines published in the United Kingdom
Magazines established in 1986
Magazines disestablished in 2000
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8832595
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AOL%20Active%20Virus%20Shield
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AOL Active Virus Shield
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AOL Active Virus Shield (commonly referred to as AVS) was a free antivirus utility made available by AOL. Its engine was based on the one used by Kaspersky Anti-Virus. The program is no longer available.
Features
Active Virus Shield includes numerous features found in Kaspersky Anti-Virus. The software's main feature is malware scanning, which uses Kaspersky's underlying engine and detects a variety of malware such as viruses, spyware, and even joke programs. It also offers real-time file and e-mail scanning and protection.
The latest version of Active Virus Shield (version 6.0.2.621) supports Windows Vista.
Advantages
Active Virus Shield is light compared to other commercial anti-virus products. It also does not consume much memory during startup. The program also benefits from Kaspersky's regular definition updates, typically around every two hours, which enable new viruses to be more effectively detected than programs that update less regularly. In addition, Active Virus Shield has better detection rates than other free programs such as AVG Free and avast! Home Edition.
Criticisms
Active Virus Shield does lack some features of Kaspersky 6.0 (such as proactive protection and HTTP protection), and the license provided is only valid for one year, although the same email address as used initially can easily be used to renew it up to 10 times. It also does not support mail scanning when using TLS or SSL.
Some users have also reported compatibility problems with certain applications such as McAfee Personal Firewall Plus, ZoneAlarm and Logitech products.
Current status
Active Virus Shield is no longer available for download as of August 1, 2007. It was replaced by McAfee Virus Scan Plus - Special edition from AOL, which is available for free for users with a free AOL account.
Even though Active Virus Shield is no longer available officially, the latest version of the program can still be obtained from the mirror server that it is hosted on. Help is also still offered for those already using the application.
See also
Antivirus software
AOL
Kaspersky Lab
References
Notes
AOL Active Virus Shield FAQ
External links
AOL Active Virus Shield Homepage (defunct)
AOL Active Virus Shield Mirrorpage (functional)
Antivirus software
Windows-only freeware
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475393
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartree%E2%80%93Fock%20method
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Hartree–Fock method
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In computational physics and chemistry, the Hartree–Fock (HF) method is a method of approximation for the determination of the wave function and the energy of a quantum many-body system in a stationary state.
The Hartree–Fock method often assumes that the exact N-body wave function of the system can be approximated by a single Slater determinant (in the case where the particles are fermions) or by a single permanent (in the case of bosons) of N spin-orbitals. By invoking the variational method, one can derive a set of N-coupled equations for the N spin orbitals. A solution of these equations yields the Hartree–Fock wave function and energy of the system.
Especially in the older literature, the Hartree–Fock method is also called the self-consistent field method (SCF). In deriving what is now called the Hartree equation as an approximate solution of the Schrödinger equation, Hartree required the final field as computed from the charge distribution to be "self-consistent" with the assumed initial field. Thus, self-consistency was a requirement of the solution. The solutions to the non-linear Hartree–Fock equations also behave as if each particle is subjected to the mean field created by all other particles (see the Fock operator below), and hence the terminology continued. The equations are almost universally solved by means of an iterative method, although the fixed-point iteration algorithm does not always converge.
This solution scheme is not the only one possible and is not an essential feature of the Hartree–Fock method.
The Hartree–Fock method finds its typical application in the solution of the Schrödinger equation for atoms, molecules, nanostructures and solids but it has also found widespread use in nuclear physics. (See Hartree–Fock–Bogoliubov method for a discussion of its application in nuclear structure theory). In atomic structure theory, calculations may be for a spectrum with many excited energy levels and consequently the Hartree–Fock method for atoms assumes the wave function is a single configuration state function with well-defined quantum numbers and that the energy level is not necessarily the ground state.
For both atoms and molecules, the Hartree–Fock solution is the central starting point for most methods that describe the many-electron system more accurately.
The rest of this article will focus on applications in electronic structure theory suitable for molecules with the atom as a special case.
The discussion here is only for the Restricted Hartree–Fock method, where the atom or molecule is a closed-shell system with all orbitals (atomic or molecular) doubly occupied. Open-shell systems, where some of the electrons are not paired, can be dealt with by either the restricted open-shell or the unrestricted Hartree–Fock methods.
Brief history
Early semi-empirical methods
The origin of the Hartree–Fock method dates back to the end of the 1920s, soon after the discovery of the Schrödinger equation in 1926. Douglas Hartree's methods were guided by some earlier, semi-empirical methods of the early 1920s (by E. Fues, R. B. Lindsay, and himself) set in the old quantum theory of Bohr.
In the Bohr model of the atom, the energy of a state with principal quantum number n is given in atomic units as . It was observed from atomic spectra that the energy levels of many-electron atoms are well described by applying a modified version of Bohr's formula. By introducing the quantum defect d as an empirical parameter, the energy levels of a generic atom were well approximated by the formula , in the sense that one could reproduce fairly well the observed transitions levels observed in the X-ray region (for example, see the empirical discussion and derivation in Moseley's law). The existence of a non-zero quantum defect was attributed to electron–electron repulsion, which clearly does not exist in the isolated hydrogen atom. This repulsion resulted in partial screening of the bare nuclear charge. These early researchers later introduced other potentials containing additional empirical parameters with the hope of better reproducing the experimental data.
Hartree method
In 1927, D. R. Hartree introduced a procedure, which he called the self-consistent field method, to calculate approximate wave functions and energies for atoms and ions. Hartree sought to do away with empirical parameters and solve the many-body time-independent Schrödinger equation from fundamental physical principles, i.e., ab initio. His first proposed method of solution became known as the Hartree method, or Hartree product. However, many of Hartree's contemporaries did not understand the physical reasoning behind the Hartree method: it appeared to many people to contain empirical elements, and its connection to the solution of the many-body Schrödinger equation was unclear. However, in 1928 J. C. Slater and J. A. Gaunt independently showed that the Hartree method could be couched on a sounder theoretical basis by applying the variational principle to an ansatz (trial wave function) as a product of single-particle functions.
In 1930, Slater and V. A. Fock independently pointed out that the Hartree method did not respect the principle of antisymmetry of the wave function.
The Hartree method used the Pauli exclusion principle in its older formulation, forbidding the presence of two electrons in the same quantum state. However, this was shown to be fundamentally incomplete in its neglect of quantum statistics.
Hartree–Fock
A solution to the lack of anti-symmetry in the Hartree method came when it was shown that a Slater determinant, a determinant of one-particle orbitals first used by Heisenberg and Dirac in 1926, trivially satisfies the antisymmetric property of the exact solution and hence is a suitable ansatz for applying the variational principle. The original Hartree method can then be viewed as an approximation to the Hartree–Fock method by neglecting exchange. Fock's original method relied heavily on group theory and was too abstract for contemporary physicists to understand and implement. In 1935, Hartree reformulated the method to be more suitable for the purposes of calculation.
The Hartree–Fock method, despite its physically more accurate picture, was little used until the advent of electronic computers in the 1950s due to the much greater computational demands over the early Hartree method and empirical models. Initially, both the Hartree method and the Hartree–Fock method were applied exclusively to atoms, where the spherical symmetry of the system allowed one to greatly simplify the problem. These approximate methods were (and are) often used together with the central field approximation, to impose the condition that electrons in the same shell have the same radial part, and to restrict the variational solution to be a spin eigenfunction. Even so, calculating a solution by hand using the Hartree–Fock equations for a medium-sized atom was laborious; small molecules required computational resources far beyond what was available before 1950.
Hartree–Fock algorithm
The Hartree–Fock method is typically used to solve the time-independent Schrödinger equation for a multi-electron atom or molecule as described in the Born–Oppenheimer approximation. Since there are no known analytic solutions for many-electron systems (there are solutions for one-electron systems such as hydrogenic atoms and the diatomic hydrogen cation), the problem is solved numerically. Due to the nonlinearities introduced by the Hartree–Fock approximation, the equations are solved using a nonlinear method such as iteration, which gives rise to the name "self-consistent field method".
Approximations
The Hartree–Fock method makes five major simplifications in order to deal with this task:
The Born–Oppenheimer approximation is inherently assumed. The full molecular wave function is actually a function of the coordinates of each of the nuclei, in addition to those of the electrons.
Typically, relativistic effects are completely neglected. The momentum operator is assumed to be completely non-relativistic.
The variational solution is assumed to be a linear combination of a finite number of basis functions, which are usually (but not always) chosen to be orthogonal. The finite basis set is assumed to be approximately complete.
Each energy eigenfunction is assumed to be describable by a single Slater determinant, an antisymmetrized product of one-electron wave functions (i.e., orbitals).
The mean-field approximation is implied. Effects arising from deviations from this assumption are neglected. These effects are often collectively used as a definition of the term electron correlation. However, the label "electron correlation" strictly spoken encompasses both Coulomb correlation and Fermi correlation, and the latter is an effect of electron exchange, which is fully accounted for in the Hartree–Fock method. Stated in this terminology, the method only neglects the Coulomb correlation. However, this is an important flaw, accounting for (among others) Hartree–Fock's inability to capture London dispersion.
Relaxation of the last two approximations give rise to many so-called post-Hartree–Fock methods.
Variational optimization of orbitals
The variational theorem states that for a time-independent Hamiltonian operator, any trial wave function will have an energy expectation value that is greater than or equal to the true ground-state wave function corresponding to the given Hamiltonian. Because of this, the Hartree–Fock energy is an upper bound to the true ground-state energy of a given molecule. In the context of the Hartree–Fock method, the best possible solution is at the Hartree–Fock limit; i.e., the limit of the Hartree–Fock energy as the basis set approaches completeness. (The other is the full-CI limit, where the last two approximations of the Hartree–Fock theory as described above are completely undone. It is only when both limits are attained that the exact solution, up to the Born–Oppenheimer approximation, is obtained.) The Hartree–Fock energy is the minimal energy for a single Slater determinant.
The starting point for the Hartree–Fock method is a set of approximate one-electron wave functions known as spin-orbitals. For an atomic orbital calculation, these are typically the orbitals for a hydrogen-like atom (an atom with only one electron, but the appropriate nuclear charge). For a molecular orbital or crystalline calculation, the initial approximate one-electron wave functions are typically a linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO).
The orbitals above only account for the presence of other electrons in an average manner. In the Hartree–Fock method, the effect of other electrons are accounted for in a mean-field theory context. The orbitals are optimized by requiring them to minimize the energy of the respective Slater determinant. The resultant variational conditions on the orbitals lead to a new one-electron operator, the Fock operator. At the minimum, the occupied orbitals are eigensolutions to the Fock operator via a unitary transformation between themselves. The Fock operator is an effective one-electron Hamiltonian operator being the sum of two terms. The first is a sum of kinetic-energy operators for each electron, the internuclear repulsion energy, and a sum of nuclear–electronic Coulombic attraction terms. The second are Coulombic repulsion terms between electrons in a mean-field theory description; a net repulsion energy for each electron in the system, which is calculated by treating all of the other electrons within the molecule as a smooth distribution of negative charge. This is the major simplification inherent in the Hartree–Fock method and is equivalent to the fifth simplification in the above list.
Since the Fock operator depends on the orbitals used to construct the corresponding Fock matrix, the eigenfunctions of the Fock operator are in turn new orbitals, which can be used to construct a new Fock operator. In this way, the Hartree–Fock orbitals are optimized iteratively until the change in total electronic energy falls below a predefined threshold. In this way, a set of self-consistent one-electron orbitals is calculated. The Hartree–Fock electronic wave function is then the Slater determinant constructed from these orbitals. Following the basic postulates of quantum mechanics, the Hartree–Fock wave function can then be used to compute any desired chemical or physical property within the framework of the Hartree–Fock method and the approximations employed.
Mathematical formulation
The Fock operator
Because the electron–electron repulsion term of the molecular Hamiltonian involves the coordinates of two different electrons, it is necessary to reformulate it in an approximate way. Under this approximation (outlined under Hartree–Fock algorithm), all of the terms of the exact Hamiltonian except the nuclear–nuclear repulsion term are re-expressed as the sum of one-electron operators outlined below, for closed-shell atoms or molecules (with two electrons in each spatial orbital). The "(1)" following each operator symbol simply indicates that the operator is 1-electron in nature.
where
is the one-electron Fock operator generated by the orbitals , and
is the one-electron core Hamiltonian. Also
is the Coulomb operator, defining the electron–electron repulsion energy due to each of the two electrons in the j-th orbital. Finally,
is the exchange operator, defining the electron exchange energy due to the antisymmetry of the total N-electron wave function. This "exchange energy" operator is simply an artifact of the Slater determinant. Finding the Hartree–Fock one-electron wave functions is now equivalent to solving the eigenfunction equation
where are a set of one-electron wave functions, called the Hartree–Fock molecular orbitals.
Linear combination of atomic orbitals
Typically, in modern Hartree–Fock calculations, the one-electron wave functions are approximated by a linear combination of atomic orbitals. These atomic orbitals are called Slater-type orbitals. Furthermore, it is very common for the "atomic orbitals" in use to actually be composed of a linear combination of one or more Gaussian-type orbitals, rather than Slater-type orbitals, in the interests of saving large amounts of computation time.
Various basis sets are used in practice, most of which are composed of Gaussian functions. In some applications, an orthogonalization method such as the Gram–Schmidt process is performed in order to produce a set of orthogonal basis functions. This can in principle save computational time when the computer is solving the Roothaan–Hall equations by converting the overlap matrix effectively to an identity matrix. However, in most modern computer programs for molecular Hartree–Fock calculations this procedure is not followed due to the high numerical cost of orthogonalization and the advent of more efficient, often sparse, algorithms for solving the generalized eigenvalue problem, of which the Roothaan–Hall equations are an example.
Numerical stability
Numerical stability can be a problem with this procedure and there are various ways of combatting this instability. One of the most basic and generally applicable is called F-mixing or damping. With F-mixing, once a single-electron wave function is calculated, it is not used directly. Instead, some combination of that calculated wave function and the previous wave functions for that electron is used, the most common being a simple linear combination of the calculated and immediately preceding wave function. A clever dodge, employed by Hartree, for atomic calculations was to increase the nuclear charge, thus pulling all the electrons closer together. As the system stabilised, this was gradually reduced to the correct charge. In molecular calculations a similar approach is sometimes used by first calculating the wave function for a positive ion and then to use these orbitals as the starting point for the neutral molecule. Modern molecular Hartree–Fock computer programs use a variety of methods to ensure convergence of the Roothaan–Hall equations.
Weaknesses, extensions, and alternatives
Of the five simplifications outlined in the section "Hartree–Fock algorithm", the fifth is typically the most important. Neglect of electron correlation can lead to large deviations from experimental results. A number of approaches to this weakness, collectively called post-Hartree–Fock methods, have been devised to include electron correlation to the multi-electron wave function. One of these approaches, Møller–Plesset perturbation theory, treats correlation as a perturbation of the Fock operator. Others expand the true multi-electron wave function in terms of a linear combination of Slater determinants—such as multi-configurational self-consistent field, configuration interaction, quadratic configuration interaction, and complete active space SCF (CASSCF). Still others (such as variational quantum Monte Carlo) modify the Hartree–Fock wave function by multiplying it by a correlation function ("Jastrow" factor), a term which is explicitly a function of multiple electrons that cannot be decomposed into independent single-particle functions.
An alternative to Hartree–Fock calculations used in some cases is density functional theory, which treats both exchange and correlation energies, albeit approximately. Indeed, it is common to use calculations that are a hybrid of the two methods—the popular B3LYP scheme is one such hybrid functional method.
Another option is to use modern valence bond methods.
Software packages
For a list of software packages known to handle Hartree–Fock calculations, particularly for molecules and solids, see the list of quantum chemistry and solid state physics software.
See also
Related fields
Quantum chemistry
Molecular physics
Quantum chemistry computer programs
Fock symmetry
Concepts
Roothaan equations
Koopmans' theorem
Post-Hartree–Fock
Direct Inversion of Iterative Subspace
People
Vladimir Aleksandrovich Fock
Clemens Roothaan
George G. Hall
John Pople
Reinhart Ahlrichs
References
Sources
External links
The Wave Mechanics of an Atom with a Non-Coulomb Central Field. Part II. Some Results and Discussion by D. R. Hartree, Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, Volume 24, 111-132, January 1928
An Introduction to Hartree-Fock Molecular Orbital Theory by C. David Sherrill (June 2000)
Mean-Field Theory: Hartree-Fock and BCS in E. Pavarini, E. Koch, J. van den Brink, and G. Sawatzky: Quantum materials: Experiments and Theory, Jülich 2016,
Electronic structure methods
Quantum chemistry
Theoretical chemistry
Computational chemistry
Computational physics
1927 in science
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510215
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983%20in%20video%20games
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1983 in video games
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1983 has seen many sequels and prequels in video games, such as Mario Bros. and Pole Position II, along with new titles such as Astron Belt, Champion Baseball, Dragon's Lair, Elevator Action, Spy Hunter and Track & Field. Major events include the video game crash of 1983 in North America, and the third generation of video game consoles beginning with the launch of Nintendo's Family Computer (Famicom) and Sega's SG-1000 in Japan. The year's highest-grossing video game was Namco's arcade game Pole Position, while the year's best-selling home system was Nintendo's Game & Watch for the third time since 1980.
Financial performance
In the United States, arcade video game revenues are worth $2.9 billion (equivalent to $ adjusted for inflation).
In the United States, home video game sales are worth $2 billion (equivalent to $ adjusted for inflation).
In Japan, home video game sales approach ¥400 billion (equivalent to at the time, or $ adjusted for inflation).
Highest-grossing arcade games
Pole Position, a racing game by Namco, was the most successful arcade game of 1983.
Japan
In Japan, Game Machine magazine began publishing half-monthly charts of top-grossing arcade games from June 1, 1983. The following titles were the top-grossing arcade video games on the Game Machine charts from June to December 1983.
United States
In the United States, the following titles were the highest-grossing arcade games of 1983, according to RePlay magazine, the Amusement & Music Operators Association (AMOA), and Cash Box magazine.
Best-selling home video games
The following titles were the best-selling home video games of 1983.
Best-selling home systems
Major awards
Events
January – Electronic Games labels Donkey Kong, Space Panic, and other games with ladders as "climbing games."
The fourth Arcade Awards are held, for games released during 1981–1982, with Tron winning best arcade game, Demon Attack best console game, David's Midnight Magic best computer game, and Galaxian best standalone game.
A major shakeout of the North American video game industry ("the crash of 1983") begins. By 1986, total video games sales will decrease from US$3.2 billion to US$0.1 billion.
December - Sente Technologies, a division of Pizza Time Theater, launches and demonstrates its first title Snake Pit.
Business
MCA Universal files suit against Nintendo, claiming that the latter company's video arcade hit Donkey Kong violated Universal's copyright on King Kong. After a brief trial, the judge determined that the rights to the original Kong had passed into the public domain. The case was dismissed, and MCA Universal paid US$1.8 million in damages to Nintendo.,
Atari files suit against Coleco, claiming violation of Atari's patents on the Atari 2600 video game console. The previous year, Coleco released a peripheral device that made it possible for Atari 2600 game cartridges to be run on the ColecoVision console.
Amusement Developing Section 8 (later known as Sega-AM2), a research and development department of Sega, is established under the supervision of Yu Suzuki in Tokyo, Japan.
Milton Bradley takes over distribution of the Vectrex console after purchasing General Consumer Electronics.
New companies: Aackosoft, Alligata, Beyond, Graftgold, Infogrames, Origin Systems, Interplay, Navarre, Mastertronic, Spectrum HoloByte, Tynesoft
Defunct companies: Games by Apollo, US Games, Xonox.
Notable releases
Games
Arcade
January – Namco releases Xevious.
May – Sega releases Astron Belt in the Japanese market, the second laserdisc video game. It uses pre-rendered, computer-animated film footage as backdrops, overlaid with sprite graphics.
May – Atari releases Star Wars, a color vector graphics game based on the popular film franchise.
Konami releases Gyruss in Japan. Centuri distributes the game in North America.
June 14 – Nintendo releases Mario Bros., which features the first appearance of Mario's brother, Luigi.
June 19 – Cinematronics releases Advanced Microcomputer Systems's Dragon's Lair, the third laserdisc video game, and the first in the American market.
June – Data East releases Bega's Battle, a laserdisc video game. It uses anime FMV cut scenes to develop a story between the game's shooting stages, which would later become the standard approach to video game storytelling.
August – Sega releases Astron Belt in Europe, as the first laserdisc game in the region.
September – Namco releases Track & Field.
November – Sega releases Astron Belt in the United States.
December – Namco releases Pole Position II, adding three additional tracks.
Atari releases the trackball-controlled Crystal Castles.
Bally/Midway releases Spy Hunter. They also release Jr. Pac-Man and quiz game Professor Pac-Man without Namco's authorization, and the latter is an immediate flop.
Nintendo releases Punch-Out!! in Japan.
Williams releases Blaster, which was originally programmed on an Atari 8-bit computer.
Parker Brothers releases James Bond 007.
Personal computer
June – Yuji Horii releases The Portopia Serial Murder Case for the NEC PC-6001 in Japan. It is an influential adventure game that lays the foundations for the visual novel genre.
July 8 – Infocom releases Planetfall, which becomes one of their top sellers.
August 23 – Origin Systems publishes Ultima III: Exodus, one of the first role-playing video games to use tactical, turn-based combat. It is released for the Apple II, Atari 800, Commodore 64, and IBM PC.
ASCII releases Bokosuka Wars for the Sharp X1 in Japan. It is a precursor to the tactical role-playing game and real-time strategy genres.
Koei releases Nobunaga's Ambition for Japanese computers. Its combination of role-playing, turn-based grand strategy and management simulation elements sets a standard for the historical simulation and strategy RPG genres.
Electronic Arts publishes its first five titles: Hard Hat Mack, Pinball Construction Set, Archon: The Light and the Dark, M.U.L.E., and Worms?.
Bug-Byte releases Matthew Smith's Manic Miner, a platform game, for the ZX Spectrum.
Ultimate Play the Game, later known as Rare, releases its first video games, Jetpac and Atic Atac, for the ZX Spectrum.
Hudson Soft releases Bomberman for the MSX and FM-7.
Psion releases Chequered Flag, the first driving game published for the ZX Spectrum, one of the first computer car simulators, and the first driving game with selectable cars.
The 4-player simultaneous Dandy is released for the Atari 8-bit family. It directly inspires 1985's Gauntlet arcade game.
Muse Software releases a port of Castle Wolfenstein for the MS-DOS.
Console
December 12 – Nintendo publishes Donkey Kong Jr. Math, for the Famicom.
Mattel Electronics publishes World Series Baseball for the Intellivision, one of the first video games to use multiple camera angles.
Activision's final big year of Atari 2600 releases includes Enduro, Decathlon, Keystone Kapers, Robot Tank, and Space Shuttle: A Journey into Space.
Hardware
Arcade
May – Sega Laserdisc hardware releases, as the first laserdisc video game hardware.
July – Sega System 1 releases, with Star Jacker game. Its graphics chips are later used in the Sega System 16 and Sega Space Harrier boards.
December – Namco Libble Rabble (System 16 Universal) releases, as Namco's second arcade system board to use a 16-bit microprocessor.
Console
July 15 – Sega releases the SG-1000 console in Japan, on the same day as the Famicom.
July 15 – Nintendo releases the Family Computer (Famicom) console in Japan. Shortly after its release, complaints begin to surface about rampant system instability, prompting Nintendo to issue a product recall and to rerelease the machine with a new motherboard. It would later be released worldwide as the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES).
October – Casio launches the Casio PV-1000 in Japan. It does not remain on the market for long.
October – Gakken launches the Compact Vision TV Boy in Japan. It's the last second generation console released. It was expensive and obsolete at launch, being discontinued shortly after.
GameLine, a combination modem and dialup game distribution service for the Atari 2600, is announced but never ships.
Personal computer
January – Apple Computer releases the Apple IIe, which becomes their most popular 8-bit machine.
June 16 – Microsoft Japan releases MSX, an early standardized home computer architecture.
March – Atari releases the poorly received 1200XL computer. Late in the year it and the rest of the Atari 8-bit family are replaced by the 600XL and 800XL.
June – Mattel Electronics releases the Aquarius home computer, originally designed by Radofin Electronics Far East.
October – Coleco releases the Adam home computer. It is only on the market for 15 months.
October – Mattel discontinues the Aquarius.
Acorn Computers release the Acorn Electron, a cut down version of their BBC Micro to compete in the under £200 home computer market. Problems in manufacture see only 1 in 8 presales being delivered for the Christmas market.
Sega releases the SC-3000, a personal computer version of the SG-1000 console, in Japan.
References
Video games
Video games by year
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37171
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cray-1
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Cray-1
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The Cray-1 was a supercomputer designed, manufactured and marketed by Cray Research. Announced in 1975, the first Cray-1 system was installed at Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1976. Eventually, over 100 Cray-1s were sold, making it one of the most successful supercomputers in history. It is perhaps best known for its unique shape, a relatively small C-shaped cabinet with a ring of benches around the outside covering the power supplies and the cooling system.
The Cray-1 was the first supercomputer to successfully implement the vector processor design. These systems improve the performance of math operations by arranging memory and registers to quickly perform a single operation on a large set of data. Previous systems like the CDC STAR-100 and ASC had implemented these concepts but did so in a way that seriously limited their performance. The Cray-1 addressed these problems and produced a machine that ran several times faster than any similar design.
The Cray-1's architect was Seymour Cray; the chief engineer was Cray Research co-founder Lester Davis. They would go on to design several new machines using the same basic concepts, and retained the performance crown into the 1990s.
History
From 1968 to 1972, Seymour Cray of Control Data Corporation (CDC) worked on the CDC 8600, the successor to his earlier CDC 6600 and CDC 7600 designs. The 8600 was essentially made up of four 7600s in a box with an additional special mode that allowed them to operate lock-step in a SIMD fashion.
