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An LCD screen is made of Liquid Crystals, tiny semi-liquid particles. When you touch it, you move the crystals, then the ripple.
Soft matter is a subfield of condensed matter comprising a variety of physical states that are easily deformed by thermal stresses or thermal fluctuations. They include liquids, colloids, polymers, foams, gels, granular materials, and a number of biological materials. These materials share an important common feature in that predominant physical behaviors occur at an energy scale comparable with room temperature thermal energy. At these temperatures, quantum aspects are generally unimportant. Pierre-Gilles de Gennes, who has been called the "founding father of soft matter," received the Nobel Prize in physics in 1991 for discovering that the order parameter from simple thermodynamic systems can be applied to the more complex cases found in soft matter, in particular, to the behaviors of liquid crystals and polymers.
Condensed matter physics is a branch of physics that deals with the physical properties of condensed phases of matter. Condensed matter physicists seek to understand the behavior of these phases by using physical laws. In particular, these include the laws of quantum mechanics, electromagnetism and statistical mechanics.
The most familiar condensed phases are solids and liquids, while more exotic condensed phases include the superconducting phase exhibited by certain materials at low temperature, the ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic phases of spins on atomic lattices, and the Bose–Einstein condensate found in cold atomic systems. The study of condensed matter physics involves measuring various material properties via experimental probes along with using techniques of theoretical physics to develop mathematical models that help in understanding physical behavior.
Liquid crystals (LCs) are matter in a state that has properties between those of conventional liquid and those of solid crystal. For instance, a liquid crystal may flow like a liquid, but its molecules may be oriented in a crystal-like way. There are many different types of liquid-crystal phases, which can be distinguished by their different optical properties (such as birefringence). When viewed under a microscope using a polarized light source, different liquid crystal phases will appear to have distinct textures. The contrasting areas in the textures correspond to domains where the liquid-crystal molecules are oriented in different directions. Within a domain, however, the molecules are well ordered. LC materials may not always be in a liquid-crystal phase (just as water may turn into ice or steam).
Liquid crystals can be divided into thermotropic, lyotropic and metallotropic phases. Thermotropic and lyotropic liquid crystals consist of organic molecules. Thermotropic LCs exhibit a phase transition into the liquid-crystal phase as temperature is changed. Lyotropic LCs exhibit phase transitions as a function of both temperature and concentration of the liquid-crystal molecules in a solvent (typically water). Metallotropic LCs are composed of both organic and inorganic molecules; their liquid-crystal transition depends not only on temperature and concentration, but also on the inorganic-organic composition ratio.
A display device is an output device for presentation of information in visual or tactile form (the latter used for example in tactile electronic displays for blind people). When the input information is supplied as an electrical signal, the display is called an electronic display.
Common applications for electronic visual displays are televisions or computer monitors.
Not to be confused with State of matter
In the physical sciences, a phase is a region of space (a thermodynamic system), throughout which all physical properties of a material are essentially uniform. Examples of physical properties include density, index of refraction, magnetization and chemical composition. A simple description is that a phase is a region of material that is chemically uniform, physically distinct, and (often) mechanically separable. In a system consisting of ice and water in a glass jar, the ice cubes are one phase, the water is a second phase, and the humid air over the water is a third phase. The glass of the jar is another separate phase. (See State of Matter#Glass)
A phase transition is the transformation of a thermodynamic system from one phase or state of matter to another.
A phase of a thermodynamic system and the states of matter have uniform physical properties.
A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat panel display, electronic visual display, or video display that uses the light modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly.
LCDs are available to display arbitrary images (as in a general-purpose computer display) or fixed images which can be displayed or hidden, such as preset words, digits, and 7-segment displays as in a digital clock. They use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made up of a large number of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements. Ripple
A monitor or a display is an electronic visual display for computers. The monitor comprises the display device, circuitry and an enclosure. The display device in modern monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid crystal display (TFT-LCD) thin panel, while older monitors used a cathode ray tube (CRT) about as deep as the screen size.
Originally, computer monitors were used for data processing while television receivers were used for entertainment. From the 1980s onwards, computers (and their monitors) have been used for both data processing and entertainment, while televisions have implemented some computer functionality. The common aspect ratio of televisions, and then computer monitors, has also changed from 4:3 to 16:9 (and 16:10).
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to serve several billion users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW), the infrastructure to support email, and peer-to-peer networks.
Most traditional communications media including telephone, music, film, and television are being reshaped or redefined by the Internet, giving birth to new services such as voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and Internet Protocol television (IPTV). Newspaper, book and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging and web feeds. The Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of human interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Online shopping has boomed both for major retail outlets and small artisans and traders. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries.
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July 18, 1945: President Harry Truman was informed of the successful test two days earlier of the first atomic bomb. He would soon order two of them to be dropped on Japan, bringing World War II to a close.
July 18, 1947: President Harry Truman signed the Presidential Succession Act, which said the speaker of the House was second in line to assume the presidency, after the vice president. The original order of presidential succession, signed by President Washington in 1792, said the president pro tem of the Senate followed the VP. The original 1792 law was also revised in 1886, removing both the House speaker and president pro tem of the Senate from the presidential succession list.
Quote of the Day
"Facts are stubborn things; and whatever may be our wishes, our inclinations, or the dictates of our passions, they cannot alter the state of facts and evidence." -John Adams
More from West Wing Reports...
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Catharine Macaulay was born in 1731 as Catharine Sawbridge, the daughter of a wealthy English landowner. In a time and place that lacked any systematic education for women, Macaulay took it upon herself to learn history by reading the books in her father’s library; her position as a member of the landed gentry enabled her to continue studying in that field, particularly in classical Greek and Roman history. Following her marriage to George Macaulay, a Scottish doctor, she decided to write an extensive history of England and demonstrate the knowledge she had learned through her own self-teachings. Supported by her husband, despite the fact that scholarship was not a “ladylike” pursuit, Macaulay tirelessly worked for years on her History of England, which was published in eight volumes over a span of two decades beginning in 1763. Her writings were politically radical, particularly as they supported American independence, and made her a center of controversy from the start.
In addition to her History, Macaulay wrote on the subject of women’s education and the need to educate both sexes using the same methods. Macaulay believed women to be the intellectual equals of men, flying in the face of the popular beliefs espoused by Rousseau in particular. Her Letters on Education were seminal parts of the fledgling debate over women’s access to a full education, and proved particularly educational to Mary Wollstonecraft. Macaulay pointed out that any perceived intellectual imbalances were not due to some inborn inferiority in women, but to the fact that their education was geared towards more leisurely pursuits that would make them suitable wives and mothers rather than stimulate their minds.
Writing that “the soul/mind has no sex nor does virtue,” Macaulay’s letters advocated for women’s emancipation through educational reform — opinions that were perceived as threatening to upend the natural order. Macaulay recognized that the cult of ladylike subservience was based on men’s fear that if women were educated and allowed to be full participants in the world their morals would be compromised and they would no longer be suitable caretakers for the next generation. Macaulay posited that “there is but one rule of right for the conduct of all rational beings; consequently that true virtue in one sex must be equally so in the other . . . .” In other words, behavior that is deemed acceptable for men must also be acceptable for women. Macaulay dismisses the notion that a full education would prove to be morally corrupting for women by arguing that ignorance is more dangerous to virtue than education could ever be: “true wisdom, which is never found at variance with rectitude, is as useful to women as to men; because it is necessary to the highest degree of happiness, which can never exist with ignorance.” She argues strenuously that the cult of female “beauty and delicacy” is what shows to “corrupt and debilitate both the powers of [women's] mind and body.”
Macaulay’s politics colored attitudes toward her writings, and she remained on the fringes of the influential Bluestockings group. Her 1778 marriage to William Graham damaged her reputation in England enough so that she found herself more welcome in France and America than in her home country. The reason for the “scandal” surrounding her marriage? Macaulay was twenty-six years older than her husband, and Graham (an apothecary) was deemed to be low-class. She continued working until the end of her life, publishing both Letters on Education and Observations on the Reflections of the Right Hon. Edmund Burke on the Revolution in France the year before her death in 1791 at the age of sixty.
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In the first of two posts, Jal Mehta argues that neither reformers nor traditionalists have all the answers in moving towards deeper learning for all. This post highlights five blind spots of reformers that he thinks are worthy of more open discussion.
The local name for the Philadelphia neighborhood of Kensington is “the Badlands,” and with good reason. Pockmarked with empty lots and burned-out row houses, the area has an unemployment rate of 29 percent and a poverty rate of 90 percent. Just a few miles to the northwest, the genteel neighborhood...
What most educators would call “subjects” or “disciplines,” Jeff Hopkins, principal of the Pacific School of Innovation and Inquiry, regards as “silos” when they restrict the scope of learning and nodes of a knowledge network when they serve as points of interconnection.
There are people who can quickly memorize lists of thousands of numbers, the order of all the cards in a deck (or ten!), and much more. Science writer Joshua Foer describes the technique -- called the memory palace -- and shows off its most remarkable feature: anyone can learn how to use it, including him.
Critical thinking isn't an entirely natural process; it's one that requires courage.
For educators, as a term critical thinking is similar to words like democracy, global, and organic: You hear people use them all the time, but no one seems to understand what they mean.
This kind of etymological opacity lends itself to them being misused, fumbled awkwardly, and abused. Over the long term, such abuse empties it of meaning until we all either throw it around casually in the middle of an overly complex sentence to bolster our own credibility, or avoid the term altogether.
26 ways to ensure kids have safe & vibrant learning opportunities in & out of the classroom. The Aspen Task Force is here: bit.ly/1oAuCah
The digital revolution has transformed almost every aspect of society. No facet of this revolution has more potential than its ability to change the way people learn. The availability of a vast array of knowledge and resources at the click of a mouse or the touch of a screen, together with the ability to connect instantaneously with peers and mentors across the street and across the globe, make possible completely new learning environments and experiences. These opportunities are highly engaging and collaborative, and they are based on learners’ own interests and strengths. Students can truly learn any time, any place and at any pace.
However, our traditional system of education is rooted in a model first developed in the Industrial Age. It assumes that knowledge is transferred from an external source—teachers, books and schools—to a student. Students are grouped by age, and progress is often based on the amount of time they spend in class and not on how much they have learned. In most instances, any learning that takes place outside class does not count for credit, nor is it even formally recognized.
This long-held model is struggling to engage a new generation of students for whom learning is happening all the time—online, off-line, in classrooms, as well as after school, in libraries and at museums. The connected learner can access tutorials, lessons and entire courses online while participating in afterschool programs such as code academies and maker labs.
To maximize these learning opportunities, young people must be fully connected. Students need to connect easily with others who can support their learning and to have the ability to share their ideas widely and safely. They need access to broadband, devices and software as well as to high-quality content and the literacy skills to support their full participation. They need to prepare for the world of bits, networks and entrepreneurship.
The Alliance for Excellent Education created a project-based learning toolkit that includes frameworks for approaching PBL and specific project plans that address standards, 21st century skills, and options for various technologies and lengths of implementation.
Danielle Filipiak didn't start with technology, or even with the core curriculum or community issues. She started with questions: "What does it mean to be a human being?" followed by "What prevents people from living fully as human beings?" Filipiak's reasoning: "If you don't believe you have a voice and that your literacy practices can do anything for you, then you aren't engaging fully as a human being."
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The Case of Abraham Lincoln: Story of Adultery, Murder and the Making of a Great President
In 1856, Springfield, Illinois, is abuzz. One of its citizens, a prosperous blacksmith named George Anderson, has been murdered—and the suspects are Anderson’s wife and his young nephew, believed to have been carrying on a love affair in Anderson’s own house. Eventually, another citizen of Springfield will become involved in the Anderson murder case—a prominent lawyer and rising politician named Abraham Lincoln.
The Case of Abraham Lincoln has two main strands, the murder case in Springfield and Lincoln’s career as a lawyer and a politician. The strands intersect only peripherally until near the end of the book, when Lincoln joins the Anderson defense and plays a crucial, though undramatic, role in achieving an acquittal for the suspects.
Despite the subtitle, readers expecting a juicy tale of murder and adultery will be disappointed. Fenster’s main interest is in the procedural aspects of the case and in the lawyers on both sides, not in the suspects, who took their secrets, if they had any, to the grave. Those wanting to know more about Lincoln as a lawyer and about his role in 1850s American party politics, however, will find this a welcome addition to their shelves.
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<urn:uuid:3f8cc0cf-8b0d-4d08-ba57-6d04f8986a61>
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Sunday 29 April 2007
Definition: A diglyceride, or a diacylglycerol (DAG), is a glyceride consisting of two fatty acid chains covalently bonded to a glycerol molecule through ester linkages.
One example is 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-glycerol, which contains side-chains derived from palmitic acid and oleic acid. Diacylglycerols can also have many different combinations of fatty acids attached at both the C-1 and C-2 positions.
PKC activation in molecular signaling
Diacylglycerol (DAG) functions as a second messenger signaling lipid, and is a product of the hydrolysis of the phospholipid PIP2 (phosphatidyl inositol-bisphosphate) by the enzyme phospholipase C (PLC) (a membrane-bound enzyme) that, through the same reaction, produces inositol triphosphate (IP3).
Although inositol triphosphate (IP3) diffuses into the cytosol, diacylglycerol (DAG) remains within the plasma membrane, due to its hydrophobic properties.
IP3 stimulates the release of calcium ions from the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, whereas DAG is a physiological activator of protein kinase C (PKC).
The production of DAG in the membrane facilitates translocation of PKC from the cytosol to the plasma membrane.
Diacylglycerol can be mimicked by the tumor-promoting compounds phorbol esters.
In addition to activating PKC, diacylglycerol has a number of other functions in the cell:
DAG is a source for prostaglandins.
DAG is a precursor of the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol.
DAG is an activator of a subfamily of TRPC (Transient Receptor Potential Canonical) cation channels, TRPC3/6/7.
Synthesis of diacylglycerol begins with glycerol-3-phosphate, which is derived primarily from dihydroxyacetone phosphate, a product of glycolysis (usually in the cytoplasm of liver or adipose tissue cells).
Glycerol-3-phosphate is first acylated with acyl-coenzyme A (acyl-CoA) to form lysophosphatidic acid, which is then acylated with another molecule of acyl-CoA to yield phosphatidic acid. Phosphatidic acid is then de-phosphorylated to form diacylglycerol.
Diacylglycerol is a precursor to triacylglycerol (triglyceride), which is formed in the addition of a third fatty acid to the diacylglycerol under the catalysis of diglyceride acyltransferase.
Since diacylglycerol is synthesized via phosphatidic acid, it will usually contain a saturated fatty acid at the C-1 position on the glycerol moiety and an unsaturated fatty acid at the C-2 position.
- diacylglycerol kinases delta (DGKD)
Griner EM, Kazanietz MG. Protein kinase C and other diacylglycerol effectors in cancer. Nat Rev Cancer. 2007 Apr;7(4):281-94. PMID: #17384583#
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New study shows need for better monitoring
FRISCO — Wetlands have been pinpointed as one of the largest sources of global methane emissions and new research shows that much more of the potent heat-trapping greenhouse gas will be pumped into the atmosphere as northern wetlands thaw and tropical ones warm, according to a new international study led by a University of Guelph researcher.
The study, published in Global Change Biology, is based on one of the largest-ever analyses of global methane emissions, with more than 20,000 field data measurements collected from 70 sites across arctic, temperate and tropical regions.
The results show the need for improved monitoring of wetlands and human changes to those ecosystems – a timely topic as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change prepares to examine land use impacts on greenhouse gas emissions, according to Prof. Merritt Turetsky, lead author of the new study.
Methane comes from agriculture and fossil fuel use, as well as natural sources such as microbes in saturated wetland soils. The amount of atmospheric methane was relatively stable for about a decade, but concentrations began to rise again in 2007. Scientists believe this increase stems partly from more methane being released from thawing northern wetlands.
Scientists have assumed that wetland methane release is largest in the tropics, said Turetsky.
“But our analyses show that northern fens, such as those created when permafrost thaws, can have emissions comparable to warm sites in the tropics, despite their cold temperatures. That’s very important when it comes to scaling methane release at a global scale,” he said.
The study calls for better methods of detecting different types of wetlands and methane release rates between flooded and drained areas.
Most methane studies focus on measurements at a single site, said co-author Narasinha Shurpali, University of Eastern Finland. “Our synthesis of data from a large number of observation points across the globe is unique and serves an important need.”
The team showed that small temperature changes can release much more methane from wetland soils to the atmosphere. But whether climate change will ramp up methane emissions will depend on soil moisture, said Turetsky.
Under warmer and wetter conditions, much more of the gas will be emitted. If wetland soils dry out from evaporation or human drainage, emissions will fall – but not without other problems.
In earlier studies, Turetsky found drying peatlands can spark more wildfires.
Kim Wickland, of United States Geological Survey, said, “This study provides important data for better accounting of how methane emissions change after wetland drainage and flooding.”
Methane emissions vary between natural and disturbed or managed wetlands, says Wickland, who has helped the IPCC improve methods for calculating greenhouse gas emissions from managed wetlands.
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When most people think of the British Virgin Islands, they probably think about white sand beaches, clear blue seas, and complete relaxation. With sprawling resorts, luxurious vacation homes, and yachts cruising around the shore, it’s hard to imagine anyone worrying about anything on the islands. However, for those who cherish the natural history of these islands there is plenty to be worried about.
The second-largest island in the British Virgin Island Archipelago, Anegada, is home to a fantastically-cool lizard species: the Anegada Island Iguana (Cyclura pinguis). This large lizard inhabits dry, rocky areas of Anegada Island where it lives out its days feeding on fruits and leaves. Both sexes have large home ranges, characterized by limestone crevices and burrow structures that allow these lizards to find shelter during the hottest parts of the day.
Males, distinguishable by the turquoise on various parts of their bodies, compete readily for females, which are much duller in colour. Each spring, females lay about fifteen eggs and, ideally, these will produce juveniles that will branch out from the nesting site, establish their own home ranges, and live out their lives on beautiful Anegada Island. Sadly, the situation for these lizards is far from ideal.
Since the 1970’s, when domesticated animals were first introduced to Anegada Island, the iguanas living there have rapidly declined in number. Sparsely vegetated to begin with, the island is currently devoid of many plants these iguanas used to rely on for food. Goats, sheep, cattle, and burros leave very little for the Anegada Island Iguanas to eat, resulting in decreased nesting success and lower survivorship overall.
Additionally, introduced dogs and cats feed on these lizards which, had the island not been full of rocky crevices the iguanas could hide in, would certainly have driven this wonderful animal to extinction already. Still, the Anegada Island Iguana is far from secure and it is estimated that only two or three hundred individuals remain in the wild.
As with almost every conservation project that involves endemic island fauna, current efforts to save the Anegada Island Iguana are focused mainly on ridding the ecosystem of non-native species. The eradication of cats and dogs, the construction of livestock exclosure fences, and the re-vegetation of degraded habitats are high on the priority list for conservationists working with this species.
Forward-thinking individuals established a satellite population on nearby Guana Island in 1987, where the iguana has been doing very well due to the absence of grazers. Furthermore, a population was more recently established on Necker Island. A few zoos have been successfully breeding and head-starting this species, helping offset the large number of juveniles lost to introduced predators each year.
Protecting this lizard is crucial given its role as a dominant herbivore and, by helping spread awareness; you will fulfill your role as an admirable global citizen. Clear solutions exist to save this critically-endangered species from extinction and, if strong efforts to save it continue to be implemented, the Anegada Island Iguana will never be lost.
Mitchell, Numi. West Indian Iguanas. Publication. Ed. Allison Alberts. Oxford: IUCN, 2000. Print.
More from ecomii:
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<urn:uuid:9a50febb-df5b-42b1-acfb-fd05a60adef2>
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One of the questions that historians may ask about our era is why technology became so ubiquitous, and so central to our lives. The important idea is not technology, of course, but the way we behave as a result of the tools that technology has provided. Mostly, the historian’s answers will focus on new forms of group dynamics, for these provide the underpinning for nearly all of our digital success stories.
(Many of the ideas in this article, and in several articles that follow, were sparked by the brilliant NYU professor Clay Shirky. You should buy his book right now. It is entitled Here Comes Everybody. Stop reading this blog, get your credit card, click here, then c’mon back to finish reading.)
(Welcome back.) While you were away, thirty six of us formed a big circle. And because you were away for a while, we were struggling to pass the time, and the woman next to me proposed a wager. She was willing to bet $50 that no two people in the circle shared a birthday. Nobody took the bet–it seemed like an easy way to lose money.
Shirky: “With 36 people and 365 possible birthdays, it seems like there would be about a one-in-ten chance of a match, leaving you a 90 percent chance of losing fifty dollars. In fact, you should take the bet, since you have better than an 80 percent chance of winning fifty dollars… Most people get the odds of a birthday match wrong… First, in situations involving many people, they think about themselves rather than the group…instead of counting people, you need to count the links between people.”
When counting connections, 1 plus 1 equals 1, but 1 times 4 equals 6. If I’ve done my math correctly, each of the 36 people in the circle has 35 connections, so the equation would be 36*35 or 1,260. If we were calculating unique connections–so we don’t double count both your connection to me and my connection to you, then we would divide by 2, and the number of unique connections would be 630, still a number far larger than 35, the number most people would choose in the bet.
Why does this matter? Consider LinkedIn, an Internet company whose entire operating theory is based in Internet connections. If you are reading this blog, you are likely to be one of my 500+ primary connections (that is, we are directly connected), but you are more likely to be two or three steps away–that is, you may be connected to one of the tens of thousands of people who are connected to my 500+ and even more likely to be connected to the hundreds of thousands (millions?) of people who are connected to the tens of thousands who are two steps away from me.
And why does that matter? It matters because I want to maintain my network, but it is nearly impossible to productively make use of such a large network–the connections are too diffuse, too unreliable, too far out of reach. Instead, my network, and your network, consists of a few dozen people, perhaps as many as a hundred or two hundred. And as long as at least a few of those people–the dozens or hundreds–remain connected to one another, my network remains viable. If, however, I lose contact with a few important connectors, the size and resilience of my network may dissolve.
“A group’s complexity grows faster than its size…You can see this phenomenon even in small situations, such as when people clink glasses during toast. In a small group, everyone can clink with everyone else; in a larger one, people clink glasses only with those near them.”
And here’s why that matters. If you are trying to accomplish anything meaningful on the Internet that involves connections or interactions between people, you need to understand small world networks. And with that, Shirky closes us out:
“In 1998, Duncan Watts and Steve Strogatz published their research on a pattern they dubbed the “Small World Network.” Small World networks have two characteristics that, when balanced properly, let messages move through the network effectively. The first is that small groups are densely connected. In a small group, the best pattern of connection is that everyone connects with everyone else. The second characteristic of Small World networks is that large groups are sparsely connected. As the size of your your network grew, your small group pattern, where everyone connected to everyone, would become first impractical, then unbuildable. By the time you wanted to connect five thousand people, you would need a half million connections.”
” So what do you do? You adopt both strategies–dense and sparse communities– at different scales…As long as a couple of people in each small group know a couple of people in other groups, you get the advantages of tight connection at the small scale and loose connection at the large scale. The network will be sparse but efficient and robust.”
Thanks to Emil for working out the basic mathematical formula that calculates connections (time prevented us from completing it for all cases). That formula is:
((n)*(n-1)/2 where n = the number of people in the group. Example: ((6)*5)/2 = 15
Since the connection between Person A and Person B is the same connection as Person B and Person A, division by 2 eliminates the double counting.
The formula starts working with 6 people. If anybody knows why the formula falls apart with groups of 5 or fewer group members, please comment below. And, how do we deal with fractions (half a connection divided by two)?
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The American Water Works Association touted the new film "Erin
Brockovich" for bringing much-needed attention to the damage water
polluters do to drinking water quality and public health. The film, focuses on a
lawsuit against a large power company guilty of polluting the well water of a
small town in California.
"Erin Brockovich" tells the story of what happens when polluters
have free reign over a community's water supply," said AWWA Executive
Director Jack Hoffbuhr. "If our source water is not adequately protected,
the irresponsible acts of polluters can have lethal consequences for years. We
must never forget that the water they pollute ends up in our tap, bath and
The film is based on the lawsuit filed by the Town of Hinkley, California,
against Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E), a large power company. The town
contended that toxic chromium dumped into a pond by PG&E during the 1950's
had contaminated its water wells.
Toxic chromium has been linked to a number of health ailments, including lung
and sinus cancer. Hinkley residents attributed many of their serious illnesses,
including lung, breast, stomach, kidney and prostate cancer to the chromium
contamination. Documentation proving that PG&E knew that it was polluting
the town's wells, but did nothing to stop it was presented during the
litigation. In 1996, PG&E settled the case for $333 million.
"What happened to the people of Hinkley is simply unacceptable,"
concluded Hoffbuhr. "Our source water must remain as clean as possible, and
those who pollute it must face stiff penalties for their actions."
According to an AWWA fact sheet, Chromium occurs naturally in the environment
as chrome iron ore or chromite. It is rarely found naturally in water, yet
widely distributed in soils and plants. Chromium in this form is an important
contributor to human health.
Chromium can also exist in a toxic state as hexavalent chromium that is
associated with industrial waste. It is used in metal alloys including stainless
steel, protective coatings on metal, magnetic tapes and pigments for paints,
cement, paper, rubber and other materials.
Chromium is also used for numerous industrial purposes, including as a
component of wood preservatives and in photochemical processing and industrial
water treatment. Hexavalent chromium exposure at acute levels can potentially
cause skin irritation or ulceration. Long-term exposure to hexavalent chromium
can lead to liver damage, kidney damage, as well as damage to the nerve tissues.
Hexavalent chromium has been successfully eliminated from entering the
environment as a result of past and current National Pollution Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) industrial discharge limits. The current maximum
contaminant level for chromium is 100 parts per billion (ppb.) Chromium levels
in community water supplies can be treated by using established treatment
methods. These methods include coagulation/filtration, ion exchange, reverse
osmosis, or in some cases lime softening.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has not established
a link between exposure to chromium at low levels and increased cancer rates.
According to the Toxics Release Inventory, chromium compound releases to land
and water totaled close to 200 million pounds, with 99 percent released to land,
during the period 1987 to 1993. These releases were primarily from industrial
organic chemical industries. The states with the most significant releases of
chromium to water and land were Texas, North Carolina, Indiana, Ohio, Utah,
Arizona, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Georgia and Idaho. The chemical manufacturing
industry and the combustion of natural gas, oil and coal are the largest sources
of chromium emission in the atmosphere For additional information, contact Doug
Marsano at (303) 347-6138, or visit the AWWA Web site at www.awwa.org
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To build a model of the respiratory system and investigate the inputs, outputs, and interactions of the parts in the system.
Building models is an effective way to encourage new ways of exploring science, art, mathematics, and other subject areas. When kids become designers and builders—i.e., when they go beyond simply memorizing how the a-bone connects to the b-bone—they begin to understand the dynamic manner in which systems operate.
In this activity, students will learn about the respiratory system by comparing and contrasting models, building their own models, and giving one another feedback. According to the Benchmarks: “At this level, children can begin to view the body as a system, in which parts do things for other parts and for the organism as a whole. Models help children to see and touch the internal organs and to know where they are located in the body. Questions about familiar body systems can be useful in getting students to start thinking about systems generally. They can then begin to understand that each organ affects and is affected by others.” (Benchmarks for Science Literacy, p. 136.)
Students at this level have had limited exposure to the parts and processes involved in respiration. According to the research, “lower elementary-school students may have little knowledge about internal body organs and think the contents of the body are what they have seen being put into or coming out of it (food, blood). Upper elementary students can list a large number of organs; however, a sizable portion of adults have little knowledge of internal organs or their location (for example, few adults can draw the stomach and the liver in reasonable positions). (Benchmarks for Science Literacy, p. 344.)
Models help students understand parts and processes that are not visible, and help to demystify internal systems. According to the Benchmarks: “As students develop beyond their natural play with models, they should begin to modify them and discuss their limitations…. Students also can begin to compare their objects, drawings, and constructions to the things they portray or resemble (real bears, houses, airplanes, etc.)…. Students can begin to formulate their own models to explain things they cannot observe directly. By testing their models and changing them as more information is acquired, they begin to understand how science works.” (Benchmarks for Science Literacy, p. 268.)
Engaging students in collaborative activities is key to helping them understand why systems work, (or don’t work) and how properties change. A common misunderstanding for students at this level is that they think the properties of a system belong to individual parts of it rather than from the interaction of parts. (Benchmarks for Science Literacy, p. 262.) Hands-on modeling helps students understand cause and effect relationships, and how certain things must happen first in order for other things to happen next, (i.e., when you inhale, your diaphragm contracts to make room for your lungs, which fill up with air the way balloons do when you blow them up).
While doing this lesson, encourage students not to be intimidated by what they don’t yet know about respiration. The investigatory focus of this activity encourages students to tinker with inputs and outputs and in a sense “play” with putting together and taking apart parts, as a way of teaching them how to design systems.
Note: As you’ll see, the websites used in this lesson contain introductory as well as rather in-depth information. Be sure to make it clear to students that the respiratory model they will build in this lesson doesn’t require all of the parts shown in the diagrams at the websites.
To begin, have an open-ended discussion to find out what students know about respiration.
- What do you know about lungs?
- What do you know about breathing and respiration?
- What are some of the body parts and elements involved in breathing? (Mouth, breathing tubes, oxygen, carbon dioxide, blood.)
- Have you heard of the respiratory system before?
- Why do you think it is called a system?
Designing Models and Systems
Distribute the Designing Models and Systems student sheet as a tool for students to record observations and feedback on their models. Explain to students that they will visit two websites to learn more about respiration as a prelude to building models. Pairing up students to work together is an effective way for students to share knowledge and observations. Remind students that the goal of the activity is to gain a broad understanding of models and systems, rather than a detailed recollection of the parts and functions of respiration.
As outlined on the student sheet, have students visit the website Inside the Human Body: The Respiratory System. This site provides a basic overview on lungs and lungs as a system. It shows how lungs are made up of many parts and that all are important for the lungs to work right. Students who are less familiar with the respiratory system will appreciate seeing a concrete model of respiration prior to attempting to build one.
Also have students visit the website Your Respiratory System. This site provides a closer view of the lungs. Specific text on lungs, inputs, and outputs are mentioned (breathing in oxygen, breathing out carbon dioxide). This is important for the discussion of systems.
After visiting the second website, encourage students to use the student sheets to revise their first drawing and reconvene for a class discussion focusing on models and systems.
- How would you compare the first website model of respiration to the second model?
- Is one model better than the other? Explain.
- What is the difference between a model and a system?
- With what systems are you familiar? What makes these things systems? That is, how would you define a system?
- What is the function of this system (the lungs) as a whole? What are the essential parts of the system? What are the functions of these parts?
- Would the individual parts of the lung be able to function alone? Why or why not?
- Do you think it is important to have all the parts of the lung together in a certain way? Why or why not?
- Describe what each part does, and tell how each part contributes to the system as a whole.
Making Bottled Model Lungs
At this point, students should be ready to begin building their models. Hand out the Making Bottled Lungs student sheet. Students should continue to use the Designing Models and Systems student sheet to record observations and feedback.
After students complete their models, encourage them to seek out and provide feedback to one another. Research shows this is an important part of building students understanding of models and systems.
Following is an explanation of how the model relates to actual lungs:
When you breathe, your diaphragm contracts and expands. When you inhale, your diaphragm contracts to make room for your lungs, which fill up with air the way balloons do when you blow them up. The model demonstrates this action when you pull down on its latex bottom. When you exhale, your diaphragm expands, forcing the air out of your lungs. You can see this action using your model when you push up on its latex bottom. The muscles of the rib cage, which protect the lungs, are also used in respiration, allowing the lungs to fill up with air. The main purpose of respiration is the intake of air, which contains oxygen, an element vital to our survival, and the removal of the waste product carbon dioxide.
If time allows, students should view the Lungs & Respiratory System movie. This movie is useful in that it shows the in and out breathing movement that the students are simulating in their models.
Having begun this activity with a general idea of the process of modeling and respiration, this is a good opportunity to see what students have learned.
- What is the cause and effect relationship among parts? What is the relationship of parts to whole in a system? Between systems?
- How else could you model the lungs using household items? Explain.
- What other parts of the body could you model? How?
- How could you create a model of a heart?
Once students understand how the interaction of parts affects lung properties and functions in respiration, it will be easier to compare and contrast this system with other systems.
- How do systems interact and affect one another?
- In what sense are the lungs a system? In what sense are they a subsystem?
- How do outputs from one system become the inputs to another system? How are properties of the lungs affected by the inputs and outputs of the system?
- Discuss this statement: A system has properties that are different from those of its parts, but which only appear as a result of the interaction of those parts.
- Discuss this statement: The successful operation of a designed system usually involves feedback. Feedback is an important aspect of learning to build systems.
Once students have compared existing models, recorded observations, built their own models, and given one another feedback, it will be a good time to assess their knowledge.
Students should be able to name several body parts and processes associated with respiration, i.e., mouth, throat, lungs, breathing in, breathing out, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. They should have a basic understanding of models, and be able to identify common features of a system.
Ideally, kids might be able to “troubleshoot” and consider ways in which changing parts in a system will change its functions or properties. They should be able to make comparisons between human systems and other systems and understand that scientists, artists, and mathematicians all use models for similar purposes.
- What are two different types of models?
- In what way can your lungs be described as a “system”?
- What inputs, outputs, and interactions are part of the lungs system?
- What other systems are you familiar with?
- How do you know a “system” functions the way it is supposed to?
- What happens if one part of the “system” is broken? How does this affect the other parts and functions of the system?
- How does your model compare to real lungs?
The following Science NetLinks lessons can be used before or after this lesson to extend students’ understanding of models and systems:
Below are some additional websites with useful information about and models of respiration. Note: Some of the information at these websites is at a higher level and may be too advanced for some students.
- Learn How Your Lungs Work, on The American Lung Association website
- Asthma, on the Children’s Medical Center of the University of Virginia website
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Many applications are able to read and write files containing so-called “comma separated values”. Such files generally contain tabular data where the columns are separated by commas and the rows by line feed and/or carriage return characters. Although record sets are not tables, tables can be easily emulated using records having the same fields in the same order. For example:
a: value b: value c: value a: value b: value c: value ...
In several respects records are more flexible than tables:
It is evident that records, such as those in recfiles, are a more
general structure than comma separated values.
This means that when converting from csv files to recfiles, certain
decisions need to be made.
rec2csv utility (see Invoking rec2csv)
implements an algorithm to deal with this problem
and generate a table that the user expects.
The algorithm works as follows:
where n is a number in the range
2..inf and is the “index” of
the field in its containing record plus one.
For example, consider
the following record set:
a: a1 b: b11 b: b12 c: c1 a: a2 b: b2 d: d2
The corresponding list of headers being:
a b b_2 c a b d
a b b_2 c d
In the above example the result would be
"a","b","b_2","c","d" "a1","b11","b12","c1", "a2","b2",,,"d2"
As shown, missing fields are implemented as empty columns in the generated csv.
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maximum and minimum
A wire of length 100cm is cut into two pieces of length xcm and ycm. The piece of length xcm is bent into the shape of a square and the piece of length ycm into the shape of a circle. Find x and y so that the sum of the areas encloseed by the shapes will be (a) a minimum (b) a maximum
I gathered that one of the equation will be x+y=100 but im not sure what the other equation will be, please help me with this? thanks
i don't get why the area of a circle is y/4Pi?
oopsie i did it wrong
circumference = y = 2pi r
rearrange so you have the area (pi * r * r) on one side.
the RHS is the area of the circle
so i subbed in the equations and then differentiate it to get the st. pts. and got
but i test the nature for this and wasn't able to prove it to be a minimum or a maximum point. why is that?
show your calculations, it looks like a minimum to me:
]SEE THIS LINK
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How to run a percolation test
Copyright © 2013 Regents of the University of Minnesota. All rights reserved.
An adequate site evaluation is essential to the successful design of an on-site sewage treatment system. The percometer shown is a convenient device for measuring the percolation rate.
Inset: A stop watch measures the drop in water level.
Successful design of an on-site sewage treatment system depends on an adequate site evaluation. The percolation test is only a small part of a complete site evaluation.
Suitable soil is the key to providing adequate on-site sewage treatment. Soil that is too coarse will not do a good job of moving nutrients and bacteria. Loam or clay loam soil will do an excellent job of nutrient and bacteria removal but will require a relatively large soil treatment area. Seasonal saturation of a soil will cause sewage to back up if the trenches are constructed too deep.
Figure 1. A hand-operated bucket auger collects a relatively undisturbed sample, allowing proper evaluation of soil texture and observance of possible mottling.
