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FLORIDA LAND USE AND LAND COVER CHANGE IN THE PAST 100 YEARS • 61
Figure 2.1. Historic, current, and future hydrologic patterns in the Everglades watershed. Future hydrologic
patterns are those anticipated under the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP). Primary flow
patterns are shown by blue arrows, with canals indicated by blue and red lines. Image credit: Jacksonville
District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
Since the Spanish settlers arrived in the 1500s, people have been introducing new exotic
species to Florida. As mentioned earlier, the Spanish brought citrus, sugarcane, and cattle as well
as hogs. Some of the species that have been introduced are invasive and have led to changes in
land cover. For example, melaleuca (Melaleuca quinquenervia) was introduced in the early
1900s and used as an ornamental, for erosion control, and in efforts to drain the Everglades
(Serbesoff-King 2003; Silvers 2004). However, melaleuca often outcompetes native plants and
does not provide habitat for most native species (Silvers 2004). Another example is the fastgrowing Australian pine (Casuarina spp.), which mariners introduced to create windbreaks. Like
melaleuca, these trees shaded out native vegetation and created areas that primarily contained
one species (Pernas et al. 2013). The Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius), introduced as
an ornamental in the 19th century, has also invaded over 700,000 acres in Central and South
Florida creating dense shrublands that shade out many other plants (Florida Fish and Wildlife
Conservation Commission, 2016). The impacts of this exotic, invasive, and ecosystemtransforming species will be touched upon later in this chapter.
Many Florida ecosystems are dependent on fire including sandhills, flatwoods, and scrub.
Frequent landscape-scale fires clear away undergrowth and help maintain open pine-dominated
forests with high biodiversity. Fire suppression in Florida began in the 1930s to facilitate forest
regeneration and protect areas of timber production. However, suppressing fires led to landscapescale alterations in forest structure, and species dependent on fire-maintained forest, shrub, and
grassland ecosystems declined precipitously. In recent years, natural and prescribed burns have
been used to improve the health of fire-dependent ecosystems, but fire suppression is still a major
issue across Florida (Florida Department of Agricultural and Consumer Services [FDACS]
2016).
Historic Current Future
62 • MICHAEL I. VOLK ET AL.
Conservation
The formal conservation of lands and waters within Florida spans over a century, coinciding well
with the land cover and land use changes detailed in this chapter. While the federal government
created many of these protected areas, including the earliest, the sheer number, size, and natural
resources conserved is impressive. Florida has been a magnet for conservation action by various
governmental and private conservation entities because of its subtropical location, its peninsular
geography, its many endemic and imperiled species, and its rapid development since the
beginning of the 20th century.
President Theodore Roosevelt established Florida’s first national wildlife refuge (NWR) and
national forest. Roosevelt created the Pelican Island NWR in 1903 to protect wading bird
populations from decimation by plume hunters. There are now 29 NWRs in Florida protecting
hundreds of thousands of acres. Roosevelt also established the Ocala National Forest in 1908.
Florida now supports three national forests covering over 1.2 million acres and oversees the
1,400-mile-long congressionally-authorized Florida National Scenic Trail. These national forests
help protect at least 145 species of endangered, threatened and sensitive plant species and 51
such animal species. The National Park Service also manages large and diverse conservation
areas including Everglades National Park and Big Cypress National Preserve in South Florida,
plus national seashores and monuments across Florida.
The formation of Everglades National Park, recognized as a World Heritage Site and
International Biosphere Reserve, began in 1915 when the Florida legislature gave 960 acres of
land encompassing Royal Palm Hammock in Dade County to establish Royal Palm State Park.
The legislature added 2,080 acres to the park in 1921. Congress authorized Everglades National
Park in 1934, which included Key Largo and the Big Cypress Swamp. An additional 1.3 million
acres was transferred to the federal government by Florida and donated or sold by several private
landowners with Everglades National Park dedicated in December of 1947. The park now
encompasses over 1.5 million acres and helps protect numerous federally imperiled species.
However, water flows from Lake Okeechobee through the historic River of Grass to the park
have been severely compromised with solutions still possibly decades away.
The Water Conservation Areas (WCAs) south and east of Lake Okeechobee were initially
designated in the early 1900s by the Everglades Drainage District on state lands deeded to Florida
by Roosevelt in 1904. The Central and South Florida Flood Control District expanded and
formalized these areas during the development of the Central and South Florida Flood control
project in the 1940s and 1950s. Additional lands were acquired by the state in the 1990s as a
Save Our Rivers project. Covering nearly 850,000 acres, they are a critical component of South
Florida’s water management system. They are also extremely important for helping to recharge
the Biscayne Aquifer, the major source of urban South Florida’s drinking water supply.
Efforts at the state level to conserve Florida’s biodiversity and water resources are likewise
significant. Florida’s first state park was initially acquired with private funds in 1929, and opened
to the public two years later. Florida’s State Park system now includes 161 state parks covering
FLORIDA LAND USE AND LAND COVER CHANGE IN THE PAST 100 YEARS • 63
more than 800,000 acres. With over 100 miles of beach habitat and providing protection for
thousands of Florida’s plant and wildlife species, the park system attracts more than 25 million
visitors annually.
Pine Log State Forest, located just north of Panama City, was established as Florida’s first
state forest in 1936. Now, 37 state forests, managed by the Florida Forest Service, protect nearly
1.1 million acres of productive habitats. Although it is difficult to pin down when the first state
wildlife management area (WMA) was established, there are now over 150 Florida WMAs
covering approximately 5.8 million acres. While natural resource and habitat management are
important components of these areas, the hunting of game animals is one of the reasons for their
popularity. Combined, the WMAs in Florida generate over 220,000 jobs and a $25 billion
economic impact.
In more recent times, Florida has sought a more focused and science-based effort toward the
conservation of its natural resources. In the 20 years between 1969 and 1989, the state protected
approximately one million acres of land, with most acquired through fee simple (outright land
purchases) during the latter half of that period. The major programs involved were the
Environmentally Endangered Lands (EEL), Conservation and Recreation Lands (CARL), Save
Our Coasts, and Save Our Rivers programs. In 1972, the Florida legislature enacted the Land
Conservation Act, which created the EEL program, specifically designed to protect
environmentally unique and irreplaceable lands (Knight et al. 2011). Governor Bob Graham
(Democrat) is credited with creation of the CARL program, which was crafted by the Florida
legislature in 1979 to acquire and manage public lands and to conserve and protect
environmentally unique lands and areas of critical state concern.
In 1990, the CARL program was largely replaced by the Preservation 2000 (P2000) program,
which was a 10-year, $3 billion land acquisition program funded annually through the sale of
bonds (Farr and Brock 2006). At the time, it was the largest conservation land acquisition
program in the country. The program’s state governmental agency recipients, often with the help
of private conservation organizations, purchased more than 1.7 million acres of new conservation
lands under the program, including many of Florida’s most important conservation holdings.
The state’s second robust land protection program, Florida Forever (FF), succeeded P2000
with another 10-year, multi-billion-dollar commitment. The FF program was created under the
leadership of Governor Jeb Bush (Republican) by the Florida legislature in 1999. It authorized
the issuance of up to $3 billion in bonds for land acquisition, water resource development,
preservation and restoration of open space, greenways and trails, and outdoor recreation (Farr

