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[ "Passwords that conform to rules of length, complexity, and unpredictability are no harder to guess than passwords that do not conform to such rules.", "When a password is written down, it increases the chances that someone will be able to use that password to gain unauthorized access to the user 's account.", "When users who forget their passwords are locked out of their own accounts, they must often go through a complicated process in order to have their accounts unlocked.", "People who use mnemonic devices to help remember their passwords are able to easily remember passwords that are long, complex, and unpredictable." ]

[ "The first is presented as an obvious truth on which the argument is based; the second is a claim that has been advanced In support of a position that the argument opposes.", "The first is presented as an obvious truth on which the argument is based; the second is a judgment advanced in support of the main conclusion of the argument.", "The first is a generalization that the argument seeks to establish; the second is a conclusion that the argument draws in order to support that generalization.", "The first provides evidence in support of the main conclusion of the argument; the second is a claim that the argument challenges." ]

[ "the judgment that a person deserves to be happy is itself to be understood in terms of happiness", "people do not actually value happiness as much as they think they do", "the notion that people can be deserving of happiness is ultimately incoherent", "the only way to be assured of happiness is to bring happiness to those who have done something to deserve it" ]

[ "whether getting the Rembrandt etchings from the Hart Institute is likely to increase attendance at the print exhibition", "whether the number of patrons attracted by the Hart Institute's Rembrandt etchings will be larger than the number of patrons who do not come in the spring because Venus is on loan", "whether the Hart Institute's Rembrandt etchings will be appreciated by those patrons of the curator's museum for whom the museum's biggest attraction is Venus", "whether, if Venus is lent, the museum's revenue from general admission fees during the print exhibition will exceed its revenue from general admission fees during the Hart Institute's exhibition" ]

[ "For physically risky sports the government should issue permits only to people who have had at least minimal training in the sport.", "The government is obliged to take measures to deter people from risking their lives.", "People who engage in physically risky behavior that is not essential to anyone's welfare should be held responsible for the cost of treating any resulting injuries.", "Citizens who use publicly subsidized rescue services should be required to pay more toward the cost of these services than citizens who do not." ]

[ "Usually, a company that sends out direct-mail advertisements has good reason to think that the person to whom the advertisement is sent would be more interested in the product than would the average person.", "Most of the products purchased in response to direct-mail advertisements would be purchased even without the direct-mail advertisements.", "A person who receives and reads a direct-mail advertisement is more likely to purchase the product advertised than is a person who reads an advertisement for a product in a magazine that they subscribe to.", "Although the primary intent of most direct-mail advertisers is to convince people to buy products from their homes, direct mail can also lead to increased sales in stores by customers who prefer to see a product prior to purchasing it." ]

[ "It alludes to a problem for which the conclusion of the argument offers a solution.", "It is a generalization from which the argument draws inferences regarding several particular cases.", "It is a subsidiary conclusion used by the argument to support its overall conclusion.", "It is the overall conclusion of the argument." ]

[ "The first is the main conclusion of the argument; the second is a prediction made on the basis of that conclusion.", "The first is a conclusion that the argument as a whole seeks to refute; the second is the main conclusion of the argument.", "The first is a conclusion that the argument as a whole seeks to refute; the second is a claim that has been advanced in support of that conclusion.", "The first is a generalization about the likely effect of a policy under consideration in the argument; the second points out a group of exceptional cases to which that generalization does not apply." ]

[ "It is a claim for which no support is provided in the argument, and that is used to illustrate the conclusion of the argument as a whole.", "It is a claim for which some support is provided in the argument, and that itself is used to support two distinct conclusions, neither of which is intended to provide support for the other.", "It is a claim for which some support is provided in the argument, and that itself is not used to support any other claim in the argument.", "It is a claim for which some support is provided in the argument, and that itself is used to support another claim that in turn lends support to the conclusion of the argument as a whole." ]

[ "Using the wrong grade of gasoline in a car can cause a marked decrease in mileage. Melinda has noticed a dramatic decrease in the distance that she can drive on a full tank of gasoline. Ttherefore, Melinda has clearly filled her tank with the wrong grade of gasoline.", "Rabbits will cause a great deal of crop damage in a home garden unless they are controlled through fencing or predation. Amy's garden has not experienced any crop damage this season, so she must have adequate fencing, or predators such as owls must control the rabbit population.", "Animals that are overfed are susceptible to a variety of diseases. None of the animals at the petting zoo are overweight. Ttherefore, the animals at the petting zoo probably have a lower incidence of disease.", "Animals in the wild tend to choose mates based on external visual signals of health, such as plumage and fur. If an animal in the wild lacks the requisite signals, potential mates are reluctant to approach. Ttherefore, any animal that does successfully mate is more likely to display the expected signals to potential mates." ]

