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Antaeotricha lucrosa
Antaeotricha lucrosa is a moth of the family Depressariidae. It is found in Brazil (Para).
The wingspan is 14–15 mm for males and 16 mm for females. The forewings are whitish-ochreous, more or less tinged or mixed light fuscous except towards the costa anteriorly, the dorsal half suffused light fuscous. There is a short dark fuscous transverse mark at the base of the costa, and a supramedian dash near the base almost touching this. There are three irregular oblique transverse fuscous lines from dark fuscous marks on the costa at one-fourth, the middle, and three-fourths, the first traversing but more or less interrupted above and below the first discal stigma, which is large, dark fuscous, irregular-oval, the second discal stigma on the second line is smaller, dark fuscous and elongate, the third line slightly sinuate, running to the termen above the tornus. There is a marginal series of blackish dots around the apex and termen. The hindwings are light grey.
References
Category:Moths described in 1925
Category:Antaeotricha
Category:Moths of South America
Category:Taxa named by Edward Meyrick
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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Wikipedia (en)
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---
abstract: 'Let $n$ be a positive integer. We introduce a concept, which we call the $n$-filling property, for an action of a group on a separable unital $C^*$-algebra $A$. If $A=C({{\Omega}})$ is a commutative unital $C^*$-algebra and the action is induced by a group of homeomorphisms of ${{\Omega}}$ then the $n$-filling property reduces to a weak version of hyperbolicity. The $n$-filling property is used to prove that certain crossed product $C^*$-algebras are purely infinite and simple. A variety of group actions on boundaries of symmetric spaces and buildings have the $n$-filling property. An explicit example is the action of ${{\Gamma}}=SL_n({{\mathbb Z}})$ on the projective $n$-space.'
address:
- 'Institut de Mathématiques, Université de Neuchâtel, Emile-Argand 11, CH-2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland'
- |
Department of Mathematics\
University of Newcastle\
NSW 2308\
AUSTRALIA
author:
- Paul Jolissaint
- Guyan Robertson
date: 'January 14, 2000'
title: 'Simple purely infinite $C^*$-algebras and $n$-filling actions'
---
[^1] [^2]
Introduction {#introduction .unnumbered}
============
Consider a $C^*$-dynamical system $(A,\alpha,{{\Gamma}})$ where $A$ is a separable unital $C^*$-algebra on which ${{\Gamma}}$ acts by $*$-automorphisms.
\[ncnfilling\] Let $n \ge 2$ be a positive integer. We say that an action $\alpha : g \mapsto \alpha_g$ of ${{\Gamma}}$ on $A$ is [*$n$-filling*]{} if, for all $b_1,b_2,\dots,b_n\in A^+$, with $\|b_j\|=1,\,1\le j \le n$, and for all ${{\epsilon}}>0$, there exist $g_1,g_2,\dots,g_n\in{{\Gamma}}$ such that $\sum_{j=1}^n \alpha_{g_j}(b_j)\ge 1-{{\epsilon}}$.
If $A$ is a commutative unital $C^*$-algebra and $\alpha$ is induced by a group of homeomorphisms of the spectrum ${{\Omega}}$ of $A$, then the $n$-filling property is equivalent to a generalized global version of hyperbolicity (Proposition \[comnfilling\] below). In this setting, the definition was motivated by ideas from [@ad; @ls] and [@bch]. The present article applies the $n$-filling property to give a proof that certain crossed product $C^*$-algebras are purely infinite and simple (Theorem \[ncnf\]). In the commutative case, similar results were obtained in [@ad; @ls] using local properties of the action. The paper [@ad] also considers more general groupoid $C^*$-algebras. Simple crossed product algebras have been constructed using the related concept of a strongly hyperbolic action in [@h Appendix 2].
In order to prove the $n$-filling condition as stated in Definition \[ncnfilling\] it is sufficient to verify it for all $b_1,b_2,\dots,b_n$ in a dense subset $C$ of $A^+$. For then if $b_1,b_2,\dots,b_n\in A^+$, with $\|b_j\|=1,\,1\le j \le n$, and if ${{\epsilon}}>0$, choose $c_1,c_2,\dots,c_n \in C$ such that $\|b_j-c_j\|<\frac{{{\epsilon}}}{2n}$ for all $j$ and $\sum_{j=1}^n \alpha_{g_j}(c_j)\ge 1-{{\epsilon}}/2$. Write $$\sum_{j=1}^n \alpha_{g_j}(b_j-c_j)=x=x_+-x_-$$ where $x_+,x_-\in A^+$ and $x_+x_-=0$. We have $x\ge -{{\epsilon}}/2$ and therefore $$\sum_{j=1}^n \alpha_{g_j}(b_j)=\sum_{j=1}^n \alpha_{g_j}(c_j)+x\ge1-{{\epsilon}}/2-{{\epsilon}}/2=1-{{\epsilon}}.$$
Suppose that $A=C({{\Omega}})$, the algebra of continuous complex valued functions on a compact Hausdorff space ${{\Omega}}$. If the action arises from an action of ${{\Gamma}}$ on ${{\Omega}}$ by homeomorphisms, then the $n$-filling condition can be expressed in the following way, which explains its name.
\[comnfilling\] Let ${{\Omega}}$ be an infinite compact Hausdorff space and let ${{\Gamma}}$ be a group which acts on ${{\Omega}}$ by homeomorphisms. The induced action $\alpha$ of ${{\Gamma}}$ on $C({{\Omega}})$ is $n$-filling if and only if the following condition is satisfied: for any nonempty open subsets $U_1, \dots , U_n$ of ${{\Omega}}$, there exist $g_1,\dots,g_n \in {{\Gamma}}$ such that $g_1U_1 \cup \dots \cup g_nU_n = {{\Omega}}$.
If the action is $n$-filling, let $U_1, \dots , U_n$ be nonempty open subsets of ${{\Omega}}$. There exist elements $b_1,b_2,\dots,b_n\in A^+$, with $\|b_j\|=1$, such that $\operatorname{supp}(b_j)\subset U_j$, $1\le j \le n$. By hypothesis there exist $g_1,g_2,\dots,g_n\in{{\Gamma}}$ such that $\sum_{j=1}^n \alpha_{g_j}(b_j)\ge 1/2$. Then if ${{\omega}}\in{{\Omega}}$ there exists $i\in\{1,2,\dots,n\}$ such that $\alpha_{g_i}(b_i)({{\omega}})>0$. Therefore $g_i^{-1}{{\omega}}\in U_i$, i.e. ${{\omega}}\in g_iU_i$. Thus $g_1U_1 \cup \dots \cup g_nU_n = {{\Omega}}$.
Conversely, suppose the stated assertion holds. Fix $b_1,b_2,\dots,b_n\in A^+$, with $\|b_j\|=1,\,1\le j \le n$, and let ${{\epsilon}}>0$. For each $j$, the set $U_j=\{{{\omega}}\in{{\Omega}}\,;\, b_j({{\omega}})>1-{{\epsilon}}\}$ is a nonempty and open. Choose $g_1,\dots,g_n \in {{\Gamma}}$ such that $g_1U_1 \cup \dots \cup g_nU_n = {{\Omega}}$. If ${{\omega}}\in{{\Omega}}$, then $g_i^{-1}{{\omega}}\in U_i$ for some $i$ and so $\alpha_{g_i}(b_i)({{\omega}})>1-{{\epsilon}}$. Therefore $\sum_{j=1}^n \alpha_{g_j}(b_j)\ge 1-{{\epsilon}}$.
If the action of the group ${{\Gamma}}$ on the space ${{\Omega}}$ is topologically transitive (in particular, if it is minimal) then the $n$-filling condition is equivalent to the following apparently weaker condition: for each nonempty open subset $U$ of ${{\Omega}}$, there exist $t_1,\dots,t_n \in {{\Gamma}}$ such that $t_1U \cup \dots \cup t_nU = {{\Omega}}$.
In order to see this, suppose that $U_1, \dots , U_n$ are nonempty open subsets of ${{\Omega}}$. There exists $g_2 \in {{\Gamma}}$ such that $U_1 \cap g_2U_2 \ne \emptyset$. Then there exists $g_3 \in {{\Gamma}}$ such that $U_1 \cap g_2U_2 \cap g_3U_3 \ne \emptyset$. Finally, there exists $g_n \in {{\Gamma}}$ such that $U = U_1 \cap g_2U_2 \dots \cap g_nU_n \ne \emptyset$. Then there exist $t_1,\dots,t_n \in {{\Gamma}}$ such that $t_1U \cup \dots \cup t_nU = {{\Omega}}$ and so $t_1U_1 \cup t_2g_2U_2 \dots \cup t_ng_nU_n = {{\Omega}}$.
\[n-filling\] Let $\phi({{\Gamma}},{{\Omega}})$ be the smallest integer $n$ for which the conclusion of Proposition \[comnfilling\] holds. Set $\phi({{\Gamma}},{{\Omega}})= \infty$ if no such $n$ exists; that is, if the action is not $n$-filling for any integer $n$.
Topologically conjugate actions have the same value of $\phi({{\Gamma}},{{\Omega}})$. It is easy to see that the notion of a $2$-filling action is equivalent to what is called a [*strong boundary action*]{} in [@ls] and an [*extremely proximal flow*]{} in [@g]. The action of a word hyperbolic group on its Gromov boundary is $2$-filling [@ls Example 2.1]. In our first example below (Example \[projectivespace\]) we show that the canonical action of ${{\Gamma}}=SL_n({{\mathbb Z}})$ on the projective space $\Pi={{\mathbb P}}^{n-1}({{\mathbb R}})$ satisfies $\phi({{\Gamma}},\Pi)=n$.
The final part of the paper is devoted to estimating $\phi({{\Gamma}},{{\Omega}})$ for some group actions on the boundaries of affine buildings. These estimates show that $\phi({{\Gamma}},{{\Omega}})$ is not a stable isomorphism invariant for the algebra $C({{\Omega}}) \rtimes_r {{\Gamma}}$ (Example \[notsii\]).
Purely infinite $C^*$-algebras from $n$-filling actions {#pisun}
=======================================================
\[properlyouter\] An automorphism $\alpha$ of a $C^*$-algebra $A$ is said to be [*properly outer*]{} if for each nonzero $\alpha$-invariant ideal $I$ of $A$ and for each inner automorphism $\beta$ of $I$ we have $\| \alpha |I - \beta \| =2$.
We shall say that an action $\alpha : g \mapsto \alpha_g$ is properly outer if for all $g\in {{\Gamma}}\backslash\{e\}$, $\alpha_g$ is properly outer.
The purpose of this section is to prove the following result.
\[ncnf\] Let $(A,\alpha,{{\Gamma}})$ be a $C^*$-dynamical system, where $A$ is a separable unital $C^*$-algebra. Suppose that for every nonzero projection $e\in A$ the hereditary $C^*$-subalgebra $eAe$ is infinite dimensional. Suppose also that the action $\alpha$ is $n$-filling and properly outer. Then the reduced crossed product algebra $B=A\rtimes_{\alpha,r}{{\Gamma}}$ is a purely infinite simple $C^*$-algebra.
If $A=C({{\Omega}})$, with ${{\Omega}}$ a compact Hausdorff space, the condition that $eAe$ is infinite dimensional for every nonzero projection $e\in A$ says simply that the space ${{\Omega}}$ has no isolated points.
It was shown in [@as Proposition 1] that if the action $\alpha$ is [*topologically free*]{} then $\alpha$ is properly outer.
(Inspired by [@ls Theorem 5].) Denote by $E:B\to A$ the canonical conditional expectation. Fix $x\in B, \, x\ne 0$. In order to prove the result it is enough to show that there exist $y,z\in B$ such that $yxz=1$. Put $a=\frac{x^*x}{\|E(x^*x)\|}$. Let $0<{{\epsilon}}<\frac{1}{2(2n+1)}$. There exists $b\in C_c({{\Gamma}},A)^+$ such that $\|a-b\|<{{\epsilon}}$. Write $b=b_e+\sum_{g\in F}b_gu_g$, where $b_e=E(b)\ge 0$ and $F\subset {{\Gamma}}\setminus\{e\}$ is finite. Note that ${{\epsilon}}>\|E(a-b)\|=\|E(a)-b_e\|\ge \big|1-\|b_e\|\big|$, and so $\| b_e\|^{-1}<1+2{{\epsilon}}$. It follows that $$\big\|a-\frac{b}{\| b_e\|}\big\|=\| b_e\|^{-1}\big\|(\| b_e\|-1)a +a-b\big\|
<(1+2{{\epsilon}})({{\epsilon}}\| a\|+{{\epsilon}})={{\epsilon}}(1+2{{\epsilon}})(1+\| a\|).$$ Choosing $b$ so that $\| a-b\|<\frac{{{\epsilon}}}{3(1+\| a\|)}$ then replacing $b$ by $\frac{b}{\| b_e\|}$ shows that we can assume that $\| b_e\|=1$.
Since $\alpha_g$ is properly outer for each $g\in F$, it follows from [@op Lemma 7.1] that there exists $y\in A^+$, $\| y\|=1$ such that $\|b_e\|\ge\|yb_ey\|>\|b_e\|-{{\epsilon}}/|F|$ and $\|yb_g\alpha_g(y)\|<{{\epsilon}}/|F|$ for all $g\in F$. Using Lemma \[ncnfm\] below, we see that there exists $c\in B$ such that $\|c\|\le\sqrt n$ and $c^*yb_eyc\ge1-3{{\epsilon}}$.
Then $$\begin{split}
\| c^*yayc-c^*yb_eyc\|
&\le \| c^*yayc-c^*ybyc\| + \| c^*ybyc-c^*yb_eyc\| \\
&\le n\|a-b\| + n\|yby-yb_ey\| \\
&\le n{{\epsilon}}+n\sum_{g\in F}
\| yb_gu_gyu_g^{-1}u_g\| \le 2n{{\epsilon}}\end{split}$$
Therefore $c^*yayc$ is invertible since $(\|c^*yb_eyc)^{-1}\| \le \frac{1}{1-3{{\epsilon}}}$ and $$\| 1-(c^*yb_eyc)^{-1}
(c^*yayc)\|
\le \frac{2n{{\epsilon}}}{1-3{{\epsilon}}} < \frac{n}{2n-1} <1.$$ Setting $z=(c^*yayc)^{-1}$ we have $\|E(x^*x)\|^{-1}c^*yx^*\cdot x\cdot ycz=1.$
It remains to prove Lemma \[ncnfm\]. A preliminary observation is necessary.
\[ncnfl\] Let $A$ be a unital $C^*$-algebra such that for every nonzero projection $e\in A$ the hereditary $C^*$-subalgebra $eAe$ is infinite dimensional. Let $b\in A^+,\, \| b\|=1$ and let ${{\epsilon}}>0$. For every integer $n\ge 1$ there exist elements $b_1, b_2,\dots, b_n \in A^+$, with $\| b_j\|=1$, $bb_j=b_jb$, $\| bb_j\|\ge 1-{{\epsilon}}$ and $b_ib_j=0, for\ i\ne j$.
There are two cases to consider.
[**Case 1**]{}. Suppose that $1$ is not an isolated point of $\operatorname{Sp}(b)$. Then there exist pairwise disjoint nonempty open sets $U_1, \dots , U_n$ contained in $\operatorname{Sp}(b) \cap [1-{{\epsilon}},1]$. Let $C$ be the $C^*$-subalgebra of $A$ generated by $\{ b,1\}$. By functional calculus, there exist $b_1, b_2,\dots, b_n \in C^+$, $\| b_j\|=1\,(1\le j \le n)$ with $\| bb_j\|\ge 1-{{\epsilon}}$ and $b_ib_j=0,\, i\ne j$.
[**Case 2**]{}. Suppose that $1$ is an isolated point of $\operatorname{Sp}(b)$. Then there exists a nonzero projection $e\in A$ such that $be=eb= e$. By hypothesis the hereditary $C^*$-subalgebra $eAe$ is infinite dimensional. Therefore every masa of $eAe$ is infinite dimensional [@kr p. 288]. Inside such an infinite dimensional masa of $eAe$ we can find positive elements $b_1, b_2,\dots, b_n$, $\| b_j\|=1\,(1\le j \le n)$ with $b_ib_j=0,\, i\ne j$. Then $bb_j=b(eb_j)=eb_j=b_j=b_jb$ and $\|bb_j\|=\|b_j\|=1$ for $1\le j\le n$.
\[ncnfm\] Let $(A,\alpha,{{\Gamma}})$ be as in the statement of Theorem \[ncnf\], let $0<{{\epsilon}}<1/3$ and let $b\in A^+$, with $1-{{\epsilon}}\le \| b\|\le1$. Then there exists $c\in B$ such that $\| c \|\le \sqrt n$ and $c^*bc\ge 1-3{{\epsilon}}$.
By Lemma \[ncnfl\], there exist $b_1, b_2,\dots, b_n \in A^+$, with $\| b_j\|=1$, $bb_j=b_jb$, $b_ib_j=0$ for $i\ne j$, and $\| bb_j\|\ge 1-2{{\epsilon}}$. Since the action is $n$-filling, there exist $g_1,g_2,\dots,g_n\in{{\Gamma}}$ such that $\sum_{i=1}^n
\frac{1}{\| bb_i\| }\alpha_{g_i}(bb_i)\ge 1-{{\epsilon}}$. Therefore $\sum_{i=1}^n\alpha_{g_i}(bb_i)\ge (1-{{\epsilon}})(1-2{{\epsilon}})\ge 1-3{{\epsilon}}.$ Put $c=\sum_{j=1}^n{\sqrt b_j}u_{g_j}^{-1} \in B$.
Now $c^*c=\sum_{i,j}u_{g_i}{\sqrt b_i}{\sqrt b_j}u_{g_j}^{-1}=\sum_{i=1}^n \alpha_{g_i}(b_i)\le n$ and so $\| c\|\le\sqrt n$. Finally, we have $c^*bc= \sum_{i,j}u_{g_i}{\sqrt b_i}b{\sqrt b_j}u_{g_j}^{-1}= \sum_{i=1}^n \alpha_{g_i}(bb_i) \ge 1-3{{\epsilon}}.$
examples
========
We now give some explicit examples of $n$-filling actions.
\[projectivespace\] For the canonical action of ${{\Gamma}}=SL_n({{\mathbb Z}})$ on the projective space $\Pi={{\mathbb P}}^{n-1}({{\mathbb R}})$, we have $\phi({{\Gamma}},\Pi)=n$.
Denote by $u \mapsto [u]$ the canonical map from ${{\mathbb R}}^n$ onto $\Pi$.
We first show that the action of ${{\Gamma}}$ on $\Pi$ is not $(n-1)$-filling. Choose a linear subspace $E$ of ${{\mathbb R}}^n$ of dimension $n-1$. Let $U=\Pi\setminus [E]$, which is a nonempty open subset of $\Pi$. If $t_j \in {{\Gamma}}$ ($1\le j \le n-1$) then $t_1U \cup \dots \cup t_{n-1}U \ne \Pi$. For the subspace $t_1E \cap \dots \cap t_{n-1}E$ of ${{\mathbb R}}^n$ has dimension at least one, and so contains a nonzero vector $v$. Then $[v] \notin \bigcup_{j=1}^{n-1}t_jU$. Thus the action$({{\Gamma}},\Pi)$ is not $(n-1)$-filling. It remains to show that it is $n$-filling. For this we use ideas from [@bch Example 1].
We claim that there exists a basis $\{u_1,u_2,\dots,u_n\}$ for ${{\mathbb R}}^n$, elements $g_1,g_2,\dots,g_n \in {{\Gamma}}$, and (compact) sets $K_1,K_2,\dots,K_n \subset \Pi$ with $K_1\cup K_2\cup\dots\cup K_n=\Pi$, and with the following property: for any open neighbourhood $U_j$ of $[u_j]$ ($1\le j \le n$) there exists a positive integer $N_j$ such that $g_j^nK_j \subset U_j$ for all $n\ge N_j$. It follows that the action is $n$-filling. For let $U_1, \dots , U_n$ be nonempty open subsets of $\Pi$. Since the action of ${{\Gamma}}$ on $\Pi$ is minimal, we may assume that $[u_j]\in U_j$ ($1\le j \le n$). Let $t_j=g_j^{-N_j}$, so that $K_j \subset t_jU_j$ ($1\le j \le n$). Then $t_1U_1 \cup \dots \cup t_nU_n = \Pi$.
It remains to verify our claim. Fix a positive integer $k \ge 4$ and let $a=\frac{2}{\sqrt{k^2+4k}+k}$, $b=\frac{\sqrt{k^2+4k}-k}{2}$. Consider the matrices $A = \bigl( \begin{smallmatrix}
k+1&k\\ 1&1
\end{smallmatrix} \bigr)$ and $B = \bigl( \begin{smallmatrix}
1&1\\ k&k+1
\end{smallmatrix} \bigr)$ in $SL_2({{\mathbb Z}})$. These matrices have eigenvalues $\lambda_+ = 1+\frac{1}{a}$, $\lambda_- = 1-b$, which satisfy $0<\lambda_-<1<\lambda+$. The corresponding eigenvectors for $A$ are $\bigl( \begin{smallmatrix} 1\\ a \end{smallmatrix} \bigr)$ and $\bigl( \begin{smallmatrix} -b\\ 1\end{smallmatrix} \bigr)$; for $B$ they are $\bigl( \begin{smallmatrix} a\\ 1 \end{smallmatrix} \bigr)$ and $\bigl( \begin{smallmatrix} 1\\ -b\end{smallmatrix} \bigr)$. If $1\le j\le n-1$ let $$\begin{aligned}
g_j=
\begin{pmatrix}1&0&\dots&0\\
0&1&\dots&0\\
& & & \\
& & A & \\
& & & \\
0&0&\dots&1
\end{pmatrix}
\end{aligned}
\quad\text{,}\quad
\begin{aligned}
u_j=
\begin{pmatrix}0\\
0\\
\\
1\\
a\\
\\
0
\end{pmatrix}
\end{aligned}
\quad\text{,}\quad
\begin{aligned}
v_j=
\begin{pmatrix}0\\
0\\
\\
-b\\
1\\
\\
0
\end{pmatrix}
\end{aligned}$$ where A occupies the $j$ and $j+1$ rows and columns and the nonzero entries of the vectors are in rows $j$ and $j+1$. Also let $$\begin{aligned}
g_n=
\begin{pmatrix}1&0&\dots&0\\
0&1&\dots&0\\
& & & \\
& & & \\
&& & \\
&& &B
\end{pmatrix}
\end{aligned}
\quad\text{,}\quad
\begin{aligned}
u_n=
\begin{pmatrix}0\\
0\\
\\
\\
\\
a\\
1
\end{pmatrix}
\end{aligned}
\quad\text{,}\quad
\begin{aligned}
v_n=
\begin{pmatrix}0\\
0\\
\\
\\
\\
1 \\
-b
\end{pmatrix} .
\end{aligned}$$
Let $R={\rm max}(\frac{1+a}{1-b},\frac{1+ab}{1-b})=\frac{1+a}{1-b}$. For $1\le j\le n-1$ let $$K_j=\{[\xi_ju_j+\eta_jv_j+\sum_{l\ne j,j+1}\xi_le_l]\ ;\ \xi_j\ne 0,
\big|\frac{\eta_j}{\xi_j}\big|\le R, \big|\frac{\xi_l}{\xi_j}\big|\le R, l\ne j,j+1\},$$ $$K_n=\{[\xi_nu_n+\eta_nv_n+\sum_{l\ne n-1,n}\xi_le_l]\ ;\ \xi_n\ne 0,
\big|\frac{\eta_n}{\xi_n}\big|\le R, \big|\frac{\xi_l}{\xi_n}\big|\le R, l\ne n-1,n\}.$$
Direct computation shows if $[x] \in \Pi$ then $[x]\in K_j$, where $|x_j| = {\rm max}_{1\le l \le n}|x_l|$. Therefore $\Pi = \bigcup_{j=1}^nK_j$.
Let $\epsilon >0$ and consider the basic open neighborhood $U_j$ of $[u_j]$ defined by $$U_j=\{[\xi_ju_j+\eta_jv_j+\sum_{l\ne j,j+1}\xi_le_l]; \xi_j\ne 0,
\big|\frac{\eta_j}{\xi_j}\big| < \epsilon, \big|\frac{\xi_l}{\xi_j}\big| < \epsilon, l\ne j,j+1\}.$$ Let $N > \frac{{\rm log}(R/\epsilon)}{{\rm log}(\lambda_+)}$. Recall that $0<\lambda_-<1<\lambda_+$. Therefore $\frac{R}{\lambda_+^N}<\epsilon$.
For $m \ge N$ and $[\xi_ju_j+\eta_jv_j+\sum_{l\ne j,j+1}\xi_le_l]\in K_j$, we have $$g^m[\xi_ju_j+\eta_jv_j+\sum_{l\ne j,j+1}\xi_le_l]
=[\lambda_+^m\xi_ju_j+\lambda_-^m\eta_jv_j+\sum_{l\ne j,j+1}\xi_le_l].$$ Now $\big|\frac{\lambda_-^m\eta_j}{\lambda_+^m\xi_j}\big|\le
\frac{1}{\lambda_+^m}\big|\frac{\eta_j}{\xi_j}\big|\le
\frac{R}{\lambda_+^m}< \epsilon$, and for $l\ne j,j+1$, $\big|\frac{\xi_l}{\lambda_+^m\xi_j}\big|\le
\frac{1}{\lambda_+^m}\big|\frac{\xi_l}{\xi_j}\big|\le
\frac{R}{\lambda_+^m}< \epsilon$.
This means that $g_j^mK_j \subset U_j$ for all $m\ge N$.
[The fact that the action of $SL_3({{\mathbb Z}})$ on the projective plane ${{\mathbb P}}^{2}({{\mathbb R}})$ is not $2$-filling can also be seen in a different way. More generally the action of a group ${{\Gamma}}$ on a non-orientable compact surface ${{\Omega}}$ cannot be $2$-filling. For let $M$ be a closed subset of ${{\Omega}}$ homeomorphic to a Möbius band, let $U_1=M^c$ and let $U_2 \subset {{\Omega}}$ be homeomorphic to an open disc in ${{\mathbb R}}^2$. Then it is impossible to have $t_1U_1 \cup t_2U_2 = {{\Omega}}$ for $t_1,t_2 \in {{\Gamma}}$. For $t_2^{-1}t_1(M)$ would be a homeomorphic copy of a Möbius band embedded in the disc $U_2$. To see that this is impossible note that a Mobius band is not disconnected by its centre circle, and apply the Jordan curve theorem. ]{}
\[attracting\] Let the group ${{\Gamma}}$ act on the topological space ${{\Omega}}$. An element $g \in {{\Gamma}}$ is said to have an attracting fixed point $x\in {{\Omega}}$ if $gx=x$ and there exists a neighbourhood $V_x$ of $x$ such that ${\displaystyle\lim_{n \to \infty}}g^n(V_x)=\{x\}$.
Let $G$ be a noncompact semisimple real algebraic group and let ${{\Gamma}}$ be a Zariski-dense subgroup of $G$. Consider the action of $G$ on its Furstenberg boundary $G/P$, where $P$ is a minimal parabolic subgroup of $G$. It follows from [@bel Appendice] that there exist elements $g\in {{\Gamma}}$ which have attracting fixed points in $G/P$. In fact the set $H$ of all such elements $g \in {{\Gamma}}$ is Zariski-dense in $G$: the elements of $H$ are called [*h-regular*]{} in [@bel] and [*maximally hyperbolic*]{} in [@bch].
It follows from a result of [H. Furstenberg]{} [@fur Theorem 5.5, Corollary] that if $G$ is a semisimple group with finite centre which acts minimally on a locally compact Hausdorff space ${{\Omega}}$ with an attracting fixed point, then ${{\Omega}}$ is necessarily a compact homogeneous space of $G$.
The following result shows that many of the actions considered in [@ad; @ls] are $n$-filling for some integer $n$.
\[minattract\] Let ${{\Omega}}$ be a compact Hausdorff space and let $({{\Omega}},{{\Gamma}})$ be a minimal action. Suppose that there exists an element $g\in {{\Gamma}}$ which has an attracting fixed point in ${{\Omega}}$. Then the action $({{\Omega}},{{\Gamma}})$ is $n$-filling for some integer $n$.
Choose $x\in {{\Omega}}$ with $gx=x$ and an open neighbourhood $V_x$ of $x$ such that $ \lim_{n \to \infty}g^n(V_x)=\{x\}$. Since the action is minimal, the family $\{hV_x ; h \in {{\Gamma}}\}$ forms an open covering of ${{\Omega}}$. By compactness, there exists a finite subcovering $\{h_1V_x,h_2V_x,\dots,
h_nV_x\}$.
Let $U_1, \dots , U_n$ be nonempty open subsets of ${{\Omega}}$. Since the action of ${{\Gamma}}$ on ${{\Omega}}$ is minimal, we may choose elements $s_j \in {{\Gamma}}$ such that $h_jx\in s_jU_j$ ($1\le j \le n$). For $1\le j \le n$, choose an integer $N_j$ such that $g^{N_j}V_x \subset h_j^{-1}s_jU_j$. Then $h_jV_x \subset t_jU_j$, where $t_j=h_jg^{-N_j}h_j^{-1}s_j$. Therefore $t_1U_1 \cup \dots \cup t_nU_n = {{\Omega}}$.
\[bech\][Consider the action of a noncompact semisimple real algebraic group $G$ on its Furstenberg boundary $G/P$. Let ${{\Gamma}}$ be a Zariski-dense subgroup of $G$ and let $n(W)$ be the order of the Weyl group. In this case one can be more precise: the action $(G/P,{{\Gamma}})$ is $n(W)$-filling. The proof follows from the remarks in [@bch page 127]. In the next section we prove an analogue of this result for groups acting on affine buildings. ]{}
Recall that an action $({{\Omega}}^{\prime},{{\Gamma}})$ is said to be a [*factor*]{} of the action $({{\Omega}},{{\Gamma}})$ if there is a continuous equivariant surjection from ${{\Omega}}$ onto ${{\Omega}}^{\prime}$.
\[factor\] Suppose that the action $({{\Omega}},{{\Gamma}})$ is $n$-filling and that $({{\Omega}}^{\prime},{{\Gamma}})$ is a factor of $({{\Omega}},{{\Gamma}})$. Then $({{\Omega}}^{\prime},{{\Gamma}})$ is an $n$-filling action.
This is an easy consequence of the definitions.
Group actions on boundaries of affine buildings
===============================================
We now turn to some examples which motivated our definition of an $n$-filling action. They are discrete analogues of those referred to Remark \[bech\]. We show that if a group ${{\Gamma}}$ acts properly and cocompactly on an affine building ${{\Delta}}$ with boundary ${{\Omega}}$, then the induced action on ${{\Omega}}$ is a $n$-filling, where $n$ is the number of boundary points of an apartment in ${{\Delta}}$. If ${{\Delta}}$ is the affine Bruhat-Tits building of a linear group then $n$ is the order of the associated spherical Weyl group.
An [*apartment*]{} in ${{\Delta}}$ is a subcomplex of $\triangle$ isomorphic to an affine Coxeter complex. Each apartment inherits a natural metric from the Coxeter complex, which gives rise to a well-defined metric on the whole building [@bro Chapter IV.3]. Every geodesic of ${{\Delta}}$ is a straight line in some apartment. A [*sector*]{} (or [*Weyl chamber*]{}) is a sector based at a special vertex in some apartment [@ron]. Two sectors are [*equivalent*]{} (or parallel) if their intersection contains a sector. The boundary $\Omega$ is defined to be the set of equivalence classes of sectors in $\triangle$. Fix a special vertex $x$. For any $\omega \in \Omega$ there is a unique sector $[x,\omega)$ in the class $\omega$ having base vertex $x$ [@ron Theorem 9.6, Lemma 9.7]. In the terminology of [@bro Chapter VI.9] $\Omega$ is the set of chambers of the building at infinity $\triangle^\infty$. Topologically, $\Omega$ is a totally disconnected compact Hausdorff space and a basis for the topology is given by sets of the form $$\Omega_x(v) = \left \{ \omega \in \Omega : [x,\omega) \hbox { contains } v \right \}$$ where $v$ is a vertex of $\triangle$. See [@cms §2] for the $\widetilde A_2$ case, which generalizes directly.
We will need to use the fact that ${{\Omega}}$ also has the structure of a spherical building [@ron Theorem 9.6], and its apartments are topological spheres.
\[opposite\] Two boundary points ${{\omega}}, {{\varpi}}$ in ${{\Omega}}$ are said to be [*opposite*]{} [@bro IV.5] if the distance between them is the diameter of the spherical building ${{\Omega}}$. Opposite boundary points are opposite in a spherical apartment of ${{\Omega}}$ which contains them; this apartment is necessarily unique. Two subsets of ${{\Omega}}$ are opposite if each point in one set is opposite each point in the other.
We define ${{\mathcal O}}({{\omega}})$ to be the set of all ${{\omega}}' \in {{\Omega}}$ such that ${{\omega}}'$ is opposite to ${{\omega}}$. It is easy to see that ${{\mathcal O}}({{\omega}})$ is an open set.
\[op apartment\] If ${{\omega}}\in {{\Omega}}$ and ${{\mathcal A}}$ is an apartment in ${{\Delta}}$, then there exists a boundary point ${{\varpi}}$ of ${{\mathcal A}}$ such that ${{\varpi}}$ is opposite ${{\omega}}$.
[Proof:]{} Consider the geometric realization of the spherical building ${{\Omega}}$. By [@ron Theorem (A.19)], the subcomplex ${{\Omega}}^{\prime}$ obtained from ${{\Omega}}$ by deleting all chambers opposite ${{\omega}}$ is geodesically contractible. However this is impossible if ${{\Omega}}^{\prime}$ contains the spherical apartment of ${{\Omega}}$ made up of the boundary points of ${{\mathcal A}}$.
\[six\] If ${{\omega}}_1, \dots, {{\omega}}_n$ are the boundary points of an apartment then $${{\Omega}}= {{\mathcal O}}({{\omega}}_1) \cup \dots \cup {{\mathcal O}}({{\omega}}_n)$$
[The union is not disjoint in general, as is seen by considering the example of a tree.]{}
\[op\] Two chambers ${{\omega}}_1, {{\omega}}_2$ in ${{\Omega}}$ are opposite if and only if they are represented by opposite sectors $S_1, S_2$ with the same base vertex in some apartment of $\triangle$. Moreover if two sectors $S_1, S_2$ in an apartment ${{\mathcal A}}$ with the same base vertex represent opposite elements ${{\omega}}_1, {{\omega}}_2$ in ${{\Omega}}$, then $S_1, S_2$ are opposite sectors and ${{\mathcal A}}$ is the unique apartment containing them.
[Proof:]{} Suppose that ${{\omega}}_1, {{\omega}}_2$ in ${{\Omega}}$ are opposite. There exists an apartment ${{\mathcal A}}$ containing sectors $S_1, S_2$ representing ${{\omega}}_1, {{\omega}}_2$ respectively [@ron Proposition 9.5] or [@bro VI.8,Theorem]. By taking parallel sectors, we may assume that $S_1, S_2$ have the same base vertex $x \in {{\mathcal A}}$. The sectors of ${{\mathcal A}}$ based at $x$ correspond to the chambers of an apartment in ${{\Omega}}$ containing ${{\omega}}_1, {{\omega}}_2$ [@ron Theorem 9.8]. Therefore $S_1, S_2$ are opposite sectors. The converse is clear.
The final assertion follows from [@bro VI.9, Lemma 2 and IV.5 Theorem 1].
\[opposite triangles\]
\(a) It is not necessarily true that if ${{\omega}}_1, {{\omega}}_2$ in ${{\Omega}}$ are opposite then the sectors $[z,{{\omega}}_1)$, $[z,{{\omega}}_2)$ based at any vertex $z$ are opposite sectors in some apartment.
\(b) If $C_1, C_2$ are opposite chambers with a common vertex $x$ in an apartment, then ${{\Omega}}_x(C_1)$ and ${{\Omega}}_x(C_2)$ are opposite sets in ${{\Omega}}$.
Suppose that a group ${{\Gamma}}$ acts properly and cocompactly on an affine building ${{\Delta}}$ of dimension $n$. An apartment ${{\mathcal A}}$ in ${{\Delta}}$ is said to be [*periodic*]{} if there is a subgroup ${{\Gamma}}_0 < {{\Gamma}}$ preserving ${{\mathcal A}}$ such that ${{\Gamma}}_0 \backslash {{\mathcal A}}$ is compact [@gro 6.$B_3$]. Note that ${{\Gamma}}_0$ is commensurable with ${{\mathbb Z}}^n$, and this concept coincides with the notion of periodicity described in [@mz],[@rr] for buildings of type $\tilde A_2$. In [@bb], a periodic apartment is called ${{\Gamma}}$-closed. This terminology makes it clear that periodicity depends upon the choice of the group ${{\Gamma}}$ acting on the building.
It is important to observe that there are many periodic apartments. In fact, according to [@bb Theorem 8.9], any compact subset of an apartment is contained in some periodic apartment
Now let ${{\mathcal A}}_0$ be a periodic apartment, and fix a special vertex $z$ in ${{\mathcal A}}_0$. Choose a pair of opposite sectors $W^+$, $W^-$ in ${{\mathcal A}}_0$ based at $z$. Denote by ${{\omega}}^{\pm}$ the boundary points represented by $W^{\pm}$, respectively. By periodicity of the apartment there is a periodic direction represented by a line $L$ in any of the sector directions of ${{\mathcal A}}_0$. For definiteness choose this direction to be that of the sector $W^+$. This means that there is an element $u \in {{\Gamma}}$ which leaves $L$ invariant and translates the apartment ${{\mathcal A}}_0$ in the direction of $L$. (In the terminology of [@bb; @moz], $L$ is said to be an [*axis*]{} of $u$.) Then $u^n{{\omega}}^+ = {{\omega}}^+$, $u^n{{\omega}}^- = {{\omega}}^-$ for all $n \in {{\mathbb Z}}$. Moreover $u^nz$ is in the interior of $W^+$ for $n > 0$ and in the interior of $W^-$ for $n < 0$. (See Figure \[W+\]. Here and in what follows, the figures illustrate the case of a building ${{\Delta}}$ of type $\tilde A_2$, where each apartment contains precisely six sectors based at a given vertex.) The element $u$ above is the analogue of the maximally hyperbolic elements in [@bch].
\[W+\] units <0.5cm,0.866cm> x from -6 to 6, y from -4 to 4 at 0 0 at 0 3 at 0 -3 \[b l\] at 0.3 0.1 \[l\] at 0.2 3 \[l\] at 0.2 -3 at 0 2 at 0 -2 from -6 0 to 6 0 -3 3 3 -3 / -3 -3 3 3 / from 0 -1.5 to 0 1.5 from 0 2.5 to 0 3.5 from 0 -2.5 to 0 -3.5
The following crucial result shows that ${{\omega}}^-$ is an attracting fixed point for $u^{-1}$.
\[claim\] Let ${{\mathcal A}}_0$ be a periodic apartment and choose a pair of opposite boundary points ${{\omega}}^{\pm}$. Let $u \in {{\Gamma}}$ be an element which translates the apartment ${{\mathcal A}}_0$ in the direction of ${{\omega}}^+$. Then $u^{-1}$ attracts ${{\mathcal O}}({{\omega}}^+)$ towards ${{\omega}}^-$, that is: for each compact subset $G$ of ${{\mathcal O}}({{\omega}}^+)$ we have $\lim_{n \to \infty} u^{-n}(G) = \{{{\omega}}^-\}$.