Jim Thornton, formerly Cray's engineering partner on earlier designs, had started a more radical project known as the CDC STAR-100. Unlike the 8600's brute-force approach to performance, the STAR took an entirely different route. The main processor of the STAR had lower performance than the 7600, but added hardware and instructions to speed up particularly common supercomputer tasks.
By 1972, the 8600 had reached a dead end; the machine was so incredibly complex that it was impossible to get one working properly. Even a single faulty component would render the machine non-operational. Cray went to William Norris, Control Data's CEO, saying that a redesign from scratch was needed. At the time the company was in serious financial trouble, and with the STAR in the pipeline as well, Norris could not invest the money.
As a result, Cray left CDC and started Cray Research very close to the CDC lab. In the back yard of the land he purchased in Chippewa Falls, Cray and a group of former CDC employees started looking for ideas. At first, the concept of building another supercomputer seemed impossible, but after Cray Research's Chief Technology Officer travelled to Wall Street and found a lineup of investors willing to back Cray, all that was needed was a design.
For four years Cray Research designed its first computer. In 1975 the 80 MHz Cray-1 was announced. The excitement was so high that a bidding war for the first machine broke out between Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and Los Alamos National Laboratory, the latter eventually winning and receiving serial number 001 in 1976 for a six-month trial. The National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) was the first official customer of Cray Research in 1977, paying US$8.86 million ($7.9 million plus $1 million for the disks) for serial number 3. The NCAR machine was decommissioned in 1989. The company expected to sell perhaps a dozen of the machines, and set the selling price accordingly, but ultimately over 80 Cray-1s of all types were sold, priced from $5M to $8M. The machine made Seymour Cray a celebrity and his company a success, lasting until the supercomputer crash in the early 1990s.
Based on a recommendation by William Perry's study, the NSA purchased a Cray-1 for theoretical research in cryptanalysis. According to Budiansky, "Though standard histories of Cray Research would persist for decades in stating that the company's first customer was Los Alamos National Laboratory, in fact it was NSA..."
The 160 MFLOPS Cray-1 was succeeded in 1982 by the 800 MFLOPS Cray X-MP, the first Cray multi-processing computer. In 1985 the very advanced Cray-2, capable of 1.9 GFLOPS peak performance, succeeded the first two models but met a somewhat limited commercial success because of certain problems at producing sustained performance in real-world applications. A more conservatively designed evolutionary successor of the Cray-1 and X-MP models was therefore made by the name Cray Y-MP and launched in 1988.
By comparison, the processor in a typical 2013 smart device, such as a Google Nexus 10 or HTC One, performs at roughly 1 GFLOPS, while the A13 processor in a 2020 iPhone 11 performs at 154.9 GFLOPS, a mark supercomputers succeeding the Cray-1 would not reach until 1994.
Background
Typical scientific workloads consist of reading in large data sets, transforming them in some way and then writing them back out again. Normally the transformations being applied are identical across all of the data points in the set. For instance, the program might add 5 to every number in a set of a million numbers.
In traditional computers the program would loop over all million numbers, adding five, thereby executing a million instructions saying a = add b, c. Internally the computer solves this instruction in several steps. First it reads the instruction from memory and decodes it, then it collects any additional information it needs, in this case the numbers b and c, and then finally runs the operation and stores the results. The end result is that the computer requires tens or hundreds of millions of cycles to carry out these operations.
Vector machines
In the STAR, new instructions essentially wrote the loops for the user. The user told the machine where in memory the list of numbers was stored, then fed in a single instruction a(1..1000000) = addv b(1..1000000), c(1..1000000). At first glance it appears the savings are limited; in this case the machine fetches and decodes only a single instruction instead of 1,000,000, thereby saving 1,000,000 fetches and decodes, perhaps one-fourth of the overall time.
The real savings are not so obvious. Internally, the CPU of the computer is built up from a number of separate parts dedicated to a single task, for instance, adding a number, or fetching from memory. Normally, as the instruction flows through the machine, only one part is active at any given time. This means that each sequential step of the entire process must complete before a result can be saved. The addition of an instruction pipeline changes this. In such machines the CPU will "look ahead" and begin fetching succeeding instructions while the current instruction is still being processed. In this assembly line fashion any one instruction still requires as long to complete, but as soon as it finishes executing, the next instruction is right behind it, with most of the steps required for its execution already completed.
Vector processors use this technique with one additional trick. Because the data layout is in a known format — a set of numbers arranged sequentially in memory — the pipelines can be tuned to improve the performance of fetches. On the receipt of a vector instruction, special hardware sets up the memory access for the arrays and stuffs the data into the processor as fast as possible.
CDC's approach in the STAR used what is today known as a memory-memory architecture. This referred to the way the machine gathered data. It set up its pipeline to read from and write to memory directly. This allowed the STAR to use vectors of any length, making it highly flexible. Unfortunately, the pipeline had to be very long in order to allow it to have enough instructions in flight to make up for the slow memory. That meant the machine incurred a high cost when switching from processing vectors to performing operations on individual randomly located operands. Additionally, the low scalar performance of the machine meant that after the switch had taken place and the machine was running scalar instructions, the performance was quite poor. The result was rather disappointing real-world performance, something that could, perhaps, have been forecast by Amdahl's law.
Cray's approach
Cray studied the failure of the STAR and learned from it. He decided that in addition to fast vector processing, his design would also require excellent all-around scalar performance. That way when the machine switched modes, it would still provide superior performance. Additionally he noticed that the workloads could be dramatically improved in most cases through the use of registers.
Just as earlier machines had ignored the fact that most operations were being applied to many data points, the STAR ignored the fact that those same data points would be repeatedly operated on. Whereas the STAR would read and process the same memory five times to apply five vector operations on a set of data, it would be much faster to read the data into the CPU's registers once, and then apply the five operations. However, there were limitations with this approach. Registers were significantly more expensive in terms of circuitry, so only a limited number could be provided. This implied that Cray's design would have less flexibility in terms of vector sizes. Instead of reading any sized vector several times as in the STAR, the Cray-1 would have to read only a portion of the vector at a time, but it could then run several operations on that data prior to writing the results back to memory. Given typical workloads, Cray felt that the small cost incurred by being required to break large sequential memory accesses into segments was a cost well worth paying.
Since the typical vector operation would involve loading a small set of data into the vector registers and then running several operations on it, the vector system of the new design had its own separate pipeline. For instance, the multiplication and addition units were implemented as separate hardware, so the results of one could be internally pipelined into the next, the instruction decode having already been handled in the machine's main pipeline. Cray referred to this concept as chaining, as it allowed programmers to "chain together" several instructions and extract higher performance.
Description
The new machine was the first Cray design to use integrated circuits (ICs). Although ICs had been available since the 1960s, it was only in the early 1970s that they reached the performance necessary for high-speed applications. The Cray-1 used only four different IC types, an ECL dual 5-4 NOR gate (one 5-input, and one 4-input, each with differential output), another slower MECL 10K 5-4 NOR gate used for address fanout, a 16×4-bit high speed (6 ns) static RAM (SRAM) used for registers and a 1,024×1-bit 48 ns SRAM used for the main memory. These integrated circuits were supplied by Fairchild Semiconductor and Motorola. In all, the Cray-1 contained about 200,000 gates.
ICs were mounted on large five-layer printed circuit boards, with up to 144 ICs per board. Boards were then mounted back to back for cooling (see below) and placed in twenty-four racks containing 72 double-boards. The typical module (distinct processing unit) required one or two boards. In all the machine contained 1,662 modules in 113 varieties.
Each cable between the modules was a twisted pair, cut to a specific length in order to guarantee the signals arrived at precisely the right time and minimize electrical reflection. Each signal produced by the ECL circuitry was a differential pair, so the signals were balanced. This tended to make the demand on the power supply more constant and reduce switching noise. The load on the power supply was so evenly balanced that Cray boasted that the power supply was unregulated. To the power supply, the entire computer system looked like a simple resistor.
The high-performance ECL circuitry generated considerable heat, and Cray's designers spent as much effort on the design of the refrigeration system as they did on the rest of the mechanical design. In this case, each circuit board was paired with a second, placed back to back with a sheet of copper between them. The copper sheet conducted heat to the edges of the cage, where liquid Freon running in stainless steel pipes drew it away to the cooling unit below the machine. The first Cray-1 was delayed six months due to problems in the cooling system; lubricant that is normally mixed with the Freon to keep the compressor running would leak through the seals and eventually coat the boards with oil until they shorted out. New welding techniques had to be used to properly seal the tubing.
In order to bring maximum speed out of the machine, the entire chassis was bent into a large C-shape. Speed-dependent portions of the system were placed on the "inside edge" of the chassis, where the wire-lengths were shorter. This allowed the cycle time to be decreased to 12.5 ns (80 MHz), not as fast as the 8 ns 8600 he had given up on, but fast enough to beat CDC 7600 and the STAR. NCAR estimated that the overall throughput on the system was 4.5 times that of the CDC 7600.
The Cray-1 was built as a 64-bit system, a departure from the 7600/6600, which were 60-bit machines (a change was also planned for the 8600). Addressing was 24-bit, with a maximum of 1,048,576 64-bit words (1 megaword) of main memory, where each word also had 8 parity bits for a total of 72 bits per word. There were 64 data bits and 8 check bits. Memory was spread across 16 interleaved memory banks, each with a 50 ns cycle time, allowing up to four words to be read per cycle. Smaller configurations could have 0.25 or 0.5 megawords of main memory. Maximum aggregate memory bandwidth was 638 Mbit/s.
The main register set consisted of eight 64-bit scalar (S) registers and eight 24-bit address (A) registers. These were backed by a set of sixty-four registers each for S and A temporary storage known as T and B respectively, which could not be seen by the functional units. The vector system added another eight 64-element by 64-bit vector (V) registers, as well as a vector length (VL) and vector mask (VM). Finally, the system also included a 64-bit real-time clock register and four 64-bit instruction buffers that held sixty-four 16-bit instructions each. The hardware was set up to allow the vector registers to be fed at one word per cycle, while the address and scalar registers required two cycles. In contrast, the entire 16-word instruction buffer could be filled in four cycles.
The Cray-1 had twelve pipelined functional units. The 24-bit address arithmetic was performed in an add unit and a multiply unit. The scalar portion of the system consisted of an add unit, a logical unit, a population count, a leading zero count unit and a shift unit. The vector portion consisted of add, logical and shift units. The floating point functional units were shared between the scalar and vector portions, and these consisted of add, multiply and reciprocal approximation units.
The system had limited parallelism. It could issue one instruction per clock cycle, for a theoretical performance of 80 MIPS, but with vector floating-point multiplication and addition occurring in parallel theoretical performance was 160 MFLOPS. (The reciprocal approximation unit could also operate in parallel, but did not deliver a true floating-point result - two additional multiplications were needed to achieve a full division.)
Since the machine was designed to operate on large data sets, the design also dedicated considerable circuitry to I/O. Earlier Cray designs at CDC had included separate computers dedicated to this task, but this was no longer needed. Instead the Cray-1 included four 6-channel controllers, each of which was given access to main memory once every four cycles. The channels were 16 bits wide and included 3 control bits and 4 for error correction, so the maximum transfer speed was 1 word per 100 ns, or 500 thousand words per second for the entire machine.
The initial model, the Cray-1A, weighed 5.5 tons including the Freon refrigeration system. Configured with 1 million words of main memory, the machine and its power supplies consumed about 115 kW of power; cooling and storage likely more than doubled this figure. A Data General SuperNova S/200 minicomputer served as the maintenance control unit (MCU), which was used to feed the Cray Operating System into the system at boot time, to monitor the CPU during use, and optionally as a front-end computer. Most, if not all, Cray-1As were delivered using the follow-on Data General Eclipse as the MCU.
Cray-1S
The Cray-1S, announced in 1979, was an improved Cray-1 that supported a larger main memory of 1, 2 or 4 million words. The larger main memory was made possible through the use of 4,096 x 1-bit bipolar RAM ICs with a 25 ns access time. The Data General minicomputers were optionally replaced with an in-house 16-bit design running at 80 MIPS. The I/O subsystem was separated from the main machine, connected to the main system via a 6 Mbit/s control channel and a 100 Mbit/s High Speed Data Channel. This separation made the 1S look like two "half Crays" separated by a few feet, which allowed the I/O system to be expanded as needed. Systems could be bought in a variety of configurations from the S/500 with no I/O and 0.5 million words of memory to the S/4400 with four I/O processors and 4 million words of memory.
Cray-1M
The Cray-1M, announced in 1982, replaced the Cray-1S. It had a faster 12 ns cycle time and used less expensive MOS RAM in the main memory. The 1M was supplied in only three versions, the M/1200 with 1 million words in 8 banks, or the M/2200 and M/4200 with 2 or 4 million words in 16 banks. All of these machines included two, three or four I/O processors, and the system added an optional second High Speed Data Channel. Users could add a Solid-state Storage Device with 8 to 32 million words of MOS RAM.
Software
In 1978 the first standard software package for the Cray-1 was released, consisting of three main products:
Cray Operating System (COS) (later machines would run UNICOS, Cray's UNIX flavor)
Cray Assembly Language (CAL)
Cray FORTRAN (CFT), the first automatically vectorizing Fortran compiler
The United States Department of Energy funded sites from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratories and the National Science Foundation supercomputer centers (for high-energy physics) represented the second largest block with LLL's Cray Time Sharing System (CTSS). CTSS was written in a dynamic memory Fortran, first named LRLTRAN, which ran on CDC 7600s, renamed CVC (pronounced "Civic") when vectorization for the Cray-1 was added. Cray Research attempted to support these sites accordingly. These software choices had influences on later minisupercomputers, also known as "crayettes".
NCAR has its own operating system (NCAROS).
The National Security Agency developed its own operating system (Folklore) and language (IMP with ports of Cray Pascal and C and Fortran 90 later)
Libraries started with Cray Research's own offerings and Netlib.
Other operating systems existed, but most languages tended to be Fortran or Fortran-based. Bell Laboratories, as proof of both portability concept and circuit design, moved the first C compiler to their Cray-1 (non-vectorizing). This act would later give CRI a six-month head start on the Cray-2 Unix port to ETA Systems' detriment, and Lucasfilm's first computer generated test film, The Adventures of André & Wally B..
Application software generally tends to be either classified (e.g. nuclear code, cryptanalytic code) or proprietary (e.g. petroleum reservoir modeling). This was because little software was shared between customers and university customers. The few exceptions were climatological and meteorological programs until the NSF responded to the Japanese Fifth Generation Computer Systems project and created its supercomputer centers. Even then, little code was shared.
Partly because Cray were interested in the publicity, they supported the development of Cray Blitz which won the fourth (1983) and fifth (1986) World Computer Chess Championship, as well as the 1983 and 1984 North American Computer Chess Championship. The program, Chess, that dominated in the 1970s ran on Control Data Corporation supercomputers.
Museums
Cray-1s are on display at the following locations:
Bradbury Science Museum in Los Alamos, New Mexico
Chippewa Falls Museum of Industry and Technology in Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin
The Cray Inc. offices at Cray Plaza in St. Paul, Minnesota
Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California
Computer Museum of America, Roswell, Georgia, US
DigiBarn Computer Museum
Deutsches Museum in Munich
ETH Zurich - Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich, Switzerland
Living Computers: Museum + Labs in Seattle, Washington
National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado
National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C.
Musée Bolo in Lausanne, Switzerland
The National Museum of Computing at Bletchley Park
Science Museum in London
Swedish National Museum of Science and Technology in Stockholm, Sweden
Other images of the Cray-1
References
External links
CRAY-1 Computer System Hardware Reference Manual, Publication No. 2240004 Rev.C 11/77 (first three chapters) – From DigiBarn / Ed Thelen
CRAY-1 Computer System Hardware Reference Manual, Publication No. 2240004 Rev.C 11/77 (full, scanned, PDF)
Collection of on-line Cray manuals & documentation @ Bitsavers
Cray Channels Magazine @ The Centre for Computing History
Cray Manuals & Documentation @ The Centre for Computing History
Cray Users Group Publications @ The Centre for Computing History
NCAR Supercomputer Gallery
Verilog definition of Cray-1A CPU logic
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Vector supercomputers
Computer-related introductions in 1976
64-bit computers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girls%20Who%20Code
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Girls Who Code
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Girls Who Code is a nonprofit organization which aims to support and increase the number of women in computer science by equipping young women with the necessary computing skills to pursue 21st century opportunities. The organization works toward closing the gender employment difference in technology, and to change the image of what a programmer looks like. They host a seven-week Summer Immersion Program, a two-week specialized Campus Program, after school Clubs, and a New York Times best-selling Penguin 13-book series.
Summary
Girls Who Code was founded by Reshma Saujani in 2012 who came up with the idea of creating the organization during her run for the United States Congress when she noticed that schools along her campaign route lacked girls in computer science classrooms. The organization runs programs during the academic year teaching high school girls computing skills like programming, robotics, and web design, with sessions including projects and trips to companies like Twitter and Facebook. There are now over 1500 Girls Who Code clubs across America, with the organization aiming to teach one million girls to code by 2020. By December 2014, three thousand students had completed a Girls Who Code program, 95% of whom went on to major in computer science at university.
In 2019, the organization announced plans to expand to 10,000 clubs in all 50 states. In 2020, Girls Who Code launched a free 2-week virtual summer immersion program in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, with the program serving 5,000 girls in its first year.
The organization is sponsored by a number of software and technology companies including AOL, Google, and Microsoft, and in August 2014 received a $1 million contribution from AT&T.
History
As of 2015, only 18% of computer science college graduates are women. The founder of Girls Who Code, Reshma Saujani, believes that girls are raised to "be perfect" while boys are raised to "be brave". Reshma Saujani participated in a TED Talk where she spoke about the consequences girls face in their future if they don't start taking risks. She speaks of the tech industry and how she thinks there is a bias against women in the industry. The company announced that in 2016 the non-profit organization will be expanding to all 50 states- making it the largest computing program for girls in the United States. In August 2017, the nonprofit launched a 13-book series with Penguin Random House, including a nonfiction book, Girls Who Code: Learn to Code and Change the World, and several fiction books. By the spring of 2018, Girls Who Code will have reached more than 50,000 girls with their computer science education programs.
As of February 2021 Girls Who Code has more than 80,000 college-aged alums who are entering the workforce. Girls Who Code clubs and programs have reached more than 300,000 girls globally as of March 2021.
The organization's efforts to close the achievement gender gap has resulted in several honors. Saujani was recognized for 'her vision and efforts to close the gender gap in technology'. Girls Who Code alumni include Andrea Gonzales and Sophie Houser, the creators of the video game Tampon Run.
Partnerships
In 2016, Girls Who Code partnered with Accenture to work on the future of tech. They subsequently released a report on recommendations to decrease the gender gap in computing.
Girls Who Code has also announced they will be releasing an app on the Apple App Store. This is intended to increase popularity and get more people involved.
Dell Technologies has partnered with the organization to support after school programs for young girls.
On October 11, 2018, Girls Who Code partnered with TikTok starting the hashtag #raiseyourhand. The app has announced to give US$1 for every video posted using the hashtag with a maximum of $10,000.
In December of 2021, Girls Who Code collaborated with Doja Cat to create DojaCode, an interactive music video to the star's single 'Woman'. The interactive video introduces participants to three coding languages and allows them to modify the appearance of the music video visuals using said languages. This is intended to get more teen girls interested in programming.
See also
Black Girls Code
Native Girls Code
Women Who Code
I Look Like an Engineer
References
External links
Reshma Saujani's talk at TEDxGotham 2011 on Girls Who Code (YouTube video)
Reshma's TED2016 Talk, "Teach Girls Bravery, Not Perfection"
Non-profit organizations based in the United States
Computer science education
Organizations established in 2012
Women in computing
2012 establishments in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced%20chess
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Advanced chess
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Advanced chess is a form of chess in which each human player uses a computer chess program to explore the possible results of candidate moves. Despite this computer assistance, it is the human player who controls and decides the game.
Also called cyborg chess or centaur chess, advanced chess was introduced for the first time by grandmaster Garry Kasparov, with the aim of bringing together human and computer skills to achieve the following results:
increasing the level of play to heights never before seen in chess;
producing blunder-free games with the qualities and the beauty of both perfect tactical play and highly meaningful strategic plans;
offering the public an overview of the mental processes of strong human chess players and powerful chess computers, and the combination of their forces.
A variant or superset of advanced chess is freestyle chess, in which teams are also allowed and, within the established time limits, every possible form of consultation. Freestyle chess was introduced by Ingo Althoefer and Timo Klaustermeyer with a Blitz tournament in August 2004.
History
The concept was already common in the 1970s: "An interesting possibility which arises from the 'brute force' capabilities of contemporary chess programs is the introduction of a new brand of 'consultation chess' where the partnership is between man and machine." The concept of computer-assisted chess tournaments originated in science fiction, notably in The Peace War written by Vernor Vinge in 1984.
The former world champion grandmaster Garry Kasparov, who retired from competitive chess in 2005, has a long history in playing "Man vs. Machine" events. Among the most important are his matches against IBM's computer Deep Blue, which Kasparov defeated in February 1996, scoring 4–2 in a 6-game match, and lost to, –, in a May 1997 rematch. This 1997 match was famous, as it was the first time in the history of chess in which a world champion had been defeated by a computer. After this spectacular match, and many other matches against computers, Garry Kasparov had the idea to invent a new form of chess in which humans and computers co-operate, instead of contending with each other. Kasparov named this form of chess "advanced chess".
The first advanced chess event was held in June 1998 in León, Spain. It was played between Garry Kasparov, who was using Fritz 5, and Veselin Topalov, who was using ChessBase 7.0. The analytical engines used, such as Fritz, HIARCS and Junior, were integrated into these two programs, and could have been called at a click of the mouse. It was a 6-game match, and it was arranged in advance that the players would consult the built-in million games databases only for the 3rd and 4th game, and would only use analytical engines without consulting the databases for the remaining games. The time available to each player during the games was 60 minutes. The match ended in a 3–3 tie. After the match, Kasparov said:
Even in the following years advanced-chess events were held in León. The Indian grandmaster Viswanathan Anand won three consecutive tournaments in 1999, 2000 and 2001, before losing the title to Vladimir Kramnik in 2002. After the loss to Kramnik, Anand said:
Gameplay
Both players sit in a typical chess-playing room, equipped with fast PCs of equal hardware strength. It is the duty of the tournament organizers to make sure that the players are familiar with the pertinent hardware and software. Unlike the traditional face-to-face chess, the players usually face their respective computers. Each player is typically allotted one hour of thinking time (as was the time control used in all advanced-chess events in León), though the particular tournament regulations may vary regarding this matter.
During the match, the players will typically form strategic plans in their minds, then enter the candidate sequences of moves into the computer to analyze and make sure there are no blunders and other possible holes. The human player will compare the merits of each candidate sequence after having seen the computer's analysis, and may even introduce a new variation if time permits. The player will typically play out the move which he or she has established (with computer help) to be strongest. If there are two or more moves which the computer considers to be of equal strength (such situations are frequent), the human player will use their own strategic skills and experience and analytical judgment capabilities to decide which move to play. The humans are in charge during the whole match, and are formally free to play any moves they consider the best, at their own discretion. During the opening, the players may consult a large database of opening moves and variations, containing information about who played a particular variation, when it was played, and with what success, though a particular tournament's rules may prohibit using databases in such manner.
During the whole game, the players' computer monitors are projected onto large screens, making it possible for the viewing audience to watch how the strongest players decide about their moves and make their plans. Typically there will be a commentator in a separate room, equipped with the identical hardware as players, which will be used to help provide a commentary to the audience—this way the audience is given the real insight into the thought processes of the strongest players.
Although advanced-chess play is at the highest Elo rating level when performed by the top grandmasters, it is not limited to them. Anyone can play advanced chess, sometimes with the same success as the strongest grandmasters. Occasionally, average players have been able to achieve a performance higher than computer programs and top grandmasters.
Teams
It has been debated, due to the peculiarities of the human–computer team, whether the human should be considered the advanced-chess player, or rather the team itself should be considered the player. It is the prevailing view that, because the human subordinates the computer in a meaningful intent to win a chess game, and that the human is the one who makes the final decision about the move to be played, the human should be considered the advanced-chess player. Some have also argued that the term "computer-assisted player" should not be used for an advanced-chess player, as the key element is cooperation, not assistance.
On the Internet
In the wake of León, the ubiquity of the Internet and a high number of commercial and free Internet chess servers has made it possible for anyone to play advanced chess over the Internet.
The first was CCO (Computer Chess Organization), which organized advanced chess events, most of which took place on Free Internet Chess Server (FICS) or on the correspondence website. It was not necessary to be a member of the CCO to participate in its tournaments, although the organization pointed out that membership was highly desirable. Internet chess events usually used unrated games, but CCO did propose the introduction of chess on the Internet of a third category of players: the "advanced-chess player", called (C), with a special advanced-chess rating category, since most chess servers on the Internet already had suitable mechanisms.
At the same time that CCO ended (2005), the PAL/CSS Freestyle Tournament was born, sponsored by the PAL Group on Abu Dhabi and implemented by CSS (Computer-Schach und Spiele) on the Playchess server run by the German company ChessBase. Cash prizes were awarded (totaling 132,000 euros between 2005 and 2008) for the top finishers. Thus the famous freestyle chess tournaments were born with the participation not only of the great GMs but also of any other player who wanted to register for the tournament. To the surprise of many who were certain that the GMs would prove superior, it was an amateur player – expert in the use of chess software – who won the challenge.