[ "contains a premise that is implausible unless the conclusion is presumed to be true", "fails to recognize that one set might have some members in common with each of two others even though those two other sets have no members in common with each other", "uses the key term \"unsafe\" in one sense in a premise and in another sense in the conclusion", "infers a particular causal relation from a correlation that could be explained in a variety of other ways" ]

[ "A free-market economy is incompatible with a nondemocratic regime.", "No current government has reached as complete a state of democracy as it is possible for a government to reach.", "The nations whose anticapitalistic measures the people in question bemoan had totalitarian regimes in the recent past.", "The more democratic a country is, the less regulated its economy must be." ]

[ "what percentage of those registered to vote actually vote", "whether local election boards have simplified the registration process", "why the public lacks confidence in the effects of voting", "why so many citizens do not register to vote" ]

[ "pointing out how a problem is widely thought to be scientific yet is really conceptual", "constructing a counterexample to a general hypothesis about the future", "attempting to show that predicting any event implies that it has in fact already taken place", "appealing to definitions to infer the impossibility of a kind of occurrence" ]

[ "Most dogs take longer than four weeks to be housebroken if they have been previously spoiled by their owners.", "A large proportion of dogs are not properly trained.", "Most dogs that are housebroken in three weeks have been properly trained.", "A large proportion of properly trained dogs have been previously spoiled by their owners." ]

[ "Science departments need a way to ensure that only those students most committed to being science majors will receive passing grades in introductory science courses.", "Some of the students in the very demanding introductory science courses who are most enthusiastic about science do not receive passing grades in those courses.", "None of the students in the very demanding introductory science courses who are least enthusiastic about science are among the students most committed to being science majors.", "Introductory science courses should not continue to be designed to serve as proving grounds if doing so has not served its intended purpose." ]

[ "People are sometimes held morally blameworthy as a result of circumstances some of which were outside their intentional control.", "The intentions of the person performing an action are rarely a decisive factor in making moral judgments about that action.", "We should judge all negligent people to be equally morally blameworthy, regardless of the outcomes of their actions.", "We sometimes judge unfairly the morality of other people's actions." ]

[ "Rock varnish itself contains some organic matter.", "Rock varnish forms very slowly, if at all, on trimmed stones that are stored in a dry, sheltered place.", "The Andean monument bears a striking resemblance to monuments found in ancient sites in western Asia.", "The reuse of ancient trimmed stones was common in the Andes both before and after 1492." ]

[ "Several teams of scientists performed the various experiments and all of the teams had similar results.", "To lessen the undesirable side effects of chemotherapy, the use of marijuana has been recommended for cancer patients who are free of the herpes virus.", "The carcinogenic effect of THC could be neutralized by the other ingredients found in marijuana.", "If chemists modify the structure of THC, THC can be safely incorporated into medications to prevent herpes." ]

[ "stating a general principle and then presenting reasons in favor of adopting it", "showing that, in practice, the principle under consideration could not be uniformly applied", "demonstrating that a consequence that had been assumed to follow from the principle under consideration need not follow from it", "attempting to undermine a general principle by arguing that undesirable consequences would follow from it" ]

[ "it would not be wrong for Roxanne to finish the report if Luke did not expect the deadline to be postponed", "if Roxanne believes that Luke would not expect her to finish the report under the circumstances, then it would be wrong for Roxanne to finish it", "if Luke would expect Roxanne to finish the report even after the deadline has been postponed, then it would be wrong for Roxanne not to finish it", "if Luke would not expect Roxanne to finish the report under the circumstances, then it would not be wrong for Roxanne to fail to finish it" ]

[ "almost all of Acme's employees oppose the pending merger with Barrington Corporation, since almost all of Acme's employees are factory workers, and almost all of the factory workers at Acme oppose the merger", "the president of Corbin Corporation has an office that is not in Corbin's headquarters building, since almost all of the offices in Corbin's headquarters building are small, whereas Corbin's president has a large office", "Robinson will probably be appointed as president of Sifton University, since almost every one of Sifton's previous presidents had a Ph. D. , and Robinson has a Ph. D.", "Donna has at least ten years of experience as a computer programmer, since almost every programmer who works for Coderight Software has at least ten years experience, and Donna will probably be hired as a programmer by Coderight" ]

[ "It is a judgment that the argument opposes.", "It is an objection that has been raised against the main conclusion of the argument.", "It is the main conclusion of the argument.", "It is a finding that the argument seeks to explain." ]

[ "Loud music is most dangerous to hearing when it is played through stereo headphones.", "Teenagers who now listen to music at dangerously loud levels choose to do so despite their awareness of the risks involved.", "No other cause of hearing loss in teenagers is as damaging as their listening to loud music through stereo headphones.", "A few headphone manufacturers already plan to market stereo headphones that automatically turn off when a dangerous level of loudness is reached." ]