Figure 2. Either a post-hole auger or a clam shell digger can be used to dig the percolation test holes.
Figure 3. The percolation test hole can be scarified with a knife or nails driven into a 1" x 2" board.
Figure 4. If the gravel which protects the hole bottom from scouring is contained in a nylon mesh bag, it can be removed and reused.
1. Use soil borings to locate a suitable area.
Soil borings should be at least 3 inches in diameter and at least 3 feet deeper than the bottom of the proposed soil treatment system. A boring may stop as soon as there is evidence of seasonal soil saturation or bedrock. Number the soil boring holes and locate them on a scale map of the site.
Evaluate the soil texture (sand, loamy sand, sandy loam, loam, silt loam, clay loam, etc.) for every foot of depth or at least where a change in soil texture occurs (Figure 1). Record this data on a log sheet of the boring hole. If you encounter seasonally saturated soil or an impervious layer (rock or clay) at a depth of 3 feet or closer to the ground surface, the area is not suitable for a subsurface soil treatment unit. A sewage treatment mound, however, could be installed at such a location if other factors were suitable.
Seasonal saturation of soil is indicated by a gray color together with red streaks or splotches and is called mottling. The bottom of the drainfield trench should be located no closer than 3 feet from the mottled soil. Even though the hole may be dry when you make the soil boring, the soil will be saturated during wet conditions and during the operation of the sewage treatment system. The system will fail in clay soil or inadequately treat sewage in coarse soil.
The lawn area required for the soil treatment unit depends on the percolation rate of the soil (soil texture) and the amount of sewage discharged by the proposed or existing residence. Refer to your local sanitary code for required setbacks from buildings, property lines, water supply wells, etc. Take at least four soil borings in each soil texture in order to locate lawn area of adequate size.
2. Make an adequate number of percolation test holes.
If the soil texture is uniform over the selected site, use at least two and preferably three percolation test holes. If the soil texture changes within the site, make at least two percolation test holes in each soil texture. Space the percolation test holes uniformly over the area proposed for the soil treatment unit.
3. Dig test holes.
The test holes should be round and at least 6 inches, but no larger than 8 inches, in diameter. Dig each test hole as deep as you intend to excavate the soil treatment trench. The bottom of the percolation test hole must be at least 3 feet above the level of seasonally saturated soil or bedrock. A clam shell-type posthole digger can be used (Figure 2). If you use a 6-inch auger, it's a good idea to drill a pilot hole with the 3-inch auger. Observe and record the soil texture as the percolation test hole is being dug.
4. Prepare the percolation test holes.
The auger or posthole digger is likely to smear the soil along the sidewalls of the test hole. Therefore, the bottom 12 inches of the sidewalls and the bottom of the hole should be scratched or scarified with a sharp, pointed instrument such as a knife. Nails driven into a 1 x 2-inch board as shown in Figure 3 will do a good job of scarifying the hole to provide an open, natural soil into which water may percolate. Remove all loose soil material from the bottom of the test hole. Add 2 inches of one-fourth to three-fourths inch gravel to protect the bottom from scouring when water is added. The gravel can be contained in a nylon mesh bag as shown in Figure 4 in order to be removed after the test is performed and used for additional percolation tests.
Figure 6. Cutting the top of the percometer tube at an angle allows for the convenient addition of water.
Figure 7. A small engine carburetor attached to a support controls the siphon and maintains a constant water level in the test hole.
5. Distinguish between soil saturation and soil swelling.
Saturation means that the voids between soil particles are full of water. This can happen in a short time. Swelling is caused by intrusion of water into individual soil particles. This is a slow process, especially in clay soils, and is why a prolonged soaking period is necessary for some soils.
Carefully fill the percolation test hole with clear water to a depth of at least 12 inches above the soil bottom of the test hole. Use a hose to prevent the water from washing down the sides of the hole or add the water directly into the percometer as shown in Figure 6. A 6-inch diameter hole requires about 1.5 gallons per foot of depth.
Sandy soil containing no clay does not swell. The percolation test may proceed immediately if the 12 inches of water seeps away in 10 minutes or less. The percolation test procedure for sandy soils is described under step 6C.
For prolonged soil soaking, keep the 12-inch depth of water in the hole for at least four hours, and preferably overnight. Add water as necessary. You may use an automatic siphon or valve to maintain the 12-inch water depth (Figure 5). A valve made from the carburetor of a small engine is shown in Figure 7.
6. Measure percolation rate.
Figure 8. The liquid level in a percolation test hole can be observed directly at the top of the rod attached to the float. This is the most convenient way to observe the drop in water level.
Figure 10. The percolation rate is determined by measuring the rate of water drop over time. For sandy soils a stop watch can be used to measure the drop in water level from six to five inches.
Except for sandy soils, make the percolation rate measurements the day after completing step 5.
- If there is more than 6 inches of water in the hole after the overnight swelling period, bail out enough water so that 6 inches of water remains above the gravel (8 inches if measured from the bottom of the hole). Measure the drop in the water level to the nearest 1/16 inch approximately every 30 minutes (Figure 8). If possible, use a percometer to determine the change in water level (Figure 9). A batter board can also be used as a reference point together with a hook gauge to accurately locate the water surface. The hook can be made from stiff wire or an 8d nail. After each measurement, refill the water in the hole so that the liquid depth is 6 inches above the gravel. Continue taking measurements until three consecutive percolation rates vary by a range of no more than 10 percent (see sample field notes, page 7).
- If no water remains in the hole after the overnight swelling period, add 6 inches of clear water above the gravel. Measure the drop in the liquid level to the nearest 1/16 inch approximately every 30 minutes. After each measurement, refill the water to a depth of 6 inches above the gravel. Continue the water level drop measurements until three consecutive percolation rates vary by no more than 10 percent.
- In sandy soils, or other soils in which the first 6 inches of water seep away in less than 30 minutes after the overnight swelling period, allow about 10 minutes between measurements. On some very sandy soils, use a stop watch and measure the time in seconds for the water level to drop from 6 to 5 inches (Figure 10). Refill the percolation test hole after each measurement to bring water to 6 inches above the gravel. Continue taking readings until three consecutive percolation rates vary by no more than 10 percent
7. Calculate percolation rate.
Divide the time interval by the drop in water level to determine the percolation rate in minutes per inch (MPI). Examples:
- If the drop in water level is 5/8 inch in 30 minutes, the percolation rate is
- If the drop is 2 1/2 inches in 10 minutes, then the percolation rate is
Calculate the percolation rate for each reading (see sample field notes). When three consecutive percolation rates vary by no more than 10 percent, use the average value of these readings to determine the percolation rate for the test hole. Percolation rates determined for each test hole should be averaged in order to determine the design percolation rate. For reporting the percolation rate, worksheets showing all measurements and calculations should be submitted with the site evaluation report. You can reproduce the blank form on the back page of this folder for use in recording percolation test data.
Note that a percolation test should not be run where frost exists in the soil below the depth of the proposed sewage treatment system.
8. Determine the trench bottom area.
Table 1 shows sewage flows and soil treatment areas. The amount of trench bottom area required depends on the texture of the soil as measured by the percolation rate, the daily sewage flow, and the depth of rock placed below the distribution pipe.
The daily amount of sewage wastes must be estimated in order to size the soil treatment unit. For residences, the daily amount of sewage flow is based on the number of bedrooms and the type of residence. A luxury, three-bedroom house likely will generate more sewage than a more modest house. Sewage flows for different types of houses can be estimated from Table 1. Using a large sewage flow provides a factor of safety in sizing the soil treatment unit. Also consider future house expansion.
Table 1. Sewage flows and soil treatment areas
|Estimated sewage flows in gallons per day|
|Type of residencea|
aType of residence
|2||300||225||180||60% of values
in Type I, II,
or III columns
Table 2. Soil treatment areas in square feet
|Percolation rate, minutes per inch||Soil treatment area in square feet per gallon of waste per daya|
aFor trenches only, the bottom areas may be reduced if more than 6 inches of rock is placed below the distribution pipe; for 12 inches of rock below the distribution pipe the bottom areas can be reduced by 20 percent; a 34 percent reduction for 18 inches; and a 40 percent reduction for 24 inches.
bSoil is unsuitable for standard soil treatment units. Refer to information on mounds and alternative systems.
|Faster than 0.1b||Soil too coarse for sewage treatmentb|
|0.1 to 5||0.83|
|6 to 15||1.27|
|46 to 60||2.20|
|Slower than 60b||Refer to information on mounds|
To illustrate how to use Table 1, determine the amount of trench bottom area required for a three-bedroom, type I dwelling. The soil percolation rate, as measured by the percolation data presented on page 7, is 22.3 MPI. From Table 1, a three-bedroom, type I dwelling is estimated to generate 450 gallons of sewage per day. The trench bottom area required for a percolation rate in the range of 16 to 30 is 1.67 square feet per gallon of waste per day.
Thus, the total required bottom area is 1.67 X 450 = 750 square feet for trenches with 6 inches of rock below the distribution pipe. If 12 inches of rock is used as recommended, the trench bottom area can be reduced by 20 percent (see footnote a, Table 2). The required trench bottom area is then 0.80 X 750 = 600 square feet.
The trench bottom area can be reduced by 34 percent for 18 inches of rock below the distribution pipe and by 40 percent for the maximum rock depth of 24 inches. As rock depth increases the required trench bottom area decreases, because more soil is exposed along the trench sidewall and a greater liquid depth increases the flow through the trench bottom.
The minimum trench width is 18 inches; the maximum width is 36 inches. Using 36-inch wide trenches in the above example, total trench length with 12 inches of rock below the distribution pipe is 200 lineal feet (600 ÷ 3). It is recommended that the 200 lineal feet should be divided into two or more trenches. The sewage effluent should be distributed between the trenches by means of drop boxes.
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A total of 160 residents died from air pollution in Doncaster in 2010, shock new figures have revealed.
Health bosses said today they were working to cut air pollution after the figures were released by Public Health England.
According to the report, Doncaster is the second worst area in the region for deaths from particle air pollution, which can contribute to heart disease, at 5.6 per cent.
The town was beaten only by Rotherham where 5.7 per cent of deaths were pollution-related.
Dr Tony Baxter, Doncaster Council’s director of public health, said it was supporting measures to lower air pollution levels and reduce exposure to residents.
He added: “This includes working hard with all of our partners to encourage people to walk and cycle more rather than drive which, as well as having health benefits, also decreases traffic on the roads – cutting air pollution.”
He added: “New developments have to include travel planning measures which encourage walking, cycling and use of public transport.
“Developments also have to include open spaces and landscaped areas which provide valuable relief for residents and for wildlife.
“We welcome the information in the report about the significant effects of particle air pollution on public health, which we will now look at in detail.”
The report estimates that long-term exposure to air pollution caused the death of 2,567 people in the region during 2010 – and 25,000 nationwide.
The scale of the pollution adds up to 26,636 life years being lost in Yorkshire and was a factor in 5.3 per cent of adult deaths, the report claims.
Simon Bowens, Friends of the Earth Yorkshire and the Humber campaigner said of the report: “We need to make sure that we have cleaner HGVs and lower emissions. “Introducing a national network of low emissions zones would do that.”
Earlier this year the Highways Agency consulted on proposals to impose a 60mph speed limit on the M1 from Mansfield to Rotherham to reduce emissions.
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This image compresses the Vela movie sequence into a single snapshot by merging pie-slice sections from eight individual frames. (Credit: NASA/DOE/Fermi LAT Collaboration) Enlarge
Feb. 27, 2013 — NASA's Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope orbits our planet every 95 minutes, building up increasingly deeper views of the universe with every circuit. Its wide-eyed Large Area Telescope (LAT) sweeps across the entire sky every three hours, capturing the highest-energy form of light — gamma rays — from sources across the universe. These range from supermassive black holes billions of light-years away to intriguing objects in our own galaxy, such as X-ray binaries, supernova remnants and pulsars.
Now a Fermi scientist has transformed LAT data of a famous pulsar into a mesmerizing movie that visually encapsulates the spacecraft's complex motion.
Pulsars are neutron stars, the crushed cores of massive suns that destroyed themselves when they ran out of fuel, collapsed and exploded. The blast simultaneously shattered the star and compressed its core into a body as small as a city yet more massive than the sun. The result is an object of incredible density, where a spoonful of matter weighs as much as a mountain on Earth. Equally incredible is a pulsar's rapid spin, with typical rotation periods ranging from once every few seconds up to hundreds of times a second. Fermi sees gamma rays from more than a hundred pulsars scattered across the sky.
One pulsar shines especially bright for Fermi. Called Vela, it spins 11 times a second and is the brightest persistent source of gamma rays the LAT sees. Although gamma-ray bursts and flares from distant black holes occasionally outshine the pulsar, they don't have Vela's staying power. Because pulsars emit beams of energy, scientists often compare them to lighthouses, a connection that in a broader sense works especially well for Vela, which is both a brilliant beacon and a familiar landmark in the gamma-ray sky.
Most telescopes focus on a very small region of the sky, but the LAT is a wide-field instrument that can detect gamma rays across a large portion of the sky at once. The LAT is, however, much more sensitive to gamma rays near the center of its field of view than at the edges. Scientists can use observations of a bright source like Vela to track how this sensitivity varies across the instrument's field of view.
More of the story, click image
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The appearance of surface varies with lighting conditions. Reflectance imaging is a photographic process that captures views of a surface under varying lighting conditions. For a static object and camera,
view-specific per-pixel reflectance functions can easily be captured and modeled. These reflectance functions can then be changed, using various reflectance transformation methods, to enhance surface detail that may otherwise be difficult to see.
HP Labs' approach uses a simple framework called Polynomial Texture Maps (PTM) to perform reflectance imaging. Source photographs taken at varying lighting directions along with a text file specifying the light directions (*.lp) are read into the PTM Fitter program to create a reflectance image (*.ptm) which captures the variable appearance of the surface. These PTM's can be read with the PTM Viewer application to control light direction and perform enhancements. The Fitter and Viewer applications along with sample files may be freely downloaded. In addition, PTMs
can be dynamically viewed on the web using Java (to view an example,
HP's Antikythera Relighting Page,
HP's Interactive Relighting Page, and
Smithonian Institution’s PTM/RTI page).
For directions on making your own PTMs from images, click
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Students learn manufacturing process, then test the product
Published: Wednesday, June 19, 2013 at 6:27 p.m.
Last Modified: Wednesday, June 19, 2013 at 6:27 p.m.
Upstate students participating in a two-week summer camp have learned about the manufacturing processes used at BMW for the last week and a half.
On Wednesday, they had the opportunity to get behind the wheel and test the final product.
Nearly 30 rising high school seniors from Spartanburg, Cherokee and Greenville counties are participating in the camp, a joint venture between BMW and the University of South Carolina Upstate.
Spartanburg County students included those from Dorman, Landrum, Oakbrook Preparatory, Boiling Springs, Spartanburg, Byrnes and Woodruff high schools.
Tim Ellis, camp coordinator for USC Upstate, said the students in the BMW/USC Upstate Academic Outreach Camp learn some of the same skills workers at BMW use at their Greer plant and see firsthand how what they are learning in school can be used in industry.
Building up to Wednesday's trip to the BMW Performance Center in Greer, the students learned techniques used to improve the manufacturing process and learned how statistics and computer modeling can help improve and streamline production lines.
The students were introduced to Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma principals used by many world-class manufacturers and used model catapults, cars and helicopters to test theories and learn how to improve functions. Instructors also placed an emphasis on team work and leadership skills.
At the performance center, the students were put behind the wheels of BMW 335i sedans on test tracks, where they learned how to safely change lanes in emergency situations, better control their cars while making emergency stops and control the cars in slick conditions.
Isaac Abee, a student at Brashier Middle College Charter High School in Simpsonville, said driving in the slick conditions was "a little nerve-wracking."
At one point, Abee's white sedan lost control and spun 360 degrees. He said the experience will make him a more confident driver.
"I'm going to be more familiar with it," he said of the slick conditions. "I'll know what to do."
The camp, in its third year, has become increasingly popular, Ellis said. This year, officials received more than 100 applications from high schools in the three-county area.
Mark Fendley, continuous improvement manager for BMW, said the camp is meant to steer students into science and math-related fields, like those at BMW and other Upstate industries.
"The reality is, these bright young students are the future of not only BMW, but all Upstate industry," Fendley said. "The things that they're studying – the math and science – have an application at BMW."
Fendley said some of the activities within the camp, such as a learning exercise where students are taught to be more efficient while putting together ink pens, are identical to activities used to teach BMW workers.
"It's all about making our companies better, more efficient," Fendley said.
Ellis said almost all of the students are interested in engineering and that the camp is meant to introduce them to different subsets within the field — exposing them to different career and educational opportunities.
"There's more than just engineering at BMW," he said. "It's a small city."
The camp typically takes place at the George Dean Johnson Jr. College of Business and Economics in downtown Spartanburg, but Ellis and several campers said the students look forward to the day at the BMW Performance Center in Greer.
Rachel Kluesener, a student at Dorman High School, said she had learned a lot in the camp's first week and a half, but was nervous to drive on the BMW test track.
"It looks so simple, but when you're actually in the car, it's kind of scary," she said. "But now I'll be better prepared. I won't be so timid behind the wheel."
Reader comments posted to this article may be published in our print edition. All rights reserved. This copyrighted material may not be re-published without permission. Links are encouraged.
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The HSV color wheel[?], and variations of it, are commonly used in graphics applications to select colors in the HSV color space. The outer circle represents the Hue, and the inner triangle represents the Saturation on the vertical axis, and Value on the horizontal axis. In this way, a color can be chosen by first picking the Hue, on the outer circle, then selecting the desired Saturation and Value from the inner triangle.
Another visualization method of the HSV model is the cone. In this representation, the Hue is depicted as a circular formation of the color wheel. The Saturation is represented by the distance from the center of a circular cross-section of the cone, and the Value is the distance from the pointed end of the cone. Some representations use a hexagonal cone, or hexcone, instead of a circular cone.
Artists sometimes prefer to use the HSV color model over alternative models such as RGB or CMYK, because of its similarities to the way humans tend to perceive color. RGB and CMYK are additive and subtractive models, respectively, defining color in terms of the wavelengths of light, whereas HSV encapsulates information about a color in terms that are more familiar to humans: What color is it? How intense is it? How light or dark is it? The HLS color space is somewhat similar to HSV in this respect.
The HSV model was created in 1978 by Alvy Ray Smith[?].
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Architect and furniture designer Marcel Breuer was an influential Hungarian-born modernist of Jewish descent. Called one of the "fathers" of Modernism, he showed great interest in modular construction and simple forms. In the 1920s, Breuer studied and taught at the Bauhaus, stressing the combination of art and technology. He eventually became the head of the school's cabinet-making shop. Breuer also practiced in Berlin, where he designed houses and commercial spaces, along with a number of tubular metal pieces of furniture, of which replicas are still being produced today. Due to the rise of the Nazi party in Germany in the 1930s, Marcel Breuer relocated to London, and later ended up in the United States, where he taught at Harvard's architecture school. He returned to Europe in 1953 to return to larger projects after years of only residential commissions. Breuer adopted concrete as his primary medium, and became known as a leading practitioners of Brutalism, emphasizing curvy, soft, sculptural architecture.
Breuer designed the Wassily Chair (also known as the Model B3 Chair) in 1925-26 while he was working at the Bauhaus in Germany. The Wassily Chair was not designed for the non-objective painter Wassily Kandinsky, despite popular belief; Breuer's design was inspired in part by the curved tubular steel handlebars on his Adler bicycle. Kandinsky, who was also on the Bauhaus faculty, had admired the completed design, and Breuer made an additional copy for Kandinsky's personal quarters. Breuer's Wassily Chair was revolutionary in its use of materials and manufacturing.
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X-ray detector typical of those used in solar observation satellites such as OSO-5. This commercial unit, manufactured by LND Inc., is a proportional counter. It converted impinging x-rays to an electrical signal and amplified that for further processing. It comprises a hollow metal gas-filled cylinder equipped with a window transparent to x-rays at one end. Electrons released by impinging x-rays will travel to the oppositely charged electrode. During the course of their travels, they collide with gas molecules which results in the release of further electrons. This process leads to a cascade of charge and the effective amplification of the electrical signal generated by the initial x-ray. The x-ray frequency detection range of the instrument is determined by choice of gas and the imposed electrical potential and the nature of the entrance window. This detector was transferred to NASM by NASA (GSFC) in 1988.
Transferred from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
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Back in October, I wrote a post about the Anna’s Hummingbird that was hanging around in my backyard. It was king of the hummingbird feeder back then but I wondered if it would stick around through the cold winter months.
As these recent photos show, the little hummer is still with us. It perches on the same branches every day and chases off any other hummingbirds that come to drink from the feeder.
This bird has charmed me and my wife. We are amazed that it keeps going about its business even on the coldest, wettest days.
But of course, it has no choice but to remain vigorously active. A hummingbird must drink flower nectar (or sugar water) and eat insects continually to fuel its high metabolism. A turbo-charged metabolism is needed to power the flight muscles that work so hard and fast in hummingbirds. No other vertebrate animals have such high metabolisms.
Due to their tiny body sizes and lack of downy feathers, hummingbirds lose body heat rapidly. A hummingbird can die within a few hours due to starvation or hypothermia if it does not eat. This is especially true during winter at higher latitudes. Most North American hummingbirds fly south to warmer climates for the winter. Anna’s Hummingbird is an exception.
Hummingbirds and many other small birds have a physiological adaptation that allows them to survive through the night, when they do not feed and when the air temperature drops. These birds enter a state called torpor, in which their metabolisms (and thus, their body temperatures) are dramatically lowered. In a state of torpor, a bird burns far fewer calories that when it is active. Torpor is like hibernation, except that it occurs on a daily, rather than annual, cycle.
In addition to lowering their metabolisms when they are unable to feed, hummingbirds combat the cold by fluffing up their feathers. This increases the amount of dead air space trapped in the feathers and increases their insulating power. Our little backyard hummer demonstrates this feather fluffing in the photo at the top of this post. Fluffing is not unique to hummingbirds– as far as I know, most (if not all) birds do this.
Hummingbirds are truly fascinating animals. I am honored to have one residing in my backyard. I hope that it stays through the spring and summer. If it does, you can expect more blog post updates!
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Bats on the brink: A search for the grey long-eared bat
5 August 2013 Last updated at 00:33 BST
One of the UK's rarest mammals, the grey long-eared bat, is in danger of disappearing from the country, according to research.
A four-year study by scientists from the University of Bristol estimated that there were just 1,000 of the bats left - all confined to southern England.
BBC science reporter Victoria Gill went in search of the bats at a secret location in Devon - one of just ten known maternal roosts.
Dr Orly Razgour, who led the research and was the guide on this bat safari, says the bats' foraging habitat needs to be protected if the species is to survive in this country.
The Bat Conservation Trust has published the findings in a new conservation management plan.
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The 34 MW Mackay Gas Turbine is a remote controlled generator using diesel oil for fuel. Two jet engines, similar to those found in the Concorde aircraft, create the energy to rotate the power turbines.
Stanwell relies on the gas turbine to generate electricity in periods of high customer demand, and generally operates the plant for short periods. The turbine has a quick-start capability and therefore plays an important role in ensuring a secure supply of electricity for customers.
Mackay Gas Turbine fact sheet
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The observation of the phases of Venus through early telescopes by Galileo Galilei were key to discrediting the geocentric model. Search the web for "phases of Venus in geocentric model" for many good summaries of this history. Paraphrasing what I've read:
Galileo Galilei used his telescope to observe that Venus showed all phases, just like the Moon. He thought that while this observation was incompatible with the Ptolemaic system, it was a natural consequence of the heliocentric system.
Ptolemy placed Venus' deferent and epicycle entirely inside the sphere of the Sun between the Sun and Mercury. He could just as easily have made any other arrangement of Venus and Mercury, as long as they were always near a line running from the Earth through the Sun, such as placing the center of the Venus epicycle near the Sun.
Under the Ptolemaic system, and if the Sun is the source of all the light: If Venus is between Earth and the Sun, the phase of Venus must always be crescent or all dark. If Venus is beyond the Sun, the phase of Venus must always be gibbous or full.
But Galileo saw Venus at first small and full, and later large and crescent.
This showed that with a Ptolemaic cosmology, the Venus epicycle could be neither completely inside nor completely outside of the orbit of the Sun. As a result, Ptolemaics abandoned the idea that the epicycle of Venus was completely inside or outside the Sun.
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The ventricles are the large lower chamber of the heart. They are responsible for moving blood to the organs and tissues of the body. In ventricular fibrillation, the heart’s ventricles contract in a rapid and chaotic manner. As a result, little or no blood is pumped from the heart. Unless medical help is provided immediately, ventricular fibrillation will lead to cardiovascular collapse and sudden death.
Blood Flow Through Heart
Copyright © Nucleus Medical Media, Inc.
Causes of ventricular fibrillation include:
- Inadequate blood flow to the heart due to coronary artery disease (CAD)
- Scar tissue within the heart due to previous injury to heart, such as a heart attack (myocardial infarction)
- Congestive heart failure (CHF)
- Infection of the heart muscle ( myocarditis)
- Electrical shock
- Dangerously low body temperature ( hypothermia)
- Electrolyte imbalance (eg, very low levels of potassium or magnesium in the blood)
- Drugs that affect the electrical currents of the heart (eg, sodium or potassium channel blockers)
- Low atmospheric oxygen
Last reviewedDecember 2013by Michael J. Fucci, DO
Please be aware that this information is provided to supplement the care provided by your physician. It is neither intended nor implied to be a substitute for professional medical advice. CALL YOUR HEALTHCARE PROVIDER IMMEDIATELY IF YOU THINK YOU MAY HAVE A MEDICAL EMERGENCY. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider prior to starting any new treatment or with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.
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Enn Original News
August 9, 2011 07:03 AM - Andy Soos, ENN
The NASA Mars rover Opportunity has gained a view of Endeavour crater from barely more than a football-field's distance away from the rim. The rim of Endeavour has been the mission's long-term goal since mid-2008. Endeavour offers the setting for plenty of productive work by Opportunity. The crater is 14 miles (22 kilometers) in diameter -- more than 25 times wider than Victoria crater, an earlier stop that Opportunity examined for two years.
August 8, 2011 02:06 PM - Andy Soos, ENN
The Moon does have effects on the Earth because it makes the tides be pulled, but gravity pulls them back. It might also effect the weather. Scientists have long believed that, without our moon, the tilt of the Earth would shift greatly over time, from zero degrees, where the Sun remains over the equator, to 85 degrees, where the Sun shines almost directly above one of the poles. A planet’s stability has an effect on the development of life. A planet see-sawing back and forth on its axis as it orbits the Sun would experience wide fluctuations in climate, which then could potentially affect the evolution of complex life. It is theorized by some that life itself would be virtually impossible without a moon, since the moon has a stabilizing effect on the orientation of earth's axis. Without the moon, the north-south axis would vary tremendously-- to the point where the poles would sometimes be in our orbital plane. These changes would mean that there would be no stable seasons, and it's questionable whether or not the planet would be able to sustain life.
August 5, 2011 12:45 PM - Andy Soos, ENN
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is proposing a rule to advance the use of carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) technologies, while protecting American health and the environment. CCS technologies allow carbon dioxide (CO2) to be captured at stationary sources - like coal-fired power plants and large industrial operations - and injected underground for long-term storage in a process called geologic sequestration. The proposal is consistent with recommendations made by President Obama’s interagency task force on CO2 sequestration and helps create a consistent national framework to ensure the safe and effective deployment of technologies that will help position the United States as a leader in the global clean energy race. Today’s proposal will exclude from EPA’s hazardous waste regulations CO2 streams that are injected for geologic sequestration in wells designated for this purpose under the Safe Drinking Water Act. EPA is proposing this exclusion as part of the agency’s effort to reduce barriers to the use of CCS technologies.
August 5, 2011 12:21 PM - Andy Soos, ENN
A newly released image from ESA’s Mars Express shows the north pole of Mars during the red planet’s summer solstice. All the carbon dioxide ice has gone, leaving just a bright cap of water ice. This image was captured by the orbiter’s High-Resolution Stereo Camera on May 17, 2010 and shows part of the northern polar region of Mars during the summer solstice. The solstice is the longest day and the beginning of the summer for the planet’s northern hemisphere. The ice shield is covered by frozen water and carbon dioxide ice in winter and spring but by this point in the martian year all of the carbon dioxide ice has warmed and evaporated into the planet’s atmosphere.
Mold Exposure Has Greater Impact on Infants
August 5, 2011 10:29 AM - David A Gabel, ENN
The inhalation of mold can be extremely hazardous for the lungs, respiratory system, and overall well-being. Some people are more susceptible than others to the symptoms caused by airborne mold, but it is unhealthy for all. A new study recently published in the journal Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology has shown that mold exposure has much greater impact in infants during their formative years. It found that infants living in moldy homes are much more likely to develop asthma by age 7.
Green House Gases Other than CO2
August 4, 2011 11:40 AM - Andy Soos, ENN
Carbon dioxide remains the largest by mass of potential green house gases affecting climate change, but other greenhouse gases measurably contribute to the problem. A new study, conducted by NOAA scientists and published online today in Nature, shows that cutting emissions of those other gases could slow changes in climate that are expected in the future. Discussions with colleagues around the time of the 2009 United Nations’ climate conference in Copenhagen inspired three NOAA scientists — Stephen Montzka, Ed Dlugokencky and James Butler of NOAA’s Earth System Research Laboratory in Boulder, Colo. — to review the sources of non-carbon dioxide (CO2) greenhouse gases and explore the potential climate benefits of cutting their emissions.
Better Battery Storage
August 3, 2011 03:26 PM - Andy Soos, ENN
MIT researchers have found a way to improve the energy density of a type of battery known as lithium-air (or lithium-oxygen) batteries, producing a device that could potentially pack several times more energy per pound than the lithium-ion batteries that now dominate the market for rechargeable devices in everything from cellphones to cars. Lithium batteries are disposable (primary) batteries that have lithium metal or lithium compounds as an anode. Depending on the design and chemical compounds used, lithium cells can produce voltages from 1.5 V to about 3.7 V, over twice the voltage of an ordinary zinc—carbon battery or alkaline battery. Lithium batteries are widely used in products such as portable consumer electronic devices.
Lake Acidification Causes
August 3, 2011 01:11 PM - Andy Soos, ENN
Acidification caused by acid rain precipitation has been, and remains, a major environmental issue because of its life-threatening effects on biota, its global spread, and the prolonged recovery period associated with it. International cooperation to reduce the precursors of acid precipitation has provided a textbook example of how society can address a complex environmental pollution problem with support from science. A key step in that success was the achievement of a broad scientific consensus that acid precipitation was a serious threat to ecosystems in sensitive regions. That consensus was built during two decades of scientific research starting with the first United Nations conference on the environment in 1972 and continuing to 1990 with the conclusion of major research programs in Europe and in the United States. But is this the only cause? A new study of the role of dissolved organic carbon, which comes from living organisms and can also make lakes acidic, suggests that power station emissions may have played less of a role than previously thought. Martin Erlandsson of the University of Reading, United Kingdom, and his colleagues wondered whether it was possible to distinguish the historical effects of organic acids and power station emissions by assessing findings during the 20 years since lake acidification started to decrease in Sweden. They describe their results in the August issue of BioScience.
Study: Antarctica, not Greenland, Will Contribute More to Sea Level Rise
August 3, 2011 09:00 AM - David A Gabel, ENN
As the planet has gotten warmer, sea levels have been slowly rising at an average rate of 1.8 mm per year since 1961. The higher levels are caused by thermal expansion as well as from melting land-based ice. Most eyes have been on Greenland, the large arctic island covered with an immense ice sheet, as the critical source of melting ice. However, a new study has recently been published which suggests that Greenland is not as big a concern as the continent of Antarctica, and in particular, the West Antarctic ice sheet.
A Potential Cure for Sunburn
July 29, 2011 09:35 AM - David A Gabel, ENN
A research team from Ohio State University has been studying the effects of solar radiation on skin cells. They have been able to replicate the process within the tight scrutiny of their laboratory. What they found is that the key biological molecules, which operate during the repair of sunburned cells, function in a way totally unexpected. This new knowledge may possibly lead to the production of special treatments that can heal sunburn. Their findings have been published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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Print version ISSN 1020-4989
Rev Panam Salud Publica vol.4 n.3 Washington Sep. 1998
|ABSTRACT||Rubella is a viral disease with minor morbidity and few complications unless it is contracted by a pregnant woman. Rubella infection during the first trimester of pregnancy often leads to fetal death or severe congenital defects (congenital rubella syndrome, CRS). Rubella remains endemic in many countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. It has been estimated that 20 000 or more infants are perhaps born with CRS each year in Latin American and Caribbean countries. While the inclusion of rubella vaccination into routine childhood immunization will decrease rubella virus circulation among young children, it will not have immediate impact on the transmission of rubella among adults or the occurrence of CRS. A one-time mass campaign targeting both males and females 5 to 39 years of age with measles-mumps-rubella or measles-rubella vaccine followed by the use of measles-mumps-rubella vaccine in routine early childhood vaccination will prevent and control both rubella and CRS promptly. In April 1988, the Ministers of Health of the English-speaking Caribbean targeted rubella for elimination by the end of the year 2000 using the vaccination strategy outlined above. The rubella elimination experience of these countries will provide useful information for the eventual elimination of rubella virus from the Americas.|
Rubella is typically a mild exanthematous disease with minor morbidity and few complications unless it is contracted by a pregnant woman (particularly during the first trimester). In such cases, rubella often leads to fetal death or severe congenital defects including blindness, deafness, cardiovascular anomalies, and mental retardation [congenital rubella syndrome (CRS)]. During the last major epidemic of rubella in the United States in 1964-965, there were an estimated 11 000 fetal deaths or induced terminations of pregnancy, and 20 000 infants were born with CRS (1).
Rubella vaccines were introduced in 1969 and since that time have been widely used in many industrialized countries. Because the vaccines contain attenuated live rubella viruses, there was initial concern that vaccination of women later found to be pregnant might result in fetal infection and deformity. Extensive study of this topic, including follow-up of more than 500 susceptible women in the United States who received rubella vaccine within the 3 months before or after conception, indicated that fetal infection occasionally may occur, but there were no instances of congenital defects associated with CRS (2). The currently recommended approach to vaccinating women of childbearing age is to ask them if they think they are pregnant or may become pregnant in the next 3 months. If the answer is "yes," they should not receive the vaccine; if the answer is "no," they should be vaccinated (2). If a woman becomes pregnant within 3 months after vaccination, she should be counseled about the theoretical concern for the fetus, but rubella vaccination should not ordinarily be a reason to consider interruption of pregnancy. Vaccine-induced immunity is long-lasting, probably lifelong. Few side effects are associated with the rubella vaccine; the most significant is transient arthralgia or arthritis, which may occur in 25% of susceptible women who are vaccinated. This is rare in both children and males. There is conflicting evidence as to whether long-term arthritis may occasionally occur.
BURDEN OF RUBELLA AND CONGENITAL RUBELLA SYNDROME IN THE AMERICAS
Other than for the United States and Canada, limited data are available on the ongoing burden of rubella and CRS in the Americas (3). However, cases of CRS or documented fetal infection have been documented in Barbados (4), Belize (4), Brazil (5, 6), Cuba (7), Jamaica (8, 9), Mexico (10), Panama (11), and Trinidad (12). It has been estimated that, in the absence of major epidemics, more than 20 000 infants are born with CRS each year in the Americas (13).
There is more information about susceptibility to rubella (14-30). Serological surveys in at least 13 countries of the Americas have documented a wide range of susceptibility in women of childbearing age and in young adults of both sexes (Table 1). Persons living on islands or in rural areas are more likely to be susceptible than people in urban areas; up to one-half of adults of childbearing age in these settings are susceptible. Consequently, it is clear that, in addition to the ongoing endemic incidence, the potential exists in many countries for major epidemics of rubella to occur (with consequent CRS). In the absence of effective immunization programs, there is at least some risk of CRS in all countries. Countries without direct evidence of the magnitude of risk may want to consider serological studies such as surveys of pregnant women or of women at delivery.
CURRENT USE OF RUBELLA VACCINE IN THE AMERICAS
The United States and Canada were the first countries in the Region to use rubella vaccine, beginning immediately after its introduction in 1969. In the United States the strategy adopted was to vaccinate all prepubertal children soon after the rubella vaccine was introduced, with routine vaccination of children at 12-15 months of age thereafter [usually as a combined measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine] (31). In part as a result of laws mandating that children receive the rubella vaccine before they start school, vaccine coverage in school-aged children has been ³95% since 1981. Additionally, vaccination of susceptible women of childbearing age was recommended, although it has not been carried out very aggressively. In Canada, different provinces initially adopted different approaches; some used the same strategy as the United States, and others adopted the strategy that was then pursued in the United Kingdom-vaccination of susceptible girls at 12-14 years of age.