Advanced chess then evolved into freestyle chess with rules very different from those of León, and a new category of chess players was created: the "freestyle chess player", called the centaur (a mythological term chosen to imply joint work by human and computer). In this new type of chess, the integration between man and machine has become fundamental and constant. The true strength of the centaur lies precisely in knowing how to combine the strategic capacity, which belongs to the human mind, with the analytical supremacy of the computer. And when the combination reaches the right balance and a profound synergy is created between the human and the electronic component, the centaur becomes an unsurpassed player, stronger than the strongest chess players in the world, and manages to produce games that are close to perfection. Precisely for this reason the freestyle chess sets for centaurs have recently been defined as the "Formula 1" of chess.
Some rules of the game have since changed. Advanced freestyle chess meetings no longer take place in dedicated rooms, but rather at home, live in front of an internet-connected computer via a web server like Playchess or Infinity Chess, and chess players at every level and from all over the world can participate. Meetings usually begin with the elimination stages, with couplings according to the Swiss system, and the top finishers access the next and final stages. The centaur finalists, who generally use a pseudonym (nickname) usually challenge each other in a round-robin tournament for the title.
Online tournaments
There were, therefore, a number of advanced chess tournaments online, called centaur freestyle chess tournaments.
The most important were the aforementioned PAL/CSS Freestyle Tournament, which had a very high level of play and the winners, in chronological order, were: Zacks (Steven Cramton and Stephen Zackery, USA), Zorchamp (Hydra, UAE), Rajlich (Vasik Rajlich, Hungary), Xakru (Jiri Dufek, Czech Rep.), Flying Saucers (Dagh Nielsen, Denmark), Rajlich (Vasik Rajlich, Hungary), Ibermax (Anson Williams, England) and Ultima (Eros Riccio, Italy).
Similar tournaments have been organized by FICGS, ChessBase, ICC and especially Infinity Chess.
FICGS organized the Chess Freestyle Cup, which was won by Eros Riccio (1st and 3rd editions), David Evans (2nd edition) and Alvin Alcala (4th and 5th edition).
ChessBase, for the 2008 Dresden Chess Olympics, organized the Computer Bild Spiele Schach Turnier, which was won by the Italian Eros Riccio.
The Internet Chess Club also held their own freestyle tour dubbed as 1st Ultimate Chess Championship 2015, won by Alvin Alcala.
Infinity Chess, the server directed by the CCGM Arno Nickel, has organized multiple tournaments. The most important were the following: Welcome Freestyle Tournament, Christmas Freestyle Tournament, IC Freestyle Masters, Infinity Freestyle Tournament, Infinity Chess Freestyle Battle 2014, 8-legs of Centaur Weekend Tours, IC Team Cup and Ultimate Challenge.Eros Riccio was the most successful Infinity Chess freestyle player, winning the tours up to 2012. Anson Williams led the team that won in 2014. A computer engine (Zor) ended first in the freestyle Ultimate Challenge tournament (2017), while the first centaur (Thomas A. Anderson, Germany) ranked in 3rd place. The total prize money for the 2017 tournament was $20,000.
Infinity chess has developed two special Elo rankings for the centaurs. The first, based on results achieved in advanced-chess tournaments from 2005 to 2013, lists Sephiroth (Eros Riccio) in first place with 2755 points. The second, based on tournaments played from 2010 to 2014, lists Intagrand (David Evans, Anson Williams, Yingheng Chen and Nelson Hernandez) in first place with 2689 points.
In future studies
Centaur chess is sometimes invoked to argue that humans will continue to remain relevant as AI progresses. U.S. Deputy Defense Secretary Robert O. Work invoked in 2016 the concept of "centaur warfighting", extending the centaur concept beyond the chess world. Tyler Cowen and others assessed in 2013 that, due to chess engine advances, it was getting difficult to see any major advantage to centaurs over computers by themselves in chess, and that it seemed unlikely that centaurs would retain a significant advantage for much longer. In contrast, as recently as 2017, Kasparov has stated that, given an appropriate operator, he is confident that a centaur team could outperform the top supercomputers, while James Bridle states in 2018 that "an average player paired with an average computer is capable of beating the most sophisticated supercomputer".
See also
Computer chess
Chess engine
Notes
External links
Advanced chess information on figcs.com
Computer Chess Timeline (by Bill Wall, Sr. Scientist, Harris Corp.)
Chess variants
Computer chess
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56650445
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopal%20Gupta%20%28computer%20scientist%29
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Gopal Gupta (computer scientist)
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Gopal Gupta is an Erik Jonsson Professor and the head of the Department of Computer Science at the University of Texas at Dallas.
Education
Gupta has received a B.Tech. degree in computer science from Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, India in 1985. He received an M.S. degree in computer science from The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill in 1987. He also has a Ph.D. degree in computer science from The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, which he received in 1991.
Career
Gupta is an Erik Jonsson Chaired Professor and the head of the Department of Computer Science at the University of Texas at Dallas. He is the chief technology officer and co-founder of Interoperate.biz, Inc. He is also the co-founder and co-coordinator of COMPULOG AMERICAS, a network of research groups in the Western Hemisphere engaged in research on computational logic.
He has been active in research for over 25 years mainly in the field of programming languages, software engineering, parallel and distributed processing and assistive technology. His work has resulted in over 40 journal articles and 108 conference and workshop papers.
Awards and honors
President, Association for Logic Programming, 2010–2014.
Computer science outstanding teacher of the year, University of Texas at Dallas, 2008.
Best paper award. European Conferences on Web Services 2005
References
Living people
Indian computer scientists
Year of birth missing (living people)
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195337
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zigbee
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Zigbee
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Zigbee is an IEEE 802.15.4-based specification for a suite of high-level communication protocols used to create personal area networks with small, low-power digital radios, such as for home automation, medical device data collection, and other low-power low-bandwidth needs, designed for small scale projects which need wireless connection. Hence, Zigbee is a low-power, low data rate, and close proximity (i.e., personal area) wireless ad hoc network.
The technology defined by the Zigbee specification is intended to be simpler and less expensive than other wireless personal area networks (WPANs), such as Bluetooth or more general wireless networking such as Wi-Fi. Applications include wireless light switches, home energy monitors, traffic management systems, and other consumer and industrial equipment that requires short-range low-rate wireless data transfer.
Its low power consumption limits transmission distances to 10–100 meters line-of-sight, depending on power output and environmental characteristics. Zigbee devices can transmit data over long distances by passing data through a mesh network of intermediate devices to reach more distant ones. Zigbee is typically used in low data rate applications that require long battery life and secure networking. (Zigbee networks are secured by 128 bit symmetric encryption keys.) Zigbee has a defined rate of 250 kbit/s, best suited for intermittent data transmissions from a sensor or input device.
Zigbee was conceived in 1998, standardized in 2003, and revised in 2006. The name refers to the waggle dance of honey bees after their return to the beehive.
Overview
Zigbee is a low-cost, low-power, wireless mesh network standard targeted at battery-powered devices in wireless control and monitoring applications. Zigbee delivers low-latency communication. Zigbee chips are typically integrated with radios and with microcontrollers. Zigbee operates in the industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radio bands: 2.4 GHz in most jurisdictions worldwide; though some devices also use 784 MHz in China, 868 MHz in Europe and 915 MHz in the US and Australia, however even those regions and countries still use 2.4 GHz for most commercial Zigbee devices for home use. Data rates vary from 20 kbit/s (868 MHz band) to 250 kbit/s (2.4 GHz band).
Zigbee builds on the physical layer and media access control defined in IEEE standard 802.15.4 for low-rate wireless personal area networks (WPANs). The specification includes four additional key components: network layer, application layer, Zigbee Device Objects (ZDOs) and manufacturer-defined application objects. ZDOs are responsible for some tasks, including keeping track of device roles, managing requests to join a network, as well as device discovery and security.
The Zigbee network layer natively supports both star and tree networks, and generic mesh networking. Every network must have one coordinator device. Within star networks, the coordinator must be the central node. Both trees and meshes allow the use of Zigbee routers to extend communication at the network level. Another defining feature of Zigbee is facilities for carrying out secure communications, protecting establishment and transport of cryptographic keys, ciphering frames, and controlling device. It builds on the basic security framework defined in IEEE 802.15.4.
History
Zigbee-style self-organizing ad hoc digital radio networks were conceived in the 1990s. The IEEE 802.15.4-2003 Zigbee specification was ratified on December 14, 2004. The Zigbee Alliance announced availability of Specification 1.0 on June 13, 2005, known as the ZigBee 2004 Specification.
Cluster library
In September 2006, the Zigbee 2006 Specification was announced, obsoleting the 2004 stack The 2006 specification replaces the message and key–value pair structure used in the 2004 stack with a cluster library. The library is a set of standardised commands, attributes and global artifacts organised under groups known as clusters with names such as Smart Energy, Home Automation, and Zigbee Light Link.
In January 2017, Zigbee Alliance renamed the library to Dotdot and announced it as a new protocol to be represented by an emoticon (||:). They also announced it will now additionally run over other network types using Internet Protocol and will interconnect with other standards such as Thread. Since its unveiling, Dotdot has functioned as the default application layer for almost all Zigbee devices.
Zigbee Pro
Zigbee Pro, also known as Zigbee 2007, was finalized in 2007. A Zigbee Pro device may join and operate on a legacy Zigbee network and vice versa. Due to differences in routing options, Zigbee Pro devices must become non-routing Zigbee end devices (ZEDs) on a legacy Zigbee network, and legacy Zigbee devices must become ZEDs on a Zigbee Pro network. It operates using the 2.4 GHz ISM band, and adds a sub-GHz band.
Use cases
Zigbee protocols are intended for embedded applications requiring low power consumption and tolerating low data rates. The resulting network will use very little power—individual devices must have a battery life of at least two years to pass certification.
Typical application areas include:
Home automation
Wireless sensor networks
Industrial control systems
Embedded sensing
Medical data collection
Smoke and intruder warning
Building automation
Remote wireless microphone configuration
Zigbee is not for situations with high mobility among nodes. Hence, it is not suitable for tactical ad hoc radio networks in the battlefield, where high data rate and high mobility is present and needed.
Application profiles
The first Zigbee application profile, Home Automation, was announced November 2, 2007. Additional application profiles have since been published.
The specifications define an Internet Protocol-based communication protocol to monitor, control, inform, and automate the delivery and use of energy and water. It is an enhancement of the Zigbee Smart Energy version 1 specifications. It adds services for plug-in electric vehicle charging, installation, configuration and firmware download, prepay services, user information and messaging, load control, demand response and common information and application profile interfaces for wired and wireless networks. It is being developed by partners including:
HomeGrid Forum responsible for marketing and certifying ITU-T G.hn technology and products
HomePlug Powerline Alliance
International Society of Automotive Engineers SAE International
IPSO Alliance
SunSpec Alliance
Wi-Fi Alliance
Zigbee Smart Energy relies on Zigbee IP, a network layer that routes standard IPv6 traffic over IEEE 802.15.4 using 6LoWPAN header compression.
In 2009, the Radio Frequency for Consumer Electronics Consortium (RF4CE) and Zigbee Alliance agreed to deliver jointly a standard for radio frequency remote controls. Zigbee RF4CE is designed for a broad range of consumer electronics products, such as TVs and set-top boxes. It promised many advantages over existing remote control solutions, including richer communication and increased reliability, enhanced features and flexibility, interoperability, and no line-of-sight barrier. The Zigbee RF4CE specification uses a subset of Zigbee functionality allowing to run on smaller memory configurations in lower-cost devices, such as remote control of consumer electronics.
Radio hardware
The radio design used by Zigbee has few analog stages and uses digital circuits wherever possible. Products that integrate the radio and microcontroller into a single module are available.
The Zigbee qualification process involves a full validation of the requirements of the physical layer. All radios derived from the same validated semiconductor mask set would enjoy the same RF characteristics. Zigbee radios have very tight constraints on power and bandwidth. An uncertified physical layer that malfunctions can increase the power consumption of other devices on a Zigbee network. Thus, radios are tested with guidance given by Clause 6 of the 802.15.4-2006 Standard.
This standard specifies operation in the unlicensed 2.4 to 2.4835 GHz (worldwide), 902 to 928 MHz (Americas and Australia) and 868 to 868.6 MHz (Europe) ISM bands. Sixteen channels are allocated in the 2.4 GHz band, spaced 5 MHz apart, though using only 2 MHz of bandwidth each. The radios use direct-sequence spread spectrum coding, which is managed by the digital stream into the modulator. Binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) is used in the 868 and 915 MHz bands, and offset quadrature phase-shift keying (OQPSK) that transmits two bits per symbol is used in the 2.4 GHz band.
The raw, over-the-air data rate is 250 kbit/s per channel in the 2.4 GHz band, 40 kbit/s per channel in the 915 MHz band, and 20 kbit/s in the 868 MHz band. The actual data throughput will be less than the maximum specified bit rate due to the packet overhead and processing delays. For indoor applications at 2.4 GHz transmission distance is 10–20 m, depending on the construction materials, the number of walls to be penetrated and the output power permitted in that geographical location. The output power of the radios is generally 0–20 dBm (1–100 mW).
Device types and operating modes
There are three classes of Zigbee devices:
Zigbee coordinator (ZC): The most capable device, the coordinator forms the root of the network tree and may bridge to other networks. There is precisely one Zigbee coordinator in each network since it is the device that started the network originally (the Zigbee LightLink specification also allows operation without a Zigbee coordinator, making it more usable for off-the-shelf home products). It stores information about the network, including acting as the trust center and repository for security keys.
Zigbee router (ZR): As well as running an application function, a router can act as an intermediate router, passing data on from other devices.
Zigbee end device (ZED): Contains just enough functionality to talk to the parent node (either the coordinator or a router); it cannot relay data from other devices. This relationship allows the node to be asleep a significant amount of the time thereby giving long battery life. A ZED requires the least amount of memory and thus can be less expensive to manufacture than a ZR or ZC.
The current Zigbee protocols support beacon-enabled and non-beacon-enabled networks. In non-beacon-enabled networks, an unslotted CSMA/CA channel access mechanism is used. In this type of network, Zigbee routers typically have their receivers continuously active, requiring additional power. However, this allows for heterogeneous networks in which some devices receive continuously while others transmit when necessary. The typical example of a heterogeneous network is a wireless light switch: The Zigbee node at the lamp may constantly receive since it is reliably powered by the mains supply to the lamp, while a battery-powered light switch would remain asleep until the switch is thrown. In which case, the switch wakes up, sends a command to the lamp, receives an acknowledgment, and returns to sleep. In such a network the lamp node will be at least a Zigbee router, if not the Zigbee coordinator; the switch node is typically a Zigbee end device. In beacon-enabled networks, Zigbee routers transmit periodic beacons to confirm their presence to other network nodes. Nodes may sleep between beacons, thus extending their battery life. Beacon intervals depend on data rate; they may range from 15.36 milliseconds to 251.65824 seconds at 250 kbit/s, from 24 milliseconds to 393.216 seconds at 40 kbit/s and from 48 milliseconds to 786.432 seconds at 20 kbit/s. Long beacon intervals require precise timing, which can be expensive to implement in low-cost products.
In general, the Zigbee protocols minimize the time the radio is on, so as to reduce power use. In beaconing networks, nodes only need to be active while a beacon is being transmitted. In non-beacon-enabled networks, power consumption is decidedly asymmetrical: Some devices are always active while others spend most of their time sleeping.
Except for Smart Energy Profile 2.0, Zigbee devices are required to conform to the IEEE 802.15.4-2003 Low-rate Wireless Personal Area Network (LR-WPAN) standard. The standard specifies the lower protocol layers—the physical layer (PHY), and the media access control portion of the data link layer. The basic channel access mode is carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA). That is, the nodes communicate in a way somewhat analogous to how humans converse: a node briefly checks to see that other nodes are not talking before it starts. CSMA/CA is not used in three notable exceptions:
Message acknowledgments
Beacons are sent on a fixed-timing schedule.
Devices in beacon-enabled networks that have low-latency, real-time requirements may also use guaranteed time slots.
Network layer
The main functions of the network layer are to ensure correct use of the MAC sublayer and provide a suitable interface for use by the next upper layer, namely the application layer. The network layer deals with network functions such as connecting, disconnecting, and setting up networks. It can establish a network, allocate addresses, and add and remove devices. This layer makes use of star, mesh and tree topologies.
The data entity of the transport layer creates and manages protocol data units at the direction of the application layer and performs routing according to the current topology. The control entity handles the configuration of new devices and establishes new networks. It can determine whether a neighboring device belongs to the network and discovers new neighbors and routers.
The routing protocol used by the network layer is AODV. To find a destination device, AODV is used to broadcast a route request to all of its neighbors. The neighbors then broadcast the request to their neighbors and onward until the destination is reached. Once the destination is reached, a route reply is sent via unicast transmission following the lowest cost path back to the source. Once the source receives the reply, it updates its routing table with the destination address of the next hop in the path and the associated path cost.
Application layer
The application layer is the highest-level layer defined by the specification and is the effective interface of the Zigbee system to its end users. It comprises the majority of components added by the Zigbee specification: both ZDO (Zigbee device object) and its management procedures, together with application objects defined by the manufacturer, are considered part of this layer. This layer binds tables, sends messages between bound devices, manages group addresses, reassembles packets and also transports data. It is responsible for providing service to Zigbee device profiles.
Main components
The ZDO (Zigbee device object), a protocol in the Zigbee protocol stack, is responsible for overall device management, security keys, and policies. It is responsible for defining the role of a device as either coordinator or end device, as mentioned above, but also for the discovery of new devices on the network and the identification of their offered services. It may then go on to establish secure links with external devices and reply to binding requests accordingly.
The application support sublayer (APS) is the other main standard component of the stack, and as such it offers a well-defined interface and control services. It works as a bridge between the network layer and the other elements of the application layer: it keeps up-to-date binding tables in the form of a database, which can be used to find appropriate devices depending on the services that are needed and those the different devices offer. As the union between both specified layers, it also routes messages across the layers of the protocol stack.
Communication models
An application may consist of communicating objects which cooperate to carry out the desired tasks. Tasks will typically be largely local to each device, for instance, the control of each household appliance. The focus of Zigbee is to distribute work among many different devices which reside within individual Zigbee nodes which in turn form a network.
The objects that form the network communicate using the facilities provided by APS, supervised by ZDO interfaces. Within a single device, up to 240 application objects can exist, numbered in the range 1–240. 0 is reserved for the ZDO data interface and 255 for broadcast; the 241-254 range is not currently in use but may be in the future.
Two services are available for application objects to use (in Zigbee 1.0):
The key-value pair service (KVP) is meant for configuration purposes. It enables description, request and modification of object attribute through a simple interface based on get, set and event primitives, some allowing a request for a response. Configuration uses XML.
The message service is designed to offer a general approach to information treatment, avoiding the necessity to adapt application protocols and potential overhead incurred by KVP. It allows arbitrary payloads to be transmitted over APS frames.
Addressing is also part of the application layer. A network node consists of an IEEE 802.15.4-conformant radio transceiver and one or more device descriptions (collections of attributes that can be polled or set, or can be monitored through events). The transceiver is the basis for addressing, and devices within a node are specified by an endpoint identifier in the range 1 to 240.
Communication and device discovery
For applications to communicate, the devices that support them must use a common application protocol (types of messages, formats and so on); these sets of conventions are grouped in profiles. Furthermore, binding is decided upon by matching input and output unique within the context of a given profile and associated to an incoming or outgoing data flow in a device. Binding tables contain source and destination pairs.
Depending on the available information, device discovery may follow different methods. When the network address is known, the IEEE address can be requested using unicast communication. When it is not, petitions are broadcast. End devices will simply respond with the requested address while a network coordinator or a router will also send the addresses of all the devices associated with it.
This permits external devices to find out about devices in a network and the services that they offer, which endpoints can report when queried by the discovering device (which has previously obtained their addresses). Matching services can also be used.
The use of cluster identifiers enforces the binding of complementary entities using the binding tables, which are maintained by Zigbee coordinators, as the table must always be available within a network and coordinators are most likely to have a permanent power supply. Backups, managed by higher-level layers, may be needed by some applications. Binding requires an established communication link; after it exists, whether to add a new node to the network is decided, according to the application and security policies.
Communication can happen right after the association. Direct addressing uses both radio address and endpoint identifier, whereas indirect addressing uses every relevant field (address, endpoint, cluster, and attribute) and requires that they are sent to the network coordinator, which maintains associations and translates requests for communication. Indirect addressing is particularly useful to keep some devices very simple and minimize their need for storage. Besides these two methods, broadcast to all endpoints in a device is available, and group addressing is used to communicate with groups of endpoints belonging to a specified set of devices.
Security services
As one of its defining features, Zigbee provides facilities for carrying out secure communications, protecting establishment and transport of cryptographic keys, cyphering frames, and controlling devices. It builds on the basic security framework defined in IEEE 802.15.4. This part of the architecture relies on the correct management of symmetric keys and the correct implementation of methods and security policies.
Basic security model
The basic mechanism to ensure confidentiality is the adequate protection of all keying material. Trust must be assumed in the initial installation of the keys, as well as in the processing of security information. For an implementation to globally work, its general conformance to specified behaviors is assumed.
Keys are the cornerstone of the security architecture; as such their protection is of paramount importance, and keys are never supposed to be transported through an insecure channel. A momentary exception to this rule occurs during the initial phase of the addition to the network of a previously unconfigured device. The Zigbee network model must take particular care of security considerations, as ad hoc networks may be physically accessible to external devices. Also the state of the working environment cannot be predicted.
Within the protocol stack, different network layers are not cryptographically separated, so access policies are needed, and conventional design assumed. The open trust model within a device allows for key sharing, which notably decreases potential cost. Nevertheless, the layer which creates a frame is responsible for its security. If malicious devices may exist, every network layer payload must be ciphered, so unauthorized traffic can be immediately cut off. The exception, again, is the transmission of the network key, which confers a unified security layer to the grid, to a new connecting device.
Security architecture
Zigbee uses 128-bit keys to implement its security mechanisms. A key can be associated either to a network, being usable by both Zigbee layers and the MAC sublayer, or to a link, acquired through pre-installation, agreement or transport. Establishment of link keys is based on a master key which controls link key correspondence. Ultimately, at least, the initial master key must be obtained through a secure medium (transport or pre-installation), as the security of the whole network depends on it. Link and master keys are only visible to the application layer. Different services use different one-way variations of the link key to avoid leaks and security risks.
Key distribution is one of the most important security functions of the network. A secure network will designate one special device which other devices trust for the distribution of security keys: the trust center. Ideally, devices will have the center trust address and initial master key preloaded; if a momentary vulnerability is allowed, it will be sent as described above. Typical applications without special security needs will use a network key provided by the trust center (through the initially insecure channel) to communicate.
Thus, the trust center maintains both the network key and provides point-to-point security. Devices will only accept communications originating from a key supplied by the trust center, except for the initial master key. The security architecture is distributed among the network layers as follows:
The MAC sublayer is capable of single-hop reliable communications. As a rule, the security level it is to use is specified by the upper layers.
The network layer manages routing, processing received messages and being capable of broadcasting requests. Outgoing frames will use the adequate link key according to the routing if it is available; otherwise, the network key will be used to protect the payload from external devices.
The application layer offers key establishment and transport services to both ZDO and applications.
The security levels infrastructure is based on CCM*, which adds encryption- and integrity-only features to CCM.
According to the German computer e-magazine Heise Online, Zigbee Home Automation 1.2 is using fallback keys for encryption negotiation which are known and cannot be changed. This makes the encryption highly vulnerable.
Simulation
Network simulators, like ns2, OMNeT++, OPNET, and NetSim can be used to simulate IEEE 802.15.4 Zigbee networks.
These simulators come with open source C or C++ libraries for users to modify. This way users can determine the validity of new algorithms before hardware implementation.
See also
Comparison of 802.15.4 radio modules
Comparison of wireless data standards
Connected Home over IP
Mobile ad hoc networks
Thread
References
External links
IEEE 802
Home automation
Building automation
Personal area networks
Mesh networking
Computer-related introductions in 2004
Wireless communication systems
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18810701
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacPublisher
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MacPublisher
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MacPublisher was the first Desktop Publishing program for the Apple Macintosh, introduced in 1984, the same year that Apple introduced the Macintosh. DTP competitors Ready, Set, Go! and Aldus PageMaker were introduced in 1985 when Apple delivered the 512K Macintosh.
MacPublisher was developed by Bob Doyle and distributed by Boston Software Publishers.
Built on graphics primitives like QuickDraw that Bill Atkinson had originally developed for the Apple Lisa computer, MacPublisher included WYSIWYG layout for multi-column text and graphics. QuickDraw was incorporated in the Pascal toolbox for the new Macintosh and had been the basis for MacPaint.
The Desktop Publishing industry exploded in the year 1985 with the introduction of the Apple LaserWriter printer in January and in July the 512K "Fat Mac" and Aldus Corporation's PageMaker, which rapidly became the DTP industry standard software.
It was Paul Brainerd, Aldus's chairman, who gave the industry the name "desktop publishing." MacPublisher had been called "electronic publishing," after the industry then led by Atex Corporation, of which Brainerd had been a vice president.
MacPublisher was the first non-Apple application program to print in color on the ImageWriter II. It introduced spot color to desktop publishing. MacPublisher III was the first DTP program to rotate text and graphics, using a table look-up for the necessary sine functions in one-degree increments.
MacPublisher builds a page differently from PageMaker and ReadySetGo do; instead of creating an actual image of the page with all the text and graphics, MacPublisher created a page mockup that contains only rectangles that represent the location and size of text and graphic elements, and stored the elements as special text and picture files that you edit separately from the page layout. MacPublisher rebuilds a page whenever it changes. The company says it took this approach to allow creation of master pages, repeating elements, and predefined "canned" page layouts; to help prevent data loss on machines with limited memory (MacPublisher can run with as little as 128K RAM); and to facilitate the programming for the automatic table of contents and automatic page jump ("continued on page x") features. Since the page layout is independent of the text and graphic content, you can easily create publication formats you can reuse as you need them. This reusable formats feature can be especially useful for creating catalogs or other publications in which you want the format to remain the same but in which you need to update or replace information on a regular basis. MacPublisher features either automatic or manual kerning to correct printer spacing idiosyncrasies.