[ "Last year, the Cooking Channel aired a few episodes of \"Like This? Try That! \", a show in which chefs recommended foods similar in taste to known popular foods, resulting in such popularity that the show will be released as a weekly national serial later this month.", "According to surveys, as many as 60% of Americans report being tired of eating the same foods over and over again.", "The human experience of a taste of any food has more to do, than most people realize, with the subtle scents received by the olfactory system as well as with the texture and tenderness of the food.", "When a dish has a number of ingredients, adding or subtracting or substituting just one spice or flavor involved, however small the quantity involved, can radically change the overall taste of the dish." ]

[ "people other than those wealthy enough to have paid the old tuition are able to live in the neighborhood of the school", "the residents of the school's neighborhood tend to be wealthy", "people less wealthy than those who were able to pay the old tuition are in the majority in the district", "there are many people not wealthy enough to have paid the old tuition who wish to have their children attend the school" ]

[ "Compact discs are a kind of data storage device. Leotol Corporation does not produce data storage devices that use analog storage methods. Compact discs do not use analog storage methods, so it follows that Leotol Corporation produces compact discs.", "The Windsor Coalition is an example of a community organizing to discourage overdevelopment. The Neighborhood Association is in favor of this sort of community organizing, except when it poses a threat to regional economic growth. Ttherefore, the Neighborhood Association is in favor of the Windsor Coalition.", "Coreopsis is a perennial. The Garden Club awards a prize each year for each perennial except those that are shrubs or not native to North America. Coreopsis is native to North America and is not a shrub. So the Garden Club awards a prize each year for coreopsis.", "All prepackaged desserts pose a risk of tooth decay. The Nutrition Foundation recommends avoiding all prepackaged desserts that are not high in vitamins or protein. Many prepackaged snack foods are low in vitamins or protein, so the Nutrition Foundation recommends avoiding prepackaged snack foods as well." ]

[ "The safety belts attached to automobile seats function to protect passengers from the full force of impact in the event of a collision.", "Redesigning the locking mechanisms in all automobiles produced by the factory in Macropolis will require a costly recall of current models on the street.", "In the event of a fire, public buildings equipped with smoke detectors have fewer fatalities than do public buildings not so equipped.", "The number of deaths that occurred in prison fires because prisoners could not escape was greatly reduced when prisons were required to rewire any electronic lock that was connected to their fire alarm system." ]

[ "The children understood that all rolling pins have the same general shape.", "The children did not grasp the function of a rolling pin.", "No two children understood the name \"rolling pin\"to apply to the same object.", "Each child was able to identify correctly only the utensils that he had used." ]

[ "Dentists should help their patients to prevent cavities rather than waiting until cavities are present to begin treatment.", "A condition that is only potentially harmful should not be treated using a method that is definitely harmful.", "A condition that is typically progressive should not be treated using methods that provide only temporary relief.", "Dentists should perform any procedure that it likely to be beneficial in the long term, but only if the procedure does not cause immediate damage." ]

[ "People with the personality type constitute 5 percent of the medical profession.", "Teachers with the personality type are more likely to quit teaching than those with other personality types.", "Students of teachers with the personality type are intensely recruited for noneducational professions.", "People with the personality type constitute 5 percent of college students pursuing a degree in education." ]

[ "For any position with wages below a living wage, the difficulty of finding and retaining employees adds as much to employment costs as would raising wages.", "Many employers who pay some workers only the minimum wage also pay other workers wages that are much higher than the minimum.", "Raising the minimum wage does not also increase the amount employers have to contribute in employee benefits.", "When inflation is taken into account, the proposed new minimum wage is not high as the current one was when it was introduced." ]

[ "Some cardiologists believe that the protection afforded by the Mediterranean diet might be enhanced by drugs that lower blood-cholesterol levels.", "Studies suggest that the kinds of oils in the fat included in the Mediterranean diet may protect the heart against potentially fatal disruptions of heart rhythms and other causes of heart attacks.", "Many people who have had heart attacks are advised by their cardiologists to begin an exercise regimen in addition to changing their diet.", "The patients who consumed the Mediterranean diet enjoyed the food and continued to follow the diet after the experiment was concluded." ]

[ "Many Zenith University students who were not able to secure employment within six weeks often found jobs soon after.", "Since 2005, the number of jobs for engineers has not significantly decreased.", "The economy has been doing well, though analysts forecast that there will be a recession that could last for as long as five years.", "Compared to all other degrees conferred by Zenith University, engineering degrees were the most likely to result in employment within six weeks." ]

[ "is directed toward disproving a claim that Marcia did not make", "takes for granted that people losing jobs in meat-based industries would become vegetarians", "ignores the results of the research cited by Marcia", "takes for granted that no meat-based industries will collapse unless most people become vegetarians" ]