[Proof:]{} We use the notation introduced above. Let ${{\omega}}\in {{\mathcal O}}({{\omega}}^+)$. By considering a retraction of $\triangle$ centered at ${{\omega}}^+$ [@bro p.170, VI.8, Theorem], we see that $\triangle$ is a union of apartments which contain a subsector of $W^+$. Moreover for any sector $W$ representing ${{\omega}}$ there are subsectors $V^+ \subset W^+$ and $V \subset W$ which lie in a common apartment ${{\mathcal A}}$. Replacing $V^+$ by a subsector, we may assume that $V^+$ has base vertex $u^Nz$ for some $N$, that is $V^+=[u^Nz,{{\omega}}^+)$. Replacing $V$ by a parallel sector in ${{\mathcal A}}$ we may also assume that $V$ has base vertex $u^Nz$. By Lemma \[op\], $V$ lies in the apartment ${{\mathcal A}}$ as shown in Figure \[apartment A\].
\[apartment A\] units <0.5cm,0.866cm> x from -6 to 6, y from -4 to 4 at 0 0 \[b l\] at 0.35 0.1 at 0 2 at 0 3.5 at 0 -3.5 at 0 -2 from -6 0 to 6 0 -3 3 3 -3 / -3 -3 3 3 /
For each $N \ge 0$ let $G_N$ denote the set of all boundary points ${{\omega}}\in {{\mathcal O}}({{\omega}}^+)$ such that $[{u^Nz},{{\omega}})$ and $[{u^Nz},{{\omega}}^+)$ are opposite sectors in some apartment ${{\mathcal A}}^{(N)}$. Then $G_0 \subset G_1 \subset G_2 \subset \dots$ is an increasing family of compact open sets and we have observed above that $\bigcup_{N=0}^{\infty}G_N ={{\mathcal O}}({{\omega}}^+)$. The result will follow if we show that $\lim_{n \to \infty} u^{-n}(G_N) = \{{{\omega}}^-\}$ for each $N \ge 0$. It is clearly enough to consider the case $N=0$.
Consider a basic open neighbourhood of ${{\omega}}^-$ of the form ${{\Omega}}_z(v)$, where $v \in [z,{{\omega}}^-)\subset {{\mathcal A}}_0$. Choose an integer $p \ge 0$ such that $u^nv \in [z,{{\omega}}^+)$ for all $n \ge p$. If ${{\omega}}\in G_0$ then $u^nv \in [u^nz,{{\omega}})$ (that is $v \in [z,u^{-n}{{\omega}})$) for all $n \ge p$. (See Figure \[rabbit\].) This means that $u^{-n}{{\omega}}\in {{\Omega}}_z(v)$ for all $n \ge p$. Thus $u^{-n}(G_0)\subset {{\Omega}}_z(v)$ for all $n \ge p$. This proves the result.
\[rabbit\] units <0.5cm,0.866cm> x from 0 to 9, y from -4 to 4 at 5.4 -0.2 \[r\] at 5.0 0 at 5 -1 \[t\] at 5 -1.3 at 5 1 \[b\] at 5 1.3 at 5 3.5 at 5 -3.5 5 -1 9 3 / 5 -1 1 3 / 5 1 9 -3 / 5 1 1 -3 /
\[6strong\]Suppose that a group ${{\Gamma}}$ acts properly and cocompactly on the vertices of an affine building ${{\Delta}}$ with boundary ${{\Omega}}$. Let $k$ denote the number of boundary points of an apartment of ${{\Delta}}$. Then the action $({{\Omega}},{{\Gamma}})$ is $k$-filling.
[Proof:]{} Let $U_1, \dots , U_k$ be nonempty open subsets of ${{\Omega}}$. Let ${{\mathcal A}}_0$ be a periodic apartment with boundary points ${{\omega}}_j, 1 \le j \le k$. By minimality of the action we can assume that ${{\omega}}_j \in U_j, 1 \le j \le k$. By Corollary \[six\], we have ${{\Omega}}= {{\mathcal O}}({{\omega}}_1) \cup \dots \cup {{\mathcal O}}({{\omega}}_n)$. It follows from the existence of a partition of unity that there exist compact sets $K_j \subset {{\mathcal O}}({{\omega}}_j)$, $1 \le j \le k$ such that ${{\Omega}}= K_1 \cup \dots \cup K_k$.
Let $u_j \in {{\Gamma}}$ translate the apartment ${{\mathcal A}}_0$ in the direction of ${{\omega}}_j$, $1 \le j \le k$. Then by Proposition \[claim\], there exists $N_j \ge 0$ such that $u_j^{-n}K_j \subset U_j$ whenever $n \ge N_j$, $1 \le j \le k$. In other words, $K_j \subset u_j^nU_j$ whenever $n \ge N_j$, $1 \le j \le k$. Let $t_j=u_j^{N_j}$. Then $${{\Omega}}= K_1 \cup \dots \cup K_k \subset t_1U_1 \cup \dots \cup t_kU_k$$ as required.
\[not2filling\] The action of an ${{\widetilde A}}_2$ group ${{\Gamma}}$ on the boundary ${{\Omega}}$ of the associated building is $6$-filling. We do not know the precise value of $\phi({{\Gamma}},{{\Omega}})$, but it is certainly greater than $2$. To see this, fix a point ${{\omega}}_0 \in {{\Omega}}$ and choose $U$ to be a nonempty open set opposite ${{\omega}}_0$. If $t_1,t_2 \in {{\Gamma}}$ then $t_1U$ and $t_2U$ are opposite the boundary points $t_1{{\omega}}_0$ and $t_2{{\omega}}_0$ respectively and therefore cannot cover ${{\Omega}}$. To see this, choose a hexagonal apartment of ${{\Omega}}$ which contains $t_1{{\omega}}_0$ and $t_2{{\omega}}_0$ and choose a chamber ${{\varpi}}$ in this apartment which is not opposite $t_1{{\omega}}_0$ or $t_2{{\omega}}_0$. Then ${{\varpi}}$ cannot lie in $t_1U \cup t_2U$. Therefore $2< \phi({{\Gamma}},{{\Omega}}) \le 6$.
Purely infinite simple $C^*$-algebras
======================================
Throughout this section we consider only affine buildings of type ${{\widetilde A}}_2$. The $\widetilde A_2$ buildings are a particularly natural setting for our investigation. They are the simplest two-dimensional buildings, but they do not necessarily arise from linear groups. Crossed product $C^*$-algebras associated with them have been studied in [@rs; @rs']. In this case the building $\triangle$ is a simplicial complex whose maximal simplices ([*chambers*]{}) are triangles. An apartment of $\triangle$ is a subcomplex isomorphic to the Euclidean plane tessellated by equilateral triangles.
The boundary ${{\Omega}}$ may be identified with the flag complex of a projective plane $(P,L)$ [@bro page 81]. Flags will be denoted $(x_1,x_2)$ where $x_1 \in x_2$. If we identify chambers of ${{\Omega}}$ with sectors based at a fixed vertex $v_0$ of type $0$, then a sector wall whose base panel is of type $1$ corresponds to an element of $P$ and a sector wall whose base panel is of type $2$ corresponds to an element of $L$ [@ron Section 9.3]. $P$ is the [*minimal boundary*]{} of $\triangle$ and has been studied in [@cms], where it is denoted ${{\Omega}}^l$. The topology on $P$ comes from the natural quotient map ${{\Omega}}\to P$. Moreover the action of ${{\Gamma}}$ on ${{\Omega}}$ induces an action on $P$. Similar statements apply to $L$, and there is a homeomorphism $P \cong L$.
\[P/L\] units <0.5cm,0.866cm> x from -6 to 6, y from -4 to 4 at 0 0 \[b l\] at 0.45 0.1 at 6.5 0 at -3.25 3.25 at -3.25 -3.25 from 0 0 to 6 0 -3 3 0 0 / -3 -3 0 0 / from -6 0 to 0 0 0 0 3 -3 / 0 0 3 3 /
From now on assume that the group ${{\Gamma}}$ is an $\widetilde A_2$ group: that is ${{\Gamma}}$ acts simply transitively in a type rotating manner on the vertices of an affine building ${{\Delta}}$ of type $\widetilde A_2$.
\[topfree\] The actions $({{\Omega}},{{\Gamma}})$, $(P,{{\Gamma}})$ are topologically free. That is, if $g \in {{\Gamma}}\backslash \{e\}$ then $${\rm Int}\{ {{\omega}}\in {{\Omega}}: g{{\omega}}= {{\omega}}\} = \emptyset$$ $${\rm Int}\{ w \in P : gw = w \} = \emptyset$$
[Proof:]{} The statement for the action on ${{\Omega}}$ is proved in [@rs Theorem 4.3.2].
Suppose that the result fails for the action on $P$. Then there exists an open set $V \subset P$ such that $gw = w$ for all $w \in P$. Let $\widetilde V = \pi^{-1}(V)$, where $\pi: {{\Omega}}\to P$ is the quotient map. Then $\widetilde V$ is a nonempty open subset of ${{\Omega}}$. By [@rs Proposition 4.3.1], $\widetilde V$ contains all six boundary points of some apartment $\mathcal A$ of $\triangle$. These boundary points are the six chambers of an apartment $\mathcal A_0$ in ${{\Omega}}$, as illustrated in Figure \[P-L apartment\]. The apartment $\mathcal A_0$ contains three points $w_1, w_2, w_3 \in P$. These three points lie in $V$ and hence are fixed by $g$. It follows that the lines $l_1, l_2, l_3 \in L$ are also fixed by $g$. Therefore each boundary point of $\mathcal A_0$ is fixed by $g$. By the proof of [@rs Theorem 4.3.2], it follows that $g\mathcal A = \mathcal A$ and $g$ acts by translation on $\mathcal A$. The same is true for all nearby apartments $\mathcal A'$, since the corresponding walls $w_1', w_2', w_3' \in P$ will also be fixed by $g$, if they belong to $V$. The argument of [@rs Theorem 4.3.2] now gives a contradiction.
\[P-L apartment\] units <0.5cm,0.866cm> x from -2.5 to 2.5, y from -1.5 to 1.5 at 1 1 at 1 -1 at -1 1 at -1 -1 at 2 0 at -2 0 \[l\] at 1.2 1 \[t,l\] at 1.2 -1 \[r,t\] at -1.2 -1 \[b,r\] at -1.2 1 \[l\] at 2.2 0 \[r\] at -2.2 0
from -1 1 to 1 1 from -1 -1 to 1 -1 1 1 2 0 1 -1 / -1 1 -2 0 -1 -1 /
\[main\] If ${{\Gamma}}$ is an $\widetilde A_2$ group, then the algebras $C({{\Omega}}) \rtimes {{\Gamma}}$, $C(P) \rtimes {{\Gamma}}$ are simple purely infinite $C^*$-algebras.
[Proof:]{} The actions are topologically free by Proposition \[topfree\] and hence properly outer [@as Proposition 1]. Moreover they are $6$-filling by Theorem \[6strong\]. The result follows from Theorem \[ncnf\].
We now give examples of properly outer actions $({{\Omega}}_i,{{\Gamma}}_i)$, $i=1,2$, with $\phi({{\Gamma}}_1,{{\Omega}}_1)=2$ and $\phi({{\Gamma}}_2,{{\Omega}}_2)>2$ but for which $C({{\Omega}}_1) \rtimes {{\Gamma}}_1$ is stably isomorphic to $C({{\Omega}}_2) \rtimes {{\Gamma}}_2$.
\[notsii\]
Let ${{\Gamma}}_1 \subset {{\text{\rm{PSL}}}}(2,{{\mathbb R}})$ be a non-cocompact Fuchsian group isomorphic to ${{\mathbb F}}_3$, the free group on three generators. Consider the action of ${{\Gamma}}_1$ on the boundary $S^1$ of the Poincaré disc. This action is $2$-filling and the algebra ${{\mathcal A}}_1=C(S^1) \rtimes {{\Gamma}}_1$ is p.i.s.u.n. with K-theory given by $K_0({{\mathcal A}}_1)=K_1({{\mathcal A}}_1)= {{\mathbb Z}}^4$, $[{{\bf 1}}]=(1,0,0,0)$ [@ad2]. (The K-theory is independent of the embedding ${{\Gamma}}_1 \subset {{\text{\rm{PSL}}}}(2,{{\mathbb R}})$.)
Let ${{\Gamma}}_2$ be the ${{\widetilde A}}_2$ group B.3 of [@cmsz]. This group is a lattice subgroup of ${{\text{\rm{PGL}}}}_3({{\mathbb Q}}_2)$ and acts naturally on the corresponding building of type ${{\widetilde A}}_2$ and its boundary ${{\Omega}}$. By Remark \[not2filling\], $2< \phi({{\Gamma}},{{\Omega}}) \le 6$. By [@rs'], the algebra ${{\mathcal A}}_2=C({{\Omega}}) \rtimes {{\Gamma}}_2$ is p.i.s.u.n. and satisfies the Universal Coefficient Theorem. By [@rs''] the K-theory of ${{\mathcal A}}_2$ is given by $K_0({{\mathcal A}}_2)=K_1({{\mathcal A}}_2)= {{\mathbb Z}}^4$, $[{{\bf 1}}]=0$.
It follows from the classification theorem of [@k] that ${{\mathcal A}}_1$, ${{\mathcal A}}_2$ are stably isomorphic (but not isomorphic, since the classes $[{{\bf 1}}]$ do not correspond).
[RRR]{}
C. Anantharaman-Delaroche, Purely infinite $C^*$-algebras arising from dynamical systems, [*Bull. Soc. Math. France*]{} [**125**]{} (1997), 199–225.
C. Anantharaman-Delaroche, $C^*$-algèbres de Cuntz-Krieger et groupes Fuchsiens, [*Operator Theory, Operator Algebras and Related Topics ( Timişoara 1996)*]{}, 17–35, The Theta Foundation, Bucharest, 1997.
R. Archbold and J. Spielberg, Topologically free actions and ideals in discrete dynamical systems, [*Proc. Edinburgh Math. Soc.*]{} [**37**]{} (1994) 119-124.
W. Ballmann and M. Brin, Orbihedra of nonpositive curvature, [*Inst.Hautes Études Sci.Publ.Math.*]{} [**82**]{} (1995), 169–209.
M. Bekka, M. Cowling and P. de la Harpe, Some groups whose reduced $C^*$-algebra is simple, [*Inst. Hautes Études Sci. Publ. Math.*]{} [**80**]{} (1994), 117–134.
Y. Benoist and F. Labourie, Sur les difféomorphismes d’Anosov affines à feuilletages stable et instable différentiables. [*Invent. Math.*]{} [**111**]{} (1993), 285–308.
K. Brown, [*Buildings*]{}, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1989.
D. I. Cartwright, W. M[ł]{}otkowski and T. Steger, Property (T) and $\widetilde A_2$ groups, [*Ann. Inst. Fourier*]{} [**44**]{} (1993), 213–248.
D. I. Cartwright, A. M. Mantero, T. Steger and A. Zappa, Groups acting simply transitively on the vertices of a building of type $\widetilde A_2$, I, II, [*Geom. Ded.*]{} [**47**]{} (1993), 143–166 and 167–223.
H. Furstenberg, A Poisson formula for semi-simple Lie groups, [*Ann. of Math.*]{} [**77**]{} (1963), 335–386.
S. Glasner, Topological dynamics and group theory, [*Trans. Amer. Math. Soc.*]{} [**187**]{} (1974), 327–334.
E. Ghys and P. de la Harpe (editors), [*Sur les Groupes Hyperboliques d’après Mikhael Gromov*]{}, Birkhäuser, Basel, 1990.
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[^1]: This research was supported by a research visitor grant from the University of Newcastle.
[^2]: Typeset by -LaTeX
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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ArXiv
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Q:
AspNetCore:2.1 not found
Created a new .NET CORE 2.1 (preview) web app. Running it in local docker with Linux container
I am getting compiler error:
Error Building blobtest
Service 'blobtest' failed to build: manifest for microsoft/aspnetcore:2.1 not found.
My dotnetversion
C:\WINDOWS\system32>dotnet --version
2.1.300-preview2-008530
A:
They have changed the repo for .NET Core 2.1 onwards to microsoft/dotnet.
Change your FROM statement to reference microsoft/dotnet using the following tags:
2.1-sdk
2.1-aspnetcore-runtime
2.1-runtime
Documentation on how to upgrade can be found here
A:
I had this issue as well. I thought I'd update this post to show the fix here. Thanks to Marius Bidireac for the link to the resource.
Here is an excerpt from the original docker file
FROM microsoft/aspnetcore:2.0 AS base
FROM microsoft/aspnetcore-build:2.0 AS build
Here is an excerpt from the corrected docker file
FROM microsoft/dotnet:2.1-aspnetcore-runtime AS base
FROM microsoft/dotnet:2.1-sdk AS build
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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StackExchange
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Introduction {#s1}
============
The control of postural stability is crucial for the efficient performance of day-to-day motor tasks. Like all terrestrial species, humans move around in a gravity field that permanently induces postural destabilization through its attracting effect towards the center of the earth. Major questions in motor control relate to the way in which humans are able to maintain stability during motor tasks that involve whole body progression, such as locomotor tasks, and how they adapt to environmental constraints, e.g., when clearing an obstacle. Gait initiation, which corresponds to the transient period between quiet standing and swing foot contact with the ground, is a classical paradigm for studying balance control mechanisms during complex whole body movement (e.g., Brenière et al., [@B1]; Lyon and Day, [@B15], [@B16]; McIlroy and Maki, [@B20]; Yiou et al., [@B39] for a recent review; Caderby et al., [@B3]). The act of lifting the swing foot from the ground to step in the desired direction does indeed induce a reduction in the size of the mediolateral (ML) base of support, moving from a bipedal to a unipedal stance. If the center of mass is not repositioned above (or closer to) the limits of the new base of support -i.e., the stance foot--, the body will topple towards the swing leg side during the single stance phase (or "swing phase") of gait initiation under the effect of gravity, which may cause lateral instability at foot contact. This instability is invariably attenuated during volitional stepping by the development of dynamic postural phenomena that occur before the swing phase. These dynamic phenomena correspond to "anticipatory postural adjustments" (APAs). They include a center of pressure shift towards the swing leg side which serves to accelerate the center of mass in the opposite direction, i.e., towards the stance leg side (Do et al., [@B5]; Jian et al., [@B11]; McIlroy and Maki, [@B20]; Nouillot et al., [@B29]; Caderby et al., [@B3]; Yiou et al., [@B41]). If not enough APAs are generated in the ML direction, a strategy of base of support enlarging, associated with a more lateral swing foot placement, has been shown to be triggered to maintain stability (Zettel et al., [@B43]; Caderby et al., [@B3]). In addition to this putative stabilizing function, APAs have been shown to provide the dynamic conditions for whole body progression in the desired direction. For example, during gait initiation, APAs in the anteroposterior (AP) direction include a backwards center of pressure shift that promotes the forward propulsive forces necessary to reach the intended center of mass velocity and step length (Brenière et al., [@B1]; Lepers and Brenière, [@B14]; Michel and Chong, [@B21]).
Postural stability during gait initiation might be further challenged by the presence of an obstacle that needs to be cleared. There has been extensive literature on the control of obstacle crossing during ongoing locomotion, especially in regards to the role of vision (e.g., Mohagheghi et al., [@B24]; Patla and Greig, [@B31]; Marigold et al., [@B19]). In comparison, the question how the postural and the focal components of gait initiation over an obstacle are coordinated to ensure safe body progression has received much less attention (e.g., Brunt et al., [@B2]; Yiou et al., [@B41]). Yet, it is known that gait initiation is among the motor activities associated with the highest proportion of falls in the elderly (Robinovitch et al., [@B34]). In addition, the most frequent cause of falling in this population is an incorrect weight transfer, which, as stated above, is one of the major functions of APAs. In addition to the risk of tripping over the obstacle, the presence of an obstacle gives rise to an increase in the duration of the swing phase and therefore an increase in the potential for lateral instability (Zettel et al., [@B43]; Yiou et al., [@B41]). Hence, it is surprising that previous studies on the influence of an obstacle on the lateral motion of the center of mass during ongoing walking have reported that lateral stability remained unchanged when the height of the obstacle was varied (Chou et al., [@B4]; Hahn and Chou, [@B8]). This result led the authors to suggest the existence of some forms of adaptive postural mechanisms aimed at compensating for the increased potential instability related to obstacle height. However, these mechanisms remain to be clarified. To date, the question of whether or not the stabilizing mechanisms of gait initiation can accommodate obstacle constraints has been investigated in only one study (Yiou et al., [@B41]). This study showed that the amplitude of ML APAs was larger in the obstacle condition than in the obstacle free (control) condition. It was suggested that this increase was responsible for the maintenance of postural stability at swing foot contact. Similar results were obtained by Zettel et al. ([@B43]) during their comparison of reactive stepping over an obstacle in response to a brisk plate-form shift with the same reactive stepping in an obstacle-free condition. However, these studies are all limited by the fact that only one obstacle height and distance were tested. Thus, one can question the generalizability of these results and more specifically, the extent to which the central nervous system (CNS) is able to adjust the stabilizing features of gait initiation (including ML APAs and base of support enlargement) to match changes in obstacle height and distance and the related potential for instability. Moreover, subjects of these studies invariably increased ML APAs when stepping (voluntarily or reactively) over the obstacle; thus, it could not be established that the absence of such an increase would have necessarily led to instability at foot contact. Lyon and Day ([@B15], [@B16]) used a single-segment mechanical model in which the body falls freely under the influence of gravity to predict the magnitude of the lateral center of mass fall during the swing phase of step initiation. In the present study, we elaborated on a mechanical model that was based on these last two studies in order to investigate how changes in the parameters of ML APAs can impact on postural stability at foot contact. Such modeling may thus provide further insight into the adaptability of the postural system to environmental constraints.
This study aims to investigate how the CNS controls postural stability during gait initiation when clearing obstacles of different heights and distances. Changes in obstacle height and distance were expected to bring about modulation of the swing phase and give rise to instability. In addition, as daily motor tasks may be performed under various temporal pressure constraints, gait initiation trials were performed in reaction-time (high pressure) and self-initiated (low pressure) conditions. Our previous study (Yiou et al., [@B41]) showed that the duration of APAs associated with gait initiation when faced with an obstacle was shorter under high pressure than under low pressure. This difference in duration was compensated by an increase in the amplitude of ML APAs. As only one obstacle height and distance were used (one 20 cm high obstacle, placed at a 20% body height distance from the participant), it can be questioned whether the CNS uses a similar anticipatory postural adaptation to temporal pressure when the obstacle constraints are manipulated. This is particularly the case when height and distance are increased, thereby placing a higher level of stress on the postural system.
This question might be addressed in regards to current theory on motor control, according to which our nervous system would possess neural structures (or internal models) that predict the future state of a system given the current state and the sensorimotor control signals (Wolpert and Flanagan, [@B38]). Such prediction would allow us to achieve rapid and accurate voluntary behavior despite the difficulties presented by motor noise, delayed sensory feedback, and a complex musculoskeletal apparatus. As stressed in Mille et al. ([@B23]), it is clear that "the anticipatory nature of the APAs involves a role for motor prediction". Specifically, APAs structure would reflect the existence of internal models that predicts the destabilizing effect associated with the stepping (Lyon and Day, [@B15], [@B16]). When stepping over an obstacle, it can therefore be expected that APAs will be scaled according to the potential destabilization associated with obstacle constraints. We thus hypothesize that the stabilizing features of gait initiation are scaled according to the changes in the swing phase duration that is associated with obstacle height and/or distance. More specifically, it is expected that a greater swing phase duration will be associated with larger ML APAs and eventually, a larger base of support in order to maintain unchanged postural stability at swing foot contact. Similar effects of obstacle constraints are expected under low and high temporal pressure conditions. However, APAs of larger amplitude and lower duration are expected in the high pressure condition compared with the low pressure condition. Mechanical modeling of the whole body during gait initiation is expected to reveal the extent to which postural stability at foot contact may be degraded in case ML APAs are not adequately scaled to modifications in swing duration induced by obstacle constraints.
Materials and Methods {#s2}
=====================
Participants {#s2-1}
------------
Fourteen subjects (eight males and six females, aged 23.2 ± 4 years \[mean ± SD\], height 173.4 ± 7.3 cm and weight 65.8 ± 8.7 kg) participated in the experiment. All were free of any known neuromuscular disorders. They gave written informed consent after being instructed as to the nature and purpose of the experiment, which was approved by the local ethics committee. The study conformed to the standards set by the Declaration of Helsinki.
Experimental Protocol {#s2-2}
---------------------
Participants were requested to initiate gait as fast as possible with their preferred limb while clearing an obstacle placed in front of them (Figure [1](#F1){ref-type="fig"}). Three conditions of obstacle height (2.5%, 5% and 10% of each subject's height), three conditions of obstacle distance (10%, 20% and 30% of each subject's height) and an obstacle-free control condition were used. The three obstacle distances corresponded to 21%, 42% and 63% of the step length obtained in the control condition, respectively. Each condition of obstacle height and distance was realized in two blocks, which differed in terms of their level of temporal pressure constraint: a reaction-time and a self-initiated block. In the reaction-time block (high temporal pressure), participants were instructed to initiate gait "as soon as possible" after an acoustic signal was given. In the self-initiated block (low temporal pressure), they were instructed to initiate gait when they felt ready, after receiving an "all set" signal; it was made clear that the "all set" signal was not a "go" signal and that they could take as much time as they needed to prepare their movements. The order of conditions within one given block and the order of the blocks were randomized between participants. In each condition, subjects were allowed two familiarization trials. Five trials were then recorded. A 3-min rest was imposed between two successive conditions to avoid fatigue. In each condition, the participants initially stood upright with their feet hip-width apart, their arms hanging loosely either side of their body and their body weight evenly distributed between their legs. The boundaries of their feet in the initial posture were outlined on the force plate, and participants were instructed to systematically reposition their feet within these marks under supervision. They were repeatedly reminded of the task instructions.
{#F1}
Materials {#s2-3}
---------
Gait was initiated on a force plate (600 × 1200 mm, AMTI, Watertown, MA, USA) located at the beginning of a five-meter track (Figure [1](#F1){ref-type="fig"}). The force plate was embedded in the track and was large enough to allow the participant's swing foot to systematically land on it at the end of gait initiation. After crossing the obstacle, participants walked to the end of the track, then stood still for a few seconds before returning to their starting position. The obstacle consisted of a lightweight wooden rod (length: 65 cm; diameter: 1 cm) that rested on two adjustable upright standards. The participant's toes served as the reference point for positioning the obstacle at the various distances. Reflective skin markers (9 mm in diameter) were placed bilaterally at the hallux (toe marker), head of the fifth metatarsal (metatarsal marker), posterior calcaneus (heel marker) and at the middle of the top of the obstacle (obstacle marker). A V8i VICON eight-camera (Mcam2) motion capture system (Oxford Metrics Ltd., UK) with 64 analog channels was used to record the movement of the foot markers and to detect the position of the obstacle. Kinematic and kinetic data were collected simultaneously at a rate of 500 Hz. Data acquisition and stimulus display were controlled by a custom-made program written in Matlab^TM^ (R2009b, The MathWorks Inc., Natick, MA, USA).
Data Analysis {#s2-4}
-------------
Kinematic and force plate data were low-pass filtered using a Butterworth filter with a 15 Hz (Mickelborough et al., [@B22]) and a 10 Hz (Caderby et al., [@B3]) cut-off frequency, respectively. The ML (*yP*) and AP (*xP*) coordinates of the center of pressure were computed from force plate data as follows:
y
P
=
M
x
\+
F
y
×
d
z
F
z
$$xP~ = ~\frac{- My + Fx \times dz}{Fz}$$
where *Mx* and *My* are the moments around the AP and ML axes, respectively; *Fy*, *Fx* and *Fz* are the ML, AP and vertical ground reaction forces, respectively; and *dz* is the distance between the surface of the force plate and its origin.
Instantaneous acceleration of the center of mass along the AP and ML axes was determined from the ground reaction force according to Newton's second law. Center of mass velocity and displacement were computed by successive numerical integrations of center of mass acceleration using integration constants equal to zero, i.e., initial velocity and displacement null (Brenière et al., [@B1]). The following instants were determined from biomechanical traces: gait initiation onset (t~0~), swing heel off, swing toe off and swing foot contact. T~0~ and foot contact were determined from force plate data, whereas heel off and toe off were determined from VICON data. Two t~0~ times were estimated, one for the ML axis and one for the AP axis. The t~0~ times corresponded to the instants when the ML or AP center of pressure trace deviated 2.5 standard deviations from its baseline value. Heel off and toe off corresponded to the instants when the vertical position of the swing heel marker and the anterior position of the swing toe marker increased by 3 mm from their position in the initial static posture. Foot contact corresponded to the instant when the ML and AP center of pressure traces shifted abruptly laterally towards the swing leg side, and forwardly, respectively (this abrupt shift occurred at the same instant in the two traces).
Mechanical Model {#s2-5}
----------------
In the present study, the human body was modeled during the swing phase of gait initiation (from toe off to foot contact) as a single conic inverted pendulum which rotates about a fixed point 0 (Figure [2](#F2){ref-type="fig"}). This model was based on work carried out in earlier studies (Jian et al., [@B11]; MacKinnon and Winter, [@B17]; Lyon and Day, [@B15], [@B16]). The displacement of this cone had five degrees of freedom on the absolute referential (0, *x*, *y*, *z*), i.e., three translations and two rotations. A new referential (0, *x*~1~, *y*~1~, *z*~1~) was considered after precession ψ around *z* and nutation θ around *x*~1~, in which the inertia momentum of the body was expressed with its eigenvalues (Winter et al., [@B37]). The proper rotation ψ around *z*~1~ with respect to ψ and θ was neglected. During the swing phase, we considered that the center of mass was falling laterally under the influence of two forces: the gravity force *P* = *mg* (where *m* is the mass of the solid, and *g* is the gravitational acceleration) and an elastic restoring force *T* that reflects active muscular control of the movement (Farley and Morgenroth, [@B6]; Morasso and Schieppati, [@B26]), with *T* = *k*\|yM\| (where *k* is the stiffness of the hip abductor muscles acting on the stance leg side during the swing phase (Winter, [@B36]) and *\|yM\|* is the absolute value of the ML center of mass shift, which was systematically oriented towards the swing leg side (positive values) during the swing phase). The initial position and velocity of the cone corresponded to the position and velocity of the subject's center of mass at toe off. The addition of a restoring force on the conic model was necessary in order to control the initial velocity at toe off. Without this supplementary force, the conic pendulum would fall towards the stance leg side in most trials.
{#F2}
The equation of motion in (0, *x~1~*, *y*~1~, *z*~1~) was:
O
M
×
(
m
g
\+
k
\|
yM
\|
)
=
d
σ
/
0
d
t
Where *OM* = *l*~M~ *z*~1~, with *l*~M~: distance of the center of mass along *z*~1~, and *σ/0*: angular momentum computed as *σ/0* = *I*~/0~ Ω, where *I*~/0~ is the diagonal matrix of inertia along the main axes (*x~1~, y~1~, z~1~*) and Ω is the total angular velocity:
Ω
=
θ
˙
x
1
\+
ψ
˙
sin
θ
y
1
\+
ψ
˙
cos
θ
z
1
Finally, the differential equations of angular movement were:
θ
¨
=
m
g
l
M
sin
θ
\+
k
\|
y
M
\|
l
M
sin
ψ
cos
θ
−
ψ
˙
2
cos
θ
sin
θ
(
I
o
z
1
−
I
o
x
1
)
I
o
x
1
$$\overset{¨}{\psi}~ = ~\frac{k\left| {yM} \right|l_{\text{M}}\cos\psi\sin\theta - 2\overset{˙}{\theta}\overset{˙}{\psi}\cos\theta\sin\theta\left( {I_{ox_{1}} - I_{oz_{1}}} \right)}{I_{ox_{1}}\sin^{2}\theta + I_{oz_{1}}\cos^{2}\theta}$$
The subsequent motion of the model's center of mass was predicted by solving numerically the differential equations of motion using a fourth order Runge-Kutta algorithm. The spherical coordinates numerically computed (**l*~M~, θ, ψ*) were then transformed into Cartesian coordinates (*x, y, z*) in order to compare experimental data with the model's theoretical data.
Dependant Variables {#s2-6}
-------------------
### Experimental Variables {#s2-6-1}
Gait initiation was divided into three phases: APAs (from t~0~ to heel off), swing foot lift (from heel off to toe off) and swing phase (from toe off to foot contact, Figure [3](#F3){ref-type="fig"}). The duration of APAs along the ML and AP axes were computed separately, because the t~0~ times for these two axes did not necessarily occur simultaneously (Caderby et al., [@B3]). The amplitude of APAs was characterized by the peaks of the backward and lateral center of pressure shift obtained during the APAs time window. Center of mass velocity and displacement along the ML and AP axes were quantified at toe off and foot contact. The ML and AP center of mass position in the initial upright static posture was estimated by averaging the center of pressure position during the 250 ms period preceding the "all set" or the "go" signal, depending on the temporal pressure condition (Yiou et al., [@B41]). Spatiotemporal features of the swing phase of gait initiation that were investigated included: swing phase duration, AP center of mass velocity at foot contact, step length, step width, and dynamic stability at foot contact. Step length corresponded to the distance covered by the heel marker of the swing leg from the initial posture to foot contact. In addition, the vertical distance between the obstacle and the swing heel and swing toe markers was measured at the time when these markers passed over the obstacle. For each trial in the obstacle condition, the shorter of these two vertical distances was reported; this corresponded to the "foot clearance". An adaptation of the "margin of stability" (MOS) introduced by Hof et al. ([@B9]) was used to quantify ML dynamic stability at foot contact (thereafter referred to as "stability"). The MOS corresponded to the difference between the ML boundary of the base of support (BOS~ymax~) and the ML position of the "extrapolated center of mass" at swing foot contact (YcoM~FC~). Thus:
MOS
=
BOS
ymax
−
YcoM
FC
{#F3}
Because kinematic data showed that participants first landed on the force plate with the swing heel or the swing toe, BOS~ymax~ was estimated using the ML position of the swing heel or metatarsal marker at foot contact. The ML distance between the position of the swing foot marker at foot contact (heel or toe) and the position of the stance metatarsal marker at t~0~ represented step width, and was representative of the size of the ML base of support. Based on the study by Hof et al. ([@B9]) and the results from our previous studies (Caderby et al., [@B3]; Yiou et al., [@B41]), the ML position of the extrapolated center of mass at foot contact (YcoM~FC~) was calculated as follows:
YcoM
FC
=
y
M
FC
\+
y
′
M
FC
ω
0
where *yM~FC~* and y'M~FC~ are respectively the ML center of mass position and velocity at foot contact, and *ω*~0~ is the eigen frequency of the body, modeled as an inverted pendulum and calculated as follows:
ω
0
=
g
l
where *g* = 9.81 m/s^2^ is the gravitational acceleration and *l* is the length of the inverted pendulum, which in this study correspond to 57.5% of body height (Winter et al., [@B37]).
ML dynamic stability at foot contact is preserved on the condition that YcoM~FC~ is within BOS~ymax~, which corresponds to a positive MOS. A negative MOS indicates a ML instability and implies that a corrective action (e.g., in the form of an additional lateral step) is required to maintain balance.
Theoretical Variables {#s2-7}
---------------------
In order to test the validity of the model, the theoretical ML position and velocity of the center of mass at foot contact were computed by implementing the model with the initial center of mass set (ML center of mass position and velocity at foot off) and the swing phase duration obtained in each of the experimental trials. This gave theoretical values which were then compared with the experimental ones. The ML APAs were found to be scaled with swing duration in the experimental conditions (see "Results" Section); thus, these theoretical values are referred to the "theoretical conditions with APAs scaling". The model was then used to assess whether postural stability at foot contact would be degraded if the ML APAs were not scaled to swing duration, i.e., if there was no adaptation of the initial center of mass set to the obstacle height and distance. For this purpose, the theoretical ML position and velocity of the center of mass at foot contact were again computed, but this time by implementing the model with: (i) the mean ML position and velocity of the center of mass at foot off obtained for each subject in the reaction-time and self-initiated obstacle-free (control) conditions; and (ii) the swing phase duration obtained in each experimental trial. The theoretical extrapolated center of mass position and the theoretical MOS at foot contact were then calculated by following the same procedure used for the experimental data. The theoretical values obtained with this procedure are referred to as the "theoretical conditions without APA scaling".
Statistics {#s2-8}
----------
Mean values and standard deviations were calculated for each variable in the experimental and theoretical conditions. The normality of data was checked using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and the homogeneity of variances was checked using the Bartlett test. To test the influence of obstacle height, obstacle distance and temporal pressure, a \[3 ("obstacle height": 2.5%, 5% and 10% of the subject's height) × 3 ("obstacle distance": 10%, 20% and 30% of the subject's height) × 2 ("temporal pressure": reaction-time and self-initiated)\] ANOVA with repeated measures was used on each experimental variable.
To test the validity of the model, a \[3 ("obstacle height") × 3 ("obstacle distance") × 2 ("temporal pressure") × 2 ("modeling with APAs scaling": experimental conditions vs. theoretical conditions with APA scaling)\] was used on the following variables: ML center of mass position and velocity, ML extrapolated center of mass, and MOS at foot contact. Linear correlations between these experimental and theoretical variables were calculated using Pearson's correlation coefficient. Finally, to test the effect of APA scaling on postural stability, a \[3 ("obstacle height") × 3 ("obstacle distance") × 2 ("Modeling without APA scaling": experimental conditions vs. theoretical conditions with no APA scaling)\] RM ANOVA was used on the following variables: ML center of mass position and velocity, ML extrapolated center of mass, and MOS at foot contact. The alpha level was set at 0.05. A Tukey *post hoc* test was used when necessary.
Results {#s3}
=======
Description of the Biomechanical Traces in the Experimental Conditions {#s3-1}
----------------------------------------------------------------------
The time course of the biomechanical traces was globally similar in the different temporal and obstacle conditions. The traces obtained in two representative conditions are reported in Figure [3](#F3){ref-type="fig"}. Swing heel off was systematically preceded by postural dynamics that corresponded to APAs. During these APAs, the center of pressure displacement reached a peak value in a backward direction (see the negative variation of the xP trace in Figure [3](#F3){ref-type="fig"}) and towards the swing leg side (negative variation of the yP trace), while the center of mass velocity was directed forwards (positive variation of the x'M trace) and towards the stance leg side (positive variation of the y'M trace). The ML center of mass velocity trace reached a first peak value towards the stance leg side at around heel off. This trace, then fell towards the swing leg side and a second peak value towards this side was reached a few milliseconds after foot contact. The ML center of mass shift trace was bell-shaped and reached a peak value toward the stance leg side at the beginning of the swing phase. The AP center of mass velocity increased progressively until it reached a peak value a few milliseconds after swing foot contact, while the center of mass was continuously shifted forward. Differences across the conditions are reported in the paragraphs below.
Stability {#s3-2}
---------
### Height Effect {#s3-2-1}
Stability can be evaluated from foot clearance and the MOS. The risk of the swing foot striking the obstacle, which might then endanger balance, increased as foot clearance decreased. The MOS is used to quantify ML dynamic stability at foot contact. The results showed that the foot clearance significantly decreased with obstacle height (*F*~(2,26)~ = 9.25, *p* \< 0.001; Figure [4](#F4){ref-type="fig"}). In contrast, there was no significant effect of the obstacle height on the MOS value (*F*~(2,26)~ = 2.57, *p* \> 0.05) and related center of mass components, i.e., the ML center of mass shift (*F*~(2,26)~ = 0.31, *p* \> 0.05) and velocity (*F*~(2,26)~ = 0.46, *p* \> 0.05), and extrapolated center of mass position at foot contact (*F*~(2,26)~ = 1.95, *p* \> 0.05).
{#F4}
### Distance Effect {#s3-2-2}
The results showed that foot clearance also significantly decreased with obstacle distance (*F*~(2,26)~ = 30.07, *p* \< 0.001; Figure [4](#F4){ref-type="fig"}). There was no effect of the obstacle distance on the MOS (*F*~(2,26)~ = 0.01, *p* \> 0.05), the ML center of mass shift (*F*~(2,26)~ = 0.99, *p* \> 0.05) and velocity (*F*~(2,26)~ = 0.64, *p* \> 0.05), and the extrapolated center of mass position at foot contact (*F*~(2,26)~ = 0.11, *p* \> 0.05).