MacPublisher included unusual desktop accessories such as a scissor tool to cut columns of text and paste the remainder into another page, a camera tool for capturing graphics from MacPaint, and a see-through ruler that could be moved around the page for measurements.
MacPublisher was sold in 1986 to Esselte Letraset, whose business in press-down dry transfer lettering was evaporating with competition from laser printers, notably Apple's pioneering LaserWriter printer. It was briefly sold as LetraPage, but dropped from the market when Letraset subsequently acquired Ready, Set, Go! from Manhattan Graphics.
References
Classic Mac OS software
Desktop publishing software
Discontinued software
1984 software
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1610276
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Xavier%27s%20College%2C%20Mumbai
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St. Xavier's College, Mumbai
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St. Xavier's College (Marathi: सेंट झेवियर्स महाविद्यालय) is a private, Catholic, autonomous higher education institution run by the
Bombay Province of the Society of Jesus in Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. It was founded by the Jesuits on January 2, 1869. The college is affiliated with the University of Mumbai offering undergraduate and postgraduate courses in Arts, Science, Commerce and Management. Xavier's was the first college to be granted autonomy by the University of Mumbai in 2010. In 2006, St. Xavier's was awarded the 'A+' grade by National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC).
The college is named after Francis Xavier, the 16th-century Spanish Jesuit saint. Its campus in South Mumbai is built in the Indo-Gothic style of architecture, and recognized as a heritage structure. Founded by German Jesuits in 1869, Xavier's developed rapidly from 1884 to 1914. The imprisonment of German Jesuit priests during the First World War (1914–1918) led to a dislocation of the administration, which was mitigated by the appointment of other European Jesuits. While it began as an arts college, by the 1920s science departments were established. The college was greatly expanded in the 1930s.
The college is now run by Indian Jesuits, with a distinct focus on affirmative action for minority students. It offers undergraduate and post-graduate courses in Arts, Science, Business, Commerce or Public Policy. It has spawned several research institutions within its campus including the Blatter Herbarium, and is known for its inter-collegiate youth festival 'Malhar'.
History
St. Xavier's College was founded on 2 January 1869 in Bombay by German Jesuits with only two students in attendance. The two students came from a group of six, who appeared for the university matriculation examination in 1868 from St. Mary's Institution. Swiss Jesuit (or Willy), the first principal of the college from 1869 to 1873, and three other Jesuits began lecturing and teaching at the college on 7 January 1869. The college was granted formal recognition by Bombay University on 30 January 1869. One student joined later in 1870. The first three students graduated in 1871. From 1884 to 1910, under the patronage of Principal Frederick Dreckmann, the college began to develop rapidly. The Blatter Herbarium was established in 1906 by the Swiss Jesuit priest Ethelbert Blatter and his associates. The hostel was completed in 1909, while the east–west science wing, costing Rs. 200,000, was completed in 1912. The Government provided grants of Rs. 70,000 and Rs. 37,000 for the two additional buildings of the college. The college first admitted women in 1912.
Being a German institute in British India, the college suffered wide repercussions during the First World War (1914–1918). Following the outbreak of the war, the German Jesuit priests, mainly the older ones, were interned and detained in 1914 at the college villa in Khandala, where many died. However, the younger German Jesuits were repatriated in 1916. The departure of German Jesuits led to a dislocation in the administration of the college, but was mitigated by a few Swiss, Luxemburger, and English Jesuits. The number of lay professors increased following the withdrawal of the German Jesuits. In 1920, enrollment of students from outside Bombay, especially Calcutta, Yangon, Mangalore, and Sindh, started increasing. Subsequently, a third floor was added to the hostel to provide accommodation facilities for them. The college started offering six more languages: Marathi, Gujarati, Urdu, Arabic, Hebrew, and Portuguese. The Spanish Jesuits arrived in 1922. By the 1920s, the college had expanded its offerings to more than just liberal arts. Science departments such as Chemistry and Biology came to be established. The Spanish Jesuit Henry Heras founded the "Indian Historical Research Institute" in 1925. The extension of the east–west science wing was completed in 1925 and opened by Leslie Orme Wilson, Governor of Bombay (1923–1926), on 26 January 1926, at an outlay of Rs. 200,000.
The following decade, the priest Gonzalo Palacios propelled massive architectural expansions, with the addition of a third floor to the east–west science wing and in April 1935 the demolition of the Chemistry shed. The General Library was shifted to the new central building providing space for over 100,000 books and 6,000 volumes of periodicals. The college took charge of the Abdulla Fazalbhoy Technical Institute for Radio and Cinema (now St. Xavier's Technical Institute) near Mahim Causeway. More rooms were added to the hostel together with a tower. The construction of the college chapel, which had begun in 1937, was completed under the reign of Principal Aloysius Coyne (1940–1949). The college hall was inaugurated in January 1937 by Lord Brabourne, Governor of Bombay (1933–1937). In August 1939, the non-degree course for the Teacher's Diploma was started, while Microbiology was revolutionized. After India's independence in 1947, Hindi began to be taught in the college from June 1949 and several new departments were instituted, such as the Department of Sociology and Anthropology (1951) and the Department of Psychology (1957).
In the later 20th century, St. Xavier's has continued to expand in student body and faculty size, and has seen the establishment of several research centers and programs. Indian Jesuits of the Bombay Province have run the college in close collaboration with the Society of Jesus in Germany and Spain.
On 18 July 2009, United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visited the college. She conducted an interactive session with its students regarding academics and education. In November 2010 US President Barack Obama visited the college and held a town hall meeting.
Religious affiliation and ethos
The college is Roman Catholic and the Society of Jesus exercises responsibility over it through a Governing Body whose chairman is the Provincial of the Bombay Province of the Society. St. Xavier's College is named after Francis Xavier, a Spanish Jesuit saint of the 16th century who travelled to India and who is considered as the proponent of the Goa Inquisition. The college seeks to give an all-round formation, inculcating both human and spiritual values. It gives special consideration to Roman Catholics (under the minority rights enshrined in the Constitution of India) for whose education the college was founded. Currently 50% of the seats are reserved for Catholics.
Invocation
Crest and motto
The crest was designed by Fr. T. Molina in 1929, a student of heraldry and a member of the college staff. It shows an eagle teaching its young to fly. Above it, on the left side is the emblem of the Society of Jesus, which consists of the first three Greek initials for "Jesus" set in a sun; on the right is a chequered moon, taken from the arms of the house of Xavier. The Latin motto Provocans Ad Volandum, "Challenging to Fly", is central to the ethos of the college and comes from the Bible, which mentions how the eagle encourages its young to fly (Dt 32.11). As a whole, the crest symbolizes a college that bears the name of Xavier and is run by the Jesuits, with the ideal of educating young men and women to aim high in life.
Accreditation and assessment
Since 30 January 1869, St. Xavier's College has been affiliated with the University of Mumbai. It is accredited by the university with the task of preparing students for degrees in arts, Science, and Commerce. It was made a constituent college of the university in 1953 following the Bombay University Act 1953 and received recognition by the University Grants Commission (UGC) since 1956.
In 2007, the college was awarded the highest rating A+ (5-Star) in the re-accreditation by the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC), an autonomous body linked to the University Grants Commission of India. The national India Today magazine's report on colleges has consistently rated Xavier's in the top 10 in India in recent years. In the June 2000 and June 2006 issues, Xavier's has been rated the best arts college and the second best science and commerce college in the country. The UGC awarded St. Xavier's the "College with a Potential for Excellence" award in 2006.
On 31 May 2010, St. Xavier's was granted autonomy by the University Grants Commission, thereby becoming only the second college in Mumbai to be granted such a status.
Administration
The Governing Body consists of the chairman, vice chairman, ex-officio trustees, members, the local managing committee, and an advisory council. The principal functions through the Academic Council of the three vice principals and other important officials, aided by the Internal Quality Assurance Cell (IQAC) which is responsible for planning and evaluation of the college. Various committees of staff and students take responsibility for the different activities of the college. The Local Managing Committee (LMC) has nine members, including the principal as the secretary and rector as the chairperson, and meets twice every year. It prepares the budget and financial statements, recommends creation of new posts, recommends measures for academic and administrative improvement, and undertakes many other vital decision-making activities. The prospective plan for institutional development is done after consecutive meetings with the Academic Council, IQAC, and the heads of the departments. The college takes measures to upgrade the skills of non-teaching staff by conducting workshops and training programmes during vacations, and by conducting sessions on personality enhancement and financial management. An Advisory Council of eminent alumni has also been constituted.
The college has 90 permanent teachers (of whom 53 are women) and an additional 3 full-time teachers, 11 part-time, and 2 teachers working as full-time on temporary assignment, raising the number of full-time teachers to 95. The teacher-student ratio is 1:33. Three teachers have been accorded special awards and recognition for their distinguished service.
Courses
As of 2007, the college remains mainly an undergraduate college, with 2648 undergraduate students and 99 postgraduate students. The syllabi for undergraduate and postgraduate courses are prepared by the University of Mumbai, and include mid-term tests and final examinations. The success rate of students is 90 to 100 percent across all departments, and 95 to 100 percent in university examinations. Special considerations are given to Catholics, economically and socially disadvantaged applicants, and students from Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST). Programs operated by the college include The Learning for Life Programme, Honours Programme, Social Involvement Programme, and Personality and Human Values.
Junior college courses
Junior college courses in science and arts last two years. Applicants are evaluated on their performance in the Secondary School Certificate (SSC) examination of the Mumbai Divisional Board.
Undergraduate degree courses
Undergraduate degree courses last three years. Applicants are evaluated based on their academic performance in the Higher Secondary School Certificate (HSC) examination of the Mumbai Divisional Board.
Bachelor of Arts (B.A.)
Bachelor of Science (BSc)
Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.)
Bachelor of Management Studies (B.M.S.)
Bachelor of Mass Media (B.M.M.)
Bachelor of Science in Information Technology (BSc I.T.)
Bachelor of Vocation – Software Development
Bachelor of Vocation – Tourism
Postgraduate courses
Master of Science (MSc)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Arts & Science
Masters of Public Policy (M.P.P)
Postgraduate Diploma in Data Science (PGDDS)
Diploma courses
Clinical Research
Forensic Science
Gemmology
Industrial Biotechnology and Enterprise
Certification courses
Diamond Grading
Jewellery Design
Institutes
Several institutes have been established on St. Xavier's campus, including:
Research Institutes
Blatter Herbarium for taxonomic studies
Caius Laboratory for Inter-Disciplinary Research (medical)
Heras Institute of Indian History and Culture
Nadkarni-Sacasa Research Laboratory (chemistry)
Non-research Institutes
Xavier Institute of Communications
Xavier Institute of Counselling
Xavier Institute of Social Research
Xavier Institute of Management & Research
Xavier Knowledge Center for computers
Xavier's Resource Centre for the Visually Challenged
Xavier Institute of Management & Research
Xavier Institute of Management & Research (XIMR) is the management school of St. Xavier's College, Mumbai. It is approved by the All India Council for Technical Education.
XIMR was established in 1963 by Professor Pascoal Gisbert as St. Xavier's Social Institute of Industry, when India was striving to achieve self-sufficiency. In 1971 the institute's focus shifted to supervisory and managerial skills and its name was changed to Xavier Institute of Management. In 2006 it became the Xavier Institute of Management and Research.
XIMR trains managers with skills in doing business internationally and globally and facilitates entry into African markets.
In January 2011, the Centre for Africa Studies was launched in association with Makerere University Business School in Uganda, East Africa.
Campus and facilities
St. Xavier's stands on a campus in the Fort locality of South Mumbai. It is located near the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (CST) railway station, which serves as the headquarters of the Central Railways, and Churchgate station, which serves as the headquarters of the Western Railways. The college is built in the Indo-Gothic style of architecture, and has been recognized as a heritage structure by the Mumbai Heritage Conservation Committee. The main college library is central and common to all the academic activities of the college. It has a collection of 133,489 books, of which more than 50% are reference books, with some dating back to the 16th century. It also receives 76 journals, of which 14 are foreign journals. The library has a carved cabinet, card index of books, and a computerized database of books. Students have access to a lending library, reference library, paperback library, non-print media library, and a vast collection of journals, current and back volumes. Books are lent out at the lending library, which also houses the online public access catalog (OPAC) for information search. The reference library includes reserve counters, overnight loans, photo-copying services, reference services, inter-library loans, journals, reference books, and a special multi-media facility for accessing compact disks (CDs) on computers. Students also have access to a paperback library and a non-print media library where audio cassettes, television, and video cassette recorder (VCR) facilities are available for group and individual use.
The campus also has a leisure space known as "The Woods" which includes a couple of large trees. The college runs a small hostel on campus for male students of the senior college. The hostel has a capacity of 60 students, two to three occupants to a room. The college also has a chapel cum prayer hall with green, stained-glass exteriors, arching vaults, and intricate marble work, behind the façade facing the college quadrangle. It has two fully equipped audio-visual centres, the Smith Centre for Audio-Visual Instruction (SCAVI), with a seating capacity of 100, and the Multi-Media Room (MMR) which seats 110. Classrooms have partially Information technology (IT) enabled accessories, fiberglass boards, and pull-down screens. A full-fledged language laboratory has also been set up to cater to students from non-English medium schools and to promote multi-language skills. There is also an auditorium, a spacious canteen, and full-size basketball and volleyball courts. The Fell Gymkhana, built in 1954, provides bodybuilding, badminton, table-tennis, carrom, chess, and other recreational facilities for staff and students. The St. Xavier's Villa in Khandala is a property of the college nestled in the hills of the Western Ghats mountain range, about two hours from Mumbai. It provides facilities for retreats, seminars, and educational conferences. The college also has a cricket pitch leased by the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) on the Azad Maidan sports ground, near the college.
The college counselling centre, founded in 1954, provides personal counselling, personality-evaluation tests, testing programmes for vocational purposes, information on careers, professions, and specialized studies in India and abroad, information on scholarships and financial assistance schemes, and admission guidance to students; it also organizes orientation programmes. The college placement centre exposes students to reputed employers, trains them in writing resumes, and acquaints them with the selection process of corporations. There are separate common rooms for male and female students and for teaching and non-teaching staff. The Xavier's Women's Development Cell was formed in 2006 to coordinate programmes for awareness and action on women's issues, since girls constitute more than 60% of the student body. It also serves as a grievance redressal cell for complaints of sexual harassment. First aid centres are also available in the college general office and the counselling centre. The college undertakes a number of welfare measures for students and staff including provision of insurance coverage. The college has also set up a Grievance Redressal Cell with a representative from a Non-governmental Organization (NGO).
Films shot on the campus
Kucch To Hai (2003)
Main Hoon Na (2004), in college library
Jaane Tu... Ya Jaane Na (2008), for song "Kabhi Kabhi Aditi"
Paa (2009)
Hichki (2018)
Mehboob Ki Mehndi (1971)
Lust Stories (2018) Netflix
Satyameva Jayate (2018)
Helicopter Eela (2018)
Hotel Mumbai (2018)
Kabir Singh (2019)
Student of the Year 2 (2019)
Sacred Games 2 (2019)
Extra-curricular activities
Xavier's students, "Xavierites", maintain relationships with peers from other colleges by participating in inter-college competitions and college festivals.
The Extra Curricular Credits Committee (ECC) monitors the performance of students and sends contingents to other colleges.
Mosaic is an inter-disciplinary, interdepartmental series of exhibitions and poster presentations.
Student associations
The Alumni Association, established in 1902, is actively involved in fundraising, providing scholarships, career counseling, and felicitation of the retiring staff. The Indian Music Group (IMG) was founded in 1973 to promote Indian Classical Music in the city, especially among its young people. It organises concerts, lecture-demonstrations and music appreciation courses. Its annual Indian classical music festival, Janfest, is well known.
Students organize several hobby clubs such as the Philately Club and the Star Gazers Club.
Festivals
Malhar, one of the most popular college festivals in the city, is hosted by the students of St. Xavier's College. It is an inter-collegiate youth festival held since 1979. It is usually in August during the rains and involves teams from about 60 other colleges in Mumbai and elsewhere, with around 30 cultural contests in the Literary, Performing Arts, and Fine Arts categories, along with a number of Workshops on different themes. It draws about 20,000 student participants and audience to the college Campus.
Janfest is a well-known Indian classical music festival in India, held in January and hosted by the Indian Music Group (IMG). Inaugurated in 1974, it promotes classical music among the youth and offers a platform for young people to showcase their talent. It has played host to maestros of Indian classical music like Hariprasad Chaurasia, Zakir Hussain, and Ravi Shankar.
The Zephyrus conference is organised by the Bachelor of Management Studies (BMS) department and features renowned speakers from the business world.
Additionally, the college hosts Ithaka, the annual English literature and theatre festival organised by the English Literature department since 1990. It is a platform for students to demonstrate their theatrical talents. Theatre personalities such as Qasar Padamsee started their careers in Ithaka.
The college also holds Aamod, a festival organised by Marathi Vangmay Mandal which is the first and the oldest Marathi Association registered with Mumbai University.
In 2011–12, the Mass Media department organised Zeitgeist – The Media Conference for the first time. It has welcomed panellists like Shekhar Kapoor and Madhu Trehan. It also organised a screening of the film The Untitled Kartik Krishnan Project. Then in 2012 Xavier hosted its first science fest "Paradigm", an all-Inclusive, pan-departmental, inter-collegiate science festival. Paradigm '12 hosted Vice Admiral Shekhar Sinha along with Sunjoy Monga, Ajoy Ghatak, and Raghavendra Gadagkar who delivered talks on a wide variety of topics.
Magazines and publications
The college launched its commemorative Coffee Table Book St. Xavier's College – Celebrating Diversity since 1869, as a part of its 140 years celebration. It covers all aspects of the college's mighty tradition, to the present. Each March and September Heras Institute of Indian History and Culture, within the college campus, publishes the research journal Indica. It began publication in 1964 and emphasizes the research work of staff and students at Heras Institute. Then there are the St. Xavier's College magazine and the online newsletter The Xavierite, covering stories, events, and reports related to the college and its alumni. Student magazines include Ithaka (Literature), Aithihasik (History), Vox Populi (Political Science), Eidos (Sociology), Imprint (Zoology), "Lignum vitae (Life Science) The Catchphrase (Mass Media),The Michronicle (Microbiology), Pakharan (Marathi Vangmay Mandal), B.I.T.M.A.P (Information Technology) and Arthniti (Economics).
A monthly newspaper The Xavier's Press was inaugurated in December 2008 by the Student Council and is run entirely by undergraduates. It covers events and issues of interest to the general student body.
Notable alumni
The alumni of St. Xavier's College include some of the most illustrious contributors to Indian society for the past century.
Alumni of the college include members of the London Round Table conferences, governors of Indian states, ambassadors, union and state ministers, justices of the Supreme Court of India, and of the Bombay High Court, high-profile jurists and attorneys at law, Mayors of Mumbai (Bombay), maharajas, senior national and state-level bureaucrats, captains of Indian industry, financiers, philanthropists, educationists, scientists, leaders in the Indian armed forces, some of India's best-known journalists, leaders in the medical field, cricketers, luminaries in art and culture including several major film actors and musicians.
See also
List of Jesuit sites
References
Cited sources
External links
Universities and colleges in Mumbai
Colleges in India
Jesuit universities and colleges in India
Educational institutions established in 1869
Schools in Colonial India
Affiliates of the University of Mumbai
1869 establishments in British India
British colonial architecture in India
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossfire%20%281992%20video%20game%29
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Crossfire (1992 video game)
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Crossfire is a free and open source software cross-platform multiplayer online role-playing video game. features a tile based graphic system with a pseudo-isometric perspective. All content is licensed under the GNU GPL-2.0-or-later. The client and server will run in Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, Linux, IRIX, and an array of other platforms.
Description
is a multi-player online role-playing game; it can be described as a cross-over of the ideas of Nethack, Ultima and Gauntlet.
Development history
's development history started in mid-1992. It originally started as a Gauntlet clone developed by Frank Tore Johansen at the University of Oslo in Norway. After a name change in that same year and brief hosting time at University of California, Berkeley (Jul-1999 to Jan-2001), the project now resides at SourceForge where development continues.
started with just one indoor map and then increased to 4 indoor maps with one-way portals from level 1 to level 4. Upon clearing the last level, there was nothing more for the player to do. Spells were limited to magic bullet (the first spell), fireball, magic missile, burning hands and lightning bolt. Later, when two-way portals were implemented, development and content contribution expanded greatly.
has since grown to encompass over 150 monsters, about 3000 maps to explore, an elaborate magic system, 13 races, 15 character classes, a system of skills, and many artifacts and treasures.
As of July 2018 the game is under active development by the community.
Gameplay
Any number of players can connect and play on the public servers, finding and using items and battling monsters. They can cooperate or compete in the same world which includes both static and randomly generated content. It is a client and server based game with the ability to be played over the Internet, on a local network setting, or on a single computer setup.
is based in a medieval fantasy world. Players can choose any of 13 races from dragons (fire hatchlings) to quetzalcoatl as well as the more average human and elf. They can also play as one of 15 classes or professions which range from alchemist to a monk to a warrior. The game has a comprehensive skill system that attributes experience points to each skill, instead of the character earning general experience points.
Once the character creation process is complete, players enter the game world and pick from the two starting towns, Scorn or Navar. Although there are many quests, the game leans towards hack and slash adventuring with other players. The game world is quite large, making exploration a key gameplay mechanic.
Influence on other online games
was used as the base of a number of commercial and free MMORPGs, such as , a Java rewrite, , which closed its code and content, and , which only used the server code but features an isometric view and a different project philosophy focused on a single main server. is another fork of the Crossfire project, primarily aiming to improve the quality of its code and in-game content.
Reception
In 1999 was featured by Linux Journal. The game was downloaded over 550,000 times from SourceForge.net between 2000 and April 2020.
See also
List of open source games
References
External links
Crossfire Official Forums
Experience point table and discussion
Windows games
IRIX games
Linux games
Classic Mac OS games
MacOS games
Massively multiplayer online role-playing games
Graphical MUDs
Video games developed in Norway
Open-source video games
Role-playing video games
1992 video games
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19781493
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nettop
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Nettop
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A nettop (or miniature PC, Mini PC or Smart Micro PC) is a small-sized, inexpensive, low-power, legacy-free desktop computer designed for basic tasks such as web browsing, accessing web-based applications, document processing, and audio/video playback. The word nettop is a portmanteau of network and desktop. It is the desktop counterpart of the netbook. Modern ( 2020) mini PCs or small form factor PCs can be much more powerful, being equipped with high-end laptop components or mid-range desktop components.
Compared with ordinary desktop computers, nettops are not only smaller and less expensive, but they also consume much less power. For example, CompuLab's fit-PC2 consumes no more than 8 watts of power whereas a typical desktop would easily consume more than 100 watts of power; consequently, nettops require significantly less cooling and may even be completely fanless. Some do not have an optical disk drive and use a solid state drive, making them completely silent. The tradeoff is that the hardware specifications and processing power are usually reduced and hence make nettops less appropriate for running complex or resource-intensive applications.
History
Nettops and mini PCs have what could be considered an unusual history. The "first wave" of such devices, which occurred in the mid to late 2000s, were commonly referred to as "nettops". These included devices such as the Acer AspireRevo seen above, and were commonly considered to be a kind of "temporary substitute" PC of a lower cost for users needing a second PC or for use in developing countries. Another commonly held view at the time was their use as a stepping stone towards a thin-client–based always online computer that would "replace inefficient PCs".
Development of netbooks and the cannibalisation of laptop sales
As demand for these devices quickly waned, the industry responded by addressing the chief complaint that these devices would be better as portable devices such as a new form of laptop. The result was the netbook, a device which was considered the true future of the nettop. However, prevailing attitudes and economic issues in 2008 onward made these popular due to their low cost and portability along with the then-expanding feature-set. In August 2009, reports from reviewers were that a netbook of the time and a traditional laptop of the same price were otherwise identical. The implications that the price of standard notebooks should be dropped was a financial liability, due to huge unsold inventories of standard laptops in retail chains and an unfavorable market in which to unload them meant that cannibalisation of laptop sales by netbooks would be financially undesirable for the industry. A clearance sale was also not an option under these conditions, especially among multiple retail chains and online shopping sites. These factors, along with a desire to keep netbook sales going to recoup R&D, design and manufacturing costs, were all likely contributing factors of an industry-wide effort to sabotage netbooks through purposefully limited devices that could be sold cheaply while acting as a form of social engineering towards discrediting netbook devices.
The direct lineage between nettops and netbooks meant that the concept of a "net-" prefix was considered a failed idea. Devices such as Chromebooks, tablet PCs, Ultrabooks and other devices responded by branding themselves as a different type of device such as Chrome OS being exclusively a pure web client or the proposal that the ultrabook succeeded by compensating for its lighter weight and otherwise equal-performance parts with a higher price tag.
In 2015, a revival of the concept came about from a likely unrelated source, a technological form of convergent evolution. Via the likely-observed success of the stick PC, the idea of combining a system on a chip with a single-board computer has led to a continuation of the nettop's original product goals. Mini PCs such as the MINIX Z83-4 or the Azulle Access Plus are exclusively referred to as "mini PCs", despite being identical or near-identical on paper to the nettop architecture.
Hardware
There are three platforms that are primarily intended for nettops and netbooks:
Intel's Centrino Atom platform
Nvidia's Ion platform
VIA's Trinity Platform
Some nettops have also adopted system-on-a-chip designs. Although many major parts such as chipsets, video cards and storage devices can also be found on desktops, the CPUs that are put inside nettops are the fundamental component that differentiate them from normal desktops. The list below contains a range of hardware components that a typical nettop may be assembled from.