Costa Rica began using the MMR vaccine in 1972, but there was no systematic nationwide use of rubella vaccine in other countries of the Americas until the 1980s. In 1982, Cuba began vaccinating 13- to 15-year-old schoolgirls, adding mass vaccination of all women up to 30 years old in early 1986 and mass vaccination of all children 1-14 years old (with MMR) in late 1986 and early 1987. Since 1987, MMR vaccine has been administered to all children at 1 year of age. Rubella has been eliminated from Cuba-no cases have occurred in more than 2 years (32).
Other countries in the Caribbean (particularly the English-speaking countries) began using rubella vaccine in the 1980s. Twelve Caribbean countries used MMR vaccine in their 1991 "catch-up" measles campaigns, reaching all children 1-14 years of age, and 10 countries used MMR in the 1996 measles "follow-up" campaigns. Currently, 22 countries in the Americas use rubella vaccine in their national immunization programs.3 All of them administer vaccine to children of both sexes at 12-15 months of age; in nine countries a second dose is administered at a later age. According to a recently published article, 78 countries worldwide have a national policy of using rubella vaccine (33).
Cost-effectiveness of rubella vaccine
Use of rubella vaccine has been shown to be highly cost-effective in the United States. A recent study found the overall benefit-to-cost ratio for use of MMR vaccine to be 21.3:1 if both direct and indirect costs are included. Considering only the individual rubella component, the ratio was 11.1:1 (34). In the English-speaking Caribbean, it was estimated that expenditures for the care and rehabilitation of the 1 500 CRS cases that would be expected to occur over the next 15 years (in the absence of vaccination) would be approximately US$ 60 million, whereas implementation of a strategy to eliminate CRS would cost less than US$ 5 million (annual meeting of the Expanded Program on Immunization Managers of the English-speaking Caribbean, Miami, FL, November 1996).
OPTIONS FOR RUBELLA VACCINATION IN THE AMERICAS
A hemispheric goal of measles elimination by the year 2000 has been established, and countries are making considerable progress toward this goal (35). Given the ease of adding measles-rubella (MR) or MMR vaccine to existing programs, questions have arisen about appropriate approaches to control or eliminate rubella. Currently there is no hemispheric policy on rubella immunization, nor has a goal for control or elimination been established. Consequently, it is most appropriate to consider options at this time.
The primary purpose of immunization against rubella is to prevent congenital rubella infection and its consequences, including CRS. Initially two different strategies were employed. The first sought to provide individual protection by vaccinating susceptible adolescent girls and women of childbearing age; it did not have a real effect on the overall transmission patterns of rubella. This approach was initially adopted in the United Kingdom. The second approach sought to interrupt transmission of rubella virus among children (the primary transmission groups), thus reducing the likelihood that a susceptible pregnant woman would be exposed. This approach was adopted in the United States and involved mass vaccination of all children less than 12 years of age followed by universal vaccination of children 12-15 months old. This strategy assumed that vaccine-induced immunity would be lifelong. As implemented, each of these strategies had some effect but neither was fully successful-in the United Kingdom, outbreaks of rubella and CRS continued among women who were older than the age for vaccination or who were missed by the program; in the United States, outbreaks of rubella were prevented but, because of insufficient vaccination of susceptible women of childbearing age, endemic levels of rubella and CRS persisted among young adults (31). If rubella vaccine is used only in young children, there will be an increase in the average age at infection, which, paradoxically, might increase the risk of a susceptible pregnant woman acquiring rubella infection and giving birth to a child with CRS (such an increase in CRS has not been documented). Infant/child immunization alone should not be considered an appropriate strategy for prevention of CRS.
Consequently, it has become clear that the first priority of any rubella control program should be to vaccinate susceptible women of childbearing age. This approach could be undertaken on an individual basis if resources did not permit a populationwide approach. However, even if undertaken populationwide, such an approach would not interrupt transmission of rubella, and women who were missed by the program would continue to be at risk. A complete rubella control and elimination program would incorporate individual protection of all women of childbearing age as well as vaccination of all children (of both sexes) to interrupt transmission of rubella.
Considering all these factors in the context of the Americas, the following recommendations seem appropriate:
It is premature to establish a hemispheric goal of rubella elimination, but this could well be a logical development as progress continues with elimination of measles.
Surveillance of CRS (and rubella) should be initiated throughout the Americas and should begin before, or at the same time as, implementation of a rubella vaccination program.
Sufficient data exist to demonstrate the potential for occurrence of CRS in all countries of the Region, although the magnitude of the problem varies from country to country. Consequently, each country in the Region should establish a policy on rubella vaccination.
All countries should incorporate rubella vaccine (as MR or MMR) into childhood vaccination programs, both as part of routine childhood immunization at 12-15 months and as part of the follow-up measles campaigns reaching all children 1-4 years of age every 4 years. This will provide immediate protection to the vaccinees and, over the course of several years, will prevent epidemic rubella among children. However, it will not have an immediate effect on transmission of rubella among adults or on the occurrence of CRS.
All countries should undertake one of the following steps:
1. Countries wishing to prevent and control CRS promptly should carry out a one-time mass campaign to vaccinate all females 5 through 39 years of age with rubella-containing vaccine (rubella, MMR, or MR).4 Operationally, adult women could be vaccinated postpartum, premaritally, at workplaces, or in colleges.
2. Countries wishing to prevent and control both rubella and CRS promptly should carry out a one-time mass campaign to vaccinate males and females 5_39 years of age with rubella-containing vaccine.
3. Countries that cannot do either of the above should begin vaccinating women of childbearing age.
When a hemispheric rubella elimination goal is established, countries will need to fill in any of the steps that were not previously carried out.5 The rubella experience of these countries will provide useful information for the eventual elimination of rubella virus from the Americas.
Acknowledgments. We wish to acknowledge the valuable comments of D. A. Henderson, Raul Montesano, and Susan Reef during the preparation of this paper.
1. Orenstein WA, Bart KJ, Hinman AR, Preblud SR, Greaves WL, Doster SW, et al. The opportunity and obligation to eliminate rubella from the United States. JAMA 1984;251:1988-1994. [ Links ]
2. Immunization Practices Advisory Committee. Rubella prevention: Recommendations of the Immunization Practices Advisory Committee (ACIP). MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1990;39:1-18. [ Links ]
3. Cutts FT, Robertson SE, Diaz-Ortega JL, Samuel R. Control of rubella and congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) in developing countries, part 1: Burden of disease from CRS. Bull World Health Organ 1997;75:55-68. [ Links ]
4. Williams SG, Hashim A, Reef S, Lewis M, Otten M, Williams W. Estimating the burden of congenital rubella syndrome in the Caribbean. Annual Conference of the Epidemic Intelligence Service, Atlanta GA; 1997. [ Links ]
5. Schatzmayr HG. Aspects of rubella infection in Brazil. Rev Infect Dis 1985;7:S53-S55. [ Links ]
6. Massad E, Azevedo-Neto RS, Burattini MN, Zanetta DMT, Coutinho FAB, Yang HM, et al. Assessing the efficacy of a mixed vaccination strategy against rubella in São Paulo, Brazil. Int J Epidemiol 1995;24:842-850. [ Links ]
7. Aguilera Rodríguez A, Kourí Flores G, Borbonet F, Ruíz Sánchez R, Barcelona Hernández S. Aislamiento del virus de la rubéola en material obtenido por aborto terapéutico. Rev Cubana Obstet Ginecol 1978;4:1-6. [ Links ]
8. Baxter DN. Control of the congenital rubella syndrome in Jamaica. West Indian Med J 1986;35:50-54. [ Links ]
9. Moriarty BJ. Childhood blindness in Jamaica. Br J Ophthalmol 1988;72:65-67. [ Links ]
10. Sánchez Tenorio E, Torres Velasco R. Rubéola y embarazo. Resultados perinatales. Ginecol Obstet Mex 1992;60:141-145. [ Links ]
11. Saad de Owens C, Tristan de Espino R. Rubella in Panama: Still a problem. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1989;8:110-115. [ Links ]
12. Ali Z, Hull B, Lewis M. Neonatal manifestation of congenital rubella following an outbreak in Trinidad. J Trop Pediatr 1986;32:79-82. [ Links ]
13. Salisbury DM, Savinykh AI. Rubella and congenital rubella syndrome in developing countries: Selection of control strategies. Geneva: WHO; 1991. (Document EPI/GAG/91/WP.15). [ Links ]
14. Rawls WE, Melnick JL, Bradstreet CMP, Bailey M, Ferris AA, Lehmann NI, et al. WHO collaborative study on the sero-epidemiology of rubella. Bull World Health Organ 1967;37:79-88. [ Links ]
15. Dowdle WR, Ferreira W, de Salles Gomes LF, King D, Kourany M, Madalengoitia J, et al. WHO collaborative study on the seroepidemiology of rubella in Caribbean and Middle and South American populations in 1968. Bull World Health Organ 1970;42:419-422. [ Links ]
16. Evans A, Cox F, Nankervis G, Opton E, Shope R, Wells AV, et al. A health and seroepidemiological survey of a community in Barbados. Int J Epidemiol 1974;3:167-175. [ Links ]
17. Cotillo ZLG. Anticorpos neutralizantes contra rubéola num grupo de gestantes de São Paulo. Rev Saude Publica 1968;2:29-43. [ Links ]
18. De Azevedo Neto RS, Silveira ASB, Nokes DJ, Yang HM, Passos SD, Cardoso MRA, et al. Rubella seroepidemiology in a nonimmunized population of São Paulo State, Brazil. Epidemiol Infect 1994;113:161-173. [ Links ]
19. Villarejos VM, Arguedas Gamboa JA, Vargas Noar O, Cortés Vargas MA. Estudio de efectividad y seguridad de la vacuna contra la rubéola. Bol Oficina Sanit Panam 1971;70:174-180. [ Links ]
20. Fuentes LG. Inmunidad a la rubéola en estudiantes admitidos en 1973 a la Universidad de Costa Rica. Acta Med Costarric 1973;16:253-260. [ Links ]
21. Ramírez JA, León E, Torres E, Carrillo W, Sandi V. Seroepidemiología de la rubéola en mujeres costarricenses de edad fértil. Rev Costarric Cienc Med 1985;6:1-6. [ Links ]
22. Ramírez JA, Rosero-Bixby L, Oberle MW. Susceptibilidad al tétanos y rubéola en las mujeres de Costa Rica, 1984-85. Rev Costarric Cienc Med 1987;8:251-259. [ Links ]
23. Raquel Ordóñez B. Frecuencia de la rubéola en México: investigación epidémiologica. Salud Publica Mex 1969;11:731-740. [ Links ]
24. Tapia-Conyer R, Sepúlveda J, Salvatierra B, Muñoz O, Bustamante-Calvillo E, Álvarez y Muñoz T, et al. Factores determinantes de la rubéola en población de 10 a 14 años de edad en México. Salud Publica Mex 1992;34:211-221. [ Links ]
25. Justines G, Oro G, Fábrega P, Mans RA, Wong N. Presencia de anticuerpos contra la rubéola en comunidades urbanas y rurales en Panamá y evaluación de los resultados de pruebas de neutralización e inhibición de la hemoglutinación. Rev Med Panama 1981;6:176-182. [ Links ]
26. Banffer JRJ. Sero-immunity against rubella in Surinam women. Trop Geogr Med 1971;23: 365-368. [ Links ]
27. Pitts OM, Ravenel JM, Finklea JF. Rubella immunity in Trinidad. Am J Epidemiol 1969;89:271-276. [ Links ]
28. Sever JL, Schiff GM, Huebner RJ. Frequency of rubella antibody among pregnant women and other human and animal populations. Obstet Gynecol 1964;23:153-159. [ Links ]
29. Sever JL, Fuccillo DA, Gilkeson MR, Ley A, Traub R. Changing susceptibility to rubella. Obstet Gynecol 1968;32:365-369. [ Links ]
30. Sever JL, Fabiyi A, McCallin PF, Chu PT, Weiss W, Gilkeson MR. Rubella antibody among pregnant women in Hawaii. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1965;92:1006-1008. [ Links ]
31. Hinman AR, Bart KJ, Orenstein WA, Preblud SR. Rational strategy for rubella vaccination. Lancet 1983;i:39-41. [ Links ]
32. Galindo MA, Santín M, Resik S, Ribas MA, Guzmán M, Mas Lago P, et al. La eliminación del sarampión de Cuba. Rev Panam Salud Pública/Pan Amer J Public Health. Forthcoming, 1998. [ Links ]
33. Robertson SE, Cutts FT, Samuel R, Diaz-Ortega JL. Control of rubella and congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) in developing countries, part 2: Vaccination against rubella. Bull World Health Organ 1997;75:69-80. [ Links ]
34. Hatziandreu EJ, Brown RE, Halpern MT. A cost benefit analysis of the measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine: Final report. Arlington, VA: Battelle; 1994. [ Links ]
35. de Quadros CA, Olive JM, Hersh BS, Strassburg MA, Henderson DA, Brandlin-Bennett D, et al. Measles elimination in the Americas: Evolving strategies. JAMA 1996;275:224-229. [ Links ]
36. Pan American Health Organization. Caribbean Community establishes rubella elimination goal. EPI Newsletter 1998;20:5. [ Links ]
Manuscript received on 19 February 1998. Revised version accepted for publication on 15 June 1998.
Uso racional de la vacuna contra la rubéola para prevenir las anomalías congénitas por rubéola en las Américas
|La rubéola es una enfermedad vírica que produce poca morbilidad y pocas complicaciones, a no ser que la contraiga una mujer embarazada. La infección con rubéola durante el primer trimestre del embarazo a menudo termina en muerte fetal o en deformidades congénitas graves (síndrome de anomalías congénitas por rubéola, o SCR). La rubéola sigue siendo endémica en muchos países de América Latina y el Caribe. Se estima que quizá 20 000 niños o más nacen cada año con SCR en países latinoamericanos y caribeños. Si bien la adición de la vacuna contra la rubéola a los programas de inmunización infantil de rutina disminuirá la circulación del virus entre los niños pequeños, no tendrá un impacto inmediato sobre la transmisión de la rubéola entre los adultos o sobre la frecuencia de SCR. Una campaña única dirigida a toda la población de hombres y mujeres de 5 a 39 años de edad en que se aplique la vacuna triple contra el sarampión, la parotiditis y la rubéola, o la vacuna doble contra el sarampión y la rubéola seguida de la vacuna triple como parte de la inmunización rutinaria de niños pequeños servirá para controlar y prevenir de manera inmediata tanto la rubéola como el SCR. En abril de 1988, los Ministros de Salud de países del Caribe angloparlante establecieron la meta de eliminar la rubéola para fines del año 2000 mediante la aplicación de la estrategia de vacunación aquí descrita. La experiencia que han tenido estos países en sus actividades de eliminación de la rubéola será fuente de información provechosa para la eliminación futura del virus de la rubéola de todo el territorio americano.|
1 The Task Force for Child Survival and Development, Atlanta, Georgia, USA. Mailing address: 750 Commerce Drive, Suite 400, Decatur, GA 30030. Tel.: 404-687-5636; fax: 404-371-0415; E-mail: [email protected]
2 Pan American Health Organization, Special Program for Vaccines and Immunization, Washington, DC, USA.
3 Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Bermuda, Canada, Cayman Islands, Chile, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, Panama, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands, United States of America, Uruguay, British Virgin Islands.
4 From a programmatic perspective, serological screening of adult women probably would not be feasible or cost-effective in most settings, and all women of childbearing age should be asked if they are pregnant or anticipate becoming pregnant in the next 3 months; those who answer "yes" should be excluded and those who answer "no" should be vaccinated.
5 Since this paper was written the CARICOM Council for Human and Social Development has passed a resolution that "every effort should be made to eliminate rubella and prevent the occurrence of new cases of congenital rubella syndrome in the Caribbean community by the end of the year 2000" (36).
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Electronics Projects: Build a Seven-Segment Display Countdown Timer
This electronics project presents a breadboard circuit that connects a seven-segment display to seven of the eight output pins of a parallel port. You need a computer with a parallel port and the Kit 74 software installed. You also need a parallel-port connector with wires soldered to the data pins and one of the common data ground pins.
To test your assembled circuit, connect it to your computer’s parallel port, open a command prompt, and use the following RELAY command:
All seven of the display’s segments should light up. If one doesn’t light, carefully double-check your wiring. Also verify that your seven-segment display uses the same pinouts as the one listed in the project; some display modules have different packaging with different pin connections. Finally, remember that you may have to run the RELAY command twice to get it to work.
When the circuit checks out, run the COUNTDOWN.BAT script. The seven-segment display should count down the digits 9 through 0 at 1-second intervals. When it gets to zero, the display should flash until you terminate the batch file by pressing Ctrl+C or closing the command window.
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A plant or plants can represent many different things, including growth, development, evolution, refinement, production of good or useful things, life force, nature, God.
Also, pay attention to the plant and its context. A healthy plant might represent health or life force. A sick plant might represent an imbalance somewhere in your life. A plant can also represent a person, their life, or their quality of life.
Also, consider what the particular type of plant means to you. For instance, a palm tree might represent a warm climate or a vacation destination. A fern might represent a feeling of dampness and shadiness or darkness. A flowering plant or fruit tree might represent being productive or making useful things. A prickly cactus might represent a threat, obstacle, or irritable person.
If a particular part of the plant stands out, consider its individual meaning.
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(HealthDay News) -- When temperatures and humidity levels soar, so can the risk of heat-related illness. People at highest risk include those with a chronic disease, the elderly, young children and infants.
The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention offers these tips for staying cool during hot weather:
- Stay indoors in the air conditioning as much as possible.
- Drink a lot of fluids throughout the day.
- Wear clothing that is lightweight, fits loosely and is light in color.
- Apply sunscreen.
- Limit outdoor activities, and carefully pace yourself when outdoors.
- Take a cool bath or shower.
- Set up a buddy system to check on friends and neighbors, and ask them to do the same for you.
- Pay attention to local news and weather updates.
- Never leave a child inside a vehicle.
All EBSCO Publishing proprietary, consumer health and medical information found on this site is accredited by URAC. URAC's Health Web Site Accreditation Program requires compliance with 53 rigorous standards of quality and accountability, verified by independent audits. To send comments or feedback to our Editorial Team regarding the content please email us at
This content is reviewed regularly and is updated when new and relevant evidence is made available. This information is neither intended nor implied to be a substitute for professional medical advice. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider prior to starting any new treatment or with questions regarding a medical condition.
Copyright © 2008 EBSCO Publishing All rights reserved.
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<urn:uuid:1658e87a-3701-449b-8051-837cb521c140>
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is a platform of modeling and simulation of the agro-ecosystems. It is a tool for the design, the analysis and the evaluation of innovating farming systems able to ensure of the specified agronomic and environmental functions. RECORD uses VLE
to ensure the modeling and simulation parts of its activity. RECORD provides a lot of free models available on RECORD repository
. This project is supported by Environnement & Agronomie
and Applied Mathematics and Informatics
divisions of the INRA
(French National Institute for Agricultural Research).
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<urn:uuid:db0529fa-91a0-448a-a077-e3cd5b45851e>
|
| ||Format||Pages||Price|| |
|7||$208.00|| ADD TO CART|
|Hardcopy (shipping and handling)||7||$208.00|| ADD TO CART|
Significance and Use
This method is a procedure for calculating paraffin, olefin, naphthene and aromatic hydrocarbon types in hydrocarbon fractions, such as reformer feeds and reformates, having endpoints of 200°C or less (C3 through C11). C12 paraffins and naphthenes at concentrations totaling less than 3% can be determined. Olefins must be less than 2%. C8 minus paraffins and naphthenes are reported individually. C9 through C12 paraffins and naphthenes are determined by carbon number. Aromatics through C10 are determined individually with C11+ aromatics determined as a composite. Olefins are reported undistributed. If analysis by carbon number only for all hydrocarbon types over all carbon number ranges is sufficient, use ASTM Method D6839, "Hydrocarbon Types, Oxygenated Compounds, and Benzene in Spark Ignition Engine Fuels by Gas Chromatography." Results are reported to the nearest 0.01 mass-%. Conversion to liquid volume-percent (LV-%) is described in the Appendix.
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<urn:uuid:5a402ca9-34d4-420c-a204-2484a2bfda6c>
|
Ferrite rod antenna
- an overview, summary, tutorial about the ferrite rod antenna or aerial, a form of RF antenna that is widely used in RFID and transistor radio applications.
The ferrite rod antenna is a form of RF antenna design that is almost universally used in portable transistor broadcast receivers as well as many hi-fi tuners where reception on the long, medium and possibly the short wave bands is required.
Ferrite rod antennas are also being used increasingly in wireless applications in areas such as RFID. Here the volumes of antennas required can be huge. The antennas also need to be compact and effective, making ferrite rod antennas an ideal solution.
Ferrite rod antenna basics
As the name suggests the antenna consists of a rod made of ferrite, an iron based magnetic material. A coil is would around the ferrite rod and this is brought to resonance using a variable tuning capacitor contained within the radio circuitry itself and in this way the antenna can be tuned to resonance. As the antenna is tuned it usually forms the RF tuning circuit for the receiver, enabling both functions to be combined within the same components, thereby reducing the number of components and hence the cost of the set.
Typical ferrite rod antenna assembly used in a portable radio
The ferrite rod antenna operates using the high permeability of the ferrite material and in its basic form this may be thought of as "concentrating" the magnetic component of the radio waves. This is brought about by the high permeability μ of the ferrite.
The fact that this RF antenna uses the magnetic component of the radio signals in this way means that the antenna is directive. It operates best only when the magnetic lines of force fall in line with the antenna. This occurs when it is at right angles to the direction of the transmitter. This means that the antenna has a null position where the signal level is at a minimum when the antenna is in line with the direction of the transmitter.
Operation of a ferrite rod antenna
Ferrite rod antenna performance
This form of RF antenna design is very convenient for portable applications, but its efficiency is much less than that of a larger RF antenna. The performance of the ferrite also limits the frequency response. Normally this type of RF antenna design is only effective on the long and medium wave bands, but it is sometimes used for lower frequencies in the short wave bands although the performance is significantly degraded, mainly arising from the losses in the ferrite. This limits their operation normally to frequencies up to 2 or 3 MHz.
Ferrite rod antennas are normally only used for receiving. They are rarely used for transmitting anything above low levels of power in view of their poor efficiency. It any reasonable levels of power were fed into them they would soon become very hot and there would be a high likelihood that they would be destroyed. Nevertheless they can be used as a very compact form of transmitting antenna for applications where efficiency is not an issue and where power levels are very low. As they are very much more compact than other forms of low or medium frequency RF antenna, this can be an advantage, and as a result they are being used in applications such as RFID.
By Ian Poole
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|
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<urn:uuid:c09ac72b-bf9e-4676-96ce-dab340bb0d6d>
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Could not include topos theory - contents
The stalk at of an object is the image of under the corresponding inverse image morphism
then the topos points of come precisely from the ordinary points
of the space , where the direct image morphism
So for sheaves on (open subsets of) topological spaces the stalk at a given point is the colimit over all values of the sheaf on open subsets containing this point.
By the general definition of colimits in Set described at limits and colimits by example, the elements in this colimit can in turn be described as equivalence classes represented pairs with , where the equivalence relation says that two such pairs and coincide if there is a third pair with and such that .
for a sheaf of functions on , such an equivalence class, hence such an element in a stalk of is called a function germ.
For a topos with enough points, the behaviour of morphisms in can be tested on stalks:
A morphism of sheaves on is a
if and only if every induced map of stalk sets is, for all
The statement for isomorphisms follows from the identification of sheaves with etale spaces (e.g. section II, 6, corollary 3 in MacLane-Moerdijk, Sheaves in Geometry and Logic). The statement for epimorphisms/monomorphisms is proposition 6 there.
Let be a smooth manifold and let and be the sheaves of differential -forms and that of closed differential -forms on , respectively, for some . Let
be the morphism of sheaves that is given on each open subset by the deRham differential.
for the map need not be epi, since not every closed form is exact;
but by the Poincare lemma every closed form is locally exact, so that for each the map of stalks is an epimorphism.
Accordingly, the morphism is an epimorphism of sheaves.
This kind of example plays a crucial role in the computation of abelian sheaf cohomology, see the examples listed there.
For a locally ringed topos with structure sheaf , the stalk of the multiplicative group at a point is the multiplicative group in the stalk local ring of the structure sheaf. (e.g. Milne, example 6.13)
Examples of sequences of local structures
|geometry||point||first order infinitesimal||formal = arbitrary order infinitesimal||local = stalkwise||finite|
|smooth functions||derivative||Taylor series||germ||smooth function|
|curve (path)||tangent vector||jet||germ of curve||curve|
|smooth space||infinitesimal neighbourhood||formal neighbourhood||open neighbourhood|
|function algebra||square-0 ring extension||nilpotent ring extension/formal completion||ring extension|
|arithmetic geometry||finite field||p-adic integers||localization at (p)||integers|
|Lie theory||Lie algebra||formal group||local Lie group||Lie group|
|symplectic geometry||Poisson manifold||formal deformation quantization||local strict deformation quantization||strict deformation quantization|
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Fifth-generation programming language
||A major contributor to this article appears to have a close connection with its subject. (May 2009)|
A fifth generation programming language (abbreviated as 5GL) is a programming language based on solving problems using constraints given to the program, rather than using an algorithm written by a programmer. Most constraint-based and logic programming languages and some declarative languages are fifth-generation languages.
While fourth-generation programming languages are designed to build specific programs, fifth-generation languages are designed to make the computer solve a given problem without the programmer. This way, the programmer only needs to worry about what problems need to be solved and what conditions need to be met, without worrying about how to implement a routine or algorithm to solve them. Fifth-generation languages are used mainly in artificial intelligence research. Prolog, OPS5, and Mercury are examples of fifth-generation languages.
In the 1980s, fifth-generation languages were considered to be the wave of the future, and some predicted that they would replace all other languages for system development, with the exception of low-level languages. Most notably, from 1982 to 1993 Japan put much research and money into their fifth generation computer systems project, hoping to design a massive computer network of machines using these tools.
However, as larger programs were built, the flaws of the approach became more apparent. It turns out that, given a set of constraints defining a particular problem, deriving an efficient algorithm to solve it is a very difficult problem in itself. This crucial step cannot yet be automated and still requires the insight of a human programmer.
Vendors have been known on occasion to advertise their languages as 5GL. Most of the time they actually sell 4GLs with a higher level of automation and knowledge base. Since the 5GL awareness has dropped because the hype of the 1980s quickly faded away and the projects were eventually all dropped; this has opened doors to the vendors to re-use the term in marketing their new tools, without causing much controversy among the current generations of programmers.
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Hard freeze likely damaged much of fall-emerged wheat
A large part of the Texas winter wheat crop could have been damaged by hard freezes March 24 to 26, according to a Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service expert.
“Temperatures in the teens and low 20s appear to have been common in the Panhandle, and in the upper 20s and low 30s in the Blacklands on Sunday night and Monday morning,” said Travis Miller, Ph.D., AgriLife Extension agronomist and Texas A&M University soil and crop sciences associate department head. “These temperatures are sufficiently cold to cause severe injury to wheat in advanced stages of growth.”
The exact extent of the damage won’t be known for five days to a week or longer, and another hard freeze was expected in the central areas of the state on the night and early morning of March 25 to 26, Miller said.
A hard freeze can kill individual developing seed heads, he said. Throughout the state, wheat was in various growth stages and each plant has multiple tillers of different ages, he said.
Wheat where the heads are in an early stage of development can tolerate temperatures as low as 20 degrees for a few hours without much damage, but wheat in bloom can suffer significant injury from 32-degree temperatures, Miller said.
Further complicating damage assessment, temperatures registered by nearby thermometers may not reflect actual field temperatures, all of which makes on-the-ground field scouting necessary.
“Temperature may vary several degrees in a field,” he said. “Freeze damage is always worse in low spots in fields. It might kill the older heads and not the younger heads. It’s a real mixed bag out there, a real hodgepodge.”
Miller noted that it was a mixed blessing that much of the wheat in the eastern part of the state suffered from a droughty fall and did not emerge until January.
“I don’t expect that late-emerging wheat will be far enough advanced to be injured, but this late wheat has a lower yield potential than wheat that germinated in the fall. When it emerges late, it has lower potential yields due to fewer tillers and a greater risk of exposure to heat during critical growth stages.”
A month ago, Miller predicted a below-average wheat crop for the Texas South Plains, Panhandle and Rolling Plains because of a dry fall and problems with emergence.
At that time, he noted that Blacklands wheat—from the Metroplex north and east—looked good, being in better shape than anywhere else in the state. Now that wheat is at risk too because of the freezes, he noted.
“It’s a large and complex problem out there,” he said. “But if you had wheat that was blooming and your temperatures got down to 26, you’re going to have some injury.”
More information on the current Texas drought and wildfire alerts can be found on the AgriLife Extension Agricultural Drought Task Force website at http://agrilife.tamu.edu/drought.
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<urn:uuid:35a64c0b-ff96-4cc9-9ab9-386bf9455732>
|
The so-called "BRIC" countries--Brazil, Russia, India, and China--all scored in the top 11 in a recent ranking of countries' environmental commitments. The list evaluates the efforts of these four nations alongside those of 21 members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), a group of the world's wealthier nations. The results of the assessment indicate that when it comes to finding solutions to climate change, "rich countries should take the lead, but developing countries need to follow pretty closely behind," says David Roodman of the Center for Global Development (CGD).
The ranking is part of CGD's 2007 Commitment to Development Index, an annual assessment of OECD countries' efforts to "build prosperity, good government, and security." The Index evaluates indicators in seven key policy areas--aid, trade, investment, migration, environment, security, and technology--and calculates an overall score for each nation. Of the 21 OECD countries surveyed, the Netherlands scored highest this year, in part because of policies that promote productive investment in poor countries, while Japan scored lowest, in part because of its high tariffs on rice imports.
In 2007, for the first time in its five-year history, the Index included an evaluation of the BRICs' environmental performance alongside that of the OECD countries. CGD chose to include these four nations because, according to Roodman, "Rapid economic growth in India and China, the renewed geopolitical clout of Russia in an era of expensive oil, and the de facto declaration of financial independence by Brazil and its neighbors from the International Monetary Fund all remind us of the global stature of nations outside the traditional circle of developed countries."
Because certain data were not available for all four BRIC countries, the environmental component restricted the evaluation criteria to several key indicators. For instance, Brazil, Russia, and India all ranked in the top five on the index because they performed well in measurements of greenhouse gas emissions per capita and consumption of ozone-depleting substances. Meanwhile, Australia and the United States placed last due in part to high emissions per capita and their failure to ratify the Kyoto Protocol.
David Wheeler, a senior fellow at CGD, suggests a metaphor to better understand the greenhouse gas component of the environmental ranking. "Suppose you see a school, and it's busy, and it's well-organized, things seem to be going well, and the school grades on a curve," he explains. Although several students are getting high marks, only one student in the school in fact passes the state-administered exam. The nations of the world are like this, according to Wheeler, because while some are doing better than others, none are emitting few-enough greenhouse gases per capita to be sustainable. "Although there are A, C, and F grades,...collectively, we're all failing," he observes of the rankings.
Image: Courtesy of Center for Global Development, via Worldwatch Institute
This story was written by Alana Herro for Eye on Earth (e2), a service of World Watch Magazine in partnership with the blue moon fund. e2 provides a unique perspective on current events, newly released studies, and important global trends.
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<urn:uuid:fa138fe8-3e25-4c96-8b35-bc3ac6153c9a>
|
Submitted to: Book Chapter
Publication Type: Book / Chapter
Publication Acceptance Date: June 30, 2009
Publication Date: July 15, 2009
Citation: Stevenson, D.G., Inglett, G.E. 2009. Cereal beta-glucans. Book Chapter. Technical Abstract: Cereal beta-glucans occur predominantly in oats and barley, but can be found in other cereals. Beta-glucan structure is a mixture of single beta-1,3-linkages and consecutive beta-1,4-linkages, and cellotriosyl and cellotetraosyl units typically make up 90-95% of entire molecule. Lichenase can hydrolyze beta-glucans, enabling determination of molecular structure and novel functionality. The reason grasses synthesize beta-glucans remains unknown, but beta-glucans may play a role in cell-wall support in early plant tissue growth, but new genes that are involved in beta-glucan biosynthesis are discussed. Extraction of beta-glucans by dry milling, solvent extraction, acidic or alkaline conditions, elevated or freezing temperatures, and enzymatic methods are discussed. These extraction procedures have led to many commercial beta-glucan products such as Oatrim, Nutrim-OB, C-trim, OatWell(R), OatVantage(TM), Natureal(R), Viscofiber(R), 'organic natural oat fiber', Glucagel(R) and Cerogen(TM), with the attributes of each product discussed. Beta-glucans provide many health benefits for humans such as blood cholesterol-lowering by binding bile acids, reduced coronary heart disease, diabetes control by lowering glycemic index, lowered blood pressure, cancer prevention and improved gastric emptying and nutrient absorption, in which these health benefits are discussed in further detail. In order for consumers to gain some health benefit, enriched beta-glucan ingredients have been incorporated into many foods, in particular wheat-based baked foods, pastas and noodles, dairy products, meats and salad dressings, with many food applications discussed. To expand the food applications, beta-glucans need to retain structure and biological function during many food processing technologies such as high or low temperatures, acidic or alkaline conditions, high pressure, shear and other mechanical forces, chemical modification, food additives and enzymatic degradation, and research studying resistance of beta-glucans to these processing conditions is discussed. Overall the future is promising for commercialization of cereal beta-glucan products, with increased consumer demand essentially assured due to the degeneration of nutritional standards and increased incidence of nutritionally-related health disorders by the majority of consumers in industrialized nations.
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<urn:uuid:c98efe8f-dc57-4629-9593-2f153e46ad25>
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- Plants for gardens
- Sustainable gardening
- Water-wise gardening
- Plants for wildlife
- Gardening help
- Growing native plants in Sydney
- Growing waratahs
- Growing flannel flowers
- Growing paper daisies
- Growing proteas
- Growing herbs
- Growing Hardenbergia violacea
- Growing Casuarina glauca ‘Kattang Karpet’
- Wollemi Pine
- Plant databases
- Plant conservation
- Pests & diseases
- Identifying plants
Drought and the Gardens
The Royal Botanic Gardens & Domain Trust is complying with the current Sydney Water voluntary water restrictions. We are upgrading our watering systems and have introduced strategies to reduce water use throughout the Gardens and the Domain. Be water-wise - in this drought we all need to conserve water.
Your garden holds the key to saving water
Sydney Water has found that gardens use up to 25% of all household water and that conserving water is one of the most effective ways to help protect the environment and make the best use of our existing water resources.
Why get smart with water?
Being thrifty with water
Some practical things to do to help save water
Water-wise attractions at the Australian Botanic Garden, Mount Annan
At our Water-wise Garden at the Australian Botanic Garden you will find information about mulching and composting. You can also pick up a ‘Get Smart with Water’ brochure with instructions for a self-guided water-wise plant tour.
Look out for the blue labels of the ‘water-wise’ plants throughout the Australian Botanic Garden - many are worth considering for your own garden as they survive with no supplementary watering.
At the Australian Botanic Garden we have two rainwater tanks supplied by Sydney Water to commemorate Water Week 2002. One of these tanks provides water to the Water-wise Garden (via gravity - an energy efficient arrangement that doesn’t require a pump) while the other provides water for flushing one of our toilet blocks. Collecting rainwater from your roof can reduce the amount of tap water used in your home and garden - thus saving water, money and the environment.
For a useful summary see our Waterwise healthy garden fact sheet.
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Paper art can be traced back to Japan, where it originated over a thousand years ago. From complex paper cutting to book carving, this is an ever expanding area of design that is hardly talked about. Some imaginative artists have created spectacular pieces of artwork out of paper. They refer to it as Paper Craft or Paper Artwork.
Paper sculptor is an artwork created by shaping or combining different types of papers that needs a great precision. Unlike origami, paper sculptures are made of several pieces of paper instead of one and for once, paper is the subject and everything else are tools.
Today we present 45 Extraordinary Paper Made Artworks, Models and Sculptures that will inspire you to take a second look at the often over-looked material and re-think its possibilities. You may also be interested in our other posts on Creative Drawings, Fashion Photography, Homeless Portraits and Star Trail Photography.