[ "The social, economic, and medical problems of a society may lead to the adoption of contradictory food prohibitions.", "The original purpose of a food prohibition is often forgotten a few generations after the prohibition is introduced.", "The origin of a food prohibition must be explained with reference to the understanding that the people who adopted and enforced the prohibition had.", "The social importance of the origin of a food prohibition is independent of the nutritional value of the food prohibited." ]

[ "There is no known physiological cause of glaucoma other than increase in pressure inside the eye.", "A significant percentage of the people for whom the eyedrop treatment has been prescribed fail to follow the prescribed daily regimen, because the eyedrops have unpleasant side effects.", "Doctors rarely recommend the surgery for glaucoma patients who have already started the traditional course of treatment.", "The eyedrops traditionally prescribed to treat glaucoma are normally prescribed to treat other disease of the eye." ]

[ "ignores data that offer reasonable support for a general claim and focuses on a single example that argues against that claim", "rejects a claim as false on the grounds that those who make that claim could profit if that claim is accepted by others", "concludes that a particular premise is false when it is equally possible for that premise to be true and some other premise false", "makes an unwarranted assumption that what is true of each member of a group taken separately is also true of the group as a whole" ]

[ "The more sincere and open community members are, the more likely that community is to succeed.", "Unless a community's members are willing to face unpleasant realities, they cannot be sincere.", "Sincerity is required if community members are to trust each other.", "A community's failure is often caused by its members' unwillingness to face unpleasant realities and to discuss them honestly." ]

[ "some of the medicinal substances found in lakes and rivers are harmless to humans even if taken in large quantities", "most medicinal substances that reach lakes or rivers rapidly break down into harmless substances", "some of the medicinal substances found in lakes and rivers can counteract possible harmful effects of other such substances found there", "disease-causing bacteria exposed to low concentrations of certain medicinal substances can become resistant to them" ]

[ "A volcanic ash cloud whose highest point exceeds an altitude of 5 kilometers is likely to be at least partly beyond the reach of weather radar.", "Lightning discharges are no more frequent for large volcanic ash clouds than for small volcanic ash clouds.", "Lightning discharges can be detected in some regions in which weather radar is unavailable.", "The highest point of any volcanic ash cloud will eventually exceed an altitude of 5 kilometers." ]

[ "If the government knew that fish caught by the fishing industry were contaminated by toxins, the government would restrict net fishing.", "If net fishing were restricted by the government, then the fishing industry would become more inclined to reveal the number of seabirds killed by net fishing.", "The seabirds that are killed by net fishing do not eat all of the species of fish caught by the fishing industry.", "The government cannot gain an accurate count of the number of seabirds killed by net fishing unless the fishing industry cooperates." ]

[ "the current economic situation is grave", "the economic changes should not all be made at the same time", "the faster current economic policy is revised, the less painful the initial changes will be", "revising current economic policy incrementally is like teaching a horse to jump fences" ]

[ "some Centralian farmers anticipate serious financial losses due to the extremely wet spring planting season", "the extensive rains have led to an increase in the price of corn", "chemicals that were used to prepare the fields for corn planting would stunt the growth of soybeans", "many Centralian farmers grow both corn and soybeans" ]

[ "The strenuous activities required of out-of-shape employees by the program would not by themselves generate medical expenses greater than any reduction achieved by the program.", "The medical expenses incurred by employees who are required to participate in the fitness program would be less than those incurred by employees who are not required to participate.", "A person who is fit would receive a routine physical checkup by a doctor less regularly than would a person who is out of shape.", "The fitness program would serve more employees who are out of shape than it would employees who are fit." ]

[ "There are no more motorists in Greatport than in Fairmont.", "Fairmont and Greatport are the cities with the highest collision-damage insurance rates.", "The insurance companies were already aware of the difference in the likelihood of collisions before the publication of the police reports.", "Repairing typical collision damage does not cost more in Greatport than in Fairmont." ]

[ "It appeals to an inappropriate authority.", "It relies on a hasty generalization.", "It confuses causation with correlation.", "It attacks the source of an argument." ]

[ "It is unrealistic to expect people to keep track of the original basis of their beliefs, and to revise a belief when its original basis is undercut.", "The statements originally given to the subjects would be highly misleading even if true.", "Most of the subjects were initially skeptical of the statements originally given to them.", "Most of the subjects had acquired confirmation of their newly acquired beliefs by the time they were told that the original statements were false." ]

[ "A widget company has increased production by at least 10% every year for the last five years. Next year, the company will increase production by 10%.", "A school holds chorus recitals and plays in the auditorium. Ticket sales for the chorus recitals have risen by 15%, while tickets for the plays have dropped by 30%. More people now attend the chorus than plays.", "Two test tubes contain the same amount of potassium cyanide. A scientist adds some amount of potassium cyanide to one test tube, so that test tube now contains more potassium cyanide.", "A company starts every new employee with the same salary. Tyrone and Samantha are new hires, and both recently received their first raise. Tyrone's raise was 25%, while Samantha received a 10% raise. Ttherefore, Tyrone now makes more money than Samantha." ]

