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[ "ignores the fact that in a family business, paying family members low wages may itself reduce the family's prosperity", "presumes, without providing justification, that family members are willing to work for low wages in a family business because they believe that doing so promotes the family's prosperity", "ignores the fact that businesses that achieve high levels of customer satisfaction are often profitable even if they pay high wages", "presumes, without providing justification, that only businesses with low general operating expenses can succeed" ]

[ "People who are helped by business courses in solving management problems also have managerial talent.", "Those people who have never taken business courses are unable to solve management problems when such problems arise.", "People who lack managerial talent are more likely to take business courses than are people who have managerial talent.", "People who are already skilled at solving management problems are unlikely to benefit from business courses." ]

[ "Louisa tried to get Henry into serious trouble by making it appear that he stole some expensive clothes from a store. But the store's detective realized what Louisa did, and so Louisa was punished rather than Henry. Since she intended to harm Henry, Louisa's action was not morally good.", "Yolanda took her children to visit their grandfather because she wanted her children to enjoy their vacation and she knew they adored their grandfather. The grandfather and the children all enjoyed the visit. Though Yolanda greatly enjoyed the visit, her action was morally good.", "Ellen worked overtime hoping to get a promotion. The extra money she earned allowed her family to take a longer vacation that year, but she failed to get the promotion. Nevertheless, Ellen's action was morally good.", "Colin chose to lie to the authorities questioning him, in an attempt to protect his friends. The authorities discovered his deception and punished Colin and his friends severely. But because he acted out of love for his friends, Colin's action was morally good." ]

[ "Most lecturers who are good communicators are eccentric.", "Some noneccentric lecturers are effective teachers but are not good communicators.", "All good communicators are effective teachers.", "Some good communicators are eccentric." ]

[ "dinosaurs in the neighborhood of an asteroid impact but not within the zone of direct impact would have survived such an impact", "dust from the impact of an asteroid on the Earth would not have had any cooling effect on the climate", "no more than one large asteroid struck the Earth during the period when the dinosaurs were becoming extinct", "any collision of an asteroid with the Earth would have occurred on a land area rather than an ocean" ]

[ "The people who are the most likely to take sleeping pills rather than practice behavior modification techniques are those who have previously had the most trouble falling asleep.", "People who do not take sleeping pills spend at least as many total hours asleep each night as do the people who take sleeping pills.", "Most people who have trouble falling asleep and who use behavior modification techniques fall asleep more slowly than do most people who have no trouble falling asleep.", "The people who are the most likely to practice behavior modification techniques rather than take sleeping pills are those who prefer not to use drugs if other treatments are available." ]

[ "The public would not support the military action unless it was known that the parliament supported the action.", "In the parliamentary leader's nation, it is the constitutional prerogative of the parliament, not of the prime minister, to initiate foreign military action.", "The UN Security Council cannot legally commit the military of a member nation to armed intervention in other countries.", "Members of the parliament traditionally are more closely attuned to public sentiment, especially with regard to military action, than are prime ministers." ]

[ "Without the incentives offered by federal income tax laws, at least some wealthy individuals would not donate as much money to charitable and educational institutions as they otherwise would have.", "The primary reason for not adopting the proposed change in the federal income tax laws cited above is to protect wealthy individuals from having to pay higher taxes.", "Money contributed by individuals who make their donations because of provisions in the federal tax laws provides the only source of funding for many charitable and educational institutions.", "Income tax laws should be changed to make donations to charitable and educational institutions the only permissible deductions from taxable income." ]

[ "It gives no indication of either the basis of Mayor Smith's former opposition to nuclear power plant construction or the reasons for her support for the Littletown project.", "It assumes without warrant that the qualities enabling a person to be elected to public office confer on that person a grasp of the scientific principles on which technical decisions are based.", "It fails to establish that a consistent and outspoken opposition is necessarily an informed opposition.", "It overlooks the possibility that not all those who fail to speak out on issues of nuclear power are necessarily opposed to it." ]

[ "Government officials who conceal information without a compelling reason are thereby guilty of an abuse of power.", "Government officials should keep information secret only if doing so does not make it easier for those officials to abuse their power.", "A government official who justifiably keeps a secret should not conceal its existence without having a compelling reason to do so.", "In most cases in which government officials conceal information from the public, they are not justified in doing so." ]

[ "Computers ought to be designed to break down more quickly than is presently the case.", "Computers utilizing the latest technology represent substantial functional upgrades from earlier computers.", "American consumers are motivated to purchase new computers by some combination of factors other than their current computer's ability to perform basic functions.", "Improved manufacturing techniques have led to computers lasting longer than was possible in the past." ]

[ "The neurons of the brain react less when a subject is trying to recognize patterns than when the subject is doing other kinds of reasoning.", "The energy expenditure of the subjects' brains increases when a design that completes the initially recognized pattern is determined.", "People who are better at abstract pattern recognition have more energy-efficient neural connections.", "The task of completing a given design is more capably performed by athletes, whose energy expenditure is lower when they are at rest." ]