### Temporal Pressure Effect {#s3-2-3}
There was no significant effect of the temporal pressure on the following variables: foot clearance (*F*~(1,13)~ = 3.77, *p* \> 0.05), MOS value (*F*~(1,13)~ = 0.96, *p* \> 0.05), ML center of mass shift (*F*~(1,13)~ = 0.95, *p* \> 0.05) and velocity (*F*~(1,13)~ = 0.55, *p* \> 0.05) and extrapolated center of mass position at foot contact (*F*~(1,13)~ = 0.35, *p* \> 0.05).
Postural and Foot Lift Phase {#s3-3}
----------------------------
### Height Effect {#s3-3-1}
The results showed that there was a significant effect of the obstacle height on the duration of APAs along the ML axis (*F*~(2,26)~ = 5.63, *p* \< 0.01, Figure [5](#F5){ref-type="fig"}) and the AP axis (*F*~(2,26)~ = 9.38, *p* \< 0.001), and on the duration of the foot-lift phase (*F*~(2,26)~ = 6.18, *p* \< 0.01). Each of these temporal variables decreased when the obstacle height increased. With regard to the spatial variables, results showed that both the peak of anticipatory ML center of pressure shift (*F*~(2,26)~ = 21.44, *p* \< 0.001) and the ML center of mass velocity at toe off (*F*~(2,26)~ = 4.36, *p* \< 0.05) significantly increased with obstacle height. In contrast, the peak of anticipatory backward center of pressure shift (*F*~(2,26)~ = 11.43, *p* \< 0.001), the differential between the center of pressure and the center of mass position *F*~(2,26)~ = 8.15, *p* \< 0.01) and the forward center of mass velocity at toe off (*F*~(2,26)~ = 13.86, *p* \< 0.001) significantly decreased with obstacle height. The obstacle height constraint therefore had a similar effect on the temporal component of APAs along the AP and ML axes, but had an opposite effect on the spatial component of APAs along these two axes.
{#F5}
### Distance Effect {#s3-3-2}
Increasing the obstacle distance had a very different effect on the postural and foot lift phases compared with increasing the obstacle height. Indeed, the results showed that obstacle distance had no significant effect on the duration of APAs along the ML axis (*F*~(2,26)~ = 1.44, *p* \> 0.05). However, it did have a significant effect on the APA duration along the AP axis (*F*~(2,26)~ = 3.77, *p* \< 0.05) and on the duration of the foot lift (*F*~(2,26)~ = 21.53, *p* \< 0.001). Specifically, these two variables increased with obstacle distance. The results further showed that there was no significant effect of the obstacle distance on the following spatial variables: peak of anticipatory ML (*F*~(2,26)~ = 0.62, *p* \> 0.05) and AP center of pressure shift (*F*~(2,26)~ = 1.00, *p* \> 0.05), ML (*F*~(2,26)~ = 1.78, *p* \> 0.05) and AP (*F*~(2,26)~ = 2.18, *p* \> 0.05) center of mass shift at toe off, and ML center of mass velocity at toe off (*F*~(2,26)~ = 1.30, *p* \> 0.05). In contrast, the forward center of mass velocity at toe off increased significantly with obstacle distance (*F*~(2,26)~ = 30.51, *p* \< 0.001).
### Temporal Pressure Effect {#s3-3-3}
The results showed that the following temporal variables were significantly shorter in the reaction-time block than in the self-initiated block: duration of APAs along the AP axis (*F*~(1,13)~ = 61.63, *p* \< 0.001) and ML axis (*F*~(1,13)~ = 31.6, *p* \< 0.001), and duration of foot lift (*F*~(1,13)~ = 16.99, *p* \< 0.01). The following spatial variables reached a significantly larger value in the reaction-time block than in the self-initiated block: peak of anticipatory ML (*F*~(1,13)~ = 20.04, *p* \< 0.001) and AP (*F*~(1,13)~ = 41.82, *p* \< 0.001) center of pressure shift, and ML center of mass velocity at foot off (*F*~(1,13)~ = 11.60, *p* \< 0.01). In contrast, the ML (*F*~(1,13)~ = 1.98, *p* \> 0.05) and AP (*F*~(1,13)~ = 2.45, *p* \> 0.05) shift of the center of mass at foot off were not significantly different for the two temporal pressure blocks.
Swing Phase {#s3-4}
-----------
### Height Effect {#s3-4-1}
The results showed that the duration of the swing phase significantly increased with obstacle height (*F*~(2,26)~ = 58.07, *p* \< 0.001). In contrast, there was no significant effect of the obstacle height on the step length (*F*~(2,26)~ = 2.77, *p* \> 0.05), step width (*F*~(2,26)~ = 0.59, *p* \> 0.05) and motor performance (in terms of forward center of mass velocity at swing foot contact; *F*~(2,26)~ = 0.74, *p* \> 0.05). Finally, the results showed that there was no change in swing foot strike patterns with changes to obstacle height; here, subjects landed on the force plate with the heel first in 85% of the trials.
### Distance Effect {#s3-4-2}
The results showed that there was no effect of the obstacle distance on the duration of the swing phase (*F*~(2,26)~ = 2.57, *p* \> 0.05) and step width *F*~(2,26)~ = 0.05, *p* \> 0.05). In contrast, there was a significant effect of the obstacle distance on the step length (*F*~(2,26)~ = 23.05, *p* \< 0.001) and motor performance (*F*~(2,26)~ = 6.72, *p* \< 0.01). Both variables increased with distance. Finally, the results showed that there was a significant effect of obstacle distance on the foot strike pattern, with the ratio of forefoot strike increasing with obstacle distance (*F*~(2,26)~ = 7.37, *p* \< 0.01). This ratio increased from 6.7% for the small distance obstacle condition to 20.7% for the long distance obstacle condition.
### Temporal Pressure Effect {#s3-4-3}
The results showed that there was a significant effect of the temporal pressure on the duration of the swing phase (*F*~(1,13)~ = 10.81, *p* \< 0.01). This duration was longer in the reaction-time block than in the self-initiated block. In contrast, there was no effect of the temporal pressure on the following variables: step length (*F*~(1,13)~ = 0.58, *p* \> 0.05), step width (*F*~(1,13)~ = 0.20, *p* \> 0.05), motor performance (*F*~(1,13)~ = 0.04, *p* \> 0.05) and foot strike pattern (the mean percentage of the heel-strike pattern was 86%).
Validation of the Mechanical Model {#s3-5}
----------------------------------
A visual analysis of Figure [6](#F6){ref-type="fig"} illustrates the excellent fit between the experimental traces and those obtained with the mechanical model. The best fit between experimental (dashed line) and theoretical (full line) data was obtained for a stiffness of the hip abductor muscles of about 1000 N/m. This value corroborates with previous data in the literature (Morasso and Schieppati, [@B26]). This corresponds to a restoring force of approximately *T* = 50 N, applied at the center of mass. This close fit was further strengthened by the finding that there was no significant effect of the factor "modeling with APA scaling" on the MOS and on the related center of mass components. In addition, there was no interaction between this factor and obstacle height, obstacle distance and temporal pressure for any of these variables. In contrast, there was a significant positive correlation between the theoretical data (obtained in the conditions with ML APA scaling) and the experimental data for the MOS (*r* = 0.42, *p* \< 0.05), the ML center of mass position (*r* = 0.94, *p* \< 0.001) and the ML center of mass velocity (*r* = 0.72, *p* \< 0.001) at foot contact. Collectively, these results validate the mechanical model.
{#F6}
Comparison of Experimental Data and Theoretical Data Obtained in the Conditions Without Mediolateral APA Scaling {#s3-6}
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
In the theoretical conditions without ML APA scaling, the same initial ML center of mass set used in the control condition (obstacle-free condition) was introduced into the conditions where an obstacle had to be cleared (see "Materials and Methods" Section). The results showed there was a significant effect of the factor "modeling without APA scaling" on the MOS (*F*~(2,26)~ = 4.77, *p* \< 0.05) and with the exception of the ML center of mass position at foot contact (*F*~(2,26)~ = 1.63, *p* \> 0.05), on each of the MOS-related center of mass components, i.e., peak of ML velocity (*F*~(2,26)~ = 8.73, *p* \< 0.001) and extrapolated center of mass (*F*~(2,26)~ = 4.84, *p* \< 0.05) at foot contact. Specifically, the mean MOS value was significantly lower in the theoretical conditions compared with the experimental conditions, and the extrapolated center of mass reached positions closer to the lateral boundary of the base of support. In addition, the peak of ML center of mass velocity at foot contact---which was directed towards the swing leg side---reached a greater value in the theoretical conditions than in the experimental conditions. Also, there was a "modeling without APA scaling" × "obstacle height" interaction on the MOS (*F*~(2,26)~ = 4.77, *p* \< 0.05) and on each related variable. Most interestingly, the difference in the MOS value between the experimental and theoretical conditions without APA scaling increased progressively when the obstacle height increased (Figure [7](#F7){ref-type="fig"}). A negative MOS value was even reached for the middle height obstacle. Finally, the results showed that there was no significant "modeling without APA scaling" × "obstacle distance" interaction (*F*~(2,26)~ = 0.22, *p* \> 0.05) or "modeling without APA scaling" × "temporal pressure" interaction (*F*~(2,26)~ = 0.16, *p* \> 0.05). These results thus illustrate how postural stability can be expected to degrade in cases where ML APAs are not scaled according to swing duration.
{#F7}
Discussion {#s4}
==========
The goal of the present study was to investigate how the CNS controls postural stability during gait initiation when negotiating obstacles of different heights and distances under low and high temporal pressure constraints. Based on a mechanical model of the body falling laterally under the influence of gravity and submitted to an elastic restoring force, the functional link between the observed ML APA scaling and the maintenance of postural stability across the experimental conditions was first discussed. This was followed by a discussion of the way in which the AP and ML components of APAs need to be coordinated to ensure safe body progression. Globally, the results illustrate the capacity of the CNS to adapt coordination between the postural and focal components of a motor task to meet various spatial and temporal constraints.
Scaling Mediolateral APAs to Swing Duration Allows the Maintenance of Postural Stability {#s4-1}
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As expected, increasing the obstacle height resulted in a significant increase in swing duration (Chou et al., [@B4]; Hahn and Chou, [@B8]), thereby mechanically increasing the potential for lateral imbalance during the swing phase of gait initiation. Indeed, previous studies have reported that the swing phase of gait initiation could be assimilated to a ML (Lyon and Day, [@B15], [@B16]) and forward (Lepers and Brenière, [@B14]) ballistic center of mass fall around the stance ankle, with gravity being the main motor of action. Increasing the duration of this phase may therefore theoretically lead to a larger center of mass motion and velocity at the end of this ballistic phase, i.e., at foot contact. The original model of the whole body falling towards the swing leg side after swing foot off, which was developed in the present study, is in accordance with this statement. Indeed, when the initial center of mass set (i.e., center of mass shift and velocity at foot off) remained the same as in the obstacle-free condition, it was found that artificially increasing the swing phase duration directly impacted on the center of mass set at foot contact. As a consequence, postural stability at this instant was degraded, as revealed by a decrease in the theoretical MOS values. In contrast to this effect of obstacle height, increasing the obstacle distance did not result in any significant change in the swing phase duration. This is coherent with the finding that both step length and step velocity increased with obstacle distance. Thus, as expected, the theoretical center of mass set at foot contact and the related degree of postural stability remained unchanged when this distance increased.
Although the theoretical model revealed the potential for increased instability with obstacle height, the results obtained in the experimental conditions showed that there was no main effect of obstacle height on the center of mass set at foot contact and on the related level of stability. Similar findings were observed in recent studies (Chou et al., [@B4]; Hahn and Chou, [@B8]) that examined the clearance of obstacles of varying height during steady walking. This led the authors to suggest the existence of some forms of adaptive postural mechanisms, although these mechanisms were not described. The present results show that the anticipatory peak of ML center of pressure shift increased along with obstacle height. This increase is responsible for a subsequent increase in the ML center of mass velocity at toe off. As stated above, it is clear from the theoretical model that if such an increase in the initial center of mass set had not occurred when the obstacle height increased, a lower state of postural stability would have been reached at foot contact, as shown by the lower theoretical MOS values. Thus, in order to maintain an equivalent stability in the experimental conditions, the additive strategy would be needed to compensate for insufficient APAs, e.g., in the form of lateral stepping so as to increase the base of support width (Zettel et al., [@B43]; Caderby et al., [@B3]). If this is still insufficient, because not enough time is available to position the swing foot laterally, a strategy of lateral leg crossover stepping, linked with a high risk of lateral falling (Patton et al., [@B33]), may be necessary to recover balance. Our results thus show that the CNS precisely scales the ML APAs to the duration of the swing phase, so as to maintain an equivalent postural stability at foot contact across the experimental conditions. The finding that obstacle distance had no influence on ML APAs parameters and the related initial center of mass set (in contrast with obstacle height) is in line with this statement, because swing duration did not vary with this obstacle feature.
The present findings are in accordance with the notion that postural stability at the end of a voluntary leg movement is a major parameter taken into account during the programming of APAs (Do et al., [@B5]; Nouillot et al., [@B29]). Do et al. ([@B5]) used a lower limb flexion-extension executed as fast as possible to test the influence of final stability on APAs. The initial body posture was bipedal, while the final one was either bipedal (stable posture) or unipedal (unstable posture). The biomechanical and electromyographic data showed that ML APAs were larger when the final posture was unstable, because of the need to propel the center of mass further (i.e., above the stance foot) to maintain stability in the final posture. Similarly, the amplitude of the ML APAs in the present study increased along with the potential for instability at foot contact, which corresponded to the end of the gait initiation process. In contrast to the study by Do et al. ([@B5]), the potential for increased instability at the end of gait initiation was masked in our study, because the MOS remained the same across the experimental conditions. A similar remark can be made with regard to previous studies which focused on the effect of various environmental (Chou et al., [@B4]; Hahn and Chou, [@B8]; Yiou et al., [@B40], [@B41]) or temporal constraints (Yiou et al., [@B42]; Hussein et al., [@B10]; Caderby et al., [@B3]) on the control of ML stability during dynamic tasks (e.g., leg flexion, gait initiation and steady walking). In the present study, this potential for instability was revealed in the theoretical trials, where it was found that without APA scaling the MOS values decreased when obstacle height was increased. The present results thus demonstrate the imperative need to adequately scale the ML APAs features to the swing phase duration in order to maintain an optimal stability. Moreover, the invariance of the MOS value across the experimental conditions, despite the presence of potential instability, adds to the growing evidence that this parameter may function as a balance control parameter, as previously suggested in the literature (e.g., Yiou et al., [@B40], [@B42]; Caderby et al., [@B3]; Nakano et al., [@B28]).
This invariance implies that the CNS is able to precisely predict the potential instability elicited by obstacle clearance and that it scales the spatiotemporal parameters of the ML APAs accordingly. The results of this study are thus in accordance with the view that in programming APAs, the CNS uses internal models that takes into account the dynamic consequences of an expected perturbation and generates responses to counter their effect (e.g., Flanagan and Wing, [@B7]; Wing et al., [@B35]). More specifically, internal models would be used to predict the effect of the gravitational forces acting on the whole-body during obstacle clearance. This prediction would serve to program, adaptive APAs so as to maintain unchanged stability despite the variations in obstacle constraints. The notion that internal models integrate external forces (such as gravity or Coriolis forces) acting on body segments to plan and execute movements, has been classically proposed for various voluntary upper limb movements, such as grip force with load during object manipulation (e.g., Johansson and Cole, [@B12]; Flanagan and Wing, [@B7]; Kawato, [@B13]; Wolpert and Flanagan, [@B38]), arm movement in the vertical plane (e.g., Papaxanthis et al., [@B30]; Gaveau and Papaxanthis, [@B300]), arm reaching (Cohn et al., [@B301]) etc. The results of the current study further suggest that such internal models of gravity may also be used to plan and execute the postural component of a whole body motor task.
Coordination Between Mediolateral and Anteroposterior Components of APAs Allows Safe Body Progression {#s4-2}
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Surprisingly, the results also showed that the duration of both the ML APAs and the foot lift phase decreased with obstacle height. Less time was therefore allocated by participants to propelling the center of mass laterally before triggering the ballistic phase of gait initiation. This reduction in time may seem at odds with the need to increase the ML center of mass set at foot off, as argued above. We propose that it is linked to the spatial constraints exerted on the progression velocity in the AP direction. It can indeed reasonably be speculated that delaying the time of swing foot off in the presence of a high obstacle would increase the forward fall of the center of mass (allowing participants to get closer to the obstacle), as well as the amplitude of the forward center of mass velocity at foot off (Lepers and Brenière, [@B14]). By so doing, less time would then be allocated for clearing the obstacle with the trailing leg during the following swing phase, with a consequent increased risk of tripping over the obstacle. Instead, the results showed that the forward center of mass shift and velocity at foot off both decreased with obstacle height, which might be a combined effect of this shortened delay for swing foot off with the reduced amplitude of the anticipatory backward center of pressure shift. The amplitude of AP and ML APAs were thus both scaled according to swing duration but in an opposite way. Note that a similar strategy for AP APAs attenuation has already been reported in a study that compared stepping over an obstacle in reaction to rapid surface translation with stepping when there is no obstacle to be cleared (Zettel et al., [@B43]). The reduction in time taken to lift the swing foot might reflect a protective strategy directed to clear the obstacle safely by reducing the chances of contact between the trailing leg and the obstacle. It is however noteworthy that the vertical distance between the swing foot and the top of the obstacle at the time of obstacle clearance (i.e., the "foot clearance") decreased with obstacle height. In our trials, we did not observe any obstacle contact; thus, we believe that the obstacle (height and distance) and the velocity constraints of the present study were not putting young, healthy participants at risk of forward tripping.
Given the precise scaling of the initial ML center of mass set required to maintain stability across the obstacle conditions (see Figure [7](#F7){ref-type="fig"}), the present findings suggest that the CNS must necessarily have taken into account the reduction in time allocated to lift the swing foot to program the ML APAs' amplitude. Part of the observed increase in the peak of anticipatory ML center of pressure shift may therefore serve to compensate for this shortened duration so that an adequate initial ML center of mass set can be reached to maintain stability. In other words, it is likely that constraints imposed on the progression direction (which are likely responsible for the reduction in time allocated for swing toe off, as argued above) were integrated into the programming of APAs in the ML direction. This statement adds to the growing evidence that the CNS exerts a global control over the anticipatory postural dynamics in the horizontal plane (Caderby et al., [@B3]) rather than an independent control of APAs along the AP and ML axes and on the associated postural function (forward body progression and ML stability, respectively). This coordination between the ML and AP components of APAs thus seems to be an imperative condition for both safely clearing the obstacle and reaching a stable state at foot contact. Thus, in addition to the need to coordinate each postural component of the task (the AP and the ML postural components) with the focal one, the CNS also needs to coordinate the postural components between them so that participants can safely clear the obstacle.
Temporal Pressure-Induced Adaptive Changes of Mediolateral and Anteroposterior APAs {#s4-3}
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Compensation for a reduced ML APAs duration by an increase in the ML APAs amplitude was found in the present study when comparing the high and low temporal pressure conditions. Specifically, the duration of APAs in the high pressure condition was shorter and the peaks of anticipatory ML and AP center of pressure shift were larger than in the low pressure condition. A similar effect of temporal pressure was previously reported in the literature for various stepping tasks such as gait initiation with or without an obstacle to clear (Yiou et al., [@B41]), or rapid leg flexion (Yiou et al., [@B42]; Hussein et al., [@B10]). It is presumed that these changes in the spatiotemporal APAs parameters under high temporal pressure reflect a strategy to hasten the onset of the voluntary movement (swing foot off) so as to meet the instruction to initiate the step as soon as possible after the GO signal, while maintaining the same stability and progression velocity. Obstacle height and temporal pressure, thus induced similar adaptive changes in the ML APAs parameters. This similitude could be explained by the fact that increasing the obstacle height and the temporal pressure level both required an earlier swing foot off and induced a longer swing phase duration. For this reason, combining these two constraints in one single condition (i.e., clearing a high obstacle within a high temporal pressure) may have been particularly challenging for the postural control system. The fact that postural stability was maintained in such a challenging condition further reveals the adaptability of this system.
The present results may be discussed in regards to recent studies which focused on the effect of temporal pressure on ML stability during ongoing walking with the goal to cross an obstacle (e.g., Moraes et al., [@B25]; Nakano et al., [@B27], [@B28]). In these studies, participants avoided a virtual planar obstacle that could suddenly appear one step before the obstacle crossing, thus inducing a temporal pressure. In the condition without temporal pressure (control condition), the obstacle could be seen by participants when they stood in their initial posture. Under temporal pressure, the authors found that the extrapolated center of mass position at the swing foot contact was located further toward the swing leg side as compared to the control condition. The MOS however, remained unchanged because of a greater lateral step placement. In the present study, no such effect of temporal pressure on the actual and extrapolated center of mass position or on foot placement was observed. The MOS and the related center of mass components remained, however the same as in the low temporal pressure condition. This invariance was due to the above reported changes in APAs parameters with temporal pressure. These discrepancies between the present study and the literature might possibly be ascribed to the time allocated to plan an efficient anticipatory strategy to maintain postural stability. In the present study, participants could indeed visually catch the features of the obstacle largely before the imperative "go" signal in the high pressure condition. In other words, they had plenty of time to predict the postural disturbance associated with the forthcoming task, and they could thus plan the APAs parameters accordingly. In line, MacKinnon et al. ([@B18]) reported that the spatiotemporal features of APAs for gait initiation were progressively assembled before the deliverance of the "go" signal. In contrast, in the above reported studies, the obstacle appeared just one step before it had to be cleared. Participants had therefore much less time than in the present study to plan in advance the level of anticipatory postural dynamics required to maintain stability at foot-contact. Such a situation may potentially be detrimental to stability since it is known that vision is used in a feedforward rather than in on-line mode to regulate obstacle clearance during ongoing locomotion (Patla and Vickers, [@B32]). To maintain stability, participants in these studies thus needed to use an additive strategy of lateral foot placement to maintain stability. Future studies will investigate this hypothesis by enabling participants to catch the obstacle features with various delays before and after the deliverance of the "go" signal.
Conclusion {#s5}
==========
The results of this study show that the CNS is able to scale and coordinate the ML and AP components of APAs according to obstacle constraints and related variations in swing duration. This capacity allows participants to safely clear the obstacle and maintain optimal postural stability. These results were strengthened by the findings obtained with the mechanical model, which revealed how stability would be degraded if the ML APAs were not scaled to swing duration. These findings imply that the CNS is able to precisely predict the potential instability elicited by obstacle clearance and that it scales the spatiotemporal parameters of APAs according to this prediction. The results offer a better understanding of how the body adapts to environmental constraints in order to ensure safe and efficient whole-body progression. In a future study, we will investigate the strategies of young, healthy adults and compare them with those adopted by older adults (fallers and non-fallers) in the maintenance of stability in a similarly complex environment.
Author Contributions {#s6}
====================
EY, RA, CT, OL, PF: designed the study; collected, analyzed and interpreted the data; drafted and revised the manuscript; gave final approval.
Funding {#s7}
=======
This research was funded by the French Government.
Conflict of Interest Statement {#s8}
==============================
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
[^1]: Edited by: Christopher J. Hasson, Northeastern University, USA
[^2]: Reviewed by: Arturo Forner-Cordero, University of São Paulo, Brazil; Laurence Mouchnino, Aix-Marseille Université, France
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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PubMed Central
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Subtle.Nets.Finder: finely tuned interaction networks in DNA/RNA/protein complexes.
Graphical Abstract Subtle.Nets.Finder is a workflow of algorithms for identification of subtly interacting groups in DNA/RNA/protein complexes. It is founded on detailed and sophisticated evaluation of the self-consistency in the cooperative network of residue interactions via a combination of advanced calculations (fast multipole method and statistical mechanics) supplemented with graph-theoretical procedures.
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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PubMed Abstracts
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This week we learn a brand new phrase and it kinda makes the guys uncomfortable. plus, CDC guidelines for listening to our show, the TempChek 3000, Special Forces, sometimes you regret what’s in you mouth, massive and cheesy, Spanish phrase of the week, YouTube ads, is that a blender? agree or disagree, face mask fun, bday wishes, fun penis facts, plans for the year and so much more.
Honestly, there’s a lot crammed in this episode.
In the news, not working from home, is that a sex doll, Carole Maskin, burned down the she shed, you gotta air it out, are you a good person and more.”
In this special edition of “Straight To The Point” with Percy Crawford,Percy breaks down the Ahmaud Arbery shooting/killing in Georgia from top to bottom.From the video itself to the specifics of the case to the upcoming trial, Percy gives his uncensored thoughts and this is a must listen.We also touch on […]
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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Pile-CC
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This is what followed:@baugussd @susantran Let me know how you like the MacBook… I’ve been thinking about getting one.@KenBuck @susantran it will change your life for the better!@chrismiller_wbt @susantran I don’t know if it’s changed my life. but I’m certainly happy with my Macbook.@alisha_hord @susantran Had a MacBook Pro for a couple years and absolutely loved it. You won’t go back to PCs.
@susantran Really?! Mac folks r devoted! RT @alisha_hord: Had a MacBook Pro for a couple years and absolutely loved it. You won’t go back to PCs.
@AssignmentEdit @susantran The #Mac I got in October has been flaky to say the least… and support from the “geniuses”…flaky at best. I’m with ya! Rocky!
Not everything converted. The geniuses (no sarcasm here, that’s what they’re called!) at the Apple store tell me — it’s a PC thing. They said the PC programs won’t give up my data without a fight and not to blame my new computer, who’s more than willing to accepted any and all of my files.
Mac and Me, I think we’re in the ‘getting to know you better’ stage in our relationship. As my best friend said, “you’ve been with your PC your whole life. You can’t expect to know your day-old Mac the same way you knew your PC! Give it time.” I will. I will. Hopefully we’ll live happily ever after!
Hubby and I don’t want kids but I will freely admit I find them to be endlessly fascinating. They’re these little people with unformed opinions who are opinionated. They demand things they don’t want and depending on the age, they can’t say what they need. They’re jesters who are timid, bold, quiet and kind. And if you watch them play, you witness joy that is simple, pure and magical.
I recently spent a week with my best friend’s children. They were a riot. Most of the time, I had to withhold laughter, because while they were defiant, oblivious or aware, they were endlessly entertaining. If you could bottle up that euphoric energy you’d rule the world.
But today, I just want to bask in their joy. These are just some of the little people in my life I find endlessly fascinating: Jake, Lauren, Gianna, Ashton, Maddie, Katie, Reed, Chase, Camden, Reagan, Nicole, Sam, Jocelyn, Jarrett, Elyssa, Sarah, Lawrence, Grace, Saddie, Eli, Megan, Cooper, Collin, Marion, Sam, Will, Mia, Soren, Maggie, Jasper, Tucker, Drew, Caroline and Mary. You guys make me laugh! Thanks for letting me play with you!
I’m sitting at the library in Uptown Charlotte. I’m without a computer. Actually, I have two computers (I know, it’s an Uptown problem). One is dead and the other, the one hubby just bought me, I can’t get until tonight at 6:00. And since I wanted to make my self-imposed 3pm deadline, I’m at the library.
So here’s what happened… after 4 calls to 4 different computer tech people, I learned my little Sony Vaio laptop apparently could not handle all the video editing I was doing. Not only was there not enough memory but my video card was not able to handle the job. Of course, all this stuff, is completely foreign to me. The folks at “Nerd Herd“… I mean “Geek Squad” said I’d be better off with a Mac (especially with all the video editing I wanted to accomplish).
So here I am, waiting on the arrival of my new MacBook and mourning the loss of my PC laptop. To my little red Sony Vaio, you were my first laptop. You and I had some great times. You got me to embrace having a laptop but now I must move on. Thanks for the memories.
I was out to dinner with my friend, @KatieBisbee, one night and we both started laughing simultaneously while checking our BlackBerrys. And it turned out, we both were reading a tweet from @WadeToBlack.
My wife hates when I watch woman’s curling because she doesn’t like me to get any ideas about her learning how to use a broom.
Some of the funniest things I get on my Twitter stream are from @WadeToBlack.
Sometimes I fantasize about never having to work but then I remember I don’t like talking to people so I would totally suck at panhandling.
Not everybody wants to rule the world, Tears for Fears. Me? I’d be happy just ruling this couch for the rest of the night.
At the bank, I noticed my wife’s signature is slowly morphing into mine. It’s clearly part of her diabolical plan to bilk me of my hundreds.
If you’re trying to import your own candy into a movie, there are wiser choices than boxes of Nerds. Might as well had maracas in my shorts.
My birthday this year falls on Thanksgiving. I really hate sharing it with a major holiday. Now I know how Jesus feels.
Imagine the snowman as winter and that’s how I felt about him this year. Freezing cold days and 5 inches of snow (says my friend John Ahrens at WSOC). Is it just me or did this winter seem relentless? I was starting to fear a serious Vitamin D deficiency.
Hubby and I moved here more than 3 years ago and thought we’d struck atmospheric gold, when every day appeared to be the perfect shade of blue.
The good news, there are only 8 more days until spring and 101 days until summer. But the first sign of spring is Sunday when we change our clocks to Daylight Saving Time. Winter, it’s been fun, but I’m going to greet spring with a warm embrace!
I’m a superlative kind of person. I like using words like: the biggest, best, brightest! It’s all well and good (for me) but my friends find it a bit overwhelming because I insist on knowing their superlatives. For example, say we’re having a great meal, I want to know which was their favorite dish. If we’re traveling or out, I want to know what portion of their day was their absolute favorite part. I often get an eye roll or guttural response, which gets me to nudge just a little bit more.
In the spirit of superlatives, I thought I’d share a few of my favorite things. (All things listed are Charlotte based unless otherwise noted.)
Please tell me about some of your favorite things in the comment section below!
Some days – it’s just about a good laugh. And I think I found something for y’all! I was going through my computer trying to organize all my videos and I came across a gem.
A few years ago, hubby and I joined my childhood best friends, Carrie and Becky and their spouses for a trip to wine country. We were in the parking lot and for some unknown reason the talk turned to animal impersonations. Becky’s husband apparently could produce the perfect pachyderm. That meant hubby was game to do his version of goofy gorilla. (Up until this point, I had never seen said primate impersonation, so I was psyched!)
It’s fair to say that these men in our lives crack us up. All three husbands have serious jobs and people who depend on them but to us they’re the guys who make us laugh. And that’s the treasure I see when I look at the video, over and over again.
I got Cricket, my Shih Tzu, right after I graduated from college. I wanted a dog and my boyfriend at the time wanted to appease me so got me a puppy. We broke up and for a time there was uncertainty as to where Cricket would live. I think he ended up giving me Cricket because she was a gift and because he didn’t want to appear effeminate walking a Shih Tzu.
Hubby (before I met him) had Hannah, his Black Lab. He used to meet many a women with Hannah by his side. He drove a Jeep Wrangler and Hannah sat in the front. They were a dashing pair. Best Friends.
When hubby and I got together there was great consternation about whether the two girls would get along. I remember getting a call at work. Hubby declared he had great news, they’re pals.
Hannah and Cricket have been inseparable since. They’re each other’s best pals and greatest defenders. Cricket is known to jump on tables and knock down food for Hannah and Hannah will protect Cricket till the death at the dog park (luckily for us there have been no death matches). But they’re also such different dogs. Hannah loves to eat, to play ball until near exhaustion, and to roll in anything that’s dead or muddy. Cricket loves to play ‘I got it’ with the ball, to be around people and hates the rain. Hannah is super mellow. Cricket is intense and high strung. Hannah loves to open presents but doesn’t like to play with squeeky toys as much as Cricket does.
They’re also hubby and my constant companions –moving with us from Utica, NY, to Boston, to Charlotte.
Sadly, Hannah passed away suddenly last summer. She was 12 years old, on the chubby side (big boned - hubby liked to say), had some arthritis, but healthy. We took her in one Saturday morning because she looked like she hurt her hip but they found cancer. The vet called me at work right after my 6:00pm newscast. I cried (the ugly cry) in an edit bay as I called hubby. Then after I finished the 11:00pm newscast, I went home and hubby and I cried all over again.
The worst part, days after Hannah was gone, every time we went to walk Cricket, she’d run all over the house and bark up a storm looking for Hannah. She looked at us with indignation, as if we were so rude to walk her and not wait for Hannah. It broke our hearts each time we went to get Cricket’s leash.
It’s been several months since Hannah’s been gone. Cricket has settled in nicely to being the only dog and the focus of all of our attention. We debated getting another dog but we didn’t think Cricket, who turns 13 this summer, would appreciate sharing her space.
The good news, some of our dear friends, Ben and Ryan and Tim and Ron, just got puppies.
If the Charlotte Twitter-verse had a queen, there’s no doubt it would be @CrystalDempsey. She’s everywhere. She has 2,351 followers and has sent 13,552 tweets (the number has likely changed by the time you read this, so you should probably just tack on another hundred new tweets). She’s talked about Twitter on WFAE-FM.
She was an early adopter, starting to tweet in December of 2007. And when she volunteered to be laid off from the Charlotte Observer in 2009, she knew good things were going to happen, she just didn’t know they’d revolve so much around 140 characters.
She became the face behind Amelie’s Bakery, taking it from a small café in NoDa to a 24-hour hot spot where she says, “Creativity happens.”
She launched her own communications company, From the Hip; a one-woman show that focuses on new media marketing strategies. She’s done so well and is so busy with her new company, she’s now only a consultant at Amelie’s Bakery (but no one knows because we all associate her with the place).
When I recently told my friend, Brian, what my next post was going to be he wondered if this blog of mine was just going to be a running account of all the things I can’t do or am not good at. I thought about it, and yes, yes indeed I think it is! I enjoy self-deprecating humor and I have plenty to work with.
Here’s the truth, I love to eat. I am passionate about food. I have such affection for how foods are like people; instead of the difference in skin, eye, and hair color – they come in various flavors, textures, and styles of preparations. But they also have such similarities. Doesn’t every culture have a noodle dish of some sort, a dumpling, a sausage, a dish requiring the searing of meat over an open flame?
Here’s another truth, I can’t cook (ok, maybe it’s I don’t cook). I have a short attention span so things are often left boiling over, burning, or just plain bad. Throughout my 20’s, the valuable marrying-off years, my mother feared I’d be a spinster as my domestic abilities were, at best, substandard. Fortunately for all of us, I married hubby. He’s not only a great cook but he thoroughly enjoys the processes.
Now all my friends are quite familiar with the reality of my limitations. They never ask me to bring any cooked items to an event if hubby is out of town. In fact, if hubby is out of town, I’m often invited over for a meal. I think they have a fear that my love of Spam and pork rinds will ruin me.
Needless to say when my friend Julianne had a great idea for her birthday recently, there was genuine cause for concern.
That’s right. I make six things: sausage roll, orzo salad, vegetable beef soup, spicy green beans, hot chicken tits (don’t judge, they used to be called special spicy chicken but hubby, the ad man, renamed the dish, rightly so!), and apple pie. What I don’t think Julianne hit upon is that I usually only make one of the six dishes at a time, ever. Her request was to make all six for one event. Game on.
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Pile-CC
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The Australian quarantine and biosecurity legislation: Constitutionality and critique.
Australia's quarantine and biosecurity laws have been in focus recently with the serious outbreak of the ebola virus and the not-so-serious incident involving an actor's dogs apparently gaining unauthorised access to Australia. These incidents have coincided with the move to replace Australia's existing quarantine legislation with a modern regulatory framework for managing biosecurity risks. This article critiques the existing and new Australian legislation, comparing them with approaches in other jurisdictions and discussing some relevant public policy issues. In particular, the article comments on the constitutionality of the provisions relating to the detention of individuals for public health reasons, such as to control or limit the spread of disease, finding the new legislation to be an improvement on the existing one.
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PubMed Abstracts
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William J. Grabiarz
William J. Grabiarz (March 25, 1925 – February 23, 1945) was a United States Army soldier and a recipient of the United States military's highest decoration—the Medal of Honor—for his actions in World War II.
Biography
Grabiarz joined the Army from his birth city of Buffalo, New York, on April 29, 1943.By February 23, 1945, he was serving as a private first class in Troop E, 5th Cavalry Regiment, 1st Cavalry Division. On that day, in Manila, the Philippines, he voluntarily braved enemy fire in order to rescue a wounded officer who lay in an exposed position. After being wounded himself and trying unsuccessfully to drag the officer to safety, he used his body to shield the man from hostile fire. Grabiarz was killed by the intense fire, but the officer survived. For these actions, Grabiarz was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor ten months later, on December 8, 1945.
Grabiarz, aged 19 at his death, was buried in Saint Stanislaus Cemetery, Cheektowaga, New York.
Medal of Honor citation
Private First Class Grabiarz's official Medal of Honor citation reads:
He was a scout when the unit advanced with tanks along a street in Manila, Luzon, Philippine Islands. Without warning, enemy machinegun and rifle fire from concealed positions in the Customs building swept the street, striking down the troop commander and driving his men to cover. As the officer lay in the open road, unable to move and completely exposed to the pointblank enemy fire, Pfc. Grabiarz voluntarily ran from behind a tank to carry him to safety, but was himself wounded in the shoulder. Ignoring both the pain in his injured useless arm and his comrades' shouts to seek the cover which was only a few yards distant, the valiant rescuer continued his efforts to drag his commander out of range. Finding this impossible, he rejected the opportunity to save himself and deliberately covered the officer with his own body to form a human shield, calling as he did so for a tank to maneuver into position between him and the hostile emplacement. The enemy riddled him with concentrated fire before the tank could interpose itself. Our troops found that he had been successful in preventing bullets from striking his leader, who survived. Through his magnificent sacrifice in gallantly giving his life to save that of his commander, Pfc. Grabiarz provided an outstanding and lasting inspiration to his fellow soldiers.
Military awards
Grabiarz' military decorations and awards include:
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See also
List of Medal of Honor recipients
List of Medal of Honor recipients for World War II
References
Category:1925 births
Category:1945 deaths
Category:American army personnel killed in World War II
Category:United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
Category:Military personnel from Buffalo, New York
Category:United States Army soldiers
Category:World War II recipients of the Medal of Honor
Category:American people of Polish descent
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Wikipedia (en)
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Q:
nth-child() issues in jquery
hello friends folowing is my code
HTML
<div class="quick_link">
<ul>
<li>iPad App Edition</li>
<li>About us</li>
<li>Digital Edition</li>
<li>Press Room</li>
<li>Privacy & Terms of Use</li>
<li>Site Map</li>
<li>Contact Us</li>
<li>Community Guidelines</li>
</ul>
</div>
jQuery
$(document).ready(function(){
$('.quick_link li:nth-child(even)').css('color','red');
})
using this code i can change the colour of every even child u can see here. But problem is i want to change the colour of every fourth child but i dont know how to do that
Please help me out
Thanks in advance
A:
use the n variable for this: http://jsfiddle.net/9Nbhp/3/
.quick_link li:nth-child(4n)
you can find the docs here http://api.jquery.com/nth-child-selector/
as Jensgram points out you can find a detailed explanation about the nth-child selector at http://www.w3.org/TR/selectors/#nth-child-pseudo
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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StackExchange
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Background
==========
Total mesorectal excision (TME) is the standard surgical treatment used for patients with primary rectal cancer. TME involves removal of a distinct anatomic compartment, the mesorectum, containing the rectal tumor, all local draining nodes and the mesorectal fat, by means of sharp dissection along the mesorectal fascia \[[@B1]-[@B3]\]. There is substantial evidence for efficacy of neoadjuvant therapy in combination with TME as being important to reduce local tumor recurrence rates \[[@B4]-[@B7]\]. When performing TME, knowledge of the relationship of the tumor to the circumferential resection margin (CRM) is of importance. When CRM is involved by the tumor, the risk of local recurrence is high \[[@B8]-[@B16]\]. The local prognostic factors assessed at preoperative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of rectal cancer include the extent of extramural tumor spread, involvement of the lateral resection margin, involvement of neighboring organs in the pelvis, presence of local lymph node metastases, extramural lymphovascular infiltration and peritoneal involvement \[[@B15],[@B17]\]. This information helps select patients who should receive neoadjuvant treatment. This applies especially to cases with locally advanced rectal cancer, in order to maximize the chances of a complete resection and survival \[[@B18],[@B19]\], and at the same time, to minimize morbidity and loss of quality of life. It is therefore of paramount interest to provide detailed anatomic knowledge of tumor and tumor invasion toward neighboring organs before treatment.