[ "Everyone is equally content with our present configuration of fingers.", "Humans are always equally content with two things of equal usefulness.", "The perceived usefulness of our configuration of fingers is an illusory result of our prejudices.", "Humans are never equally content with two things of unequal usefulness." ]

[ "The cows are the only animals grazing on the new land who become ill after eating the fungus contained in the fescue grass.", "At least one other species of fungus is contained in the fescue grass that does not contain the fungus that makes cows ill.", "At least some cows that have been made ill by the fungus are capable of sensing the fungus in fescue grass.", "The fungus that is contained in the fescue grass cannot be eradicated without destroying the grass itself." ]

[ "For a horse that is well schooled to be ideal for beginning riders that horse must also be surefooted and gentle. Many horses that are surefooted are not gentle. Ttherefore many well-schooled horses are not ideal for beginning riders.", "An expensive new building will prove to be a good investment only if it is aesthetically pleasing or provides lots of office space. However, since many expensive new buildings are not aesthetically pleasing, few expensive new buildings will prove to be good investments.", "If an author's first novel has a romantic setting and a suspenseful plot, it will become a bestseller. Since many authors' first novels have neither, not many first novels become bestsellers.", "Any automobile that is more than a few years old is eventually sure to need repairs if it is not regularly maintained. Many automobiles are more than a few years old, but still do not need repairs. Ttherefore, many automobiles are regularly maintained." ]

[ "Microorganisms cannot experience pain or have other feelings.", "People ignore environmental problems unless they believe the problems will affect creatures with which they sympathize.", "The most important environmental problems involve endangered species other than large mammals.", "An organism can be environmentally significant only if it affects large ecosystems or agriculture." ]

[ "there are no known previous instances of satellites' having been exploded on purpose", "for satellites that have ceased to function, repairing them while they are in orbit would be prohibitively expensive", "the only way to make telescope observations without any interference from debris in orbit is to use telescopes launched into extremely high orbits around the Earth", "a greatly increased number of small particles in Earth's orbit would result in a blanket of reflections that would make certain valuable telescope observations impossible" ]

[ "The only dogs in the show were poodles, and they were all black poodles. So all the dogs in the show were black.", "All the buildings on the block were tall. The only buildings on the block were office buildings and residential towers. So all the office buildings on the block were tall buildings.", "All the primates in the zoo were gorillas. The only gorillas in the zoo were small gorillas. Thus the only primates in the zoo were small primates.", "The only fruit in the kitchen was pears, but the pears were not ripe. Thus none of the fruit in the kitchen was ripe." ]

[ "many famous classical composers, such Schubert, also died before reaching the age of 40, and Schubert often set poetry to music in his songs.", "most common problems with the human eye develop only after the age of 40.", "poets can write poems that establish their fame while they are young, while painters typically gain fame only as they age.", "writing poetry draw on both the right and left cerebral hemispheres, while painting is almost completely a right hemispheric process." ]

[ "The argument equivocates with respect to the term \"evidence. \"", "The argument appeals to emotion rather than to reason.", "The argument assumes the conclusion it is trying to prove.", "The argument presumes that no other evidence is relevant to the issue at hand." ]

[ "Because the company pays only scrap metal prices for used cars, almost none of the cars sold to the company still run.", "Only 1 percent of the automobiles driven in the local area predate 1980.", "Since the company launched its car-buying campaign, the number of citizen groups filing complaints about pollution from the company's plants has decreased.", "It would cost the company over $3 million to reduce its plants' toxic emissions, while its car-buying campaign will save the company money by providing it with reusable scrap metal." ]

[ "Some animals that possess a language can refer to both concrete objects and abstract ideas.", "If a system of sounds or gestures contains no expressions referring to concrete objects or abstract ideas, then that system is not a language.", "If an animal's system of sounds or gestures is not a language, then that animal is unable to entertain abstract ideas.", "Animals do not have the cognitive capabilities to entertain abstract ideas." ]

[ "Adopting the new proposal would increase the voice of the alumni in the conduct of university affairs.", "Adopting the proposal would allow passage of constitutional changes without the general council's approval.", "The proposal will take effect only if it receives the senate's unanimous support.", "Any of the university's alumni can fill any one of the twenty seats on the senate." ]

[ "It mistakes the majority view for the traditional view.", "It presupposes the truth of Professor Vallejo's claims.", "It confuses inadequate evidence for truth with evidence for falsity.", "It fails to provide criteria for determining adequate historical evidence." ]

[ "the likelihood that a budget proposal will be approved is influenced by the amount of money that budget proposal requests", "the vice president is required to approve at least half of all budget proposals submitted", "having the last five budget proposals turned down affects the likelihood that the next budget proposal will be turned down", "the last five budget proposals' having been turned down guarantees that the next five budget proposals will be approved" ]