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T2T || FAQ || Ask T2T || Teachers' Lounge || Browse || Search || Thanks || About T2T
View entire discussion
[<< prev] [ next >>]
From: Frank Wilson <[email protected]> To: Teacher2Teacher Public Discussion Date: 2008110710:17:34 Subject: When am I ever going to use this? There are more than 100 great classroom activities at www.MakeItRealLearning.com. Each of the worksheets address the question, "When am I ever going to use this?". The website features five free worksheets including Choosing a Cell Phone Plan - Verizon: Working with Linear Functions Cooking in the Kitchen: Working with Fractions Credit Card Balance Transfer: Working with Financial Formulas Shopping the Sale: Using Percents Measuring Milk: Changing Units of Measure.
Math Forum Home || The Math Library || Quick Reference || Math Forum Search
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COAL TAR PITS
COAL TAR PITS. Remnants of coal gasification. In 1987 two coal tar pits, remains of the coal gasification process used until the development of natural gas after WORLD WAR II, were discovered near the path of the U.S. 61 relocation project.
The pits in Dubuque were both Key City Gas coal gasification sites. One pit, located at 11th Street and Kerper Boulevard, was found on city garage property. The second pit was near an Amoco service station west of the JULIEN DUBUQUE BRIDGE at Dodge and Bluff.
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of Contents]People old and young enjoy waxing nostalgic about and learning some of the history of early electronics.
Popular Electronics was published from October 1954 through April 1985. All copyrights (if any) are hereby acknowledged.
1967 when this article article appeared in Popular Electronics, the
use of integrated circuits in consumer electronics was still relatively
new. RCA, GE, Westinghouse, and Philco had just released their first
TVs and radios with IC front ends, and Heathkit even had a build-it-yourself
model. The military was using them (ICs) in proximity fuse designs.
The new technology was really cooking. ESD issues were discovered and
needed to be dealt with as gate sizes shrunk and the vulnerability to
arcing became a problem. A photo is shown where NASA developed a method
for mitigating the potential damage by looping a spring-loaded wire
around the leads of MOS-based ICs during handling. A bit of nerd humor
is also presented to commemorate the April edition.
See all articles
By Lou Garner, Semiconductor Editor
A new manufacturing process at Eburn Industrial Research Corp. (Hingham,
Mass.) allows IC designers to pack 100 times as much circuitry into
the same area occupied by a conventional transistor.
The use of integrated circuits in consumer products is increasing at
an accelerated pace. Last year several major manufacturers started to
include IC devices in their TV sets (RCA) and table-model radio receivers
(GE and Philco). Heath followed suit shortly thereafter with a TV receiver
kit featuring an IC. H.H. Scott a major hi-fi equipment producer, is
now using IC's in the i.f. stages of its better line of FM receivers
and tuners. And the latest entrant in the field is Westinghouse Electric
Corp., with an IC portable phonograph. The new phonograph uses a conventional
record changer, but the familiar amplifier has been replaced by an IC
measuring only 0.112" x 0.085" and equivalent, performance-wise, to
39 components, consisting of transistors diodes, and resistors.
But the IC news is not limited to the domestic front. Two major
Japanese manufacturers, Sony Corp. and Matsushita Electronics Corp.,
are producing radio receivers using IC's, and another firm, Victor Co.
of Japan Ltd., is selling a 25-inch color TV set with a hybrid IC in
its sound channel.
The Military, too, is going for IC's in a
big way, not only in communications and computer applications but, more
recently, in the production of IC proximity fuses. A World War II development,
the proximity fuse is a miniature transceiver used in artillery shells
and bombs. In operation the device senses its approach to a target by
measuring the Doppler shift between shell and target. At a preset distance,
its detector circuit, activated by a reflected radio signal, detonates
the warhead charge.
Another recent development in the field
permits smaller firms to design custom IC's for their own products without
the high investment cost of a complete manufacturing facility. A sort
of "do-it-yourself" IC kit the new item is an open-cased monolithic
silicon chip measuring only 0.086" x 0.124" but containing 60 components.
The user interconnects the various elements as needed to assemble his
own custom circuit. Produced by Westinghouse Electric Corp., the IC
kit has been dubbed the "Insta-Circuit" and is available in both flat-pack
and TO-5 configurations. Suitable for manufacturers schools and laboratories,
the Insta-Circuit is definitely not a hobbyist item, since the special
microscope-equipped wire bonder required to make the final circuit connections
costs almost as much as a small car. The circuit chips themselves sell
for less than $40 each in unit quantities and less than $30 each in
quantities of 50 to 400.
Fig. 1. Two-transistor AM broadcast-band receiver circuit submitted
by reader Doug Zimmer features a Darlington pair amplifier (Q1 and
Q2), and a power switch that lets you select either a chemical battery,
B1, or a sun-powered battery (PC1).
Fig. 2. One of the many practical FET circuits described in a recent
folder from Siliconix, Inc., each stage of this phase shifter permits
continuous adjustment of phase shifts from 0°·to 180°.
Reader's Circuit. Agreed that simple AM broadcast-band receiver circuits
are literally "a dime a dozen," the circuit in Fig. 1, which was submitted
by reader Doug Zimmer (14332 35th N.E., Seattle, Wash.), combines a
number of interesting features that make it suitable for demonstration
or test purposes.
Doug has employed a standard tapped antenna
coil, with the tap serving as a means of matching the antenna. In addition,
he has used a Darlington pair amplifier (Q1 and Q2) and a dual d.c.
supply, permitting the selection of either a chemical battery (B1) or
a sun-powered battery (PC1) as the power source.
signals picked up by the antenna are selected by tuned circuit L1-C1
and detected by diode D1. Switch S1 provides optimum match for both
long and short antennas, insuring the best compromise between selectivity
and sensitivity. The detected audio signal is amplified by Q1 and Q2
and applied to an earphone plugged into output jack J1. Capacitor C2
serves to bypass the r.f. signal.
Switches S1 and S2 are
s.p.d.t. toggle, slide, or rotary types. Coil L1 is a tapped loopstick
antenna coil (Superex VLT-240 or similar) and C1 is a standard 365-pF
variable capacitor. A tubular paper capacitor or ceramic unit can be
used for C2; working voltage is not critical. Diode D1 is a general-purpose
type similar to a 1N34A and Q1 and Q2 are low-power pnp types (typically,
CK722, 2N107, or SK3003). An open-circuit phone jack is used for J1.
Either a penlight cell or standard flashlight cell will
be suitable for B1; PC1 is an International Rectifier type SIM silicon
solar cell. Doug recommends moderate impedance (500- to 5000-ohm) magnetic
earphones. And you can use either a printed circuit or point-to-point
wiring when building this receiver. Manufacturer's Circuit.
An interesting experimental phase shifter circuit is shown in Fig 2.
One of the 20-plus practical circuits described in a four-page folder
recently published by Siliconix, Inc. (1140 W. Evelyn Ave., Sunnyvale,
Calif.), the phase shifter permits a continuous adjustment of the relative
phase difference between its input and output signals. It can be used
for test purposes or to demonstrate the concept of phase shift. It is
particularly valuable for demonstrating the changes in standard Lissajous
figures as a signal's phase angle is varied.
Fig. 3. This is a simple device used by NASA to protect MOS transistors
from being accidentally damaged by the application of an electrostatic
potential across the leads while the transistor is being handled
or assembled in a circuit. A loop of flexible nickel wire is attached
to a music wire spring that is slipped over the transistor's case
and released, shorting together all of the leads.
The phase shifter consists of two cascaded split-load amplifier stages
with appropriate signal-combining phase-shifting networks between the
drain and source output points. Each stage provides from 0°·to 180°
phase shift. Resistor R1 serves as Q1's gate return resistor and as
the input load. Resistors R2 and R5 act as drain loads while R3 and
R6 serve as individual source loads. Combinations C1-R4 and C2-R7 form,
respectively, the first-and second-stage signal-combining network, with
the degree of phase shift determined by their adjustable resistive elements
(R4 and R7). Operating power is furnished by a 12-volt battery, B1,
controlled by s.p.s.t. switch S1.
Standard components are used
in the instrument. Transistors Q1 and Q2 are FET 2N2609's. All resistors
are half-watters; R4 and R7 are ganged potentiometers. Capacitors C1
and C2 are high-quality ceramic or plastic film types. Switch S1 can
be a toggle, slide, or rotary switch, as preferred. A variety of 12-volt
battery power packs can be used for B1 including two 6-volt portable
A types in series, or eight series-connected penlight or flashlight
cells. You can also power the phase shifter with a line-operated d.c.
power supply if you wish.
Observe good wiring practices when
assembling the device, and keep all signal leads short and direct. The
"Phase Shifter" can be wired on a suitable etched circuit board or on
a perforated phenolic board, and housed in a small metal utility box.
A sine-wave audio signal generator can be used as the prime signal source
for checking phase shifts.
OVERSIZE POWER TRANSISTOR
On April 1, the Lou Garner Enterprises announced the development
of the BMB transistor. Rated at a maximum free air dissipation of
about 10,000 watts, the new transistor is shown in the accompanying
photograph - note how the elements dwarf the nut and crescent wrench.
Beta values have not been calculated, but the alpha is reported
to be close to 1.0001 under typical operating conditions. Distribution
and quantity prices have not yet been firmly established for this
breakthrough.WITHDRAWN FROM MARKET
Due to production and patent problems, the Lou Garner Enterprises
on April 2 regretfully announced the withdrawal of the super-power
transistor. Interest in this new development was confined to April
Although possessing extremely - high input
impedance, insulated-gate field-effect transistors (IGT's, IGFET's,
MOST's, or MOSFET's) can be damaged quite easily by stray electrostatic
charges. To protect these devices against such damage during storage
and shipment, semiconductor manufacturers use techniques like wrapping
the transistors in foil, twisting or soldering the lead tips together,
or shorting the leads by means of a metal eyelet. However, none of these
techniques provides adequate protection when the transistor is prepared
for installation in a circuit since the leads must then be separated.
A recently published NASA "Tech Brief" describes a simple and
inexpensive device (Fig. 3) for preventing accidental damage when MOSFET's
are actually installed in a circuit. If you do work with these transistors,
you may want to use a similar device. It is made from short pieces of
0.033-inch diameter music wire and 0.007 -inch diameter nickel wire.
First, bend the music wire to form a spring with small end loops.
Then, form the nickel wire into a single loop and attach its outer ends
to the spring loops by twisting and soldering. The spring is compressed
during this operation so that the nickel wire is held under tension.
Squeeze the spring, expanding the nickel wire loop, and slip
the loop over the transistor leads until it touches the case. Then release
the spring, tightening the nickel wire loop and shorting the transistor
leads together. You can now remove the manufacturer's protection feature
(slip off the eyelet, untwist the leads, etc.). Finally, an insulated
Transpad is slipped over the transistor's leads and pushed up against
the taut wire loop to serve as a retaining disc.
transistor can now be inserted in its socket and mounted on a circuit
board, or soldered in position. Once the transistor is installed, the
protective device can be removed either by compressing the spring (opening
the nickel wire loop) or clipping the fine nickel wire. And another
thing: use a soldering iron - not a gun - when wiring MOSFET's, and
be sure to ground the tip of the iron to the substrate lead before soldering
the gate lead in place.
Until next month ...
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Research cruise testing EGNOS satnav for ships
A research vessel surveying European waters is also charting the maritime performance of Europe’s EGNOS satnav system. Results gathered by Belgium’s RVBelgica are investigating how EGNOS, initially prioritised for aircraft, can also guide marine traffic. test
The Belgica is an all-purpose oceanographic research ship that spends around 200 days per year at sea, monitoring the quality of the marine environment, surveying the seabed and serving as a floating laboratory for Belgian universities and research institutes.
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Awareness of seasonal changes in mood and behavior dates back to ancient times (1). Seasonal affective disorder, winter type (2), is characterized by depression in fall or winter, with complete remission or hypomania in spring or summer. Winter seasonal affective disorder is believed to be caused in vulnerable individuals by the shortening of the day, and it responds to light treatment (3, 4). In contrast, summer-type seasonal affective disorder consists of recurrent depression in summer and remission of depressive symptoms in fall and winter; it may be caused by exposure to heat and may improve with manipulations of temperature (5, 6).
The degree to which the change of season influences mood, energy, sleep, appetite, food preference, and the wish to socialize has been called "seasonality" (7). To study seasonality in the community, the Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire was designed by Rosenthal et al. (8). The Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire was first used by Kasper et al. (7), who described a less severe but more prevalent form of seasonal affective disorder called subsyndromal seasonal affective disorder. The Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire does not diagnose seasonal affective disorder but estimates the frequency and pattern (i.e., winter or summer) of seasonal affective disorder and subsyndromal seasonal affective disorder, generally overestimating seasonal affective disorder when compared to assessment by clinical diagnostic interview (9). The Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire also estimates the average seasonality through calculation of a global seasonality score.
Since the initial study of Kasper et al. (7) in a suburban area of Washington, D.C. (Montgomery County, Md.), the Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire has been used in diverse geographic areas and populations, for example, in North America (10–16), Europe (17–22), and Asia (23–25). Studies of largely Caucasian groups in temperate climates found a clearly more prevalent winter pattern of seasonal affective disorder than summer seasonal affective disorder (7, 10, 11, 17, 21). In contrast, three studies performed at similar latitudes in Asia (23–25) found that summer seasonal affective disorder was more prevalent than winter seasonal affective disorder.
Several studies have suggested that ethnicity may be associated with relative protection or vulnerability to seasonal changes. For example, Icelanders and Lapps have lower frequencies of winter difficulties (17, 26, 27), while the Chinese and Japanese may have a relative increase in the frequency of summer difficulties (23–25). Although genetic factors may contribute to vulnerability for seasonal changes (28–30), epidemiological studies on the relationship between ethnicity and seasonality support a greater role of cultural/environmental factors over genetic factors (31, 32).
To our knowledge, no previous study focusing on seasonal patterns in African Americans has been published, and although African Americans have been included in previously studied groups, their number was small. Nevertheless, in the study by Kasper et al. (7) in Montgomery County, Md., blacks did not appear to have a different pattern of seasonal difficulties than the rest of the group, although they were too few to be analyzed separately.
We thus hypothesized that African Americans, as previously reported in the general population at a similar latitude (7), would have a greater rate of winter than summer seasonal affective disorder and that their seasonality scores would correlate negatively with age and would be higher in female subjects and in subjects who had previously heard of seasonal affective disorder.
This cross-sectional survey was conducted on a convenience group of undergraduate and graduate African American college students from four colleges and universities in Washington, D.C. The study was approved by the institutional review board of the Department of Mental Health of the District of Columbia. We administered the Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire in person in a classroom setting; it was previously reported to have a high degree of test-retest reliability in college students (16). A standard introduction was read, explaining that we intended to study the degree to which mood, energy levels, sleep, and appetite vary with seasons and environmental factors that may be associated with seasonality and that there were numerous prior similar studies performed in the general population and other ethnic groups but not among African American students. The students were told that they could leave blank the spaces that they did not want or did not know how to answer, that their individual answers would be kept confidential, and that their participation was voluntary and would not influence their performance evaluation. After we fully answered the students’ questions, written informed consent was obtained.
To be included in the study, each subject must have identified himself or herself as an African American and must have lived in the study area (latitude 35° north to 45° north) for at least 3 years. There were two separate questionnaire collection intervals: once in the fall (from October to December) and again in the spring (from March to May). To minimize the possibility that different Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire scores resulting from the questionnaires being completed in different seasons might influence the results, we chose to divide the subjects into two groups according to their birth date. It was determined by chance that students who were born in the first 15 days of any month would be studied in the spring while the others would be studied in the fall.
A global seasonality score was calculated according to Kasper et al. (7). The Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire criteria used by Magnusson and Stefansson (17) were employed to define the summer and winter patterns of seasonal affective disorder and subsyndromal seasonal affective disorder. Three components contribute to the diagnosis of seasonal affective disorder with the Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire: the global seasonality score, the "problem" rating, and the month in which a subject reports feeling the worst. For a diagnosis of winter seasonal affective disorder, a subject must meet the following criteria: 1) a global seasonality score of 11 or higher; 2) a "problem" rating with seasonal mood changes to at least a moderate degree (2 and above); 3) feeling worst in December and/or January and/or February with any other combination of months except June, July, and August. For the diagnosis of summer seasonal affective disorder, a subject must, in addition to criteria 1 and 2 already mentioned, feel worst in June and/or July and/or August with any other combination of months except December, January, and February. To be categorized as having subsyndromal seasonal affective disorder, the subjects would have to either have a global seasonality score of 11 or more with a "problem" rating of not more than mild (0 or 1), or have a global seasonality score of 9 or 10 with a problem rating of at least mild (1 or above). Identical specifiers for the winter and summer varieties of seasonal affective disorder also apply for subsyndromal seasonal affective disorder.
We used two multinomial probability distribution tests (33) to compare the winter versus summer frequency of seasonal affective disorder and total seasonal affective disorder (seasonal affective disorder plus subsyndromal seasonal affective disorder) (7, 11). The level of statistical significance was set at z>1.96 (p<0.05). Simple correlations were used for the association of age with global seasonality score.
We also tested the effects of gender and "having heard of seasonal affective disorder" ("awareness") by using a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), with global seasonality score as a dependent variable. The level of statistical significance was set at p=0.05.
Of 646 students from whom we received informed consent, 597 returned their questionnaires. The response rate was 92.4%. Of these, only 537 (83.1%) completely filled in all three components (global seasonality score, severity of dysfunction, and month of the year when feeling the worst) needed to generate a diagnosis of winter or summer seasonal affective disorder/subsyndromal seasonal affective disorder. A majority of the subjects (N=435, 81.0%) did not meet the criteria from the Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire for seasonal affective disorder, syndromal or subsyndromal. We used all available information, including information from subjects with partially missing data. Thus, for the analysis of global seasonality score, we had 546 subjects who responded (response rate=85%).
Of the 597 participants, 591 (99%) responded to the question regarding gender. A total of 382 (64.6%) were women, and 209 (35.4%) were men. Only 581 subjects (97.3%) responded to the question regarding their age. The average age was 29.5 years (SD=10, range=16–67). The average duration of residence in the study area (latitude 35° north to 45° north) was 19.3 years (SD=12.5). Age and average duration of residence did not differ significantly between the men and the women.
Of 559 subjects who responded to the question "Have you ever heard of seasonal affective disorder?" 445 (80%) answered "no," and 114 (20%) answered "yes."
As hypothesized, the frequency of winter seasonal affective disorder was significantly higher than that of summer seasonal affective disorder (5.4% versus 0.6%) (z=4.63, p<0.001). The frequency of total winter seasonal affective disorder (syndromal plus subsyndromal) was significantly higher than the total for summer seasonal affective disorder (14.9% versus 4.1%) (z=5.93, p<0.001).
Pearson’s correlation of age with global seasonality score was 0.03 (N=546, p<0.47). t1 shows the correlations for other subgroups as well. Hypothesized negative correlations between age and global seasonality score did not emerge.
For the two-way factorial ANOVA with global seasonality score as the dependent variable and gender and awareness as the two factors, the interaction of gender and awareness was not significant (F=0.93, df=1, 542, p<0.34), but gender was significant (F=3.70, df=1, 542, p<0.06). The mean global seasonality score for women was 8.6, and for men, it was 7.9, with a small gender effect size (0.14). In addition, it is instructive to note that since the global seasonality score did not pass several tests of statistical normality and transformation was not successful in reducing skewness, a nonparametric test was used to report a more realistic gender p value. The Mann-Whitney test’s p value for gender was 0.18 (Mann-Whitney z=1.34, p<0.18). The difference in p value between the parametric ANOVA (gender F=3.70, df=1, 542, p<0.06; effect size=0.14) and the nonparametric Mann-Whitney p value of 0.18 illustrates the effect on the p value of nonnormality and skewness for p values near the classic 0.05 level.
The effect of awareness was significant (F=8.10, df=1, 542, p<0.005), and students who had prior knowledge of seasonal affective disorder (N=109, mean global seasonality score=9.7) had a higher global seasonality score by 1.7 points (effect size=0.33) than those without prior knowledge of seasonal affective disorder (N=437, mean global seasonality score=8.0). The nonparametric p for awareness (Mann-Whitney z=2.88, p<0.004) was 0.004, illustrating the robustness of the 0.005 parametric p (F=8.10, df=1, 542, p<0.005)
To our knowledge, this is the first study of the seasonal variation of mood and behavior in African Americans, the study with the largest number of black subjects, and the largest American study of seasonality in college students completed to date. Winter seasonal affective disorder was more prevalent than summer seasonal affective disorder. (We would like to reemphasize, however, that the Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire, which we used to indicate a history of seasonal affective disorder, is an epidemiological rather than a clinical tool and does not diagnose seasonal affective disorder.)
A higher frequency of winter seasonal affective disorder is consistent with previous reports in the general population at a similar latitude (7) and other previous studies in general populations with mostly Caucasian subjects (2, 13, 17, 21). Given the limitations of our study, we recommend caution in interpreting our results. We did not compare seasonality in African American students with a contemporaneous student comparison group, and we will remedy this limitation in future work. In addition, we lacked information on the subjects’ socioeconomic status, a major confounding of ethnicity. Other limitations include uncertainty regarding the validity of the Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire among African American students and convenience, rather than random, sampling.
Several epidemiological studies using the Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire in predominantly Caucasian populations did not focus on summer seasonal affective disorder (13, 20, 34, 35). The only two previous American studies of seasonality in college students also omitted reporting on the summer pattern (15, 16). Relevant for a decreased interest in summer seasonal affective disorder versus winter seasonal affective disorder, a review of epidemiological surveys of seasonality (36) equates seasonal affective disorder with its winter subtype. Nevertheless, Morrissey et al. (37) reported a more prevalent summer than winter pattern of seasonal affective disorder in the general population in a tropical climate in Northern Australia. The authors attributed this increased frequency to a combination of temperature, humidity, and air movement, which exceeds a cutoff point for climatic discomfort. It is thus of particular importance that in our study, as in Kasper et al. (7), a higher frequency of winter seasonal affective disorder than summer seasonal affective disorder resulted from a survey that took place in a metropolitan area in which summer weather is uncomfortably hot and humid.
Moreover, three studies using the Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire performed in Asia—one of Japanese civil servants (23) and two other recent studies of Chinese students (24, 25)—found summer seasonal affective disorder to be more prevalent than winter seasonal affective disorder. Because the summer pattern of seasonal affective disorder is more prevalent in the Asian population, the largest one in the world (38), and given current concerns regarding global warming, we expect an increase in interest in studying vulnerability for heat-related depression, including summer seasonal affective disorder.
The 95% confidence intervals (CIs) of the frequency of seasonal affective disorder in the current study (3.39–7.94 for winter seasonal affective disorder and 0.06–1.76 for summer seasonal affective disorder) were similar to those reported in the previous study of Montgomery County, Md., (2%–6% for winter seasonal affective disorder and 0%–0.2% for summer seasonal affective disorder). It is important, however, to exercise caution in comparing seasonality results in students versus the general population. Although studying seasonality in college students (15, 16, 24, 25) has advantages in terms of some degree of homogeneity in lifestyle, it also has disadvantages. A possible confounding effect of the academic calendar might artificially augment seasonality. Moreover, the stress of final examinations in late spring may also mask a winter pattern of seasonality. Unfortunately, to our knowledge, no study of Western college students has ever been performed at our latitude.
In college students in Maine, at markedly higher latitude, Low and Fleissner (15) found higher frequency rates for seasonal affective disorder and total seasonal affective disorder (seasonal affective disorder plus subsyndromal seasonal affective disorder) of 13.2% and 32.9%, respectively. These rates are higher than those previously reported in the general population (11). The authors did not mention the ethnic composition of their study group and only reported on the winter type of seasonal affective disorder. Rohan and Sigmon (16), in another study in Maine, reported that the frequency of seasonal affective disorder was lower but that the magnitude of the global seasonality score was higher than projected based on adult noncollege subjects residing in states between latitude 45° north and 50° north (11). Rohan and Sigmon argued that even after taking into consideration academic stress, the seasonality effects were strong. In their study, Caucasian students represented 90% of the total group (N=251), with African American, Asian, Hispanic, and Native American students included together as "other" (10%). No analysis of the effect of ethnicity on global seasonality score or the frequency of summer seasonal affective disorder was reported.
Our results are similar to those of previous studies in college students in Maine (16) and China (25) that did not find a negative correlation between global seasonality score and age, as initially reported by Kasper et al. (7) and confirmed in subsequent studies (11, 13, 17, 18, 20, 21, 34). Swedo et al. (14) reported a positive rather than negative relationship between age and seasonality in high school students, suggesting that younger age may reverse a negative relationship between age and seasonality. However, in our study group, because we had a relatively older group of college students and a relatively broad distribution of age (we had a large number of nontraditional students participating), the consideration of a too-narrow age distribution or a too-young age for seasonality to fully manifest itself would not apply. Additional work is required to evaluate the relationship between gender and seasonality in African Americans. Our data showed a less-than-significant association for a higher global seasonality score in female subjects (t1).
Having previously heard of seasonal affective disorder predicted a higher seasonality score, consistent with the previous study in Montgomery County (7). It is possible that having seasonal depression would increase knowledge about seasonal affective disorder or, alternatively, having prior knowledge of seasonal affective disorder might increase the reporting of seasonal difficulties.
The frequency of African American students in Washington, D.C., who were aware of seasonal affective disorder was 109 of 546 (20.0%, 95% CI=16.7%–23.6%), and for those who were not aware of seasonal affective disorder, it was 437 of 546 (80.0%, 95% CI=76.4%–83.3%). The rate of awareness of seasonal affective disorder in our group was approximately 50% lower than in the study performed in Montgomery County more than 10 years ago (7). In that study, 170 of 416 subjects (40.9%, 95% CI=36.1%–45.8%) were aware and 246 of 416 (59.1%, 95% CI=54.2%–63.9%) were not aware of seasonal affective disorder. In our group, the smaller percentage of subjects with prior knowledge of seasonal affective disorder (20.0% versus 40.9%) (p<0.00001, Fisher’s exact test) may have lowered the occurrence of seasonal affective disorder. Our results raise the possibility that insufficient education about seasonal affective disorder is contributing to a sizable number of African Americans with seasonal affective disorder to be unaware of their condition and, therefore, to be less likely to seek professional help. Also, a lower awareness of seasonal affective disorder might have reduced the reporting of seasonal difficulties in the current study, thus, spuriously reducing the rate of seasonal affective disorder. Thus, since our results should be considered preliminary, we are planning epidemiological and clinical follow-up studies. If a low awareness of the existence of seasonal affective disorder is replicated, it will become imperative to educate the African American community about seasonal affective disorder because winter depression responds to light treatment (3, 4), a low-cost and low-risk intervention (39). Specifically for students with winter seasonal affective disorder, light treatment could reduce lethargy, decrease sleepiness, and improve concentration, resulting in improved academic performance.
The frequency, magnitude, and pattern of seasonal mood changes in African American students living in the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area was similar to that previously reported in the general population at a similar latitude, but awareness of the condition was lower. A lower awareness of seasonal depression might result in its underreporting and reduce the likelihood of African American students with marked seasonal changes in mood and behavior seeking professional help.
Presented in part at the 154th annual meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, New Orleans, May 5–10, 2001. Received Nov. 26, 2001; revisions received May 8, 2002, and Jan. 17, May 13, and Oct. 15, 2003; accepted Oct. 29, 2003. From the D.C. Department of Mental Health, Washington, D.C.; and the Mood and Anxiety Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine. Address reprint requests to Dr. Postolache, Mood and Anxiety Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 685 West Baltimore St., MSTF Bldg., Rm. 502, Baltimore, MD 21201; [email protected] (e-mail). Supported by the Department of Mental Health of the District of Columbia and the residency training program of St. Elizabeths Hospital, Washington, D.C. (principal investigator, Dr. Postolache). The authors thank Holly Giesen for editorial assistance; Drs. Thomas Wehr, Andres Magnusson, John Stiller, Ling Han, and Zinoviy Gutkovich for comments on earlier versions of the article; and Joanna Iwanizka and Dr. Alexandru Profiriu for their help in collecting questionnaires.
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Underground and Surface Mining Facts - 2007 (HTML)
DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2009–158
Data obtained from the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) indicated a total of 889 underground (6.0%) and 13,982 surface (94.0%) mining operations.
A total of 55,617 employees, or 57,222 full-time equivalent (FTE) employees, were reported to MSHA as working at underground mining locations in 2007. This is in contrast to 322,506 employees (or 279,541 FTE employees) that were reported as working at surface locations.
- Surface work location employee hours accounted for 83.0% of all hours reported to MSHA, while 17.0% of employee hours were reported for underground work locations.
- The majority of surface employee hours were for mine operator employees (80.0%) as opposed to independent contractor employees (20.0%).
- Coal operators were the mining sector reporting the most underground worker employee hours to MSHA (n=84,475,287; 73.8%).
Of the 67 occupational mining fatalities reported to MSHA in 2007, 27 occurred at underground work locations, while 40 occurred at surface locations.
- The fatality rate of 47.2 per 100,000 FTE employees was higher at underground work locations, compared to the rate of 16.1 for surface work locations.
|Sand & gravel operator||0||0.0|
|Sand & gravel operator||5||12.5|
Nonfatal Lost-time Injuries
Within underground work locations, 2,645 nonfatal lost-time injuries were reported, resulting in 170,584 lost workdays. This compares to 5,097 nonfatal lost-time injuries attributed to surface workers (total days lost = 255,635).
- The overall underground nonfatal lost-time injury rate was greater than the surface injury rate (4.6 vs. 2.0 per 100 FTE workers).
- The most frequent classification of nonfatal lost-time injuries involved handling materials for both underground (n=719; 27.2%) and surface (n=1,773; 34.8%) work locations.
- The back was the most frequently reported body part injured at both underground (n=414; 15.7%) and surface (n=957; 18.8%) work locations.
Mining operations, 2007
|Commodity and Type of Employer||Underground Mining Operations ||Surface Mining Operations ||Total Mining Operations |
|Sand & Gravel Operator||Not applicable||7,199||7,199|
Contracting companies, 2007
|Commodity and Type of Employer||Number of Companies|
Employment characteristics, 2007
|Commodity and Type of Employer||Underground Employees ||Surface Employees ||Total Employees ||Underground FTE Employees ||Surface FTE Employees ||Total FTE Employees |
|Sand & Gravel Operator||Not applicable||45,761||45,761||Not applicable||38,340||38,340|
Mining Occupational Fatalities (per 100,000 FTE employees), 2007
|Commodity and Type of Employer||Underground Fatalities||Underground Fatality Rate||Surface Fatalities||Surface Fatality Rate||Fatalities||Fatality Rate|
|Sand & Gravel Operator||Not applicable||Not applicable||5||15.0||5||15.0|
Nonfatal Lost-time Injuries (per 100 FTE employees), 2007
|Commodity and Type of Employer||Underground Injuries||Underground Injury Rate||Surface Injuries||Surface Injury Rate||Injuries||Injury Rate|
|Sand & Gravel Operator||Not applicable||Not applicable||657||2.0||657||2.0|
Data source: Publicly released data files of employment and accident/injury/illness collected by MSHA under 30 CFR 50.
Notes: All analyses of accident data exclude office employees. Occupational fatalities exclude all cases under 17 years of age. Further statistical methodology is available on the NIOSH Internet. Data in the above tables may not add to totals shown because of independent rounding. Caution should be used when interpreting rates based on a small number of events.
- Mines at which only independent contractors were working did not show any employment and were not counted.
- Average number of employees working at individual mines during calendar quarters of active operations (includes office workers).
- Full-time equivalent employees computed using reported employee hours (2,000 hours = 1 FTE).
- Surface work locations include surface operations at underground mines, surface operations (strip or open pit), auger, culm banks, dredge, other surface operations, independent shops and yards, and mills or preparation plants.
- Mining sectors include coal operators, metal operators, nonmetal operators, stone operators, sand and gravel operators, coal contractors, and noncoal contractors.
- Includes actual days away from work and/or days of restricted work activity. For permanently disabling injuries only, statutory days charged by MSHA were used if they exceeded the total lost workdays.
To receive NIOSH documents or more information about occupational safety and health topics, contact NIOSH at 1-800-CDC-INFO (1-800-232-4636), TTY: 1-888-232-6348, e-mail: [email protected], or visit the NIOSH website.
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Sleep deprivation affects mental performance, as anyone who has tried to work after an all-nighter can attest. Yet some professionals, including surgeons, firefighters and military personnel, must routinely work on little or no sleep. A study by researchers at the University of Texas at Austin found the sleepy brain’s Achilles’ heel—open-ended problem solving—and thus may help improve worker training in these demanding fields.
The study, which was published in Sleep in March, consisted of two types of learning tests. In the first test, sleep-deprived students were asked to categorize drawings of fictional animals as either “A” or “not A,” an open-ended task that depended on the students’ ability to remember criteria for “A” and apply it consistently. In the second test, the students sorted two types of fictional animals, “A” and “B.” The second test was more complex in that it required students to learn criteria for two animals instead of one, but surprisingly, sleep deprivation had the largest effect on the first test.
The researchers suspect that attention lapses—one of the main consequences of sleep loss—are to blame. Previous studies suggest that open-ended tasks, such as the first test, require more focused attention than those that offer two clear choices, as the second test did. “When we get sleep-deprived, some of our brain’s learning systems operate better than others,” notes Todd Maddox, the study’s lead author. Fortunately, Maddox says, the more we know about the sleep-deprived brain, the better we can train people to work around its shortcomings.
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Botanic Gardens Trust, Sydney, Australia
The Australian Botanic Garden, Mount Annan - February
|Common name ||finger lime|
|Scientific name ||Citrus australasica F.Muell.|
|Etymology || |
Genus: Greek, citrus, the Latin name for the citron.
|Distribution || |
Occurs in south-east Queensland and north-east New South Wales.
|Native habitat ||Rainforest.|
|Description ||A medium to large shrub or small tree.|
|Flowering/fruiting ||White or pale pink flowers appear in late summer and autumn. These are followed by edible, elongated fruits which ripen in winter through to spring. |
Location in Garden
You can find it in the Fruit Loop where we display plants which are used in some way by Australians.
It is hardy in tropical to temperate climates in well drained conditions. Plants are usually slow growing and seedlings may take from 5 to 15 years to reach maturity. The stems are protected with vicious thorns, wearing gloves and long sleeves is recommended when harvesting fruit.
The fruit may be green, yellow, black, purple or red with green, yellow or pink pulp and has recently become popular as a gourmet bush food.
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HONG KONG (Reuters) - A northeastern Thailand province is preparing to test its population for a parasitic worm to detect early signs of bile duct cancer, which is caused by eating raw seafood.
While this form of cancer is rare in most parts of the world, it is the leading cause of death in the Mekong region and one of many neglected tropical diseases. .
Neglected tropical diseases impair the lives of 1 billion people, and these populations are mostly hidden and concentrated in remote rural areas or urban slums.
Below are a few other major neglected diseases of the world:
* Sleeping sickness, or Human African Trypanosomiasis
Transmitted by the parasite Trypanosoma brucei through the bite of the tsetse fly, sleeping sickness threatens millions of people in 36 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The parasite multiplies in the lymph and blood, causing headaches, fever, weakness and pain in the joints.
Over time, the parasite migrates to the central nervous system and causes severe neurological and psychiatric disorders, eventually leading to death.
Currently, treatments are limited to drugs developed decades ago that are either highly toxic, difficult to administer in resource-limited settings or are only effective in one state of the disease. The Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative (DNDi), Anacor Pharmaceuticals and SCYNEXIS Inc are jointly developing a new oral drug that can be used in both stages of the disease.
Rabies occurs in more than 150 countries and territories and each year more than 55,000 people die from it, with 40 percent being children under the age of 15.
Dogs are the source of 99 percent of human rabies deaths and each year, more than 15 million people worldwide receive a post-exposure anti-rabies shot to avert the disease, which is estimated to prevent 327,000 deaths annually.
* Chagas disease or American trypanosomiasis
This chronic debilitating condition is caused by a parasite transmitted by the infected faeces of blood-sucking bugs. It can also be contracted through transfusion of infected blood, by organ transplantation or congenitally from an infected mother to her foetus.
An estimated 10 million people are infected worldwide, mostly in Latin America where Chagas disease is endemic. More than 25 million people are at risk of the disease. In 2008, Chagas disease killed more than 10, 000 people.