[ "Many, if not all, of the scents that have a tendency to reduce susceptibility to illness do so, at least in part, by reducing stress.", "At least some people who use the scent of lavender to induce relaxation and reduce stress are no more susceptible to illness than average.", "Some people who regularly inhale the scent of lavender would otherwise be under enough stress to impair their immune systems.", "Reduced stress diminishes susceptibility to illness only for people who are under enough stress to impair their immune systems to at least some degree." ]

[ "trying to undermine support for a certain policy by pointing out that factors other than the policy itself could account for the results attributed to that policy", "providing evidence that because the officials charged with enforcing a certain policy often fail to perform their duty that policy is sure to have little effect", "raising a possible objection to a certain policy in order to show that the objection is in fact irrelevant to the particular situation the policy was designed to address", "arguing that a certain policy is bound to fail because an event that is likely to defeat the aim of the policy falls outside the policy's influence" ]

[ "Judges are qualified to decide upon the reasonableness of a government minister's administrative decision.", "Judges should be given a greater part in administrative decision making.", "There is nothing much wrong with the legal system.", "If something were badly wrong with the legal system, judges would be ill-equipped to determine whether a government minister's decisions are reasonable." ]

[ "Total sales of all food and beverage items at Megaplex's movie theaters increased by less than five percent last year.", "Total attendance at Megaplex's movie theaters was more than 20 percent higher last year than the year before.", "In a survey to determine pubic response to the change to canola oil, very few of Megapiex's customers said that the change had affected their popcorn-buying habits.", "When it switched from using coconut oil to using canola oil, Megaplex made sure that the chain received a great deal of publicity stressing the health benefits of the change." ]

[ "Newspapers and televised news programs have more comprehensive coverage of violent crime than newspapers did in the old days.", "National data show that violent crime is out of control everywhere, not just in the author's city.", "Police records show that people experience more violent crimes in their own neighborhoods than they do outside their neighborhoods.", "News magazines play a more important role today in informing the public about crime than they did in the old days." ]

[ "by indicating that Green used a phrase ambiguously", "by changing the subject to the size of sales territories", "by criticizing salespeople who wear out their cars in three years", "by explicitly qualifying a premise used earlier" ]

[ "Unlike calls made to owners of answering machines, all telephone calls made to voicemail subscribers are completed, even if the line called is in use at the time of the call.", "The surge in sales of answering machines occurred shortly after they were first introduced to the electronics market.", "Answering machines enable the customer to hear who is calling before the customer decides whether to answer the telephone, a service voice mail does not provide.", "Once a telephone customer decides to subscribe to voice mail, that customer can cancel the service at any time." ]

[ "It is cited as evidence against the claim that the capacity for flight first developed in treedwelling reptiles.", "It weakens the claim that tree-dwelling reptiles were the first kind of reptile to develop the capacity for flight.", "It is cited as evidence against the claim that the capacity for flight first developed in marine reptiles.", "It is cited as evidence against the claim that the capacity for flight first developed in land-dwelling animals." ]

[ "Geological evidence indicates that the oceans contained greater amounts of dissolved minerals 3 billion years ago, but not enough to alter their freezing points significantly.", "Geological studies indicate that there is much less methane in Earth's atmosphere today than there was 3 billion years ago.", "Sufficient heat to keep the oceans liquid 3 billion years ago could not have been generated through geological processes such as volcanic activity.", "Because the distance from Earth to the Sun has not changed significantly over the last 3 billion years, the increase in the Sun's luminosity has resulted in more radiation reaching Earth." ]

[ "The nation's voters know that Gomez is the candidate whose policies would be best for the nation. Of ten voters polled, each said that Gomez would be a very popular leader.", "Some of the nation's voters believe that Gomez is the candidate who would be best for the nation. Of the ten voters we surveyed, each agreed that the policies Gomez is committed to would be the best policies for the nation to adopt.", "We know that electing Gomez would be the best course for the nation to follow because, of ten voters we surveyed, each agreed that electing Gomez would help the nation.", "The nation's voters know that electing Gomez would be the best way to help the nation. The ten voters we polled all agreed that the policies Gomez is committed to would help the nation more than any other policies." ]

[ "calling something by a less offensive term than the term that is usually used to name that thing", "defining a term by pointing to an atypical example of something to which the term applies", "drawing a conclusion that simply restates one of the premises of the argument", "failing to distinguish two distinct senses of a key term" ]

[ "Counterfeiters are generally unaware that the percentage of fake bills in circulation is the lowest it has ever been.", "Government success in removing counterfeit bills from circulation has caused merchants and bank tellers to become lax in checking for counterfeit bills.", "Government information campaigns that teach merchants and bank tellers how to detect counterfeit bills are more effective than ever.", "Governments are continually developing new currency designs with features that are difficult for criminals to counterfeit." ]