Although evaluated in several studies during the past two decades, it is only during recent years that MRI gained wide acceptance as a valuable method for assessment in patients with rectal cancer \[[@B20]-[@B33]\].
As a tertiary referral center responsible for patients with advanced rectal cancer, we assess magnetic resonance (MR) examinations from other institutions and hospitals at multidisciplinary team (MDT) meetings. When demonstrating these examinations at MDT meetings, variations in imaging sequences among different centers are noted. These differences may be related to both different equipments and level of dedicated experience in pelvic MRI.
To our knowledge, no study has reported the importance of the imaging protocol for assessment of tumor involvement of neighboring organs in locally advanced rectal cancer. The aim of the present study was to compare the equivalence between MRI and histopathology in patients with locally advanced rectal cancer based on the effects of using different MRI protocols.
Patients and methods
====================
Forty-one patients assessed as clinically suspicious for locally advanced primary rectal cancer by surgeons from 2000 to 2005, were included. 37 patients, 27 male and 10 female, with a mean age of 60.1 ± 9.8 (mean ± SD, range 28--79) who had available MRI of the pelvis were studied further. The surgeon\'s decision that a cancer might be advanced was based on findings at diagnostic laparotomy and/or by means of digital rectal examination.
Radiological assessment
-----------------------
All examinations were provided from ten different hospitals or institutions (two of which were university hospitals). Each MR examination (all done on 1.5 T) was assessed by two or three radiologists (C.T., M.R.T. and L.B.) in consensus without knowledge of the clinical and histopathological results prior to this study according to a standard evaluation looking specifically at which organs and/or structures had been involved. However, the radiologists were aware of the high suspicion for locally advanced tumors by the clinicians. Radiologists had evaluated the morphological characteristics of the primary tumor, local prognostic factors including threatening or involvement of the mesorectal fascia, and adjacent organs in each patient.
For the part of this study, anterior organs were defined as those positioned ventral to the rectum and included the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, the perineal body, uterus, vagina, ovaries, the small and large intestines, and the urinary bladder. Inferior and posterior organs had been defined as those that were located inferior and dorsal to the rectum, respectively, and included the levator ani muscles, obturator muscles, piriformis muscles and the sacral bone. Involvement of the abovementioned organs was defined as T4-tumor stage.
The imaging protocol of each MR-examination was recorded by one author (C.T.). Those examinations that showed the following prerequisites were defined as compliant rectal imaging protocol vs. those that did not demonstrate the same sequences (called henceforth noncompliant):
1\. Sagittal and axial T2-weighted images of the pelvis performed,
2\. T2-weighted images with equal to or less than 3 mm slice thickness perpendicular to the rectal length at the level of the tumor with a 16--20 cm field of view and at least a 256 × 256 matrix, otherwise called \'high resolution imaging\' \[[@B20],[@B21],[@B25],[@B34]\].
3\. For low rectal tumors, coronal imaging obtained.
If the patients underwent MR examinations twice but at two different institutions, with different protocols, one compliant and the other non compliant; these were noted separately as combination protocol but categorized with the compliant group regarding some aspects. The number of other sequences and different types of artifacts (if distinguishable) were also noted.
The common denominators of all MR examinations, whether compliant or otherwise, were that they had to be performed on the request of a surgeon or oncologist for assessment of local extension of the rectal tumor preoperatively, and that the radiologist at the primary institution had not called the examination incomplete.
Histopathological examination
-----------------------------
All evaluations were performed according to the protocol of Quirke, et al \[[@B16],[@B35]\], by one pathologist (J.L.) with more than 10 years of experience in gastrointestinal pathology. The pathologist was blinded to the MRI study protocol. The tumor site was sliced transversely at 0.5--1.0-cm intervals. The extent of tumor spread into mesorectal fascia and other structures or organs was assessed both macroscopically and with high magnification. Tumor extension into the surrounding structures and organs at microscopical examination were used as the standard of reference against which MRI findings were compared. The extension of tumor cells into mesorectal fascia and other structures or organs was assessed from inspection of the histological macrosection by light microscopy at 20× -- 200× magnification.
Statistical analysis
--------------------
All MRI findings including the size of tumor, the name and number of involved fascia(e) and organ(s), the pattern of tumor involvement according to MRI and histopathology as well as the MR imaging protocol were recorded using Microsoft Excel 2003 and Microsoft Access 2000. Sensitivity and specificity of MRI between different groups were compared and 95% confidence interval (CI) was calculated with P-value \< 0.05 considered significant using Stat View J-5.0 (SAS Institute. Inc., Cary, NC).
Ethical considerations
----------------------
The study was approved by the local ethical committee. No separate informed consent was obtained for this retrospective study.
Results
=======
Tumor staging according to MRI
------------------------------
Nineteen patients were evaluated as T4 rectal tumors based on MRI. The remaining 18 were evaluated as T3 tumors without obvious invasion of neighboring organ.
Assessment of imaging quality
-----------------------------
Eleven patients were assessed as having compliant (D) protocols and 13 patients as combination protocols (C) and 13 patients a noncompliant imaging (N).
Regarding imaging parameters, compliant imaging protocols were used with smaller field of view (FOV) (D, 201.7 ± 77.0 mm; N, 263.5 ± 129.8 mm; mean ± SD, p = 0.03), thinner slice thickness (D, 3.8 ± 1.4 mm; N, 5.3 ± 1.9 mm; mean ± SD, p \< 0.01), smaller slice gap (D, 0.2 ± 0.9 mm; N 2.0 ± 2.4 mm; mean ± SD, p \< 0.01) and smaller voxel size (D, 1.3 ± 1.5 mm^3^; N, 6.7 ± 6.0 mm^3^; mean ± SD, p \< 0.01). The total number of MR sequences performed in each patient was also larger in the N group (N, 9.2 ± 3.2 sequences vs. D, 5.2 ± 0.7 sequences; mean ± SD, p \< 0.01 (table [1](#T1){ref-type="table"}). One patient from the noncompliant group had some motion artifacts.
######
Comparison of various MR imaging parameters, average number of sequences in each group and imaging protocols.
**Compliant protocol (D)** **Noncompliant protocol (N)** ***P*-value**
-------------------- ---------------------------- ------------------------------- ---------------
Field of view
Mean ± SD (mm) 201.7 ± 77.0 263.5 ± 129.8 0.03
Slice thickness
Mean ± SD (mm) 3.8 ± 1.4 5.3 ± 1.9 \< 0.01
Gap
Mean ± SD (mm) 0.2 ± 0.9 2.0 ± 2.4 \< 0.01
Matrix size
Mean (mm × mm) 0.5 × 0.5 0.9 × 1.1 0.02
Voxel size
Mean ± SD (mm^3^) 1.3 ± 1.5 6.7 ± 6.0 \< 0.01
No. of sequence
Mean ± SD (mm) 5.2 ± 0.7 9.2 ± 3.2 \< 0.01
\*T2 weighted image;
Involvement of the anterior organs
----------------------------------
In the group with compliant protocols and the group with combination protocol, preoperative MRI indicated tumor involvement of anterior pelvic organs in seven out of the 24 patients. Compared to pathological examination, six cases were true positives and one was false positive. Among the remaining 17 patients without organ involvement on MRI, pathological examination revealed one false negative case and 16 true negatives (table [2](#T2){ref-type="table"}). Figure [1](#F1){ref-type="fig"} demonstrates the false-negative case. In this case, there appears to be no continuity between the tumor and the uterus. However, histopathological examination showed tumor invasion along the fascia, reaching the posterior wall of the uterus and the left adnexa. The radiologist failed to ascertain the anterior extension of the tumor correctly.
{#F1}
######
Comparison of various MR protocols in terms of diagnostic accuracies regarding involvement anterior to rectum.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
**Compliant and**\ **Noncompliant protocol (N)**
**combination**\
**protocol (D and C)**
---------------------------------------- ------------------------ -------------------------------
True positive 6 2
True negative 16 3
False positive 1 6
False negative 1 2
Sensitivity (%) (95% CI) 85.7 (42--99) 50.0 (6--93)
Specificity (%) (95% CI) 94.1 (71--99) 33.3 (7--70)
Positive Predictive Value (%) (95% CI) 85.7 (42--99) 25.0 (3--65)
Negative Predictive Value (%) (95% CI) 94.1 (71--99) 60.0 (14--94)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
In the noncompliant imaging group, preoperative MRI was indicative of organ involvement in eight cases. Pathological examination revealed two as true positives and six as false positives (Figure [2](#F2){ref-type="fig"}). Among the remaining five patients without organ involvement, pathological examination revealed two false negatives and three true negatives.
{#F2}
Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV) and negative predictive value (NPV) in the compliant and combination protocol group were 85.7%, 94.1%, 85.7%, and 94.1%, respectively. On the other hand, in the group with non-compliant protocol, the sensitivity, specificity, PPV and NPV were 50.0%, 33.3%, 25.0%, and 60%, respectively. Statistically significant difference (p \< 0.05) was observed regarding measured specificity (95% CI; 7--70 for group N vs. 95% CI; 71--99 for the other two groups, D and C). The difference in sensitivity in the two groups did not reach statistical significance levels (Table [2](#T2){ref-type="table"}).
Posterior or inferior organ involvement
---------------------------------------
Only three out of the present 19 patients with locally advanced tumor, showed involvement of an inferior organ (levator ani muscle, piriformis muscle) or a posterior organ (Os sacrum) by the tumor, without simultaneous involvement of any anterior organ. Two of these patients used compliant imaging, and pathological examination revealed both to be true positives. In one patient with noncompliant imaging an inferior organ involvement was suspected but pathological examination proved no obvious tumor infiltration or fibrosis in that organ (false-positive). The number of cases was too few to make any meaningful statistical analysis.
Discussion
==========
The results of this study indicate considerable differences in correlation between preoperative imaging and histopathology depending on the imaging protocol. Using compliant imaging, despite fewer imaging sequences, a considerably better prediction of tumor invasion towards anterior pelvic organs is seen. On the contrary, this study also indicates that MRI performed with noncompliant imaging protocol does not allow accurate prediction. One other observation is that the radiologist tends to over-stage when the imaging protocol is not optimal. This could be due to the fear of positive resection margins caused by a false negative assessment and partial volume effect observed with thick slices not obtained in the appropriate planes. This could of course be due to nature of the study as well. The radiologists assessing the MR exams were aware of the selection criteria and might have felt compelled to over-stage.
The lack of compliant imaging, and as we suspect the lack of high resolution T2-weighted imaging, probably forced the radiologists to rely on images with considerable volume averaging. Compared to the compliant imaging, both slice thickness including gap and voxel size were significantly larger in the noncompliant imaging group (*P*\< 0.05). Larger slice thickness and gap yield more partial volume effect, thus leading the radiologists to make overestimation of tumor extent. In areas of the pelvis where there are small interfaces between tissues, such as in the anterior and low part of the rectum, this is probably of particular importance. In the compliant and combination groups, there was one false positive and one false negative finding of anterior organ involvement out of 24 cases.
In the noncompliant imaging group, there were six false positive and two false negative cases out of 13 cases. This means that one patient out of 24 from D and C groups and six patients out of 13 from the N group might receive unnecessary extensive surgery and prolonged, preoperative chemoradiotherapy. Anterior pelvic organs are closely related to urinary and sexual function, and anterior organ surgery has great impact on the patient\'s quality of life after surgery. By contrast at least partially because of false negative assessments by radiologists, one out of 24 cases from D and C groups, and two out of 13 cases from the N group had involved resection margins.
Although the low number of cases prohibits any meaningful analysis to be done regarding accuracy of MRI for assessment of organs inferior or dorsal to rectum, our findings suggest that compliant imaging might be superior to noncompliant imaging also for these patients. This low frequency could be due to less likelihood of involvement of posterior organs compared to anterior organs due to more distance between rectum and these neighboring organs \[[@B36]\].
The number of MR sequences was different between various groups with larger numbers observed in the noncompliant imaging group. It seems that whenever the compliant sequences were not employed, there was a tendency to conduct several other sequences. One of the most widely used sequences in the N group was the one with usage of gadolinium intravenous contrast. Recently, Vliegen and others have shown that gadolinium-enhanced MRI does not improve the diagnostic accuracy in local staging of rectal cancer \[[@B37]\]. Unnecessary use of contrast agents might only lead to increased rate of adverse events and increased costs and time needed for examination, without any proven benefit for the patients.
There are a number of other limitations in this study. First, we did not compare the same patients using different imaging protocols.
Second, there was a difference in the sensitivity of MR examinations using different protocols when assessing detection of anterior organ involvement, however, the difference did not reach statistical significance which is probably due to the low power of the study and perhaps the nature of the study (i.e. the radiologists knew that these cases were more likely to be advanced cases).
However, even with these limitations, the compliant imaging improves accuracy, especially in advanced and complicated cases. It is therefore of utmost importance that radiologists are made aware of pitfalls and the problems, and that radiologist are made up-to-date about recent developments in imaging. This current study reveals that there is a need for continued education in this field.
Conclusion
==========
For local staging of locally advanced rectal cancer, the correlation between MRI and histopathology was better when a predefined compliant rectal imaging protocol was used. It is possible that this also holds true for all patients assessed with rectal cancer and not only for anterior structures in the pelvis. However, this has to be assessed in further studies. Furthermore, this study indicates that continuous training of radiologists and radiology technicians, including work-shops and seminars seems to be an appropriate way to improve accuracy of MRI in patients with rectal cancer.
Abbreviations
=============
MR(I): Magnetic resonance (imaging); TME: Total mesorectal excision; CRM: Circumferential resection margin; T2-w (image): T2 weighted (image); FOV: Field of view; MDT: Multidisciplinary team; PPV: Positive predictive value; NPV: Negative predictive value; TR: Repetition Time; TE: Echo Time; NEX: number of excitations.
Competing interests
===================
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors\' contributions
=======================
CS idea, data collection, radiological assessment, manuscript preparation. MT idea, data collection, radiological assessment, manuscript preparation. ST idea, data collection, surgical and clinical assessment, histopathological evaluation, manuscript preparation. GP idea, data collection, surgical and clinical assessment, manuscript preparation. TH idea, data collection, surgical and clinical assessment, histopathological evaluation, manuscript preparation. JL idea, data collection, histopathological evaluation, manuscript preparation. LB idea, supervision, manuscript preparation. All authors read and approved the final version
Acknowledgements
================
The authors wish to thank Roberto Vargas, R.T. for his outstanding technical support and knowledge of MRI and all the colleagues the in Department of the Diagnostic Radiology, Karolinska University Hospital, Solna.
This study is supported partially by ALF project funding, Stockholm County Council and Karolinska Institute.
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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PubMed Central
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Imagine yourself watching a "real life" police show. In the first clip, police officers, responding to a 911 call, enter the small wood-frame home of Zach, 45, and Elizabeth, 40. He is slightly built and balding, and has a beer belly; she is frumpy, weary, and worried. Two boys, ten and eight, run around the small house in their underwear. Zach, an unemployed logger, spends his days watching sports on TV, drinking, and yelling at everyone. Elizabeth, who works part-time to help financially, fearfully tries to make everything perfect in order to avoid Zach's wrath. Five years ago, Zach threatened to beat the boys severely, and when Elizabeth intervened, he slapped, hit, kicked, and spit on her. Zach's remorse consisted of banging his head against the wall until he bled. He has never hit her since, and figures that making holes in the wall is better than hitting her. Tonight his drinking and threats, including throwing things, triggered her fear and she called 911. She is packing to go to a battered women's shelter.
Next you see Jim, a hardworking Navy NCO in his early twenties. He and his wife, Sheri, have two childrenPeter, 5, and Michael, 6 months. After a particularly rough day, when his men had bad attitudes and his CO was critical of him, Jim tried to help Sheri, who was sick. He managed to get some food on the table and watch the boys. Jim's frustration mounted when Mikey would not stop cryingno matter what he tried. In anger, Jim shook Mikey like a rag doll. Mikey shrieked in pain as his head snapped back. Suddenly, Mikey stopped and didn't move. Frightened, his parents took him to the Naval hospital, but lied about the cause of the injury. The police have been called to arrest Jim. Mikey is now permanently brain-damaged and developmentally injured. Jim will go to military prison for a seven-year term for felony child abuse. Peter and Mikey are in foster care. Sheri lives alone. Read more
"The Lord is a refuge for the oppressed, a stronghold in times of trouble."Psalm 9:9
Couples who sit peacefully in church pews may nevertheless be at war. Spouses can attack each other, defend ground, employ manipulative guerrilla tactics, and declare occasional truces. When war has been declared, there is sin on both sides, but when violence is involved, a strong man typically oppresses a woman. With God's grace, afflicted women often look to the church for help. When they do, what are some basic biblical parameters that should guide your ministry to them? Read more
The grace of God ... has appeared.... It teaches us to say "No" to ungodliness and worldly passions, and to live self-controlled, upright and godly lives. Titus 2:11-12
People who publicly sit together in church pews on Sunday morning are not thereby prevented from doing violence to each other once they are in private. Ministry to the violentlike ministry to anyone with immediately destructive sinsdemands wide-awake, bold, knowledgeable intervention, full of grace and truth. The perpetrators of battery (like sexual predators) are criminal, as well as wicked and highly deceptive. Read more
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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Pile-CC
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It's difficult to know where to place Sigmund Freud in the canon of Western thinkers.
Some critics say they know exactly where to place him: straight in the bin. From one side of the culture war trenches, Freud's ideas are viewed as emblematic of everything that's gone wrong with Western civilisation.
When today's culture warriors look back on the revolution of the 1960s — the point at which they claim the wheels of decent society began to wobble — they see a kind of pop Freudianism run amok. Reason and social order give way to primal instinctualism, social control falls prey to individual impulse, morality is unmasked as repression, suddenly everything's about sex — and sexually, anything and everything goes.
For them, this scandalous dissolution has only intensified in the decades since. Today they see rational thought subordinated to wishy-washy moral relativism and the kind of muddled permissiveness that posits gender fluidity as scientific truth, and same-sex marriage and legalised abortion as legitimate social goods.
And all of this, we're told, is what happens when you lie society on the couch, allow it to free-associate, and treat its delusions as insights. Dangerous quackery, loosed upon the world by a dangerous quack.
Freud had his patients lie down on this couch during their psychoanalysis sessions. ( Getty Images: Mondadori )
On the other hand, it's hard to dismiss completely a figure who's had such a profound influence on contemporary life. But for someone so manifestly part of the modern cultural furniture, Freud is hard to get a fix on, to articulate in terms of exactly who and what he was.
Freud himself had a very clear idea. According to Matthew Sharpe, an associate professor in philosophy at Deakin University and a Freud specialist, the good Viennese doctor saw himself as a man of science first and foremost.
"He was very keen to establish that psychoanalysis was a science, and he tried to base his theory of the mind on the most up-to-date biological theories of his day," says Sharpe.
"Freud was a man of his time, and science at the end of the 19th century had ultimate cultural credibility. So if you wanted to be taken seriously, you had to present your theories as scientific."
But not everyone endorses Freud's scientific credentials.
"Figures like Karl Popper have claimed that the idea of psychoanalysis as a science of the mind is highly contestable," says Sharpe.
"The claims that psychoanalysis makes aren't really falsifiable, because the theory is capacious enough to explain whatever behaviour presents itself to the clinician.
"A scientific theory will make risky hypotheses. Does light bend when it travels around a planet? You can test that, once you've got the relevant telescopic equipment, and it's a yes or no answer.
"But that kind of condition doesn't really apply when you have a complex human being talking to another human being in an analytic setting for between six months and 10 years."
More than a master storyteller
In some ways it might be more appropriate to see Freud as a literary figure. Certainly the Romantic authors of the earlier 19th century were psychologists before the word existed, pioneering explorers of the depths of the self, and it's not hard to discern their influence on Freud's work.
Freud was a close reader of (among others) Goethe, Schiller, Shakespeare and of course Sophocles, whose tragedy Oedipus Rex gave Freud the mythic architecture for one of his most famous — or notorious — psychoanalytic insights.
The myth of Oedipus inspired Freud's theories about how children love their parents. ( Supplied: Dallas Museum of Art )
More significantly, Freud has given us resonant narratives that stretch culturally far beyond the point where we argue the toss over whether or not they're "true".
Subconscious desire, ego, death wish, anal retentive: if you've ever used these terms — and who hasn't? — then you've referenced stories authored by Freud, stories about the human condition that have burrowed as deep into the collective unconscious (there's another one) as anything found in Shakespeare or the Bible.
To rate these stories in terms of scientific accuracy seems like a category error, in the same way that it would seem a little off to dismiss the psychological insights of a Jane Austen or an Edith Wharton on the grounds that they'd just made it all up.
Still, it's hard to imagine that Freud would nod approvingly from the grave at the notion that he was a master storyteller first and foremost. By his own account, he dealt not just in seductive fictions but in truths about the world, truths that hold up to hard intellectual scrutiny.
A philosophical sceptic
Maybe Freud was a philosopher? He was certainly philosophically literate, conversant with the thinkers of his day and directly influenced in his work by Arthur Schopenhauer and Friedrich Nietzsche.
But again, it's likely that if consulted, Freud would confess to having mixed feelings about being tagged with the P-word.
"He was sceptical about philosophy, because he thought that philosophers overvalued the power of human thought," says Sharpe.
"There are passages where Freud compares philosophical speculation to the kinds of delusions that psychotic patients form, once their relationship with ordinary reality has broken down.
"Freud says that psychotics 'love their delusions as they love themselves'. Their very identity is dependent on delusion, which enables them to function in some way.
"So when Freud says that philosophers have the same relationship to their theories, he's saying philosophers over-invest in philosophical systems that might be internally consistent, but that one struggles to connect to phenomena encountered in the external world."
In spite of all this, there's a strong — and perhaps surprising — case to be made that Freud's most fertile legacy has been a philosophical one.
Surprising, because you might expect that professional philosophers, unkindly cast as delusional psychotics, would be a bit sniffy about admitting Freud into their ranks.
But in fact Freud has been a key figure in the development of what's been dubbed the "school of suspicion" — a line of philosophical descent that originally linked Freud with Nietzsche with Karl Marx, but has since been expanded into a broader tradition connecting such later figures as Martin Heidegger, Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault.
The "suspicion" in this formulation refers to the sceptical way in which these philosophers approach everyday meaning on the surface of things.
What's going on under the surface
Just as psychoanalysis explores the drives, wishes and fantasies that lurk beneath our conscious account of ourselves, so there is a tendency among the philosophers of suspicion to make a strong distinction between how things at first appear, and what might actually be going on under the surface.
All of which sounds innocent enough — indeed you could say that "looking beneath the surface of what appears to be the case" is a pretty standard job description for any philosopher.
But much like Freud himself, the school of suspicion has fallen foul of today's anti-postmodern culture warriors. And no single thinker personifies the issue better than Jacques Derrida, who died in 2004, and whose legacy in the notion of "deconstruction" is viewed in some quarters as nothing less than a harbinger of apocalypse.
Derrida is loathed by many critics for his belief in the flexibility of language. ( Getty Images: Raphael Gaillarde )
Deconstruction is not so much a theory as a method, an approach to interpreting texts based on the governing assumption that authors are never in full control of the meanings they produce.
Analytic philosophers generally loathe it, and according to Matthew Sharpe, for unsurprising reasons.
"No matter how hard a philosopher tries to lock down language, lock down logic and produce a failsafe, perfectly rigorous philosophical system, Derrida argues that they'll never fully succeed — because they're using language, which Derrida believes is always flexible and can never be closed down.
"And what he takes from Freud is this idea that we make more meaning than we think, and sometimes more than we like. Because what a deconstructive reading will do, is show how an author tacitly contradicts themselves on a point that they feel they're strongly in control of."
All of which is fine if we're just talking about philosophical texts. But deconstruction has a way of getting out of its box, and Derrida's claims about the instability of meaning are intended to apply to all meaning — philosophical, scientific, legal, ethical.
Fuelling the culture wars
Few outside the academy will worry about whether or not a dissertation on Kant's categorical imperative contains unintended meanings that contradict its central thesis. But people can become very upset at the notion that more widely cherished moral certainties harbour the seeds of their own dissolution.
Religious authority, which relies on the notion of access to a set of fixed, language-proof, God-endorsed truths, is an obvious target for deconstruction. And accordingly Derrida's work has been denounced in conservative theological circles as a virulent and dangerous strain of atheism.
But deconstruction ruffles secular feathers as well.
Australia's ongoing same-sex marriage debate can be seen as a battle between defenders of "traditional" marriage and those who seek to deconstruct it — that is to say, those who argue that marriage is generative of more complex, more contradictory meanings than the familiar man-plus-woman formulation allows.
In much the same way, contemporary social anxieties around transgender issues are largely the reaction to a process of deconstruction, where the simple either/or dualism of male and female is being prised apart to reveal ambiguities that challenge the whole concept of binary sex.
We seem to have come a long way from psychoanalysis, but deconstruction is — as Derrida acknowledges — thoroughly Freudian. It's a means of exploring the "unconscious" of surface phenomena, approaching even the most seemingly unarguable meanings as texts to be read, interpreted and mined for contradictions.
And as Freud applied psychoanalysis not just to neurotic individuals on couches but to all of human civilisation, so Derrida's insights have escaped from philosophy departments and can today be found roaming the cratered terrain of the culture wars.
The battles are far from over.
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Matt Rourke/AP Images
NORRISTOWN, Pa. — Bill Cosby has been accused of sexual assault by more than 50 women, but the first and so far only criminal trial kicked off today outside of Philadelphia.
Twelve years after Andrea Constand first went to police and said she had been sexually assaulted by Bill Cosby—and 11 years after she and Cosby settled in a civil trial—her story was heard in a Montgomery County courtroom. Here Cosby is charged with three counts of aggravated indecent assault for the night in January 2004 when, Constand said, Cosby drugged her and then sexually assaulted her.
Cosby, who his attorneys claim is legally blind due to glaucoma, appeared in court without his wife Camille, but did arrive with actress Keshia Knight Pulliam, who played his daughter Rudy Huxtable on The Cosby Show.
Matt Slocum/AP Images
In opening statements, the prosecutor gave a similar account to the one Constand first gave in her civil trial—that Constand, then an employee of the women’s basketball team at Temple University, Cosby’s alma mater, went over to his house for mentoring and advice, where he drugged her and assaulted her incapacitated body. Cosby’s defense also echoed his claims from the civil trial, his deposition in which was released in 2015—that he is a good man whose life could be destroyed by a woman’s unprovable accusation.
The prosecution
Montgomery County Assistant District Attorney Kristen Feden started by going over the now well-known details of what Constand said happened in 2004. She went over to Cosby’s home in Elkins Park, Penn., that night to seek his counsel about she she should do with her life, Feden recounted. Should she focus on basketball, or should she pursue her other passion, massage therapy? Constand trusted Cosby, Feden said, and he took advantage of that. Feden said Cosby brought Constand pills and told her to take them because they were an herbal supplement. Soon her body relaxed to the point she had no control over it, she alleged, and Cosby took her to the couch where he assaulted her as she slipped in and out of consciousness.
“He touched her breast. He grabbed her limp hand, and placed it on his penis, and masturbated himself with her hand...he shoves his penis into her vagina,” Feden told jurors. “All the while this is happening, Andrea Constand can’t move. She can’t talk. She is completely paralyzed, frozen. Lifeless.”
Feden walked over to Cosby and told jurors that he “used his power and his fame and his previously practiced method of placing a young, trusting woman into an incapacitated state so that he could sexually pleasure himself. So that she couldn’t say no because she was incapacitated. She couldn’t say no.”
This case involves “trust, betrayal, and inability to consent,” Feden told jurors over and over.
ADA Kristen Feden gestures toward Cosby. Courtroom sketch by Jane Rosenberg.
Feden laid out the prosecution’s case to come. Jurors will will hear from Constand and her family about how she was affected. They also will hear from another woman—who worked at the William Morris Agency, Cosby’s longtime Hollywood representation— about how Cosby similarly drugged and assaulted her in 1996. Yes, Constand continued to have contact with Cosby afterward, Feden said, because he was Bill Cosby, a titan not just in American entertainment but also a trustee of the university that employed Constand.
“When he called her Temple-issued phone, what’s she going to do?” Feden asked jurors. “Not answer it?”
Constand moved to Canada and tried to get her life back to normal, Feden said, but she couldn’t. She had nightmares. Her parents realized something was wrong. At one point, she helped her parents get tickets to see Cosby perform when he came to Canada because she was trying to keep her life as normal as possible. But it didn’t work. She broke down and told her mother in January, 2005. Her mother called the police, “like any good mother would.”
“This case is about whether or not Ms. Constand had the ability to consent, and the answer to that question is no.”
The defense
Defense attorney Brian McMonagle then addressed jurors, saying that sexual assault is wrong, but there is one thing that is even worse:
“The only thing that is worse than that is the false accusation of sexual assault,” he told jurors, later adding “It can destroy a man. It can destroy his life. It can destroy his future ... I get a chance with your help to protect a man from the destruction of the rest of his life.”
Defense attorney Brian McMonagle speaks to the jury while Cosby looks on. Courtroom sketch by Jane Rosenberg.
McMonagle then gave his version of who Constand was. There had been a romantic relationship between his client and Constand, he said. She changed her hair for Cosby, McMonagle said. She brought him gifts. And after the night of the alleged assault her relationship with Cosby was exactly the same as it was before. He there were 72 phone calls between Constand and Cosby afterward, and those included her calling him. He promised jurors he would point out ways Constand had given law enforcement different accounts of what happened that night, and all the reasons why an earlier investigation by a previous district attorney had ended without charges.
McMonagle pointed out how both Constand and the prosecution’s witness—known as Prior Alleged Victim No. 6—had reached out to lawyers who specialize in sexual assault cases, speaking loudly at one point that he was “seeing a pattern!”
McMonagle emphasized to jurors the burden of “beyond a reasonable doubt” and asked them to remember how high that is, especially compared to civil court. He told them to deliberate “like the rest of a man’s life depends on it.” He asked them to use their common sense and think about their own male family members.
“Try to be the juror you would want if it was your father or grandfather or your son or you [on trial]. No distractions. No distractions. Be that juror and that’ll be good enough for me, and it will be good enough for him.”
He did not ask jurors to think about the women in their lives.
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Department of Business Lawhttp://hdl.handle.net/10211.2/3522
Faculty Publications and Research
2019-03-21T18:18:01ZAcme electronicshttp://hdl.handle.net/10211.2/3556
Acme electronics
Docan, Carol A.; Gunther, Richard; Rymsza, Leonard
The primary subject matter of this case concerns business law and statistical analysis.
Secondary issues examine negligence vs. negligence per se; cause in fact; contributory vs.
comparative negligence; statute of limitations; and statistical analysis involving proportions and
expected value. The case also presents strategic thinking and ethical issues related to business
conduct and their affects on consumers.
The case has a difficulty of level three, appropriate for junior level courses. The case is
intended to be taught in three class hours, including a class presentation by student teams. The case
is expected to require a minimum of three hours of outside preparation by student teams that present
a report.
This case is designed for use in an upper division inter-disciplinary business course. The
purpose of the course is to enable students to utilize knowledge they have gained in their lower
division core business courses that include one business law course and one statistics course.
However, the case can be easily modified for use as an in class or take-home assignment in an
introductory business law course by eliminating the Case B Questions on statistics.
2009-01-01T00:00:00ZA day at the movieshttp://hdl.handle.net/10211.2/3555
A day at the movies
Docan, Carol A.; Rymsza, Leonard; Baum, Paul
The primary subject matter of this case concerns business law and statistical analysis.
Secondary issues examine contract formation, terms of an agreement, breach of contract,
misrepresentation and legal remedies, as well as ethical issues related to business conduct affecting
consumers and statistical analysis involving hypothesis testing which may lead to alternate business
decisions.
The case has a difficulty of level three, appropriate for junior level courses. The case is
designed to be taught in three class hours, including a class presentation by student teams. The case
is expected to require a minimum of three hours of outside preparation by student teams that present
a report.
2004-01-01T00:00:00ZAre foreign companies doing business in the United States required to comply with American employment discrimination laws?http://hdl.handle.net/10211.2/3536
Are foreign companies doing business in the United States required to comply with American employment discrimination laws?
Docan, Carol A.
In June 1982 the United States Supreme Court decided that a New York
incorporated subsidiary of a Japanese company could not invoke the terms of a
1953 U.S.-Japan Treaty, to defend an action filed against it by female employees
who alleged discrimination on the basis of sex and national origin in violation of
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The decision is an important one because it
not only affects the over 1.6 million workers in the U.S. who are employed by U.S.
affiliates of foreign corporations, it may also affect future foreign investment in the
United States generally.
Foreign investment has grown rapidly in the United States in recent years.I n
1981 foreign direct investment in the U. S. increased 58% from that of 1980, with a
total of $19.29 billion spent to acquire or establish business in America.1 Those
investments were found in manufacturing, mining, wholesale and retail trades,
finance, banking, insurance, real estate, oil and gas extraction, and chemical and
allied products. The major foreign investors in 1980 were from Canada, France,
Japan, the Netherlands, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and West Germany. The
decision in this case is important because approximately 47 nations have entered
into Friendship, Commerce and Navigation Treaties (hereinafter referred to as
"FCN treaties") with the United States which contain language similar to that of
the Japanese Treaty.2
This article will review the facts and issues raised by recent cases which have
interpreted the Japanese Treaty in light of Title VII, discuss unresolved issues and
raise questions to consider.
1984-01-01T00:00:00ZRisk and responsibility: the working women makes the choice, not the employerhttp://hdl.handle.net/10211.2/3518
Risk and responsibility: the working women makes the choice, not the employer
Docan, Carol A.
In a case commonly known as "Johnson Controls, "an
employer had established a policy of refusing to employ fertile
females in jobs which would expose them to lead. A federal
appellate court upheld the company's Fetal Protection Plan but a state court found the plan unlawful. While the case against Johnson Controls was making its way
through the court system, many people speculated that when the
case reached the Supreme Court women· would be on the losing end
of the decision. These speculations were based on the court's shift, in the last few years, to a conservative philosophy as a result of the appointments made by Presidents Reagan and Bush to the court. Justice Souter, President Bush's most recent appointee had only
been on the bench one day when the case was argued before the
Supreme Court in October 1990. But in March 1991, much to the
surprise of all concerned, the court issued an opinion which
declared that employers may not exclude women from jobs which
could expose a fetus to toxic substances.
1991-01-01T00:00:00Z
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Plot: Gul Panag is a happy lady who works in an advertising firm, has a charming boyfriend and a neatly sorted out life. Few days before her thirtieth birthday, Life takes an unexpected wrong turn. Sidharth Makkar, her boyfriend, breaks up with her and is about to get married to a big shot’s daughter to save his father’s sinking business. Things at her office are no better for her. Gul’s boss is on the verge of firing her and unbefitting colleagues flick all her ideas. Her two friends are her only source of support, standing by her side even though they have many complications in their life. Does Gul Panang celebrate a ‘happy’ birthday? Is she able to sort out the muddle in her life? To know more, watch the film.
Analysis: The film is clearly a retreat from the usual masala entertainment. The movie that has scope for being funny instead chooses to be gloomy. Rather than calling it a film, it should be called a television soup. It is high time filmmakers should stop showcasing strong, independent women like those who have frequent sex and regularly get drunk. I guess the crew forgot that it is a Hindi movie; the dialogues are mostly in English. The way how she sorts her messed up life is quite interesting. The first half is interesting when compared to the second half.
Star Performances: Gul Panag, Purab Kohli, and Sidharth Makkar have the potential to excel in their acting skills, but the film has no scope for them. The music scored by Sidharth- Suhas duo is hummable, but escapes from our mind once we leave the theater. Santosh Nadal, the editor, has done an impressive job by making the draggy movie quite bearable.
What's There:
• The director makes the audience easily relate to Gul’s longing to get back her boyfriend. The film is captivating up to an extent.
• Gul Panag’s acting is the only element in the movie that makes it a bit tolerable.
• Just a bunch of audiences who eagerly start watching a phenomenal woman-centered film with the high expectations which has nothing in it.
What's Not There?
• The film has a great scope of being a funny one or a serious one, but the director has done a film that heads nowhere. Gul Panag bickers, cries, bickers, cries and the same repeats. It starts to annoy us after a point of time.
• The movie is only for a particular group of audiences and does not attract others.
• The screenplay could have been engaging and not so dull and boring.
• The jokes do not entertain and are not quirky.
Verdict: A usual chick flick with an enthralling first half and a repetitive second half.
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Tonight, I visited temple square and took this picture of the nativity. Peaceful, calm beautiful. I love the gospel of Jesus Christ that this scene epitomizes. Humility, tenderness, love.
I’m going to relate a different story of what is happening in the Church which bears His name. But, this narrative bears no resemblance to His gospel.
I was 15 and had a 18 year old boyfriend. I lost my virginity. My parents went to my bishop and asked him to talk to me. I was forced to go. I Confessed and he asked me, “Do you know what people called girls like you?” He called me a Slut. He told me I’d never get a descent young man and I had ruined all my chances. The rose petals were damaged and could never be made beautiful again.
I married the first boy that was nice to me at 17 and got the heck out of there. He was horribly abusive to me. We divorced at 21. Luckily no children.
That bishop, that monster! I was so young and already suffered from low self esteem. I felt absolutely horrible and then his words broke my heart. That kind of personal attack and degrading stays with me even today. For several years, I was very depressed and suicidal. I just needed a friend, an ear and some positive kind words.
As I write this, I’m calm. However, when I first read the story, I released an angry expletive when I came to the word ‘slut.’ This could have happened to any one of my six daughters. It will NOT happen to my granddaughters. That is what drives me to fight for change.
Back to the tender babe of the season, who is my Savior. Christ beckoned all children to come to him. He did not beckon any little girl to go behind a closed door, with an untrained older man, all alone, to be asked if she masturbates. And…what other dangers might lurk behind those closed doors? For one, calling a vulnerable 15 year old, a slut. That is not the embodiment of Christ’s love. It’s the embodiment of evil.
To my dear friend of this story :
I’m sorry this happened to you. It was wrong. You were wronged. I believe what you have shared. Thank you for honoring me with your trust. I can assure you that sharing your story you will help many, many others who are still struggling with self-loathing from this misguided practice.
Stand Up for Our Vulnerable Children
Help me, and thousands of others, eradicate this repugnant practice. Sign the Petition. Share the Petition.
Additional Resources
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Miss Guided
Miss Guided is an American sitcom that ran from March 18, 2008 to April 3, 2008 as a mid-season replacement on ABC. The series follows the life of Becky Freeley, a guidance counselor at a high school that she attended when she was a teenager. The pilot was directed by Todd Holland. The series was not renewed for a second season.
Cast and characters
Judy Greer – Rebecca "Becky" Freeley, Guidance Counselor at Glen Ellen High School. She previously attended the school as a student, and was in the same graduating class as Lisa. She was unpopular in High School, her sole activity being one of only two members of the Milli Vanilli club. She does not have much of a social life, and still lives with her mom. She has a crush on Tim.
Earl Billings – Phil Huffy, Principal of the school. He hired Becky mainly because she is a lot prettier than he remembers her in High School. He has an apathetic attitude toward his work.
Brooke Burns – Lisa Germain, English teacher and cheerleading coach. Lisa is a new addition to the school but like Becky she also attended the school as a student, graduating in the same class as Becky and being crowned Homecoming Queen and was a cheerleader. She was married to a man called Jay, but they are currently separated. She is also the target of Vice Principal Bruce Terry's affections but she has no feelings whatsoever for him, while she is seen as Becky's rival for the affections of fellow teacher Tim O'Malley.