[ "The town council of Springhill recently refused to raise the threshold.", "The Springhill authorities do a poor job of enforcing its water emergency laws and many people break the laws without incurring a penalty.", "The threshold remains at the predetermined level specified by law until a change is approved by the Springhill town council.", "The threshold is kept at a high enough level to exceed the water requirements of most households in Springhill." ]

[ "When a model of a female guppy was substituted for the female guppy, male guppies still courted, but were not more likely to show their side with more orange.", "Female guppies have little if any orange coloring on their sides.", "In many other species females show a preference for symmetry of coloring rather than quantity of coloring.", "No studies have been done on whether male guppies with more orange coloring father more offspring than those with less orange coloring." ]

[ "Contrary to early discussions, global warming is not the only factor affecting the frequency and intensity of tropical storms.", "Tropical storms are especially likely to form over warm ocean surfaces.", "Global warming probably will not produce more frequent and intense tropical storms.", "Instabilities in wind flow will negate the effect of global warming on the formation of tropical storms." ]

[ "light utility trucks are more likely than other kinds of vehicles to be involved in accidents that result in injuries", "people who buy automobiles solely for their appearance are more likely than other people to drive recklessly", "the trucks' rugged appearance is deceptive in that their engines are not especially powerful", "light utility trucks are less likely to meet the car-safety standards than are cars that are subject to the standards" ]

[ "If compost is less than 40 percent organic matter and is not dark brown in color, then it will make soil less fertile and will worsen soil drainage.", "In the best garden compost, the organic matter is completely decomposed.", "Compost that is 80 percent organic matter has probably not decomposed sufficiently.", "Compost that is dark brown in color and emits a strong ammonia smell is not good garden compost." ]

[ "It is permissible to sit on the park benches. To sit on the park benches one must walk to them. One way to walk to them is by walking on the grass. So it is permissible to walk on the grass.", "Long hours of practice are necessary for developing musical skill. One must develop one's musical skill in order to perform difficult music. But long hours of practice are tedious. So performing difficult music is tedious.", "It is impossible to be a manager without evaluating people. The process of evaluation is necessarily subjective. Thus, people resent managers because they resent being evaluated subjectively.", "Some farming on the plains requires irrigation. This irrigation now uses water pumped from aquifers. But aquifers have limited capacity and continued pumping will eventually exhaust them. Thus, a new source of water will have to be found in order for such farming to continue indefinitely." ]

[ "The cost of raising soybeans has increased significantly over the past several years and is expected to continue to climb.", "In the past several years, there has been no sharp increase in the demand for cotton and for goods made out of cotton.", "The species of insect that has infested cotton plants has never been known to attack soybean plants.", "Tests of a newly developed, inexpensive pesticide have shown it to be both environmentally safe and effective against the insects that have infested cotton crops." ]

[ "Being born right-handed confers a survival advantage.", "Forcing a person to switch from a preferred hand is harmless.", "Societal attitudes toward handedness differ at different times.", "Handedness is a product of both genetic predisposition and social pressures." ]

[ "It offers an objection to an additional suggestion mentioned in the argument.", "It is the claim that the argument as a whole is designed to sustain.", "It both sustains the argument in the paragraph while supporting the opposing argument.", "It is the fact pattern on which the argument is based." ]

[ "Both worms and insects produce electric fields.", "Only animals that hunt have noses with tentacles that detect electric fields.", "The star-nosed mole does not produce an electric field.", "The star-nosed mole does not rely at all on its sense of smell when hunting." ]

[ "Most nicotine is absorbed into the blood of a smoker even if it is delivered in smaller quantities.", "Smokers of the lowest-nicotine cigarettes available generally smoke more cigarettes per day than smokers of high-nicotine cigarettes.", "The level of tar in cigarettes is higher in low-nicotine cigarettes than it is in some high-nicotine cigarettes.", "Blood cannot absorb more nicotine per day than that found in the smoke from a package of the lowest-nicotine cigarettes available." ]

[ "The experiments showed that the caterpillars were not harmed by contact with the pollen from the genetically modified plants unless they ingested it.", "Per unit of volume, the natural insecticide produced by the genetically modified maize plants is less toxic to insects than are many commercial insecticides commonly used on maize plants.", "Airborne maize pollen tends to collect on the middle leaves of milkweed plants and monarch caterpillars feed only on the plant's tender upper leaves.", "The maize-eating insects that the natural insecticide protects against do not feed on the pollen of the maize plant." ]

[ "The less an infant stares at an object, the weaker the preference the infant has for that object.", "Certain abilities of facial pattern recognition are innate in humans, rather than learned.", "Infants learn to associate the sound of human voices with the images of human faces.", "The longer an infant stares at an object, the more interesting the infant finds that object." ]