[ "It is a conclusion that is claimed to follow from the premise that microorganisms are too numerous for medicines to eliminate entirely.", "It is a generalization used to predict the response of microorganisms to the medicines humans use to kill them.", "It is a premise offered in support of the claim that most disease-causing microorganisms are able to evolve immunities to medicines while retaining their ability to infect humans.", "It is a conclusion for which a description of the responses of microorganisms to the medicines designed to cure the diseases they cause is offered as support." ]

[ "Danville Winery, unlike Mourdet Winery, displays its wine's label prominently in advertisements.", "When the bottles are viewed side by side, Danville Winery's bottle is perceptibly taller than Mourdet Winery's.", "Gold is the background color on the label of many of the wines produced by Danville Winery.", "It is common for occasional purchasers to buy a bottle of wine on the basis of a general impression of the most obvious feature of the bottle." ]

[ "should be considered to be art", "bears a recognizable resemblance to Sulston", "is actually a portrait of Sulston", "contains instructions according to which Sulston was created" ]

[ "Before the National Health scheme was introduced, more than 80 percent of all Impanian medical costs were associated with procedures that are now covered by the scheme.", "The proportion of total expenditures within Impania that is spent on health care has declined since the introduction of the National Health scheme.", "Impanians now buy private medical insurance only at times when they expect that they will need care of kinds not available in the National Health scheme.", "The National Health scheme has greatly reduced the number of medical claims handled annually by Impania's private insurers, enabling these firms to reduce overhead costs substantially." ]

[ "When a business's short-term and long-term interests conflict, morality alone is rarely the overriding consideration.", "The morally preferable act for a business to execute and the long-term interests of the business seldom conflict.", "A business's long-term interests often provide compelling reasons for executing an act.", "The morally preferable act for a business to execute and the short-term interests of the business usually conflict." ]

[ "The two government agencies responsible for species preservation are typically under budget and are known for an utter lack of cooperation.", "Unlike today, funding for the preservation of species was essentially nonexistent 15 years ago.", "Over the past 15 years, the salaries of conservationists employed by the government to work on species preservation solutions have increased at a rate twice that of inflation.", "Within the past 15 years, there have been breakthroughs in species demography that allow scientists to identify those species most in need of protection far before they face any real risk of extinction." ]

[ "one or more politicians have accepted gifts from lobbyists", "it is wrong for politicians to accept gifts from lobbyists", "Senator Brandon has accepted gifts from lobbyists", "Senator Brandon should be criticized for accepting gifts from lobbyists" ]

[ "The operating costs of the average retail clothing store have remained constant during the last year.", "The cost of processing raw cotton for cloth has increased during the last year.", "The wholesale price of raw wool is typically higher than that of the same volume of raw cotton.", "Changes in retail prices always lag behind changes in wholesale prices." ]

[ "the replication experiments were not so likely as the original experiments to be marred by faulty measurements", "the theoretical principles called into question by the originally reported results were themselves based on weak evidence", "the original experiments had not been described in sufficient detail to make an exact replication possible", "the researchers who originally reported the controversial results had themselves observed those results only once" ]

[ "The argument takes for granted that airlines that are the safest are also the most reliable in documenting their safety.", "The argument draws a general conclusion about how safe passengers are on different airlines on the basis of safety records that are each from too brief a period to adequately justify such a conclusion.", "The argument fails to address adequately the possibility that the average major airline has had a total number of accidents as great as the average low-fare airline has had.", "The argument fails to consider the possibility that long-standing and reliable records documenting an airline's degree of safety may indicate that the airline is unsafe." ]

[ "People who produce depraved movies have the freedom to do so, but that means that they also have the freedom to refrain from doing so.", "There should be no laws restricting what books are published, but publishing books that pander to people with depraved tastes is not thereby morally acceptable.", "The public has the freedom to purchase whatever recordings are produced, but that does not mean that the government may not limit the production of recordings deemed to be depraved.", "One who advocates complete freedom of speech should not criticize others for saying things that he or she believes to exhibit depraved tastes." ]

[ "The 50 complete sterilizations of the nylon instruments used more energy than did the 50 complete sterilizations of the stainless steel instruments.", "The total cost of 50 complete sterilizations of the stainless steel instruments was greater than the cost of manufacturing the stainless steel instruments.", "More energy was required for each complete sterilization of the nylon instruments than was required to manufacture the nylon instruments.", "More energy was used to produce the stainless steel instruments than was used to produce the nylon instruments." ]

[ "Almost all the tools used by the contemporary sword maker were updated versions of tools that were used by sword makers over two centuries ago.", "Production of Damascus blades by sword makers of the past ceased abruptly after those sword makers' original source of iron became exhausted.", "There are surface features of every Damascus blade-including the blades produced by the contemporary sword maker-that are unique to that blade.", "Although Damascus blades were renowned for maintaining a sharp edge, the blade made by the contemporary sword maker suggests that they may have maintained their edge less well than blades made using what is now the standard process for making blades." ]