Kristoffer Polaha – Tim O'Malley, Remedial Spanish teacher. Previously taught Auto-Shop at the school, before a vacancy led him to move to the Spanish department despite having only basic knowledge of the language. He is noted for having good hair and being the object of both Becky and Lisa's affections. Is two credits short of holding a College Diploma, but no one else at the school knows.
Chris Parnell – Bruce Terry, Vice Principal of the school. Has been at the school for at least 11 years, teaching both Becky and Lisa in their school days. He likes to think of himself as an authoritative masculine figure, although it is hinted that he has homosexual tendencies. He has already set his sights on going after both the Principal's job and Lisa, who wants nothing to do with him. The episode "Frenemies" showed that he greatly admires Vice President Dick Cheney.
The show has featured a number of guest stars, most notably Executive Producer Ashton Kutcher guest starred in the second episode as substitute teacher Beaux alongside Zoey 101 star Jamie Lynn Spears as a student, and Rumer Willis as a rebellious student.
Episodes
Production
Caroline Williams penned the script for the show, originally called Miss/Guided, which was then developed by Katalyst Films, Ashton Kutcher's Studio at 20th Century Fox Television. The ABC network then ordered the pilot to be made in August 2006.
After the pilot was shot ABC ordered the show to series on 13 May 2007 ordering an additional six episodes two days before its formal upfront presentation for the fall television season. At the upfronts the show wasn't given any formal timeslot, instead being held by the network for a mid-season debut. The show completed all of its original 7 episode order prior to the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike. Prior to its first airing the shows title was changed to Miss Guided, losing the '/' from its original title.
Casting
In October 2006, Judy Greer was cast in the lead role of Becky. This was soon followed by Brooke Burns as Lisa, Kristoffer Polaha as Tim, Earl Billings as Principal Huffy and Jonathan Sadowski as Gary, the school's male nurse.
Following the changes to the show runners, Chris Parnell was cast as a regular in the show as Bruce, originally planned to be a rival Guidance Counselor to Becky. The character was then changed to the Vice Principal of the school, while Jonathan Sadowski was let go from his role of Gary.
Crew
Gabrielle Allen (Scrubs) was hired as the original show runner with Todd Holland committed to direct the pilot. Kutcher, Jason Goldberg and Karey Burke would serve as the shows executive producers alongside Holland and Allen. Creator Caroline Williams would serve as Co-Executive Producer.
In June 2007, Gabrielle Allen left her production role and Rob Thomas was announced as the new Show Runner of the series but left the show after only a few weeks due to creative differences over the show's tone. He was replaced by Mark Hudis, who previously worked as the show runner on That '70s Show. Hudis is credited as Executive Producer from the second episode onward.
Crew members included:
Kevin Etten
Mark Hudis
Victor Hsu
Karey Burke
Todd Holland
Ashton Kutcher
Caroline Williams
Barbara Feldman
Jason Goldberg
David Walpert
Joel Goldberg
Gabrielle Allan
Broadcasting
The show debuted Tuesday March 18, 2008 at 10:30PM EST following an extended Dancing With the Stars. The show subsequently moved to its regular time slot of Thursday 8PM EST on March 20, 2008, where back to back episodes air for the whole hour.
Reception
Critical response
The show received a 63 out of 100 on Metacritic, indicating "generally favorable reviews", with the most positive review coming from Entertainment Weekly saying "MG is wonderfully absurd and the supporting cast is satisfyingly straight-faced" [21 Mar 2008, p. 53] while the most negative review from Variety said "Beyond Greer's latter-day Mary Tyler Moore shtick, there's not a note or character that doesn't feel warmed over."
U.S. Nielsen ratings
References
External links
Category:2000s American high school television series
Category:2000s American single-camera sitcoms
Category:2008 American television series debuts
Category:2008 American television series endings
Category:American Broadcasting Company original programming
Category:English-language television programs
Category:Television series by 20th Century Fox Television
Category:Television shows set in Ohio
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Wikipedia (en)
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Q:
get user from belongsToMany relationships
I have a service model in October CMS.
In this model, I need to get postman's users (postman is user group) but I am receiving this error:
Trying to get property of non-object
This is my code
public function getPostmanIdOptions()
{
$groups = UserGroup::where('id','4')->lists('name', 'id');
$groups->users;
$list = [' ' => 'choose'] + $groups;
return $list;
}
A:
At the moment, your lists() function will only return the name and the id of each user group. This is used to return thelselect options for the backend select (I am assuming).
What you need to do in this case is return the record based on its id which can be done using the find() eloquent method.
By doing this, the full UserGroup model will be returned, with it's relationships etc.
You're new code should look something like this:
...
$group = UserGroup::find(4);
$users = $group->users;
...
After retrieving the users, you can then using the lists() method if required to:
$list = $group->users->lists('name', 'id');
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StackExchange
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The role of HTLV in HIV-1 neurologic disease.
We performed a serologic survey for antibodies to HTLV-I/II in the course of a longitudinal study of the neurologic complications of HIV-1 infection. Nine (3.7%) of 242 HIV-1 seropositive subjects and none of 60 HIV-1 seronegative control subjects had antibodies to HTLV-I/II by ELISA. Western blot and polymerase chain reaction confirmed the presence of HTLV-I in 2 subjects and HTLV-II infection in 2 others. Both HIV-1/HTLV-I coinfected subjects and 1 HIV-1/HTLV-II coinfected subject had a slowly progressive myelopathy clinically identical tropical spastic paraparesis/HTLV-I-associated myelopathy (TSP/HAM). The presence of a myelopathy resembling TSP/HAM in the coinfected subjects suggests that HIV-1 may enhance the expression of neurologic disease caused by HTLV. Patients with a progressive myelopathy occurring in association with HIV-1 infection should be serologically tested for the presence of HTLV. Establishing dual infection has therapeutic and prognostic import as 1 of the HIV-1/HTLV-I subjects substantially improved with corticosteroids and the HIV-1/HTLV-II subject with myelopathy had a marked improvement in the absence of therapeutic intervention.
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PubMed Abstracts
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Category: retail
Valuing shares of Amazon (AMZN) has always been a difficult task since the company does not at all care about short-term profit margins. Investors are left with trying to estimate, based on the company’s various businesses, how large each will get and what type of margins will likely be achieved once each reaches maturity.
Of course, such an approach becomes nearly impossible when you have no sense of which businesses Amazon will choose to enter over time (or maybe the better question is which they will “not” enter). Traditional retail was one thing, but now with cloud services and advertising revenue, margins are going to be all over the map.
I recently trimmed many of my clients’ positions, as I have done once or twice since I made the investments beginning in 2014. My methodology has been inexact, to account for the aforementioned issues regarding Amazon’s various ventures, but it generally involves looking at AMZN on a price-to-sales basis and then seeing what margin/multiple assumptions are baked into such valuations. For instance, if you think they will ultimately earn a 10% profit margin at maturity, you might be willing to pay 20 or 30 times normalized profits, which would equate to 2-3 times annual revenue.
Given the company’s growth, my personal view is that anything up to 3x revenue is at least somewhat reasonable, as I don’t see margins going above 10% given the company’s desire to remain value-based in the eyes of consumers, and anything over 30x profits for a growth company makes me nervous. And if someone argued that they will never reach 10% margins and a 30x multiple is too high, I can totally understand that view. I just think some valuation flexibility is warranted given that Bezos might actually get as close as anyone in business to total world domination.
So below I have posted updated graphs that show Amazon’s stock price over the last two decades or so (not very helpful when trying to evaluate the valuation), as well as their year-end price to trailing 12-month revenue ratio (far more helpful in doing so). Note: the 2018 data points are based on today’s stock price and consensus 2018 sales estimates.
As you can see, AMZN stock hovered around the 2.0x price-to-sales ratio level between 2004 and 2014, with a range of 1.5x-2.5x or so. In recent years, as momentum stocks have led the market higher, that number has surpassed 3x and currently sits around 3.2x.
Given that position sizing in portfolios is always important to me, this graph tells me that now is not a bad time to trim AMZN. Trading above 3x revenue would seem to indicate that investor sentiment is quite high. There may be good reasons for that, of course, but as the company gets bigger and bigger, its growth rate is sure to slow. In fact, in order to grow by the 29% rate that Wall Street analysts are expecting in 2018, total sales need to rise by a stunning $51.5 billion. That very well might happen (and acquisitions like Whole Foods will only help), but when growth slows to only 10 or 15%, investors might not want to pay 3.2x revenue any longer. In my mind, anything above 3.0x tells me to tread carefully.
What do you all think? What kind of profit margins do you think AMZN will earn at maturity (i.e. when its growth rate is in-line with the average company)? What multiple of revenue seems right to you?
Full Disclosure: Long shares of Amazon at the time of writing (even after selling a chunk at $1,400 recently), but positions may change at any time
Here we are after a strong holiday shopping season where online and bricks and mortar stores shared in the cheer and investor sentiment has shifted dramatically. This is notable because the businesses are the same today as they were back in May and June.
While the mall operators are largely unchanged, aside from above-average dividend payouts, profitable retailers with strong balance sheets have been on a tear. For example, Kohl’s (KSS) is up nearly 100%, hitting $67 today on an analyst upgrade. Similarly, Urban Outfitters (URBN) has doubled from $17 to $34 and Dillards (DDS) has jumped nearly 50% from $48 to $70.
The Kohl’s situation is interesting because the stock is jumping $2 today after a Jefferies analyst raised his price target by a whopping 50% to $100 per share (from $66). If that sounds like a crazy number, it is. While I was positive on the company in the $35-$45 area, after a move into the 60’s it warrants a skeptical eye going forward.
I had been using a $60 fair value estimate, based on 6x EV/EBITDA and 10x free cash flow. After all, this is a department store chain that will report lower revenue in 2017 ($19.0 billion) than it had five years ago in 2012 ($19.3 billion) and I wanted to use conservative estimates. Profitable and stable off-mall retailer? Check. Solid balance sheet with lots of owned properties to offer a margin of safety? Check. Growth company that stands to take market share? Not so much.
Although retail sales will continue to rise in the low single digits thanks to inflation and population growth, department stores will likely still cede market share slowly over time to online channels, as well as new store concepts. That trend likely explains KSS’s flattish five-year sales performance.
After a huge run, investors now believe that these companies will survive and do decently well, which is a huge shift in sentiment from 6-12 months ago. I consider many of the stocks trading at/near a fair price today, especially considering that revenue growth will still be hard to come by. In addition, the odds are low that media headlines focusing on the Amazon threat, dead malls across the country, and bricks and mortar bankruptcies are a permanent thing of the past. Like many trends in the financial markets, I suspect we will get another good entry point in traditional retailers down the line when sentiment shifts yet again.
As for riding KSS from $67 to $100, I will leave that bet for Jefferies to make, as the stock is far less attractive today from a risk-reward perspective than it was at $36 last year. Most of these stocks seems like contrarian, sentiment-timed intermediate term trading vehicles more than multi-year, buy-and-hold investments.
Full Disclosure: Long shares of AMZN common, DDS debt, JWN common, KSS common, and SKT common at the time of writing, but positions may change at any time.I have been selling down existing positions in KSS recently, although not every share has been sold yet.
We are not quite three months from my last piece on AutoZone (AZO), which back in mid September was in the midst of a nasty stock price decline, and now investors seem to feel a lot better about the company’s business. Of course, this is bizarre because AZO is a very large player ($11 billion of annual revenue) in a very stable industry and should therefore be mostly insulated from stock market volatility and immense shifts in short-term investor sentiment.
Below is the five-year stock price chart of AZO I shared back in September when investors were overwhelmed with negativity:
And here is an updated version that shows the last 12 months:
Why exactly a company of this size, with no material change in its business outlook could trade for as low as $497 on August 15th and as high as $763 on December 5th shows just how much the current bull market has lost a sense of rationality. That is a 53% move, for a $20 billion market cap company, in a matter of months.
So how does this happen? My guess is that the markets today are mostly driven by index funds, exchange traded funds, hedge funds, and computerized algorithms. The fundamental bottom-up investors are dwindling in numbers by the day. It is not uncommon for me to meet people who are struck by the notion that I pick individual stocks. The market has been so strong for the last nine years that indexes are now considered to be the only wise investment. It is amazing how much views shift based on where we are in the market cycle. You didn’t have famous investors extolling the virtues of index funds from 2000-2008 (a nine-year period where the market had negative average annual returns), but now that the following nine years have produced +15% average annual returns, all of the sudden they are a “no-brainer” investment.
As someone who strongly believes in the cyclicality of the economy, financial markets, and investor sentiment, the AutoZone example is evidence that picking individual stocks is not silly and the markets are far from efficient. Moves like those in AZO in recent months make my job much more difficult in periods like this, when individual stock moves often make little or no sense based on fundamental research, but as long as opportunities continue to present themselves, I plan to maintain my role as an active manager of client assets. There will always be a place for index investing (for my clients it is mostly through their work retirement plan), but the ease at which it produces stellar returns will continue to ebb and flow with the market cycle.
As for AZO itself, it is hard to argue the shares are anything but fairly valued today. It will be hard for the company to grow their business (in unit terms) given the maturity of the U.S. economy and online competition, and the stock now trades for roughly 18x my estimate of normalized fee cash flow, versus just 12.5x when the shares fetched $500 each. That sounds about right to me.
Full Disclosure: Long shares of AutoZone at the time of writing (holdings have begun to be reduced recently and those trades will continue into 2018), but positions may change at any time
Financial journalists seem to have a pretty simple playbook these days. Most any retail-related corporate development is a direct result of Amazon (AMZN). Plain and simple. No questions asked.
Last night it was reported that CVS Health (CVS) has made a bid for health insurer Aetna (AET). Immediately the media closed the book on the strategic rationale for the deal; Amazon might soon start offering mail-order prescriptions and CVS needed to make a bold move to counter that attack.
If CVS is really most worried about Amazon stealing away its pharmacy customers, would the best counterattack to be buy the country’s third largest health insurance company? Does that make sense?
It seems to me that the best competitive move to help insulate you from losing prescription share to Amazon would be to buy a last mile delivery company and use it to offer same-day or next-day prescription delivery to the home. After all, it is not like Amazon has any scale in the drug wholesale business, considering that they have yet to even enter the business to start with! And even if they do get into the business, are they really going to be able to get better pricing for drugs than CVS can, with its existing network of 10,000 retail pharmacies?
I would suggest that the CVS bid for Aetna is more about extending their corporate strategy of becoming a vertically integrated healthcare services provider. You have to remember that CVS bought Caremark, a pharmacy benefits manager, or PBM, more than a decade ago. They started Minute Clinic, the largest retail walk-in clinic chain in 2000. They acquired Omnicare, a pharmacy specializing in nursing home services, in 2015. Becoming more than just a retail pharmacy chain has long been the entire idea behind the company. It also explains why reports say that CVS and Aetna have been talking for six months (this idea was not just thrown together quickly because Amazon is applying for pharmacy licenses).
Adding a health insurer to the mix was a logical extension of that. Competitor United Health took the opposite route, as an insurance company that added Optum Health, a PBM, later on. That strategy has been wonderfully successful and I suspect that CVS and United will dominate the integrated healthcare services business for years to come.
Of course, the narrative on Wall Street has nothing to do with any of this. CVS stock is getting crushed today and United Health is up three bucks. The one-year charts make it seem like these businesses have nothing to do with each other:
To me it is simply baffling that UNH trades for 21x 2017 earnings estimates and CVS commands just 12x. If CVS really does build out a UNH-like operation, with a small retail pharmacy division, I can’t fathom how that valuation gap won’t narrow over time. But the investor community right now just can’t get that bricks and mortar component (no matter how small it would be post-Aetna) out of their heads.
What is probably most interesting is that Amazon does not have a history of putting companies out of business when it enters new markets. Amazon started selling books online in 1994. It launched the Kindle e-reader in 2007. If any bricks and mortar retailer should have been gone by now, it would have to be Barnes and Noble. And yet they are still alive and kicking:
A lot of people thought that Best Buy was finished once Amazon started selling a huge selection of consumer electronics. After all, with thousands of reviews, great prices, and fast shipping, why bother going to a store to buy a TV or computer? And yet, here is a five-year chart of Best Buy stock:
All Best Buy had to do was offer price-matching and quick delivery to keep a lot of market share from people who like buying online. And then you will always have a subset of folks who like kicking the tires in-person and asking knowledgeable people questions about the products.
While Amazon’s reach and e-commerce infrastructure will seemingly allow it to always take a certain amount of market share, it does not typically spell death for competitors. This is especially true when Amazon can’t offer anything better than anyone else. Plenty of companies can offer good selection and good prices, and they are finally spending the money to handle the quick delivery too. And with physical stores, in some cases they even have a leg up on Amazon.
Jeff Bezos likes to say “your gross margin is our opportunity.” By that he just means that if you mark up your prices too much, for no good reason, Amazon will undercut you and take your market share. For that to work, margins have to be high in the first place. For books and consumer electronics, gross margins aren’t very high. For other areas like auto parts, where product markups are 100%, do-it-yourselfers will probably shift business away from bricks and mortar retailers and to Amazon for certain items.
In the case of pharmacies, we are not talking about huge markups, from which Amazon can really offer a significantly better deal. Sure drug prices are sky-high in many cases, but there are a lot of middlemen that split the profits. Manufacturers ship product to distributors, who stock the shelves at the pharmacies upon receiving orders, who resell to consumers. Amazon is starting from scratch and has none of those capabilities yet. If their plan is simply to buy drugs from wholesalers and ship them via Prime to their customers, there is not going to be a lot of margin to shave off in the process, nor will they be doing anything different than others.
That becomes even more true because they will not have scale at the outset to get better wholesale pricing from the suppliers. And if Amazon goes directly to the drug makers demands better prices, the drug companies will just say, “sorry, get your supply from the same places everybody else does.” They are not going to voluntarily give up margin when they don’t have to.
And then there is the whole issue of whether Amazon can partner up with the employers, PBMs, and insurers to get access to their customer bases. Is Wal-Mart or Target going to add Amazon to their preferred network for employer-sponsored prescriptions? If CVS buys Aetna, will they let Aetna members get their drugs through Amazon at the same prices they could through CVS retail or mail order? And what is stopping CVS from hiring drivers at $15 an hour to drive around their local neighborhood delivering prescriptions to people’s homes? Does Amazon really have any competitive advantages in this space, assuming they enter it in the future?
I guess they could buy Rite Aid and Express Scripts, to add pharmacies and a PBM, but even after they spend all that money and integrate those businesses, aren’t they just in the same boat as CVS and Walgreens? Sure they are players at that point, but how will they crush the competition?
This is why I am skeptical that Amazon will try to do everything, will succeed at everything, and will kill off legacy providers that have been doing this stuff for decades. When I see a powerhouse like CVS, which will only get stronger if it buys Aetna, trading at 12x earnings, with the rest of the market trading at 20x it just doesn’t make a whole lot of sense. As Warren Buffett would say, “in the short term the market is a voting machine, but in the long term it is a weighing machine.”
Full Disclosure: Long shares of Amazon and CVS Health at the time of writing, but positions may change at any time
After a huge rally over the past five years, shares of auto parts retailer AutoZone (AZO) have taken a beating in recent months as investors fret over Amazon’s ability to become a full service parts supplier.
What is interesting, however, is that auto parts industry observers are far less optimistic about Amazon’s desire and ability to break into a business that often requires super fast delivery (far less than even two hours) and a huge selection of SKUs. Simply put, auto body shops suddenly dumping their relationship with AutoZone seems unlikely. In that case, AZO’s share price slump from $800 to $500 lately is probably unjustified.
There is little doubt that non-time sensitive auto-related purchases have a place in the online world. If you want to stock up on car air fresheners or get a new license plate holder, Amazon is a good place to look. But for more specialized needs, where price is not always the most important factor (getting your car back as soon as possible is), the distribution networks powering the large national auto parts retailers should still provide certainty, comfort, and value.
To see exactly how much AutoZone’s business has been impacted by Amazon, I looked back over the last 15 years to see the trend for the company’s sales per retail square foot. After all, if auto part sales are moving online in a material way, the average AutoZone retail store should be seeing sales declines. This would show up in sales per square foot since a store’s size is constant even if more stores are built.
Here is a graph of AutoZone’s sales per square foot since 2003:
Can you see Amazon’s impact in that graphic? When did they really accelerate their auto parts selection? Does it look like they are having the same chilling effect on AutoZone’s business as they are on, say, JC Penney? I just don’t see it.
For those expecting the impending doom of auto parts retailers like AZO, I think their death may be greatly exaggerated in Wall Street circles lately. In fact, it is notable to point out that over the last five years (when e-commerce growth has really started to disrupt traditional retailers), AutoZone’s revenue has grown from $9 billion to $11 billion, leading to an increase in free cash flow from $27 to $34 per share.
Full Disclosure: Long shares of AZO and AMZN at the time of writing, but positions may change at any time
It has been a little more than two months since my multi-part series on retailers highlighted the low valuations and negative sentiment on various companies, including department store chain Dillards (DDS).
In recent weeks the stock has soared, in part due to speculation that a massive short squeeze could be imminent. It looks like we are seeing signs of one right now, as the stock has moved from $48 in May to nearly $77 today.
Not only has the recent move narrowed the gap between market prices and intrinsic value, but it also greatly reduces the odds of a management-led buyout in the near-term. When the stock was in the 40’s, a $60 or $65 bid could very well have gotten done. But at current prices, offering a premium would very likely make a transaction less attractive. As a result, I would not be surprised to see the share price retreat after the current spike in short covering comes to a close.
Full Disclosure: Long Dillards debt securities at the time of writing, but positions may change at any time
For years I have wondered why Sears chose not to sell Craftsman tools on Amazon’s web site. It just seemed like an obvious move to monetize a brand name they owned, given that their own stores are slowly disappearing due to customer disinterest. Earlier this year Sears sold the brand to Stanley Black and Decker to raise much-needed capital, and I suspect it is only a matter of time before the new owner utilizes Amazon to boost market share for the reputable Craftsman brand.
Yesterday the financial markets reacted quite strongly to the news that Sears will now sell Kenmore products on Amazon (the company still owns the Kenmore and Diehard brand names). Sears and Amazon rallied, while shares of competitors like Home Depot, Lowe’s, and Whirlpool fell sharply.
Unlike the Craftsman brand, which I believe resonates with most every demographic, Kenmore seems like an odd fit for Amazon. Clearly, Sears is feeling the pressure to stabilize its business and the country’s largest e-commerce retailer would seem to be a logical place to turn.
The problem is that the Kenmore brand has a loyal customer base, but those people are largely older, whose families have shopped at Sears for appliances for multiple generations and have come to trust the brand. In other words, the only customers Sears has left that shop in their physical stores, and more importantly, the last people who are going to consider buying a washer and dryer on Amazon.
Wall Street’s knee-jerk reaction (granted, most likely from computers, not humans) was to flee from the big box appliance retailers. This appears overdone because appliances only represent a small proportion of revenue at those chains, and they should be more Amazon-proof than many other bricks and mortar companies. The odds of this news materially impacting a Best Buy, Home Depot, or Lowe’s is minuscule, in my view. And the idea that the Kenmore brand is going to be reborn merely due to it being more prominent on Amazon’s site is wishful thinking. As a result, yesterday’s stock moves are likely to be short-lived, and they have provided investors with an opportunity.
Full Disclosure: Long shares of Amazon, Lowe’s, as well as Sears’s corporate bonds that mature in 2018, at the time of writing, but positions may change at any time.
Last week we learned that the Nordstrom family, owners of roughly 30% of the large department store chain bearing their name, has begun the process of exploring a bid to take the retailer private. Given the public market environment for apparel and accessories retailers these days, this should not come as a shock to most Wall Street followers. Nordstrom has been a family business for many decades and spending valuable time and energy justifying to analysts and small shareholders why management is making large investments aimed at cementing their competitive position, or giving guidance about how strong or weak store traffic and same store sales have been in recent weeks, can only really be characterized as suboptimal for long-term stakeholders in the company.
Given Nordstrom’s strong relative position in the department store sector (only around 100 full line stores in higher end malls, and a growing off-price chain that caters to higher priced merchandise), I do not think it will be difficult for the Nordstrom family to find partners to help them take the retailer private. Whether they are willing to pay a price that the rest of the shareholder base will accept is another question entirely, but a price starting with a “5” would probably get the job done.
Are there other retailers with large concentrations of family ownership that have probably mulled the going-private idea already and might be more inclined to take steps in that direction if the Nordstrom family succeeds? I certainly think so. Two names I would offer up are Dillards (DDS) and Urban Outfitters (URBN).
Both companies are far smaller than Nordstrom in terms of market value and therefore would be even easier deals to consummate. Three members of the Dillard family, directly owning roughly 13% of the equity, currently serve on the management team and have to be thinking that they too could benefit from a leveraged buyout transaction. The odds of department stores ever getting respect from public investors again are slim, in my view. Taking the company private, and owning all of that valuable real estate themselves, would be a very solid result for the family.
The Hayne family, founders of Urban, are less well known but they have retained a very large stake in the company, one that only grows as more and more shares have been repurchased with free cash flow in recent years. The Hayne family owns a near 30% stake and Urban’s balance sheet makes a deal even easier ($400 million of cash and no corporate debt). At $17 per share, the company sports an enterprise value of just $1.6 billion, versus $473 million of EBITDA in 2016 (free cash flow for the year was a impressive $271 million.
I think the odds are very low that none of these three retailers completed family-led LBO deals over the next 12-18 months. Two deals would seem very possible and a trifecta is even conceivable. After all, if the Nordstrom family is successful, the others are not going to want to balk and potentially look silly three to five years down the road.
Full Disclosure: Long Nordstrom equity and Dillards debt at the time of writing, but positions may change at any time
Can you name a retailer than has gone out of business without having any debt on their balance sheet? The common characteristic of the recent retailing bankruptcy announcements is highly leveraged balance sheets. In more cases than not, private equity firms took over the companies, loaded them up with debt, and the interest payments became too much to handle as sales and profits declined due to excessive competition and the “race to the bottom” in terms of discounting full price merchandise. Recent examples include Sports Authority (2006 private equity deal), Limited Stores (2010 private equity deal), Payless Shoes (2012 private equity deal), and J Crew (2011 private equity deal), which has been fighting to avoid bankruptcy recently.
It may seem overly simplistic to simply equate lots of debt with bankruptcy and vice versa, but in today’s investment world where folks opt to trade exchange traded funds and computerized algorithms treat all retail stocks as if they are identical, it seems clear that strong balance sheets are being undervalued by investors.
Put another way, if a retailing company has no debt and generates positive free cash flow, it should not trade at a similar valuation to a competitor with lots of debt. The challenge for companies with strong balance sheets is not survival, but rather growth (or in many cases merely maintaining their existing market share).
To illustrate how Wall Street appears to be getting it wrong with regard to balance sheet analysis (or lack of interest), consider two retail stocks that recently reported first quarter results below analyst expectations and saw their stocks crater; Express (EXPR) and Francesca’s (FRAN).
These two companies are in no danger of going bankrupt. Will they have to fight hard to compete for shoppers’ dollars given how crowded the apparel and accessories space is in the U.S. right now? Absolutely. But both of them are going to be around for a long, long time.
Let’s contrast Express and Francesca’s with a couple of other retailers with debt and see if Wall Street is segmenting the sector in a rational way. Consider Barnes and Noble (BKS) and JC Penney (JCP):
If you look at the stock charts, you will see that the public equity markets are saying that these four companies are essentially the same. However, it is not a hard argument to make that both a traditional department store and a retailer of all things “Amazonable” (physical books, toys, etc), with quite a bit of debt, are in a worse competitive position than a chain of women’s boutiques and an apparel brand focused on a 20-30 year old customer that now gets 25% of its sales from e-commerce (up from zero 10 years ago), both of which are debt-free. And yet the latter two are cheaper on a valuation basis and the stocks of all four look like they are headed for the graveyard in the same vehicle.
I know it does not fit with the media-driven narrative in retail right now, but balance sheets matter. It is short-sighted to simply categorize all bricks and mortar retailers as dead and call it a day. Can you name companies that go out of business with no debt? Other than a select few examples when a company does something illegal and gets shut down by the government or a regulator, or can’t come up with enough cash to pay a large jury award, I cannot think of any. At some point, investors will take notice (I think, anyway… there are no sure things in the investing world!).
Full Disclosure: Long shares of EXPR and FRAN at the time of writing, but positions may change at any time.
Last week I discussed why I believe many of the traditional bricks and mortar retailers are mispriced based on cash flows, despite intense competition and the acknowledgement that U.S. retail is not a growth business. Interestingly, many of the big box stores own a lot of their own stores, so they have a built-in margin of safety due to the optionality of being real estate developers if the retail business dries up.
So the natural next step in the conversation is to look at the pure play real estate companies. From a valuation perspective the mall owners are the most interesting. For a while the owners of the best malls in the country (GGP, Simon, Macerich, Taubman) were maintaining their premium valuations (roughly 20x FFO, or funds from operations), while the secondary malls in smaller cities were getting beaten up pretty good (single digit multiples of cash flow and double-digit dividend yields). Lately the narrative has changed such that many are saying even the best malls in the country will struggle to fill space as more retailers prune their store portfolios.
In fact, one of the prominent investors featured in The Big Short, Steve Eisman, recently commented on CNBC that he was short Simon Property Group (SPG), widely considered the best high end mall operator in the country) because he didn’t think there was any such thing as a good mall anymore. The reasoning: he just “counts the boxes” sitting on his doorstep when he gets home from work.
As a result, the aforementioned “big 4” high end mall owners have seen their shares drop about 30% on average over the last year, which now sport mid teens FFO multiples. Interestingly, you would be hard pressed to find a transaction in which an “A” mall has been sold for those kinds of prices. Not only that, it was only 2015 when Simon offered to buy Macerich for $95.50 per share and the offer was rejected as being inadequate. Macerich’s current stock price: $59 per share. I have little doubt that if management reconsidered their willingness to sell, Simon would be willing to still do that deal today.
So why are the “A” mall owners so optimistic about their ability to navigate this retail environment, reimagine their properties, and continue to grow their profits over the long-term? After all, if they can succeed on that front, the stock are very likely good buys at ~15x annual FFO.
I can think of a few good reasons. One, location. They have some of the best locations in major cities across the country. Two, incomes and populations are still growing so it is not like they do not have the built-in consumer base to shop their centers. Three, development expertise. These mall companies are developers first and forefront. They are experts are designing destinations that people want to visit.
So while tastes change and maybe 2017 does not bring with it the same thirst for apparel stores that 1997 did, the landlord can adjust. They can bring in more restaurants, more concert venues, more hotels, more office space, more apartment buildings. Rather than having the mall be a place to come and buy clothes, it can be a mixed use destination that serves as a primary entertainment venue.
And don’t forget, interest rates are very low. Developers need funding to expand and/or reposition their properties and money is cheap. If a Sears or a JC Penney closes shop, the mall owner can take that 100,000 or 150,000 square foot box and the huge parking lot that sits next to it and build whatever it wants. The real estate is extremely valuable and any number of uses would make a lot of sense in a densely traversed area that everyone already knows about.
I urge you to read through the conference calls for these mall owners and see how they are thinking about their properties. Take a look at the types of redevelopment properties they are embarking on and decide for yourself if Steve Eisman is right and there is no such thing as a “good mall.” There is a lot of talk in the industry that we have 1,000 malls today and that number needs to come down. And I do not doubt that is true. But every big city can support a couple nice malls. Here in Seattle, for instance, there is Southcenter Mall (owned by Westfield) to the south, Northgate Mall (owned by Simon) to the north, and Bellevue Square (privately owned) to the west. All of these are higher end malls that have plenty of customer traffic. From I-5 you can see all of the building going on around Northgate Mall (including a new light rail stop at the mall itself). The Bellevue property is adding hundreds of residential units around the retail hub.
The financial results of these companies bear out the thesis that they can navigate the changing times. For instance, Simon is projected to earn FFO of $11.50 per share in 2017, which would be a record high level of profitability. Three years ago that figure was $9. Six years ago it was $7. These companies own the land and have access to cheap capital. They really can control their own destiny.
Some other assets are also being dragged down as everyone obsesses over enclosed mall properties, not just the smaller town focused “B” malls. Take outlet malls for instance. The “race to the bottom” in retail these days has made it such that the more you discount the better you do. Chains like Burlington and TJ Maxx and doing great even though they own hundreds of bricks and mortar retail stores. Why? Because consumers have been trained to seek out bargains because it does not take long to find them anymore. Who pays full price for stuff, many will ask.
In that environment, I would think that the open-air outlet malls would have staying power here in the U.S. But a company like Tanger (SKT) has seen its stock price drop from $41 to $26 in the last 10 months. Maybe I am missing something, but I would think that outlet malls will outlast most of their shopping center competitors. But today you can invest in Tanger at just 11x FFO and a dividend yield north of 5%. I would not be surprised if this was a unique opportunity for bargain shoppers, both at their properties and in the stock market.
For investors who are leery of the retailing sector and the threats from Amazon, etc, the real estate owners should be a less risky way to bet on the idea that human beings, even with their Amazon Prime and Netflix accounts, will still find plenty of time to go outside.
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by Sean Nelson
“The reversion of sexuality, out of the political marketplace, back to the furtive interiors of private persons, accomplishes a great deal more than simple retreat. It clears the ground for the articulation of that mystery called love … Going back in the closet does not erase the world of queers; it queers the world.” —Matthew Stadler, “Love Requires Liars,” 1997
Queering the world is a notion that might have appealed to the young Morrissey. It’s also a fair approximation of the effect of his band, The Smiths, on, if not the entire world, then certainly the world of popular music. Even the most ardent conversion therapist would struggle to deny the radical gay energy of early Smiths music, embodied all but literally by their singer.
If you were born after 1990 or didn’t grow up in London, Manchester, or Los Angeles, there’s an excellent chance your only knowledge of Morrissey consists of music blog news dispatches about cranky statements he’s made on the subject of animal rights or British immigration policies or the music business. Or perhaps you’ve seen the odd mention of an aging English singer with a reputation for being a “miserablist” whose robust cult audience would happily follow him into hell while the rest of the world cheered their departure. This is unfortunate, because, while all those things are true, Morrissey and his former band The Smiths have a legitimate claim to having transformed the culture and sound of indie rock and pop in far-reaching ways.
The Smiths arose from the same bleak cultural midwinter as Boy George, Spandau Ballet, Soft Cell, and Duran Duran in early 1980s England. If the vogue of the ’70s glam era was to claim to be gay or bisexual even when you weren’t, the rule of thumb at the dawn of this period was to break every available gender norm in look and sound while insisting you were as hetero as possible. The flamboyance of New Romantic pop was too calculated to be transgressive. Morrissey’s flamboyance was radical and radiant, a defiant burst of love. But, as he made clear in the first verse of the band’s very first single, “Hand in Glove” (1983), “it’s not like any other love / This one’s different because it’s ours.”
For all its captivating energy and catchy melodies, love à la Smiths was not of a stripe typically recognized by pop. As with punk, whose corpse was still warm when The Smiths got started in 1982, it was a love energized by loathing. The good kind: working-class loathing aimed upward; an idler’s loathing for work; an adolescent’s loathing of boredom and cliché; and self-loathing aimed inward, which is a form of self-love, ultimately. Morrissey’s depiction of love was animated by thwarted desire and unwanted yearning. His lyrics play out a series of superbly crafted tricks. They may sound sad while being archly hilarious; they may seem profound while being intentionally vacuous; and they may appear to be self-lacerating while truly being brilliantly self-aggrandizing. The hapless seduction in “Half a Person” offers one of many delectable examples: “And if you have five seconds to spare, then I’ll tell you the story of my life / 16, clumsy, and shy.”
From Bowie to Beyoncé, the finest pop stars have always found a way to balance confession and evasion, inviting fans to identify with their personal sagas while maintaining enough mystique to keep us wondering (and leaving room for reinvention). Morrissey’s innovation was not to balance confession and evasion, but to combine them.
The persona he showed the public was simultaneously transparent and cryptic, out and proud on the one hand yet intensely private on the other. He was equally sex-mad (“I know what will make you smile tonight” in “I Don’t Owe You Anything”) and sexless (“the hills are alive with celibate cries” in “These Things Take Time”). Although everything about him — voice, clothes, hair, dance moves, pocketful of flowers — screamed “Here I am, I can be no other,” he always left the space designated for a pop star’s self-declaration defiantly blank:
“All men have secrets and here is mine, so let it be known.”
“I’m not the man you think I am / I’m not the man you think I am.”
“My only weakness is — well, never mind, never mind …”
Likewise in the music press, which covered him incessantly, he eluded all questions about his sexuality by insisting that he was celibate — the ultimate inversion of what a pop star was meant to be, and the first step in a lifelong process of refusing to be bound within familiar binaries. “There's all those very tangled bits of seaweed,” he told Melody Maker in 1986. “But, in essence, I don't think, without wanting to sound self-congratulatory, that anyone with views such as mine has been successful in the rock 'n' roll sense. And that makes me, if you like, vaguely unique but really I'm not plotting anything. I'm just dramatically, supernaturally, non-sexual.” For a pop singer, or anyone else for that matter, to come out in the ’80s was a far riskier move than it is today, though that didn’t stop his contemporaries Boy George, Marc Almond, or Jimmy Sommerville from doing it. But he wasn't a closet case, either. Morrissey’s refusal to be defined was more elaborate and artful than simple denial. In addition to being a career strategy, it was also his greatest subject as a songwriter.
What Morrissey leaves out isn’t simply as important as what he puts in; the blank spaces constitute his boldest gesture. For all of the crafty omission, the message is plain: “I want the one I can’t have, and it’s driving me mad.” The idea was hardly new. The coy mistress is as familiar in pop songs as in romantic poetry — though in this case, the coyness extends to the narrator as well.
A lot of Smiths songs appear to detail frustrated longing for a man to come to his senses, ditch the girl at his side, and return to the fond embrace of the “unlovable” wretch who can’t stop mooning over him. The added wrinkle of confrontational gender confusion only makes the coyness more mischievous, almost as though he was trying to trick the hetero masses into thinking he was singing about them, too.
Morrissey’s burning need to assert his peculiar existence as a writer and pop star to a world that won’t listen is not contradicted but emboldened by the withholding of self-definition. By not “coming out” while blissfully (and publicly) enjoying the spoils of liberation, he revels in the refusal to be limited by the terms of the conversation. “We’ve something they’ll never have,” he sings in “Hand in Glove.” “The sun shines out of our behinds!” “We go wherever we please!” He’s not dodging the question, he’s rejecting the premise: “Ask me why and I’ll spit in your eye!”
The thrill lies in a secret shared but not revealed. As Mark Simpson wrote in 2001's Saint Morrissey, “This was the supreme subversiveness of Morrissey’s erotic project — to use ordinary language and feelings to convey what were supposed to be extraordinary conditions … It was also the key to his artistic masterstroke: since (homo)eroticism was simultaneously universal but still beyond the pale, it offered Morrissey an entirely fresh, unadulterated, and vibrant vocabulary for his depiction of human desire — and weakness.”
That vocabulary expanded with The Smiths’ musical adventurousness, which enabled the band’s group identity to stand in for a “community” identity — what novelist/essayist Matthew Stadler called “the narrow constraints of the new liberation,” with its mandate for public pride. Pride, as any Catholic can tell you, is sin. In Morrissey, who was raised Catholic, self-regard is conspicuously spot-welded to self-loathing. His criminally vulgar 16-clumsy-and-shyness made pride not merely sinful but untenable.
The problem with pride is that no one can feel proud all the time. Here’s Stadler again: “Shame is never erased, so much as it is put in its place, contextualized, and incorporated into the broad stream of eros.”
Likewise, Morrissey’s evasive declarations contextualized pop music (and, by extension, himself) in the broad artistic and social tradition of open secrecy among queer figures in polite society — like Morrissey’s beloved Oscar Wilde. Needless to say, this “tradition” was born of unfortunate necessity, dating from when same-sex relations were a crime, which they were in the U.K. until 1967 — and, one feels compelled to mention, they still are in some parts of the U.S.