In most cases, symptoms are absent or mild, but can include fever, headache, enlarged lymph glands, muscle pain, difficulty in breathing, swelling and abdominal or chest pain. In later years, the infection can lead to sudden death or heart failure caused by progressive destruction of the heart muscle.
Sources: World Health Organization, DNDi
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Most creatures require a specific set of conditions to survive: a certain amount of oxygen, temperature, pressure, food, etc. However, some animals can live in conditions so extreme they kill almost everything else. These animals are called, fittingly, extremophiles. One extremophile is the tardigrade, more commonly called water bears or moss piglets.
In general, tardigrades hang around on moss, sucking up water. However, for some reason, they are able to withstand almost unimaginable conditions. Temperature-wise, they have survived temperatures of over 304° F (151° C) and down to -423° F (-253° C). Tardigrades can also survive at extreme pressures. Some species can survive at pressures 6,000 times that of atmospheric pressure, almost six times the water pressure at the bottom of the Mariana Trench. Tardigrades have also been shown to survive radiation doses of over 500 times what would kill a human. The tardigrades accomplish these incredible feats by entering a state of cryptobiosis. In doing so, they will curl up and dehydrate themselves. Tardigrades have been known to survive up to ten years in this state. We don’t know why tardigrades can live in conditions so extreme they aren’t found on Earth, but we are trying to understand them.
Now, as astronomy students, you would probably guess that the most hostile environment in the universe is outer space. With temperatures of a few degrees above absolute zero and an almost complete vacuum, it seems impossible that anything could survive. However (as you might have guessed), tardigrades are able to survive in outer space. In 2007, NASA let a bunch of tardigrades out into the vacuum of space where they were exposed to incredible amounts of solar radiation. Ten days later they let the tardigrades back in, and when they brought them to Earth, the tardigrades were fine, and some even laid eggs that became perfectly normal baby tardigrades. This experiment has been repeated multiple times, with the ESA also sending tardigrades into space in a mission they called Tardigrades in Space. You’re probably thinking the ESA does a terrible job naming things until you learn they shortened the mission name to TARDIS.
So, besides being awesome, why is this information useful? Well, it helps us understand how life might spread throughout the galaxy. If some tardigrades were ejected from Earth (by, say, a meteorite impact), and somehow they managed to land on another planet, they could bring life to that planet, assuming the planet could sustain life. This youtube video also does a good job explaining why tardigrades are so awesome.
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This 18-inch Bliss Santa and Sleigh in very good condition sold for $2,530 (including buyer’s premium) at Cowan’s Auctions in 2007. It has a cross-over appeal to holiday collectors as well as toy collectors.
The development of a printing method for making chromolithographs radically changed book publication during the middle of the 1800s because it removed the need to color the illustrations by hand. Children’s picture books were easier and cheaper to produce (and now vibrantly colored), so they became extremely popular after the Civil War. The R. Bliss Manufacturing Company recognized an opportunity to expand into the children’s market with these illustrations and by 1871 it had begun to paste lithographs onto wooden toys.
Rufus Bliss had founded his wood turning company in Pawtucket, R.I., in 1832, making clamps, screws and other wood devices used in piano and cabinet making. He eventually formed a partnership with his nephew and two others, creating a firm called R. Bliss Manufacturing Company. Rufus retired from the day-to-day operation in 1863 and died in 1879, but the company retained the name and eventually evolved into an industry leader in the manufacture of wooden toys. Its first doll house appeared in 1889 and its toy output peaked between 1890 and 1910. The company continued production until 1914, when the toy division was sold to Manson & Parker.
This 19-inch, two-story Bliss doll house sold for $1,250 on eBay in 2010. It opens from the side and sports mica window panes, crocheted curtains, floral wallpaper and turned porch columns.
This 36-inch Bliss pull-toy of the battleship USS New York dates to 1896 and includes crew members, movable cannons, flags and rigging. It sold for $2,276 in May 2011 on eBay.
Why are these 120-year old Bliss toys so expensive today? They are known for their unsurpassed quality and distinctive artwork, with elaborate details and vivid chromolithographs. There were many varieties and designs for each type of toy (including dozens of different ships and doll houses) and some of these are extremely rare.
Why are these toys so rare? Think about how you played with your toys. Now think about how these Bliss toys were made of wood covered in paper, so they naturally became scratched, soiled and torn with use. Boats were dunked in bathtubs. Chimneys were knocked off doll houses. Pieces from board games were lost. If they survived their first owner’s childhood, the toys might have been boxed away to save for the next generation. Over the years, storage in damp basements or extremely hot attics caused the wood to separate and the paper to darken and shrivel.
Bliss toys are hard to find today in any condition, but the ones in very good shape and with all pieces intact can bring top dollar. A Santa and sleigh that sells for $2,500 in great condition can sell for $200 in poor condition. Paper loss, paper discoloration and water stains are some of the more critical factors in rating condition.
These 16 Bliss alphabet blocks are 3 inches high and shaped like books with lithographed covers of children and animals. It is rare to find a complete set. This one sold for $483 on eBay in February 2011.
Most—but not all—Bliss toys were marked with the Bliss name, although it was usually incorporated into parts of the design and may be hard to find. Markings varied, including “R Bliss,” “R Bliss Mfg Co” or simply the letter “B.” Sometimes an identifying number was marked along paper seams (particularly in the various doll houses) or around the corners of boxes. Collectors also use old sales catalogs to identify the toys, but only a few catalogs are known to exist and none have been found for the years between 1901 and 1910. Victorian lithographed toys that look very similar to Bliss are prevalent, so verification is always recommended.
The list of known toys includes ships, alphabet and building blocks, doll houses, doll furniture, doll trunks, stables, Noah’s arks, wagons, carriages, chariots, fire trucks, milk trucks, bean bag and ring toss games, animals, forts, churches, board games, table croquet and even a moving picture theater with a reel of pictures. A few toys added a bit of metal, such as pianos, xylophones, pinball games and tool chests. Target games included a small air rifle with rubber ammunition. Train sets sometimes reached four feet in length and were advertised with locomotives, tenders, passenger cars, gravel cars, open gondolas, circus cages, stock cars and flatbeds piled with lumber.
Bliss collectors are always looking. They are thrilled to find a toy example that has not been previously documented, an old advertisement that aids in authentication, a new design or shape, an unusual piece of doll furniture or a different way to identify the Bliss mark. For many fans of these fabulous lithographed toys, the thrill is in the hunt. Sometimes a piece appears at auction that has never been seen outside of a vintage Bliss catalog, and that is a special event indeed.
Liz Holderman is a Worthologist who specializes in collectible books.
WorthPoint—Discover Your Hidden Wealth
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COLUMBUS, Ohio Salmonella cells have hijacked the protein-building process to maintain their ability to cause illness, new research suggests.
Scientists say that these bacteria have modified what has long been considered typical cell behavior by using a beta form of an amino acid as opposed to an alpha form during the act of making proteins.
Beta versions of amino acids occur in nature under rare and specific circumstances, but have never been observed as part of protein synthesis. Before this finding, in fact, researchers had determined that virtually all proteins were constructed with the alpha forms of amino acids.
This work has shown that when researchers delete any one of three genes from the process that makes use of the beta form of the amino acid, or if they insert the alpha form in the beta version's place, Salmonella cells are no longer able to cause disease. The amino acid in question is lysine, one of 22 genetically encoded amino acids that are strung together in cells to make proteins.
"When these genes were knocked out, the cells became sensitive to antibiotics. And if we put beta lysine into the medium where cells were growing, they became resistant to antibiotics," said Michael Ibba, professor of microbiology at Ohio State University and a senior author of the study. "So we could see the beta amino acid being taken up and used. The cells really do need the beta amino acid to be resistant to antibiotics, and for other aspects of their virulence."
This finding suggests that the process using this specific beta amino acid could be an attractive antibiotic target for this common pathogen, the researchers say.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that about 1.4 million people in the United States are infected with Salmonella each year, though only 40,000 cases are reported. Most people infected with Salmonella develop diarrhea, fever and abdomi
|Contact: Michael Ibba|
Ohio State University
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You've might have heard someone say telling furphies or that was a bit of a furphy and wondered what they meant or where the expression came from.
FURPHY | FURPHIES | FURFY
The word furphy is a uniquely Australian idiom, a way of saying that something is an exaggerated story, a false report or a rumour.
The Furphy family has a long history in central Victoria; John Furphy moved from Kyneton to Shepparton in 1873 and that's where the story began. John Furphy set up a smithy in the then-tiny town of Shepparton and, within a few years, he'd become well known as a blacksmith, a wheelwright, and also as an agricultural machinery supplier.
A decade after setting up his business in Shepparton, John Furphy and his long-time employee Uriah 'Cocky' Robinson, came up with the idea of a mobile water tank, and within a few years, Furphy water carts were familiar sights.
The carts had Furphy painted on the sides in vivid, dark red paint which led to 'furphy' becoming a byword for rumour around the time of World War One.
Furphy water tanks were selected to supply water to the Broadmeadows camp just out of Melbourne in 1914, when the troops were embarking to the First World War. These tanks were used for hygienic water supplies at the latrines.
This was one place where the troops could gather and in their anxious state, they were very, very keen to find out what was happening. The officers didn't disseminate much information, so obviously, it was an ideal spot for rumours to become rife. With the tank there, with the large lettering on the side, they associated the rumours with the word 'furphy'.
That went overseas then to Gallipoli in the First World War, and has become a word that's still used today."
At first, it was an exclusively Victorian word - then more and more Australians from other states began to pick it up. The earliest example of 'furphy' in writing was in April, 1915, in a diary entry written by Staff Sergeant John Treloar, when he was camped near Cairo:
"Today's 'furphy', for never a day goes by without at least one being created, was about lights being prohibited in camp on account of the possibility of a German airship raid. Some of the troops do not suffer from lack of imagination."
Diggerspeak: The Language of Australians in War
Dr Laugesen published a dictionary called ‘Diggerspeak: The Language of Australians in War,’ in which she outlines the ‘slanguage’ used by Australians at war.
In her dictionary Dr Laugesen defines furphy as a rumour or false report; an absurd story and states that the word furphy “originated from the name of the firm J. Furphy and Sons who manufactured water carts in Shepperton, Victoria which delivered water.
Troops who gathered around the water carts would swap stories, many of which had no basis in fact, hence the name furphy.
J. Furphy & Sons
J. Furphy & Sons is an Australian engineering icon, established in 1864 and is still family owned (5th generation) operating from its base in Shepparton, Victoria. The company is renowned for its historical links to rural Australia and in particular its most famous product - the Furphy Water Cart.
With over 140 years in the business, J Furphy & Sons is your first choice for reliable manufacture and supply of a range of metal services.
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The Collages of Kurt Schwitters: Tradition and Innovation
At the end of World War I, the German artist Kurt Schwitters dramatically broke with dominant artistic traditions by adopting collage as the primary medium for his literary and visual production. In The Collages of Kurt Schwitters: Tradition and Innovation, Dorothea Dietrich demonstrates how collages function for the artist. With its emphasis on fragmentation and the prefabricated, collage pronounced a radical break with artistic tradition, while simultaneously allowing the past to survive in the salvaged fragments of which it was composed. Analyzing specific works, such as Schwitters's famous Merzbau (the so-called Cathedral of Erotic Misery) and some of the artist's texts, Dietrich delineates in rich detail the survival of tradition within avant-garde innovation. She also demonstrates cogently how artistic expression does not fall into pre-determined categories; rather, it is the result of the complex mingling of public, private, political, economic, and artistic concerns. Characterizing Schwitters's work as the product of the deep social and political crisis of the Weimar Republic, Dietrich challenges the prevalent outlook that twentieth-century art can be reduced to a revolutionary struggle of avant-garde artists against an entrenched artistic tradition. The Collages of Kurt Schwitters argues for a more nuanced view, in which revolutionary art forms are exposed as containing much that is traditional and, indeed, reactionary.
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We haven't found any reviews in the usual places.
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Writer: Jane Moorman, 505-249-0527, [email protected]
LOS LUNAS – A new pest has arrived in New Mexico, and a New Mexico State University entomologist says the insect could spell trouble for soft fruit growers.
Tessa Grasswitz, NMSU Extension integrated pest management specialist, reports that the Asian fruit fly Drosophila suzukii, commonly known as the spotted wing drosophila, was found in three locations in the Los Lunas area last summer.
“The arrival of this invasive insect is going to be tough on New Mexico growers,” Grasswitz said. “Cane fruits, like blackberries and raspberries, used to be good money spinners for our producers because they are high-value crops with no serious native pest problems. But this new insect is going to impact growers’ revenue.”
The spotted wing drosophila was first detected in California in 2009. Since then, it has spread across the country and has been present in some of the major fruit-producing states, including Oregon, Washington and Michigan, for some years.
The small fly lays its eggs in ripe or ripening fruits of cherry, raspberry, strawberry, blackberry, grape and similar crops.
“We first found the insect in mid-August last year, Grasswitz said. “And if the experiences of other states are anything to go by, we can expect it to become much more widely distributed in New Mexico this year.”
Because of its short life cycle, the spotted wing drosophila can complete multiple generations during a growing season, so it can build up very quickly. Growers in other states are spraying every week throughout the fruiting season to control the fly. They have to target the adults, because the eggs and larvae are protected inside the fruit.
“Many of the more effective pesticides that are being used in other states are not currently registered for this purpose in New Mexico,” Grasswitz said. “I am working with manufacturers to get some of the key pesticides registered with the New Mexico Department of Agriculture so that our growers have more control options.”
Until the pesticides are registered, Grasswitz said growers have very few tools to prevent the destruction of their fruit crops. Organic growers have even fewer choices.
“The spotted wing drosophila has destroyed existing integrated pest management programs for native pests of soft fruit crops in other states,” she said.
As the USDA integrated pest management coordinator for New Mexico, Grasswitz will be joining researchers from across the nation to help determine region-appropriate management strategies based on the biology and ecology of the spotted wing drosophila.
She has established insect traps to monitor the fly’s populations at NMSU’s agricultural science centers at Los Lunas and Alcalde, where soft fruit and berry crops are raised for research.
One aspect of the insect’s biology, which Grasswitz hopes will help New Mexico growers, is that the adult fly seems less able to survive the winter in areas where humidity is low.
“This observation is based on research conducted elsewhere in the United States,” Grasswitz said. “It’s probably the only thing we have in our favor, although at the moment, we really don’t know if our low humidity will slow down the spread of this pest within New Mexico.”
© 2013 New Mexico State University Board of Regents
NMSU - All About Discovery!
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Pelecaniformes Order - Ardeidae Family
Length: 40-48 cm ; Wingspan: 62-70 cm ; Weight: 200-250 g
DESCRIPTION DE L’OISEAU:
Green-backed heron is a small-sized heron. Its plumage can be very varied according to the geographical range. Most of the races are different first by head and neck colour, and by the size.
Green-backed Heron is greenish grey, neck is short, and crown is very dark green with a long crest of the same colour, almost black. Rear neck and sides are chestnut brown. Upperparts are dark green. Underparts are pale grey, throat and chest are white.
The bill is long and powerful, with black upper mandible, and yellow lower mandible. Legs and feet are pale yellow to orange. Face is greenish.
Adults and young have a partial web between central and external toe, allowing them to swim.
Juvenile is brownish, with well striated neck, and with whitish and buffy spots on upper wings. Throat, neck and chest are streaked with brown. Legs are green.
VOICE: SOUNDS BY XENO-CANTO
Green-backed Heron is usually silent, but when it takes off, its call is only a raucous «ke-yow" or "chauk". It also utters a raspy "kitch-itch-itch", and a deep "kweak-kee-kee-kee".
Green-backed Heron lives close to fresh and salt waters, in mangroves, in dense vegetation areas, along streams, lakes, rivers, ponds, in estuaries, and in open areas such as mudflats, tidal areas or coral reefs. We rather find it in lowlands, but it was observed in Peru up to 4000 m of altitude.
Tropical areas of the southern hemisphere, including Australia.
Green-backed Heron is generally resident in its range. It usually fishes at dusk and during the night, but also sometimes during the day. It forages into the dense marsh vegetation. But it sometimes fishes during the day, in urban areas, where we can see it walking slowly on the shore of a pond, or perched on a pier or a boat. We often meet it in a compact position, in egg-shaped posture, perched on a branch above water, looking intentionally elsewhere.
Its plumage is a very good camouflage. It usually hunts under cover, rarely in open area. It is waiting for prey, from a branch or a root above water. It may raise its crest upside down when it’s waiting for a prey. It also may jump, dive or swim after its prey. Or it stirs up and scrapes the water surface to attract prey by movement.
But the most stunning fact is that it knows how to attract them. It captures an insect and drops it to the surface, which of course, attracts fish or other preys. It also catches flying insects.
Green-backed Heron usually nest solitary or in small groups, but it is very rare. But if it occurs, nests are very few and well spaced.
Green-backed Heron is very territorial, but if food is abundant, we can see several birds fishing together, at some distance from each other along water. It prefers shallow waters with dense vegetation providing good perches and hidden places.
Courtship displays shows its erected crest, its inflated throat and completely fluffed neck. It performs flight displays, circles, with curved neck and interrupted flights. These displays are accompanied by raucous calls, and tail is continuously wagging. It is monogamous.
When excited or alarmed, it erects its crest aggressively, wags its tail and utters its alarm call, a raspy “raah-raah".
Green-backed Heron has a usual low flight. Its silhouette is easily recognizable, with held toes projected behind the tail. Wings appear dark.
Green-backed Heron’s nest is well hidden between the branches of bushes or trees, at about 2 to 10 metres above ground or water. It is made with very few twigs, in loose manner, and after laying, we can see the eggs from below. Nest is 30 cm wide for 5 cm of depth.
Female lays 2 to 5 pale greenish blue eggs. Incubation lasts approximately 20 to 25 days, shared by both parents. Both adults raise the young. They hatch covered with down and with open eyes, but they usually are motionless. Down is dark grey above, and white below. Down is very thick on back and fluffed on the head.
They are fed by both parents at nest. They consume the same food as adults, but regurgitated. Young remain at nest until they fledge, at about 4 weeks of age.
If the family is disturbed or threatened, the young may leave the nest and perch in branches, in order to trouble their predator which will have difficulty for capturing them.
Green-backed Heron feeds on fish and amphibians, insects, spiders, crabs, shrimps and other shellfish, reptiles, sometimes mice and other small mammals.
PROTECTION/THREATS / STATUS:
Green-backed Heron is generally common and locally abundant, in spite of the destruction of its habitat and the pollution of its environment, in particular lead, present where duck hunting occur.
They have some predators for eggs and chicks, such as corvidae and mustelidae. Adults and young can be preyed upon by raptors.
Fr: Héron strié
All : Mangrovereiher
Esp: Garcita Azulada
Ital: Airone dorsoverde
Russe: Кваква зеленая
Photographs by Callie de Wet
Text by Nicole Bouglouan
HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF THE WORLD vol 1 by Josep del Hoyo-Andrew Elliot-Jordi Sargatal - Lynx Edicions - ISBN: 8487334105
BIRDS OF AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA by Ian Sinclair and Peter Ryan - Princeton University Press Princeton and Oxford - ISBN: 0691118159
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<urn:uuid:981a2f7e-1adb-4c3d-b58d-7ec5dcb3d4c8>
|
The Mesquakie peoples of present-day Iowa, historically known as the "Fox," are at the center of White Robe's Dilemma. An encounter with the French in the Great Lakes region, their original homeland, marked their first appearance in Euro-American history. Targeted for annihilation after they refused alliance with the French, they nevertheless endured, reappearing again and again in the records of the English and Americans as well as the French.
Over the years, the resistance of the Mesquakies has taken many forms, diplomatic and military, economic and cultural. They have rejected Christianity for the most part, and ridiculed the many anthropologists who keep coming to study them. A substantial number have managed, unlike virtually any other Indian group in the United States, to elude the reservation system by buying and maintaining their own settlement. Several have made important contributions to the literature in English by Indians, as has Black Hawk, of the confederate Sauk, whose autobiography has been in print since the Jacksonian period; William Jones, who became a student of renowned anthropologist Franz Boaz; and Ray Young Bear, author of the highly regarded autobiography, Black Eagle Child or The Facepaint Narratives.
In this intriguing study, Neil Schmitz imaginatively reconstructs and carefully analyzes the multiple legacies of the Mesquakie people. He shows how the complex story of their survival raises critical questions about the representation of Indians in American literature and history.
Although the Mesquakies are central to the book, Schmitz ranges widely through American literature both by and about Indians. Chapters on Standing Bear and Black Elk reopen the issue of agency and status, and reposition their tribal history. Helen Hunt Jackson's A Century of Dishonor and Elaine Goodale Eastman's Sister of the Sioux are given extensive readings. In pointed example and comparison, the author's broad knowledge of American literature repeatedly shows itself.
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<urn:uuid:6d3c6661-4bf8-49dd-bc35-1dff6d15acbe>
|
Jon Atwood, PhD
Department of Environmental Studies
Despite many studies of tern breeding biology in the northeastern U.S., little attention has been given to behavior after nesting is completed and before fall migration begins, known as the post-breeding period. This is an important time in the avian life cycle and especially critical for the young of species such as Roseate (Sterna dougallii) and Common (S. hirundo) Terns that remain dependent on adults for weeks after fledging. Specific objectives of this project were: (1) to identify, characterize and map important staging sites of Roseate and Common Terns in Southeast Massachusetts, particularly Martha’s Vineyard, Nantucket, throughout Buzzards Bay and Cape Cod (2) to investigate factors that may influence use of staging sites, including time of the post-breeding period, time of day, tide and an interaction of time of day and tide and (3) to contribute to collaborative work on movements of color banded adult Roseate Terns between MA staging sites. In two years of study (2007-2008) terns were observed staging at 35 sites across Cape Cod, Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard between July and September. Three sites were suspected of being used as overnight roosting sites in 2008. Terns were present in the thousands at 15 sites and tens of thousands at four sites; one site at times supported a sizable fraction of the Northwest Atlantic population of the Endangered Roseate Tern. Analysis from detailed ground surveys of five sites and four aerial surveys (2008) showed staging site use differed by site, time of the post-breeding period and between years. Similar to patterns of dispersal identified in previous studies (Trull et al. 1999), terns appeared to congregate in the largest concentrations at sites along the outer Cape in mid to late September, just prior to southward migration. Time of the post-breeding period, time of day and tide accounted for a significant amount of variation in tern abundance at some sties.
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<urn:uuid:3de7f582-562d-4a74-9e1d-52193bb954d0>
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Research Reveals How Green Tea Fights Cancer
Those polyphenols in green tea are key to preventing breast cancer and prostate cancer
The miracle that is green tea has long been promoted for its anti-cancer properties; now, researchers say they may know the secret behind its cancer-kicking abilities.
In the latest study, researchers gave participants with breast cancer a green tea extract or a placebo; they found after two months that those given the green tea extract had significantly lower tumor growth than those given the placebo. And in a prostate cancer study, men given six cups of brewed green tea had lower levels of the antigen associated with prostate tumor growth. (However, it did not inhibit tumor growth.)
So how does green tea slow down tumor growth? It's thanks to the polyphenols in green tea, the antioxidants that help protect cells from damage. Said the researcher of the prostate cancer study, Susanne M. Henning, to WebMD, the polyphenols reached the prostate tissue and helped decrease inflammation — which is linked to cancer growth.
While the researchers say it's too early to declare tea the miracle cancer fighter, they're excited at the possibility. The researchers are even testing if the addition of quercetin, the antioxidant found in apples and onions, would boost the polyphenols' anti-cancer properties even more. We can drink a cup of tea to that.
Be a Part of the Conversation
Have something to say?
Add a comment (or see what others think).
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<urn:uuid:2d13f7ae-b49a-4a9c-bbb9-03eaab80969f>
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Earliest human footprints in Australia
The shifting sands of time have revealed Australia's earliest human footprints, giving a glimpse of life at the height of the last ice age.
At tens of thousands of years old the find is the largest group of human footprints from the Pleistocene era ever found.
Archaeologist Dr Matthew Cupper of the University of Melbourne and colleagues report their findings from the New South Wales Willandra Lakes World Heritage Area online ahead of print publication in the Journal of Human Evolution.
"It's a little snapshot in time," says Cupper. "The possibilities are endless in terms of getting a window into past Aboriginal society."
Cupper says a young woman by the name of Mary Pappin Jnr of the Mutthi Mutthi people found the footprints in August 2003 while exploring the area with team member Professor Steve Webb of Bond University on Queensland's Gold Coast, as part of a project to educate young Aboriginal people in archaeology.
"They found a clay pan area up in the dunes near one of the lakes and found the first of what's turned out to be about 450 footprints over 700 square metres or so."
He says the team has found 22 trackways, some up to 20 metres long, from where single people had walked in a line.
The prints are between 19,000 and 23,000 years old, dating from the height of the last glacial period.
"It's quite remarkable," says Cupper. "We haven't found any footprints from the Pleistocene in Australia before."
He says the prints are also the largest group of Pleistocene human footprints in the world.
A unique environment
The prints were preserved for so many thousands of years because of a specific combination of land features.
"It's quite a unique little environment," says Cupper.
He says the footprints, some up to 15 millimetres deep, were laid down in silty clay containing calcium carbonate that hardened like concrete as it dried out.
The dried prints were then covered by a further crust of clay and finally by metres of sand from shifting dunes.
The sand has since blown away revealing the prints, says Cupper.
"Fortunately the thin layer of calcareous clay that initially covered them has largely been retained in tact," he says.
For the prints to have formed it is likely that the clay had been softened by rain beforehand.
"They're possibly a little band of people moving around the site and they may have only walked across it once or twice before the area was covered and preserved."
The researchers say the footprints provide an insight into the anatomy and behaviour of the people who left them.
"Very basically we can get a little glimpse of what this group of people were made of," says Cupper. "We are able to estimate people's height by the length of their footprints."
He says the team could also infer the sex and the age of the people who left the footprints, and use the distance between paces to tell how fast they were moving.
He says the group likely included men up to 1.8 metres tall, running as fast as 20 kilometres an hour, as well as young children, ambling along at 3 or 5 kilometres an hour.
In some cases these tracks cross each other, but Cupper says it's not possible to tell if they crossed at the same time or not.
The researchers also found holes, possibly made by a stick and linear lines that could be from sticks or spears being dragged along.
They also found emu and kangaroo footprints in the area.
"It's quite an element of excitement with the local Aboriginal community. It is a really strong emotive link with some of their past ancestors," he says.
Executive officer of the Willandra Lakes World Heritage Area, Michael Westaway, told the ABC that the original discoverer of the footprints Mary Pappin Jnr was unavailable for comment.
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<urn:uuid:13f97b87-019b-4754-bb7f-ed40be156a54>
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Following the Battle of Corupedium, Lysimachus' widow, Arsinoe, flees to Cassandrea, a city in northern Greece, where she marries her half-brother Ptolemy Keraunos. This proves to be a serious misjudgement, as Ptolemy Keraunus promptly kills two of her sons, though the third is able to escape. Arsinoe flees again, this time to Alexandria in Egypt.
Seleucus takes over Thrace and then tries to seize Macedonia. However, he falls into a trap near Lysimachia, Thrace, set by Ptolemy Keraunos, one of the sons of Ptolemy I and Arsinoe II's half brother, who murders Seleucus and takes Macedonia for himself.
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<urn:uuid:01703250-c168-4257-8075-cad9a4356443>
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|infantile pellagra -->|
A nutritional deficiency illness in children who are not getting enough protein, this results in anaemia, poor growth, weakness, and oedema (which isparticularly characterised by a pronounced pot belly). Infamine-stricken regions, children typically develop kwashiorkor rightafter they are weaned.
(09 Oct 1997)
|Bookmark with:||word visualiser||Go and visit our forums|
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<urn:uuid:6418a601-411b-4686-b722-d40811009632>
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Communicating Climate Change - Module 4
Australia’s wheat - sheep production zone covers 35 million hectares in southern and eastern Australia. Its 15,700 wool-producing farms contain 55% of the nation’s sheep. Annual rainfall in the zone is 300-600 mm.
Climate change threatens the productivity of Australia’s wheat and sheep industries. It reduces the value of historical climate knowledge and increases uncertainty about the bounds of future climates, making farm decisions more complex.
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<urn:uuid:a2ee66a7-2554-47b8-acaa-db5ecc018f10>
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It is very important that you attend the first day of class. You will meet your professor, who will outline the course and present the requirements of the class in what is called a syllabus. The syllabus will outline the grading scale and how your final grade is calculated as well as list their attendance policy.
Your instructor will also set some of their expectations for the class. Some professors may use the first day for introductions, and others may start course material that day. Either way, it is important that you are there to collect that information. Expect, too, to receive reading assignments on your first day, so you should make plans to get your class text if you haven't already.
Tools of the Trade
The following items are important for any college student. Many items will be essential before classes start. Being prepared earlier will help later.
- Required textbooks and course materials (such as course packets found in the bookstore)
- Notebooks, loose leaf paper, folders with pockets
- Writing utensils (pens and pencils)
- Access to a computer and USB drive; you will be expected to type most if not all of your papers. Stationed computers are available in computer labs across campus.
- Assignment book or planner (take the time to log all your tests, assignments and paper due dates in one location and review it frequently; organization is a key element of success
- Backpack, book bag, or briefcase
- Portable recording device (please ask your instructor first if you may use these; some classes discuss sensitive material)
- Tools to make class preparation easier e.g., Calculator, highlighter, colored pens or pencils, index cards, stapler, paper clips, etc.
- Dictionary and thesaurus
The first day of class is not too early to start studying. Manage your time wisely - final exams will be here before you know it!
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<urn:uuid:9a4b3c53-8e4f-4849-b64a-3430a5b714bf>
|
From this self-study lesson you should learn:
- What is FTTx?
- How is fiber is used in the worldwide communications
- Why is FTTx happening now?
- Who is installing FTTx?
the first installations of fiber optic networks in the
late 1970s, the goal of the fiber optic industry has been
to install fiber optics all the way to the home. From an
economic standpoint, fiber was immediately cost effective
in the long-distance networks. However, it took two
decades before fiber became cost effective for connections
to come closer to or even all the way to the subscriber,
caused by a combination of lowering costs of installing
fiber and customers' demand for more bandwidth. Today FTTx
is the focus of communications companies, governments and
This Fiber U self-study program will introduce you to the
varieties of FTTx, examine the way they are implemented
and review their pros and cons. You can take this
self-study course just for increasing your awareness of
FTTx, to be conversant in the technology, to prepare
yourself for working in the field or to prepare to take a
course from an FOA-Approved school to obtain FOA
The course leads you to read online or printed materials
(with an emphasis on the online using the FOA Guide),
watch FOA YouTube Videos, complete some activities and
take the quizzes. Each lesson plan will be self-contained.
Lesson plans open in new pages so the course overview page
stays open to lead you to the next lesson or you may use
the link at the bottom of the page.
the references, watch the videos and take the quizzes
(Test Your Knowledge)
To The Home, Slides 1 to 6
may, if you wish, watch the entire video and then watch
the referenced sections for a second time for greater
Reference Guide to Fiber Optics,
Reference Guide to Outside Plant Fiber Optics, Appendix B,
Assignments beyond the basics required for the
course will be listed as extra credit.
Next Lesson: Lesson
Plan No. 2, FTTx Architectures
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Gardening Articles: Landscaping :: Lawns, Ground Cover, & Wildflowers
Mowing and Trimming a Lawn (page 2 of 2)
by National Gardening Association Editors
Keep your mower blades sharp to prevent damage to the grass blades. Ragged cuts invite disease and make the lawn look brown.
Alternate mowing directions each time you mow to help keep grass growing upright and to prevent soil compaction. Mow at a 45- or 90-degree angle to your last pattern.
Photography by National Gardening Association
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Lepl’s lexer has not been used in earlier chapters of this manual. However, for many applications it will both simplify the grammar and give a more efficient parser. Some extensions, like Line-Aware Parsing, assume its use.
The lexer pre-processes the stream that is being parsed, dividing it into tokens that correspond to regular expressions. The tokens, and their contents, can then be matched in the grammar using the Token() matcher.
Tokens give a “rough” description of the text to be parsed. A simple parser of numerical expressions might have the following different token types:
- Numeric values (eg. 1, 2.3, 4e5).
- Function names (eg. sin, cos).
- Symbols (eg. (, +).
Note that in the sketch above, a token is not defined for spaces. The lexer includes a spearate pattern that is used only if all others fail — if this matches, the matching text is discarded (otherwise, the lexer raise an error). By default this “discard pattern” matches whitespace, so spaces are automatically discarded and do not need to be specified in the grammar.
However, to use tokens correctly, it is necessary to understand how they work in a little more detail.
Tokens are used in two ways.
First, they work like matchers (with the exceptions noted below) for the regular expression given as their argument. For example:
>>> name = Token('[A-Z][a-z]*') >>> number = Token(Integer())
Here, name will match a string that starts with a capital letter and then has zero or more lower case letters. The second Token(), number, is similar, but uses another matcher (Integer()) to define the regular expression that is matched.
Not all matchers can be used to define the pattern for a Token() — only those that Lepl knows how to convert into regular expressions.
The second way in which tokens are used is by specialisation, which generates a new matcher with an additional constraint. This is easiest to see with another example:
>>> params = ... >>> function = Token('[a-z]*') >>> sin = function('sine') >>> cos = function('cosine') >>> call = (sin | cos) & params
Here the function Token() is restricted to match the strings “sine” and “cosine”, creating two new matchers, sin and cos.
The example above used simple strings (which are converted to Literal() matchers) as the additional constraints, but any matcher expression can be used.
For a more realistic example of multiple specialisations, see the use of symbol in this example.
Note that specialisation is optional. It’s OK to use Token() as a simple matcher without adding any more constraints (providing that the use is consistent with the limitations outlined below).
The lexer has two limitations: it cannot backtrack and Token() matchers cannot be mixed with non–Token matchers that consume input.
The first limitation means that the regular expressions associated with tokens only match text once. The lexer divides the input into fixed blocks that match the largest possible fragment; no alternatives are considered.
This does not mean that a particular Token() is only called once, or that it will return only a single result. Backtracking is still possible, but the parser is restricted to exploring different interpretations of a single, unchanging token stream.
For example, consider “1-2”, which might be parsed as two integers (1 and -2), or as a subtraction expression (1 minus 2). An appropriate matcher will give both results, through backtracking:
>>> matchers = (Integer() | Literal('-'))[:] & Eos() >>> list(matchers.parse_all('1-2')) [['1', '-2'], ['1', '-', '2']]
But when tokens are used, “-2” is preferred to “-”, because it is a longer match, so we get only the single result:
>>> tokens = (Token(Integer()) | Token(r'\-'))[:] & Eos() >>> list(tokens.parse_all('1-2')) [['1', '-2']]
(In the examples above, list() is used to expand the generator and the Token() is given r'\-' because its argument is a regular expression, not a literal value.)
The second limitation is more subtle. The lexer is implemented via a rewriter which adds a Lexer() instance to the head of the matcher graph. This divides the input into the “pieces” that the Token() matchers expect.
>>> matcher = Token(Any()) & Any() ... >>> matcher.parse(...) lepl.lexer.support.LexerError: The grammar contains a mix of Tokens and non-Token matchers at the top level. If Tokens are used then non-token matchers that consume input must only appear "inside" Tokens. The non-Token matchers include: Any(None).
The lexer can be configured using .config.lexer() (see ref:configuration). This can take an additional argument that specified the discard pattern. Note that this is included in the default configuration (it does no harm if tokens are not used).
By default Tokens require that any sub–expression consumes the entire contents:>>> abc = Token('abc') >>> incomplete = abc(Literal('ab')) >>> incomplete.parse('abc') [...] lepl.stream.maxdepth.FullFirstMatchException: The match failed in <string> at 'c' (line 1, character 3).
However, this constraint can be relaxed, in which case the matched portion is returned as a result:>>> abc = Token('abc') >>> incomplete = abc(Literal('ab'), complete=False) >>> incomplete.parse('abc') ['ab']
In the explanations above I try to describe the Token() matcher in a fairly declarative way. However, I know that it is sometimes easier to understand how to use a tool by first understanding how the tool itself works. So here I will sketch how the lexer is implemented by describing the steps involved when a Python program uses the Lepl parser, with the lexer, to parse some text.
The program containing Lepl code (and the Lepl library) are compiled.
The program is then run.
Creation of matcher graph
A function, or set of statements, that generates the Lepl matchers is evaluated. Matchers like Token(), And(), etc., are objects that link to each other. The objects and their links form a graph (with a matcher object at each node).
Each time a Token() is created it is assigned a unique number, which I will call the “tag”.
Regular expression extraction
Whenever a Token() is created with another matcher as an argument Lepl attempts to convert the matcher to a regular expression. If it cannot do so, it raises an error.