[ "Each part of this car is nearly perfectly engineered. Ttherefore this car is nearly perfect, from an engineering point of view.", "Each sentence in this novel is well constructed. Ttherefore this is a well-constructed novel.", "Each brick in this wall is rectangular. Ttherefore this wall is rectangular.", "Each part of this desk is made of metal. Ttherefore this desk is made of metal." ]

[ "assumes what it is trying to prove", "too hastily reaches a general conclusion on the basis of a few examples", "ignores the fact that some people are mature at age sixteen", "equivocates with respect to a central concept" ]

[ "If a city has a serious problem, then it should not implement any policy that would aggravate that problem even if the policy would address another serious problem.", "No proposed solution to a city problem should be implemented until the problem has been thoroughly studied.", "Unless a business provides a product or service that is valued by consumers, the business should not be allowed to make use of scarce city resources.", "A law that would disadvantage businesses of a certain type throughout a city should not be used to solve a problem that does not affect most areas of the city." ]

[ "The only solution to the problem of water pollution from fertilizers and pesticides is to take farmland out of production.", "The rules for governmental support of farm prices work against efforts to reduce water pollution.", "Farmers can continue to make a profit by rotating diverse crops, thus reducing costs for chemicals, but not by planting the same crop each year.", "New farming techniques will be developed to make it possible for farmers to reduce the application of fertilizers and pesticides." ]

[ "L, an accountant, was charged with having embezzled funds from a client. The charge should be ignored, however, because although the records that might reveal this embezzlement have been destroyed, records of L's current clients show clearly that there has never been any embezzlement from them.", "N, a social scientist, was charged with plagiarism. The charge is without foundation because although strong similarities between N's book and the work of another scholar have been discovered, the other scholar's work was written after N's work was published.", "M, a factory supervisor, was accused of failing to enforce safety standards. This accusation should be discussed, because although the identity of the accuser was not revealed, a survey of factory personnel revealed that some violations of the standards have occurred.", "P, a politician, has been accused of failing to protect the public interest. From at least some points of view, however, the accusation will undoubtedly be considered false, because there is clearly disagreement about where the public interest lies." ]

[ "Vernon plans to select the independent suppliers it will use on the basis of submitted bids.", "Relatively few manufacturers that start as independent suppliers have been able to expand their business and become direct competitors of the companies they once supplied.", "Attending to certain tasks that Vernon performs relatively inefficiently has taken up much of the time and effort of top managers whose time would have been better spent attending to Vernon's core business.", "Among the parts of its business that Vernon does not plan to outsource are some that require standards of accuracy too high for most independent suppliers to provide at lower cost than Vernon can." ]

[ "Ninety percent of the tenants are against changing the rule forbidding pets.", "The pet lovers succeeded in obtaining the signatures of 10 percent of the tenants on their petition.", "The signatures of less than 10 percent of the tenants were obtained on the pet lovers' petition.", "The support of 10 percent of the tenants for a rule change ensures that the rule change will be adopted." ]

[ "The earth's crust tends to crack whenever there is a sudden change in the pressures affecting it.", "Severe earthquakes are generally caused by cracking of the earth's crust near the earthquake site.", "Asteroid impacts, which did occur at the end of the Ice Age, generally cause severe earthquakes.", "Evidence of severe earthquakes around the time of the end of the Ice Age can be found in parts of northern Canada." ]

[ "Many local businesses in Pleasanton, who were dependent on local residents employed in Middleburg, have been unable to pay the mortgage on the business properties they own.", "Mortgage rates in Middleburg have been steadily increasing over the past year and analysts expect them to continue increasing for some time.", "Many prospective homebuyers in the Pleasanton area, deterred by increased mortgage rates, have decided to purchase homes in other areas.", "There are so few houses in Pleasanton that the banks cannot realize an economy of scale, making mortgage rates unrealistic for most potential homeowners." ]

[ "Most skilled artists are good at abstract reasoning.", "Most skilled artists are famous.", "All people who are good at abstract reasoning are very creative.", "Some skilled artists are not famous." ]

[ "the argument, in its attempt to refute one theory of species classification, presupposes the truth of an opposing theory", "the argument confuses a necessary condition for species distinction with a sufficient condition for species distinction", "the argument takes a single fact that is incompatible with a theory as enough to show that theory to be false", "the argument does not explain why sibling species cannot interbreed" ]

[ "There are actions whose causes cannot be discovered.", "Some psychologists believe that the justification for an action never forms an essential part of its explanation.", "If any human actions are rational, then reasons must sometimes be causes of actions.", "If there are any reasons among the causes of an action, then that action is rational." ]

[ "Most viewers who tune in to the first episode of the program will do so because of the network's advertisement for the program.", "Most people who tune in to the first episode of the program and become loyal viewers will not have tuned in to the first episode as a result of the network's advertisement for the program.", "If the advertisement that the program's producers favored were used instead of the network's advertisement, almost all of the viewers who tuned in to the first episode would tune in to subsequent episodes as well.", "The advertisement that the program's producers favored would not have grossly misrepresented what the program would be like." ]