The codes and signals that arose from the secret queer world provided a subversive strain of expression that clearly captivated Morrissey as a young man. Wilde’s plays and epigrams reveal, among their many delights, a good deal of sub rosa naughtiness, to say nothing of Polari (also spelled “Palare”), the ’60s London street hustler argot that was later paid tribute in a Morrissey solo single (“Picadilly palare was just silly slang between me and the boys in my gang”).
But for all the brashness of his undisclosed disclosures, Morrissey was also a spectacularly vulnerable human figure in his songs, and there’s nothing coy about his treatment of this theme. The abjectness of “I am human and I need to be loved, just like everybody else does” is, obviously, the precise reason fans love him so fiercely and haters hate him so intensely. A third category, of disenchanted fans who occasionally join in the hating, is a natural consequence of an artist sticking around for 30-plus years.
It may not shock you to learn that I’ve always been squarely in the scratch-his-name-on-my-arm-with-a-fountain-pen school when it comes to Morrissey, but I understand the objection. I mean, what kind of world would this be if everyone went around feeling compassion for people who were in terrible pain? Tra la la.
Nevertheless, the contrast of these thematic and stylistic strains is in keeping with the rich seam of contradiction that runs through the four Smiths albums and the 10 Morrissey solo albums that have followed: bravado and despair; desire and disgust; the conjunction of the mind and the opposition of the stars. “Does the body rule the mind or does the mind rule the body? I dunno …” That “dunno” is caustic. He knows. He’s just not telling. Because that would be telling.
Talk about a coy mistress …
Turning now to the late Susan Sontag, because no talk of Morrissey can entirely skirt the subject of camp:
“[Camp is] a mode of seduction — one which employs flamboyant mannerisms susceptible of a double interpretation; gestures full of duplicity, with a witty meaning for cognoscenti and another, more impersonal, for outsiders.” (From “Notes on Camp,” 1964)
In other words, it's the eternal dilemma — or, if you prefer, the eternal beauty — of pop music: nothing more meaningful, nothing more disposable. And in the bright lexicon of pop, few have rivaled Morrissey for a pure, intuitive understanding of this dichotomy. But with that understanding comes the great pop peril of grasping your persona so completely that the glove threatens to wear the hand. Or, as hated Smiths biographer Johnny Rogan put it, “remarkably, [Morrissey] was now in a position where his emotional inadequacies had been magically transformed into commodity.”
The Smiths, in particular guitarist/co-songwriter Johnny Marr, got more musically ambitious on each successive record. But as the band grew more popular — their second LP, 1985's Meat Is Murder, debuted at No. 1 on the U.K. album charts — Morrissey’s persona became more of an institution, a factor that necessarily affected their development. Though they are often characterized as a band drowning in their own woe, The Smiths always had camp moments — the squawk on “This Charming Man,” the Elvis-style rockabilly shuffle on “Rusholme Ruffians,” the entirety of “Heaven Knows I’m Miserable Now.” The list goes way on. Sontag describes “a tender feeling” that “arises from boredom,” and the dandy figure’s quest for “rare sensations, undefiled by mass appreciation” — all of these are facets of the Smiths diamond.
The Queen Is Dead, released 30 years ago this month, is a profoundly camp album that had the effect of consecrating the band’s persona. The self-reference in the astonishing title track: “I broke into the palace with a sponge and a rusty spanner / She said ‘Eh, I know you and you cannot sing’ / I said, ‘That’s nothing, you should hear me play piano.’” The flaunting of poetic associations on “Frankly, Mr. Shankly” and, more flagrantly, on “Cemetry Gates” [sic]. The playful tweaking of his image in “Bigmouth Strikes Again” and “The Boy With the Thorn in His Side.” As great as these songs are, they contribute to a sense that the powerful urge for declaration heard on the previous two Smiths albums and eight singles might be evolving into something a little more vulgar in the classic sense.
“… the Camp sensibility is one that is alive to a double sense in which some things can be taken. But this is not the familiar split-level construction of a literal meaning on the one hand and a symbolic meaning on the other. It is the difference, rather, between the thing as meaning something, anything, and the thing as pure artifice.”
1987's Strangeways, Here We Come features a song that represents the band’s ultimate reversion into big-C Camp. On paper, “Girlfriend in a Coma” reads like the confession/evasion of old: The narrator expresses concern for a comatose girl while secretly relishing the opportunity to comfort her worried boyfriend. But the song is glib (as opposed to irreverent or bold or daring or beautiful or funny or sad), in both conception and performance; it’s distinctive but not special. “I know, I know, it’s serious,” sings Morrissey, while Marr’s nimble acoustic guitar figure in the verses gives way to slightly damp strings splashing across the chorus. The song sounds like it’s making fun of itself, and of the predictability of such a self-consciously dark image coming out of Morrissey’s mouth. His persona had become purest Camp, an ongoing “instant character,” defined by Sontag as “a state of continual incandescence — a person being one, very intense thing.”
Indeed, even one very intense name.
“To perceive Camp in objects and persons is to understand Being-As-Playing-A-Role. It is the farthest extension, in sensibility, of the metaphor of life as theater.” —Sontag
When the high-echelon pop artist is subject to the demands of a huge number of fans — total strangers invested in his every whim — it’s easy to understand the impulse to take refuge in persona. But when the artist’s art consists of persona invention (through song, in this case), it’s hard to see where the cycle can end. In a sense, he becomes pop itself: no self but in the performance of self, no identity but in the fluid, anonymous reality of song — Is the I really me? Is there a Me left to reveal?
Other pop stars — again, from Bowie to Beyoncé, but also from Gaga to Grimes to Garth Brooks — sidestep this trap by reinventing themselves as alter egos, incorporating entirely new sounds, styles, and looks to keep themselves interested and interesting. But there was to be no Aladdin Sane or Sasha Fierce lurking in Morrissey’s wardrobe. He has always only been irreducibly himself.
Morrissey’s post-Smiths solo career, which began in 1988 with the release of Viva Hate, has been a study in contrast between his original instant character and the Camp icon he developed into along the way. The consummate example is the 1988 B side “Sister, I’m a Poet,” which depicts a renegade naïf, intoxicated with “the romance of crime” and wondering, “Is evil just something you are or something you do?” The refrain is the title, minus the word “poet,” repeated twice: "Sister, I'm a ___ / Sister, I'm a ___ / All over this town.” The result is a huge space into which the singer refuses to sing the defining noun, choosing instead to let the listener fill it in, and, I think, daring anyone who might care to insert a two-syllable gay slur in its place. Such is the twin refuge of a Camp persona. In time, these evasions would also get him into big trouble in England, where he was accused of racist and fascist leanings after writing so-called “equivocal” songs about immigrants and fascists. (More on that later. Let’s put a MASSIVE ASTERISK next to that subject.)
Having long since abandoned the question of how to feel lonely and rejected when millions of people are lining up to love you, Morrissey has returned time and again to the twin devices of confession and evasion, of coming clean without ever owning up. “Alsatian Cousin,” the very first song on Viva Hate, addresses his listeners’ desire for insight into his private life by asking (himself) the blunt question, “Were you and he lovers, and would you say so if you were?” (followed by a coy “I ask, even though I know"). Things are not so simple. Minutes later, on “Late Night, Maudlin Street,” he’s out with a bad boy who laments the fact that “women only like me for my mind.” But then there is the deluxe chintz of “Hairdresser on Fire,” full of self-conscious Camp rhymes like “you are repressed but you’re remarkably dressed” (followed with the pièce de résistance: “Is it real?”).
As his solo career progressed, the balance between obviousness and artfulness (within the larger invented reality of Morrisseyness, of course) listed back and forth. Sometimes, the whole story is told by the song title: “Will Never Marry,” “Lucky Lisp,” “I’m the End of the Family Line,” “There’s a Place in Hell for Me and My Friends,” “I Am Hated for Loving,” “Maladjusted,” “Wide to Receive,” “Swallow on My Neck,” “I’ve Changed My Plea to Guilty,” and, of course, the best ever dirty joke LP title, Your Arsenal.
Other times, the old inventiveness arose in the service of themes like the burdens of fame and lawsuits, such as the one in which Smiths drummer Mike Joyce and bassist Andy Rourke successfully sought back royalties — subjects that lack a certain nobility of purpose. A couple of shaky albums — Southpaw Grammar (1995) and Maladjusted (1997) — followed by a seven-year silence caused legitimate concern that perhaps he had run out of things not to say.
And then came You Are the Quarry, the comeback album from 2004, a work of incredible strength and wit that stealthily reconciled the many complicated strands that make up his Camp identity and his persistent voice. He was direct about prior abstractions (“I have forgiven Jesus,” he sings on the song of the same name, “for all the desire he placed in me when there’s nothing I can do about desire”) and blunt about former equivocations (“the woman of my dreams, she never came along / the woman of my dreams, there never was one”). And not for nothing, but “America Is Not the World” contains the first iteration of the word “gay” on a Morrissey record (the album also features his first use of the word “dyke,” though I don’t think anyone was waiting for that one).
At a glance, it might seem that these developments signaled a betrayal of the very virtues this unforgivably long essay was sent here to extol. But after 22 years of gazing upon his “continual incandescence,” it was thrilling to hear Morrissey allow his persona to incorporate the truly personal. The lapsed Catholic had earned his confession. Plus, it’s not as though the album was stingy on wit — “close your eyes,” he sings “and think of someone you physically admire, then …” (the song’s title and the next line are both “Let Me Kiss You”).
And any doubt that age, wealth, and adoration had completely replaced the questing decadence that inspired his emergence was vanquished by the album’s last line, which offered an archetypal Morrissey confessional evasion — a reminder that, mask or no mask, there are worlds within this charming man that we will never know, no matter how many of his blanks we care to fill in:
“Then in the end, your royalties bring you luxuries, but — oh, the squalor of the mind. The squalor of the mind. The squalor of the mind. The squalor of the mind …”
Apropos of mental squalor, the 12 years that have elapsed since the release of You Are the Quarry have not been easy ones for those of us who harbor an innate desire to defend Morrissey against the barbarous million. The internet is a convenient scapegoat for the collapse of many once-precious institutions: record stores, letter writing, the practice of constructing one’s personal identity from the ability to remember arcane details about, like, the uncredited extras on the punk episode of Quincy, M.E. But there comes a time when even the most bereaved designated mourner must ask the hard questions.
After the triumphant comeback, Morrissey released three studio albums — Ringleader of the Tormentors (2006), Years of Refusal (2009), and World Peace Is None of Your Business (2014) — on three different labels. There have also been three best-of/greatest-hits comps, a live album, two full-length live films, and several boxed sets/remasters/reissue repackages.
They have their moments.
Far more conspicuous, however, has been the steady stream of secondary source material spread across the internet that spotlights Morrissey’s cranky pronouncements about a spectrum of disconnected subjects ranging from the impassioned (his long-cherished vegetarianism) to the predictable (the royal family, Elton John, Madonna) to the far afield (Chinese circuses, the Olympics) to the perversely stubborn (the sovereignty of the Malvinas Islands).
It’s not the ideological convictions evinced in these statements that are dispiriting — although, unlike Morrissey, I happen to find pedophilia significantly more objectionable than meat-eating (but, as the English say, horses for courses) — but the churlishness of tone, the straining after a rebarbative effect, especially because it used to come so naturally to him. In 1983, it was “If George Michael had to live my life for five minutes he’d hang himself with the nearest piece of cord.” In 2011, shortly after the massacre in Norway, it was, "That is nothing compared to what happens in McDonald's and Kentucky Fried Shit every day."
And in 2012, it was: "The ‘dazzling royals' have, quite naturally, hijacked the Olympics for their own empirical needs, and no oppositional voice is allowed in the free press ... The spirit of 1939 Germany now pervades throughout media-brand Britain."
And in 2014, it was: "I see no difference between eating animals and pedophilia. They are both rape, violence, murder."
The internet didn’t invent hyperbole, though it did raise the noise floor to such a level that hyperbole became an acceptable inside voice for everyone, especially pop stars raging against their shrinking cultural currency. For Morrissey, the willingness to use deplorable rhetoric in the service of advancing his aggressive but essentially rational liberal ideas wasn’t new; the misplacement of emphasis was new. The calculation wasn’t new; the miscalculation was. After more than 30 years behind the microphone, you’d think he’d have learned what his voice sounds like.
Another new thing was the environment into which his declarations flew. The internet is spectacularly inhospitable to the grace notes of coy, hyper-intentional ambiguity and irony that marked the first wave of Morrissey’s verbal career. Online, no one can hear you smirk. This has made the project of connecting him to his old persona, to say nothing of his old work, an increasingly unrewarding act of will. But nothing has been quite so challenging as the recurring premise and the much-debated public perception that Morrissey is a racist, a dilemma that makes his pronouncements about Nazis and pedophiles seem charming by comparison.
Here comes the massive asterisk (and all).
Though several anecdotal issues have been raised over the years (such as NME reading racism into the refrain “hang the DJ,” from The Smiths’ 1986 single “Panic”), five concrete charges have come up again and again. The most persistent is the infamous 1992 Madstock incident, when Morrissey appeared onstage at Finsbury Park waving a Union Jack flag — by then a symbol closely associated with Europe’s growing league of neo-fascists. The argument is that Morrissey used the flag as a semaphore to racist skinheads in the 75,000-strong audience at a Madness reunion show as he sang about an alienated teenager’s seduction into fascist ideology. That song, “The National Front Disco,” with its epigrammatic repeated lyric “England for the English,” represents charge No. 2.
Items three and four are songs about immigrants from his first and second records — 1988's “Bengali in Platforms” and 1991's “Asian Rut” — which are said to be at best “ambiguous,” and at worst flat-out derogatory, in their treatment of their immigrant characters. The key line in the former is the refrain, “Life is hard enough when you belong here.”
I’ve tried to find a way to back-justify “Bengali in Platforms”’s depiction of its central character, who wouldn’t be out of place in a Hanif Kureishi script, but I can’t find one. This has always been the one I skip on Viva Hate. I don’t mean to cop out — maybe it is racist. It’s too easy for me to fill in Morrissey’s blank spaces with compassion, however ironically phrased. The song’s glibness is cloying, but “life is hard enough when you belong here” is not the same thing as “fuck off back to India” just because that’s what some people think they’re hearing. There are layers. They might not matter, but that doesn’t mean they’re not there. The specific character of Morrissey’s persona — arch, dandy, glamorous, tortured, judgy — complicates the picture. (This was not a problem faced by, say, Randy Newman. No one ever thought “Rednecks” was a secret Masonic handshake for Lester Maddox partisans.)
The suggestion that the capacity for glibness on this subject signals a deeper insensitivity and entitlement is harder to shrug off. The notion that it isn’t his story to tell is a frustrating one, because the old counterarguments don’t hold up anymore.
The superficial strike against “Asian Rut,” aside from Langer and Winstanley’s mawkish production, is that the title contains the word “Asian.” It’s plausible that the song was written as a roundabout response to the objections to “Bengali,” as a demonstration of empathy toward the “brave Asian boy” who goes off to seek revenge for the cruel cold killing of his best friend, only to be killed himself by three English boys. Or maybe it was meant as a sort of “The Killing of Georgie Part 3”? The syrupy dourness of the arrangement does invite speculation about “tone,” but the last lines of the song — “I’m just passing through here, on my way to somewhere civilized / And maybe I’ll even arrive, maybe I’ll even arrive” — are unmistakable to me as a statement of contempt for racial violence and solidarity with its victims.
On to the most notorious charge: A video of the Finsbury Park concert reveals that Morrissey did in fact have a Union Jack onstage with him, but he was hardly waving it. He desecrated that flag, repeatedly, with characteristic flourish: sweeping the stage with it, wearing it as a cape for a few seconds, then throwing it to the ground, and treating it — by any reasonable standard of theatrical gesture or military code — like a rag.
Also, significantly, he didn’t touch the prop during “The National Front Disco” at all, but rather two songs earlier in the set, during “Glamorous Glue.” If the symbolic value of a man in a gold lamé shirt open to the love trail whipping the dirty stage with the Union Jack and singing the words “London is dead, London is dead, London is dead, London is dead” is too obscure to parse, then it’s hard to know what to tell you.
(I’d never thought to look before, but of course there’s a YouTube video of the whole show. I’d read about this episode many dozens of times and always believed the accounts of the old boy swanning out, wearing the banner like a regal robe. If that flag was a semaphore to patriotic fascists, the message he was spelling out was “Fuck Off” — no wonder they pelted him with debris and he canceled his appearance the next day. Seeing the Madstock video after more than 20 years of lore is akin to finding a long-lost tape of that famous Springsteen show from the night after the 1980 election and hearing Bruce say, “How about a big hand for President-Elect Reagan!” )
As for “The National Front Disco,” the reading of this song as pro–National Front has always blown my mind, though it shouldn’t, since the presence of provocative language has always been a trigger to make pop music listeners assume the worst, lowest motivations. “England for the English,” he sings, a phrase employed by Oswald Mosely’s white power, pro-fascist National Front — later the British National Party — to curry favor with the white working class looking for an other to blame for their disenfranchisement. Morrissey's song is an unquestionably sympathetic treatment of young David, a classically alienated British teenager who locates a sense of identity and inspiration in the rousing us-and-them rhetoric of neo-fascism — a process chronicled more viscerally in Shane Meadows’s film This Is England (2006). Because it doesn’t contain the words “I am anti-fascist,” the song remains open to the charge of being pro-fascist, and it would be credulous to ignore the degree to which fascist recruitment thrives on coded language.
However, pop songs are not, or need not be, picket signs, and it’s possible to acknowledge the allure of an evil ideology within the broad stream of human sympathy for a kid being led astray. To assume that repeating a phrase is the same thing as agreeing with it is to rob language, and therefore humanity, of a lot of its possibilities. The perspective swings from outer (his parents’ lament — “where is our boy? We’ve lost our boy”) to inner (“they should know where you’ve gone because again and again you’ve explained”) in an effort to portray the conflict. There’s no ambiguity in “David, we wonder, we wonder if the thunder, is ever really gonna begin.” That line is an argument that the glorious future promised by neo-fascism to its hapless recruits is the longest con of all.
How does a stirringly anti-racist song come to be interpreted as racist? Such is the danger of employing a writing style that leaves spaces as well as a pop persona that insists on evasion. The artistic freedom to leave questions unanswered is also the listeners’ freedom to answer them for you.
“Here was a person whose music with The Smiths we had all liked, putting out dubious feelers using Skinhead imagery, unqualified lyrics, Union Jack drapery, and like his denial on his sexuality (which is his right) not elaborating on the issue. The unfortunate thing is that not elaborating on the issue of fascism still breeds race crime, from someone whom was very influential at the time. As an Asian at a time when Asians were seeing increased street violence this wasn’t something I, and we could let pass. All these years later, I think we did the correct thing, and our stance on other issues has borne out that we did it with the right intentions.” —Tjinder Singh of Cornershop, 2013
You can’t blame the internet. These controversies predated it, and one thing Morrissey has never been is guileless. There are layers of irony, self-indictment, and mischief in his language, but there is also the expectation, the certainty, that those elements will be missed, or willfully ignored. There is also the increasingly vocal argument that irony is no longer an appropriate tool for this kind of discourse — not because it leaves room for ambiguity, and not even because there isn’t human comedy to be found in the minefield of prejudice, but because the moral value of those things is massively, crushingly outweighed by the historical and present-tense suffering and subjugation experienced by people on the receiving end.
This argument isn’t about propriety but priority. And after all these years, it’s becoming harder to shrug off in the name of creative liberty. While it’s true that the culture of outrage and public shaming online has made self-censorship a viable form of self-preservation, it has also led to the advent of people thinking a bit more carefully about what they say. Does the value of the latter justify the creepy draconianism of the former?
I dunno.
But it has introduced the spectacle of Morrissey explaining himself. Which he never would have done before.
Statement on Morrissey’s website, truetoyou.net (December 3, 2007): "I abhor racism and oppression or cruelty of any kind and will not let this pass without being absolutely clear and emphatic with regard to what my position is. “Racism is beyond common sense and I believe it has no place in our society.”
It’s hardly a tragedy for a celebrated singer to be held accountable for his gestures. But you can’t un-open that kimono. However convincing they may or may not be, these controversies and clarifications do have a way — with regard to the noble project of fandom — of blowing one’s high.
Matthew Foster in The Quietus (February 24th, 2014): “At some point, defending Morrissey the public figure becomes too much effort, even for a ponce who used to write ‘Sing Your Life' on his hands with a Sharpie before every night out. The memories fade, the lines that made teenage years tolerable go missing in the cartwheels performed to justify every thunderingly Controversial Remark. An eternal cry of loneliness and despair means less when things have turned out quite nicely, actually. The simple problem is this: you've grown up, and the point of Morrissey is never to do so.”
That’s it exactly.
Growing up with Morrissey has been a complicated process, partly because he, abetted by aging, simply refuses to be the person he was in 1988, when all you had to do to make his case was explain that Viva Hate didn’t mean that kind of … aw, skip it. Once again, “the passing of time,” as the song reminds us, is “making me sad again.”
I saw Morrissey’s July 23, 2015, show in Seattle, after swearing that the previous show I’d seen him play, in Hyde Park in 2008, would be the last. I may even have sworn that the time before, too. But I went. Of course I went. And though it wasn’t what I expected or wanted, I was impressed by how committed he was to his newer material — nearly half of the 20-song set was drawn from his last two LPs, World Peace Is None of Your Business and Years of Refusal.
He was in strong voice, and his virile, uniformed five-piece band was a powerhouse, making the less-familiar numbers sound far more vital onstage than they had on disc. The performances made a strong case for revisiting the last album in particular. Strong enough to justify eight songs in a row that only superfans would know? Well, actually, yes. Because superfans are the only fans Morrissey has. And in keeping with his obstinate, inscrutable nature, he rewards our devotion by testing it.
Alongside the characteristic still images from the singer’s pantheon of obscure black-and-white figures projected on a backdrop, two songs were illustrated by graphic videos of police brutality (primarily against people of color) and animal slaughter. The police footage was unbearable enough on its own, but this show fell 10 days after the alleged suicide of Sandra Bland, in the same year that saw police kill Walter Scott in Charleston and Freddie Gray in Baltimore, and barely a year after Eric Garner’s death in NYPD restraints and Michael Brown being shot to death by a Ferguson cop. It was, safe to say, very much on the minds of this almost entirely white audience.
Maybe disrupting the expectation of a greatest-hits catalogue full of songs that made you cry and songs that saved your life was the point. Maybe it was a good point to make. The alternate view — that Morrissey was enlisting these images to support his own qualms with authority (including the TSA guard who allegedly groped him) — is ominous. The song the police brutality videos illustrated was a tense, gnarly B side called “Ganglord.” It ends with the lines, “They say, ‘To protect and to serve' / But what they really mean to say is / Get back to the ghetto, the ghetto / Get back to the ghetto, the ghetto / Get yourself back to the ghetto, the ghetto.” That the song’s sympathies lie with the brutalized is obvious. The challenge posed by the live show, at least in that particular symphony hall, was: Who was meant to be identifying with whom?
That question was further exercised on “Meat Is Murder,” one of the three requisite Smiths numbers he plays each concert (after “Stop Me If You Think You’ve Heard This One Before” and before the encore of “The Queen Is Dead”), and the clear winner of the worst-song-with-a-great-title in his catalogue. The stage lights were gelled blood red while the screen showed what felt like an eternity of PETA's undercover slaughterhouse documentaries — cattle tortured, pigs eviscerated, chickens debeaked — as the punishingly slow arrangement ground on and on. Here, at last, was a battle in which Morrissey has legitimate skin.
But the punishment of those droning minutes was pure theater of cruelty. It was deeply motivated, and possibly even effective to some extent in making a complacent audience consider the source of their meals. But the gesture was also imperiously juvenile, like a teenage supervillain taking revenge in a comic book. You felt sickened, complicit, hopeless, defeated. Mission accomplished. And then you got to hear “Everyday Is Like Sunday,” which was like washing all that blood and death off you with lukewarm water from a length of hose you’d just been beaten with.
I walked home shaken by the conviction that Morrissey remains fully invested in his conception as a present-tense musical entity, reveling in the artistic birthright to provoke and affront. But I wondered when he last felt the desire to beguile, to delight. Why, I asked for the millionth time, do we — do I — keep coming back? And I gave the same answer I always give, and meant it: Because if you ever had a Morrissey-shaped hole in your life, you never forget how it felt to find a Morrissey to fill it. Some debts can never be repaid, no matter how full your heart gets. I’ll buy his records. I’ll click on his headlines. I even bought his novel. I may even read it one of these days.
Almost exactly 30 years ago, on the title track of The Queen Is Dead, Morrissey posed the immortal rhetorical question: “Has the world changed or have I changed?” The answer is obviously both, and neither one in the way I would’ve hoped. But every time I get to feeling that we’ve lost our boy, I go back to the records and discover that he’s still there, right where he always was. It’s a strange sort of comfort to realize that even though life is short, it continues to feel very long when you’re lonely.
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CHIMACUM — Former State Patrol Sgt. Ken Przygocki, an announced candidate for Jefferson County sheriff, was under investigation by the State Patrol's Office of Professional Standards when he retired March 30, 2012.
That was the same day the Chimacum resident signed an agreement with the State Patrol under which he would have had to resign just three days later, on April 2, according to State Patrol records.
“I did not commit the alleged allegations. I served my time in the Washington State Patrol and could retire anytime I choose.”
He said he regretted signing the agreement and tried to rescind it, but he said the State Patrol denied his request.
Przygocki has announced he will run as an independent candidate for the partisan position being vacated by Sheriff Tony Hernandez, a Democrat who announced that he will not seek re-election.
The candidate filing period begins Monday and extends through Friday.
Przygocki said he wanted to run for sheriff in 2010 but could not because he was still employed by the State Patrol and performed duties that were funded with federal money, according to a state Attorney General's Office opinion.
At the time of the settlement agreement, Przygocki, 63, who had spent 38 years in law enforcement, was under investigation for allegedly lying to his superior about being at a Feb. 28, 2012, court hearing — which was not held — under a subpoena that did not exist, according to the investigator's case log signed by Lt. Debby Jacobson.
Jacobson, who was Przygocki's supervisor, also questioned four hours of overtime he put down for Feb. 26 2012, to schedule staff for a memorial for Trooper Tony Radulescu, who was shot and killed three days earlier while on duty.
Przygocki was stationed at State Patrol's Mill Creek post.
“It is alleged Sergeant [Przygocki] was deceptive regarding the status of his court case and the need for overtime,” Jacobson concluded in case log.
In her March 5, 2012, incident report, she said: “It is alleged [Przygocki] was untruthful when providing information to his supervisor related to the performance of his duties.”
Said Przygocki: “There was never a truthfulness issue.”
“I didn't do what they alleged I did,” he said.
Przygocki said the subpoena did exist and that he still has a copy of it.
He said that the defendant had made a plea in the case before the court date and that he never even went to court.
According to Jacobson's case log, Przygocki told Jacobson “he was on his way back from court.”
“It's a bunch of bull,” Przygocki said.
“It never happened.”
In his email, he said that he never left Jefferson County and instead went to the state Department of Transportation office in Discovery Bay to prepare his patrol car for the funeral.
“I did not request any overtime compensation for this day,” he said in his email.
All that remained of the investigation when the settlement agreement was signed was an interview with Przygocki, said State Patrol Capt. Travis Matheson.
Matheson was the Office of Professional Standards assistant commander during the investigation and now heads the branch.
“At the point at which we stopped, they were all allegations, and none of them were proven or disproved,” Matheson said last week.
Once the investigation was concluded, Przygocki's captain would have reviewed the findings.
“Typically, employees who have been found to violate the truthfulness policy are asked to leave or are terminated,” Matheson said Friday.
On March 5, the same day the incident report was issued, Przygocki was put on administrative leave with pay.
“This administrative reassignment is not a disciplinary action,” according to the leave notice.
He said he thought the March 30 meeting at which he signed the agreement was supposed to offer a chance to be interviewed and defend himself.
That was not the case.
“All they kept saying was, 'If you retire, all this is forgotten, you can retire peacefully,'” Przygocki said.
Przygocki, whose annual salary was $80,112, supervised between six and 10 troopers.
The fact that an employee is eligible to retire “would have been a factor in the conversation,” Matheson said.
The talk of a settlement left Przygocki in a daze, he recalled.
“Sitting there, honestly, I don't remember signing that stuff, I was so upset,” he said.
“I felt like I got punched in the face.
“They were just out to get me.
“They wanted me to leave.
“So to make my life a lot easier, I said, 'I've got my time in, just retire, start all over again and be happy and not have to put up with that BS all the time.”
Przygocki retired the same day.
But when he got home, “I said, 'This is wrong, this is just pure wrong,'” he said.
He said his lawyer told him he had seven days to rescind the agreement and that he also could revoke his retirement notice.
He faxed a request to the State Patrol to rescind the pact before the deadline, but the request was denied, he said.
“I did not do anything wrong,” he said in his email.
Jefferson County Sheriff Hernandez recently told Przygocki that he didn't plan to run for re-election.
A few days later, Przygocki announced his intention to run for sheriff.
Hernandez said he was “shocked” at the allegations and did not know about them at the time — but still would have informed him that the sheriff's position would be open.
“I would have said, 'You are going to have to explain this,'” Hernandez said.
“If there are things in a person's background that are questionable, they obviously are going to have to explain those things to the public.”
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(Editor’s Note: Here’s a good basic lesson on property rights. One thing this author doesn’t talk about are the property rights inherent in a free-market hard money monetary system. That is, that a government is not stealing the value of your property…your money…through inflation by devaluing the money supply. That’s a deal-killer in secession. Either your money is your absolute property or it is not.)
One of the most fundamental requirements of a capitalist economic system—and one of the most misunderstood concepts—is a strong system of property rights. For decades social critics in the United States and throughout the Western world have complained that “property” rights too often take precedence over “human” rights, with the result that people are treated unequally and have unequal opportunities. Inequality exists in any society. But the purported conflict between property rights and human rights is a mirage. Property rights are human rights.
“The definition, allocation, and protection of property rights comprise one of the most complex and difficult sets of issues that any society has to resolve, but one that must be resolved in some fashion. For the most part, social critics of “property” rights do not want to abolish those rights. Rather, they want to transfer them from private ownership to government ownership. Some transfers to public ownership (or control, which is similar) make an economy more effective. Others make it less effective. The worst outcome by far occurs when property rights really are abolished.” (see tragedy of the commons).
A property right is the exclusive authority to determine how a resource is used, whether that resource is owned by government or by individuals. Society approves the uses selected by the holder of the property right with governmental administered force and with social ostracism. If the resource is owned by the government, the agent who determines its use has to operate under a set of rules determined, in the United States, by Congress or by executive agencies it has charged with that role.
Private property rights have two other attributes in addition to determining the use of a resource. One is the exclusive right to the services of the resource. Thus, for example, the owner of an apartment with complete property rights to the apartment has the right to determine whether to rent it out and, if so, which tenant to rent to; to live in it himself; or to use it in any other peaceful way. That is the right to determine the use. If the owner rents out the apartment, he also has the right to all the rental income from the property. That is the right to the services of the resources (the rent).
Finally, a private property right includes the right to delegate, rent, or sell any portion of the rights by exchange or gift at whatever price the owner determines (provided someone is willing to pay that price). If I am not allowed to buy some rights from you and you therefore are not allowed to sell rights to me, private property rights are reduced. Thus, the three basic elements of private property are (1) exclusivity of rights to choose the use of a resource, (2) exclusivity of rights to the services of a resource, and (3) rights to exchange the resource at mutually agreeable terms.
The U.S. Supreme Court has vacillated about this third aspect of property rights. But no matter what words the justices use to rationalize such decisions, the fact is that such limitations as price controls and restrictions on the right to sell at mutually agreeable terms are reductions of private property rights. Many economists (myself included) believe that most such restrictions on property rights are detrimental to society. Here are some of the reasons why.
Under a private property system the market values of property reflect the preferences and demands of the rest of society. No matter who the owner is, the use of the resource is influenced by what the rest of the public thinks is the most valuable use. The reason is that an owner who chooses some other use must forsake that highest-valued use—and the price others would pay him for the resource or for the use of it. This creates an interesting paradox: although property is called “private,” private decisions are based on public, or social, evaluation.
The fundamental purpose of property rights, and their fundamental accomplishment, is that they eliminate destructive competition for control of economic resources. Well-defined and well-protected property rights replace competition by violence with competition by peaceful means.
The extent and degree of private property rights fundamentally affect the ways people compete for control of resources. With more complete private property rights, market exchange values become more influential. The personal status and personal attributes of people competing for a resource matter less because their influence can be offset by adjusting the price. In other words, more complete property rights make discrimination more costly. Consider the case of a black woman who wants to rent an apartment from a white landlord. She is better able to do so when the landlord has the right to set the rent at whatever level he wants. Even if the landlord would prefer a white tenant, the black woman can offset her disadvantage by offering a higher rent. A landlord who takes the white tenant at a lower rent anyway pays for discriminating.
But if the government imposes rent controls that keep the rent below the free-market level, the price the landlord pays to discriminate falls, possibly to zero. The rent control does not magically reduce the demand for apartments. Instead, it reduces every potential tenant’s ability to compete by offering more money. The landlord, now unable to receive the full money price, will discriminate in favor of tenants whose personal characteristics—such as age, sex, ethnicity, and religion—he favors. Now the black woman seeking an apartment cannot offset the disadvantage of her skin color by offering to pay a higher rent.
Competition for apartments is not eliminated by rent controls. What changes is the “coinage” of competition. The restriction on private property rights reduces competition based on monetary exchanges for goods and services and increases competition based on personal characteristics. More generally, weakening private property rights increases the role of personal characteristics in inducing sellers to discriminate among competing buyers and buyers to discriminate among sellers.
The two extremes in weakened private property rights are socialism and “commonly owned” resources. Under socialism, government agents—those whom the government assigns—exercise control over resources. The rights of these agents to make decisions about the property they control are highly restricted. People who think they can put the resources to more valuable uses cannot do so by purchasing the rights because the rights are not for sale at any price. Because socialist managers do not gain when the values of the resources they manage increase, and do not lose when the values fall, they have little incentive to heed changes in market-revealed values. The uses of resources are therefore more influenced by the personal characteristics and features of the officials who control them. Consider the socialist manager of a collective farm under the old Soviet communist system. By working every night for one week, he could have made, say, one million rubles of additional profit for the farm by arranging to transport the farm’s wheat to Moscow before it rotted. But because neither the manager nor those who worked on the farm were entitled to keep even a portion of this additional profit, the manager was more likely than the manager of a capitalist farm to go home early and let the crops rot.
Similarly, common ownership of resources—whether in the former Soviet Union or in the United States—gives no one a strong incentive to preserve the resource. A fishery that no one owns, for example, will be overfished. The reason is that a fisherman who throws back small fish to wait until they grow is unlikely to get any benefit from his waiting. Instead, some other fisherman will catch the fish. The same holds true for other common resources whether they be herds of buffalo, oil in the ground, or clean air. All will be overused.
Indeed, a main reason for the spectacular failure of the 1980s and early 1990s economic reforms in the former Soviet Union is that resources were shifted from ownership by government to de facto common ownership. How? By making the Soviet government’s revenues de facto into a common resource. Harvard economist Jeffrey Sachs, who advised the Soviet government, once pointed out that when Soviet managers of socialist enterprises were allowed to open their own businesses but still were left as managers of the government’s businesses, they siphoned out the profits of the government’s business into their private corporations. Thousands of managers doing this caused a large budget deficit for the Soviet government. In this case the resource that no manager had an incentive to conserve was the Soviet government’s revenues. Similarly, improperly set premiums for U.S. deposit insurance gave banks and S&Ls (see savings and loan crisis) an incentive to make excessively risky loans and to treat the deposit insurance fund as a “common” resource.
Private property rights to a resource need not be held by a single person. They can be shared, with each person sharing in a specified fraction of the market value while decisions about uses are made in whatever process the sharing group deems desirable. A major example of such shared property rights is the corporation. In a limited liability corporation, shares are specified and the rights to decide how to use the corporation’s resources are delegated to its management. Each shareholder has the unrestrained right to sell his or her share. Limited liability insulates each shareholder’s wealth from the liabilities of other shareholders, and thereby facilitates anonymous sale and purchase of shares.
In other types of enterprises, especially where each member’s wealth will become uniquely dependent on each other member’s behavior, property rights in the group endeavor are usually salable only if existing members approve of the buyer. This is typical for what are often called joint ventures, “mutuals,” and partnerships.
While more complete property rights are preferable to less complete rights, any system of property rights entails considerable complexity and many issues that are difficult to resolve. If I operate a factory that emits smoke, foul smells, or airborne acids over your land, am I using your land without your permission? This is difficult to answer.
The cost of establishing private property rights—so that I could pay you a mutually agreeable price to pollute your air—may be too high. Air, underground water, and electromagnetic radiation, for example, are expensive to monitor and control. Therefore, a person does not effectively have enforceable private property rights to the quality and condition of some parcel of air. The inability to cost-effectively monitor and police uses of your resources means “your” property rights over “your” land are not as extensive and strong as they are over some other resources such as furniture, shoes, or automobiles. When private property rights are unavailable or too costly to establish and enforce, substitute means of control are sought. Government authority, expressed by government agents, is one very common such means. Hence the creation of environmental laws.
Depending on circumstances, certain actions may be considered invasions of privacy, trespass, or torts. If I seek refuge and safety for my boat at your dock during a sudden severe storm on a lake, have I invaded “your” property rights, or do your rights not include the right to prevent that use? The complexities and varieties of circumstances render impossible a bright-line definition of a person’s set of property rights with respect to resources.
Similarly, the set of resources over which property rights may be held is not well defined and demarcated. Ideas, melodies, and procedures, for example, are almost costless to replicate explicitly (near-zero cost of production) and implicitly (no forsaken other uses of the inputs). As a result, they typically are not protected as private property except for a fixed term of years under a patent or copyright.
Private property rights are not absolute. The rule against the “dead hand,” or perpetuities, is an example. I cannot specify how resources that I own will be used in the indefinitely distant future. Under our legal system, I can specify the use only for a limited number of years after my death or the deaths of currently living people. I cannot insulate a resource’s use from the influence of market values of all future generations. Society recognizes market prices as measures of the relative desirability of resource uses. Only to the extent that rights are salable are those values most fully revealed.
Accompanying and conflicting with the desire to secure private property rights for oneself is the desire to acquire more wealth by “taking” from others. This is done by military conquest and by forcible reallocation of rights to resources (also known as stealing). But such coercion is antithetical to—rather than characteristic of—a system of private property rights. Forcible reallocation means that the existing rights have not been adequately protected.
Private property rights do not conflict with human rights. They are human rights. Private property rights are the rights of humans to use specified goods and to exchange them. Any restraint on private property rights shifts the balance of power from impersonal attributes toward personal attributes and toward behavior that political authorities approve. That is a fundamental reason for preference of a system of strong private property rights: private property rights protect individual liberty.
(Editor’s Note: Perhaps a newly seceded state will eschew affirmative action and throw wide open the door of opportunity for the best available talent. That would allow WEMs to stay in North America instead of relocating overseas to find gainful employment. It would also re-create the hotbed of innovation and creativity that once was the USA.)
One constantly hears tedious squalling by the affirmative-action classes—chiefly blacks, women, and to a limited extent Hispanics—about evil white males, whom they want to evict from practically everywhere. The crusade is always described as moral. The pattern is to discover that, say, an engineering department consists almost entirely of white European males (WEMs). This is taken by everyone, including those who don’t believe it but want to save their political hides, as prima facie evidence of discrimination.
Head-hunting lawyers pile on. The federal government threatens to cut off contracts. The firm hires whoever is thought to be suffering discrimination, and regards them as an operating cost.
The Chinese, Japanese, and Airbus hire the best available talent. Hmmm….
Now, while bashing WEMs is doubtless orgasmic for the vengeance-deficient, I suggest that it will be disastrous for the country. The bitter truth, obvious to Americans who read history—perhaps three Americans—is that WEMs have been responsible for practically everything that keeps us out of the Third World. Yes, I know. Those in the affirmative-action classes reading this will think I am engaging in obnoxious crowing, racism, male chauvinism, or something involving the word “deconstruction.” No. I am engaging in economic prediction.