CPU
Intel Atom, Core i3 (x86)
VIA Nano and VIA C7 processors (x86)
AMD Fusion (x86)
AMD Geode (x86)
ARM Cortex-based CPU (ARM)
Loongson (MIPS)
GPU
Intel GMA 950
S3 Graphics Chrome
GeForce 9400M G (integrated into MCP79MX; Nvidia ION platform)
AMD Radeon HD 6310
ATI HD4530
PowerVR
Chipset
945GSE and 945GC Express chipsets
MCP79MX (integrated GeForce 9400M G GPU; Nvidia ION platform)
VIA VX800 IGP Chipset
RAM
typically 512 MB to 2 GB SDRAM, DDR or DDR2 memory
Storage devices
at least 1 GB flash memory
2.5" hard disk drive or solid-state drive (SSD)
Network
Ethernet and/or Wi-Fi
I/O ports
LAN, USB 2.0, video out, audio out
Intel's Atom processor has been adopted by several hardware manufacturers, such as ASUS, MSI, and Sony, for nettops. Nvidia has also released its first generation ION platform, which puts GeForce 9400M Motherboard GPU alongside the Atom processor to provide better high definition video playback ability and lower power consumption. In addition, Nvidia has announced that it will support VIA's CPUs this year. To further reduce the manufacturing cost and improve power efficiency, many manufacturers and start-up companies have chosen to use CPUs that were originally targeted at embedded computing devices such as AMD's Geode and ARM Cortex-based CPUs.
Operating systems
Many net-top models are x86-processor-based and as such are capable of running standard PC OSes. There are also operating systems designed specifically for nettops and other machines in the same performance class. Some high-end nettops are capable of running Windows 10. Google's Chrome OS and Android are other options. Although Google's Android was originally designed for smartphones, it has also taken a seat in the nettop market. Another Linux distribution suitable for nettops is Ubuntu.
Market
Nettops fell into Intel's category of "Basic PC", which usually cost from $100 to $299. Intel described nettops as a large potential market at that time. Nettops were said to be able serve as an affordable first computer for people in developing countries, or as an environmentally friendly choice as a secondary computer for people in developed countries.
As a result of successes with Stick PCs and Linux Mint-based Nettop-like computers, as well as continued success of the Mac Mini, the idea was possibly unintentionally revived as Mini PCs, which continue to be sold through online retailers as of August, 2017.
See also
Netbook
SFF
Internet appliance and Thin client
Plug computer
Tablet computer
PC-on-a-stick
Chromebox and Apple TV
AMD Fusion and Intel Atom
Cloud computing
References
External links
Approximate computer power usages list by Univ. of Pennsylvania
Russian portal of nettops
Personal computers
Appropriate technology
Cloud clients
de:Netbook#Nettop
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K.%20N.%20Toosi%20University%20of%20Technology
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K. N. Toosi University of Technology
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Khajeh Nasir al-Din Toosi University of Technology (KNTU) (), also known as K. N. Toosi University of Technology, is a public research university in Tehran, Iran. It is named after medieval Persian scholar Khajeh Nasir Toosi. The university is considered one of the most prestigious institutions of higher education in Iran. Acceptance to the university is highly competitive, entrance to undergraduate and graduate programs typically requires scoring among the top 1% of students in the Iranian University Entrance Exam.
History
The university was founded in 1928, during the reign of Reza Shah Pahlavi, in Tehran and was named the "Institute of Communications" (). It is therefore considered to be the oldest surviving academic institution across the country. (Iran had universities 800 to 2000 years ago from which only the name, ruins and scientific history have survived.)
This institute was later expanded with an Electronic and Electrical Power Engineering department. The 50th anniversary of the establishment of this academic institute was celebrated in 1978, and a commemorative stamp was published by the Post of Iran, before the Islamic Revolution of 1979 (see photo).
The department of Civil Engineering was founded in 1955 as an Institute of Surveying. This institute was later joined by the Institutes of Hydraulic Engineering and Structural Engineering. The department of Mechanical Engineering was founded in 1973. These institutes of higher education were formally integrated in 1980 and named "Technical and Engineering University Complex". As a general practice of paying tribute to the scientific and scholastic figures of the nation, the university was renamed in 1984 "Khajeh Nassir-Al-Deen Toosi (K. N. Toosi) University of Technology". It is affiliated with the Ministry of Science, Research and Technology of Iran.
As of 2012, the university is planning high-tech projects, including the production of a new satellite called 'Saar' (Starling) as well as radar-evading coatings for aircraft. The university's scientific board are also involved in many industrial projects, including the building of satellite carriers and an indigenous eight-seat helicopter.
Famous alumni
Hamidreza Zareipour professor at University of Calgary.
Hadi Meidani assistant professor at University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign.
Ashkan Ashrafi professor at university at San Diego State University.
Danial Faghihi assistant professor at University at Buffalo.
Sadegh Azizi lecturer at University of Leeds.
Hossein Sayadi assistant professor at California State University, Long Beach.
Ramtin Hadidi assistant professor at Clemson University.
Amir AghaKouchak professor at University of California, Irvine.
Farshid Vahedifard CEE Advisory Board Endowed Professor at Mississippi State University.
Ehsan Ghazanfari associate professor at University of Vermont.
Mohammad Amin Hariri-Ardebili Research associate at University of Colorado Boulder.
Mahmood Yahyai adjunct professor at Morgan State University.
Mohammad Moghimi assistant professor at Northern Illinois University.
Farhad Jazaei assistant professor at University of Memphis.
Omeed Momeni associate professor at University of California, Davis.
Majid Beidaghi assistant professor at Auburn University.
Mehdi Mortazavi assistant professor at Western New England University.
Mohammad Ardakani who served as the minister of cooperatives and governor of the Qom province.
Mohammad Aliabadi former vice president and Head of Physical Education Organization of Iran, was also President of the National Olympic Committee of Islamic Republic of Iran from 2008 to 2014.
Ali Motahari Representative of Shabestar in the 8th elections of Islamic Consultative Assembly.
Ali-Akbar Mousavi Khoeini he was elected as a Member of Parliament in the 6th Parliament of Iran.
Farzad Hassani popular Iranian actor
Aidin Bozorgi Iranian mountain climber, disappeared in Broad Peak
Mahmoud Ghandi
Rankings
In the latest university rankings announced by the Times Higher Education Supplement in September 2016, K. N. Toosi University of Technology was ranked among the top 5 universities in Iran and in the range of 601 to 800 top universities in the world.
Also ranked 400-450th in QS World University Rankings in the Electrical and Mechanical Engineering field.
In 2020 Round University Ranking-Clarivate announced that K. N. Toosi University of Technology has achieved the 470th place in the world overall ranking.
Faculties
The faculties of this university were founded as follows :
Faculty of Electrical Engineering (1928)
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering (1973)
Faculty of Civil Engineering (1955)
Faculty of Industrial Engineering (1998)
Faculty of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering (1955)
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering (2006)
Faculty of Computer Engineering
Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering
Faculty of Chemistry
Faculty of Physics
Faculty of Mathematics
The E-Learning Center (2004)
Due to the varied origins of K. N. Toosi University of Technology, the faculties are not concentrated in one campus. As a result, the university has five campuses and a central building. However, the plan for centralizing the university is underway.
Each faculty has its own computer center, library and education services office. All libraries are attached to the Simorgh library network. Housing facilities are available for men, women and couples. There are sports facilities on all campuses. The university is programming the development of a branch in Venezuela and research centers in Tehran.
The Central Building on Mirdamad Ave., Tehran, is the managing body of the university and the presidency, all vice presidencies, the central academic services and registrar's office are in this building. Management of education services happens through the Golestan education management system, while research is managed via the Sepid research management system.
Programs
The university offers Bachelor's (B.S.) degrees in more than 20 and Master's (M.S.) degrees in 50 academic fields. It also has 28 PhD programs. It hosts more than five joint educational programs at B.S. and M.S. levels. The courses have industrial orientation on a broad base. The university has 250 full-time faculty members. The total number of students is about 7,000.
Faculty of Electrical & Computer Engineering
Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering was founded in 1928. It is the main and the oldest faculty of K. N. Toosi University of Technology.
It is also the first electrical engineering school in Iran. The faculty has more than 70 full-time faculty members. It is among the best electrical engineering schools in Iran, especially in graduate studies in the field of Communications, Controls, and Biomedical Engineering. The Faculty of Computer Engineering was founded in 2014 after separating from the Faculty of Electrical Engineering.
It offers the following programs:
These faculties are at Seyedkhandan Bridge, beside the Ministry of Communication. A recreational center is on this campus.
Coordinates:
Official website: www.ee.kntu.ac.ir, www.ce.kntu.ac.ir
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering
This is the youngest of the KNTU faculties. Its core was formed as Aerospace group in the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in 2000. It provided MSc programs in aerodynamics, propulsion, flight dynamics and aerospace structures. In 2001, it launched the first MSc program in space machinery engineering in Iran.
In 2004, the BSc joint aerospace engineering program with MATI (Moscow State Aviation Technological University) was launched. In 2006, the Faculty had officially become independent from the Mechanical Engineering faculty and the first group of BSc state students were admitted through the Iranian University Entrance Examinations.
During the years 2000-2007 the faculty used the facilities of the Mechanical Engineering Faculty. In June 2007, the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering moved to its new campus, and the faculty became independent. Some of the facilities of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering (such as workshops) were kept on the Aerospace Engineering campus.
The campus is on University Boulevard, Vafadar St., Tehranpars. It has a large library that is being equipped. The aerospace engineering student accommodation is just beside the faculty. The Nasir Gym (K. N. Toosi University of Technology's newest recreational building) is also beside the faculty. There are plans for building recreational facilities, including a gym, at this site. The workshop complex of the university is ont this campus.
There are about 170 students studying at the faculty and there are 10 full-time faculty members. The faculty also uses many part-time professors, usually from the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering. The first group of joint program students were sent to Russia in August 2007. The faculty is going to launch its P.H.D program in 2008.
The faculty was the host of the sixth national and second international Conference of the Iranian Aerospace Society. A new research Center was established at the faculty in 2007, conducting industrial research in aerospace. There are research laboratories at the faculty, including:
MDO Lab
Control Lab
Combustion and Propulsion Research Lab
Aerodynamics Lab and Wind tunnel
Parallel Processing Lab
Space Research Lab
The table below shows the programs available at the faculty:
Faculty of Civil Engineering
This faculty comprises six groups: Earthquake engineering-water engineering-soil engineering-structural engineering-transportation engineering-environmental engineering.
It offers the following programs:
The campus is jointly used by this faculty and the Faculty of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering. The library contains about 7,000 books in Persian, 6,000 books in English and other foreign languages, 130 journals in different languages, and 150 thesis and research reports. The university's bookshop is on this campus. There is a housing facility and some sport facilities. The faculty has several fully equipped labs used for research or teaching.
The laboratories are as follows:
Structural Engineering Laboratories: Concrete, Structures, Mechanics of Materials, Materials of Construction.
Water Engineering Laboratories: Hydrology, Hydraulics, and Hydraulic Models.
Road and Transportation Engineering Laboratories: Pavement Properties
Soil and Foundation Engineering Laboratories: Soil Mechanics Laboratory
Earthquake Engineering Laboratories: Structural Dynamics Laboratory, including ambient and forced vibration testing devices for the evaluation and measurement of the dynamic characteristics of the existing structures, as well as an earthquake computer site.
Environmental Engineering Laboratories: Water and Waste Water Chemistry, Redundant Solid Materials, and Microbiology.
This faculty is expert in concrete engineering and has won national and international awards for its achievements in this field. These include first place in 2002 and 2003, second place in 2001. and third place in 2004 in the cement competitions of the American Concrete Institute (ACI). They have been awarded third place in the bridge design and construction with Balsa wood competition in 2003. The students publish a scientific journal named Abanegan آبانگان dedicated to water engineering.
The faculty has 28 full-time faculty members. It is at Valiasr St., opposite the Eskan towers. Student accommodation, a recreational center and the university's bookshop is on this campus.
The E-Learning Center
In 2004 K. N. Toosi University of Technology started its E-Learning programs. The following programs are available:
Bsc in Industrial Engineering (system analysis)
Bsc in IT
Bsc in Computer Engineering
Msc in Industrial Engineering (system analysis)
Msc in IT (information systems engineering)
This center is in the central building of the university (Mirdamad Ave.).
Faculty of Geodesy and Geomatics
The educational activities of this faculty started in 1954 as Geomatics Institute. This was shortly after the establishment of the Geomatics Organization of Iran. The mission of the newly established Geomatics Institute was mainly to train professional geomatics workforce for governmental organizations. In 1980, this institute joined the newly established K. N. Toosi University of Technology. Initially it was known as the Faculty of Civil Engineering and the geodesy and geomatics engineering was one of the departments. With the expansion of the university, in 2001, this department made an independent faculty under the name of Geodesy and Geomatic Engineering to meet the growing demand.
As the only Faculty of Geodesy and Geomatics in Iran, this faculty is recognized as one of the leading educational and research centers of Iran in geodesy and geomatic engineering. With more than 19 full-time faculty members, this faculty offers programs in graduate and undergraduate levels.
It offers the following programs:
This faculty is located at Valiasr St., opposite the Eskan towers.
Faculty of Industrial Engineering
In 1993, the Department of Industrial Engineering was formed in the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering. In 1999, this department was separated from the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering to continue its activities as an independent Faculty.
Programs and degrees presented at the Faculty of Industrial Engineering:
Laboratories:
precision measurement and quality control
simulation
information technology
industrial systems and automation
advanced design and production and robotics
strategic intelligence (SIRLAB)
time and motion study
Research capabilities and interests:
Air Traffic Flow Management & Ground Holding Problem
Information technology: Electronic commerce
Quality control systems in production processes
Quality management systems
Planning and production control
Maintenance systems
Industrial design based on human being factors
Analysis of ergonomic problems
Analysis of industrial systems using computer simulation
Internet marketing
ISCM
e-CRM
Commercial intelligence
Decision making in trade and industry
ERP
This faculty is in the Mollasadra building, Pardis St., Mollasadra St., Vanak Sq. It also operates a building at Seyedkhandan Bridge, Dabestan Alley.
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering was founded in 1973.
In June 2007, the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering moved to its new campus.
The faculty has 44 full-time faculty members.
It offers the following programs:
This faculty is in the Mollasadra building, Pardis St., Mollasadra St., Vanak Sq.
Faculty of Science
The ex-Faculty of Basic Sciences started its activities in 1980 by presenting basic science courses to engineering students of different disciplines. In 1987, the expansion of the Faculty allowed admission of undergraduate applied science students and the name was altered to Faculty of Science.
The Faculty consists of four departments: Applied Chemistry, Applied Physics, Mathematics, and the Department of General Courses. The latter department provides courses in theology and ethics, Persian literature, English, and physical education.
This faculty is at Kavian St., Jolfa St., Shariati St. A recreational center is on this campus.
This faculty provides the following programs:
Faculty of Materials science and engineering
The K. N. Toosi University of Technology (KNTU) began its activities in the field of Materials Science and Engineering in 2001, with the establishment of a M.Sc. degree in Characterization and Selection of Engineering Materials Program, as a sub-branch of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering. In 2010, the activities and scope of the Materials Program were expanded to offer a Ph.D. degree, followed in 2011 by another M.Sc. degree in Metals Forming and a B.Sc. degree in Industrial Metallurgy.
In the year 2013, with the approval of KNTU as well as the Council for Promoting Higher Education in the Ministry of Science, Research and Technology, the Materials Program was promoted into the Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering. The faculty began its e-Learning Program, offering M.Sc. degrees in Characterization and Selection of Engineering Materials in 2013, and Metals Forming in 2016. Another M.Sc. degree in Nanomaterials was launched in 2017. The Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering now hosts 11 full-time faculty members.
Joint international programs
KNTU is collaborating in research and teaching programs with many universities around the world. In this regard, memoranda of understanding have been signed between KNTU and universities from Australia, Canada, Cyprus, France, Germany, Russia, and the United Kingdom.
The courses in most international programs are offered in English. Admission to these programs is either through the National Entrance Exam (Konkoor) or through special exams conducted by KNTU. The tuition fee varies for each program. The following joint international programs are active:
MSc program in Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems with the International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences (ITC), the Netherlands.
MSc program in Automotive Engineering with Kingston University, London, UK.
MSc program in Energy Systems with University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.
BSc program in Aerospace Engineering with Moscow State University of Aerospace Technology (MATI), Moscow, Russia.
Phd program in Aerospace Engineering with Moscow State University of Aerospace Technology (MATI), Moscow, Russia.
Research
K. N. Toosi University of Technology is known for its industrial relations. It conducts research for many companies such as Iran Khodro, Saipa, Aerospace Industries Organization. Research is conducted in all the KNTU laboratories and even research groups such as ARAS exist within faculties. The Launch Vehicle research center has started its work at the faculty of Aerospace Engineering, one of the first centers of its kind. There are several centers of excellence at this university including the following:
Center of Excellence in liquid propellant launch vehicle design
Center of excellence in space engineering
Center of excellence in robotics and control
Center of excellence in materials and modern structures
Center of excellence in energy systems and fluids
There are several research centers at this university including:
Space Systems Research Center
There are several research laboratories at this university including:
Propulsion and Combustion Research laboratory (Faculty of Aerospace Engineering)
MDO (multidisciplinary design optimization) Research laboratory (Faculty of Aerospace Engineering)
Space Research laboratory (Faculty of Aerospace Engineering)
Aerodynamics Research laboratory (Faculty of Aerospace Engineering)
Subsonic wind tunnel (Faculty of Aerospace Engineering)
Parallel processing Research laboratory (Faculty of Aerospace Engineering)
Multiphase Flow Laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering)
Actuators Research laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering)
Vibrations and Automobiles Research laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering)
Virtual Reality Research laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering)
Composite Research laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering)
Fracture Mechanics Research laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering)
Instrumentation and Control Research laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering)
Combustion Research laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering)
Turbomachinery Research laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering)
Nano and Materials Research laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering)
Robotics Research laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering)
Spread Spectrum and Wireless Communications laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Digital Control Systems Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Industrial Control Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Instrumentation Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Intelligent Systems Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Linear System Theory Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Adaptive Control Systems Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
System Identification Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Optimal Control Systems Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Nonlinear Control Systems Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Robust Control Systems Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Robotics Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Guidance and Navigation Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Automation Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Process Control Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Biomedical Engineering Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Biomedical Signal and Image Processing Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Bioelectric Artificial Organs Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Antenna Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Communication Circuits Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
DSP (Digital Signal Processing) Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Microwave Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Optical Fibers Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Logical circuits Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Microprocessor Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Computer Networks Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
FPGA Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Computer Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Parallel Prossesing Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Computer Architecture Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Digital Electronic Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Electronic Circuits Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
High Voltage Laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Power System Laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Relaying and Protection Laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Special Machines Laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Power Electronics Laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Electric Machinery Laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Exact Measurement and Quality Control Research laboratory (Faculty of Industrial Engineering)
Simulation Research laboratory (Faculty of Industrial Engineering)
IT (Information Technology) Research laboratory (Faculty of Industrial Engineering)
Automation and Industrial Systems Research laboratory (Faculty of Industrial Engineering)
Strategic Intelligence Research laboratory (Faculty of Industrial Engineering)
Robotics and Design and Manufacturing Research laboratory (Faculty of Industrial Engineering)
Numerical Computation Research laboratory (Faculty of Science)
Laser Research laboratory (Faculty of Science)
Solid-state Physics Research laboratory (Faculty of Science)
There are workshops such as the following, in many of which research is conducted:
Automechanic Workshop (on the Faculty of AE Eng. campus)
Casting Workshop (on the Faculty of AE Eng. campus)
Sheet-metal Workshop (on the Faculty of AE Eng. campus)
Electrical Engineering Workshop (Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
Department of applied chemistry
The department has 12 full-time faculty members specialized in chemical physics, analytical chemistry, organic and inorganic chemistry, and electrochemistry. Besides the undergraduate program, the department offers an undergraduate program leading to BSc in applied chemistry and graduate programs leading to MSc and PhD degrees in related disciplines.
References
External links
1928 establishments in Iran
K. N. Toosi University of Technology
Educational institutions established in 1928
Engineering universities and colleges in Iran
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creusa%20of%20Troy
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Creusa of Troy
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In Greek mythology, Creusa (; Ancient Greek: Κρέουσα Kreousa "princess") was the daughter of Priam and Hecuba. She was the first wife of Aeneas and mother to Ascanius (also known as Iulus).
Mythology
Creusa's death at the will of the gods is dealt with briefly by Virgil in his Aeneid. As Troy is falling to the Greeks, Aeneas goes to his home to lead his father Anchises, Creusa, and their son Ascanius out of the city and into the countryside. Anchises refuses to leave the house, prompting Aeneas to decide that he will stay in Troy so that he may die honourably in battle, rather than abandon his father. Creusa grabs his feet and begs him to think of what would become of Ascanius, Anchises and herself if Aeneas were to be killed. As she does this, Ascanius catches fire with an un-earthly flame. The flame is quickly doused with water. Anchises believes this to be an omen from Jupiter, who confirms this omen by sending a shooting star. Anchises now agrees to flee Troy. The family leaves the home, Aeneas carrying his father and Ascanius holding his hand, while Creusa is to follow some distance behind them. As they flee through the city, they reach the gates and begin to run, after noticing that the Greeks appear to be gaining on them. Creusa disappears, unable to keep up with them. After reaching Ceres’ temple outside of the city, Aeneas leaves Anchises and Ascanius there to go back in search of Creusa. As he searches the city in desperation, he meets the shade, or ghost, of Creusa, who tells him that it was her fate to remain in Troy. She predicts his journey to Hesperia, Italy and future marriage to another. She asks that Aeneas take care of their child and vanishes. Aeneas tries three times to hold her, each time failing to grasp her shade.
Pausanias relates that Rhea and Aphrodite rescued Creusa from being enslaved by the Greeks on account of her being the wife of Aeneas (who was a son of Aphrodite).
Trojan family tree
Notes
References
Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library
Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Publius Vergilius Maro, Aeneid. Theodore C. Williams. trans. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Publius Vergilius Maro, Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Trojans
Children of Priam
Princesses in Greek mythology
Women of the Trojan war
Characters in the Aeneid
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18350292
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Completely%20in%20Luv%27
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Completely in Luv'
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Completely in Luv' is a four CD box set of four studio albums, With Luv' (1978), Lots of Luv' (1979), True Luv' (1979) and Forever Yours (1980) recorded by Dutch girl group Luv' during their heyday in the late 1970s and early 1980s. It was released in April 2006 by Universal Music. It features Luv's greatest hits scored in a dozen of countries (like "You're the Greatest Lover", "Trojan Horse", "Casanova" and "Ooh, Yes I Do"), album songs, bonus tracks and remixes.
In 1979, Luv' was 'Holland's best export act' and thus received the 'Conamus Export Award'.
Album history
Completely in Luv is a concept developed by René Moonen, founder of the official fan club of Luv' in association with H.J.M Productions (the production company of Hans van Hemert, the producer who conceived the girl group) and the CNR label. Its release coincided with the reunion of the original group members Patty Brard, José Hoebee and Marga Scheide. The pop trio had a busy schedule in 2006 in the Netherlands and Flanders (Belgium). In addition to the box set, a reality TV documentary, Back in Luv, about their comeback was broadcast on RTL 5 (a Dutch TV channel) and on VTM (a Flemish channel) and a DVD (also entitled Back in Luv') came out.
On 26, 27 and 28 May 2006, Luv' and Bobby Farrell (of Boney M) were the guest stars during three big shows of De Toppers (a supergroup featuring three popular singers in the Netherlands: Gerard Joling, René Froger and Gordon) at the Amsterdam ArenA. Moreover, Luv' was booked for many appearances on TV and live performances.
Track listing
All tracks written by Hans van Hemert and Piet Souer under the pseudonym 'Janschen & Janschens' unless otherwise noted.
CD 1
With Luv (1978)====
"You're the Greatest Lover" – 2:50
"Who Do You Wanna Be" – 3:44
"My Man" – 3:05
"Sugar Babe" – 2:49
"Don Juanito De Carnaval" (Daniele Pace, Franco Bracardi, Gianni Boncompagni, Janschen & Janschens) – 3:09
"Life Is on My Side" – 2:38
"U.O.Me (Welcome to Waldolala)" – 2:55
"Dream, Dream" – 3:30
"Oh, Get Ready" – 3:16
"Louis, Je t'Adore" – 3:40
"Everybody's Shaking Hands on Broadway" – 3:27
"Hang On" – 3:07
====Bonus Tracks====
<LI>"Don't Let Me Down" – 2:37
B-side of "My Man".
<LI>"Eres Mi Mejor Amante" (Alfred Garrido, Janschen & Janschens) – 2:50
Spanish version of "You're the Greatest Lover".