[ "Merchants in the locality responded to the local tax by reducing the price at which they sold cigarettes by 20 cents per pack.", "A substantial number of cigarette smokers in the locality who did not quit smoking during the campaign now smoke less than they did before it began.", "Smokers in the locality had incomes that on average were 25 percent lower than those of nonsmokers.", "Residents of the locality have not increased their use of other tobacco products such as snuff and chewing tobacco since the campaign went into effect." ]

[ "The new apartments were much more desirable than the existing apartments.", "Rents in some areas close to Brewsterville dropped as a result of the construction of the new apartments .", "A sizeable number of people moved out of the existing apartments while the new apartments were being constructed.", "The new apartments were constructed at the outset of a trend of increasing numbers of people seeking residence in Brewsterville ." ]

[ "There is a better way to use the budget surplus than increasing government payments to those who are unemployed.", "Using the budget surplus to increase government payments to those who are unemployed is putting the money to good use.", "The public deserves to have jobs created when there are many people who are unemployed.", "Creating jobs through a public works project will ultimately benefit the public." ]

[ "Crimes involving deception are on the increase at the same time that crimes of violence seem to be decreasing. Law enforcement techniques in the past have focused primarily on the prevention and detection of violent crime. However, it is now clear that new techniques are required to combat crimes such as Internet fraud. Law enforcement agencies will have to focus on recruiting, hiring, and training a larger proportion of computer literate officers if they hope to keep up with modern criminals.", "Most states carefully regulate the possession of exotic wild animals as pets. Specially trained officers often raid illicit breeding operations and seize proscribed animals such as chimpanzees and tigers. Although these species are capable of becoming dangerous, individuals are still drawn to them as pets. The fact that their possession is unlawful is an inadequate deterrent. Since prohibitions on ownership are clearly not eliminating the black market in exotic species, the focus should turn to education of the public regarding the dangers of such pets.", "Wildlife biologists report that the population of the Northern Rock Fish is reaching dangerously low levels. The decrease in population is attributed to over fishing by unethical anglers who ignore laws regulating the size and number of the species that may be taken from rivers and streams. Poachers know that there are insufficient numbers of enforcement officers to create a credible threat of apprehension. It is obvious to authorities that the only way to save the species is to implement a total ban on the fishing of Northern Rock Fish immediately.", "When surveyed in prison, the majority of convicted violent criminals report that they have made decisions during their criminal careers to avoid at least one potential victim because of fears that the potential victim might be armed. Even when the criminals themselves are armed, they tend to prefer unarmed victims. Add to this the fact that statistics reveal that complete bans on private weapons in some jurisdictions have failed to eliminate violent crime and the fact that many jurisdictions with a high proportion of private weapon ownership enjoy a very low crime rate, and one may conclude that public policy should favor the private ownership of weapons." ]

[ "Unlike spruces or firs, most sugar maples are native to areas that receive a lot of acid rain.", "Spruces and firs, unlike sugar maples, can extract calcium from a mineral compound that is common in soil and is not affected by acid rain.", "Sugar maples require more calcium in the spring and summer than they do in the fall and winter.", "Sugar maples that do not receive enough calcium deteriorate less rapidly than spruces or firs that do not receive enough calcium." ]

[ "Any nonsterilized food preserved by an acceptable method can contain disease-causing bacteria.", "Food preserved by a sterilization method is less likely to discolor quickly than food preserved with other methods.", "All food preserved by an acceptable method is free of disease-causing bacteria.", "If a food contains no bacteria, then it has been preserved by an acceptable method." ]

[ "All citizens have the same level of access to the Internet.", "The Internet is more often used to discuss important issues than to discuss frivolous issues.", "People speaking in the public square of days past had complete freedom of expression.", "A public forum can lose effectiveness as a tool of democracy if participants cannot discuss issues freely." ]

[ "During the first North American outbreak of the disease, many of the deaths reported to have been caused by CXC were actually due to other causes.", "Since the first outbreak, farmers have learned to treat mild cases of CXC and no longer report them to veterinarians or authorities.", "An inoculation program against CXC was recently begun after controlled studies showed inoculation to be 70 percent effective in preventing serious cases of the illness.", "Many recent cattle deaths that have actually been caused by CXC have been mistakenly attributed to another disease that mimics the symptoms of CXC." ]

[ "Whether the visits of patients who require diagnosis of skin discolorations tend to be shorter in duration at the clinic than at the hospital", "Whether the machine at the clinic would get significantly less heavy use than the machine at the hospital does", "Whether the principles on which the machine operates have been known to science for a long time", "Whether in certain cases of skin discoloration, visual inspection is sufficient to make a diagnosis of skin cancer" ]

[ "This was not the first time that this network news organization has aired a controversial report on the economy that has inspired viewers to complain to the network.", "Most network news viewers rely on network news broadcasts as their primary source of information regarding the economy.", "The other major network news organizations reported similar reductions in viewership during the same week.", "The viewers who registered complaints with the network were regular viewers of the news organization's programs." ]