A token is “specialised” when it is given a sub–matcher:
>>> function = Token('[a-z]*') >>> sin = function('sine')
In the example above, the first line creates a new Token(), with a unique tag and a regular expression, as explained just above. On the second line the token is specialised. This creates another Token(), which contains the given sub–matcher (a Literal() in this case), but with the same tag and regular expression as the “parent”.
I call a token like this, which has the same tag and regular expression as the parent, but also contains a sub–matcher, a “specialised token” in the description below.
At some point Lepl internally “compiles” the matcher graph to generate a parser. Exactly when this happens depends on how the matchers are used, but at the latest it happens just before the first match is calculated.
“Compilation” is perhaps misleading — the parser is not compiled to Python byte codes, for example. What happens is that the matcher graph is processed in various ways. The most important processing, in terms of the lexer, is...
The lexer rewriter uses the matcher graph to construct a Lexer() instance:
The modified matcher graph is then complete and returned for evaluation.
When the parser is finally called, by passing it some text to process, the matcher graph has already been prepared for lexing, as described above. The following processes then occur:
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Knowledge Base - Technical Articles
HowTo: Convert degrees minutes seconds values to decimal degree values using the Field Calculator
|Software:||ArcGIS - ArcEditor 9.2, 9.3, 9.3.1 ArcGIS - ArcInfo 9.2, 9.3, 9.3.1 ArcGIS - ArcView 9.2, 9.3, 9.3.1|
|Platforms:||Windows XP, Vista|
The procedure below is for ArcGIS 9.3.1 or earlier versions. Starting at ArcGIS 10.0, expressions in the Calculator are created using only VBScript or a standard Python format.
Instructions provided describe how to use the Field Calculator to convert Degrees Minutes Seconds stored in a string field to Decimal Degrees stored in a number field. The values must be stored in a field in a table as Degrees Minutes Seconds with no symbols. For example:
25 35 22.3
In the example, 25 is degrees, 35 is minutes and 22.3 is seconds.
Follow the steps below.
Initially perform the steps below on positive numbers. After the conversion is complete, multiple any fields that need to be negative by -1.
The format of the records within the Degrees/Minutes/Second fields must be DD MM SS. Any blank records or records with extra spaces or characters, such as single or double quotes, may cause a user interrupted error.
- Add the table to ArcMap.
- Right-click on the table in the Table of Contents and click Open.
- Verify 'Edit' mode is not enabled. Click the Options button and select Add Field.
- Enter Lat2 in the Name field and select Double from the Type drop-down list. If Lat2 is already used as a field name, select a name that is not used.
- Verify that the Scale and Precision is set to 0 and click OK.
- Right-click on the Lat2 field and select Calculate Values.
- Click Yes if presented with a message box.
- Check the Advanced check box.
- Paste the following code into the Pre-Logic VBA box:
Dim Degrees as Double
Dim Minutes as Double
Dim Seconds as Double
Dim DMS as Variant
Dim DD as Double
DMS = Split([Latitude])
Degrees = CDbl(DMS(0))
Minutes = CDbl(DMS(1))
Seconds = CDbl(DMS(2))
DD = (Seconds/3600) + (Minutes/60)+ Degrees
- Find the line that begins 'DMS. . .' The text within the brackets [ ] is the name of the field holding the latitude values. Replace the word Latitude in the code with the name of the field that stores the latitude values in the table.
- Paste the following code into the 'Lat2 =' box at the bottom of the dialog box.
- Click OK.
- Repeat steps 3 through 12 for the longitude values.
Null values in the DMS field will cause an error when running the VBA code in the Field Calculator.
Last Modified: 10/13/2011
Article Rating: (16)
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Reindeer eyes change from gold to blue at holiday time
Rudolph the fictional reindeer was famous for his oddly colored nose, but his true-life cousins have eyes that change color depending on the season.
In the summer, the eyes of Arctic reindeer appear gold, and around Christmas they turn to a deep blue, biologists have discovered. It's not holiday magic, but rather a unique adaptation that helps these animals deal with the strange light conditions at the top of the world.
The reindeer's world is one of extremes. Above the Arctic Circle, Christmas falls in the midst of a 10-week period of perpetual twilight in which the sun never rises and the landscape is cast in bluish hues. But from mid-May to late July, the sun never sets, creating a long, endless day.
Biologists at the University of Norway in Tromso, one of the largest cities situated north of the Arctic Circle, studied the eyes and discovered that the color change occurs not on the iris, but on a reflective surface behind the central retina that's known as the tapetum lucidum.
Comet Lovejoy to reach its key position Christmas Day
Comet Lovejoy is expected to reach a pivotal point in its orbit Christmas Day when it comes closest to the sun. It will still be visible to earthbound skygazers, astronomers say.
The comet is not a sun-grazer like its sibling comet, ISON, which flew into the sun and vaporized last month.
"When the comet comes close to the sun, the solar winds push material off of it," said Jin Koda, an assistant professor in the department of astronomy and physics at Stony Brook University. Those winds force dust, ice and vapors off the core into the characteristic tail. Koda has captured some of the world's best photos of Lovejoy's journey.
Experts recommend evening viewing because the moon may hinder a good sighting before dawn. With a pair of binoculars Lovejoy should be easily visible around 6:30 p.m. until the end of the year.
"If you're looking east, the Big Dipper is scraping the horizon and its bowl is pointing on an angle up near the North Star," said comet tracker Dan Malerbo, an astronomer with the Buhl Planetarium and Observatory in Pittsburgh.
"Hercules is located to the left of the Big Dipper and has the shape of a keystone," he said. "This comet isn't getting too close to the sun. ISON was about 700,000 miles from the sun. This one is 70 million miles away."
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Known by a variety of names, acceptance test driven development is often misunderstood. In his new book, ATDD by Example: A Practical Guide to Acceptance Test-Driven Development, Agile expert and author Markus Gärtner explains ATDD for the novice with easy-to-read case studies that demonstrate how ATDD is used to accurately reflect business requirements and catch defects before the first line of code has been written.
What is ATDD?
Acceptance test driven development (ATDD), similar to TDD (test-driven development), is an approach in which tests (in this case acceptance tests) help drive the design of a product. By having the whole team involved in a discussion of acceptance criteria, requirements are better understood and clarified before the code is designed or written.
Perhaps part of the confusion with ATDD is that different terms have been used in the software industry to describe this approach, including, but not limited to the following:
- Acceptance test-driven development
- Behavior-driven development
- Specification by example
- Agile acceptance testing
- Story testing
The specification workshop
ATDD starts with the specification workshop -- a meeting held with development, test and the business expert -- to make sure requirements are well understood. Gärtner's book uses two case studies. The first is an example of an online application that calculates airport parking rates. Gärtner takes us through the discussion between team members during the specification workshop in which the requirements of an airport parking price calculation application are discussed.
The discussion starts with the business expert describing the business rules associated with pricing. The team asks a lot of clarifying questions and creates tables with different scenarios to ensure that they have a thorough understanding of parking rates for various situations. During the course of the discussion, boundary conditions are clarified and unusual situations are explored. Asking these questions and getting answers from the business expert early helps prevent defects that might have resulted from ambiguity. By the end of their meeting, the team has five tables describing parking duration and associated costs for the various lots that would become the basis for their automated tests.
Gärtner advises teams to use specification workshops to discuss stories that will be worked in the upcoming iteration. He tells teams to be respectful of their business expert's time by avoiding talk of the latest technology and remaining focused on clarifying requirements.
In the next section of Gärtner's book, he carries this example forward, describing how the tester uses the output from the specification workshop to create automated tests using Cucumber and Ruby in combination with Selenium.
Cucumber is a testing framework tool that helps to tie the data from the example to the application under testing. There is "glue code" that provides necessary step definitions, support code and third-party libraries such as Selenium. Selenium drives a browser and can interact with the actual Web pages of the online application that's being tested -- in this case the airport parking calculator. Gärtner's book includes actual code snippets from Cucumber in which features are described for each set of tests, as well as snippets that describe the support code for setting up the Selenium client.
Next, the tester pairs with the developer to implement and automate the first test. They recognize that while the tests are based on the duration that a car is parked, the actual GUI requires a start time and end time and duration must be calculated that way. By collaborating, they are able to get the code in place that connects the test case to the application under test. Once that first test is operational, it's an easy task to reuse and modify as needed for the other test scenarios.
In the book's second case study about a traffic light software system, FitNesse is used as the test automation tool of choice, and again Gärtner provides code snippets so readers are able to get a detailed look at the automation implementation.
Gärtner points out the importance of collaboration, first at the specification workshop between all team members, and later between the tester and developer implementing an automated solution. Even if the tester has no knowledge of programming or the tests are not automated, there is benefit in using the data coming out of the specification workshop as a communication device to ensure all parties are clear on the conditions and business logic.
With ATDD, the entire team collaborates to produce testable requirements leading to higher- quality software. Gärtner's book steps through two case studies with in-depth examples, describing how the discussion during the specification workshop will clarify requirements and provide data for test. From there, tester and developer can automate using tools such as Cucumber or FitNesse to connect the data to the application under testing.
Regardless of the tool or technology used for the project, all teams will benefit by collaborating with their business experts early, discussing the various scenarios of their application and viewing it from the perspective of testability. Doing so will undoubtedly result in a higher-quality application.
Want more? Gärtner has provided the source code available for the two case studies:
Send questions or comments about the book to Gärtner via the agile testing mailing list.
ATDD by Example: A Practical Guide to Acceptance Test-Driven Development by Markus Gärtner is published by Pearson/Addison-Wesley Professional, June 2012, ISBN 0321784154, copyright 2013 Pearson Education Inc. For more info, please visit the publisher's website.
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By the dawn of the twentieth century, the United States was regularly described as a “melting pot” of ethnic groups or as a “nation of immigrants.” Yet this description of the nation was contested vigorously during the Progressive Era. Amid World War I and ongoing movements to restrict immigration during the 1910s and 1920s, the role of immigrants in shaping politics and culture took center stage in American discourse. In this seminar, we will explore primary sources from this period that raised questions about the boundaries and limits of immigrants’ inclusion in the American polity. Through close readings, we will consider how the Progressive Era debates about immigration shaped national identity. During the seminar meeting we also will view popular visual representations of this debate drawn from the Newberry Library’s holdings.
Seminar led by Daniel Greene, Newberry Library
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On Earth Day this year it is especially noticeable how polar our planet can be. Unseasonable temperatures last year gave way to one of the wettest, coldest, and longest, springs this year. While this could be interpreted as Mother Nature’s cruelty, it’s more a sign of our planet’s fragility.
While the MPCA stresses “Every day is Earth Day”, April 22 is the one time a year that everyone should take notice of our environment. For those hoping to celebrate proactively, the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency has 5 ways you can go a little greener this year.
Over the course of the last several years, the Metropolitan Council has transformed itself into a leaner, greener government agency. Metro Transit’s “Go Greener” campaign has been the most visible facet of the Council’s transformation, but Metro Transit’s efforts are only a few of the agency’s award winning green initiatives.
The Metropolitan Council’s Environmental Services Division, responsible for handling waste water in the Metro area, is leading the way in making the Metropolitan Council a greener agency. The division has reduced its energy consumption by cleaning equipment more regularly, replacing old equipment with new, energy efficient equipment, and exploring ways to use the heat released during the treatment process for energy. In addition, Xcel Energy has recognized the Environmental Services Division with a Gold Award for achieving the highest electrical savings of all the utility’s large commercial and industrial customers in Minnesota between January 2010 and June 2011.
Located on 53,000 acres of forest and grassland in Central Minnesota, Camp Ripley is more than just the primary training facility for the Minnesota National Guard. With over 125 different bird species, 600 plant species, and a thriving deer population, Camp Ripley is also an important nature reserve. The National Guard has won numerous awards for its environmental preservation at Camp Ripley, including a new environmental award. To celebrate this award and highlight its most important initiatives, Camp Ripley held an Earth Day celebration on Friday.
Though Camp Ripley is primarily a training facility for Minnesota’s National Guard, environmental preservation has been a complementary function for decades. Camp Ripley incorporates their environmental mission into military training exercises; for example, exercises that track deer populations, locate tracked animals, and identify land in need of rehabilitation allow trainees to develop essential skills while promoting effective land preservation. Camp Ripley selectively harvests timber both to create space for military vehicle maneuvers and to maintain a healthy ecosystem. These trees then go on to provide a source of wood fiber for alternative fuel research.
More than one billion people now participate in Earth Day activities each year, making it the largest civic observance in the world. Before this year’s Earth Day on April 22, check out these tips from the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency to participate and live a healthier and less expensive lifestyle all year round:
Try composting. You can convert organic wastes — yard trimmings, leaves and kitchen scraps — into a dark, crumbly mixture that you can use to improve your garden soil and reduce your use of fertilizer and water. Learn how to start composting today!
Recycling is not just for cans and bottles anymore. Did you know you can recycle mattresses? Holiday lights? Carpet? To learn how you can recycle unusual materials, keep them out of landfills, and benefit Minnesota's economy and environment at the same time, go to http://www.recyclemoreminnesota.org.
Challenge yourself to carry a reusable bag on your next five shopping trips. Over 12 billion barrels of oil are used each year just to make plastic bags.
Help keep Minnesota’s waterways clean and safe. Never dump oils, fertilizers, or other hazardousfluids down the drain or outside. Instead, find a nearby hazardous waste facility. Many will dispose of your hazardous wastes free of charge.
Taking small steps to be green can really add up. If every Minnesotan adopts just a couple of green strategies it will go a long way to keeping our environment green and clean for generations to come.
Wildfire Prevention Week is April 15-21, and the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources is reminding Minnesotans to take steps to help prevent wildfires. Recent rain and snow throughout the state has temporarily decreased Minnesota’s wildlife danger rating, but during our ongoing drought wildfires remain a threat across the state.
“Most wildfires occur in the spring, between the time when snow melts and vegetation turns green,” said Larry Himanga, DNR’s wildfire prevention coordinator. “This spring’s wildfire season started earlier than normal and fires have been burning with greater intensity. Severe fire conditions have put a strain on our wildland firefighters and fire departments.”
Every year, DNR firefighters respond to more than an average 1,500 wildfires each year. In Minnesota, 98 percent of wildfires are caused by people, and the number one reason is escaped debris-burning fires. So far this year, the Minnesota DNR has recorded 533 fires that have burned 14,613 acres.
The Department of Natural Resources encourages landowners to find alternatives to burning debris, such as chipping or composting. This is especially true for landowners affected by last July’s blow down storms in east-central Minnesota and western Wisconsin.
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<urn:uuid:9cc90019-2860-4a5f-9b61-1d812b502f1c>
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WASHINGTON (JTA) — While preparing for a new National Archives exhibit that he is curating, Bruce Bustard showed some documents to his colleague, Miriam Kleiman. She was stunned to see the name Michael Pupa, father of her friend Jill Pupa, as he had never spoken to his family about his harrowing past.
“I got a phone call from Miriam before Rosh Hashanah,” Jill Pupa said. “That was really when my father started talking about his story, and it’s incredible that it’s out.”
Michael Pupa’s story of survival and emigration was featured in a June 14 preview of a new National Archives exhibit about 20th-century immigrants to America. The exhibit, which runs through Sept. 4, features 31 immigrants from diverse backgrounds.
The name for the exhibit, "Attachments: Faces and Stories from America’s Gates," comes from the photos and documents attached to the government forms needed to enter the United States.
At the event, Pupa spoke to the audience about his gratitude for how America changed his life. A few steps away from him – and not far from national treasures — was a picture of him at the time of his entry into the U.S. and his naturalization forms.
“Everyone expects to see such items and the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution and the Bill of Rights at the National Archives. I certainly had no idea that these personal documents of me … would be out in the National Archives,” Pupa said at the event.
Pupa, who grew up in the Polish town of Manyevitch, escaped from the Nazis into the Polish forests in 1942. After spending years in displaced persons camps in Germany, he came to the U.S. in 1951 as a 12-year-old orphan to live with a foster family in the Cleveland area.
When he came to the country, he left his past behind. Pupa went on to earn a degree from John Carroll University in Ohio and own a business. He married and raised two children. But Pupa did not speak about his past, even to his family.
As the only living immigrant being highlighted in the "Attachments" exhibit, Pupa has finally started to tell his story.
As a young boy, he hid for two years from the Nazis with his father and uncle in the Polish forests outside Manyevitch. His mother and young sister were killed by the Nazis, who later captured and killed his father.
Following World War II, he was smuggled back into Germany to live in four DP camps. Pupa, his uncle Lieb Kaplan and cousin Bronja lived in the camps for six years. Kaplan put Michael and Bronja in the custody of the United Nations International Refugee Organization, pushing for their immigration to the U.S. without him. After a complicated journey via the help of various agencies, Michael wound up in the United States.
After settling in Cleveland in late 1951, Pupa was placed in several foster homes; he never discussed his wartime experiences.
“It’s still difficult to talk about it. The people that went through the trauma, it’s very difficult to talk about it,” Pupa, who still lives in the Cleveland area, told JTA.
The exhibit was created, according to U.S. archivist David Ferriero, because of Bustard’s interest in a collection of documents and photos that were attached to immigrants’ forms as they entered the U.S.
“As [Bustard] was going through the records, he discovered all of these immigration files that had photographs attached to the records,” Ferriero said. “He became very interested in that aspect of documentation, and as he started reading more on the case files, it became clear that there was a story to tell.
Bustard noted during his remarks that Pupa’s story was “one of the most moving stories in the exhibit.
He told JTA that "We try very hard to have a diversity of stories in our exhibits. For the most part, we managed to pull that off in the ‘Attachments’ exhibit. Also, the immigration of Eastern European Jews in the early 20th century and the American response to the Holocaust are both very important topics in American history.”
Jill Pupa said, “The exhibit as a whole really is about the U.S., and we are all children of immigrants, and that’s what makes our country great. It shows the bigger picture … and this is the fabric of the U.S.”
As to the profound impact of the exhibit on the Pupa family, Bustard said he was deeply touched.
“I never dreamed in my career that something I would put on display would have that effect on somebody,” he said.
(This article was written in cooperation with the Washington Jewish Week.)
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<urn:uuid:0c5b3647-81d3-4901-8cd7-fafe4a3ec622>
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A brief report on the diuretic activity and other properties of certain plants used in the traditional system of medicine namely Citrullus vulgaris (Water melon), fruits of Moringa oleifera Lam (Sahjna), Raphanus sativus, (Radish), Corn silk (Bhutta) and Cucumis melo (Musk melon) is followed by the review of literature on these plants.
Experiments are described on the pharmacogonastic studies of the same plants. Morphological characterization and histological studies were made. Macroscopic and microscopic features, fluorescence characteristic s of the plants were studied under U.V. light, quantitative analysis on the basis of colour reaction was made. The results obtained were found to meet the criteria of WHO herbal drug evaluation and standardization.
Colour, taste, pH, density, viscosity, refractive index, specific gravity and optical rotation have been studied in hot water extract of Cymbopogon citratus (DC) Stapf. where moisture, ash content acid insoluble matter, fibre content, oil content, iodine value and invert sugar studies have been carried out in ethanolic extracts of Citrullus vulgaris, Cucumis melo, Moringa oleifera, Raphanus sativus and Zea mays. Refractive index, specific gravity, saponification value, iodine value, unsaponifiable matter and acid value, colour in lovibond cell have been studied in Raphanus seeds oil.
Toxicological activities of the plant extract was also studied. After discontinuation of test drugs gross behavioral changes, morbidity and mortality were observed. Autopsy and histological studies were also conducted to observe gross changes in vital organs of albino rats. No gross change was found in heart, lungs, liver, spleen, G.I. tract, kidneys, ovaries and testes.
These indigenous medicinal plants namely Cymbopogon citratus, Raphanus sativus and Zea mays, reported to be diuretic were selected for the study of trace elements and their possible role in human health. Twelve trace elements (Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cd, Pb, Cr, Ag, Na & K) have been detected and estimated in ash of various parts (leaves of Cymbopogon citratus, seeds of Raphanus sativus and corn silk of Zea mays Linn.
Antibacterial activity of the plant extracts was also studied Zea mays (corn silk) alcoholic extract showed greater activity against Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Salmonella paratyphi A and Salmonella typhi as compare to Penbritin, while Raphanus sativus Linn. (seeds) alcoholic extract showed greater activity against all the three organisms except Klebsiella pneumoniae as compare to Penbritin. Raphanus sativus Linn. (seeds) alcoholic extract and Zea mays (corn silk) alcoholic extract showed greater activity against Bacillus subtilis (G-ram +ve) in comparison with Penbritin, Cymbopogon citratus leaves powder and Raphanus sativus Linn. (seeds oil) did not show any antibacterial activity. Raphanus sativus Linn. (seeds oil) did not show any antifungal activity.
These three indigenous medicinal plants showed diuretic activity and hypotensive action. The experimental methods and results are tabulated and a bibliography is given.
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<urn:uuid:c41f8780-844f-4bb1-a828-3037364d55a2>
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Ages 8+/Single Player
Learning Skills: Critical Thinking, Strategic Thinking
The World's Most Challenging Puzzle
How many towers can YOU place? Full on its mission to "empower the world to become better thinkers," ThinkFun has come through with the greatest challenge yet, 36 Cube™! Start by removing the towers from the base. Your goal is to place the towers following two simple rules: there must be only one of each colored tower in every row and column, and the towers must fit into the base to form a perfect cube with all the towers being the same height. Sound simple? Think again!
• 36 Colored Tower Puzzle Pieces
• 1 Game Base
• Display Box for Storage
This product was added to our catalog on Friday 02 January, 2009.
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First Earth Explorer Core Mission moves into gear
The go-ahead has been given for the next phase of a European mission to measure the Earth's gravity field and a derived geoid to unprecedented accuracy and resolution using a highly sophisticated three-axis gradiometer.
Scheduled for launch in 2005, the GOCE (Gravity Field and Steady State Ocean Circulation Explorer) satellite is the first of the core explorer missions planned as part of ESA’s Living Planet Programme.
ESA confirmed this week that it had selected Italian-based space company, Alenia Spazio, as prime contractor.
The GOCE satellite will be in orbit for a minimum of two years and will provide unique data which will help to advance knowledge in a wide range of research and application areas, including solid Earth physics, oceanography, ice sheet dynamics and sea level changes.
Danilo Muzi, ESA’s GOCE project manager, said: “Current knowledge of the Earth’s gravity field and its geoid will be substantially enhanced by exploiting new satellite-based gravity observation techniques.
“It is only through a better understanding of the Earth’s gravity field that we can improve our knowledge of the physics of the Earth’s interior, the interaction of the continents and the ocean circulation. The use of satellites is the only way to achieve this globally and within a reasonable time period,” said Danilo.
The Phase B design activities are planned to continue until the end of this year when the implementation work will begin, known as Phase C/D.
The appointment of Alenia Spazio as prime contractor follows a year-long selection process which culminated in a decision being reached at ESA's Industrial Policy Committee at the end of January.
Reinhold Zobl, the Head of ESA's Earth Observation Programmes Development Department said “The IPC approval of the Contract Proposal for the Phase B/C/D/E1 of the GOCE Space Segment represents a very important milestone in ESA's Living Planet Programme. We can now proceed with the implementation of the first Core Explorer Mission which addresses the needs of the solid Earth physics, geodetic and oceanographic scientific communities.”
Alenia Spazio will be supported by a core team consisting of Astrium GmbH (platform), Alcatel Space Industries (Gradiometer instrument) and ONERA (Gradiometer accelerometers and supporting the assessment of the satellite performances).
Andrea Allasio, GOCE's Project Manager at Alenia Spazio said “We are proud to be contributing to improving knowledge of our planet’s physics by developing, together with the selected Core Team, the GOCE spacecraft for this challenging ESA program. As industrial prime contractor, we are confident in the success of the mission.”
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<urn:uuid:b610ad36-bf8c-4f2a-83ec-0798d570c1af>
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The Nuristani languages (Pashto: نورستاني ; Urdu: نورستانی ; Hindi: नूरिस्तानी, nurestāni) are one of the three groups within the Indo-Iranian language family, alongside the much larger Indo-Aryan and Iranian groups. They have approximately 130,000 speakers primarily in eastern Afghanistan The region inhabited by the Nuristanis is located in the southern Hindukush mountains, and is drained by Alingar River in the west, Pech River in the center, and Landay Sin River and Kunar River in the east.
Many Nuristani languages are subject–object–verb (SOV), like most of the other Indo-Iranian languages adjacent to them, but distinct from the Dardic Kashmiri language for the apparent verb-second word order which is also notably used in most Germanic languages including Old English. The Nuristani languages were often confused with each other before concluding a third branch in Indo-Iranian, and also accounting many Burushaski loanwords present in Dardic.
- Askunu (Ashkun) 2,000 speakers
- Kamkata-viri (Bashgali, includes the dialects Kata-vari, Kamviri & Mumviri) 24,200 speakers
- Vasi-vari 2,000 speakers
- Tregami 1,000 speakers
- Waigali 2,000 speakers
- Zemiaki 500 speakers
Nuristani languages are generally regarded as an independent group, as one of the three sub-groups of Indo-Iranian, following the studies of Georg Morgenstierne (1973, 1975). However, sometimes it is classified in the Dardic languages branch of the Indo-Iranian language family, while another theory characterized it as originally Iranian, but greatly influenced by the nearby Dardic languages.
The languages are spoken by tribal peoples in an extremely is one that has never been subject to any real central authority in modern times. This area is located along the northeastern border of Afghanistan and adjacent portions of the northwest of present-day. These languages have not received the attention Western linguists like to give them. Considering the very small number of peoples estimated to speak them, they must be considered endangered languages.
There are five Nuristani languages, each spoken in several dialects. Major dialects include Kata-vari, Kamviri, and Vai-ala. Most of the Nuristanis in Pakistan speak Kamviri. These are influenced by, and sometimes classified as, Dardic languages; but this is more of a geographical classification than a linguistic one.
The Norwegian linguist Georg Morgenstierne wrote that Nuristan of Afghanistan is the area of the greatest linguistic diversity in the world. More than other languages are spoken here. These include Wakhi, and Pashto. Since many of these languages have no written form, they are usually written in an ad hoc Arabic alphabet.
- Decker, Kendall D. (1992) Languages of Chitral. Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan, 5. Islamabad: National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University and Summer Institute of Linguistics.
- Grjunberg, A. L. (1971): K dialektologii dardskich jazykov (glangali i zemiaki). Indijskaja i iranskaja filologija: Voprosy dialektologii. Moscow.
- Morgenstierne, Georg (1926) Report on a Linguistic Mission to Afghanistan. Instituttet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning, Serie C I-2. Oslo. ISBN 0-923891-09-9
- Jettmar, Karl (1985) Religions of the Hindu Kush ISBN 0-85668-163-6
- J. P. Mallory, In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth, Thames and Hudson, 1989.
- James P. Mallory & Douglas Q. Adams, "Indo-Iranian Languages", Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997.
- Strand, Richard F. "NURESTÂNI LANGUAGES" in Encyclopædia Iranica
- Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Nuristani". Glottolog 2.2. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
- SIL Ethnologue
- Morgenstierne, G. Irano-Dardica. Wiesbaden 1973; Morgenstierne, G. Die Stellung der Kafirsprachen. In Irano-Dardica, 327-343. Wiesbaden, Reichert 1975
- Strand, Richard F. (1973) "Notes on the Nûristânî and Dardic Languages." Journal of the American Oriental Society, 93.3: 297-305.
- Reiko and Jun's Japanese Kalash Page
- Hindi/Urdu-English-Kalasha-Khowar-Nuristani-Pashtu Comparative Word List
- Richard Strand's Nuristân Site This site is the primary source on the linguistics and ethnography of Nuristân and neighboring regions, collected and analyzed over the last forty years by the leading scholar on Nuristân.
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<urn:uuid:ecc9c2b1-d52e-4789-8ede-d9f10802be7b>
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Sotah 9 - 15
- Poetic justice for the guilty sotah
- The timing of Heavenly retribution
- The primeval serpent and other victims of their own envy
- All about Shimshon
- The eishel of the Patriarch Avraham
- The courageous confession of Yehuda
- David and his son Avshalom
- The decrees of Pharaoh and the birth of Moshe
- The discovery of Moshe's crib and the aftermath
- The funeral of the Patriarch Yaakov
- Moshe and the casket of Yosef
- Moshe's last day in this world and his burial
- The importance of doing acts of lovingkindness
- The mincha flour offering of the sotah, its ingredients, its ritual and its consumption
- Preparation of the bitter water for the sotah to drink
The Impact of Mother's Milk
- Sotah 12b
When the infant Moshe was discovered among the river's reeds by the daughter of Pharaoh, an attempt was made to find an Egyptian woman to nurse him. Our Sages explain the refusal of Moshe to be nursed by them as Heavenly intervention "for how could the mouth which was destined to speak with G-d be fed with something impure!" (The Egyptian women ate foods that were spiritually impure and the child they nursed would be nourished by those foods. — Rashi)
The question arises as to why this reason was specifically given in regard to Moshe when all Jews are advised to refrain from having a non-Jew nurse their child if a Jewish nurse is available (Rama in Shulchan Aruch Yoreh De’ah 81:7).
The answer offered by Rabbi Zvi Hirsh Chayos is that the rule of all Jews only applied after the Torah was received and many of the foods consumed by other nations became forbidden to Jews. Since this reason did not apply to the infant Moshe it was necessary to provide a different explanation for his refusal to be nursed by an Egyptian woman.
Just as mother's milk can have a negative effect it can also have a positive one as in the case of the Roman Emperor Antoninus who had such a special relationship with Rabbi Yehuda Hanassi (Rebbie) as a result of momentarily being nursed by his mother.
What the Sages Say
"Whoever covets what belongs to another will not only fail to get it but will even suffer the loss of whatever he has."
- Beraita - Sotah 9a
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Antibiotics and animalsATHENS, Ga. — Farmers and ranchers share consumer concerns about antibiotic-resistant bacteria and are continuously improving herd health practices to minimize risk.
By: Charles L. Hofacre, Agweek
ATHENS, Ga. — Farmers and ranchers share consumer concerns about antibiotic-resistant bacteria and are continuously improving herd health practices to minimize risk.
About a third of livestock antibiotics used today are not used at all in human medicine. And in accordance with the Food and Drug Administration’s Guidance 209 and 213, antibiotics important to human medicine used for growth purposes will be eliminated from farm use within three years.
There is no proven link to antibiotic treatment failure in humans because of antibiotic use in animals for consumption — a critical point that is often missed. Antibiotics are used judiciously under veterinary guidance and FDA guidelines, and are primarily used to treat sick animals or prevent illness.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, antibiotic-resistant diseases with the greatest effect on human health, such as the contagious staph bacteria MRSA, are spread by human-to-human contact. No clinical case of MRSA in a human related to livestock has been identified in the United States.
Let’s keep this dialogue focused on the facts, and lose the hyperbole and fear-mongering.
Editor’s Note: Hofacre is a professor of veterinary medicine at the University of Georgia, a member of the Center for Food Safety and an adviser to the U.S. Farmers and Ranchers Alliance.
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Chomsky’s Language Development Theories: Rescuing Parents out of Dilemma
Being a language teacher to foreign language learners in China for 11 years, the author has developed thorough understanding of many language learning and teaching issues in China. Casting deep insights into the fundamental language learning theories developed by Chomsky, the author provides suggestions to parents, not only in China, but parents of diverse language and culture backgrounds, about how to handle children’s language development issues based on the inspirations from these theories.
Keywords: Language acquisition; Language development; Foreign language learning and teaching; Bilingual children
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By Rob Dobrenski, Ph.D., Licensed Psychologist
People often assume that bad sleep simply means feeling fatigued the next day. The reality is, that’s just the tip of the iceberg: mood, concentration, work performance, and even learning are all impacted. In short, sleep is the cornerstone of mental health. And while a prescription for Ambien certainly has its place – I took sleep agents myself in graduate school – it is always desirable to implement as many natural strategies as possible when sleep is poor.
Consider these as potential “mind clearing” ideas before you hit the sheets.
This type of breathing, also known as Belly Breathing, helps to slow your heart rate and induce relaxation. I discussed how to do it before but below is a quick summary:
Lie on your back. Slowly push your stomach outward as you take in air through your nose. Try to keep your chest flat as you picture the incoming air flowing through your body. Slowly count to four as your belly rises and gently push out the air through your mouth as your stomach comes to rest. Note and enjoy this feeling. Repeat for one minute.
While you are doing this, try to visualize your heart rate lowering, the muscles relaxing, your body appreciating the rest it’s receiving. Too often our cognitions revolve around “How much sleep will I get? Will it be enough? How much longer before I have to wake up?” Instead, try to focus on what your body is doing as it begins its recovery from a day of activity.
Create Your To Do List Before Bed
Many people with hectic schedules climb into bed and immediately begin to ruminate on what they need to do tomorrow. Instead of creating mental checklists under the covers, take ten minutes before you go to bed to write down what’s on the agenda for tomorrow. The keyboard strokes or the pen-on-paper effect can help to clear your mind.
Build Your Worry List
A hallmark symptom of worry is poor sleep. Pair that with a busy schedule and the mind is racing around what is wrong with life and how to get things done. Jot down your worries before bed. Even if there are not solutions at your immediate disposal, this can help. I would recommend doing this an hour or so before bedtime, just in case there is a spike in anxiety as you notice the many things that are troublesome. The trick here, again, is to write it down, and add the following at the end:
I will deal with this tomorrow, during the day. Now is time to prepare for sleep.
You’ll be surprised how, with practice, you can train your mind to temporarily shut down troublesome thoughts.
This is a very hot topic in psychology right now. Research continues to emerge on the benefits of mindfulness in treating anxiety, panic, and other conditions that impact sleep. There are countless books and internet pages dedicated to mindfulness. I personally recommend “The Miracle of Mindfulness,” by Thich Nath Hanh.
Remember What is Currently Working for You
I mentioned this idea before but it bears repeating: poor sleep leads to frustration which, in turn, pushes us to hyperfocus on what is unsatisfactory in our lives. A list of positives in life can help us keep our thinking balanced. Balanced thinking has a powerful calming effect, which is always useful at lights out.
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One of the planet’s most cherished endangered species could disappear by the end of the century. A study published on Nov. 11 in the journal Nature Climate Change predicts that increasing temperatures in the giant panda’s natural habitats will likely cause a shortage of its main dietary staple, bamboo — leading to the extinction of the animal by 2101.
Using models from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the study’s authors projected that in China‘s Qinling Mountains, which make up one-fourth of the world’s panda habitat and house 270 of the bears (17% of the wild population), warming will spur a “substantial reduction” in the region’s three dominant species of bamboo. The estimated 2- to 5-degree Celsius increase in temperature during summer and 3- to 8-degree Celsius rise during winter will cause between 80% and 100% of the area’s panda habitat — defined in the study as a location that supports at least one of the dominant bamboo types — to disappear by the end of the 21st century.
“The difference is the degree of the changes,” Jianguo Liu, a scientist from Michigan State University who co-authored the study, told LiveScience. “Even with very hopeful scenarios, where we allow bamboo to go anywhere it wants, there are still very severe consequences. Of course, if the bamboo has nowhere to go, then the panda habitat will be lost more quickly.” Bamboo, a member of the grass family, constitutes 99% of the giant panda’s diet. Pandas, who eat as much as 85 pounds of bamboo a day, face starvation without it.
Although the models also showed that cooler, high-elevation areas in the mountains unable to sustain bamboo will rise in temperature and become hospitable to the grass in the future, these locations are outside the existing boundaries of nature reserves — where the majority of wild pandas now live — and therefore hard to protect from human disturbance. Researchers also acknowledged that the findings could overestimate the remaining panda habitat because the bears often forage for different bamboo types depending on the season, which means one species may fail to support them year-round.
(PHOTOS: Bye-Bye, Panda Tai Shan)
But the animals face other challenges besides climate change. “The giant panda population also is threatened by other human disturbances,” Mao-Ning Tuanmu, one of the study’s co-authors who works at Yale University, said in a MSU press release.
Raising pandas in captivity is not an adequate solution, either. Zoologists have had difficulty getting the animals to breed, and Liu told LiveScience that mating them in breeding centers and zoos causes a decline in genetic diversity.
“That’s not a long-term solution,” he said.
Despite the grim predictions, researchers still believe there’s hope for the longtime symbol of the World Wildlife Fund. LiveScience reported that if conservationists start to extend the borders of nature reserves now to correspond with adapted bamboo habitats, pandas could stand a chance. Tuanmu said in the MSU release that the study’s team wants their findings to guide conservation efforts. Liu agreed, saying the research could help clarify the “impacts of climate change” and “help us prepare for the challenges that the panda will likely face in the future.”