<LI>"All You Need Is Luv' Jingle" – 0:12
=== CD 2 ===
====Lots of Luv''' (1979)====
"Casanova" – 3:48
"Eeny Meeny Miny Moe" – 2:46
"DJ" – 3:20
"Shoes Off (Boots On)" – 3:07
"Marcellino" – 3:14
"Dandy" – 2:46
"The Night of Love" – 3:32
"Money, Honey" – 3:16
"I.M.U.R" – 3:35
"I Like Sugar Candy Kisses" – 3:34
"If You Love Me" – 2:34
"Saint Tropez" – 3:04
====Bonus Tracks====
<LI>"Trojan Horse" – 3:24
<LI>"Casanova" (Alfred Garrido, Janschen & Janschens) – 3:49
Spanish version
<LI>"Luv' Hitpack" – 5:29
Long version:Casanova/Life Is on My Side/U.O.Me/Casanova/You're the Greatest Lover/Life Is on My Side/Trojan Horse/Everybody's Shakin' Hands on Broadway/Casanova
<LI>"All You Need Is Luv' Jingle" – 0:12
=== CD 3 ===
====True Luv (1979)====
"Ooh, Yes I Do" (Hans van Hemert) – 2:57
"Ann-Maria" (Piet Souer) – 4:40
"Rhythm 'n' Shoes" (van Hemert) – 3:07
"Flash" (van Hemert) – 3:51
"Boys Goodnight" (Souer) – 2:40
"Daddy, What a Life" (Souer) – 3:08
"Cloud Nr. 9" (van Hemert) – 3:25
"Wine, Women And Song" (van Hemert) – 3:45
"Getaway" (Souer) – 3:03
"Stop Me" (Souer) – 3:09
"My Guy" – 3:49
"Let There Be Love" – 2:39
====Bonus Tracks====
<LI>"Si, Que Si" (Alfred Garrido, van Hemert) – 3:05
Spanish Version of Ooh, Yes I Do
<LI>"Ann-Maria" (Alfred Garrido, Souer) – 4:04
Spanish version
<LI>"All You Need Is Luv' Jingle" – 0:12
=== CD 4 ===
====Forever Yours'' (1980)
"My Number One" – 3:11
"Billy The Kid" – 3:16
"Never Wanted to Be..." – 4:34
"Mother of the Hearts" – 3:04
"Tingalingaling" – 2:30
"The Show Must Go On" – 3:21
"Ooh, I Like It Too" – 3:06
"I Win It" – 3:05
"Song of Love and Understanding" – 3:59
"Some Call It Happiness" – 3:09
"Be My Lover Tonight" – 3:27
"One More Little Kissie" – 3:50
Bonus Tracks
<LI>"You're the Greatest Lover '93" – 3:18
<LI>"Megamix '93 (Long Version)" – 4:04
Medley of U.O.Me (Waldolala)/Trojan Horse/You're the Greatest Lover/Ooh, Yes I Do/Casanova
<LI>"Trojan Horse (2006 remix)" – 3:05
<LI>"All You Need Is Luv' Jingle" – 0:12
Personnel
Luv'
José Hoebee – vocals
Marga Scheide – vocals
Patty Brard – vocals
Ria Thielsch – vocals
Additional personnel
Ernö Olah & Metropole Orkest – strings
Production
Producer: Hans van Hemert
Arranger/conductor: Piet Souer
Mastering: www.pat-sound.nl
Design
Photography: Claude Vanheye
Design: Studio Eric Wondergem BNO, Baarn
Charts
References
Luv' albums
2006 compilation albums
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1250279
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Yourdon
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Edward Yourdon
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Edward Nash Yourdon (April 30, 1944 – January 20, 2016) was an American software engineer, computer consultant, author and lecturer, and software engineering methodology pioneer. He was one of the lead developers of the structured analysis techniques of the 1970s and a co-developer of both the Yourdon/Whitehead method for object-oriented analysis/design in the late 1980s and the Coad/Yourdon methodology for object-oriented analysis/design in the 1990s.
Biography
Yourdon obtained his B.S. in applied mathematics from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1965, and did graduate work in electrical engineering and computer science at MIT and the Polytechnic Institute of New York.
In 1964 Yourdon started working at Digital Equipment Corporation developing FORTRAN programs for the PDP-5 minicomputer and later assembler for the PDP-8. In the late 1960s and early 1970s he worked at a small consulting firm and as an independent consultant. In 1974 Yourdon founded his own consulting firm, YOURDON Inc., to provide educational, publishing, and consulting services. After he sold this firm in 1986 he served on the Board of multiple IT consultancy corporations and was advisor on several research project in the software industry throughout the 1990s.
In June 1997, Yourdon was inducted into the Computer Hall of Fame, along with such notables as Charles Babbage, James Martin, Grace Hopper, and Gerald Weinberg. In December 1999 Crosstalk: The Journal of Defense Software Engineering named him one of the ten most influential people in the software field.
In the late 1990s, Yourdon became the center of controversy over his beliefs that Y2K-related computer problems could result in severe software failures that would culminate in widespread social collapse. Due to the efforts of Yourdon and thousands of dedicated technologists, developers and project managers, these potential critical system failure points were successfully remediated, thus avoiding the problems Yourdon and others identified early enough to make a difference.
In the new millennium, Yourdon became Faculty Fellow at the Information Systems Research Center of the University of North Texas as well as Fellow of the Business Technology Trends Council for the Cutter Consortium, where he also was editor of the Cutter IT Journal.
Work
After developing structured analysis techniques of the 1970s, and object-oriented analysis/design in the late 1980s and 1990s, in the new millennium Yourdon specialized in project management, software engineering methodologies, and Web 2.0 development. He also founded and published American Programmer magazine (now titled Cutter IT Journal). He is the author of the book Decline and Fall of the American Programmer.
Yourdon Inc.
In 1974, Yourdon founded the consulting firm Yourdon Inc. in New York, which provided consulting, educational and publishing in the field of software engineering. In the early 1980s, the company had multiple offices in North America and Europe and a staff of 150 people. They trained over 250,000 people in the topics of structured programming, structured design, structured analysis, logical data modeling and project management.
In 1986, Yourdon sold the consulting company. It later became part of the Canadian (Québec) software company CGI Informatique. The publishing division had published over 150 books on software engineering topics before it became part of Prentice Hall.
Yourdon structured method
In the 1980s Yourdon developed the Yourdon structured method (YSM) in SSADM based on the functional structuring. The method supports two distinct design phases: analysis and design. YSM includes three discrete steps: the feasibility study; essential modeling; and implementation modeling. It offers a series of models:
The behavioral model: states that system behavior can be described in three ways: functions, dynamics and relationships.
The processor environment model (PEM): describes the allocation of computing functions in processor hardware.
The software environment model (SEM): defines the software architecture and its effects from each processor.
The code organizational model (COM): shows the modular structure of each task
The Yourdon structured method (YSM) and structured analysis and design technique (SADT) are examples of structured design methods.
Year 2000 (Y2K) problem
During the late 1990s, he was one of the leading proponents of the theory that the 'Y2K bug' could lead to a collapse of civilization, or at least protracted economic depression and technological breakdown on a wide scale. He wrote several books on the subject, including Time Bomb 2000 (), and produced at least one video putting forth that theory (and offering advice on how to survive the coming crisis). Yourdon was criticized by some when his predictions (vigorously refuted by some experts in advance) failed to materialize at the scale predicted. This may have caused him to lose credibility with some in the software industry.
Final years and death
In his final years, Yourdon served as an internationally recognized expert witness and computer consultant specializing in project management, software engineering methodologies, and Web 2.0 development. He died on January 20, 2016, as a result of a post-surgical blood infection.
Personal life
Yourdon was married to Toni Nash. He had three children; daughter Jennifer, and sons Jamie and David. He also had five grandchildren; Liam Christopher, Owen Edward, Edward Roland ("Teddy"), Elliot Ann, and Khalil Slice. Yourdon had five sisters; Toni, Teri, Tina, Aleda, and Patrice.
Yourdon was also an avid photographer whose photos were published in The New York Times, Los Angeles Times, The Wall Street Journal, Fast Company, Forbes, Time/CNN, The New York Observer, New York magazine, Wired, and the Huffington Post.
Publications
Yourdon authored over 550 technical articles and authored or coauthored 26 computer books since 1967. A selection:
1967. Real-Time Systems Design. Information & Systems Press.
1972. Design of On-Line Computer Systems. Prentice Hall.
1975. Techniques of Program Structure and Design. Prentice Hall.
1976. Learning to Program in Structured COBOL, Part I and II. With C. Gane and T. Sarson and T. Lister. Prentice Hall.
1978. Learning to Program in Structured COBOL, Part II. With Timothy Lister. Prentice Hall.
1979. Classics in Software Engineering . Prentice Hall.
1982. Writings of the Revolution. Prentice Hall.
1988. Managing the System Life Cycle. 2nd ed. Prentice Hall.
1989. Modern Structured Analysis. Prentice Hall.
1992. Decline and Fall of the American Programmer. Prentice Hall.
1994. Object-Oriented Systems Development: An Integrated Approach. Prentice Hall.
1996. Case Studies in Object-Oriented Analysis and Design. With Carl Argila. Prentice-Hall.
1996. Rise and Resurrection of the American Programmer. Prentice-Hall.
1997. Death March: The Complete Software Developer's Guide to Surviving "Mission Impossible" Projects. Prentice Hall.
1999. The Complete Y2K Home Preparation Guide. With Robert Roskind. Prentice Hall.
1999. Time Bomb 2000: What the Y2K Computer Crisis means for you!'. With Jennifer Yourdon. Prentice Hall.
1999. The Y2K Financial Survival Guide. With Jennifer Yourdon and Peter G. Gordon. Prentice Hall.
2001. Managing High-Intensity Internet Projects. Prentice Hall
2002. Byte Wars: The Impact of September 11 on Information Technology. Prentice Hall
2003. Death March (2nd edition). Prentice Hall
2004. Outsourcing: Competing in the Global Productivity Race''. Prentice Hall
References
External links
Structured Analysis Wiki
Ed Yourdon at Flickr
1944 births
2016 deaths
American computer programmers
American technology writers
Massachusetts Institute of Technology School of Science alumni
Software engineering researchers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logitech%20Harmony
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Logitech Harmony
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Logitech Harmony is a line of remote controls and home automation products produced by Logitech. The line includes universal remote products designed for controlling the components of home theater systems (including televisions, set-top boxes, DVD and Blu-ray players, video game consoles) and other devices that can be controlled via infrared, as well as newer smart home hub products that can be used to additionally control supported Internet of things (IoT) and Smart home products, and allow the use of mobile apps to control devices. On April 10, 2021, Logitech announced that they would discontinue Harmony Remote manufacturing.
History
The Harmony remote control was originally created in 2001 by Easy Zapper, a Canadian company, and first sold in November 2001. The company later changed its name to Intrigue Technologies and was located in Mississauga, Ontario, Canada. Computer peripheral manufacturer Logitech acquired it in May 2004 for US$29 million, turning Harmony remotes into a worldwide phenomenon.
Features
All Harmony remotes are set up online using an external configuration software. For all models this can be done using a computer running Microsoft Windows or MacOS to which they need to be connected via USB cable; the Elite and Ultimate models can also be configured wirelessly using a smartphone app for Android or iOS.
Each remote has infrared (IR) learning capability (some later models also include RF support), and can upload information about a new remote to an online device database. 5000+ brands of devices were supported.
All Harmony remotes support one-touch activity based control, which allows control of multiple devices at once. For example, a home theater setup might include a TV, a digital set top box and a home theater sound system. Pressing the 'Watch TV' activity button on the remote will turn on the TV, turn on digital set top box, turn on the sound system, switch the input of TV to the digital set top box and switch the input of the sound system to the set top box. In addition, the volume buttons would be mapped to the sound system, the channel buttons would be mapped to the digital set to box, and other controls to the most appropriate system component for the activity.
Harmony Remote software
The remote software allows users to update the remote configuration, learn IR commands, and upgrade the remote control's firmware.
Early versions of the remote software required a web browser; newer versions are Java-based. The software requires constant Internet connectivity while programming the remote, as remote control codes are downloaded from Logitech. This method allows updates to the product database, remote codes, and macro sequences to be easily distributed. This also allows Logitech to survey their market in order to determine products for investigation and research. Harmony control software is available for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X. A group of developers was working on Harmony Remote software for the Linux operating system; the latest available release was dated August 2010.
On March 31, 2010 Logitech launched a new website called "My Harmony" for setting up several later Harmony remote controls.
On April 10, 2021, Logitech announced that they would discontinue Harmony Remote manufacturing.
Current products
As of November 2019, the current products being sold in the Harmony line are:
Harmony 650/665
The lowest-cost version of the Harmony remote that contains a display screen, which is color. It can be programmed with multiple activities and up to 8 devices.
Harmony Express
The Express uses Amazon Alexa to navigate, via a smaller distinct remote. It is the only Harmony remote that supports voice-activated search.
Harmony Hub
This device is not a remote, but rather a hub that can control IR and Bluetooth devices, as well as certain smart home devices (e.g. Philips Hue, Nest thermostat). It is controlled by certain Harmony remotes as well iOS/Android based apps, and more recently Alexa can control certain functions. By itself, it can control up to 8 home theater devices and an amount of home automation devices. A lot of the current products include this along with the remote. This replaces the older Harmony Ultimate Hub, Harmony Home Hub and Harmony Link devices.
Harmony Smart Control
Includes a Harmony Home Hub and a simple remote control that contains three activity buttons used to activate up to 6 different activities. The simple remote lacks a display screen, and can also be purchased separately for those who already own a Harmony Home Hub. Supports up to 8 devices.
Harmony Companion (formerly Harmony Home Control)
Like the Harmony Smart Control described above, but the included Simple Remote also contains home automation controls. Like the Smart Control Simple Remote, the included remote lacks a display screen, but it cannot be purchased for Home Hub owners unlike the Smart Control remote.
Harmony Smart Keyboard
This includes the Harmony Hub along with a keyboard containing a built-in touchpad. The keyboard appears to be like Logitech's previous K400 keyboard and touchpad combo, except some of the keys and buttons have been replaced with others more useful to a home theater remote, and two numbered, Harmony-specific USB receivers are included. It lacks a display screen, supports three activities (Watch a Movie, Watch TV, and Listen to Music), and can also be purchased as an add-on accessory for Harmony Home Hub owners. It controls up to 8 devices.
Harmony Touch
The Harmony Touch remote control contains a full-color display screen with touch functionality. It is an IR remote that supports up to 15 devices and multiple activities. It lacks dedicated physical buttons for home automation control. This remote can be added to a Harmony Hub for additional functionality. No longer available from the manufacturer, but still available via retail.
Harmony 950/Harmony Elite/Harmony Pro
The current top of the range Harmony available via retail. The Harmony 950 is a redesigned version of the Harmony Ultimate One with the addition of dedicated physical buttons for home automation control. Other changes include the media transport control buttons being relocated to a more ergonomic location, and the addition of user accessible battery compartment. This remote can be added to a Harmony Hub for additional functionality. The Harmony Elite is a bundle containing both the Harmony 950 remote control and the Harmony Hub. The Harmony Pro is the Harmony Elite bundle sold for professional installers.
Harmony Pro 2400
The Pro 2400 is the only Harmony product that includes a hub with an ethernet port, as well as power-over-ethernet (POE) support. The hub is significantly wider, and comes with a detachable directional antenna. It also has six, 3.5mm jacks for IR sensors (versus two, 2.5mm jacks on other Hub products). It uses the Elite remote, and is only available through professional installers.
Accessories
E-R0001
The Harmony E-R0001 is an IR to Bluetooth adapter for the PS3.
RF Wireless Extender
The Harmony RF Wireless Extender allows some Harmony remotes, e.g., models 890, 1000 and 1100, to control devices using radio frequencies instead of infrared, with longer range than infrared and no need for line-of-sight transmission. The Harmony 1000 can use two RF Extenders, while the 1100 can use multiple extenders.
IR Extender System
The Harmony IR Extender System has an IR blaster and a set of mini blasters, and does not require programming. It is manufactured by Philips and rebadged.
Discontinued products
Harmony 350
The lowest-budget version of the Harmony remote, which can control up to 8 devices in particular categories, and supports only one activity: Watch TV. Unlike most current and former products in the Harmony line, this model lacks a display screen.
Harmony Ultimate One/Harmony Ultimate
The Harmony Ultimate One remote control is a revised version of the Harmony Touch adding motion-activated back-lit keys, eyes-free gesture control, tilt sensor and vibration feedback. This remote can be added to a Harmony Hub for additional functionality. The Harmony Ultimate is a bundle containing both the Harmony Ultimate One remote control and the Harmony Hub but this pack is no longer available from the manufacturer, but still available via retail.
Harmony Ultimate Home
Includes the Harmony Home Hub and a remote similar to the above described Harmony Ultimate One. The package includes four IR emitters, the remote, the hub, and two IR extenders that plug into the hub. Pressing a button on the included remote or any add-on remote will first communicate with the hub, then the hub will tell the one of the four IR emitters based on configuration (including the IR emitter on the remote) to transmit the command. Harmony Ultimate Home also contains home automation controls, unlike the Ultimate One. The remote can't be purchased separately for Home Hub owners, unlike most of the other remotes that include it. It supports a maximum of 15 devices.
Harmony Link
A device which utilizes a mobile app as a remote to control devices within the room. It has since been succeeded by the newer Harmony Hub product, which also supports controlling Smart home products. On November 8, 2017, Logitech announced that it would end support for the Harmony Link and make the devices inoperable after March 18, 2018, citing an expired security certificate for a component in the platform. Following criticism of Logitech's originally-announced plan to do so for users whose devices were still under warranty, Logitech announced on November 10, 2017 that it would exchange all Harmony Links for Harmony Hubs free-of-charge, regardless of warranty status.
Harmony 500 series
The Harmony 500 remotes are mid-range remotes that is similar in functionality to the Harmony 659 and 670, but with different button arrangements and a squared-off physical design compared to the hourglass design of the 6xx series. Compared to today's offerings, these remotes offered control of up to 15 devices at an affordable price. The remotes have a back-lit monochrome LCD screen. The 500 series seems to be discontinued entirely.
Harmony for Xbox 360
While it's marketed for the Xbox 360 segment, this remote must be said to be part of the 5xx series. It runs the same software. The Harmony 360 is pre-configured to be used with the Xbox 360 console, and has special buttons, X, Y, A, B and media center control, correlating with the same as found on native Xbox controllers. It has a back-lit LCD screen and uses four AAA batteries.
The hardware layout is mostly the same as the 550. The extra up/down arrows of the 550 is removed to make room for the colored X, Y, A and B buttons beneath the play and pause rows. This would make it the remote in the 500 series with the most hardware buttons, 54 (counting the four direction arrow keys). It can control up to 12 devices.
Harmony 510/515
The Harmony 510/515 is an entry-level remote that is essentially a replacement to the 500 series and the Xbox 360 version. It has the same number of buttons as the 525 and features colored buttons typical on most satellite boxes. It has a four-button, monochrome LCD display. This remote is software limited to controlling up to five devices. Like its mid-range cousins, the 520 and 550, it has no recharge pod and uses AAA batteries instead. Unlike previous 500 series models, these newer models have been limited to 5 devices in software, yet sell for the same prices.
Difference between 510/515:
The 510 is black; the 515 is silver.
Harmony 520/525
The Harmony 520 is a mid-range remote that is similar in functionality to the Harmony 659 and 670, but with a different button arrangement and a squared-off physical design compared to the hourglass design of the 6xx series. It has a blue back-light and monochrome LCD screen. These 5xx models are equipped with an infrared learning port to learn IR signals of unsupported or unknown devices. By pointing an original remote control at the Harmony's learning port, it is able to copy and reproduce those codes and, in the case of supported devices, it is able to figure out what the remote is used to control and imports that device. They require 4 AAA batteries. A mini USB port is used to connect these to a computer for programming.
Difference between 520/525:
The 525 has 50 buttons, while the 520 has 46. It lacks the red, green, yellow and blue colour buttons commonly used for things like teletext and PVR control. Apparently, the 520 is the American model while the 525 is the European. The 520 and 525 can control up to 12 and 15 devices respectively.
Harmony 550/555
The harmony 550/555 remotes are variants of the 525 remote. Compared to the model 525, the 550 and 555 have two extra buttons, and are made of higher grade materials with different colors. The 550 and 555 models both have a sound and a picture button that changes the button mapping on the remote, allowing for reuse of the same physical buttons for different set of functionality. 52 buttons.
Difference between 550/555:
The 550 and 555 have the same number and placement of buttons, just with different mapping. The 555 have the same color buttons as the 525. The 550 does not, instead it has the following extra functions: Up arrow, Down arrow, A and B buttons. The 555 has orange back-light, the 550 has blue.
Harman/Kardon TC 30
The Harman/Kardon TC 30 appears to be a redesigned, rebranded Harmony 52x with a cradle and a color LCD. The LCD has eight items compared to the four of the rest of the Harmony 5xx series. Images exist of the TC 30 both with and without the teletext color buttons. This might mean that there's one version based on the 520 and one based on the 525. The key layout is identical to the 52x remotes. It seems to require different software from the Logitech branded remotes — however at the moment you can download this software from Logitech via harmonyremote.com.
Harmony 610
The Harmony 610 is functionally identical to the Harmony 670 and Harmony 620, but comes in black with a silver face panel. The 610 can control a maximum of 5 devices.
Harmony 620
The Harmony 620 is functionally identical to the Harmony 670, but comes in black instead of silver/black. The 670 can control up to 15 devices, where the 620 can only control 12 devices.
Harmony 659
The Harmony 659 is another mid-range universal remote that offers most of the functionality in the Harmony line. It has a monochrome LCD screen.
Harmony 670
The Harmony 670 is a mid-range universal remote that offers most of the functionality in the Harmony line. The 670 has a monochrome LCD screen and puts DVR functions in the middle of the remote. Logitech has discontinued this product.
Harmony 680
The Harmony 680 is a mid-range, computer programmable universal remote. The 680 has a back lit monochrome LCD screen, and Media PC specific.
buttons. Unlike many newer Harmony remotes, the 680 is able to control up to 15 devices.
Harmony 688
The Harmony 688 was (no longer produced) a mid-range, computer programmable universal remote. The H688 has a monochrome LCD screen and is back lit by an Electro Luminescent sheet (blue in color).
Harmony 720
The Harmony 720 was initially offered exclusively through Costco in 2006 and featured a color screen and backlit keys. It was designed as an inexpensive competitor to the earlier Harmony 880, with few differences, except for the ergonomic design and key layout. It is now available through other vendors, but remains unlisted on Logitech's product page.
The harmony 720 remote is closely related to the 500 series, as it has a square shape and a layout akin to those remotes. When compared to the 525, you will find the same buttons above the LCD. The 720 has a colour LCD with six buttons/activities instead of four. The eight play/stop etc. buttons have been moved to the lower part. The Mute and Prev buttons have been moved and in their place, there are extra up and down buttons — same as on the 550. Compared to the 500 series, the glow button has been removed. These remotes do not have the Sound and Picture buttons to change key mappings, like the 550/555 remotes does. Lacking red, green, yellow and blue colour buttons, the 720 has 49 buttons. It can control up to 12 devices.
Harmony 768
The Harmony 768 is a capsule-shaped remote with a backlit LCD screen it was available in silver, blue or red. It has 32 buttons, as well as a clickable thumb-wheel to scroll through and select activities.
Harmony 785
The harmony 785 is nearly identical to the 720. While the 720 has 49 buttons, the 785 has 53. The extra buttons are the red, green, yellow and blue colour buttons commonly used for things like teletext and PVR control. These are located above the number buttons, which are placed further down compared to the 720. Another difference from the 720 is that the 785 can control up to 15 devices.
Harmony 880/885
The Harmony 880 was the first Harmony with a color LCD screen and a rechargeable battery. The Harmony 885 remote has extra buttons as mentioned below. The 885 replaces up and down keys with four color keys used for Teletext and, more recently, by some set-top boxes.
There was a short-lived 880Pro that had the picture and sound buttons. This remote did not feature multi-room/multi-controller support like the 890Pro.
Difference between 880/885:
The 885 has the red, green, yellow and blue colour buttons commonly used for things like teletext and PVR control. These four buttons occupy the same space where the 880 has two selection buttons (up arrow, down arrow).
Harmony 890/895
The Harmony 890/895 is the same as the 880/885, but it adds radio frequency (RF) capability, enabling the remote to control devices even without line-of-sight to and from different rooms, up to a range of 30 meters. This remote control cannot control proprietary RF devices, but it can control special Z-Wave RF devices, as well as IR devices without line-of-sight via the RF extender.
The 890Pro adds multi-room and multi-controller support, as well as a different color scheme. (Primary and secondary remotes can be set up that work with the same wireless extender) It also adds two buttons — picture and sound — that allow for quick access to picture- and sound-related commands. It is not listed on the Logitech Web site and is sold through custom installation companies. The 890Pro is not shipped with the RF extender.
{Yet to Add}: Difference between 890/895:
Harmony 1000
The Harmony 1000 has customizable touch screen commands, sounds and a rechargeable battery, and allows control up to 15 devices. It is also compatible with the RF extender. A maximum of two extenders can be configured within the software.
Harmony 300
The universal remote has 1 activity support (Watch TV), and control up to 4 devices. The remote supports customizes key with remote features and favorite channels. This remote has no LCD, and like the discontinued 500 series mid-range models, no battery charge pod. Requires two AA batteries.
Harmony 300i
Similar to the Harmony 300, but has a glossy finish rather than a matte finish.
Harmony 600
Support for up to 5 devices. Monochrome display. Requires 2 AA batteries.
Harmony 650
Support for up to 8 devices. Color display. Requires 2 AA batteries.
Harmony 700
Support for up to 6 devices. Color display. Rechargeable AA batteries via USB.
Harmony One
The Harmony One features a color touch screen and is rechargeable. It does not offer any RF capability. A CNET TV review stated that it is one of the best universal remotes on the market today.
Harmony 900
Harmony 900 has the same ergonomics design as Harmony One. It has additional four color buttons compared to Harmony One and RF supported. The RF technology used by Harmony 900 is not comparable with Harmony 890, 1000, and 1100. The Harmony 900 and 1100 models do not support "sequences" (Logitech parlance for macros).
Harmony 1100
Adds QVGA resolution to the touch screen and allows 15 devices to be controlled.
The user interface of the Harmony 1100 is now Flash based vs the Java based one found in the Harmony 1000.
See also
Universal Remote Controls - General Article on Universal Remote Controls.