[ "The fact that a large concentration of bleach will make fabric very white does not prove that a small concentration of bleach will make fabric somewhat white. The effect of a small concentration of bleach may be too slight to change the color of the fabric.", "From the fact that five professional taste testers found a new cereal product tasty, it does not follow that everyone will like it. Many people find broccoli a tasty food, but other people have a strong dislike for the taste of broccoli.", "Although watching television for half of every day would be a waste of time, watching television briefly every day is not necessarily even a small waste of time. After all, it would be a waste to sleep half of every day, but some sleep every day is necessary.", "Although a healthful diet should include a certain amount of fiber, it does not follow that a diet that includes large amounts of fiber is more healthful than one that includes smaller amounts of fiber. Too much fiber can interfere with proper digestion." ]

[ "In a letter written in early 1428, a merchant told of having seen the design for a much-discussed new coin called the \"rose noble. \"", "The Royal Theatre Company includes the play on a list of those performed in 1480.", "The rose noble was neither minted nor circulated after 1468.", "Although Henry VI was deposed in 1461, he was briefly restored to the throne in 1470." ]

[ "The first is a generalization; the second is a consequence of that generalization.", "The first is an assertion that the author questions; the second is evidence in support of that assertion.", "The first is the author's position; the second is a consideration in support of that position.", "The first is evidence in support of the author's main point; the second is the author's main point." ]

[ "The more time one spends and the fewer people that are around, the more one will like a work of art.", "Museum art-show events do not facilitate proper appreciation of art.", "Art museum directors are forced to put on art-show events in order to raise money.", "People who really love and understand art tend to avoid museum art-show events." ]

[ "You are likely to travel to at least one of the destinations serviced by Worldwide Airlines.", "Some of the destinations to which you would be likely to travel are serviced by airlines that compete with Worldwide Airlines.", "The purchases you normally make are invariably from businesses that accept the X card.", "You can accumulate an amount of credit with Worldwide Airlines that is at least as great as the value of any of the potential purchases you could not afford before." ]

[ "These witnesses were less inclined than most of the other witnesses to be influenced in their testimony by the nature of the questioning.", "These witnesses were unclear about the details at first but then began to remember more accurately as they answered questions.", "These witnesses had better memories than did most of the other witnesses.", "These witnesses were more observant about details than were most of the other witnesses." ]

[ "Whether the anticipated technology will damage objects under study", "Whether any of the contents of the site will significantly deteriorate before the anticipated technology is available", "Whether the site was inhabited by a very ancient culture", "Whether there will continue to be improvements on the relevant technology" ]

[ "the proportion of the trees cut down by the woodcutters each year that are cut in the forests used by monarch butterflies for hibernation", "the amount of forest land suitable for monarch butterfly hibernation that is not currently used by monarch butterflies for hibernation", "the amount of plant life trampled by the tourists that is not necessary to the survival of monarch butterflies", "the proportion of hibernating monarch butterflies that fall of the trees" ]

[ "Many bees live in habitats other than woodlands.", "The likelihood that a plant is pollinated increases as the number of visits from pollinators increases.", "Woodlands are not the natural habitat of all pollinators.", "Many crops that are not near woodlands depend on pollination." ]

[ "After the recent increase in the minimum wage, decreased job turnover in the fast-food industry allowed employers of fast-food workers to save enough on recruiting costs to cover the cost of the wage increase.", "If, in any industry, an increase in the minimum wage leads to the elimination of many jobs that pay the minimum wage, then higher-paying supervisory positions will also be eliminated in that industry.", "Sales of fast food to workers who are paid the minimum wage did not increase following the recent change in the minimum wage.", "With respect to its response to increases in the minimum wage, the fast-food industry does not differ significantly from other industries that employ many workers at the minimum wage." ]

[ "The difficult postwar recording conditions had some beneficial consequences for bebop.", "Musicians will not record extremely short solos unless difficult recording conditions force them to do so.", "Short bebop recordings are always superior to longer ones.", "Representations of live solos generally are not valuable artistic works." ]

[ "Most of the Canadian films produced this year were shown at the Lac Nichoutec Film Festival.", "Some of the films that won prizes at international film festivals this year were Canadian films.", "This year, at least one film that won a prize at an international film festival was not shown at the Lac Nichoutec Film Festival.", "This year, not every film that won a prize at the Lac Nichoutec Film Festival was also shown at an international film festival." ]

[ "Tremors lead to the release of hydrogen sulfide gas into water, thereby causing various fish and shellfish to behave erratically.", "Even very slight, fleeting tremors cause catfish to swim erratically.", "In Japan, which is subject to frequent earthquakes, the behavior of catfish has long been associated with earthquakes.", "Mechanical methods for detecting earthquakes have not proved effective." ]