“It is tough, but I think there’s still hope, if we take action now,” Liu told LiveScience. “If we wait, then we could be too late.”
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The first debate for a presidential election was televised. It was between Senator John F. Kennedy and Richard M. Nixon. Nixon seemed nervous, but Kennedy stood tall. The debate on TV changed many people's minds about Kennedy.
This year NASA sent up ECHO, the first communications satellite to be seen with the naked eye.
American "U2" spy plane shot down over the USSR.
The Olympic Games were held in Rome and Wilma Rudolf won three gold medals.
John F Kennedy moves into the White House. He gives his famous speech - "Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country."
The soviets have sent the first man into space and the Americans need a man in space, too. The event came on May 5, 1961. Alan Shepard was sent to space in the "Freedom 7". On May 25, Kennedy wanted to have a man on the moon and back before the decade was over.
John Glenn became the first man to orbit the earth - 3 times. It was a five hour flight.
Rachel Carson, a scientist and writer, warned that our earth would die of pollution and chemicals. Especially chemicals that were developed to kill bad insects. DDT was a really bad chemical. It killed bad insects, along with good insects, along with plants, along with animals. She wrote the book Silent Spring with a warning. At least five states banned DDT.
Martin Luther King Jr. made the speech, "I have a Dream" on August 28, 1963. More than 200,000 peaceful demonstrators came to Washington DC to demand equal rights for Black and Whites. Part of the speech was - "I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their characterů"
President Kennedy is assassinated in Dallas, Texas on November 22. Kennedy's assassin, Lee Harvey Oswald, was never sent to trial. While being moved by police to a different jail, a man named Jack Ruby shot Oswald. Who killed President Kennedy nobody knows for sure.
The Beatles, a British rock and roll band became VERY popular. The "Fab Four", John, Paul, George, and Ringo, were played on radio stations all over the world. They were seen on the "Ed Sullivan Show". They performed concerts that were quickly sold out. All the frenzy over the group became known as "Beatlemania", which was only the beginning.
This was the first year the cigarette boxes had a warning printed on it "Smoking can be hazardous to your health". It had not occurred to the US government to give the warning that smoking lead to cancer and lung problems.
The first Civil Rights bill was passed to stop racial discrimination.
President Johnson ordered bombing raids on North Vietnam and Americans begin protesting the war.
The world's first roofed stadium was built, the Houston Astrodome.
Walt Disney, the creator of Mickey Mouse and a Pioneer of animated films, died of cancer on December 15, 1966, but his legend lives on.
The first heart transplant was performed by Dr. Christian Barnard in Cape Town, South Africa.
Civil Rights Leader Martin Luther King was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee. Two months later, Robert Kennedy, John F. Kennedy's brother was assassinated, too. Both were civil rights leaders.
On November 5, 1968, Shirley Chisholm was elected America's first black woman to Congress.
Nearly half a million people headed over to a 600 acre farm in New York for the Woodstock Festival. Many top rock musicians were there. It lasted three days, a weekend of music, love and peace.
July 20, 1969, 4:18 p.m., one of the biggest events of history happened. Apollo 11 landed on the moon, astronauts aboard. Neil Armstrong's famous speech for the historical steps "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind."
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Dictionary Meaning and Definition on 'Peculiarity'
- an odd or unusual characteristic [syn: distinctive feature, distinguishing characteristic]
- a distinguishing trait [syn: specialness, specialty, speciality, distinctiveness]
- something unusual -- perhaps worthy of collecting [syn: curio, curiosity, oddity, oddment, rarity]
- Peculiarity \Pe*cul`iar"i*ty\, n.; pl. Peculiarities.
- The quality or state of being peculiar; individuality; singularity. --Swift.
- That which is peculiar; a special and distinctive characteristic or habit; particularity. The smallest peculiarity of temper on manner. --Macaulay.
- Exclusive possession or right. [Obs.] --Bp. Hall.
Wikipedia Meaning and Definition on 'Peculiarity'
Idiosyncrasy, from Ancient Greek ἰδιοσυγκρασία, idiosynkrasía, "a peculiar temperament", "habit of body" (ἴδιος, idios "one's own", σύν, syn "with" and κρᾶσις krasis "mixture") is defined as an individualizing quality or characteristic of a person or group, and is often used to express eccentricity or peculiarity. The term can also be applied to symbols. Idiosyncratic symbols mean one thing for a particular person, as a blade could mean war, but to someone else, it could symbolize a surgery. By the same principle, linguists (such as Ferdinand de Saussure) state that words are not only arbitrary, but also largely idiosyncratic signs.
Idiosyncrasy defined the way physicians conceived diseases in the 19th century. They considered each disease as a unique condition, related to each patient. This understanding began to change in the 1870s, when discoveries made by researchers in Europe permitted the advent of a 'scientific medicine', a precursor to the Evidence-Based Medicine that is the standard of practice today.[See more about Peculiarity at Dictionary 3.0 Encyclopedia]
Words and phrases related to 'Peculiarity'
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Description: Chassidim would always ask: Why doesn't the Talmud contain a tractate that focuses on the love of HASHEM, or the fear of Him? They would explain that instead of teaching these attributes in an abstract intellectual form, in every generation, HASHEM gives us tzaddikim who provide living examples. We constantly look up to the Rebbe as our teacher. The way he davens is a lesson. His simchah, chayus, and devotion to hiddur mitzvah are lessons. From everything he does, we can learn.
And children feel that the Rebbe is always reaching out to them, realizing that their today is our people's tomorrow.
This video focuses on lessons that children can learn from the Rebbe's middos tovos, highlighting those facets which educators feel that children could emulate and make part of their lives. With scenes and stories that relate to a child on his or her level, a child is given a path and a direction for his life, one that will enable him to do his share in the mission that lies at the center of the Rebbe's life-preparing the world for the coming of Mashiach.
Written, produced and directed by Malka Touger.
Music and arrangements by Chaim Fogelman.
Footage of the Rebbe provided by JEM Studios.
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Ramsar Advisory Missions: No. 44, Sumava Peat Bogs, Czech Republic (2001)
Special attention is given to assisting member States in the management and conservation of listed sites whose ecological character is threatened. This is carried out through the Ramsar Advisory Mission, a technical assistance mechanism formally adopted by Recommendation 4.7 of the 1990 Conference of the Parties. (The Ramsar Advisory Mission mechanism was formerly known as the Monitoring Procedure and the Management Guidance Procedure.) The main objective of this mechanism is to provide assistance to developed and developing countries alike in solving the problems or threats that make inclusion in the Montreux Record necessary.
Ramsar Advisory Mission No. 44: Czech Republic (2001)
Shumava Mires Ramsar Site, Czech Republic
5-8 June 2001
Report prepared by Hans Joosten, with additions by Tobias Salathe,
based on the comments by the Czech and Slovak mission participants on an earlier version of the report
For ease of e-mailing this document, accents of site and personal names have been omitted. The spelling of "Sumava" has been adapted to "Shumava" to assure correct English pronunciation.
1. The Ramsar Convention gives special attention to assisting Contracting Parties in the management and conservation of listed sites whose ecological character is changing or likely to change as a result of technological development, pollution or other human interference. This is carried out through the Ramsar Advisory Missions (RAM), a technical assistance mechanism formally adopted by Recommendation 4.7 of the 1990 Conference of the Parties (formerly known as the Monitoring Procedure and the Management Guidance Procedure).
2. On 6 June 2000, the Deputy Director of the Department of Nature Protection of the Ministry of the Environment, the Ramsar Administrative Authority of the Czech Republic, asked the Ramsar Bureau, based on an unanimous decision by the Czech Ramsar Committee on 9 December 1999, to consider carrying out an independent Ramsar Advisory Mission to provide guidance on how best to deal with specific management problems related to the recent outbreaks of bark beetle populations.
3. On 29 September 2000, the Director of the Department of Nature Protection of the Ministry of the Environment provided the Ramsar Bureau with additional information and a proposal for the composition of the Ramsar Advisory Mission. Taking into account the winter snow cover of the Shumava mountains, he proposed to postpone the mission to the first week of June 2001 and expressed the wish that the Ramsar Advisory Mission would help to evaluate current management measures for forests damaged by bark beetle outbreaks and its impact on the wetland ecosystems.
The Shumava Mires
4. The Shumava Mires Ramsar Site comprises a complex of disjunct peatlands, including three core areas in the granitic Shumava mountains, providing unique ecosystem islands. The Ramsar Site includes high plateau raised bogs, valley bogs, coniferous forest and riparian wetlands of the upper Vltava (Moldavia) river. Bogs on the high plateaus show characteristics of the forest-tundra with low-growing bog pines, open areas, shrub and grass vegetation. Treeless areas are covered by minerotrophic mires with stands of short sedges. The bogs are of considerable entomological and botanical interest, supporting various endemic and rare species, including relict populations of 25 species of butterflies, dragonflies, beetles, capercaillie, black grouse and northern birch. Both types of raised bogs (high plateau and valley bogs) are often surrounded by waterlogged spruce (Picea abies) forests. Some areas of the Ramsar Site (e.g. Modravska slat) include also planted, non-waterlogged spruce forests. Some nature trails exist, although most of the Ramsar Site is closed for public access.
5. Outside the wetlands, especially at higher altitudes, the legacy of centuries of forestry interventions remains in the form of monospecific spruce plantations, or plantations with artificial species composition and patch dynamics. The natural vegetation originally consisted of mixed, beech (Fagus sylvatica) or fir-dominated (Abies alba) forests. Patches of such forests can still be found, particularly in the adjacent Bayerischer Wald National Park.
6. The Shumava Mires Ramsar Site is part of the Shumava (Bohemian Forest) National Park, established in 1991. Within the National Park, discrete stands of old-growth and natural forests survived. Together with a number of bogs and mires, these "close-to-natural ecosystems" (cited from "Management Plan of the Shumava National Park") were designated as Zone I ("strictly natural areas") of the National Park. The many different Zone I patches are surrounded by a large heterogeneous, temporarily managed, transition Zone II ("areas to be steered towards ‘natural’"), intended eventually to be included in large parts into Zone I. Zone III ("zone of development") includes areas with ecosystems that are influenced by human activities, as well as built-up areas. A large Protected Landscape Area surrounds the National Park. Both together form a Biosphere Reserve, managed jointly by a single authority.
7. In the early nineties, wind squalls felled important number of trees in the adjacent Bayerischer Wald National Park (Bavaria, Germany). This situation favoured the development of massive bark beetle (Ips typographus) outbreaks, originating in an area of mountain spruce forests. The area is isolated from lower altitudes by a contiguous complex of mixed forests, acting as a buffer zone against the spread of bark beetles. Up to now, spruce trees have died over an area of approximately 3,700 ha, mainly inside the Bayerischer Wald National Park Core Area. The Bavarian Park authorities apply in the continuous Core Area (Zone I of the old part of the National Park) a strict no-intervention policy, to facilitate the spontaneous development of natural forest communities.
8. Bark beetles spreading from the Core Area of Bayerischer Wald National Park to the Czech side caused a similar massive dying of spruce forests over an area of 1,600 ha, mainly in the higher parts of Shumava National Park. In some Zone I areas, the Shumava National Park authorities combat bark beetles with sanitation methods and individual cutting of infested trees. A specific status has been accorded to a so-called "no-intervention area" along the state border with Germany, as a response to the fact that it was not possible to effectively reduce the bark beetle outbreak using the sanitation methods in this area. Presently, the no-intervention area covers 479 ha in Zone I, and 847 ha in Zone II.
Issues considered by the RAM (as spelt out in the Terms of Reference)
9. The occurrence of bark beetle population outbreaks in the Bohemian Forest, its frequencies and extent (historical and recent data), and its ecological consequences (dying of forests, spread of bark beetle populations and other parasites and their respective predators, etc.).
10. The environmental impacts of different methods of bark beetle control, including the absence of control measures, on forest structure and development, microclimate (clear cuttings), hydrology and soil ecology (through drainage and compacting with heavy machinery to remove affected trees), and biodiversity (through altering the forest extent and structure, the hydrology of peat bogs, etc.).
11. The integrated forest management in the Bohemian Forest, including policies for timber cutting, clear cuts, plantations, no/limited human intervention old-growth stands, drainage and other landscaping measures, and their impacts on bark beetle populations and rare, endemic, threatened and relict populations of invertebrates (butterflies, dragonflies, beetles, etc.), birds and plants representing specific biodiversity values of the Shumava National Park and surrounding protected areas in the Czech Republic and Bavaria.
12. The need for transboundary management, according to the Ramsar guidelines for international cooperation (Ramsar Handbook 9), including coordinated bark beetle population management measures on both the Czech and German sides.
13. Based on paragraphs 9-12, preparing a series of concrete recommendations for management measures, evaluation and monitoring procedures (of the management measures applied) and procedures for transboundary data and information exchange, coordination and cooperation.
Bark beetle ecology and management strategies in the Bohemian Forest
14. Bark beetle outbreaks are an element of natural biodiversity in central European montane spruce forests. It is not a question of whether these natural phenomena will happen, but when, where, and to what extent. Bark beetle outbreaks generally follow wind squall damage and are stimulated by climatic and other environmental factors that weaken the spruce stands. In case of massive outbreaks, also healthy spruce stands are affected.
15. No information is available on the frequency, intensity, duration, and extent of bark beetle outbreaks in central European montane spruce forests under conditions without human impact. Historical accounts of massive outbreaks in the Bohemian Forest probably reflect situations in which human impact and exploitation had already considerably modified the composition, structure, and resilience of the forests. High-resolution paleo-ecological research into pre-human patch-dynamics of these forests is still lacking, although the mires of the Bohemian Forest could provide an excellent opportunity for such research, as detailed information on bark beetle outbreaks is available since the early 19th century.
16. Under the current conditions of human-induced environmental stress and the presence of planted, non-local spruce ecotypes in the National Park, the vulnerability of the montane spruce stands for bark beetle attacks is higher than under natural conditions, also in natural spruce stands.
17. The replacement of mixed forests by monotonous stands of spruce on lower altitudes of the Bohemian Forest in the last centuries has considerably increased the area susceptible to large-scale bark beetle outbreaks and has removed natural barriers against the spread of bark beetle. The replacement has furthermore decreased the on-site availability of diaspores of other tree species.
18. The presence of huge commercial spruce stands beyond the borders of the Shumava National Park necessitates the prevention of massive expansions of bark beetle to these areas and raises the question of the nature and extent of such prevention measures.
19. The management policy of both National Park authorities (Shumava and Bayerischer Wald) is, among others, directed by:
- a conservation goal to steer the human-influenced ecosystems towards more natural conditions, eventually leading to no-intervention and self-regulation (for a definition of the terms cf. box) in a substantial part of the National Parks;
- and the socio-economic constraints to prevent unacceptable economic damage to the commercial forests outside the National Parks.
20. To honour the conservation goal, both the Shumava and the Bayerischer Wald National Park have installed "no-intervention zones" in which bark beetles are not controlled, applying a strategy of "spontaneous transformation". It is expected that the spontaneous dynamics of tree dying, followed by colonisation and succession of new trees, will lead in these zones to ecosystems that better reflect natural conditions.
21. The bark beetle no-intervention zone covers 9,800 ha in the Bayerischer Wald National Park and, directly adjacent to that area, 1,326 ha in the Shumava National Park. On the Bavarian side, this zone equals the Core Area of the old part of the National Park. On the Czech side, the bark beetle no-intervention area covers parts of both, Zone I and Zone II sites (cf. paragraph 8), and includes part of the Ramsar Site areas.
22. With respect to its conservation goal, the Shumava National Park applies an additional management strategy of "guided transformation". Under this strategy, tree species should be planted that belong to the assumed original forest composition, but which are insufficiently available in the regeneration potential (diaspore bank) at given sites. Such planting does not take place in the "no-intervention area" of Zone I, and is the only forestry activity taking place in "no-intervention areas" of Zone II. Planted trees, except spruce, are temporarily protected against game damage.
23. It is impossible to assess ex ante which management strategy is providing more rapid results, spontaneous or guided transformation. Currently available conclusions, based on ex post assessments of site-specific results in the Bohemian Forest area and elsewhere, are still scarce and contradicting. Scientific experts may judge the attainability or consistency of stated management aims, but may not decide on which aims to choose. The choice of conservation and management aims, although it should be based on best available science and technology, belongs to the realm of society. A participatory process, involving all stakeholders, and taking their concerns into account, should construct a consensus to provide a sound information basis for elected people that make political decisions, and their administrative apparatus that will implement the decisions.
24. Conflicting opinions on the best management strategy for Shumava National Park relate to:
- different conceptions on what nature is, and on what the aims of nature conservation should be (cf. box): e.g. should spontaneity prevail or a specific ecosystem type;
- different interpretations of the terms (and the relation between them) self-regulating, spontaneous, natural, original, and typical (cf. box);
- differing precedences (temporal goals) if development towards the aimed biodiversity should be enhanced by guided transformation, or be left to spontaneous transformation;
- different opinions about the fact that spontaneous transformation may even be more rapid than guided transformation, under specific circumstances;
- differing preferences (spatial goals) if spontaneity should be maximised in the core areas, or be optimised in both, core areas and buffer zones?
These issues are often not spelt out clearly; and furthermore, they are inter-related in a complex, and dialectic, way.
25. Conservation goals are formulated within the framework of constantly progressing best-available scientific understanding and management know-how. In contrast to earlier scientific "stability theories", conservation ecology now increasingly recognises the de facto non-equilibrium status of natural ecosystems, and the importance of disturbance ("patch dynamics") as a driving factor in natural ecosystem functioning. Management decisions, however, are not only guided by the latest insights of science and technology, but have also to consider public and political perceptions, attitudes, and aspirations.
26. The Management Plan of the Shumava National Park, adopted in November 2000, contains a clear Mission Statement: "To conserve and improve its natural environment, especially to maintain or restore the self-regulatory functions of natural systems, to strictly protect wildlife, and to maintain the typical appearance of the landscape; to fulfil scientific and educational goals, as well as to promote appropriate tourism and recreation within the National Park." (citation of the English translation provided to the RAM by the Park authorities).
27. Neither from this Purpose of the National Park (Management Plan, paragraph 1.1.2), nor from its stated Principal Object of Conservation (Management Plan, paragraph 1.1.3), it has obligatory to be inferred that a major part of the National Park (Zone I) needs to be the subject of an unconditional no-intervention policy. This does, however, not deny the fact that several National Parks do apply a strict no-intervention policy, and that strict no-intervention, whenever possible, is preferable from a nature conservation point of view (cf. box).
28. The discussion on forest management in the Shumava National Park has been initiated by differing specific priority aims that different people impose upon the general purpose of the National Park. The ensuing differing views about acceptable management tools have been nurtured by the rapidly following changes in the zonation and management concepts of the Shumava National Park in the past, and by the use of confusing terminology, notably the existence of so-called "no-intervention zones" in which human interventions do occur.
29. Special attention should therefore be given to clarify those sources of potential confusion, notably concerning the terms self-regulatory functions, natural systems, strictly protected wildlife, and typical appearance of the landscape of the Mission Statement.
30. The new Management Plan of the Shumava National Park provides a useful structure and essential elements for the sustainable management of the Shumava area and its natural resources. The National Park authorities have to be commended for the elaboration of this document, and are encouraged to further develop its operational objectives and procedures in a consistent manner and in more detail, in order to prevent futile discussions, and to stimulate fruitful exchanges of new ideas and experiences.
|The nature of nature|
With nature and natural is often meant a state free of human influence. As everything is connected with everything else, however, a "world apart from man" has never existed since "Homo sapiens" appeared on Earth. For nature conservation purposes it is useful to define nature in relation to culture (natural vs artificial). Culture is then each deliberate (conscious) act or thought of human beings and its results. Nature is everything that has originated, or is originating spontaneously. Nature includes spontaneous development (the natural processes, e.g. growth, succession, and evolution) and the results of spontaneous development (the natural patterns and systems, e.g. rocks, organisms, species, communities, and mires). Nature (i.e. spontaneity and its products) can be observed everywhere, also in environments created by man, but not everything is nature. Patterns, processes, and systems are only natural as far as they do not result from deliberate human action.
To do - or not to be, that is the question
Nature conservation therefore seeks the facilitation of spontaneous processes and the conservation of their results. The crucial question is, which means are allowed to reach which ends? Because in nature conservation, the means are an implicit part of the ends: each deliberate act increases the artificiality of the result, and therefore conflicts with the essence of nature’s spontaneity. The current human population density on Earth no longer leaves enough space to conserve all natural biodiversity by the only means of spontaneous processes (or doing nothing). Consequently, it is believed that human intervention is needed to preserve or restore particular ecosystems and populations. The gain of them being conserved or restored involves, however, a loss in naturalness (or no-intervention). The essence of nature conservation requires natural biodiversity to be conserved by doing as little as possible. How to balance optimally between naturalness and biodiversity is not only a matter of scientific expertise, but principally a question of aims and choices.
Spontaneous vs self-regulating, original or typical
Much confusion in nature conservation arises from the words natural, spontaneous, self-regulating, original, and typical that are often inaccurately used as synonyms.
Self-regulating relates to internal abilities of a system, by which externally or internally induced changes in its state or functions give rise to a reaction which restores the system to its "original" state. Spontaneous developments may lead to self-regulating systems (stabilised by negative feedback mechanisms) but also to changing systems (enabled by positive feedback mechanisms, cf. succession, evolution etc.). Self-regulation is moreover not restricted to spontaneous processes: a refrigerator is self-regulating (with respect to its temperature), but not natural.
Original relates to origin or beginning. As natural phenomena are part of a continuous evolutionary process, no a priori beginning exist (except for a Big Bang?). What is meant with original must therefore always be stated explicitly.
Typical means exhibiting the qualities or characteristics that identify a group or kind or category. What is typical, depends on the typology. As "there may be as many classifications of any series of natural, or of other, bodies, as they have properties or relations to one another, or to other things; or, again, as there are modes in which they may be regarded by the mind..." (T.H. Huxley, 1869), every typology is subjective and depends on specific aims, interests, and paradigms.
Mires, trees, and bark beetles
31. The mires of the Shumava National Park and Ramsar Site are amongst the best existing examples of montane mires in central Europe.
32. The management authority of the Shumava National Park and Protected Landscape Area is aware of the important values of these mires and of their responsibility for the sustainable conservation and careful management of these sites. As a result, most of the mires are therefore in excellent condition.
33. The relations between mires and forests/trees are highly complex. From a hydrological point of view these relations include, amongst others:
- larger interception of precipitation by tree canopies compared to treeless areas, leading to less rain water reaching the soil surface;
- condensation and capture of water droplets from clouds or mist (horizontal precipitation) by trees, leading to more atmospheric water reaching the soil surface;
- generally larger evapotranspiration from trees, leading to more water being removed from the soil, but also – because of decreasing atmospheric water demand (advection) - to less evapotranspiration from neighbouring sites;
- shading of trees, leading to less evapotranspiration from shaded soil vegetation;
- wind protection offered by trees, leading to less evapotranspiration from lee-side or enclosed vegetation;
- higher external load of trees growing on a mire, leading to smaller pore volumes, lower hydraulic conductivity, and smaller hydraulic storage coefficients of peat.
Next to quantitative hydrological changes, also shifts in water quality may result from changing forest cover.
34. The cumulative effects of all these factors differ with tree density, geographic altitude and exposition, distance between forest and mire, and mire type (cf. table below). Furthermore, they change in time. It is therefore difficult to predict generalised statements about the direction, magnitude, and dynamics of the hydrological changes.
Less trees leading to:
Effects on peat accumulation (+/-) of
Mires on site
(via surface processes)
decreasing water supply (+)
increasing water supply (+)
increasing water supply (+)
increasing erosion (-)
decreasing water supply (-)
decreasing water supply
decreasing water supply (-)
decreasing water losses (+)
increasing advective water losses (-)
increasing water supply (+)
increasing evapotranspiration (-)
increasing evapotranspiration (-)
increasing wind velocity
increasing evapotranspiration (-)
increasing evapotranspiration (-)
decreasing external load
increasing hydrol. conductivity (-)
increasing storage coefficient (+)
35. Hydrological changes resulting from tree dying or felling will undoubtedly take place and will - because of the strong hydrological dependency of mires - lead to changes in the mires. The effects of spontaneous dead trees are expected to be somewhat smaller than those of clear cuttings, because dead trees retain their passive hydrological functions to some extent.
36. As a result of the generally good condition of the Shumava mires and the considerable capacity for self-regulation of the older, more valuable mires, the hydrological changes resulting from tree dying or felling are not expected to damage the fundamental character of the mires.
37. Peat soils play an important role in mire ecosystem functioning and are important as paleo-ecological archives and stores of carbon. They are vulnerable to erosion and compaction (e.g. resulting from using forestry machinery and transport of wood) which may seriously impact mire hydrology.
38. Spruce stands growing on mires, and in their lagg zones, are often less susceptible to bark beetle attacks as a result of their more diverse structure and age composition, their adaptation to more open conditions, the occurrence of local ecotypes, the better water supply, the prevalence of cooler meso-climatic conditions ("Kaltluftschlenken"), and because the mire itself provides a beetle-hostile buffer zone.
39. For all these reasons, peatlands and their lagg zones are ideally suited for rapid inclusion into no-intervention zones as a high priority. Management interventions should be restricted to restoration measures, as outlined in chapter 22.214.171.124 of the Management Plan.
Transboundary and international aspects
40. The presence of two major National Parks on both sides of the Czech-German border, with similar conservation goals and management challenges, necessitates intensive transboundary cooperation and exchange of information. This is substantially facilitated since the lifting of the geopolitical obstacles during the "Cold War", and the physical removal of the "Iron Curtain" that literally cut the common ecosystem into two, until only ten years ago.
41. Such cooperation is especially required, as mutually incompatible management strategies (e.g. intervention vs no-intervention) may – due to the intense spatial and functional relations between both areas - prevent each party from reaching its conservation goals in the most effective way.
42. Currently, both National Parks apply different management approaches with regard to the zoning of the no-intervention areas and the intervention policy after bark beetle outbreaks, partly due to different ecological conditions and a differing socio-economic context on each side of the state border. As, however, both Parks share the aim of a conservation management towards more natural ecosystems, regular exchange of experience and insights followed by coordinated and cooperative actions, seem to provide an efficient management approach for the future.
43. The Memorandum of Cooperation between the National Parks of Shumava and the Bavarian Forest (signed on 31 August 1999), mentioned in the Management Plan of the Shumava National Park (adopted in November 2000), could facilitate the necessary international cooperation at all levels.
44. The Ramsar Bureau highly appreciates the professional and detailed management approach of the Shumava National Park authorities for the conservation of the important hydrological and biodiversity values of the Ramsar Site areas.
45. The Ramsar Bureau considers the "Management Plan of the Shumava National Park for the period 2001-2010" to be a good start, with regards to the spirit of integrated management and international cooperation, as detailed in the document. It wishes these efforts to be developed even further (cf. paragraph 30) and translated rapidly into concrete actions on the ground.
46. The Ramsar Bureau acknowledges that the Shumava Mires (forming a Ramsar Site that covers 10,226 ha, composed of 31 different peatlands within the Shumava National Park) are representing some of the most valuable natural ecosystems of the Shumava National Park and Protected Landscape Area in terms of their functions for hydrology and biodiversity.
The Ramsar Bureau would like to recommend the following concrete actions:
1. Implementation of the Management Plan objectives: The authorities of the Shumava National Park and Protected Landscape Area should progress with the implementation of the management plan objectives for the area in a cooperative way, together with all the stakeholders concerned, including NGOs, and involving relevant international experts and partners.
2. Attain the spatial zoning objectives: As specified in chapter 4.1 of the Management Plan, the zonation of the National Park area should correspond by the deadline of the year 2030 to the declared objectives of a minimum of 50 per cent for Zone I (natural zone), up to 40 per cent for Zone II (transitional towards permanent natural zone) and up to10 per cent for Zone III (development zone).
3. Clarify and simplify the National Park zonation: Zone I should be comprised of a few large individual areas only, as stated in the Management Plan: "The current fragments of Zone I will be used as nuclei for a future, larger and consolidated Zone I.". Areas with "Type I, no-intervention management" of Zone I should be clearly delineated as large, continuous areas, and on a permanent basis.
4. The Ramsar Site remains a no-intervention area: Particular emphasis should be given to the core areas of the National Park, and especially the areas comprising the Ramsar Site: they should remain strict no-intervention areas (or become so, where this is not yet the case). No use of machinery, no tree felling, nor plantation, should be undertaken in the mires and their lagg zones.
5. Clarify the extent of the mire lagg zones and temporary interventions: As a matter of priority, the lagg zones of the peatbogs need to be identified and delineated, including areas with waterlogged spruce forests. No tree cutting should occur in these areas, especially if they provide essential habitat for threatened wildlife (e.g. capercaillie). However, hydrological restoration measures, that are compatible with the conservation objectives, should be encouraged in these areas. Sanitation cutting of bark beetle-affected trees may be granted, as a temporary derogation, provided that timber is left on the spot, and that the local hydrology and soil structure are not damaged.
6. Ensure the wise management of the Ramsar Site: Ramsar Contracting Parties are encouraged to take a management-oriented approach when determining Ramsar Site boundaries, and to include buffer zones around the wetland. This should be considered by the National Park authorities when clarifying the National Park zonation and delineating the lagg zones (cf. Recommendations 3 and 5). The Ramsar Handbooks No. 7 (Strategic Framework and guidelines for the future development of the List of Wetlands of International Importance) and No. 8 (Frameworks for managing Wetlands of International Importance and other wetlands) can provide further guidance.
7. Monitoring the ecological character of the Ramsar Site: A monitoring system of the key hydrological parameters and biodiversity indicators should be established for all major Ramsar Site areas. This should ideally be done in close coordination with similar programmes run by the Bayerischer Wald National Park. Special attention needs to be paid to ensure that the methods will be compatible, and their results comparable.
8. Expansion of mire restoration activities: The National Park authorities are encouraged to continue and to expand their activities for mire restoration, notably concerning bog hydrology and biodiversity, in the National Park and in the Protected Landscape Area.
9. Development of a transboundary management system: The authorities of the Shumava National Park and Protected Landscape Area are encouraged to develop further the cooperation with their counterparts from the Bayerischer Wald National Park at all levels, with the objective of a common, coordinated, transboundary conservation, management and monitoring approach, including activities to increase public awareness, for public education, information and the development of leisure-related activities that are compatible with the conservation management goals.
The Ramsar Bureau and the international experts participating in the Ramsar Advisory Mission to the Bohemian Forest would like to thank the managers of both the Shumava and Bayerischer Wald National Park, and the representatives of the Czech ministerial departments, research institutes, and NGOs, those who helped to prepare the mission and those who participated in it, for their excellent logistical organisation and for the open and friendly atmosphere that reigned throughout the days of intensive debate in Prague, Vimperk and Kvilda, as well as in the Shumava mires and in the Bavarian Forest, both, under sunshine and heavy rain. The exchange of ideas and information during the mission has contributed to a deeper understanding of, and respect for different opinions and concerns. In this sense, the mission will hopefully become a good start for increased international cooperation.
Appendix 1: Composition of the Ramsar Advisory Mission
The following Czech and international experts participated in the Ramsar Advisory Mission:
- Ramsar Bureau, coordinator for Europe: Dr Tobias Salathe (Switzerland)
- Ramsar Bureau, mire conservation expert: Dr Hans Joosten, Greifswald University (Germany)
- Ramsar Scientific and Technical Review Panel, Czech member: Dr Jan Pokorny
- Czech National Ramsar Committee, Ministry of the Environment: Dr Petr Roth
- Czech National Ramsar Committee, Palava Protected Landscape Area: Dr Josef Chytil
- Ministry of the Environment, Department of Forest Protection: Ing. Vladimir Hynek
- Ministry of the Environment, Department of Nature Protection: Mgr Libuse Vlasakova
- Ministry of the Environment, Department of Nature Protection: Dr Milan Rivola
- Ministry of the Environment, Department of Global Relations: Mgr Dagmar Kubinova
- Agency for the Protection of Nature and Landscape of the Czech Republic: Ing. Frantisek Urban
- Shumava National Park and Protected Landscape Area, vice-director: Ing. Vladimir Zatloukal
- Shumava National Park and Protected Landscape Area, wetland expert: Dr Ivana Bufkova
- Bayerischer Wald National Park, director: Karl Friedrich Sinner (Germany)
- Bayerischer Wald National Park, legal and management expert: Franz Baierl (Germany)
- Czech conservation NGOs, representative: Dr Mojmir Vlasin
- South Bohemian University, Faculty of Biology: Dr Karel Prach
- Slovak Academy of Sciences, Forest Ecology Institute: Dr Rastislav Jakus (Slovakia)
Appendix 2: Programme of the Ramsar Advisory Mission
Tuesday, 5 June
Arrival of the Ramsar Bureau participants of the RAM in Prague
13h30 Meeting at the Ministry of the Environment in Prague at the Department of Nature Protection
14h30 Departure for Vimperk by car
17h00 Meeting at the headquarters of Shumava National Park and Protected Landscape Area, presentations, study of documents, specification of the mission itinerary
19h30 Arrival at Shumava National Park regional office in Kvilda
Wednesday, 6 June
08h30-18h00 On-the-spot appraisal of different Shumava mires and visit of bark beetle-affected areas in both National Park Zones I and II, with and without bark beetle control measures, visit of the tourist trail at the Jezerni slat raised bog
Thursday, 7 June
08h30-11h30 Visit of adjacent bark beetle-affected areas in the core zone and mires and non-affected forests in the buffer zone of the Bayerischer Wald National Park
12h30-17h00 Visit of the Mrtvy luh raised bog part of the Ramsar Site at the confluence of Tepla and Studena Vltava rivers in the Shumava National Park, followed by a visit of the former industrial peat extraction site at Soumarsky most peatbog, including newly created mire restoration experimental plots
17h00-22h00 Discussion of the mission issues and recommendation proposals at the Shumava National Park regional office in Kvilda
Friday, 8 June
Return to Prague
12h00-13h00 Concluding meeting at the Ministry of Environment in Prague
Reporting to Deputy Minister Bile
Return of the Ramsar Bureau experts
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Welcome to 4-H
Science, Technology, Engineering & Math
WHAT is 4-H STEM?
Science can be defined as the study of the world around us, a thread that runs through all aspects of our lives. Science is the theory that lies behind all 4-H projects. Technology can be defined as the tools and applications of science that help individuals advance their world and their own development.
The strength of 4-H lies in its emphasis on hands-on, experiential learning opportunities, programs that connect learning to real-life situations and its connection to the Land-Grant University system.
Current Research on Need for Science, Technology, Engineering and Math
Newest Results from the Study of PYD includes SET responses The 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development being conducted by the Lerner’s at Tufts University added questions in 2008 regarding science, engineering and computer technology (SET) interests and attitudes.
National Girls Collaborative Project: "Why So Few? Women in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics." These slides are from a presentation of eight recent research findings profiled in Why So Few Women in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics?, a new research report by AAUW that points to important environmental and social barriers that continue to block women’s participation and progress in science, technology, engineering, and math. The presentation includes ideas for what each of us can do to open scientific and engineering fields more fully to girls and women.
4-H STEM National Mission
One Million New Scientists. One Million New Ideas.™
The United States is falling dangerously behind other nations in
developing its future workforce of scientists, engineers, and technology
experts. To ensure global competitiveness, we must act now to prepare
the next generation of science, engineering, and technology leaders. Read more..
Science, Engineering and Technology Programming in the Context of 4-H Youth Development
SET Programming in the Context of 4-H Youth Development
The National 4-H STEM Leadership Team commissioned this paper in October 2006 to identify an established set of nationally recognized standards in science, engineering and technology (SET) that 4-H could align with, and a set of life-skill outcomes (SET abilities) that could be addressed with reasonable certainty within the context of 4-H Youth Development.
The report is intended for use by National 4-H STEM Leadership Team members and Extension professionals to support the work of state and county 4-H staff and volunteers, and to serve as a framework for design, implementation and evaluation of 4-H programs and curriculum materials.
4-H STEM Contacts:
If you have any questions or comments, please contact:
4-H STEM Specialist
436 Lowell Center
610 Langdon Street
Madison, WI 53706
Phone: 608. 265.2949
4-H Youth Development Educator
Bayfield County Administration Bldg
117 E. 5th Street
Washburn, WI 54891-9464
Phone: 715-373-6104 Ext 249
Biotechnology Policy & Outreach Specialist
425 Henry Mall
Madison, WI 53706
Phone: (608) 265-2420
Fax: (608) 262-6748
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The climate crisis is among the most serious challenges ever faced by humanity, but there are real and equitable solutions. These solutions will have benefits beyond climate stability, including cleaner air, healthier communities, and sheltering us from the wild oil price swings expected due to the peaking of conventional oil production.