Reflect on the sciences and technology, where they arose, and who arose them (I say it’s English, dammit). From sub-Saharan Africa: nothing. Latin America: almost nothing. India, China, Southeast Asia: very little. Women: almost nothing. Science and technology have been, and largely still are, a game of white European males.
Perhaps this will change. Many peoples—Koreans, Japanese, and Chinese among others—have the intelligence to play. Women may flower. India and China rise. Many Asians work in American labs. If one day they equal or surpass WEMs, the world will be a better place for it. To date, however, Japan is the only non-European nation to amount to anything technologically.
The magnitude of the disparity between WEMs and the rest is easy to overlook in a country ignorant both of history and, usually, technology. Go to Peru, Mexico, or the high cold altiplano of Bolivia. You will find late-model technology well used: cell phones, internet, computers. But all of it came from elsewhere, and from WEMs. It still does.
Consider mathematics, the basis of physics and therefore of chemistry, electronics, and, most importantly in the US, video games. The Greeks invented geometry: real, serious, theoretically aware math. They didn’t discover hyperbolic or elliptic geometry, which would have to await Lobachevsky and Riemann, but they smelled problems with Euclid’s Fifth.
Males, sort of Greek-Arab-Indian, invented algebra, a monumental achievement but pretty much their last, and Indian males apparently came up with 0, neither obvious nor trivial (try long division in Roman numerals).
After that, it was a WEM racket. Newton and Leibniz more or less simultaneously invented calculus, with different notations but the same idea. Afterwards dozens of scintillating WEMs followed, only a few of them well-known: Galois (group theory), Gauss (practically everything), Fermat (of the famous and mysterious theorem), Laplace, Lagrange, Hamilton, Cantor, Boole, on and on. Without them, there would be no cell phones to cause death on the highways.
White European males probably are no smarter than all manner of Indians, Asians, Brazilians. Yet they somehow produce the science. American WEMs are biologically indistinguishable from those in Europe, yet until recently at any rate have produced more in the sciences.
Why? The best answer I can give is “culture.” WEMs, certainly the American variety, have lived (this is changing fast) in a society that has allowed and cherished freedom, merit, adventurousness, merit, independence, merit, and competition. And merit. This sounds like ray-rah senior-civics propaganda, but is actually true.
It shows. The internet is an invention of American WEMs. The transistor, of William Shockley and his group. Microsoft, of Bill Gates. Intel, of Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce. Apple, of Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak. Dell Computer, of Michael Dell. Public-key encryption, of James Ellis, Clifford Cookis, and Malcom Williamson at GCHQ in England and later of Rivest, Shamir, and Adelman of RSA Security. The World Wide Web, of Tim Berners-Lee, a Brit at CERN. Google, of Larry Page and Sergey Brin. Yahoo, of Jerry Yang and David Filo. The list could go on for another yard or so. Can the US afford to discourage such men in the name of low-IQ, eighth-grade, Koom Bah Yah politics?
No. Yet a lot of choleric billingsgate goes into denouncing WEMs and trying, fairly successfully, to root them out of the universities. The public schools are hostile to boys, attend to the dull at the expense of the bright, view high intelligence as pregnant with elitism, and prefer form to substance. Science is said to be inherently racist. This does not augur well for the country’s future. The Chinese, I promise, do not strive for ever greater mediocrity.
I recently read an official of Siemens in America saying that it is hard to find American employees with the technical background to work in his company. In the United States? In like fashion, a woman who teaches in a major department of petro-geology complains that Nigerian—yes, Nigerian—students are better prepared mathematically than American.
This suggests, does it not, that America is living off the ghost of Christmas Past, and will shortly be using goods not just made in China, but designed in China, and then invented in China.
Things stir beyond the frontiers. If we are not to swirl down history’s drain while singing We Shall Overcome, perhaps we should begin again to pay attention to ability. It is one thing, and a good thing, to insist on equality of opportunity. Them as can cut the mustard should have access to mustard. But affirmative action, meaning the hiring of those who would not be hired on their merit, lowers competitiveness in a world that is not going to cut the US any slack. White European males have been far away and gone the world’s most bounteous fountains of the sciences. Maybe we should keep them, even encourage them. The deliberate enstupidation of the schools to favor the unable, to make those who can’t or won’t look as if they could or have, is auto-Kervorkian governance.
If those who detest white European males can do better, they should. Show me. I am waiting. Meanwhile, let them eat goose who do not like golden eggs.
The National Inflation Association spent the last six months producing a documentary about the higher education debacle happening today. The college bubble we have today is destroying the lives of millions of Americans who deserve to be receiving a much higher quality of education for only a fraction of the cost.
As you watch this documentary, we hope that you notice and appreciate the quality of work that NAI put into it. They hired one of the best Hollywood animators and a famous Hollywood narrator to help make this movie our most impressive and professional documentary of all time. It took us three months just to write the script, which used many of the ideas that were submitted by NIA members.
The College Conspiracy is going to open up the minds of millions of students who have been brainwashed their entire lives by the propaganda in the mainstream media. We are a nation of sheep, where few think for themselves and most follow the same system. The system we have today turns everybody into debt slaves, while the Federal Reserve allows bankers on Wall Street to steal the wealth of middle-class Americans through inflation.
Now is the time for all young Americans to think outside of the box and become self-educated. Don’t rely on others to provide jobs for you. Go out there and make a job yourself! Entrepreneurism is the only chance for the economy and your only chance to have a life without massive college debt. Further, if you already find yourself with massive college debt, owning a business is the best way to earn enough money to pay off that life-changing debt.
But don’t be misled. Owning a business is not the guarantee to wealth. If you choose the wrong kind of business, you’ll just end up with big college debt AND a business failure. So it’s crucial to choose the RIGHT business.
When you’re looking for a business, you must:
1. Have a huge expanding market
2. Have a unique consumable product
3. Be on the leading edge of trends and timing
4. Duplicate your efforts through others
5. Essential products/services versus discretionary purchases
After you watch this video, we strongly recommend that you look above the article and click on the “Residual Income” button and click on it, so you can learn a way you can go into business for yourself in a recession-proof business.
(Editor’s Note: The Texas University System must surely be filled with people with more native intelligence than the Texas Legislature and the Governor’s office. At least the UOTIMC has the ability to look into the near future and hedge against disaster. DumpDC hails and congratulates them for taking a big position in gold. Now, if we can just convince them to move that gold onto Texas soil…)
The University of Texas Investment Management Co., the second-largest U.S. academic endowment, took delivery of almost $1 billion in gold bullion and is storing the bars in a New York vault, according to the fund’s board.
The fund, whose $19.9 billion in assets ranked it behind Harvard University’s endowment as of August, according to the National Association of College and University Business Officers, added about $500 million in gold investments to an existing stake last year, said Bruce Zimmerman, the endowment’s chief executive officer. The holdings are worth about $987 million, based on yesterday’s closing price of $1,486 an ounce for Comex futures.
The decision to turn the fund’s investment into gold bars was influenced by Kyle Bass, a Dallas hedge fund manager and member of the endowment’s board, Zimmerman said at its annual meeting on April 14. Bass made $500 million on the U.S. subprime-mortgage collapse.
“Central banks are printing more money than they ever have, so what’s the value of money in terms of purchases of goods and services,” Bass said yesterday in a telephone interview. “I look at gold as just another currency that they can’t print any more of.”
Gold reached an all-time high of $1,489.10 an ounce yesterday in New York as sovereign debt concerns boosted demand for the metal as a store of value. Gold has climbed 28 percent in the past year on Comex.
The endowment, which oversees funds held by the University of Texas System and Texas A&M University, has 6,643 bars of bullion, or 664,300 ounces, in a Comex-registered vault in New York owned by HSBC Holdings Plc (HSBA), the London-based bank, according to a report distributed at the meeting in Austin.
I find this inspiriting headline polluting my inbox like rotting road-kill. It’s from Broward County, Florida:
“Child Still Expelled for Toy Gun – a Year Later Parents want their child back in school. School board says no way”
See? Florida collectively is out of its tiny little mind. What if this crepuscular pathology spreads to other countries? Or planets?
“School board officials said the rules are quite clear and that the toy gun constituted a weapon.”
Me, I figure the school-board officials constitute a pack of priggish low-Board simians who ought to be swinging in trees instead of trying to run a school. But then, I’m a curmudgeon.
Think about it. Kid—he’s eight—shows up with toy gun after watching 12,000 hours of shoot’em-ups on the lobotomy box, Luke Skywalker blasting funny-looking milkmen like a pretty little mollycoddle turned psychopath. Kid sees war coverage with heroic GIs in Afghanistan killing anybody they can see. He watches recruiting ads for the Marines, who carry guns and want A Few Good Persons. Why would he possibly be interested in a toy gun?
And why would nominal adults, even the barely educated variety characteristically found on school boards, want to wreck the kid’s life? Actually of course it is passive aggression, an attack on the tyke, said attack masquerading, or perhaps marauding is the better word, as high moral endeavor. See, they’re protecting Western Civilization.
The US these days rolls in passive aggression. The country grows daily more mean-spirited, more wrapped in a miasma of diffuse anger, but you still can’t just go up to a child and hit him with a ball bat, or throw acid in his face. No. Instead you find a smugly righteous way to set him back two years in school, thus making him into a guaranteed social misfit. How very…I don’t think “intelligent” is an adequate word. Perhaps “sublime” is better. Or “supernal.”
As tensions grow in America, as divisions flourish, and the nation leads up to something unseen but ugly, prissy vindictiveness and moral sadism become normal. We have become a gotcha culture, watchful for transgressions meaningless but forbidden, so that we can make the malfeasor squirm. How we enjoy the squirming, the writhing on camera, the heavy punishments inflected for nothing.
The other day I was watching television, which I do in the spirit of Margaret Meade investigating her primitives. It’s an electronic Petri dish. Anyway, a story aired of excruciating importance,.At any rate it was excruciating. A politician had been discovered to have forwarded an email containing a picture of a woman copulating with a horse. Delight erupted, disguised as horror: A chance to make him squirm! His election could depend on revelation of this vile perversion, this sickening transgression against, and so on. All waited expectantly for him to whine and beg and lick feet. This reaction by the public strikes me as kinkier than the horse and its tart.
Let us dive, or perhaps wade for reason of long drought, into Truth. We are all adults here. Let’s have a show of hands: How many readers have never looked at porn online?…Ah, I see that I am writing a blog for amputees. How many have never looked at anything more robustly exotic than Presbyterians in the missionary position? (Raise your stumps.) How many are genuinely shocked, appalled, disgusted etc. by the thought of the dread equestrian email, of whose contents most fourteen-year-olds have probably heard? Tijuana used to be internationally famous for such erotic vaudeville. If it is erotic.
The likelihood that the pol is amorously interested in horses is of course zero. Sheep, maybe. Horses, no.
Back to the eight-year-old. “He made a mistake, but why the severe punishment? I don’t understand that,” said Magdiel Burgos, Sam’s dad.”
What? The child did not make a mistake. He’s freaking eight. He brought a toy to school. Since eight is too young (at this writing) to be made to snivel on camera in delicious auto-humiliating, his parents per force do it for him.
The correct solution to the problem, if there were a problem, would be to tell the kid, “Hey, you aren’t supposed to bring stuff like this. Don’t, OK?” When he is a little older, he might be told that the entire scholarly (which it barely is) establishment constitutes a dry run by Darwin, which he judged a failure and meant to discard, but forgot.
There is something wrong, something fetid and cruel, about anyone who will so treat little boy. It gets stranger:
“The school board said they would admit Samuel into a correctional school for problem children who have been expelled located in Hallandale Beach.”
Oh joy! Reform school! What better way to turn him into a happy and stable boy? (Which he is anyway.) Why not Leavenworth? We could try him as an adult. I recommend solitary, to protect the other inmates. And don’t let him bring his teddy bear. He has to learn that actions have consequences.
I thrash about in search of understanding. It cometh not. Perhaps the explanation lies in physics: The stupidity of a closed system tends to remain the same or to increase. Usually, increase.
This sort of neurotic theater has gone on for years. I remember the boy expelled for pointing (so help me) a chicken finger and saying “Bang!” another for bringing plastic soldiers to school, another for drawing a picture of a soldier with a gun, another for swatting a girl on the butt on the playground. This last resulted in the calling of cops, a handcuffed kid, and compulsory psychiatric treatment instead of an admonitory, “Don’t do that again, Bobby. Do you understand me?” How does a society come to this?
I can make guesses that sound vaguely plausible. The United States is not a happy country. People waste their lives in meaningless jobs, trapped by the credit card, the mortgage, the student loan. They know they are wasting their lives. Racial anger runs high. Women resent men. Divorce screws up kids. There is the two-hour commute to the cubicle and back to the sterile box in the anonymous subdivision, the lack of influence over their lives, life from paycheck to paycheck. And anger at affirmative action, either because they suffer from it or because they need it. Life is just flat stressful.
People get spiteful, mean, like mistreated dogs. They want to make others as miserable as they secretly are themselves. So they torment a little boy. I’m going to change my phylum.
***********************Want Spanish Lessons?
A Marketing Survey
My wife Violeta supported herself for years by teaching Spanish to foreigners in Guadalajara and its environs. A while back a friend, a computer security-and-data-base kind of guy, visited and decided that he wanted to learn Spanish. He checked with Berlitz in Washington, DC and, while not actually hospitalized for sticker shock, came close. We decided to make the experiment of having Vi teach him by telephone.
Administratively it seemed feasible. Textbooks from Amazon, payment by PayPal, homework by email. We had all-you-can-eat Vonage, so phone charges were zero. The only question was whether it would work.
It did. If you dropped Woody in Mexico City, he would have no trouble. Another friend, also studying with Vi, is less far along, but close.
She is contemplating making a regular job of it, and we would like to know whether there is interest. Again, this is just a marketing survey at this point.
If you have not studied a foreign language, a few thoughts:
Language instruction exists to make money for the instructors or school. To attract students, these often say things like “Learn the easy and fun way! Learn easily and naturally! A fun, conversational approach, avoids boring grammar!” and so on.
Good freaking luck. There is no easy way to learn a language, and if you don’t learn grammar, you have an illusion of rapid progress for a few weeks, and then stall utterly.
Vi teaches entirely in Spanish. From experience she knows that if she lets English creep in, the student will come to depend on it, and the lesson will turn into an English conversation about Spanish. You don’t learn Spanish by speaking English. The effect is to front-load the difficulty: You can’t discuss interesting things until you have learned a bit. Then one day you realize that you have just carried on an hour of conversation with a Mexican, and entirely in Spanish. It’s a good feeling.
She is friendly, personable, and merciless. She doesn’t do long silences, or short silences. She will keep you talking or listening during the whole lesson. It is work, but it works.
We’re looking at $20 an hour of phone time, checking of homework at no extra charge.
(Editor’s Note: This week is Linda Brady Traynham Week. Linda has been making comments here for a while. I like her writing style and her content is outstanding. She writes about Texas liberty issues and other stuff that engages her mind…just like your un-humble Editor. I am confident you’ll enjoy this week’s offerings.)
If you were in charge of the educational system, what would you do and why? Mull that one over while I tell you how I would go about it, and I’ll make it easier by stipulating grandly that price is no object.
Snicker. Will people never stop falling for my sucker bets? Very seldom does money expended on education equal excellence of outcome, as Washington, D. C., has been demonstrating for decades. No doubt you remember that Hillary Clinton had a free hand revamping the schools of Arkansas, resulting in a national rating of dead last, so we can conclude that lawyers aren’t necessary either.
Our computers have a wonderful feature that allows us to reconfigure to the last time at which they were running correctly. This strikes me as a good, high tech idea, so let’s figure out when we last had good schools that defined “educating the children” as something other than phoney self-esteem, rebellion against parental values, and submission to authority.
It is neither vain nor hyperbole to say that your children, if they finish four-year college degrees, are extraordinarily unlikely to know as much as my generation did after being graduated from high school about the time Fidel Castro overthrew Fulgencio Batista. At that time many college diplomae did not guarantee the level of erudition possessed by HS graduates in the early thirties. In the Fifties the white illiteracy rate was 5%, but the graduates of all-black Kemp High School were only a point behind. This next story is like trying to explain that there was a time when there was no MacDonald’s or iPods, but there wasn’t any other ethnicity in a town of about 40,000. The school board nearly had a nervous breakdown when the first three Hispanic students showed up because they couldn’t decide what to do with them. (DO try to see this as funny because it IS.) You see their problem: you can’t build a highschool for three kids; you can’t send them to Kemp because they aren’t black, but they shouldn’t be in lily-white Stephen F. Austin, either…eventually, they put them over with us. The only girl spent her entire time with her head hunched low probably because she didn’t know what else to do. One of two brothers was very quiet, but Anastasio Hererra was a tall, handsome, outgoing, very bright young man and he made a place for himself easily. Stash was not only my lab partner in Chemistry but went on to become the first Hispanic elected to the “state” legislature! We’re proud of him, and I had dinner with “Andy,” as he is known now, and his wife not long ago.
That is merely an interesting anthropological sidenote. The important part is what we were taught at SFA. Every last student from my class of about 400 was graduated honestly (although three of the boys had to do summer school) and Nancy whatever-her-name-was who got pregnant in the 9th grade and had to drop out — and we’re still talking about it fifty years later. Back then the white illegitimacy rate was 5%; for blacks it was 25%. The current rates have gone to 25% and 80% respectively. I took 3 years of Latin, 4 of Algebra, Geometry, Chemistry and real biology, not keeping a small shark alive all year and then watching the teacher dissect it — an actual course in Houston two years ago. We had our hands in formaldehyde frequently from the very start. Every student was required to master typing and those not going to college had to take two years of bookkeeping and shorthand, and guess what? They had sufficient skills to get office jobs whether they had spent the morning on academic subjects and afternoons as apprentices or not. Speech was required, and I studied Physics, Spanish, Texas and US History. Driver’s Ed? I think there was such a course, but I learned at home, like most kids. Home Ec? Don’t be ridiculous. We were being educated, not baking cookies, something else I learned at home. Our books were full of facts, not political correctness and “diversity.”
One obvious way for our children to learn what we know is to teach them ourselves — if there is the interest and a parent who can remain at home, the latter being an increasingly rare luxury. The home-schooling movement has been growing for some years now and perusal of the top scores on the SAT yearly will reveal the efficacy of this method. Time and again those scores demonstrate that high achievement is found in two groups: those who are home-schooled and those who have a cultural heritage of valuing education. Clearly it is not possible to provide every child Chinese parents (although many of the methods tried by legislators and unions are about that impractical) but home schooling is within the reach of many.
Given no restrictions on cost virtually all of us would enroll our children in the best private schools available — and a major goal of the Republic of Texas is to reduce taxes to the point that you can afford to send your children to the Academy of the Sacred Heart or Harlingen Military Academy or any other school of your choice. It is a given of free market capitalism that where there is demand supply will be forthcoming because there is profit to be made. Our goal will be to provide true school choice over a very wide range without taxing those who do not have children enrolled in various institutions of learning. TANSTAFL, people. There is absolutely no reason why any of us should pay for the education of the children of others. We can anticipate that private schools will both expand and spring up to meet the need — and their standards will of necessity remain high because parents will demand what will be seen clearly as value for their money. Already Academies offering music, sports, and lab sciences have been established to round out the curricula of those being schooled at home. The tuition must be an excellent swap for safety and not having to put together home biology and chemistry laboratories.
You might ask, “What about traditional neighborhood schools?” By all means, if you and your neighbors want your children to walk to nearby Travis Elementary, pool the dollars you choose to spend on their education, hire your own teachers, buy your own books, pay your own utilities, and make your own repairs. You have no right to demand that from your neighbors. Remember, we are talking of a Republic where over a hundred taxes have disappeared, including income and property taxes, fuel, alcohol, and cigarette taxes. In such a nation individual families will be able to afford whatever means of education they prefer including hiring a governess or a tutor. Yes, some people earn more income than others — and guess what? Some of us hold that what you earn is yours to spend as you like.
However, we will suppose that there are those whose income is so small that at least one “public” option is deemed necessary. Here, too, there is a simple free-market solution. Subject matter appropriate to each grade level should be made available on public TV and run twenty-four/seven. Would that be for free? Of course not! Nothing is for free. Make the sacrifice and get cable TV. However, we do have a public fund from taxes on oil production which will be more than ample. This method would be very inexpensive to set up and quite economical to broadcast. Find the very best, most erudite, most interesting teachers, choose from old textbooks for the basics, and each lecture and other segment need be recorded only once. A particular advantage of having phonics-based reading taught constantly is that this is the best and only hope for those currently illiterate to learn to read quickly, easily, and well. The length of this article precludes regaling you with details of how I know such a reading program would work, having developed and copyrighted mine twenty-years ago. If enough of you want to know I will write a separate article on it. For now, just go with the concept that reading, arithmetic, geography, and history can be taught beautifully in the comfort of your own home. Chuckle…take it from someone who has been rescuing illiterate nine-year-old boys for a very, very long time: little boys cannot sit still and do anything else. If your bright, wiggly son is sprawled on the floor eating cheese and crackers, playing with his Vroom-Vroom cars, and patting the dog he can learn a great deal more quickly. I never require my remedial students to sit still and be quiet! Sitting inhibits their learning, strains their composure, and reminds them constantly of every bad classroom experience they have ever had. Test their beginning knowledge? Whatever for?! It is far easier and far less stressful to start with “B is the name of this letter but the work it does is making the sound ‘buh.’” The child feels good when he actually knows something, he sees reading as a system that makes sense, and, sure enough, if he pays even moderate attention he will learn. Gentle laughter…the first lesson starts, “It isn’t your fault that you can’t read, and it still won’t be your fault if I don’t teach you. That would be my fault for not explaining how correctly. However, no one has failed to learn in twenty years and you aren’t going to, either. It’s even going to be a lot of fun!” And it is. I make it fun. How long does it take? Usually a couple of hours twice a week for three to six weeks, depending upon how badly the kiddo has been abused and confused by being expected to learn to read English when it is taught as though it were Chinese ideographs and not a phonetic language.
In addition, such instruction can be made available easily and inexpensively through the home computer. This would be particularly useful as the students advance and allow for inter-active testing. Remember: we’re going to clean the reading mess up first. So far as I’m concerned — should I be named Secretary of Education anywhere — you may have your HS diplomas any time you are able to pass all the exams. I don’t care if you are nine or ninety, only that you can demonstrate mastery of reading, writing, arithmetic, history, algebra, civics, “keyboarding,” and such other subjects as I deem wise and necessary. (Hey, anyone else who wants to set up a course of study, have at it. For fun, ask Google to show you an 8th grade exam purported to have been given in Kansas about 1870. Bear in mind that eighth grade was as high as school went, then. I can pass it, but I doubt that I could cover myself in glory, and I have three degrees and have done graduate work in five fields! Why? For fun, of course! Other than contract work after the children were older — editing, writing instructional materials, and doing analytical project reports — I was a classic stay at home Donna Reed housewife. We all adored summers because I taught the kids daily…) Hey, I probably won’t demand more than 90%.
Now, I do not suppose that my plan will be popular with teachers’ unions because we won’t need nearly as many teachers, will we? The best will be employed privately, and it may be that those who school at home personally or through multimedia might like to hire a retired teacher once a month or once a week to do the icky things like give tests and soothe any anxious feelings that Mama isn’t doing a fine job. The rest of them can take up more productive work or move to some state that still thinks class size and money are important.
We don’t have classes that are too big or too few teachers; modern public schools teach the wrong things with the wrong methods. Well, sure, if you insist I’ll agree modestly to let you call me a genius but the simple truth is that all of the kids in my schools learned well, and all the kids over at Kemp did nearly as well. I wasn’t even Valedictorian or Salutatorian, despite being the class nerd! (BITTER subject! PE was a required subject, and I am and always have been an Olympic class klutz. It doesn’t matter if you make all A’s, that courtesy “C” you get for showing up, suiting out, showering, and trying not to have a nervous breakdown destroys your GPA. I assure you, if the game involves a ball, sooner or later I will get hit with it. In eight miserable years no teacher ever succeded in teaching me to play even one sport acceptably.)
That only leaves us one small problem: those whose native tongue is not English. Once again, the experience of many decades and having attended quite a few different schools suggests an answer: put all those who need it in special schools where English is taught and don’t let them out until they have learned. Spanish is as simple as phonetic languages get, and almost anyone can be taught to read it in about fifteen minutes. Teach the kids to read and carry on instruction in arithmetic in Spanish while focusing on English. English is the language of business and they must learn it, but understanding how to read Spanish will be a great help when they get to English because the basic principle is the same: see the letters, say the sounds, and run them together to get words you know that make sense where you find them. Any kiddo with an average American television addiction has at least an 8th grade working vocabulary. The “test” I just gave you develops enormous reading comprehension because the student is concentrating on whather or not what he said makes sense; if it doesn’t, he made a mistake. He isn’t trying to tell “cat” from “dog” by appearance, that being what “Look-Say” is all about. He already knows most of the words he needs to read a wealth of material, and once he has mastered my idea of the basics (ALL there is to know) he can use a dictionary. He already knows it isn’t “The princess sayed.” It ought to be, but we have an agreement to say “sed” when we see “said.” D’you know, there are only about two dozen of those little horrors and your preschool child knows all of them?! Yup. You won’t hear one say, “I loave you, Mot-her.” The only word Andrew, then 5, missed on an eighth-grade Reading Assessment Test was “carburetor.” He didn’t know that Americans say “CAR-buh-rayccb-tor,” so he read it as “car-bew-ret-or.” Which it should be. How long does it take to go through the ten rules of reading and about 250 sounds and letter combinations encompasing everything there is to know about what reading really is and how we really do it? About an hour and a half! After that the child masters one segment at a time. Takes about six weeks, working just a little every day, to teach a child who has not been exposed to “Look-Say.” Think of all we can teach in those endless hours they won’t spend for five years learning to read somewhere between third and eighth-grade level in most cases. Further, an extensive study done in Seattle showed the 90% (you read that right: 90) of all juveniles who went before a judge that year were functionally or totally illiterate. Do you suppose there is a correlation, there?
Right now you and I are usually the sole guardians of what our children and grandchildren are learning. If we can regain responsibility for choosing the schools and teachers they have even if we lack the luxury of teaching them ourselves test scores will rise again. Unless you would prefer to argue that children today are inherently more stupid than those born about 1940? Obama cut a program in DC which provided $7,000 vouchers for a few lucky kids. The kids learned, and each voucher saved $4000 that would be spent if they were in vastly inferior public schools. Parents loved it, the children delighted in it, but unions and statists loathed it. The argument was the same — although unspoken — as at the time of the Industrial Revolution: “Send them to school? Teach them to read? Whatever for?! They’ll get ideas above their stations.”
For over fifty years our schools have been under the control of those who lean very far left. The only way to take them back is through propositions, referenda, or restoring the Republic. That’s either republic, folks, the Republic of Texas or the republic the founding fathers set up and hoped we would be able to keep.
Linda Brady Traynham is a former editor and analytical project report writer and is now a Whiskey & Gunpowder field correspondent on a ranch in the Republic of Texas. She studied Counseling at Boston University and got her Masters degree in Philosophy from the University of Hawaii.
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Exploring the Boundaries of Art Without Formal Education
By SylwiaSiemion
“Over the Line – One Way Return Ticket” is an exhibit running through June 30 that seeks to explore the creation of art within and without the boundaries of a formal art education. Photo courtesy of DOX Art Gallery
A flat-screen television sits near the entrance, two sets of dangling headphones enticing viewers to come closer. The screen depicts a bizarre scene, as what seem to be animations of crumpled paper move and shift, almost as if dancing to a harmonious tune. Then it gets weirder. With headphones donned, you immediately hear the sounds of loud, raunchy sex blare through the as the crumpled papers continue their dance.
As the initial shock and fascination wear off, most viewers replace the headphones and move on to the rest of the exhibit, leaving the entire four minutes of loud sex unheard. What do loud sex and crumpled paper have in common? The lack of any possible answer to this question is perhaps why the artist of this particular piece was initially rejected from art school.
Or the video might just be a masterpiece that gained the artist later school admission. You, the viewer, get to decide why this strange work is on view at one of the Czech Republic’s most prestigious art galleries, DOX Centre for Contemporary Art in Prague 7. The paper-sex contrivance is part of “Over the Line – One Way Return Ticket” an exhibit running through June 30 that seeks to explore the creation of art within and without the boundaries of a formal art education. Born from an earlier series of “Below the Line” exhibitions, which featured works from artists rejected from public art schools, “Over the Line,” follows nine of the featured artists after their subsequent admissions to art universities.
Curator Tereza Jindrova tasked these nine artists with selecting four works for the exhibition: one from the period prior to their university acceptance, one that received positive evaluation during their studies, another that received negative feedback (including incomprehension) during their studies, and finally a work they would submit during the application process if they were to apply now. So, which category does Jan Hladil’s crumpled paper and sex fall into? Well it’s anyone’s guess.
“What do loud sex and crumpled paper have in common? The lack of any possible answer to this question is perhaps why the artist of this particular piece was initially rejected from art school.”
The exhibit provides both the artists and viewers with a chance to explore the works. The artists were forced into a period of self-reflection and introspection as they had to select older works to reveal alongside their current projects, evaluating their own growth as artists and taking on some of the responsibilities of a curator. The viewers on the other hand, are encouraged to immerse themselves in the works. None of the works are labeled as any one category, and while the exhibit does provide an information packet with all the details, viewers are advised to not refer to it until the end. The nature of the exhibit pulls the viewer into the works of art, enticing them to consider each piece in its many facets as they attempt to sort it into one of the artist’s periods.
One standout was the provocative portraits of Jakub Jurasek, featuring photographs taken under bathroom stalls in an “exploration of the subjectivity of time and intimacy from the perspective of various degrees of nudity.” From photographs to installations featuring radiators, animal eyeballs, and laboratory equipment, Jurasek’s captivating artistic development is but a small part of what the exhibit has to offer.
Born from an earlier series of “Below the Line” exhibitions, which featured works from artists rejected from public art schools, “Over the Line,” follows nine of the featured artists after their subsequent admissions to art universities. Photo courtesy of DOX Art Gallery
A page from a comic book showcases the adventures of whimsically rendered characters and invites the viewer to interact. While it is tempting to thumb through the four flipbooks adhered to the page, a pane of Plexiglas protecting the delicate drawing creates a frustrating barrier. Discouraged, the viewer makes must walk around the room towards an iPad. In fact, the iPad displays a full-length comic with the same characters as the paper version.
You can now follow the escapades of the small boy, whose head is bigger than his body and whose body is smaller than the head of a match, with the help of the inviting interface. The touch screen display delivers a new dimension and features modes of interaction that can be achieved only with a digital platform. With the help of a team of artists, Matyas Trnka created the “first Czech interactive comic book of its type,” the exhibition materials claim. The exhibit is accompanied by several lectures and other interactive activities to launch discussion on the art education system, as well as a publication filled with essays from leading figures in the Czech art scene.
Sylwia Siemion is in the NYU Steinhardt Class of 2016. Her hometown is Sanok, Poland.
Author:The Prague Wandering
The Prague Wandering is an NYU based study abroad webzine- the only one of its kind. It focuses on issues in contemporary Czech culture and the city of Prague, exploring beyond the study abroad bubble.
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abstract: '[Microbiome ‘omics approaches can reveal intriguing relationships between the human microbiome and certain disease states. Along with identification of specific bacteria taxa associated with diseases, recent scientific advancements provide mounting evidence that metabolism, genetics and environmental factors can all modulate these microbial effects. However, the current methods for integrating microbiome data and other covariates are severely lacking. Hence, we present an integrative Bayesian zero-inflated negative binomial regression model that can both distinguish differentially abundant taxa with distinct phenotypes and quantify covariate-taxa effects. Our model demonstrates good performance using simulated data. Furthermore, we successfully integrated microbiome taxonomies and metabolomics in two real microbiome datasets to provide biologically interpretable findings. In all, we proposed a novel integrative Bayesian regression model that features bacterial differential abundance analysis and microbiome-covariate effects quantifications, which makes it suitable for general microbiome studies. ]{} [Bayesian regression; Count data; Feature selection; Integrative analysis; Microbiome; Mixture models; Zero-inflated negative binomial model]{}'
author:
- |
Shuang Jiang\
*Department of Statistical Science, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX 75275*\
Guanghua Xiao\
*Quantitative Biomedical Research Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center,\
Dallas, TX 75390*\
Andrew Y. Koh\
*Departments of Pediatrics and Microbiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center,\
Dallas, TX 75390*\
Qiwei Li$^\ast$\
*Department of Mathematical Sciences, The University of Texas at Dallas,\
Richardson, TX 75080*\
[[email protected]]{}\
Xiaowei Zhan$^\ast$\
*Quantitative Biomedical Research Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center,\
Dallas, TX 75390*\
[[email protected]]{}\
bibliography:
- 'biostatistics\_manuscript\_0927.bib'
title: 'A Bayesian Zero-Inflated Negative Binomial Regression Model for the Integrative Analysis of Microbiome Data '
---
[S. Jiang and others]{} [A Bayesian Zero-Inflated Negative Binomial Integrative Model]{}
Introduction
============
The human microbiome is estimated to contain $3.0\times10^{13}$ bacteria [@sender2016revised] and $3.3\times10^6$ microbial genes [@qin2010human]. Microbial communities have a profound impact on human health [@ursell2012defining]. Recently, microbiome studies have identified disease-associated bacteria taxa in type 2 diabetes [@karlsson2013gut], liver cirrhosis [@qin2014], inflammatory bowel disease [@halfvarson2017dynamics], and melanoma patients responsive to cancer immunotherapy [@frankel2017]. An increasing number of research projects continue to systematically investigate the role of the microbiome in human diseases [@integrative2014integrative]. While innovations in next-generation sequencing technology continue to shape the next steps in the microbiome field, the statistical methods used in microbiome research have not kept pace. For instance, metagenomic shotgun sequencing (MSS) generates a massive amount of sequence reads that can provide species or isolate level taxonomic resolution [@segata2012metagenomic]. The subsequent comparative statistical analysis assesses whether specific species are associated with a phenotypic state or experimental condition. Upon surveying commonly used statistical approaches, one method focuses on the comparison of multi-taxa [@chen2012associating; @kelly2015power; @zhao2015testing; @wu2016adaptive], frequently termed the microbiome community. However, those approaches do not aim to identify differentially abundant species—making clinical interpretation, mechanistic insights, and biological validations difficult. Another approach interrogates each individual bacteria taxa for different groups or conditions. For example, [@la2015hypothesis] utilizes a Wilcoxon rank-sum test or Kruskal-Wallis test for groupwise comparisons on microbiome compositional data. Recently, methods developed for RNA-seq data have been adapted to microbiome studies, e.g. the negative-binomial regression model in `DESeq2` [@love2014moderated] and overdispersed Poisson model in `edgeR` [@robinson2010edger]. These methods, however, are not optimized for microbiome datasets. Microbial abundance can be affected by covariates, such as metabolites, antibiotics and host genetics. These confounding variables need to be adjusted for more accurate differential abundance analysis. Ultimately, there may be a clinical need to quantify the associations between microbiome and clinical confounders [@kinross2011gut; @zhu2018precision; @maier2018extensive]. One common approach is to calculate pairwise correlations between all taxa and covariates [@li2008symbiotic], but this method may be significantly underpowered. Other model-based methods [@chen2013variable; @wadsworth2017integrative] have been proposed to detect covariate-taxa associations, but the taxon-outcome associations have been ignored. [ ]{}Recently, [@li2018conditional] developed a multivariate zero-inflated logistic-normal model to quantify the associations between microbiome abundances and multiple factors (e.g. disease risk factors or health outcomes) based on microbiome compositional data instead of the count data.
Here, we propose a Bayesian integrative model to analyze microbiome count data. Our model jointly identifies differentially abundant taxa among multiple groups and simultaneously quantifies the taxon-covariate associations. Our modeling construction includes several advantages. First, it characterizes the over-dispersion and zero-inflation frequently observed in microbiome count data by introducing a zero-inflated negative binomial (ZINB) model. Second, it models the heterogeneity from different sequencing depths, covariate effects, and group effects via a log-linear regression framework on the ZINB mean components. Last, we propose two feature selection processes to simultaneously detect differentially abundant taxa and estimate the covariate-taxa associations using the *spike-and-slab* priors. We compute Bayesian posterior probabilities for these correlated features and provide the Bayesian false discovery rate (FDR). Extensive and thorough use of simulated data demonstrates that our model largely improved performance when compared with existing methods. We present two applications of real microbiome datasets with various covariate sets. Biological interpretations of our results confirm those of previous studies and offer a more comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanism in disease etiology.
The paper is organized as follows. In Section \[hierarchical\], we introduce the integrative hierarchical mixture model and the prior formulations. Section \[fitting\] supplies a brief discussion of the MCMC algorithm and the resulting posterior inference. In Section \[simulation\], we evaluate model performance on simulated data through a comparison study. We investigate the covariate association in Section \[association-analysis\]. Two real data analyses are shown in Section \[realdata\]. Our conclusions are presented in Section \[conclusion\].
Hierarchical Model {#hierarchical}
==================
Our model starts with a high-dimensional count matrix where each entry represents the count of sequence reads belonging to a taxonomy such as bacterial species. Specifically, we denote $\bm{Y}_{n \times p}$ (usually $n\ll p$) be a microbial abundance matrix, with $y_{ij}\in\mathbb{N},i=1,\ldots,n,j=1,\ldots,p$ representing the observed count of the $i$-th sample and $j$-th taxon out of the total $n$ samples and $p$ taxa (features). Note that the proposed model can also be applied to an operational taxonomic unit (OTU) count table obtained via 16S metagenomic approaches. For an OTU table, each feature would be a taxonomic unit of a bacteria species or genus depending on the sequence similarity threshold (e.g. $97\%$).We also denote a covariate matrix $\bm{X}_{n\times R}$ where each entry $x_{ir}$ represents the measurement of the $r$-th covariate on the $i$-th sample. The graphical formulation of the proposed model is summarized in Figure S1 and S2 in the supplement.
Count generating process
------------------------
In practice, the microbial abundance matrix $\bm{Y}$ is characterized by an inflated amount of zeros, resulting from insufficient sampling depth. Meanwhile, the abundance matrix usually consists of extremely large counts. Based on these two facts, we assume that each count is sampled from a zero-inflated negative binomial (ZINB) distribution so as to simultaneously account for both zero-inflation and over-dispersion presented in $\bm{Y}$: $$\label{y-eq}
y_{ij}|\pi,\lambda_{ij},\phi_j\quad\sim\quad\pi {\text{I}}(y_{ij}=0)+(1-\pi)\text{NB}(y_{ij};\lambda_{ij},\phi_j),$$ where $\pi \in [0,1]$ represents the weight of generating extra zeros, ${\text{I}}(\cdot)$ is an indicator function, and $\text{NB}(y;\lambda, \phi)$ denotes a negative binomial distribution for random variable $y$ with the expectation $\lambda$ and dispersion $1/\phi$. Under this parameterization, the variance of $y$ is $\lambda+\lambda^2/\phi$. A small value of $\phi$ allows modeling of extra variation. Note that increasing $\phi$ towards infinity yields a Poisson distribution with both expectation and variance equal to $\lambda$. We assume a Gamma prior $\text{Ga}(a_{\phi},b_{\phi})$ for the dispersion parameter $\phi$. An equivalent way to model this count generating process is to introduce a latent binary variable $r_{ij}$, such that $$\label{y-eq2}
y_{ij}|r_{ij},\lambda_{ij},\phi_j\begin{cases}{\begin{array}{ll}\quad\sim\quad\text{NB}(\lambda_{ij},\phi_j) & \text{ if } r_{ij}=0\\\quad=\quad0 & \text{ if } r_{ij}=1\end{array}}\end{cases},$$ where $r_{ij}$ is from a Bernoulli distribution with parameter $\pi$, i.e. $\sim\text{Bernoulli}(\pi)$. We further impose $\pi\sim\text{Beta}(a_{\pi}, b_{\pi})$, which leads to a Beta-Bernoulli prior for $r_{ij}$ with expectation $a_\pi/(a_\pi+b_\pi)$.