[ "The confidence people have in what they remember having seen is affected by their awareness of what other people claim to have seen.", "The accuracy of an eyewitness account is doubtful if the eyewitness contradicts what other eyewitnesses claim to have seen.", "If several eyewitnesses all identify the same suspect in a lineup, it is more likely that the suspect committed the crime than if only one eyewitness identifies the suspect.", "Police officers are more interested in the confidence witnesses have when testifying than in the accuracy of that testimony." ]

[ "right now, only an extremely small percentage of all incarcerated burglars and thieves have studied sociology, which examines recidivism", "convicts with certain mental illnesses tend to lapse into recidivism regardless of the opportunities and support they encounter upon their release", "higher educational level provides wider job opportunities, and according to studies, poverty is one of the chief causes of recidivism.", "a wider education would allow those currently incarcerated to understand and appreciate the high incidence of recidivism" ]

[ "The cost of living near Summit is relatively low compared to areas in which some other computer companies are located.", "Some people employed in the computer industry change jobs if they become bored with their current projects.", "A hierarchical work environment hinders the cooperative exchange of ideas that computer industry employees consider necessary for their work.", "In a nonhierarchical work environment, people avoid behavior that might threaten group harmony and thus avoid discussing with their colleagues any dissatisfaction they might have with their jobs." ]

[ "Studies in several countries show that the amount of gasoline purchased by consumers initially rises after the price of gasoline has fallen.", "There are many different gasoline companies that compete with each other to provide the most attractive price to consumers.", "Gasoline manufacturers will not expand their profit margins.", "Refining costs, distribution costs, and taxes, none of which varies significantly with oil prices, constitute a large portion of the price of gasoline." ]

[ "If people were not communicating via computer, they would most likely be engaged in activities that create stronger social bonds.", "Face-to-face communication is more likely to contribute to the creation of social bonds than is anonymous communication.", "It is desirable that new social bonds be created to replace the ones that have dissolved.", "A general trend of modern life is to dissolve the social bonds that formerly connected people." ]

[ "This year the average size of the donations to Smithtown University from new donors when the university's fund-raisers had contacted was larger than the average size of donations from donors who had given to the university before.", "The majority of the donations that fund-raisers succeeded in getting for Smithtown University this year were from donors who had never given to the university before.", "This year most of the donations that came to Smithtown University from people who had previously donated to it were made without the university's fund-raisers having made any contact with the donors.", "Smithtown University's fund-raisers were successful in their contacts with potential donors who had never given before about as frequently as were fund-raisers for other universities in their contacts with such people." ]

[ "Some part of the panthers' current habitat is only of marginal quality.", "Today, Florida panthers occupy a larger habitat than they did in the 1970s.", "Unless Florida panthers acquire a larger habitat, their population will not be self-sustaining.", "If the population of Florida panthers ever exceeds 250, it will be self-sustaining." ]

[ "According to a magazine article, the view that present-day English is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language is incorrect. Rather, English more likely descended from a Finno-Ugric language, judging from the similarities between English and other languages of Finno-Ugric descent.", "Alexander the Great was buried either in Alexandria or in Siwa, Egypt. However, the burial place is more likely to be Siwa. A limestone table engraved by Ptolemy, Alexander's lieutenant, was found in Siwa, attesting to Alexander's burial place.", "If the defendant committed the crime, then either the defendant had a motive or the defendant is irrational, for only irrational persons act with no motive. If the psychologist is correct, then the defendant is not rational; on the other hand, according to the evidence, the defendant had a strong motive. Thus, since there is no reason to disbelieve the evidence, the defendant is guilty.", "The human brain can survive without oxygen only for a few minutes, according to modern medicine. Surprisingly, a reliable witness reported that a shaman has survived for an entire week buried five feet underground. Thus, if modern medicine is not wrong, either the witness is mistaken or the shaman's brain did not suffer any lack of oxygen." ]

[ "Consumer demand for the drug company's other products has been strong in the time since the company's newest product was introduced.", "Many new products fail whether or not they are supported by marketing campaigns.", "Undertaking a new marketing campaign would endanger the drug company's overall position by necessitating cutbacks in existing marketing campaigns.", "The drug company has invested heavily in its newest product, and losses due to this product would be harmful to the company's profits." ]

[ "The country should reconsider citizens' rights to better protect Americans.", "Gun control is an effective counter-terrorism strategy.", "The government should allocate more resources toward combatting terrorism.", "Adjusting the balance between civil liberties and national security is necessary to prevent terrorism." ]

[ "many activities promote mental maturity just as well as chess does", "children who neither play chess nor study science are mentally immature", "children should be taught to play chess", "chess is socially valuable and science is not" ]

[ "Universities are the only institutions that have an obligation to guarantee intellectual freedom.", "Most inventions by university faculty members would be profitable if patented.", "Publication of reports on research is the only practical way to disseminate information concerning new discoveries.", "Universities that have a motive to suppress information concerning discoveries by their faculty members will occasionally act on that motive." ]