JP1 remote - Universal Electronics/One For All range of programmable remotes
References
External links
Harmony at Logitech.com
Assistive technology
Remote control
Smart home hubs
Harmony
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6802311
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise%20social%20software
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Enterprise social software
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Enterprise social software (also known as or regarded as a major component of Enterprise 2.0), comprises social software as used in "enterprise" (business/commercial) contexts. It includes social and networked modifications to corporate intranets and other classic software platforms used by large companies to organize their communication. In contrast to traditional enterprise software, which imposes structure prior to use, enterprise social software tends to encourage use prior to providing structure.
Carl Frappaolo and Dan Keldsen defined Enterprise 2.0 in a report written for Association for Information and Image Management (AIIM) as "a system of web-based technologies that provide rapid and agile collaboration, information sharing, emergence and integration capabilities in the extended enterprise".
Applications
Functionality
Social software for an enterprise must (according to Andrew McAfee, Associate Professor, Harvard Business School) have the following functionality to work well :
Search: allowing users to search for other users or content
Links: grouping similar users or content together
Authoring: including blogs and wikis
Tags: allowing users to tag content
Extensions: recommendations of users; or content based on profile
Signals: allowing people to subscribe to users or content with RSS feeds
McAfee recommends installing easy-to-use software which does not impose any rigid structure on users. He envisages an informal roll-out, but on a common platform to enable future collaboration between areas. He also recommends strong and visible managerial support to achieve this.
In 2007 Dion Hinchcliffe expanded the list above by adding the following four functions:
Freeform function: no barriers to authorship (meaning free from a learning curve or from restrictions)
Network-oriented function, requiring web-addressable content in all cases
Social function: stressing transparency (to access), diversity (in content and community members) and openness (to structure)
Emergence function: requiring the provision of approaches that detect and leverage the collective wisdom of the community
Enterprise search differs from a typical web search in its focus on "use within an organization by employees seeking information held internally, in a variety of formats and locations, including databases, document management systems, and other repositories".
Criticism
There has been recent criticism that the adaptation of the social paradigm (e.g. openness and altruistic behavior) does not always work well for the enterprise setting, which led some authors to question the proper functioning of enterprise social software. The findings from a novel study suggests that free and non-anonymous sharing of trusted information (beyond marketing or product information) is significantly influenced by concerns from business users.
See also
Business Intelligence 2.0 (BI 2.0)
Collaborative software
Corporate social media
Enterprise bookmarking
Semantic Web
Semantic wiki
SLATES
Wikinomics
References
Business terms
Social networking services
Social information processing
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60932573
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Hampden
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USS Hampden
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The brigantine Hampden was originally a trading ship out of Hispaniola that carried military supplies to the United Colonies and avoided capture by thanks to the assistance of John Paul Jones, then in command of . She was later purchased by the Continental Congress and refitted for service in New Haven, Connecticut, for the Continental Navy.
Congress originally appointed John Paul Jones to take command of the new USS Hampden, yet feeling that the ship was inferior to Providence he chose not to change command. The ship instead was given to Captain Hoysted Hacker, who up to that point had been in command of the much smaller . Records indicate that Hacker sailed into New Haven on board Fly on 26 June 1776 in company with Biddle and was in command of Hampden on 27 June.
While many sources claim that she retained her name from merchant service, there does not appear to be any records of a merchantman with that name in the area at that time. It is possible that she was originally the brig Catharine which Congress ordered purchased on 26 June 1776. Her name may be a reference to John Hampden, who had been a Member of Parliament during the English Civil War and is credited with coining the term "Glorious Revolution".
DANFS reports that Captain Hacker sailed for Providence, Rhode Island, to join in September 1776. However, due to the inability to recruit a full crew and supply both vessels, the ships did not depart until 27 October 1776 on a mission to harass Newfoundland fisheries and to attempt the liberation of American prisoners of war on Cape Breton Island. Soon after getting underway, however, Hampden grounded on a ledge, was considerably damaged, and could not continue. Captain Hacker and his crew transferred to the sloop Providence and continued the cruise, while Hampden returned to Providence. She was sold out of the service in late 1777 at Providence.
References
Ships of the Continental Navy
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14091809
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1952%20Philadelphia%20Phillies%20season
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1952 Philadelphia Phillies season
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Offseason
In March 1952, during spring training, shortstop Granny Hamner was named captain of the team by manager Eddie Sawyer.
Notable transactions
December 10, 1951: Andy Seminick, Eddie Pellagrini, Dick Sisler, and Niles Jordan were traded by the Phillies to the Cincinnati Reds for Smoky Burgess, Howie Fox and Connie Ryan.
Regular season
Season standings
Record vs. opponents
Notable transactions
April 29, 1952: John Anderson was signed as an amateur free agent by the Phillies.
May 23, 1952: Bubba Church was traded by the Phillies to the Cincinnati Reds for Kent Peterson and Johnny Wyrostek.
August 30, 1952: Tommy Glaviano was selected off waivers by the Phillies from the St. Louis Cardinals.
Game log
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || April 15 || @ Giants || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: September 4
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 1 || April 16 || @ Giants || 3–5 || Sal Maglie (1–0) || Robin Roberts (0–1) || None || 17,472 || 0–1
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 2 || April 17 || @ Giants || 5–3 (11) || Jim Konstanty (1–0) || George Spencer (0–1) || None || 13,697 || 1–1
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 3 || April 18 || Braves || 2–3 || Lew Burdette (1–0) || Russ Meyer (0–1) || None || 15,911 || 1–2
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 4 || April 19 || Braves || 7–9 || Bert Thiel (1–0) || Andy Hansen (0–1) || Lew Burdette (1) || 9,466 || 1–3
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 5 || April 20 (1) || Braves || 4–3 (10) || Robin Roberts (1–1) || Lew Burdette (1–1) || None || see 2nd game || 2–3
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 6 || April 20 (2) || Braves || 1–2 || Dave Cole (1–0) || Karl Drews (0–1) || Dick Donovan (1) || 26,011 || 2–4
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 7 || April 21 || Giants || 4–10 || Jim Hearn (1–0) || Howie Fox (0–1) || Dave Koslo (1) || 14,609 || 2–5
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 8 || April 22 || Giants || 1–4 || Larry Jansen (1–0) || Russ Meyer (0–2) || None || 12,405 || 2–6
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || April 23 || Dodgers || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: August 9 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || April 24 || Dodgers || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: August 11 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || April 25 || @ Braves || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: July 3
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 9 || April 26 || @ Braves || 8–0 || Robin Roberts (2–1) || Vern Bickford (0–1) || None || 1,893 || 3–6
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || April 27 (1) || @ Braves || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: August 5 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || April 27 (2) || @ Braves || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: August 6 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 10 || April 29 || @ Cubs || 8–2 || Curt Simmons (1–0) || Bob Rush (1–2) || None || 8,484 || 4–6
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 11 || April 30 || @ Cubs || 8–9 (12) || Dutch Leonard (1–0) || Howie Fox (0–2) || None || 7,221 || 4–7
|-
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 12 || May 1 || @ Cardinals || 6–3 || Robin Roberts (3–1) || Cliff Chambers (1–1) || None || 5,596 || 5–7
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 13 || May 2 || @ Cardinals || 2–3 || Vinegar Bend Mizell (1–2) || Russ Meyer (0–3) || None || 9,462 || 5–8
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 14 || May 3 || @ Cardinals || 0–3 || Cloyd Boyer (1–0) || Karl Drews (0–2) || None || 5,676 || 5–9
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 15 || May 4 (1) || @ Reds || 4–5 || Ewell Blackwell (1–3) || Curt Simmons (1–1) || Frank Smith (3) || see 2nd game || 5–10
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 16 || May 4 (2) || @ Reds || 7–8 || Harry Perkowski (2–1) || Howie Fox (0–3) || Frank Smith (4) || 19,780 || 5–11
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 17 || May 6 || @ Pirates || 6–0 || Robin Roberts (4–1) || Don Carlsen (0–1) || None || 9,008 || 6–11
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 18 || May 7 || @ Pirates || 1–5 || Howie Pollet (1–3) || Russ Meyer (0–4) || None || 7,291 || 6–12
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || May 8 || @ Pirates || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain, wet grounds); Makeup: July 17 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 19 || May 10 (1) || @ Dodgers || 4–0 || Karl Drews (1–2) || Ralph Branca (2–2) || None || see 2nd game || 7–12
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 20 || May 10 (2) || @ Dodgers || 8–1 || Robin Roberts (5–1) || Clem Labine (0–1) || None || 31,777 || 8–12
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 21 || May 11 || @ Dodgers || 3–4 (10) || Carl Erskine (2–0) || Howie Fox (0–4) || None || 9,104 || 8–13
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || May 12 || @ Dodgers || colspan=6 | Postponed (cold, wet grounds); Makeup: July 2 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 22 || May 13 || Cubs || 6–0 || Curt Simmons (2–1) || Joe Hatten (2–2) || None || 5,702 || 9–13
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 23 || May 14 || Cubs || 9–2 || Russ Meyer (1–4) || Bob Kelly (1–3) || None || 3,212 || 10–13
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 24 || May 15 || Reds || 5–1 || Robin Roberts (6–1) || Ewell Blackwell (1–5) || None || 14,752 || 11–13
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 25 || May 16 || Reds || 3–2 (10) || Ken Heintzelman (1–0) || Herm Wehmeier (3–2) || None || 19,313 || 12–13
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 26 || May 17 || Reds || 3–7 || Frank Hiller (4–2) || Howie Fox (0–5) || None || 5,285 || 12–14
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 27 || May 18 || Cardinals || 3–4 || Gerry Staley (7–1) || Russ Meyer (1–5) || Al Brazle (6) || 12,380 || 12–15
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || May 19 || Cardinals || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: June 17 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || May 20 || Pirates || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: June 16
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 28 || May 21 || Pirates || 7–3 || Robin Roberts (7–1) || Murry Dickson (1–7) || None || 6,202 || 13–15
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 29 || May 22 || Pirates || 6–0 || Curt Simmons (3–1) || Red Munger (0–2) || None || 3,065 || 14–15
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 30 || May 23 || Dodgers || 1–5 || Ben Wade (3–1) || Karl Drews (1–3) || None || 30,323 || 14–16
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 31 || May 24 || Dodgers || 0–5 || Billy Loes (5–0) || Russ Meyer (1–6) || None || 15,894 || 14–17
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || May 25 || Dodgers || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: September 2
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || May 26 || Braves || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: May 27 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 32 || May 27 (1) || Braves || 2–4 (12) || Warren Spahn (4–3) || Ken Heintzelman (1–1) || Lew Burdette (4) || see 2nd game || 14–18
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 33 || May 27 (2) || Braves || 5–4 (10) || Andy Hansen (1–1) || Sheldon Jones (0–1) || None || 27,225 || 15–18
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 34 || May 29 || Giants || 6–5 || Karl Drews (2–3) || Hoyt Wilhelm (4–1) || Ken Heintzelman (1) || 3,919 || 16–18
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 35 || May 30 (1) || Giants || 3–0 || Russ Meyer (2–6) || Max Lanier (1–3) || None || see 2nd game || 17–18
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 36 || May 30 (2) || Giants || 2–4 || Larry Jansen (4–1) || Robin Roberts (7–2) || None || 31,273 || 17–19
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 37 || May 31 || @ Pirates || 3–5 || Joe Muir (2–1) || Lou Possehl (0–1) || Woody Main (1) || 6,425 || 17–20
|-
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 38 || June 1 (1) || @ Pirates || 5–1 || Curt Simmons (4–1) || Murry Dickson (2–8) || None || see 2nd game || 18–20
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 39 || June 1 (2) || @ Pirates || 1–2 || Ted Wilks (2–2) || Karl Drews (2–4) || None || 15,529 || 18–21
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 40 || June 3 || @ Reds || 1–2 || Frank Smith (2–1) || Robin Roberts (7–3) || None || 6,441 || 18–22
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 41 || June 4 || @ Reds || 8–10 || Frank Smith (3–1) || Ken Heintzelman (1–2) || None || 6,075 || 18–23
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 42 || June 5 || @ Reds || 3–5 || Harry Perkowski (5–2) || Karl Drews (2–5) || None || 2,459 || 18–24
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 43 || June 6 || @ Cardinals || 4–5 || Al Brazle (3–0) || Jim Konstanty (1–1) || None || 7,512 || 18–25
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 44 || June 7 || @ Cardinals || 4–3 || Jim Konstanty (2–1) || Bill Werle (0–1) || None || 10,391 || 19–25
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 45 || June 8 || @ Cardinals || 3–5 || Willard Schmidt (1–2) || Russ Meyer (2–7) || Eddie Yuhas (1) || 10,399 || 19–26
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 46 || June 10 || @ Cubs || 5–10 || Paul Minner (6–1) || Karl Drews (2–6) || None || 10,125 || 19–27
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 47 || June 11 || @ Cubs || 2–3 || Turk Lown (3–2) || Curt Simmons (4–2) || Dutch Leonard (3) || 10,765 || 19–28
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 48 || June 12 || @ Cubs || 1–3 || Warren Hacker (4–1) || Robin Roberts (7–4) || None || 9,646 || 19–29
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 49 || June 14 || Pirates || 4–2 || Russ Meyer (3–7) || Bob Friend (3–8) || Jim Konstanty (1) || 5,033 || 20–29
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 50 || June 15 (1) || Pirates || 0–6 || Howie Pollet (2–7) || Karl Drews (2–7) || None || see 2nd game || 20–30
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 51 || June 15 (2) || Pirates || 6–3 || Howie Fox (1–5) || Murry Dickson (4–9) || Jim Konstanty (2) || 12,525 || 21–30
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 52 || June 16 || Pirates || 5–4 || Jim Konstanty (3–1) || Paul LaPalme (1–1) || None || 2,210 || 22–30
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 53 || June 17 (1) || Cardinals || 2–1 || Curt Simmons (5–2) || Bill Werle (1–2) || None || see 2nd game || 23–30
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 54 || June 17 (2) || Cardinals || 0–4 || Al Brazle (4–1) || Robin Roberts (7–5) || Eddie Yuhas (2) || 22,854 || 23–31
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 55 || June 18 || Cardinals || 1–7 || Joe Presko (4–3) || Russ Meyer (3–8) || None || 9,973 || 23–32
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 56 || June 19 || Cardinals || 4–6 || Cloyd Boyer (3–3) || Howie Fox (1–6) || Al Brazle (10) || 7,751 || 23–33
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 57 || June 20 || Reds || 3–1 || Robin Roberts (8–5) || Ewell Blackwell (2–8) || None || 6,367 || 24–33
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || June 21 || Reds || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: July 29 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 58 || June 22 (1) || Reds || 3–5 || Frank Smith (6–3) || Andy Hansen (1–2) || None || see 2nd game || 24–34
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 59 || June 22 (2) || Reds || 3–0 (7) || Karl Drews (3–7) || Herm Wehmeier (4–4) || None || 6,891 || 25–34
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || June 23 || Cubs || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: June 24 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 60 || June 24 (1) || Cubs || 6–0 || Robin Roberts (9–5) || Bob Rush (9–4) || None || see 2nd game || 26–34
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 61 || June 24 (2) || Cubs || 2–1 || Russ Meyer (4–8) || Johnny Klippstein (4–5) || Jim Konstanty (3) || 13,102 || 27–34
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 62 || June 25 || Cubs || 1–4 || Bob Kelly (2–4) || Karl Drews (3–8) || Dutch Leonard (4) || 5,128 || 27–35
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 63 || June 27 || Giants || 6–0 || Curt Simmons (6–2) || Larry Jansen (6–4) || None || 13,569 || 28–35
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 64 || June 28 || Giants || 7–2 || Robin Roberts (10–5) || Jim Hearn (8–2) || None || 17,182 || 29–35
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 65 || June 29 || Giants || 3–12 || Hoyt Wilhelm (6–2) || Russ Meyer (4–9) || Max Lanier (4) || 12,034 || 29–36
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 66 || June 30 || @ Dodgers || 4–0 || Karl Drews (4–8) || Carl Erskine (7–2) || None || 21,377 || 30–36
|-
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 67 || July 1 || @ Dodgers || 3–4 || Clem Labine (5–2) || Jim Konstanty (3–2) || None || 7,184 || 30–37
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 68 || July 2 (1) || @ Dodgers || 4–3 || Robin Roberts (11–5) || Chris Van Cuyk (5–5) || None || see 2nd game || 31–37
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 69 || July 2 (2) || @ Dodgers || 2–1 || Russ Meyer (5–9) || Ben Wade (6–5) || Andy Hansen (1) || 17,216 || 32–37
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 70 || July 3 || @ Braves || 2–0 || Curt Simmons (7–2) || Jim Wilson (7–6) || None || 1,232 || 33–37
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 71 || July 4 (1) || @ Braves || 1–2 (11) || Lew Burdette (4–3) || Karl Drews (4–9) || None || see 2nd game || 33–38
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 72 || July 4 (2) || @ Braves || 2–3 || Vern Bickford (3–9) || Ken Heintzelman (1–3) || None || 7,610 || 33–39
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 73 || July 5 || @ Giants || 3–2 || Howie Fox (2–6) || Larry Jansen (7–5) || None || 12,691 || 34–39
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 74 || July 6 (1) || @ Giants || 0–2 || Max Lanier (3–4) || Robin Roberts (11–6) || None || see 2nd game || 34–40
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 75 || July 6 (2) || @ Giants || 4–1 || Russ Meyer (6–9) || Sal Maglie (11–4) || None || 24,238 || 35–40
|- style="background:#bbcaff;"
| – || July 8 ||colspan="7" |1952 Major League Baseball All-Star Game at Shibe Park in Philadelphia
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 76 || July 10 || @ Cardinals || 3–10 || Gerry Staley (12–6) || Curt Simmons (7–3) || None || 13,416 || 35–41
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 77 || July 11 || @ Cardinals || 4–3 (10) || Robin Roberts (12–6) || Al Brazle (6–2) || None || 13,020 || 36–41
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 78 || July 12 || @ Cardinals || 2–3 || Harry Brecheen (4–3) || Russ Meyer (6–10) || Eddie Yuhas (4) || 10,355 || 36–42
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 79 || July 13 (1) || @ Cubs || 7–3 || Karl Drews (5–9) || Warren Hacker (6–3) || Andy Hansen (2) || see 2nd game || 37–42
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 80 || July 13 (2) || @ Cubs || 9–2 || Steve Ridzik (1–0) || Bob Rush (9–7) || Jim Konstanty (4) || 29,065 || 38–42
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || July 14 || @ Cubs || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: August 24 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 81 || July 15 || @ Pirates || 10–3 || Curt Simmons (8–3) || Howie Pollet (3–10) || None || 10,244 || 39–42
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 82 || July 16 || @ Pirates || 8–7 || Robin Roberts (13–6) || Murry Dickson (6–14) || Andy Hansen (3) || 2,569 || 40–42
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 83 || July 17 (1) || @ Pirates || 1–2 || Cal Hogue (1–0) || Russ Meyer (6–11) || None || see 2nd game || 40–43
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 84 || July 17 (2) || @ Pirates || 2–4 || Ted Wilks (5–4) || Karl Drews (5–10) || None || 5,304 || 40–44
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 85 || July 18 || @ Reds || 7–5 || Jim Konstanty (4–2) || Frank Hiller (4–6) || Russ Meyer (1) || 6,424 || 41–44
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 86 || July 19 || @ Reds || 7–5 || Karl Drews (6–10) || Bud Podbielan (0–1) || None || 2,215 || 42–44
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 87 || July 20 (1) || @ Reds || 5–6 (10) || Frank Smith (8–7) || Russ Meyer (6–12) || None || see 2nd game || 42–45
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 88 || July 20 (2) || @ Reds || 4–3 || Robin Roberts (14–6) || Bubba Church (1–6) || None || 9,170 || 43–45
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 89 || July 22 (1) || Pirates || 14–4 || Russ Meyer (7–12) || Cal Hogue (1–1) || None || see 2nd game || 44–45
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 90 || July 22 (2) || Pirates || 8–1 || Karl Drews (7–10) || Woody Main (2–8) || Andy Hansen (4) || 11,213 || 45–45
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 91 || July 23 || Pirates || 4–1 || Steve Ridzik (2–0) || Bob Friend (4–15) || Robin Roberts (1) || 4,611 || 46–45
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 92 || July 25 || Cubs || 3–8 || Warren Hacker (8–3) || Curt Simmons (8–4) || None || 10,802 || 46–46
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 93 || July 26 || Cubs || 7–2 || Robin Roberts (15–6) || Johnny Klippstein (6–8) || None || 4,312 || 47–46
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 94 || July 27 (1) || Cubs || 12–8 || Andy Hansen (2–2) || Paul Minner (9–7) || Jim Konstanty (5) || see 2nd game || 48–46
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 95 || July 27 (2) || Cubs || 3–0 || Karl Drews (8–10) || Bob Rush (10–8) || None || 11,134 || 49–46
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 96 || July 29 (1) || Reds || 6–1 || Curt Simmons (9–4) || Ewell Blackwell (2–11) || None || see 2nd game || 50–46
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 97 || July 29 (2) || Reds || 4–3 || Andy Hansen (3–2) || Ken Raffensberger (10–9) || None || 19,055 || 51–46
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 98 || July 30 || Reds || 7–3 || Robin Roberts (16–6) || Frank Smith (8–9) || None || 7,505 || 52–46
|-
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 99 || August 1 || Cardinals || 5–10 || Eddie Yuhas (8–2) || Andy Hansen (3–3) || None || 18,778 || 52–47
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 100 || August 2 || Cardinals || 6–2 || Karl Drews (9–10) || Gerry Staley (13–10) || Robin Roberts (2) || 12,889 || 53–47
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 101 || August 3 || Cardinals || 6–0 || Curt Simmons (10–4) || Joe Presko (6–6) || None || 13,715 || 54–47
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || August 5 (1) || @ Braves || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: August 7 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || August 5 (2) || @ Braves || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: August 31 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || August 6 (1) || @ Braves || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: August 30 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || August 6 (2) || @ Braves || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: September 6 in Philadelphia as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 102 || August 7 (1) || @ Braves || 2–1 || Robin Roberts (17–6) || Vern Bickford (7–11) || None || see 2nd game || 55–47
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 103 || August 7 (2) || @ Braves || 10–2 || Russ Meyer (8–12) || Jim Wilson (10–9) || None || 4,829 || 56–47
|- style="background:#fbb
| 104 || August 8 || Dodgers || 3–6 (10) || Preacher Roe (8–1) || Curt Simmons (10–5) || None || 16,163 || 56–48
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 105 || August 9 (1) || Dodgers || 0–6 || Billy Loes (10–5) || Karl Drews (9–11) || None || see 2nd game || 56–49
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 106 || August 9 (2) || Dodgers || 2–4 || Johnny Rutherford (4–2) || Steve Ridzik (2–1) || None || 34,606 || 56–50
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || August 10 || Dodgers || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: September 2 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 107 || August 11 (1) || Dodgers || 7–2 || Robin Roberts (18–6) || Ben Wade (11–7) || None || see 2nd game || 57–50
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 108 || August 11 (2) || Dodgers || 5–9 || Joe Black (8–2) || Howie Fox (2–7) || None || 39,705 || 57–51
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || August 12 || Braves || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: August 13 as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 109 || August 13 (1) || Braves || 3–0 || Karl Drews (10–11) || Vern Bickford (7–12) || None || see 2nd game || 58–51
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 110 || August 13 (2) || Braves || 3–9 || Max Surkont (8–10) || Curt Simmons (10–6) || None || 11,280 || 58–52
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 111 || August 14 || Braves || 5–3 || Russ Meyer (9–12) || Warren Spahn (11–12) || None || 3,391 || 59–52
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 112 || August 15 || @ Dodgers || 8–3 || Robin Roberts (19–6) || Joe Landrum (1–1) || None || 18,182 || 60–52
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 113 || August 16 || @ Dodgers || 0–15 (7) || Billy Loes (11–6) || Curt Simmons (10–7) || None || 7,219 || 60–53
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 114 || August 17 || @ Dodgers || 2–1 || Karl Drews (11–11) || Carl Erskine (11–5) || None || 18,863 || 61–53
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 115 || August 19 || @ Pirates || 10–5 || Robin Roberts (20–6) || Ron Necciai (0–2) || None || 11,207 || 62–53
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 116 || August 20 || @ Pirates || 3–1 || Russ Meyer (10–12) || Cal Hogue (1–5) || None || 2,755 || 63–53
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 117 || August 22 || @ Reds || 2–3 || Bud Podbielan (1–2) || Andy Hansen (3–4) || None || 9,915 || 63–54
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 118 || August 23 || @ Reds || 2–3 || Frank Smith (9–9) || Karl Drews (11–12) || None || 3,617 || 63–55
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 119 || August 24 (1) || @ Cubs || 0–3 || Warren Hacker (11–6) || Robin Roberts (20–7) || None || see 2nd game || 63–56
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 120 || August 24 (2) || @ Cubs || 14–4 || Russ Meyer (11–12) || Paul Minner (11–9) || None || 33,820 || 64–56
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 121 || August 25 || @ Cubs || 6–3 (10) || Andy Hansen (4–4) || Turk Lown (4–9) || None || 6,505 || 65–56
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 122 || August 26 || @ Cubs || 2–3 (13) || Bob Schultz (4–2) || Andy Hansen (4–5) || None || 7,019 || 65–57
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 123 || August 27 || @ Cardinals || 7–2 || Curt Simmons (11–7) || Vinegar Bend Mizell (8–6) || None || 9,129 || 66–57
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 124 || August 28 || @ Cardinals || 10–6 || Robin Roberts (21–7) || Harry Brecheen (6–5) || None || 7,632 || 67–57
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 125 || August 30 (1) || @ Braves || 4–2 || Karl Drews (12–12) || Lew Burdette (6–8) || None || see 2nd game || 68–57
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 126 || August 30 (2) || @ Braves || 8–6 || Andy Hansen (5–5) || Warren Spahn (12–15) || None || 5,277 || 69–57
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 127 || August 31 (1) || @ Braves || 0–1 || Virgil Jester (2–4) || Steve Ridzik (2–2) || None || see 2nd game || 69–58
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 128 || August 31 (2) || @ Braves || 4–0 || Jim Konstanty (5–2) || Max Surkont (10–11) || None || 6,920 || 70–58
|-
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || September 1 (1) || Dodgers || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: September 23 in Brooklyn as a traditional double-header
|- style="background:#bbb"
| – || September 1 (2) || Dodgers || colspan=6 | Postponed (rain); Makeup: September 24 in Brooklyn
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 129 || September 2 (1) || Dodgers || 8–2 || Robin Roberts (22–7) || Ben Wade (11–8) || None || see 2nd game || 71–58
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 130 || September 2 (2) || Dodgers || 9–3 || Karl Drews (13–12) || Ray Moore (1–1) || None || 28,582 || 72–58
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 131 || September 3 || @ Giants || 3–4 (10) || Bill Connelly (3–0) || Andy Hansen (5–6) || None || 15,984 || 72–59
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 132 || September 4 || @ Giants || 3–4 (11) || Al Corwin (4–0) || Russ Meyer (11–13) || None || 5,219 || 72–60
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 133 || September 5 || @ Giants || 4–5 || Al Corwin (5–0) || Jim Konstanty (5–3) || Sal Maglie (1) || 5,391 || 72–61
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 134 || September 6 (1) || Braves || 7–6 (17) || Robin Roberts (23–7) || Bob Chipman (1–1) || None || see 2nd game || 73–61
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 135 || September 6 (2) || Braves || 1–3 || Ernie Johnson (5–1) || Karl Drews (13–13) || Lew Burdette (7) || 12,474 || 73–62
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 136 || September 7 || Braves || 2–1 || Steve Ridzik (3–2) || Lew Burdette (6–9) || None || 6,011 || 74–62
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 137 || September 9 || Cardinals || 4–7 || Eddie Yuhas (9–2) || Curt Simmons (11–8) || Harry Brecheen (2) || 9,254 || 74–63
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 138 || September 10 || Cardinals || 6–3 || Steve Ridzik (4–2) || Vinegar Bend Mizell (10–7) || Jim Konstanty (6) || 7,157 || 75–63
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 139 || September 11 || Cardinals || 3–2 || Robin Roberts (24–7) || Cliff Chambers (4–4) || None || 9,177 || 76–63
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 140 || September 12 (1) || Cubs || 1–5 || Paul Minner (13–9) || Karl Drews (13–14) || None || see 2nd game || 76–64
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 141 || September 12 (2) || Cubs || 0–7 || Bob Kelly (4–9) || Bob Miller (0–1) || None || 8,571 || 76–65
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 142 || September 14 (1) || Pirates || 5–2 || Curt Simmons (12–8) || Cal Hogue (1–7) || None || see 2nd game || 77–65
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 143 || September 14 (2) || Pirates || 2–1 || Russ Meyer (12–13) || Jim Waugh (1–6) || None || 7,238 || 78–65
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 144 || September 16 || Reds || 4–2 || Robin Roberts (25–7) || Niles Jordan (0–1) || None || 8,690 || 79–65
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 145 || September 17 || Reds || 7–4 || Karl Drews (14–14) || Frank Hiller (5–8) || None || 3,089 || 80–65
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 146 || September 19 || Giants || 1–0 || Curt Simmons (13–8) || Sal Maglie (17–8) || None || 10,882 || 81–65
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 147 || September 20 || Giants || 3–2 || Robin Roberts (26–7) || Al Corwin (6–1) || None || 21,712 || 82–65
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 148 || September 21 || Giants || 6–2 || Russ Meyer (13–13) || Jim Hearn (14–7) || None || 12,891 || 83–65
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 149 || September 23 (1) || @ Dodgers || 4–5 || Johnny Rutherford (7–7) || Karl Drews (14–15) || None || see 2nd game || 83–66
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 150 || September 23 (2) || @ Dodgers || 1–0(12) || Curt Simmons (14–8) || Jim Hughes (2–1) || Kent Peterson (1) || 24,408 || 84–66
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 151 || September 24 || @ Dodgers || 9–7 || Robin Roberts (27–7) || Clem Labine (8–4) || None || 2,136 || 85–66
|- style="background:#fbb"
| 152 || September 26 || @ Giants || 0–8 || Sal Maglie (18–8) || Russ Meyer (13–14) || Hoyt Wilhelm (11) || 1,684 || 85–67
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 153 || September 27 || @ Giants || 7–3 || Paul Stuffel (1–0) || Mario Picone (0–1) || Kent Peterson (2) || 3,535 || 86–67
|- style="background:#bfb"
| 154 || September 28 || @ Giants || 7–4 || Robin Roberts' (28–7) || Jack Harshman (0–2) || None || 5,933 || 87–67
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |
The second game on June 22, 1952, was called after 7 innings due to darkness. Contemporary newspaper accounts, as well as Retrosheet, indicate that the Cincinnati Reds protested the game, but Baseball-Reference.com does not indicate that an official protest had occurred.