[ "Many people whose employment requires physical exertion do not choose to engage in regular physical exercise when they are not at work.", "Exercise is a topic that is often omitted from discussion between doctor and patient during a patient's visit.", "Physical conditions that eventually require medical or nursing-home care often first predispose a person to adopt a sedentary lifestyle.", "A regular program of moderate exercise tends to increase circulation, induce a feeling of well-being and energy, and decrease excess weight." ]

[ "Roughly 35 percent of people with abnormal brain subplates will eventually have schizophrenia.", "Schizophrenia is determined by genetic factors.", "Some people developed schizophrenia because of damage to the brain subplate after the second fetal trimester.", "There may be a cause of schizophrenia that predates birth." ]

[ "People who wear sunscreen now are less likely to become sunburned than were people who spent the same amount of time in the sun wearing sunscreen ten years ago.", "The specific cause of premature skin wrinkling was not known until about ten years ago.", "Most people whose skin is prematurely wrinkled have spent a large amount of time in the sun without wearing sunscreen.", "Until about ten years ago, people who wore sunscreen were no less likely to have premature wrinkles than were people who spent the same amount of time in the sun without wearing sunscreen." ]

[ "It is a claim for which justification is provided and that, if true, establishes the truth of the argument's main conclusion.", "It is a claim for which some justification is provided and that is required in order to establish the argument's main conclusion.", "It is a claim that provides some support for the argument's conclusion but that neither ensures the truth of that conclusion nor is required in order to establish that conclusion.", "It is a claim for which no justification is provided and that, if true, ensures the truth of the argument's main conclusion." ]

[ "The pheromones that would most attract the species sought by commercial fishers indicate the presence of a dangerous threat to most of the endangered marine species", "Freshwater fishers often increase the odds of catching a desired fish, and avoid catching unintended species, by the specific design of the fishing hook.", "Most of the newly design nets are not significantly more expensive than a typical bottom trawling system.", "Catching unintended, endangered species adds nothing to the profits of a commercial deep-sea fishing company." ]

[ "It is possible for one person to learn all of the world's existing languages.", "The range of concepts and emotional states is the only indication of a language's thoroughness.", "Extinct languages do not offer up words that capture concepts and emotional states in ways that fundamentally differ from those of existing languages.", "Each year hundreds of the world's languages go extinct, once there are no longer any native speakers remaining." ]

[ "The number of criminals put under routine supervision was not significantly greater than the number of criminals put under intensive supervision.", "Of the criminals arrested while under intensive supervision, some would not have committed crimes if they had been under routine supervision.", "All of the criminals who were arrested while under routine supervision had been in prison more than once before being paroled and put under supervision.", "The proportion of arrests to crimes committed was not significantly higher for criminals under intensive supervision than for those under routine supervision." ]

[ "There are many ecological niches that can be filled by more than one species.", "There are various ecological niches that must be filled if there is to be life on Earth.", "Biodiversity does not require that all existing species continue to exist.", "The survival of life on Earth depends upon biodiversity." ]

[ "It is the argument's main conclusion and is inferred from two other statements in the argument, neither of which is used to support the other.", "It is a claim for which support is provided, and which is in turn used to support the argument's main conclusion.", "It is a claim for which no support is provided, and which is used to support a claim that is itself used to support the argument's main conclusion.", "It is a claim for which no support is provided, and which is used to support only the argument's main conclusion." ]

[ "As consumers bought compact discs instead of vinyl records, the number of vinyl records produced decreased, making their production less cost-efficient.", "Compact disc player technology continued to change and develop even after compact discs first entered the market.", "Consumers were so enthusiastic about the improved sound quality offered by compact disc technology that they were willing to pay a higher price to obtain it.", "Some consumers who continued to buy vinyl records instead of compact discs did so because they were unwilling to pay a higher price for compact discs." ]

[ "People in countries that put collective goals before individuals' goals lack confidence in the economic policies of their countries.", "A country's economic policies are the most significant factor determining whether that country's economy will experience a recession.", "If the people in a country that puts individuals' goals first are willing to make new investments in their country's economy, their country will emerge quickly from an economic recession.", "No new investment occurs in any country that does not emerge quickly from an economic recession." ]

[ "In the interviews, the people against the new freeway expressed their opinions with more emotion than the people for the freeway did.", "The business interests of the television station that produced the program would be harmed by the construction of a new freeway.", "Most viewers of television news programs do not expect those programs to be completely free of bias.", "Before the program aired, over twice as many people were against building the freeway than were in favor of it." ]

[ "Little is known about the contribution of global warming to the rise in global sea level.", "The amount of water that results from the melting of glaciers and ice sheets cannot be determined by looking at the rise in global sea level alone.", "Rises in global sea level that occurred before the world's reservoirs were built are difficult to explain.", "The exact magnitude of the rise in global sea level is in dispute." ]