FLORIDA LAND USE AND LAND COVER CHANGE IN THE PAST 100 YEARS • 61

Figure 2.1. Historic, current, and future hydrologic patterns in the Everglades watershed. Future hydrologic

patterns are those anticipated under the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP). Primary flow

patterns are shown by blue arrows, with canals indicated by blue and red lines. Image credit: Jacksonville

District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

Since the Spanish settlers arrived in the 1500s, people have been introducing new exotic

species to Florida. As mentioned earlier, the Spanish brought citrus, sugarcane, and cattle as well

as hogs. Some of the species that have been introduced are invasive and have led to changes in

land cover. For example, melaleuca (Melaleuca quinquenervia) was introduced in the early

1900s and used as an ornamental, for erosion control, and in efforts to drain the Everglades

(Serbesoff-King 2003; Silvers 2004). However, melaleuca often outcompetes native plants and

does not provide habitat for most native species (Silvers 2004). Another example is the fastgrowing Australian pine (Casuarina spp.), which mariners introduced to create windbreaks. Like

melaleuca, these trees shaded out native vegetation and created areas that primarily contained

one species (Pernas et al. 2013). The Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius), introduced as

an ornamental in the 19th century, has also invaded over 700,000 acres in Central and South

Florida creating dense shrublands that shade out many other plants (Florida Fish and Wildlife

Conservation Commission, 2016). The impacts of this exotic, invasive, and ecosystemtransforming species will be touched upon later in this chapter.

Many Florida ecosystems are dependent on fire including sandhills, flatwoods, and scrub.

Frequent landscape-scale fires clear away undergrowth and help maintain open pine-dominated

forests with high biodiversity. Fire suppression in Florida began in the 1930s to facilitate forest

regeneration and protect areas of timber production. However, suppressing fires led to landscapescale alterations in forest structure, and species dependent on fire-maintained forest, shrub, and

grassland ecosystems declined precipitously. In recent years, natural and prescribed burns have

been used to improve the health of fire-dependent ecosystems, but fire suppression is still a major

issue across Florida (Florida Department of Agricultural and Consumer Services [FDACS]

2016).

Historic Current Future

62 • MICHAEL I. VOLK ET AL.

Conservation

The formal conservation of lands and waters within Florida spans over a century, coinciding well

with the land cover and land use changes detailed in this chapter. While the federal government

created many of these protected areas, including the earliest, the sheer number, size, and natural

resources conserved is impressive. Florida has been a magnet for conservation action by various

governmental and private conservation entities because of its subtropical location, its peninsular

geography, its many endemic and imperiled species, and its rapid development since the

beginning of the 20th century.