The original game schedule indicated Pittsburgh at Philadelphia for single games on July 22, 23, and 24.
The second game on September 6 was suspended (Pennsylvania curfew) in the bottom of the eighth inning with the score 1–3 and was completed September 7, 1952.
The original game schedule indicated Chicago at Philadelphia for single games on September 12 and 13.
Roster
Player stats
Batting
Starters by position Note: Pos = Position; G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in Other batters Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in Pitching
Starting pitchers Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts Other pitchers Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts Relief pitchers Note: G = Games pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; SV = Saves; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts''
Awards and honors
League leaders
Robin Roberts, National League Leader, Wins (28)
Farm system
LEAGUE CHAMPIONS: Terre Haute, Miami
Notes
References
1952 Philadelphia Phillies season at Baseball Reference
Philadelphia Phillies seasons
Philadelphia Phillies season
Philadelphia
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5828371
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Rumble%20%281992%29
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Royal Rumble (1992)
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The 1992 Royal Rumble was the fifth annual Royal Rumble professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE). It took place on January 19, 1992, at the Knickerbocker Arena in Albany, New York. It centered on the Royal Rumble match, a modified battle royal in which participants enter at timed intervals instead of all beginning in the ring at the same time.
Six matches were contested at the event, including one dark match. The main event was the 1992 Royal Rumble match. This Royal Rumble match was notable as for the first time, the winner would win the WWF World Heavyweight Championship, which had been vacated in December 1991. Ric Flair won the match by last eliminating Sid Justice with the help of Hulk Hogan from the outside. In other featured matches on the undercard, The Natural Disasters (Earthquake and Typhoon) defeated WWF Tag Team Champions The Legion of Doom (Hawk and Animal) by countout (since The Natural Disasters won by countout, The Legion of Doom retained the WWF Tag Team Championship), The Beverly Brothers (Blake Beverly and Beau Beverly) defeated The Bushwhackers (Bushwhacker Luke and Bushwhacker Butch), and Roddy Piper defeated The Mountie to win the WWF Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship.
Production
Background
The Royal Rumble is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV), produced every January by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) since 1988. It is one of the promotion's original four pay-per-views, along with WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, which were dubbed the "Big Four". It is named after the Royal Rumble match, a modified battle royal in which the participants enter at timed intervals instead of all beginning in the ring at the same time. The 1992 event was the fifth event in the Royal Rumble chronology and was scheduled to be held on January 19, 1992, at the Knickerbocker Arena in Albany, New York.
The Royal Rumble match generally features 30 wrestlers. Prior to 1992, there was no prize for winning the match. However, as the WWF World Heavyweight Championship had been vacated, the vacant title became the prize of the 1992 Royal Rumble match. It was the first of only two times in which the promotion's world championship was the prize of the Royal Rumble match—the second occurred at the 2016 event.
Event
The card consisted of five matches. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters to build tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWF's writers, with storylines produced on their weekly television shows, Superstars, Wrestling Challenge, and Prime Time Wrestling.
Prior to the event, it was announced the winner of the Royal Rumble would win the vacant WWF World Heavyweight Championship, which had been stripped from Hulk Hogan after two controversial title switches between Hogan and the Undertaker, first at the 1991 Survivor Series and later at the Tuesday in Texas pay-per-view event. Hogan and The Undertaker were among the 30 entrants in the event. WWF president Jack Tunney gave Hogan and Undertaker an advantage in the random draw to determine the order in which wrestlers would enter the ring, promising them numbers between 20 and 30.
The Royal Rumble match helped begin Justice's slow-building turn into a villain. Justice – who was returning from a recent injury – entered at No. 29 and was among the final four wrestlers, along with Hogan, Randy Savage and Flair. Justice eliminated Savage and then Hogan, leaving himself and Flair in the ring. During the initial live pay-per-view broadcast, Justice's elimination of Hogan was loudly cheered by the audience in attendance even though, as per storyline plans, Sid "sneaked up from behind" to throw Hogan out. As such, the original reaction was edited out of future television replays as well as the Coliseum home video release of the event, with play-by-play announcer Gorilla Monsoon adding new comments condemning Sid for his actions (Monsoon had originally said Justice's elimination of Hogan was fair). Hogan, who was still at ringside after being eliminated, grabbed Sid's arm and distracted him long enough for Flair to eliminate him to win the match and become the new WWF World Heavyweight Champion. After the match, Sid and Hogan got into an argument in the ring and had to be separated by security.
In his book, To Be The Man, Ric Flair mentions not knowing he was going to be winning the Royal Rumble (WWF Title) until arriving at the arena the day of the event, and also felt he was brought in at number three in order to showcase his skills and endurance to the WWF audience, who may not have watched his work in Jim Crockett Promotions and World Championship Wrestling. Meanwhile, Bobby Heenan mentioned in his autobiography, Bobby The Brain, that it was his initial suggestion that Flair enter the Rumble at number one for dramatic purposes, and that Vince McMahon changed it to number three and claimed it as his own idea.
Aftermath
The confrontation between Hogan and Justice was played out over a series of future WWF television programs. On the Superstars program aired January 25, 1992, WWF President Jack Tunney held a press conference, where he announced that Hogan would face Flair for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania VIII. Justice, who was also in attendance and began standing up as if Tunney were about to proclaim him the top contender, was outraged and termed the announcement "the most bogus act Jack Tunney has ever pulled off." Sid later apologized and Hogan accepted, but on the February 8 Saturday Night's Main Event XXX, Justice abandoned Hogan during a tag-team match against Flair and The Undertaker, completing his heel turn and leading to a match at WrestleMania VIII.
Flair, meanwhile, began feuding with Savage over the WWF World Heavyweight Championship. According to the storyline, Flair claimed that he had a previous relationship with Savage's wife, Miss Elizabeth, going as far as presenting pictures of Elizabeth in which Flair had himself superimposed. This culminated in a title match at WrestleMania VIII; Savage won the match and his second (and final) WWF World Heavyweight Championship.
This was the first Royal Rumble in which stakes were involved for the winner—the stipulation in which the winner would face the WWF/WWE World Heavyweight Champion at WrestleMania first took place at the following year's event. It would be 24 years before the Royal Rumble was again for the (now) WWE World Heavyweight Championship, and the first match in which the champion—Roman Reigns—defended his title in the Rumble match. That match was won by Triple H.
Results
Royal Rumble entrances and eliminations
A new entrant came out approximately every 2 minutes.
Randy Savage eliminated himself shortly after eliminating Jake Roberts by jumping to Roberts over the top rope. However, he returned to the ring and resumed his participation.
Hulk Hogan was already eliminated and grabbed onto Sid's arm while Flair snuck up behind and lifted Sid over the ropes.
References
External links
Official website
1992
Events in New York (state)
1992 in New York (state)
1992 WWF pay-per-view events
January 1992 events in the United States
Professional wrestling in Albany, New York
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22813475
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software%20defect%20indicator
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Software defect indicator
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A Software Defect Indicator is a pattern that can be found in source code that is strongly correlated with a software defect, an error or omission in the source code of a computer program that may cause it to malfunction. When inspecting the source code of computer programs, it is not always possible to identify defects directly, but there are often patterns, sometimes called anti-patterns, indicating that defects are present.
Some examples of Software Defect Indicators:
Disabled Code: Code has been written and the programmer has disabled it, or switched it off, without making it clear why it has been disabled, or when or whether it will be re-enabled.
Routine Too Complex: A program (method, module, routine, subroutine, procedure, or any named block of code) contains more than 10 binary terms in conditional statements.
Unused Variables: Unreferenced variables are a strong indicator for other errors.
See also
Cyclomatic complexity
Anti-pattern
Computer program
Computer programming
Control flow
Software engineering
References
External links
NIST Special Publication 500-235 Structured Testing: A Testing Methodology Using the Cyclomatic Complexity Metric
Software metrics
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16429557
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4063%20Euforbo
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4063 Euforbo
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4063 Euforbo is a large Jupiter trojan from the Greek camp, approximately in diameter. It was discovered on 1 February 1989, by Italian astronomers at the San Vittore Observatory near Bologna, Italy. The dark D-type asteroid is one of the 25 largest Jupiter trojans and has a rotation period of 8.8 hours. It was named after Euphorbus (Euforbo) from Greek mythology.
Orbit and classification
Euforbo is a dark Jovian asteroid orbiting in the leading Greek camp at Jupiter's Lagrangian point, 60° ahead of its orbit in a 1:1 resonance (see Trojans in astronomy). It is also a non-family asteroid in the Jovian background population.
It orbits the Sun at a distance of 4.6–5.8 AU once every 11 years and 10 months (4,313 days; semi-major axis of 5.19 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 19° with respect to the ecliptic.
The body's observation arc begins with its first observation as at Turku Observatory in March 1943, nearly 46 years prior to its official discovery observation at Bologna.
Physical characteristics
In both the Tholen- and SMASS-like taxonomy of the Small Solar System Objects Spectroscopic Survey (S3OS2), Euforbo is a dark D-type asteroid. It is also an assumed, carbonaceous C-type asteroid.
Rotation period
Since 1992, several rotational lightcurve of Euforbo have been obtained from photometric observations by Stefano Mottola, Robert Stephens, René Roy and astronomers at the Palomar Transient Factory (). In November 2010, the best-rated lightcurve by James W. Brinsfield at the Via Capote Observatory , California, gave a rotation period of 8.846 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.19 magnitude ().
Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite, the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Euforbo measures between 95.62 and 106.38 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.057 and 0.070.
The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link derives an albedo of 0.0558 and a diameter of 102.35 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 8.7.
Naming
This minor planet was named from Greek mythology after Euphorbus (Euforbo), the Greek hero who wounded Patroclus in the breast before being killed by Hektor. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 19 January 1992 ().
Notes
References
External links
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
004063
004063
Minor planets named from Greek mythology
Named minor planets
19890201
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16423956
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2241%20Alcathous
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2241 Alcathous
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2241 Alcathous is a large Jupiter trojan from the Trojan camp, approximately in diameter. It was discovered on 22 November 1979, by American astronomer Charles Kowal at the Palomar Observatory in southern California, United States. The dark D-type asteroid belongs to the 20 largest Jupiter trojans and has a rotation period of 7.7 hours. It was named after Alcathous from Greek mythology.
Orbit and classification
Alcathous is a dark Jovian asteroid orbiting in the trailing Trojan camp at Jupiter's Lagrangian point, 60° behind its orbit in a 1:1 resonance . It is also a non-family asteroid of the Jovian background population.
It orbits the Sun at a distance of 4.8–5.5 AU once every 11 years and 10 months (4,309 days; semi-major axis of 5.18 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 17° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins with a precovery taken at Palomar in June 1950, more than 29 years prior to its official discovery observation.
Physical characteristics
In the Tholen, Barucci and Tedesco taxonomy, Alcathous is classified as a dark D-type asteroid. It is the 8th largest of all 46 D-type asteroids in the Tholen classification.
Rotation period
A large number rotational lightcurves have been obtained since December 1991, when Alcathous was first observed by Stefano Mottola with the Loiano 1.52-meter telescope at Bologna Observatory, Italy. In 1994, the asteroid's rotation period was also measured by Giovanni de Sanctis and collaborators ().
Several photometric observations between 2010 and 2017, by Daniel Coley and Robert Stephens at the Center for Solar System Studies and at GMARS , also include the so-far best-rated period of 7.689 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.22 magnitude ().
Diameter and albedo
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Alcathous measures between 113.68 and 118.87 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.044 and 0.048. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link adopts the results obtained by IRAS, that is, an albedo of 0.0471 and a diameter of 114.63 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 8.64.
Naming
This minor planet was named after Alcathous, brave and handsome Trojan leader in Homer's Iliad. Alcathous was the husband of Hippodamia the eldest daughter of Anchises (also see ), who excelled all other girls of her age in beauty, skill and wit. Alcathous, previously uninjured in the Trojan War, was struck by Poseidon (also see ) with blindness and paralysis and was killed easily by a spear thrown by the Greek general and Cretan commander, Idomeneus (also see ). The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 10 November 1992 ().
Notes
References
External links
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
002241
Discoveries by Charles T. Kowal
Minor planets named from Greek mythology
Named minor planets
002241
19791122
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45314572
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Kotli
|
University of Kotli
|
The University of Kotli Azad Jammu and Kashmir is a university in the Pakistani Administered self governing region of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. The University of Kotli (کوٹلی یونیورسٹی) (UoK) was formerly a constituent college of the University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. It was formerly known as the University College of Administrative Sciences Kotli (UCK) and as the Faculty of Administrative Sciences Kotli (FASK). UoK is state university and the President of Azad Jammu & Kashmir State serves as the Chancellor of the University. The Vice-Chancellor is the chief executive and manages the university.
For the past three decades, the University's School of Administrative Sciences Kotli has had over 3,000 graduates in the field of Business Management, Public Administration, Commerce, Computer Science and Information.
History
UoK became a University as a result of Presidential Ordinance VIII of 2014. The change in the status of the school was made in order to offer higher education and research in the Country of Azad Jammu and Kashmir and their surrounding area.
Organization
UoK is state university and the President of Azad Jammu & Kashmir State serves as the Chancellor of the University. The Vice-Chancellor is the chief executive and manages the university.
Degree Programs
The University offers a broad range of bachelor, master and doctoral degree programs in 150+ disciplines such as Commerce, Accounting, Business Administration, Banking and Finance, Business and IT, Computer Science, Economics, Education, Electrical Engineering, Aviation, Management, Supply Chain, Textile Engineering, Industrial Engineering, Information Systems, Linguistics, Media and Communication, Agri-business, School Management, Social Sciences, Educational Leadership Management, Law, English Language Teaching, and many more and these are the details :
Bachelors programs
Business Administration
Banking and Finance
Commerce
Management
Mathematics
Economics
English
Computer Sciences
Information technology
Software Engineering
Biotechnology
Botany
Chemistry
Physics
Zoology
Master degree programs
MBA (3.5 years) after 2-year traditional bachelors
MBA Executive (2-year)
MBA (1.5 years) after 4-year bachelors or Masters
BBS (2 year)
M.Com (2 years)
MPA (2 years)
M.Sc HRM
M.Sc Banking and Finance
M.Sc Enterprise Management and Development studies
M.Sc Mathematics
M.Sc Economics
M.Sc Sociology
M.Sc Statistics
M.Sc Zoology
M.A English
M.Ed.
LLB (3 years)
Ph.D./M.Phil./MS programs
Ph.D. Economics
Ph.D. Management Sciences
M.Phil./MS Economics
M.Phil./MS Management Sciences
M.Phil./MS Computer Sciences
Departments
The university has the following departments.
Faculty of Administrative Sciences
Department of Business Administration
Department of Software Engineering
Department of Computer Science and Information technology
Department of Public Administration
Department of English
Department of Law
Department of Mathematics
Faculty of commerce
Department of Commerce
Department of Economics
Faculty of Sciences
Facilities
Library and laboratories
The University has a well-equipped library and computer laboratories.
Scholarships
The university provides merit-based and need-based scholarships. Most of these are funded by private foundations and non-governmental organizations.
References
External links
University of Kotli
2014 establishments in Pakistan
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1109484
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telemachy
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Telemachy
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The Telemachy (from Greek Τηλεμάχεια, Tēlemacheia) is a term traditionally applied to the first four books of Homer's epic poem the Odyssey. They are named so because, just as the Odyssey tells the story of Odysseus, they tell the story of Odysseus's son Telemachus as he journeys from home for the first time in search of news about his missing father.
The Telemachy as an introduction to the Odyssey
The Odyssey is a nostos that recalls the story of Odysseus' journey home to Ithaca, finally completed twenty years after the Trojan War began. Odysseus, however, does not directly appear in the narrative until Book 5. Instead, the Telemachys subject is the effect of Odysseus' absence on his family, Telemachus in particular. The first four books of the Odyssey give the reader a glimpse of the goings-on at the palace in Ithaca. There are a multitude of suitors vying for Penelope's hand in marriage, consuming the absent king's estate. They have been a terrible drain on the family's wealth, as they have been nearly permanent houseguests while Penelope put off her choice for three to four years. A brooding Telemachus wants to eject the suitors, and in fact announces his intention to do so; but he is not strong enough to act on the threat. Homer thus provides Telemachus with a motive for leaving Ithaca, and the reader with this portrait of Ithaca to place Odysseus' homecoming in context and to underscore the urgency of his journey.
Telemachus' Rites of Passage
Homeric scholarship generally recognizes the Telemachy as the story of its eponymous hero's journey from boyhood to manhood. It is only after having gone through this journey that Telemachus will be equipped to help Odysseus kill the suitors in Book 22. His first step toward Homer's ideal of manhood is a figurative one: in Book 1 Penelope tries to dictate what songs a bard should sing for the suitors. Telemachus (345ff.) admonishes her, and directs her to go back to her room; this signals the first time that Telemachus asserts himself as the head of the household in the Odyssey.
In Book 2 Telemachus further tries to assert his authority when he calls an Assembly and demands that the suitors leave his estate. But since Telemachus is, in his own words (61-2), "a weakling knowing nothing of valor," the suitors refuse, blaming Penelope for their staying so long. Telemachus then announces his intention to visit Sparta and Pylos in search of news about his father. This first journey away from home is an important part of the figurative journey from boyhood to manhood.
In Book 3 Telemachus is schooled in the ancient Greek social contract between hosts and their houseguests. The concept, called xenia, is simple: the host should offer the houseguest anything he wants, and the houseguest should not abuse this generosity, for he might find himself playing the part of host in the future. Nestor, the king of Pylos, exemplifies this social contract. Furthermore, Nestor's storytelling allows Homer to relate myths that fall outside of the Odyssey'''s purview. He reflects on the Trojan War, praising Odysseus for his cunning. Telemachus begins to learn and appreciate what kind of man his father was. The story Nestor tells of Orestes in particular serves as a model for Telemachus to emulate: just as Orestes killed the overbearing suitor who occupied his father Agamemnon's estate, so should Telemachus kill the suitors and reclaim his own father's estate.
In Book 4 Telemachus visits Menelaus in Sparta. Through the story-telling of Menelaus, Homer further narrates myths of the Trojan War that are not strictly the Odyssey's purview. Menelaus tells Telemachus of his own detour in Egypt on his way home from the Trojan War, during which he learned that Odysseus is still alive, a virtual captive of the nymph Calypso. His wife Helen recalls one of Odysseus' exploits during the war, which prompts Menelaus to tell his own story about Odysseus' heroism in the war. These tales of bravery and cunning both further educate Telemachus about his father, and serve as further examples of heroism to which he should aspire. The story of Orestes is revisited, again, to inspire Telemachus to take action against the suitors. Telemachus takes his own steps toward manhood when he leaves Sparta. Whereas he arrived at Pylos afraid to even speak to Nestor, upon leaving Menelaus he has enough confidence in himself to ask for a gift more appropriate for an inhabitant of rocky Ithaca. Menelaus obliges, and exchanges the chariot and team of horses he had given him for a wine bowl made by Hephaestus. Telemachus then begins his journey back home. But in Ithaca, the suitors have decided to ambush and kill Telemachus before he reaches his (669) "measure of manhood" and begin making trouble for them: in Book 2 Telemachus is considered a boy who poses no threat; by the end of Book 4 they fear his becoming a man who could stand up to them. The Telemachy abruptly draws to a close with this cliffhanger, the Suitors setting an ambush for Telemachus at a harbour.
Typically, in the hero's journey he will receive occasional aid from a mentor figure. In the Odyssey, Athena serves as mentor to both Odysseus and Telemachus. In Book 1 she visits Telemachus disguised as the mortal Mentes to spur the young man to action. She alternately advises Telemachus in the guise of a man actually named Mentor—hence the word "mentor" in English.
Capstone to Telemachy
Near the end of the Odyssey, Telemachus demonstrates his decisiveness and independence by hanging the disloyal women slaves, instead of killing them by sword, for the sake of his honor.
Foreshadowing in the Telemachy
The Orestes paradigm treated above is perhaps the most overt example of foreshadowing events in the Odysseys later books. The stories told about Odysseus serve a similar purpose. In the Telemachy'' both Nestor and Menelaus praise Odysseus for his cunning. In telling of his own detour in Egypt, Menelaus emphasizes how the use of cunning and subterfuge were instrumental in his return to Sparta. It was only by hiding under a seal skin that he was able to ambush and capture Proteus, the only one who can direct Menelaus how to reach home. Although the scheme was not of Menelaus' devising, it does demonstrate that while the battlefield inspires bravery from its heroes, wily cunning also has its place when the situation demands. These recollections of stealth and subterfuge point to the tactics that Odysseus will eventually employ upon his return to Ithaca.
Notes
Odyssey
Nestor (mythology)
Components of intellectual works
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