[ "depicting choices as having been made arbitrarily by dismissing without argument reasons that have been given for these choices", "presenting as capricious and idiosyncratic decisions that are based on the rigorous application of well-defined principles", "inferring the performance of certain actions on no basis other than the existence of both incentive and opportunity for performing those actions", "assuming that the irrelevance of a consideration for one participant in a decision makes that consideration irrelevant for each participant in the decision" ]

[ "The market for fresh, locally grown apricots has grown in recent years as awareness of the health benefits of eating fresh fruit has increased.", "Peach production has decreased dramatically over the last several years.", "Fresh, locally grown apricots sell at a much higher price than do fresh, locally grown peaches.", "It costs as much to water and fertilize peach trees as it does to water and fertilize apricot trees." ]

[ "The ease of learning a second language depends almost exclusively on environmental factors.", "Students whose parents enter them in early education and who read to them frequently are more likely to have extra income and more free time.", "Students who begin studying a language later in life would have had an easier time learning some aspects of that language if they had begun studying it as a young child.", "Proficient speakers of a second language are likely to have begun learning it before the age of 6." ]

[ "The widespread criticism and vocal public protest is misguided.", "None of the \"Big Five\" animals are endangered.", "The hunters are only allowed to hunt sick or elderly animals.", "African countries would otherwise not be able to afford to protect the animals." ]

[ "Workers will need to acquire more education and skills to remain competitive in the labor market.", "Employers utilize new technology because it allows them to reduce labor costs.", "In seeking employment, highly skilled workers no longer have an advantage over less-skilled workers.", "Technology eliminates many jobs but also creates just as many jobs." ]

[ "None of the shows that Wilke & Wilke produced last year that were not canceled were police dramas.", "All of the new shows that Wilke & Wilke produced last year that were canceled were police dramas.", "Most of the shows that Wilke & Wilke produced last year were police dramas.", "Wilke & Wilke have produced more new shows for this season than they produced last season." ]

[ "The human diet needs to be modified in the next half century because of the depletion of our natural resources due to overpopulation.", "Agricultural and wilderness areas need to be protected from urban encroachment by preparing urban areas for greater population density.", "Efforts should be taken to slow the rate of human population growth and to increase the amount of land committed to agriculture.", "Continued research into more-efficient agricultural practices and innovative biotechnology aimed at producing more food on less land would be beneficial." ]

[ "Journalists do not eliminate all of the biases that enter their reporting.", "Trained editors are able to detect at least some biases of journalists.", "Journalists' reporting that is not objective is not taken seriously by trained editors.", "It is imperative that reporting be as objective as possible." ]

[ "According to the airline industry, airfares have to rise if air travel is to be made safer; since airfares were just raised, we can rest assured that air travel will ttherefore become safer.", "People who are really interested in the preservation of wildlife obviously do not go hunting for big game; since Gerda has never gone hunting for big game and intends never to do so, it is clear that she is really interested in the preservation of wildlife.", "If the contents of a bottle are safe to drink, the bottle will not be marked \"poison, \" so, since the bottle is not marked \"poison, \" its contents will be safe to drink.", "None of the so-called Western democracies is really democratic, because, for a country to be democratic, the opinion of each of its citizens must have a meaningful effect on government, and in none of these countries does each citizen's opinion have such an effect." ]

[ "Wang's Law has in fact been shown to be true.", "The scientists surveyed are generally aware that the results of the Brown-Eisler Experiment together with Wang's Law contradict the Minsk Hypothesis.", "The sample is large enough to be representative of scientists in the field.", "Almost all of the scientists surveyed are familiar with the way in which the results of the Brown-Eisler Experiment were obtained." ]

[ "This card game must be intellectually challenging, because it is played by highly intelligent people, who play only intellectually challenging card games. In fact, these players' intelligence is demonstrated by the fact that they play this game.", "This painting is a poor imitation, because only people with poor eyesight mistook it for the original. That these people have poor eyesight is demonstrated by the fact that they also mistook a vase of flowers in the painting for a peacock.", "That jacket must have been made for a very short person, because only very short people were able to fit into it. We know that they were very short because we saw them before they tried on the jacket.", "When coffee is being chosen, Brand Z is the coffee chosen by people with highly developed taste in coffee. These people showed their highly developed taste in coffee by correctly distinguishing eight brands of coffee from each other in a taste test." ]

[ "Newspaper and magazine reviews of films are usually written in advance of a film's general release.", "Typical audience members' responses to films from the latter part of the twentieth century are easy to determine .", "Film historians do not believe that film reviews in newspapers and magazines reveal typical film audience members' views.", "Films from the early part of the twentieth century were not usually reviewed in newspapers or magazmes." ]

[ "It is likely that only one type of bacteria hibernates regularly.", "If bacteria are extremely diverse, it is unlikely that most types of bacteria hibernate regularly.", "Bacteria of most types are usually in hibernation.", "It is probably not true that most types of bacteria hibernate regularly." ]