President Theodore Roosevelt established Florida’s first national wildlife refuge (NWR) and

national forest. Roosevelt created the Pelican Island NWR in 1903 to protect wading bird

populations from decimation by plume hunters. There are now 29 NWRs in Florida protecting

hundreds of thousands of acres. Roosevelt also established the Ocala National Forest in 1908.

Florida now supports three national forests covering over 1.2 million acres and oversees the

1,400-mile-long congressionally-authorized Florida National Scenic Trail. These national forests

help protect at least 145 species of endangered, threatened and sensitive plant species and 51

such animal species. The National Park Service also manages large and diverse conservation

areas including Everglades National Park and Big Cypress National Preserve in South Florida,

plus national seashores and monuments across Florida.

The formation of Everglades National Park, recognized as a World Heritage Site and

International Biosphere Reserve, began in 1915 when the Florida legislature gave 960 acres of

land encompassing Royal Palm Hammock in Dade County to establish Royal Palm State Park.

The legislature added 2,080 acres to the park in 1921. Congress authorized Everglades National

Park in 1934, which included Key Largo and the Big Cypress Swamp. An additional 1.3 million

acres was transferred to the federal government by Florida and donated or sold by several private

landowners with Everglades National Park dedicated in December of 1947. The park now

encompasses over 1.5 million acres and helps protect numerous federally imperiled species.

However, water flows from Lake Okeechobee through the historic River of Grass to the park

have been severely compromised with solutions still possibly decades away.

The Water Conservation Areas (WCAs) south and east of Lake Okeechobee were initially

designated in the early 1900s by the Everglades Drainage District on state lands deeded to Florida

by Roosevelt in 1904. The Central and South Florida Flood Control District expanded and

formalized these areas during the development of the Central and South Florida Flood control

project in the 1940s and 1950s. Additional lands were acquired by the state in the 1990s as a

Save Our Rivers project. Covering nearly 850,000 acres, they are a critical component of South

Florida’s water management system. They are also extremely important for helping to recharge

the Biscayne Aquifer, the major source of urban South Florida’s drinking water supply.

Efforts at the state level to conserve Florida’s biodiversity and water resources are likewise

significant. Florida’s first state park was initially acquired with private funds in 1929, and opened

to the public two years later. Florida’s State Park system now includes 161 state parks covering

FLORIDA LAND USE AND LAND COVER CHANGE IN THE PAST 100 YEARS • 63

more than 800,000 acres. With over 100 miles of beach habitat and providing protection for

thousands of Florida’s plant and wildlife species, the park system attracts more than 25 million

visitors annually.

Pine Log State Forest, located just north of Panama City, was established as Florida’s first

state forest in 1936. Now, 37 state forests, managed by the Florida Forest Service, protect nearly

1.1 million acres of productive habitats. Although it is difficult to pin down when the first state

wildlife management area (WMA) was established, there are now over 150 Florida WMAs

covering approximately 5.8 million acres. While natural resource and habitat management are

important components of these areas, the hunting of game animals is one of the reasons for their

popularity. Combined, the WMAs in Florida generate over 220,000 jobs and a $25 billion

economic impact.

In more recent times, Florida has sought a more focused and science-based effort toward the

conservation of its natural resources. In the 20 years between 1969 and 1989, the state protected

approximately one million acres of land, with most acquired through fee simple (outright land

purchases) during the latter half of that period. The major programs involved were the

Environmentally Endangered Lands (EEL), Conservation and Recreation Lands (CARL), Save

Our Coasts, and Save Our Rivers programs. In 1972, the Florida legislature enacted the Land

Conservation Act, which created the EEL program, specifically designed to protect

environmentally unique and irreplaceable lands (Knight et al. 2011). Governor Bob Graham

(Democrat) is credited with creation of the CARL program, which was crafted by the Florida

legislature in 1979 to acquire and manage public lands and to conserve and protect

environmentally unique lands and areas of critical state concern.

In 1990, the CARL program was largely replaced by the Preservation 2000 (P2000) program,

which was a 10-year, $3 billion land acquisition program funded annually through the sale of

bonds (Farr and Brock 2006). At the time, it was the largest conservation land acquisition

program in the country. The program’s state governmental agency recipients, often with the help

of private conservation organizations, purchased more than 1.7 million acres of new conservation

lands under the program, including many of Florida’s most important conservation holdings.

The state’s second robust land protection program, Florida Forever (FF), succeeded P2000

with another 10-year, multi-billion-dollar commitment. The FF program was created under the

leadership of Governor Jeb Bush (Republican) by the Florida legislature in 1999. It authorized

the issuance of up to $3 billion in bonds for land acquisition, water resource development,

preservation and restoration of open space, greenways and trails, and outdoor recreation (Farr