But these solutions imply big changes to how we live—really transformative changes to our society and economy. That is what system change not climate change means to me: an acknowledgement that facing up to these huge challenges means making transformative changes. This system change is both possible and necessary.
One of the main places where we need to make transformative change is in our transportation system. In Canada, about 30 percent of climate changing greenhouse gas emissions come directly from the tailpipes of our cars, trucks, and airplanes. But if you add all the indirect emissions such as from mining and refining tar sands oil, and building roads and parking garages, Hydro Quebec calculates that transportation accounts for about half of our emissions. Transportation emissions have been increasing at over twice the rate of total emissions, largely due to government spending on urban freeways and airport expansions.
Our automobile-dominated transportation system was created to do more than move people and goods; it was created largely to spur on the consumption of materials and energy to keep our economy growing. Therefore, changing to a system based on public transit, bicycles, and walking challenges the growth-based economic paradigm.
David Suzuki points out that nothing on a finite planet can grow forever. In a lecture, he says:
Economists believe the economy can grow forever. Not only do they believe it can grow forever, which it cannot, they believe it must grow forever. Since World War II they have equated economic growth with progress....We have fallen into the trap of believing that economic growth forever is possible and necessary....[T]his is absolutely suicidal.
After World War II, economists in North America saw the private automobile combined with easy access to loans as the way to keep the economy growing. Governments poured billions into urban freeways while neglecting public transit and passenger rail. At the same time, auto manufacturers spent huge amounts on advertising to convince the public they needed cars. And it worked—people borrowed money to buy cars which drove the expansion of major sectors of the economy including oil, steel, coal, and rubber. Automobiles became the largest manufacturing sector, and automobile dealerships, gas stations, and repair shops sprouted up in every community.
By the mid 1950s, streetcar and interurban train lines were being shut down to make room for more cars, and many new suburbs had minimal or no transit service. Even in cities where the streetcar and bicycle were once the dominant forms of transport, the private automobile, which only a few decades earlier had been an extravagant luxury item, become seen as a necessity.
The automobile is still a key driver of economic growth, so transforming our transportation system also means making major changes to how we think about economics. Adbusters, the cheeky Vancouver-based group that sparked Occupy Wall Street and the movement including Occupy Vancouver, is a global leader in challenging advertising-driven consumerism and communicating the need to end economic growth.
The remarkable spread of the Occupy movement provides an unprecedented opportunity to challenge the fantasy of infinite economic growth on a finite planet. Reports such as Prosperity Without Growth and The Spirit Level outline how our wellbeing could be enhanced with the move away from economic growth and consumerism to a focus on meeting human needs and creating a more equal society.
Our transportation and economic system must be changed to put people and the environment first. In our present automobile-dominated system, lower income people often face higher levels of air pollution, noise, and traffic danger but don’t own cars. For people who don’t own cars, freeways are barriers to mobility not transportation routes.
A widely promoted fix for climate change and peak oil is replacing gasoline powered cars with an even greater number of electric cars. This means ever-increasing material and energy consumption with a different source of energy. The climate benefits of this technological fix are dubious, and it also fails the test of equity and justice. Acquiring a $40,000 electric vehicle is completely out of reach for many. But car co-ops with electric vehicles have the potential to provide more equitable access to cars for occasional use, combined with real emissions reductions.
Complete communities exist where people do not have to travel far to meet their day-to-day needs, making it possible to walk, bike, and use high-quality public transit. This way of designing communities levels the playing field for people who are not able to drive or cannot afford a car. Seniors, youth, people with disabilities, and low-income families gain the most from complete communities with an adequate supply of affordable housing.
We need to create complete communities and a just transportation system, not just a low-carbon transportation system. There needs to be a smooth transition for already disadvantaged social groups and to win over, rather than punish, the wide range of households who are dependent on cars for their mobility because they have “just played by the rules”. Effective transition strategies will also be needed for affected workers.
The first step in creating the transportation transformation is to shift public spending from things that make the climate crisis worse like freeway expansion to funding real solutions. Canadian governments spend in the neighbourhood of $10 billion a year on roadway expansions, which could be re-allocated to fund transit, walking, and cycling.
The change from complete communities and streetcar systems to our automobile-dominated transportation system was engineered from the top down, by the wealthiest one percent and the corporations they control. The transportation and economic system change we need has to come from the rest of us, the 99 percent as the Occupy movement puts it.
Part of the Council of Canadians’ Climate Justice campaign is the System Change Not Climate Change Project. The project features videos of both well known personalities such as Naomi Klein and grassroots activists who talk about why we need system change, and give examples of new ways forward. We need your participation in sparking this essential transformation, starting with organizing teach-ins in your community using these videos. You can find out more at systemchange.ca.
Eric Doherty is a member of the Council of Canadians’ Vancouver-Burnaby chapter and StopThePave.org. He is a coauthor of the recent report Transportation Transformation: Building Complete Communities and a Zero-Emission Transportation System in BC.
Origially published in the Georgia Straight on line - http://www.straight.com/article-483271/vancouver/eric-doherty-canada-nee...
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<urn:uuid:58bbef6d-5877-4858-8eff-0797f4638896>
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November 21, 1780
Major Benjamin Tallmadge, classmate of Nathan Hale, commands a crew of 2nd CT Light Dragoons who row eight whaleboats across Long Island Sound to raid a British supply depot at Ft. George, Mastic, Long Island NY. Sgt. Elijah Churchill, from Newington CT leads one of three groups of men, who capture 300 prisoners and burn several supply vessels and more than 300 tons of hay. Thereafter, the British are forced to rely on fodder shipped from England.
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It’s stressful being a small asteroid. They fly unguided around the solar system, get bullied by gravitational fields and can smack into a planet at any time. Now these space rocks can add fatigue to their list of stresses, thermal fatigue that is.
In a study published online today (April 2) in the journal Nature, an international team of astronomers have presented their findings that the majority of fine debris that collects on the surface of small asteroids isn’t formed through asteroid collisions, but is mainly formed through a kind of space erosion.
Regolith is found on planetary surfaces such as the moon or even Mars where the atmosphere is thin or even non-existent. Regolith is the fine, grainy material that is formed through the pulverization of rock over aeons of meteorite impacts. Earth doesn’t have regolith as frequent meteorite impacts are mitigated by our thick atmosphere and weathering processes break down any broken rock into other mineral deposits and cycled through biological and chemical processes to form soil.
Asteroids are known to possess dusty regolith on their surfaces and scientists have always assumed that the material — composed of grains of rock under a centimeter in size — is formed through asteroid and micrometeorite impact debris settling onto the asteroids.
But there’s a problem with this model.
Over asteroid evolution timescales, there is too much regolith on small asteroids’ surfaces to have been deposited there solely through impacts. The impact energies of these collisions, the asteroid spin rate and the very low gravity asteroids possess means the debris should be flung away into interplanetary space.
So how did all that regolith get there?
While carrying out tests on meteorites found on Earth, the researchers modeled the space environment to see how these samples deteriorated.
“We took meteorites as the best analog of asteroid surface materials that we have on the Earth,” said Marco Delbo of the Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur, France. “We then submitted these meteorites to temperature cycles similar to those that rocks experience on the surfaces of near-Earth asteroids and we found that microcracks grow inside these meteorites quickly enough to entirely break them on timescales much shorter than the typical lifetime of asteroids.”
This process is known thermal fatigue and is caused by the rapid day-night cycle of a small spinning asteroid. The rapid heating and cooling creates thermal expansion and contraction in the asteroid material, initiating cracking and eventual fragmentation.
Using the meteorite data, the researchers were able to extrapolate over long timescales and found that the fragmentation of asteroid material through thermal fatigue was more rapid than fragmentation through micrometeorite impacts over the life of a given asteroid.
Perhaps unsurprisingly, thermal fatigue is more significant for asteroids that orbit close to the sun than those that orbit at greater distances, but “even asteroids significantly farther from the sun showed thermal fatigue fragmentation to be a more relevant process for rock breakup than micrometeoroid impacts,” added collaborating scientist Simone Marchi, of the Southwest Research Institute.
Through a combination of thermal fatigue fragmentation and solar wind pressure, the researchers also found that small asteroids with compact orbits around the sun (coming as close as 28 million miles from the sun, well inside the orbit of the planet Mercury) will be completely eroded away within 2 million years.
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<urn:uuid:20e5392f-92af-4b1f-a956-14e3e76bb74a>
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Why little kids lie
It can be a huge shock to parents when their toddler starts lying to them. The lies can range from denying they’ve hit a sibling, through to categorically stating they don’t have a dirty nappy when it is abundantly clear they do.
Small children will typically tell lies in order to gain something for themselves or to avoid consequences for their actions.
Some toddlers will also indulge in telling huge tall stories that they will present to you as fact. Mum of two Alicia was dumbfounded when her alarmed babysitter informed her that her 3 year old daughter Madison told her solemnly that: “mummy was going to heaven very soon.” Alicia’s own great grandmother had died recently and clearly Madison was processing the event in her own way. This isn’t unusual. Toddlers and preschoolers sometimes cannot tell the difference between fantasy and reality. Some “lies” are simply an extension of their imaginations
As parents it is important not to get angry or over-react when you catch your child out in a lie. For instance, if your child denies breaking an object when you have irrefutable proof they have, instead of accusing them, observe what has happened and wait to see how they respond. Yvette Vignando publisher and advocate for the importance of emotional intelligence suggests saying: “It’s a good idea to tell me what really happened, because then I feel happy that you told me the right thing and I can help you fix your mistake.” Rather than accusing them, look at what led up to the event and talk about a solution: “I know you didn’t mean to spill the milk on the carpet. That’s why you shouldn’t walk round with your drink. Let’s clean the mess up together.”
Recognising that your child has only just started developing their language and speech skills is crucial. Because of these limitations children do not understand fully that they are telling a lie. After about the age of three and a half they start to recognize that they can tell you something that is not true. However the moral implications of this will not be clear to them yet. You need to remain calm and reinforce to them calmly that lying is wrong.
It’s also important to make it clear to your child when you know they are telling a lie. “That doesn’t sound right to me. Can you tell me what really happened?” You can look at their body language and as their parents you will usually be able to pick up on cues as to whether or not they are being truthful. However it is also vital the parents don’t accuse children of lying if they aren’t absolutely sure. It can be devastating for small children to be accused of lies at this age. Dr. Brent Waters and Liz Kennedy, authors of Every Kid recommend: “If you are unsure, it’s better to wait and see, or if two children were involved and you can’t identify the culprit, deal with both equally,”
There is a small positive side to when toddlers tell fibs: “Preschoolers with higher IQ scores are more likely to lie,” says Angela Crossman, Ph.D., associate professor of psychology at John Jay College of Criminal Justice in New York, who researched the subject. “Early lying proficiency may also be linked with good social skills in adolescence.” While this certainly isn’t an incentive to encourage them, it reinforces that lying is very normal in young children. The role of the parent is to encourage young children not to lie and to reinforce positive behavior and the importance of telling the truth. By not over-reacting when you have discovered the lie and working with your child to consistently tell the truth you will help your child immeasurably.
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- Inhabitat – Sustainable Design Innovation, Eco Architecture, Green Building - http://inhabitat.com -
Infographic: Energy-Efficient Desalination Could Provide Clean Drinking Water for Those in Need
Posted By Jon Dioffa On March 22, 2013 @ 2:00 pm In Reader Submitted Content,Water Issues | No Comments
The world is facing a serious water shortage. Humans are using more than 9 quadrillion liters of water per year (or 25 trillion liters per day), and more than one-third of people worldwide lack access to clean drinking water. For a long time, environmental groups have warned that desalination is not the answer to the shortage of freshwater because it is so energy intensive; depending too much on desalination would increase CO2 emissions while damaging marine habitats. But could new technology make desalination more sustainable? In honor of World Water Day , desalination company Energy Recovery has produced this infographic explaining how new advances in energy-efficient desalination technology could help provide clean water to those who need it most.
The article above was submitted to us by an Inhabitat reader. Want to see your story on Inhabitat ? Send us a tip by following this link . Remember to follow our instructions carefully to boost your chances of being chosen for publishing!
Article printed from Inhabitat – Sustainable Design Innovation, Eco Architecture, Green Building: http://inhabitat.com
URL to article: http://inhabitat.com/infographic-energy-efficient-desalination-could-help-provide-for-those-who-lack-access-to-clean-drinking-water/
URLs in this post:
Image: http://inhabitat.com/infographic-energy-efficient-desalination-could-help-provide-for-those-who-lack-access-to-clean-drinking-water/energy-recovery-desalination-1/
desalination: http://inhabitat.com/tag/desalination/
World Water Day: http://www.unwater.org/water-cooperation-2013/home/en/
Energy Recovery: http://www.energyrecovery.com/
Image: http://inhabitat.com/infographic-energy-efficient-desalination-could-help-provide-for-those-who-lack-access-to-clean-drinking-water/energy-recovery-desalination-2/
see your story on Inhabitat: http://inhabitat.com/submit-story
Copyright © 2011 Inhabitat Local - New York. All rights reserved.
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<urn:uuid:ad01fa6a-5ae1-4404-8ffd-8a9b2e9849fe>
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The infantryman in World War One was equipped with standard issue weapons at the start of the war but by the end of World War One, most infantrymen had become adept at using other weapons that had been developed as the war had progressed.
The basic British infantryman, like his French and German contemporaries, was issued with his uniform, webbing and a rifle with bayonet. Some infantrymen were trained to use the relatively new machine gun but the majority had to make do with his rifle. The British infantry man was issued with the Lee Enfield 0.303 rifle.
The Lee Enfield was first produced in 1907; it had been designed by an American called James Lee and built at the Royal Small Arms Factory in Enfield - hence the rifle's name. The Lee Enfield enjoyed a good reputation with those who were issued with it. It had a ten-bullet magazine and its rate of fire in the hands of well-trained men was high. At the Battle of Mons, the advancing Germans believed that they were under fire from British machine guns. In fact, it was the well drilled infantry of the BEF using their standard issue Lee Enfield. A good infantryman would expect to shoot off about twelve well-aimed bullets in a minute.
If the Lee Enfield had one weakness, it was that the firing mechanisms were susceptible to dirt and grit. Therefore, keeping your rifle clean in the muddy environment of the trenches was of paramount importance. When not in battle, many men simply covered the firing mechanism with cloth in an effort to keep out dirt which would clog up the rifle. The butt of the Lee Enfield had a space inside it where cleaning material could be kept.
The French infantryman was issued with either the Lebel or the Berthier rifle. The Lebel was first produced in 1886 so by 1914, it should have been a tried and tested weapon. However, by 1914, nothing had been done to correct a basic design fault of the Lebel. Anyone loading the Lebel had to be very careful how they did this as there was a chance of the bullets exploding in the magazine as they were loaded nose to tail. One bullet could hit the primer of the bullet next to it. Therefore, the loading procedure was slow and as the magazine only took eight bullets, the rate of fire of the Lebel was not high.
In 1916, in recognition of the problems presented by the Lebel, the French introduced the Berthier rifle. Unlike the Lebel, the Berthier was a clip-loaded rifle with a more modern firing mechanism. However, its magazine could only take six rounds, so the Bertheir's overall rate of fire was not high as reloading the magazine was a constant issue in combat.
German infantry were issued with the Mauser rifle. This rifle was designed in 1898 by Peter Paul Mauser. It was popular with those who were issued with it because of its reliability but it did suffer one weakness - its magazine only took five bullets. So, like the Berthier, reloading was a constant problem in battle.
German infantry armed with Mausers
No infantryman was issued with a pistol as this was very much the preserve of the officer. The British army officer primarily preferred the Webley Mark IV. This pistol was also issued to personnel in tanks and armoured cars - carrying a rifle would have been useless in such vehicles. The Webley packed a deadly punch and was reliable and easy to clean - hence its popularity with British officers. Over 300,000 were distributed to British personnel throughout the duration of the war. In 1908, the German Army adopted the Luger as a pistol. Like the Webley, it was reliable and such was its popularity that it became the world's most used pistol. About 1.5 million Lugers were produced by Germany from 1914 to 1918.
"Infantry weapons in World War One". HistoryLearningSite.co.uk. 2011. Web.
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Location: Columbia University, New York City, Kwakwaka'wakw People.
Format: Aluminum Disc
Accession Numbers: 54-235-F
Franz Boas (1858 - 1942), the father of American Anthropology, and his former student, George Herzog (1901 - 1983), an important early ethnomusicologist, made 22 aluminum disc recordings of Kwakwaka'wakw Chief Dan Cranmer in 1938. Cranmer was an important cultural activist for his people and in 1938 he was staying with Franz Boas in New York while helping Boas complete a Kwakiutl dictionary. Kwakiutl is the name Boas created for a group of Northwest Coast peoples, but today, the preferred term is Kwakwaka'wakw. Cranmer had been arrested in 1921 for hosting a gift-giving feast known as a potlatch despite an 1884 Canadian law that made it illegal to do so. Many Kwakwaka'wakw leaders hosted these events anyway in defiance of a law that struck at the heart of their culture and identity. The potlatch was a performative ritual that affirmed their cultural history and established new networks of social status. Caught in a government crackdown in 1921, Cranmer and 48 others were convicted of holding a potlatch and 26 of them spent at least two months in jail. A large cache of gifts, ceremonial masks, and regalia from the potlatch were confiscated by officials and sent out of the community. Boas, who had worked with the Kwakwaka'wakw and other Northwest Coast peoples since the early 1890s, wrote letters of support for Cranmer and in critique of the law. The ban on holding the potlatch was not lifted until 1951. Some of the potlatch regalia was finally returned to the community in the 1980s as part of repatriation agreements with the cultural institutions in Ottawa and New York City that had held the artifacts for decades. They are now housed at the Kwagiulth Museum and Cultural Centre at Cape Mudge and the U'mista Cultural Society at Alert Bay.
Working with Boas and Herzog in 1938, Cranmer recorded several dozen songs and speeches such as stick game songs, feast songs, paddling songs, mourning songs, and many others. Today, approximately 5,500 Kwakwaka'wakw people live in British Columbia and fewer than 250 people today fluently speak the Kwak'wala language. While language revitalization efforts are ongoing, they face serious obstacles to success and the language is in real danger of becoming extinct. Recordings such as these are an irreplaceable documentation of Kwak'wala language use and cultural history.
This recording as well as several others made by Franz Boas over the course of his career-long research with the Kwakwaka'wakw are held at the Archives of Traditional Music. Boas made wax cylinder recordings of Kwakwaka'wakw musicians at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago and on later trips to Fort Rupert and other parts of Vancouver Island.
This collection was added to the 2013 National Recording Registry by the Librarian of Congress.
Sample: Chief Dan Cranmer. 1938. "Feast Song" New York City. (54-235-F)
To learn more about the Library of Congress National Recording Preservation Board and to see the full registry visit: http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/
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Severe winter weather has forced state and local road maintenance crews to use more road salt than anticipated so far this winter season.
Typically, the Ohio Department of Transportation District 11 uses between 48,000 and 52,000 tons of road salt during the winter season, but the district has already used about 47,000 tons of salt with a month left of winter driving, according to Becky Giauque, public information officer.
"We are further into our stockpiles than we would have expected at this point in the year," she said."Our record usage was 55,000 tons."
District 11 covers a seven-county region in Eastern Ohio, including Belmont, Carroll, Columbiana, Harrison, Holmes, Jefferson and Tuscarawas counties. District 11 crews are responsible for 3,300 lane-miles of roads and more than 1,000 bridges utilizing 125 trucks and more than 200 drivers. After a road is first plowed, de-icing chemicals are usually applied in a windrow 2 to 4 feet wide down the middle of a two-lane road.
"We are in no danger of running out of salt," Giauque said. "All seven of our counties have ordered additional salt."
Giauque explained that plain road salt is effectively useless in the subzero temperatures that are expected in our region for the next two days. The ODOT chart for pounds of ice melted per pound of salt at different pavement temperatures shows that at 30 degrees, one pound of salt melts 46.3 pounds of ice. As the temperature drops so does the effectiveness of salt.
"The surface temperature of a snow- or ice-covered road determines de- icing chemical amounts and melting rates," Giauque explained. "As temperatures go down, the amount of de-icer needed to melt a given quantity of ice increases significantly. Salt can melt five times as much ice at 30 degrees as at 20 degrees. The effectiveness of de-icing can change with small differences in pavement temperatures.
In addition, she stated that ODOT uses calibrated salt spreading machines that control the amount of salt distributed according to the snow and ice conditions on the roadways. Additionally, ODOT plow trucks have infrared temperature sensors which allow operators to see the exact surface temperature of the roadways, so they apply the right material.
Using one pound of salt at 25 degrees, the effectiveness drops to 14.4 pounds of ice; at 20 degrees, it's 8.6 pounds of ice; at 15 degrees, 6.3 pounds of ice; at 10 degrees, 4.9 pounds of ice; at 5 degrees, 4.1 pounds of ice; and at zero, the amount of ice drops to 3.7 pounds The time that salt takes to melt one-eighth inch of glare ice increases from 10 minutes at 30 degrees to nearly an hour at 20 degrees colder.
According to ODOT policy, once the temperature drops below 15 degrees, crews will start to utilize calcium chloride or other additives to melt snow and ice. In extreme cold conditions, ODOT combines rock salt with liquid calcium chloride to better melt ice.
This salt additive is effective on roadways with pavement temperatures up to minus 25.
The state is also using a sugar beet juice product called Geo Melt blended with salt brine in Tuscarawas and Carroll counties. The blend has been poured out of tankers in preparation for sub-zero temperatures, coating bridge decks and overpasses in the district since 2007.
The de-icing product marketed as Beet 55 is a natural organic product made from sugar beet molasses blended with calcium chloride.
The manufacturer reportss the mixture reduces corrosion levels by 70 percent, improves longevity of calcium by one to two days and will melt more snow and ice than straight calcium by 10 to 20 percent.
Officials indicate the juice reduces the total chloride load to the environment by 43 percent and does not stains the road or attracts animals.
Giauque explained that this past weekend's snow is not the main culprit for the above average salt usage,
"The little events, the 1 to 2 inches of snow spaced 12 or so hours apart are real salt burners."
Throughout severe winter events, ODOT crews constantly monitor pavement conditions with road sensors scattered throughout the state and treat areas that are re-freezing.
"We're continually monitoring the road conditions and we'll have crews out as conditions warrant," Giauque said.
Even though most Eastern Ohio roads were safe and passable this morning, ODOT is urging drivers to remember, 'in ice and snow, take it slow,'" Giauque said.
With a winter weather advisory and wind chill warning in effect for much of the state through Wednesday, it's important for motorists to understand how quickly wet roads can freeze, creating d0angerous patches of ice. A winter weather advisory means that snow and a flash freeze of wet roads are possible and can cause travel difficulties.
Current air temperature, surface status and temperature, and visibility among other things are easy to view by visiting ODOT's Web site for traffic and road condition information www.ohgo.com and selecting the road sensors icon located on the menu at the right side of the page.
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Pinto Bean Germination Experiment
Ready, set, grow! How long does it take for a bean to get growing? How does a beanstalk grow in the first place? In this experiment, you’ll investigate the growth of pinto beans and see if you can create a stronger bean plant by giving plants the nutrients they need to survive and thrive.
Problem: Track the growth of a pinto bean seedling.
- Paper towels
- 5 Clear plastic cups
- 10 Pinto bean seeds
- 5 Plant misters
- Tap water
- Magnifying glass
- Permanent marker
- Wood ash from a fireplace
- Liquid kelp fertilizer
- Liquid fish fertilizer
- 1 tsp. Epsom salts
- Place your clear plastic cups on a table. These will be your bean nurseries.
- Line the inside of each cup with a paper towel folded in half.
- Squish a few paper towels together and stuff them into the cups, making sure that the paper towel lining the cup is firmly pressed against the plastic.
- Now, get your nutrients ready. Fill up each plant mister with water.
- The first mister will only contain water. Add a tablespoon of finely ground wood ash from a fireplace to the second mister. Add the manufacturer’s recommended amount of a liquid kelp fertilizer to the third. Add the manufacturer’s recommended amount of liquid fish fertilizer to the fourth. Add a teaspoon of Epsom salts to the fifth. Make sure that the liquid in each is well-mixed.
- Label each mister and each cup—water, ash, kelp, fish, and Epsom Salts.
- Use a pair of thin tweezers to carefully place two bean seeds in the cup between the liner and the plastic and on opposites sides. Use the plant mister filled with water to spray the paper towels until they are moist, but not too wet.
- Do the same with each cup, spraying the paper towels with the corresponding mister.
- Place all of the cups in a warm, sunny location. Watch the bean seeds in each container over the course of a week. What happens to the seeds? Do any of them grow more quickly than the others? Why or why not?
After 4 to 5 days, the growing bean seedlings will begin to sprout.
Inside a seed, there’s a whole new plant waiting to grow. If you take apart one of your bean seeds, you will discover that there are two sides that look like the mirror image of each other. Inside a growing bean seed, you’ll see the radicle, the future root. After the radicle emerges from the seed, out come the hypocotyl and the upper part of the shoot, the epicotyl. This shoot comes out of the top of the plant and pushes up the emerging baby leaves. Some plants go through this process more quickly than others. For a pinto bean, its germination usually begins after four to five days.
Plants need water and light to grow. They also need nutrients, and this is where your different plant misters come in. Nutrients are like vitamins for a plant; like food helps humans maintain the different processes that go on in our bodies, nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium do the same for plants. Plants need large amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, and they need smaller amounts of other nutrients such as magnesium and sulphur.
Wood ash is high in potassium, which provides the correct environment for plant metabolism. Fish fertilizer is high in nitrogen. Nitrogen helps plants make chlorophyll, which allows them to make their own food. It also helps plants create many of their structural parts and metabolic processes. Epsom salts are high in magnesium, which also helps plants create chlorophyll and helps them take in other nutrients. Liquid kelp fertilizer is full of many micronutrients. Which one helped your bean seeds growth the most? Can you think of an experiment that would help you test this in the long term? Do you think that different nutrients are important at different stages of growth?
Warning is hereby given that not all Project Ideas are appropriate for all individuals or in all circumstances. Implementation of any Science Project Idea should be undertaken only in appropriate settings and with appropriate parental or other supervision. Reading and following the safety precautions of all materials used in a project is the sole responsibility of each individual. For further information, consult your state’s handbook of Science Safety.
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Asthma Action Plan: Red Zone
- Peak expiratory flow less than 50% of your personal best measurement. To find 50% of your personal best, multiply your personal best measurement by 0.50. For example, if your personal best flow is 400, then 50% of that is 400 times 0.50, which is 200. In this example, a peak expiratory flow less than 200 means you are in the red zone.
- Any shortness of breath while walking, talking, or at rest.
- Use of the chest muscles to breathe. The skin between, above, and under the ribs collapses inward with each breath (retractions).
- Wheezing. But if symptoms are very severe, you may not hear any wheezing. Wheezing will stop when the amount of air moving through the bronchial tubes becomes dangerously low. In this case, no wheezing is actually worse than hearing wheezing.
Treatment for asthma attacks in the red zone includes:
- Seeking immediate medical attention while you are following your asthma action plan.
- Using medicine based on your asthma action plan.
- Talking with a doctor immediately about what to do next. This is especially important if your peak expiratory flow does not return to the green zone or stays within the yellow zone.
|John Pope, MD - Pediatrics|
|Lora J. Stewart, MD - Allergy and Immunology|
|Last Revised||March 14, 2013|
To learn more visit Healthwise.org
© 1995-2014 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.
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List of Figures and Tables. Preface. 1. Issues of Boys' Education in the United States: Diffuse Contexts and Futures. Marcus Weaver-Hightower. 2. Gender Policies in Australia and the UK: The Construction of New Boys and Girls. Martin Mills, Becky Francis, and Christine Skelton. 3. What Can We Expect of Boys? A Strategy to Help Schools Hoping for Justice. Michael C. Reichert, Peter Kuriloff and Brett Stoudt. 4. "Why Does She Need Me?": Young Men, Gender Politics and Personal Practice. Rebecca Priegert Coulter. 5. Masculinity, Racialization and Schooling: The Making of Marginalized Men. Carl E. James. 6. Troubles of Black Boys in Urban Schools in the United States: Black Feminist and Gay Men's Perspectives. Lance T. McCready. 7. The Beer and the Boyz: Masculine Transitions in a Post-Industrial Economy. Anoop Nayak. 8. Hostile High School Hallways. Michael Kimmel. 9. Boys, Friendships and Knowing "It Wouldn't Be Unreasonable to Assume I Am Gay". Michael Kehler. 10. Tomboys and 'Female Masculinity': (Dis)embodying Hegemonic Masculinity, Queering Gender Identities and Relations. Emma Renold. 11. What Can He Want? Male Teachers, Young Children, and Teaching Desire. James R. King. 12. Beyond Male Role Models: Interrogating the Role of Male Teachers in Boys' Education. Wayne Martino. Contributors. Notes. Index.
(source: Nielsen Book Data)
This book offers an illuminating analysis of the theories, politics, and realities of boys' education around the world - an insightful and often disturbing account of various educational systems' successes and failings in fostering intellectual and social growth in male students. Examining original research on the impact of implementing boys' education programs in schools, the book also discusses the role of male teachers in educating boys, strategies for aiding marginalized boys in the classroom, and the possibilities for gender reform in schools that begins at the level of pedagogy. Complete with case studies of various classrooms, school districts, and governmental policy programs, the detailed essays collected provide a look into education's role in the development of masculinities, paying special attention to the ways in which these masculinities intersect with race, class, and sexuality to complicate the experience of boys within and outside of a classroom setting. (source: Nielsen Book Data)
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LABELLE, LUDGER, lawyer, journalist, and politician; baptized 7 April 1839 in the parish of Notre-Dame in Montreal, son of Jean-Baptiste-Napoléon Labelle and Éloïse Leclaire; d. 29 Dec. 1867 at Montreal.
Ludger Labelle’s childhood was saddened by the death of his mother, who for many years had been “in a decline.” His father, an artisan who had been at the Collège de Montréal with Louis-Hippolyte La Fontaine and had thought of becoming a priest, saw that he received a sound education. After attending primary school, Ludger studied at the Collège de Montréal from 1850 to 1857; he then chose the legal profession. He was called to the bar on 3 July 1860, and went into partnership with Joseph-Alfred Mousseau*, the future leader of the Quebec Conservative party.
Labelle, according to his brother-in-law André-Napoléon Montpetit*, had “a brilliant mind, an extremely likable nature,” and he rapidly emerged as one of the most promising young professional men. By 1861 he was a captain and staff officer in the Chasseurs Canadiens, a militia corps which the superintendent of police, Charles-Joseph Coursol*, recruited during the Trent affair. For Labelle, law was primarily a means of livelihood. He had a bent for journalism, and he was intellectually drawn towards politics. Described by Laurent-Olivier David*, who knew him well, as “the most unorganized person imaginable,” Labelle drafted at night the articles he published. While a student, he had been for a time editor of the paper La Guêpe, which had been started by Cyrille Boucher in 1857. Later, at Montreal, Labelle founded Le Colonisateur, which first appeared on 2 Jan. 1862. This bi-weekly numbered among its contributors prominent young Conservatives such as Mousseau, David, and Joseph-Adolphe Chapleau*, and advocated colonization as “the surest means of preserving intact the precious trust of our faith and traditions.” Le Colonisateur reflected the interests of its editors in the arts, science, and literature; it proclaimed a genuine political independence but never hesitated to defend the Bleus and fight the Rouges. Well written, but not a paying proposition, the paper came to an unceremonious end when on 27 June 1863 the printer Pierre Cérat refused to continue to print it.
For Labelle Le Colonisateur had been merely a stepping-stone to politics. He had rallied to the Liberal-Conservative banner, and his first political success came in 1863 when he was elected a councillor for the Sainte-Marie district in Montreal, an office he held until his death. He and his friends dreamed of still greater successes and were dumbfounded by the announcement in June 1864 of a coalition of parties to set up a Canadian confederation. They split into two camps. Chapleau and Mousseau remained loyal to their party, but in the summer of 1864 Labelle joined Médéric Lanctot* and the young Turks who opposed confederation and were in revolt against George-Étienne Cartier*.
While conducting a vigorous campaign with Lanctot to bring politics to the mass of the people and to mobilize them, Labelle started the Saint-Jean-Baptiste Club, where the opinions expressed privately corresponded to those L’Union nationale, Lanctot’s paper, was voicing aloud. The club was started either in the autumn of 1864 or during the winter of 1865, and had a meeting-place, initiation rites, and a password. It included members of the assembly, lawyers, businessmen, and, the final ironic touch, the Montreal chief of police, Guillaume Lamothe, and a number of police officers. With this organization the club was more noisy than dangerous, but it managed to worry the establishment. Judge Charles-Joseph Coursol, infuriated as much by the club’s relentless opposition to Cartier as by the fact that it had given shelter for a month to one of the Confederates who had made a raid in October 1864 against St Albans, Vt, ordered its dissolution.
The club had some success in politics. It ensured the defeat by a merchant-grocer of young Chapleau in the elections for the municipal council, and it got Labelle re-elected. The son of a workman, Labelle had remained close to his roots. Short and puny, he had retained the awkward bearing and impulsive movements that were the mark of his working-class origins. Affable and courteous, he knew “the names of most of the workers in the East division of Montreal, as well as those of their wives and children,” according to L.-O. David. Labelle maintained with his Sainte-Marie electors a political relationship typical of rural circles.
The unconditional support of his electors helped Labelle to establish himself as the leader of young dissident Conservatives and Lanctot’s right hand man. Their role became clear in the 1867 elections. Both men tried their strength, unsuccessfully, against Cartier in Montreal East: Lanctot sought election to the House of Commons and Labelle to the provincial legislature. It is the duel between Lanctot and Cartier that is remembered, and the role of Labelle is underestimated. Throughout the whole summer he went from door to door and harangued the electors in the streets and at popular meetings. André-Napoléon Montpetit, his comrade in arms, later recalled the hard campaign of 1867: “We have had few men as skilful in organization, as shrewd in method, as wily in expedients, as persevering, not to say unrelenting.”
Labelle emerged from this electoral campaign emotionally broken and financially ruined, and seems to have abandoned the struggle at that time. He was living with his father and aunt. Disillusioned, he returned briefly to the practice of law, which ill suited his bohemian inclinations. Like his brother Elzéar, he had a poet’s soul, with a particularly lively gift for rhyming songs. Labelle died in December 1867, remembered as a man endowed with a noble and charitable nature, a just spirit, and a shrewd mind.
[Ludger Labelle did not leave any private papers. Contemporary newspapers note his political activities but reveal nothing of his professional and private life. Laurent-Olivier David, who knew him well, drew a faithful portrait of him in Mes contemporains (Montréal, 1894), but no further attempt has been made to investigate this intriguing person. He has received only passing mention in historical works. É.-Z. Massicotte* in Faits curieux de l’histoire de Montréal (Montréal, 1922) and Victor Morin* in his article “Clubs et sociétés notoires d’autrefois,” Cahiers des Dix, 16 (1951), 233–70, describe the Club Saint-Jean-Baptiste and sketch Labelle’s role in it. Labelle figures briefly in Léon Trépanier*’s articles on Montreal, “Figures de maires,” and “Guillaume Lamothe (1824–1911),” in Cahiers des Dix, 22 (1957), 163–92, and 29 (1964), 143–58, respectively, as well as in Robert Rumilly, Hist. de Montréal. j.h. and h.f.]
ANQ-M, État civil, Catholiques, Notre-Dame de Montréal, 7 avril 1839. PAC, MG 30, D62, 17, pp.27–32. Elzéar Labelle, Mes rimes, A.-N. Montpetit, édit. (Québec, 1876), 15–16, 21. Le Colonisateur (Montréal), 2 janv. 1862–27 juin 1863. Le Pays, 31 déc. 1867.
Cite This Article
Huguette Filteau and Jean Hamelin, “LABELLE, LUDGER,” in Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 9, University of Toronto/Université Laval, 2003–, accessed September 1, 2014, http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/labelle_ludger_9E.html.
|Author of Article:||Huguette Filteau and Jean Hamelin|
|Title of Article:||LABELLE, LUDGER|
|Publication Name:||Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 9|
|Publisher:||University of Toronto/Université Laval|
|Year of publication:||1976|
|Year of revision:||1976|
|Access Date:||September 1, 2014|
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