[ "The number of automobile workers in Burdistan has not increased during the same period.", "Esterian automobile manufacturers have lowered the price of their automobiles so as to remain competitive with the manufacturers in Burdistan.", "Because vehicles manufactured in Esteria have a reputation for high quality, many Esterian consumers have continued to purchase domestically manufactured vehicles since the tax was abolished.", "Recent innovations in automated automobile-manufacturing technology have approximately halved the number of worker-hours required to produce most automobiles." ]

[ "Studies showed no correlation between stimulation and amount of sleep for children three years of age or older.", "The stimulation that babies receive helps them to develop intellectually.", "The babies who had a less stimulating routine gained weight at an average rate.", "Babies with less stimulating routines usually get extra sleep during the day." ]

[ "Even if the volume of collected recyclables increases, that increase might not be enough to make the recycling program cost effective.", "Because of the increase in the number of pickups under the new program, the amount charged by the contractor that collects the city's recyclables will increase significantly.", "The cost of collecting and disposing of general trash has been less than the cost of collecting and disposing of recyclables, and this is still likely to be the case under the new recycling program.", "A weekly schedule for recyclables pickup is substantially easier for people to follow and adhere to than is a schedule of pickups every other week." ]

[ "An observation about one object is used as a basis for a general conclusion regarding the status of similar objects.", "A generalization is rejected by showing that it fails to hold in one particular instance.", "A deficiency in a system is isolated by arguing that the system failed to control one of the objects that it was intended to control.", "The conclusion is supported by ruling out other possible explanations of an observed fact." ]

[ "Medical researchers should always attempt to develop effective medical treatments as rapidly as they can while fulfilling their other moral obligations.", "It is wrong for any company to ask its medical researchers to keep their research confidential, if failure to share the research might delay development of effective medical treatments.", "If the most important moral principle is to prevent human suffering, then it is wrong for medical researchers to keep their research confidential.", "Medical researchers should not keep information confidential if it is possible that sharing that information would prevent some unnecessary human suffering." ]

[ "the medical ineffectiveness of many herbs as treatments for specific illnesses or conditions is well established", "the cost of medical care would be substantially reduced if faster ways of obtaining regulatory-agency approval for new drugs could be found.", "some other substances, besides herbs, are not available as drugs because the illnesses they could effectively treat are too uncommon to allow those substances to be marketed profitably as drugs", "a licensed physician cannot recommend the medicinal use of an herb unless that herb is offered for sale as a drug." ]

[ "neglected to offer any explanation for the results it discovered", "assumed without proof that its thermometer was reliable", "generalized too readily from the fruits it tested to fruits it did not test", "too readily extrapolated from a narrow range of temperatures to the entire range of temperatures" ]

[ "Among whale fossils that date from later than about fifty million years ago, none are fossils of whale species that drank only fresh water.", "The earliest whales that drank salt water differed from fresh-water-drinking whales only in their possession of specialized kidneys.", "Fossils of whale species dating from between sixty million and fifty million years ago will not be found on continents that were at the time separated from ancient Asia by wide expanses of ocean.", "Between sixty million and fifty million years ago, the freshwater lakes and rivers in which whales originated were gradually invaded by salt water." ]

[ "A significant threat to shark populations, in addition to commercial shark fishing, is \"incidental mortality\" that results from catching sharks in nets intended for other fish.", "The sharks that are the most profitable to catch are those that tend to remain in the same area of ocean year after year and not migrate far from where they were born.", "The waters around South Australia are the only area in the world where that particular species of shark is found.", "Since 1980 commercial shark-fishing boats have used sophisticated electronic equipment that enables them to locate sharks with greater accuracy." ]

[ "The proportion of farmers in the United States labor force remained constant in the 30 years between 1850 and 1880.", "The rate of growth of the United States labor force and the rate of growth of the general population rose simultaneously in the 30 years between 1850 and 1880.", "The number of farmers in the general population increased slightly in the 30 years between 1850 and 1880.", "The proportion of farmers in the general population increased from 68 percent in 1850 to 72 percent in 1880." ]

[ "incorporating humor into lectures can help professors to achieve the goals they have for those lectures", "university professors should treat even the most serious topics in a humorous way", "stand-up comedians and university professors have the same skill set", "university professors can achieve the goals they have for their lectures only if they incorporate humor into them" ]

[ "truly understand economics have no chance of being elected", "truly understand economics do not support the tax plan", "do not support the tax plan do not truly understand economics", "do not support the tax plan have no chance of being elected" ]

[ "mistakes a correlation for a cause", "fails to consider the status of alleged counterexamples", "assumes what it sets out to conclude", "bases its conclusion on the supposition that most people believe in that conclusion" ]

[ "farmers and agricultural agents should work closely with wildlife conservationists before taking measures to control elephants", "the preservation of wildlife may endanger human welfare", "it is unfair that people in any country should have to endure food shortages", "it is time to remove elephants from the list of endangered species" ]