Integrative modeling with feature selection
-------------------------------------------
Microbiome count data is characterized by high variability in the number of reads among samples from different groups (due to distinct biological conditions), or even the same group (due to uneven sequencing depths). To accommodate this setting, we parameterize the mean parameter $\lambda_{ij}$ of the negative binomial distribution as the multiplicative effects of two positive random effects: 1) the size factor $s_i$ reflects how the sequencing depth affects counts across all taxa observed in the $i$-th sample; 2) the [ ]{}normalized abundance $\alpha_{ij}$ for the $j$-th taxon in the $i$-th sample once the sample-specific variability has been accounted for. Our goal is to find a subset of $p$ taxa that enables us to discriminate the $n$ samples from $K$ distinct groups. We introduce a binary latent vector $\bm{\gamma} =(\gamma_1,\ldots,\gamma_p)$, with $\gamma_j=1$ indicating that the $j$-th taxon has significantly differential abundances among the $K$ groups, and $\gamma_j=0$ otherwise. Therefore, conditional on $r_{ij}=0$, we reparameterize the [ ]{}negative binomial kernel of Equation (\[y-eq2\]) as follows: $$\label{intergrate}
y_{ij}|r_{ij} = 0, \gamma_j, s_i,\alpha_{ijk},\alpha_{ij0}\quad\sim\quad\begin{cases}\begin{array}{ll}
\text{NB}(y_{ij};s_i\alpha_{ij0},\phi_j) & \text{if}~ \gamma_j =0\\
\text{NB}(y_{ij};s_i\alpha_{ijk},\phi_j) & \text{if}~ \gamma_j =1 \text{ and } z_i=k
\end{array}\end{cases}.$$ Here, $z_i$ is the sample allocation indicator. Collectively, $\bm{z}_{n \times 1} = (z_1, z_2, \ldots, z_n)^T$ indicates the membership for each sample, where $z_i = k, k \in \{1, \ldots, K\}$ reveals that the $i$-th sample belongs to the $k$-th group. $s_i$ is the size factor of the $i$-th sample, which can be estimated from the data (see Section \[size factor\]). We assume an independent Bernoulli prior $\gamma_j \sim\text{Bernoulli}(\omega)$ for each taxon $j$, and further impose a beta hyperprior on $\omega$ to formulate a Beta-Bernoulli prior, i.e. $\omega\sim\text{Beta}(a_{\omega},b_{\omega})$. The choice of $a_{\omega}$ and $b_{\omega}$ incorporates the prior belief that a certain percentage of taxa are discriminatory. We further specify a log-link function to integrate the covariates into the modeling construction for each [ ]{}normalized abundance: $$\label{cov}
\begin{cases}\begin{array}{ll}
\log\alpha_{ij0}\quad=\quad\mu_{0j}+\bm{x}_i\boldsymbol{\beta}_j^T & \text{if}~ \gamma_j =0\\
\log\alpha_{ijk}\quad=\quad\mu_{0j}+\mu_{kj}+ \bm{x}_i\boldsymbol{\beta}_j^T & \text{if}~ \gamma_j =1 \text{ and } z_i=k
\end{array}
\end{cases},$$ where $\mu_{0j}$ is a feature-specific baseline parameter for taxon $j$. Note that $\exp(\mu_{0j})$’s can be considered as scaling factors adjusting for feature-specific levels across all samples. The group-specific parameter $\mu_{kj}$ captures the baseline shift between the $k$-th group and the reference group. We set $\mu_{kj}=0$ if the $k$-th group is the reference group to avoid identifiability problems arising from the sum of the components. $\bm{x}_i$, the $i$-th row of covariate matrix $\bm{X}$, contains all the covariate measurements for sample $i$. Here, $\boldsymbol{\beta}_j$ is a $1$-by-$R$ vector, with each element $\beta_{rj}$ modeling the global effect of the $r$-th covariate on the observed counts for the $j$-th taxon. In practice, not all of the covariates are related to the abundance of a taxon. Therefore, we allow different sets of covariates to affect different taxa by specifying a *spike-and-slab* prior [@brown1998multivariate; @ishwaran2005spike] as $ \beta_{rj} \sim (1-\delta_{rj})I(\beta_{rj} = 0)+\delta_{rj} N(0,\sigma_{\beta j}^2)$, where $\delta_{rj}=1$ indicates the $r$-th covariate is associated with the [ ]{}normalized abundance for the $j$-th feature, and $\delta_{rj}=0$ otherwise. This modeling approach allows us to identify significant covariate-taxa associations, via the selection of the nonzero $\beta_{rj}$ coefficients, for all discriminatory and non-discriminatory taxonomic features. We complete the model by setting $\mu_{0j} \sim N(0,\sigma_{0 j}^2)$, $\mu_{kj} \sim N(0,\sigma_{\mu j}^2)$, and $\delta_{rj} \sim \text{Beta-Bernoulli}(a_p,b_p)$. Letting $\sigma_{0 j}^2 = 10^2$ for all $j$ yields a vague prior for the feature-specific baseline parameter. An inverse-gamma (IG) hyperprior $\text{IG}(a,b)$ is shared by $\sigma_{\mu j}^2$ and $\sigma_{\beta j}^2$.
Size factor estimation {#size factor}
----------------------
The parameterization of the negative binomial mean, as shown in Equation (\[intergrate\]), is a product of the size factor and the [ ]{}normalized abundance. It is typical to normalize the size factor first to ensure model identifiability. Hence, the plug-in estimator (equivalent to a point-mass prior) of $s_i$ is adopted to facilitate the inference based on the [ ]{}normalized abundance $\alpha_{ij}$ as shown in Equation (\[cov\]). The plug-in estimators can be calculated from the observed count matrix $\bm{Y}$. [ ]{}There have been a number of proposals to estimate the size factors in the context of RNA-seq data analyses. Both [@witten] and [@li2017bayesian] conducted a comprehensive literature review. However, the assumptions of many existing methods for RNA-seq are likely not appropriate for highly diverse microbial environments [@Weiss2017]. A so-called cumulative sum scaling (CSS) method has been developed by [@paulson2013differential] as $\hat{s}_i^\text{CSS} \propto \sum_{j=1}^{p}y_{ij} I(y_{ij}\leq q_i^{l_{\text{CSS}}})$, where the default value of $l_{\text{CSS}}$ is $50$. CSS can be viewed as an adaptive extension of [@bullard2010evaluation], and it is better suited for microbiome data. Moreover, a new normalization method named geometric mean of pairwise ratios (GMPR) has been proposed by [@chen2018gmpr], aiming to handle the zero-inflated sequencing data. GMPR calculates the size factor $s_i$ based on the median count ratio of nonzero counts between the $i$-th sample and the remaining samples. It has been shown to be robust to differential and outlier OTUs. Combining this with some constraints such as $\sum_{i=1}^{n} \log\hat{s_i} = 0$ (i.e. $\prod_{i=1}^{n} \hat{s_i} = 1$), we are able to obtain a set of identifiable values. [ ]{}In this paper, both CSS and GMPR are considered.
Model Fitting and Posterior Inference {#fitting}
=====================================
Our model space consists of $\left (\bm{R}, \boldsymbol{\phi}, \boldsymbol{\mu}_0, \bm{M}, \bm{B}, \boldsymbol{\gamma}, \boldsymbol{\Delta}, \omega, \pi \right )$ with the extra zero indicators $\bm{R} = (r_{ij},i=1,\ldots,n,j=1,\ldots,p)$, the dispersion parameters $ \boldsymbol{\phi} = (\phi_j, j=1,\ldots,p)$, the feature-specific baselines $ \boldsymbol{\mu}_0 = (\mu_{0j},j=1,\ldots,p)$, the group-specific baselines $\bm{M} = (\mu_{kj},k=1,\ldots,K,j=1,\ldots,p)$, the covariate effects $\bm{B} = (\beta_{rj}, r = 1,\ldots,R,j=1,\ldots,p)$, the discriminatory taxa indicators $ \boldsymbol{\gamma} = (\gamma_j, j=1,\ldots,p)$, and the association indicators $ \boldsymbol{\Delta} = (\delta_{rj},r= 1,\ldots,R, j=1,\ldots,p)$. We explore the posterior distribution via a Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithm based on stochastic search variable selection with within-model updates [@savitsky2010spiked]. Full details can be found in the supplement. We are interested in distinguishing taxa that are differentially abundant among different groups, via $\boldsymbol{\gamma}$, as well as their associations with covariates, via $\boldsymbol{\Delta}$. One way to summarize the posterior distributions of these binary parameters is via the marginal posterior probability of inclusion (PPI). Suppose $t=1,\ldots,T$ index the MCMC iterations after burn-in. Then PPI of each $\gamma_j$ and $\delta_{rj}$ can be written as $\text{PPI}(\gamma_j) = \frac{1}{T}\sum_{t=1}^{T} \gamma_j^{(t)} \text{ and } \text{PPI}(\delta_{rj}) = \frac{1}{T}\sum_{t=1}^{T} \delta_{rj}^{(t)}$, respectively. Subsequently, important features and covariates can be selected based on a given PPI threshold. Following [@newton2004], we choose a threshold that controls the Bayesian FDR. Specifically, we solve the following equations to determine the thresholds: $\text{FDR}_{\bm{\gamma}}(c_\gamma) = \frac{\sum_{j=1}^{p}(1-\text{PPI}({\gamma_j}))\text{I}(1-\text{PPI}(\gamma_j)<c_\gamma)}{\sum_{j=1}^{p}\text{I}(1-\text{PPI}(\gamma_j)<c_\gamma)},~
\text{FDR}_{\bm{\Delta}}(c_\delta) = \frac{\sum_{r = 1}^{R}\sum_{j=1}^{p}(1-\text{PPI}({\delta_{rj})})\text{I}(1-\text{PPI}(\delta_{rj}))<c_\delta)}{\sum_{r = 1}^{R}\sum_{j=1}^{p}\text{I}(1-\text{PPI}(\delta_{rj})<c_\delta)}$, where ${\text{I}}(\cdot)$ is an indicator function. A well-accepted setting is to set both $ \text{FDR}_{\bm{\gamma}}$ and $\text{FDR}_{\bm{\Delta}}$ equal to $0.05$, which corresponds to an expected FDR of $5\%$.
Simulation Study {#simulation}
================
In this section, we evaluated the proposed model using simulated data. In particular, we considered two methods (CSS and GMPR) introduced in Section \[size factor\] for estimating the size factor $s_i$’s. We also compared our model with other existing methods described in the prior microbiome studies. In order to mimic metagenome sequencing data from real data applications (Section \[realdata\]), we chose the parameters as follows: we set $n$ samples for $K = 2$ groups with balanced group size $n_1 = n_2 = n/2$. We chose a large number of candidate features by setting the number of taxa $p = 300$, and randomly selected 20 true discriminant features to evaluate our model performance. Each row of $\bm{Y}$, denoted as $\bm{y}_i$, was generated from a Dirichlet-Multinomial distribution as described in [@wadsworth2017integrative]. For $i = 1, \ldots, n$, we let $\bm{y}_i \sim \text{Multinomial}(N_i, ~\boldsymbol{\pi}_i)$ with the row sum $N_i \sim \text{Discrete~Uniform}(2\times10^7,6 \times 10^7)$ and $\boldsymbol{\pi}_i = (\pi_{i1}, \ldots, \pi_{ip}) \sim \text{Dirichlet}(\bm{a}_i)$. We further incorporated the feature and covariate effects through $\bm{a}_i = (a_{i1}, \ldots, a_{ip})$ by setting $a_{ij} = \exp(a_{ij}^*)$ with $a_{ij}^* \sim \text{Normal}(\mu_{0j} + \mu_{kj} + \bm{x}_i \boldsymbol{\beta}_j^T, ~\sigma_e^2)$. Here, a larger value of $\sigma_e^2$ corresponded to a higher noise level. Compared with Equation (\[intergrate\]), this data generating process is different from the assumption of the proposed model. We set $\mu_{0j} \sim \text{Uniform}(8,10)$, $\mu_{1j} = 0$ for all $j$ and $\mu_{2j} = \pm 2$ for all selected discriminating features and 0 otherwise. Then for the covariate effects, we first obtained the covariate matrix $\bm{X}_{n \times R}$ by sampling each row $\bm{x}_i$ from the covariate matrix of the liver cirrhosis study in Section \[Liver cirrhosis\] (with $n = 237$ and $R = 7$). In particular, we sampled $n/2$ covariate records from healthy and disease groups respectively. For each taxon $j$, we then randomly selected $m \in \{0,2,4,6\}$ out of $R$ covariates and let the corresponding $\beta_{rj} \sim \pm \text{Uniform}(0.5, 1)$ while setting the rest $\beta_{rj} = 0$. Lastly, we randomly set $\pi_0np$ counts in $\bm{Y}$ to be zeros to mimic the zero-inflation in the real data. To summarize, we varied the following settings in order to comprehensively examine the model performance: 1) sample size per group $n / 2=10$ or $30$; 2) noise level $\sigma_e=0.5$, $1.0$, or $1.5$; 3) zero proportion $\pi_0=30\%$, $40\%$, or $70\%$. In the main text, we present the results obtained from the simulated datasets that $n/2 = 30, \sigma_e^2 = 1$, and $\pi_0 = 40\%$, and the remaining results can be found in Section S2 in the supplement. The hyperparameters were specified using the following default settings. For the binary variables with Beta-Bernoulli priors $\gamma_j \sim \text{Beta-Bernoulli}(a_{\omega},b_{\omega}),~ \delta_{rj}\sim \text{Beta-Bernoulli}(a_{p},b_{p})$ and $r_{ij}\sim \text{Beta-Bernoulli}(a_{\pi},b_{\pi})$, we set $a_{\omega} = 0.2, ~b_{\omega} = 1.8, ~a_p = 0.4,~\text{and}~b_p = 0.6$, which means that $10\%$ of the taxa are expected to be discriminant features, and $20\%$ of the covariate coefficients to be nonzero. We chose $a_{\pi} = b_{\pi} = 1$ assuming that about half of the zeros are truly missing. For the dispersion parameter with Ga($a_{\phi},b_{\phi})$ prior, we set $a_{\phi} = 1,~b_{\phi} = 0.01$ to obtain a vague gamma prior with mean of 100 and variance of 10,000. Next, we specified a flat prior $\text{IG}(a = 2, ~b = 10)$ for the variance term $\sigma_{\mu j}^2$ and $\sigma_{\beta j}^2$. The sensitivity analysis reported in the Section S3.2 in the supplement contains more details on the choice of $a$ and $b$. When implementing our model on a dataset, we ran four independent chains with different starting points where each feature or covariate was randomly initialized to have $\gamma_j = 1~\text{or}~0, \delta_{rj} = 1~\text{or}~0$. We set $20,000$ iterations as the default and discarded the first half as burn-in. To assess the concordance between four chains, we looked at all the pairwise correlation coefficients between the marginal PPI of $\boldsymbol{\gamma}$ and $\boldsymbol{\Delta}$. As mentioned by [@stingo2013integrative], high values of correlation suggest that MCMC chains are run for a satisfactory number of iterations. After ensuring convergence, we assessed our model performance based on the averaged result over four chains.
Our goal was to identify the discriminating features (e.g. taxa) and the significant feature-covariate associations (i.e. all nonzero $\gamma_j$ and $\delta_{rj}$ in our model). We thus obtained the PPI for all $\gamma_j$ and $\delta_{rj}$, and visualized the accuracy in feature selection using the receiving operating characteristic (ROC) curve. We also computed the false positive rate when all feature-covariate associations were zero. [ ]{}We further considered two types of competitors for model comparison. The first type, similar to the proposed model, can simultaneously identify discriminating features and detect the feature-covariate associations. Here, we compared with the multivariate zero-inflated logistic-normal (MZILN) regression model proposed by [@li2018conditional]. The MZILN model treats the sample allocation vector as an observed covariate for each sample. Therefore we combined the group label with other observed covariates to create a new covariate matrix, and the MZILN model gave a regularized estimation of the regression coefficient between each feature and covariate. The selected discriminating features and feature-covariate associations corresponded to the nonzero coefficient estimations. The second type of method achieves the same goal in two separate stages. The first stage consists of four methods to select discriminating features based on $p$-values, including the Wilcoxon rank-sum test (Wilcoxon test) and three differential expression analysis methods implemented by the `R` packages `metagenomeSeq` [@paulson2013differential], `edgeR` [@robinson2010edger] and `limma` [@ritchie2015limma]. Specifically, `metagenomeSeq` assumes a zero-inflated Gaussian model, `edgeR` models count data using a negative binomial distribution, and `limma` adopts a linear model for the log-transformed count data. Then, the discriminating features were selected to be those with BH [@benjamini1995controlling] adjusted $p$-values smaller than $0.05$. To make a head to head comparison in the first stage, we also included a simplified version of the ZINB model by excluding the covariate term $\bm{x}_i\boldsymbol{\beta}_j^T$ in Equation (\[cov\]). In the second stage, we considered the following feature selection strategies for each $p$-value based method. They are: 1) correlation test, 2) lasso regression, 3) random forest, and 4) multivariate linear regression. We centered the selected discriminating features by group, and the rest across all samples. For the correlation test, the Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated between the log scaled compositional data and the covariate measurements for each outcome group. Next, a Fisher z-transformation [@fisher1915frequency] was applied to obtain the $p$-values for testing the significance of correlation. For lasso regression, we calculated the true positive rates and the false positive rates with respect to a range of lasso penalty. For the last two, we fitted a random forest model or a multivariate linear regression model between each feature and the covariate matrix $X$, which yielded variable importance measures or $p$-values. In all, we have four choices in the first stage {Wilcoxon test, `metagenomeSeq`, `edgeR`, `limma`} and four choices in the second stage {correlation test, lasso regression, random forest, multivariate linear regression}, with $4 \times 4 = 16$ choices in total. [ ]{}For clear visualization of the result, we excluded `limma` in the second stage due to its relatively inferior performance in the first stage. We also dropped random forest and linear regression since they showed similar performance as the lasso regression. Besides, all the $p$-values generated using different methods were adjusted using the BH method to control the FDR.
For each of the four scenarios, Figure \[simu\_res\] compares the model performance through the averaged ROC curve over 100 simulated datasets. We also include the area under curve (AUC) for each approach. For detecting discriminating features, the proposed method consistently shows high AUC ($ > 0.98$) across all scenarios, and similar results for capturing the feature-covariate associations (AUC $ > 0.90$). Moreover, the proposed method maintains a low FDR even when all $\beta_{rj}$ are 0. The correlation-based method shows low false positive rates in the case where the true number of contributing covariate is 0, but has low power when $\{2, 4, 6\}$ out of $7$ covariates have nonzero contribution. [ ]{}In addition, the proposed model achieves the highest true positive fraction under a fixed small value of FDR in all scenarios, with the MZILN model and `metagenomeSeq` performing the second and third best in estimating the discriminating feature indicator $\boldsymbol{\gamma}$ (shown in the left column of Figure \[simu\_res\], Figures S3-S5). We also noticed that the MZILN model could not outperform the two-stage methods in estimating the feature-covariate association indicator $\boldsymbol{\Delta}$. The above conclusions hold for using either CSS or GMPR to estimate the plug-in size factors. To test if our model is robust to the choice of size factor estimation methods, we further conducted a sensitivity analysis in Section S3.1 in the supplement. The result, as shown in Figure S6, suggests that our model is considerably robust to the choice of different normalization methods, while CSS and GMPR have a marginal performance improvement. Furthermore, we reach the same conclusion with varying group sizes, log-scale noise levels, and zero proportions. In particular, the proposed ZINB model is robust to a larger amount of extra zeros. Either decreasing the group size or increasing the noise level hampers the performance of all the methods. Nevertheless, the ZINB model still consistently outperforms the alternative approaches in estimating $\bm{\gamma}$ and $\bm{\Delta}$. Results are summarized in Figures S3-S5 in the supplement.
Feature-Covariate Association Analysis {#association-analysis}
======================================
In this section, we demonstrate that our model can estimate the association between a taxonomic feature and a covariate by adjusting for the remaining confounders. As a comparison, current approaches rely on correlation analysis between the pairwise microbiome and covariates. Specifically, those analyses converted each observed taxonomic count to a fraction (or termed percentages, intensities) by sample. Next the Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated between the log scaled fractions and the covariate measurements for each outcome group. Lastly, a Fisher z-transformation [@fisher1915frequency] was applied to obtain the $p$-values for testing the significance of correlation. Our model constructs a regression framework to quantify the relationship between the [ ]{}normalized abundance $\alpha_{ijk}$ and covariates through the Equation (\[cov\]). Based on Equation (\[cov\]), given a feature $j$ and a covariate $r$ of interest, we first normalized the observed abundance using CSS and performed logarithmic transformation. Next, to calculate $x_{ir}\hat{\beta}_{rj}$ and the group shift $\hat{\mu}_{kj}$, we subtracted the estimated feature-specific influence $\hat{\mu}_{0j}$ and other covariates’ impact $\sum_{r'\neq r}x_{ir'}\hat{\beta}_{r'j}$ from the transformed abundance. Lastly, we could evaluate whether our model provided a reasonable estimation ($\hat{\beta}_{rj}$) of the feature-covariate association between covariate $r$ and the normalized and adjusted observations of feature $j$.
Here, we demonstrated the advantages of the proposed model in estimating the feature-covariate association over the correlation-based method through simulation. For each feature, we randomly selected four out of seven covariates to have nonzero linear effects on the latent abundances, and generated a simulated dataset following the description in Section \[simulation\]. We kept the same prior and algorithm settings to obtain the estimations for all parameters of interest. We chose a $5\%$ Bayesian FDR for estimating $\boldsymbol{\Delta}$. Among all feature-covariate combinations, the proposed model achieved sensitivity and specificity rates of $82.9\%$ and $86.7\%$ respectively. We randomly chose several pairs of feature and covariate and compared the proposed method and the correlation-based method. Figure \[feature-cov\] displays the results of 2 examples, where the true values of $\delta_{rj}$ were 1. The two dashed lines in Figure \[feature-cov\]a or \[feature-cov\]b have the same slope of $\hat{\beta}_{rj}$ as our estimated covariate effect. Both plots suggest that the proposed model is able to capture the feature-covariate relationship. Notice that we did not adjust for the group-specific effect. Hence the differences between two dashed lines represents the group-specific parameter $\hat{\mu}_{kj}$. These results illustrated the advantages in simultaneously detecting the discriminating features and quantifying the feature-covariate associations. Furthermore, we also validated that the proposed model had correctly captured the direction of covariate effects in both cases. Figure \[feature-cov\]b and \[feature-cov\]d show the results from the correlation-based model. The slope of each dashed line represents the Pearson correlation coefficient. However, there was no significant result as all $p$-values were greater than $0.05$, suggesting that the correlation test can be underpowered. The correlation-based method failed to isolate the covariate of interest from the confounders, and it might suggest a wrong direction of covariate effect, as shown in Figure \[feature-cov\]d.
Real data analysis {#realdata}
==================
We applied the proposed model on two real data sets: one with hundreds of samples and the other with only 24 samples. Compared with the analysis methods used in the original publications, our model demonstrates better performance in detecting differentially abundant bacteria. In addition, our model supports adjusting for biologically meaningful covariates. When adjusting for the metabolic pathway quantities (or metabolites through metabolomics technology) as covariates, our model estimates the association between taxa and metabolism-related functions (or metabolites).
Liver cirrhosis dataset {#Liver cirrhosis}
-----------------------
Cirrhosis is a late-stage condition of scarring or fibrosis of the liver caused by liver disease such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease [@abubakar2015global]. The liver is connected to the gastrointestinal tract via the hepatic portal and bile secretion systems. Interestingly, distinct gut microbiota signatures have been associated with both early-stage liver diseases and end-stage liver cirrhosis [@garcia2004gut; @yan2011enteric; @benten2012gut]. We applied our model on a gut microbiome dataset from a liver cirrhosis study carried out by [@qin2014]. All metagenome sequenced samples were available from the NCBI Short Read Archive and the curated microbial abundance matrix was accessible from ExperimentHub [@pasolli2017accessible]. The full dataset includes 237 samples with their observed microbial abundance matrix $\bm{Y}$ profiled from the gut microbiome at the species taxonomic level. The study has two patient groups, including 114 healthy controls and 123 liver cirrhosis patients. We filtered out the taxa with extremely low abundance before the analysis as suggested in [@wadsworth2017integrative]. We obtained 528 taxa that had at least 2 observed counts in both groups for further analysis. As for the covariate information, we used MetaCyc, a collection of microbial pathways and enzymes involved in metabolism for an extensive amount of organisms [@caspi2007metacyc]. We incorporated the 529 MetaCyc pathway measurements for 237 individuals in the study, and reduced the high correlation among the pathways by average linkage clustering on their correlation matrix [@wadsworth2017integrative]. Specifically, we kept the pathway with the largest fold-change between two groups in each cluster, and decided the number of clusters such that the correlations between the resulting pathways were less than 0.5. Logarithmic transformation and normalization (zero mean and unit variance) were applied to the selected covariates to ensure the zero mean and unit standard deviation. After the pre-processing step, we had seven covariates representing metabolic functions.
In [@qin2014], differential analyses were based on the Wilcoxon test and the $p$-values were corrected by the BH method. Although a stringent threshold of significance level (0.0001) was used, the authors discovered 79 differentially abundant species and had to restrictively report the 30 top candidates in each group. Figure \[cladogram1\] is the cladogram of the discriminating taxa selected by different methods, with blue dots representing the results by [@qin2014] and red dots reported by the ZINB model. As suggested in our simulation study, these results may reflect a high FDR as covariate effects were not factored in the analysis. In addition, the Wilcoxon test cannot account for the pathway effects and thus the associations between bacteria and metabolic pathways were not identified.
We applied the proposed Bayesian ZINB model to [ ]{}simultaneously analyze the microbial abundance matrix of bacteria and their metabolic pathway abundance. We set a similar hyperparameter setting as discussed in Section \[simulation\] by first specifying $ a_{\mu} = a_{\beta} = 2$ and $b_{\mu} = b_{\beta} = 10$. Next, we set $a_{\omega}, ~b_{\omega}, ~a_p, ~b_p,~a_{\phi}, ~b_{\phi}$ to be the same as their default values discussed in Section \[simulation\]. We ran four independent Markov chains with different starting points. Each chain had 40,000 iterations with the first half discarded as burn-in. We checked the convergence visually and calculated the pairwise Pearson correlation for PPIs, which ranged from 0.988 to 0.994 for $\gamma$’s and from 0.982 to 0.989 for $\delta$’s. These concluded highly consistent results. Figure \[realPPI1\] shows the PPIs for all 528 taxa, where the dashed line represents the threshold corresponding to an expected FDR of 0.05. We identified 19 differentially expressed taxa, the majority of which are more abundant in the liver cirrhosis group. Figure \[CI1\] shows the posterior mean of $\mu_{2j}$ for all identified discriminating taxa, and Table S1 in the supplement contains all the detailed parameter estimations for those taxa. Interestingly, two clear taxonomic branches are distinguished by our model (as indicated by red dots, Figure \[cladogram1\]): the genera *Veillonella* and *Streptococcus*, both of which can originate from the oral cavity. Of note, oral commensal bacteria are able to colonize the distal intestinal tract in liver cirrhosis patients [@qin2014], probably due to bile acid changes. *Veillonella* spp. and *Streptococcus* spp. have been identified as more abundant in patients with primary biliary cholangitis [@tang2017gut], another hepatic disorder which shares pathophysiologic features with liver cirrhosis [@ridlon2013cirrhosis]. Figure \[heatmap1\] and \[heatmap12\] show the identified associations between microbiota and metabolic pathways. For example, L-alanine biosynthesis (PWY0-1061) is positively correlated with *Veillonella*. Alanine is a gluconeogenesis precursors in liver metabolism, and increased alanine is thought to induce pyruvate kinase in *Veillonella*. Thus, this connection between alanine synthesis and *Veillonella* is intriguing and potentially novel, and biologic validation experiments might offer further clarification.
Metastatic melanoma dataset {#Metastatic melanoma}
---------------------------
The proposed Bayesian ZINB model can perform integrative analysis of microbiome taxonomic data and other omics datasets. In this section, we applied this model to [ ]{}simultaneously analyze microbiome and metabolomics data from a study of advanced stage melanoma patients receiving immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy (ICT) [@frankel2017]. The data were collected using MSS and unbiased shotgun metabolomics. Here, we aim at identifying unique microbiome taxonomic and metabolomic signatures in those patients who responded favorably to ICT.
A subset of patients in this study ($n = 24$) were treated with ipilimumab and nivolumab(IN), a combination therapy that has been shown to be more efficacious than therapy with anti-PD1 or anti-CTLA4 therapy alone. 16 patients responded to treatment and 8 patients had progression. We performed quality control steps on MSS reads and profiled them using MetaPhlAn [@segata2012metagenomic] as described in [@frankel2017]. We filtered out taxa with at most one observation in either patient group, which left $p = 248$ taxa from species to kingdom level. For the same fecal samples, we performed metabolomics profiling and quantified 1,901 patients’ metabolite compounds as the covariate matrix $\bm{X}$. We are interested in statistically assessing how the biochemical volumes between patient groups are associated with bacteria burden or quantities. We adopted the same strategy mentioned in section \[Liver cirrhosis\] to reduce the correlation between covariates, which resulted in a $24 \times 9$ matrix as the covariate matrix of $\bm{X}$. In the model fitting stage, for prior specification, we used $a_p = 0.2, ~b_p = 1.8$ to obtain a sparser covariate effect due to the small sample size, and it suggested about 10% of taxa-covariate associations were significant. We kept the same default setting for the rest of the hyperparameters. Next, we ran four independent chains with different starting points, and discarded the first half of 40,000 iterations for each chain. Although the small sample size ($n = 24$) posed challenges for parameter estimation, the results showed high pairwise Pearson correlations of PPIs for $\gamma$ (ranging from 0.989 to 0.992) and $\delta$ (ranging from 0.927 to 0.953). Figure \[realPPI2\] shows the PPIs for all taxa, and Figure 4d illustrates the posterior means of the selected taxa. Table S2 in the supplement includes detailed parameter estimations of the taxa in Figure 4d.
Our model jointly identified differentially abundant taxa and revealed the microbiome-metabolite associations. First, among all seven taxa identified, it is of specific interest to investigate the responder-enriched taxon *Bifidobacterium* (genus level), *Bifidobacteriaceae* (family level). *Bifidobacterium*, nesting within *Bifidobacteriaceae*, is a genus of gram-positive, nonmotile, often branched anaerobic bacteria [@schell2002genome]. *Bifidobacteria* are one of the major genera of bacteria that make up the gastrointestinal tract microbiota in mammals. This result about *Bifidobacterium* is supported by recent melanoma studies. [@sivan2015commensal] compared melanoma growth in mice harboring specific microbiota, and used sequencing of the 16S ribosomal RNA to identify *Bifidobacterium* as associated with the antitumor effects. They also found that oral administration of *Bifidobacterium* augmented ICT efficacy. Moreover, [@matson2018commensal] detected significant association between several species from *Bifidobacterium* with patients’ outcomes in an immunotherapy treatment study for metastatic melanoma. Both studies showed consistent direction of effect, as did our model. The responder-enriched taxon *Bifidobacterium* were estimated to negatively correlate with 2-oxoarginine and 2-hydroxypalmitate in Figure \[fig:realdata\]d. The suppression of these fatty-acid metabolites may induce better cancer treatment as they were shown to have the oncogenic signaling role in cancer cells [@louie2013cancer].
Conclusion
==========
In this paper, we presented a Bayesian ZINB model for analysis of high-throughput sequencing microbiome data. Our method is novel in simultaneously incorporating the effect from measurable genetic covariates and identifying differentially abundant taxa for multiple patient groups in one statistical framework. This allows for integrative analysis of microbiome data and other omics data. Our method is flexible, as it allows for identification and estimation of the association between covariates and each taxon’s abundance. These results could potentially guide clinical decisions for precision shaping of the microbiome, although results would need to be validated in preclinical models first. In addition, our method is computationally efficient in posterior inferences. We implemented the MCMC algorithm to analyze the data from two MSS studies with results readily available in minutes.
In real data analysis, the identified differentially abundant taxa by our model are often cluttered in the same phylogenetic branch. These results are achieved without imposing the phylogenetic structures in the model. This highlights that the results from our model are biologically interpretable and thus capable of guiding further biological mechanism studies. Our results on the metastatic melanoma study uncover novel relationships between taxa and metabolites which merit further experimental investigation.
The framework of our model allows for several extensions. For example, the current method supports two phenotype groups. If there are multiple groups (e.g. the intermediate phenotypes), the current model can incorporate group-specific parameters while holding the other parameters unchanged (e.g. the [ ]{}normalized microbiome abundance can be inferred in the same way). Then the same posterior inferences can be applied. [ ]{}The proposed model based on a regression framework considers the microbiome normalized abundance as the response and integrates the omics data, e.g. metabolite compounds, as predictors. Similarly, [@lloyd2019multi] used the microbial abundance as the response and a type of genomics data (i.e. single nucleotide polymorphism, SNP) as predictors to identify several inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)-associated host-microbial interactions. Both methods focus on the omics effect on microbial abundance. However, the interaction between the microbiome and the host is bidirectional. Therefore, it is worthwhile to consider using the microbial features as predictors to investigate their modulations on any biological process with quantitative omics measurements. For instance, [@richards2019gut] explored how microbial abundances induced changes in chromatin accessibility and transcription factor binding of host genetics. Another interesting extension would be to analyze correlated covariates such as longitudinal clinical measurements [@zhang2017negative].
Software
========
[ ]{}An `R` package `IntegrativeBayes` is available on GitHub:
<https://github.com/shuangj00/IntegrativeBayes>.All the simulated datasets and two real datasets presented in Section \[realdata\] are available on figshare:
<https://figshare.com/projects/IntegrativeBayesZINB/57980>.
Supplementary Material {#sec6}
======================
Supplementary material is available online at <http://biostatistics.oxfordjournals.org>.
Acknowledgments {#acknowledgments .unnumbered}
===============
The authors thank Jiwoong Kim for processing the microbiome data and initiating helpful discussions. We thank Jessie Norris for her comments on the manuscript. [ ]{}We thank the authors of [@li2018conditional] for sharing the `R` codes to evaluate the MZILN model. We thank the editor and two reviewers for their comments that led to improvements in the manuscript. [*Conflict of Interest*]{}: Dr. Andrew Koh is a consultant for Merck and Saol Therapeutics.
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**Supplementary Material**
S1. Details of MCMC Algorithms {#s1.-details-of-mcmc-algorithms .unnumbered}
==============================
First, we write the likelihood function as follows: $$\begin{aligned}
&\prod_{k=1}^K \prod_{i:z_i = k} \prod_{j: \gamma_j = 1, r_{ij}= 0} \frac{\Gamma(y_{ij}+\phi_j)}{y_{ij!}\Gamma(\phi_j)}\left ( \frac{\phi_j}{s_i e^{\mu_{0j}+\mu_{kj}+\bm{x}_i\boldsymbol{\beta}_j^T}+\phi_j} \right )^{\phi_j}\left ( \frac{s_i e^{\mu_{0j}+\mu_{kj}+\bm{x}_i\boldsymbol{\beta}_j^T}}{s_i e^{\mu_{0j}+\mu_{kj}+\bm{x}_i\boldsymbol{\beta}_j^T}+\phi_j} \right )^{y_{ij}} \times \\
&\prod_{i} \prod_{j: \gamma_j = 0, r_{ij}= 0} \frac{\Gamma(y_{ij}+\phi_j)}{y_{ij!}\Gamma(\phi_j)}\left ( \frac{\phi_j}{s_ie^{\mu_{0j}+\bm{x}_i\boldsymbol{\beta}_j^T}+\phi_j} \right )^{\phi_j}\left ( \frac{s_ie^{\mu_{0j}+\bm{x}_i\boldsymbol{\beta}_j^T}}{s_ie^{\mu_{0j}+\bm{x}_i\boldsymbol{\beta}_j^T}+\phi_j} \right )^{y_{ij}} .\end{aligned}$$ Then, we update the parameters in each iteration following the steps below:
1. **Update of zero-inflation latent indicator** $r_{ij}$: Notice that we only need to update the $r_{ij}$’s that correspond to $y_{ij} = 0$. We write the posterior as: $$\begin{aligned}
&p(r_{ij}|y_{ij}=0,\phi_j,z_i = k,s_i,\mu_{0j},\mu_{kj},\gamma_j) \\
\propto & \int L(r_{ij}|y_{ij}=0,\phi_j,z_i = k,\mu_{0j},\mu_{kj},\gamma_j) \times p(r_{ij}|\pi ) \times p(\pi) d\pi
\end{aligned}$$ Then it follows that $$\begin{aligned}
p(r_{ij}|\cdot) \propto \left\{\begin{matrix}
\left ( \frac{\phi_j}{s_i e^{\mu_{0j}+\mu_{kj}+\bm{x}_i\boldsymbol{\beta}_j^T}+\phi_j} \right )^{\phi_j(1-r_{ij})} \times \frac{Be(a_{\pi}+r_{ij},b_{\pi}-r_{ij}+1)}{Be(a_{\pi}, b_{\pi})} & if~\gamma_j = 1\\\
\left ( \frac{\phi_j}{s_i e^{\mu_{0j}+\bm{x}_i\boldsymbol{\beta}_j^T}+\phi_j} \right )^{\phi_j(1-r_{ij})} \times \frac{Be(a_{\pi}+r_{ij},b_{\pi}-r_{ij}+1)}{Be(a_{\pi}, b_{\pi})}& if~\gamma_j = 0
\end{matrix}\right.
\end{aligned}$$
2. **Update of** $\boldsymbol{\mu}_0$: We update each $\mu_{0j},~j=1,2,...p$ sequentially using an independent Metropolis-Hasting algorithm. We first propose a new $\mu_{0j}^*$ from $N(\mu_{0j},\tau_0^2)$ and then accept the proposed value with probability min($1,~m_{MH})$, where $$\begin{aligned}
m_{MH} = \frac{\prod_{i=1}^nf(y_{ij}|\mu_{0j}^*,\mu_{kj},\phi_j,s_i,\gamma_j,\bm{R},\bm{X},\bm{B}) \times p(\mu_{0j}^*) \times J(\mu_{0j};\mu_{0j}^*)}{\prod_{i=1}^nf(y_{ij}|\mu_{0j},\mu_{kj},\phi_j,s_i,\gamma_j,\bm{R},\bm{X},\bm{B}) \times p(\mu_{0j}) \times J(\mu_{0j}^*;\mu_{0j})}
\end{aligned}$$
3. **Joint Update of $\mu_{k\cdot}~\text{and}~\boldsymbol{\gamma}$**: A between-model step is implemented first to jointly update $\mu_{k\cdot}$ and $\boldsymbol{\gamma}$. We use an *add-delete* algorithm, where we select a $j \in \{1, \ldots, p\}$ at random and change the value of $\gamma_j$. For the *add* case, i.e. $ \gamma_j = 0 \rightarrow \gamma_j=1$, we propose $\mu^*_{kj}$ for each $k = 2,\ldots ,n$ from $N(0,\tau^2_{\mu j})$. For the *delete* case, i.e. $ \gamma_j = 1 \rightarrow \gamma_j=0$, we set $\mu^*_{kj}=0$ for all $k$. We finally accept the proposed values with probability min($1,~m_{MH}$), where $$\begin{aligned}
m_{MH} = &\frac{\prod_{i=1}^nf(y_{ij}|\mu_{kj}^*,\mu_{0j},\phi_j,s_i,\gamma_j^*,\bm{R},\bm{X},\bm{B}) \times p(\mu_{k j}^*|\gamma_j^*) \times p(\boldsymbol{\gamma}^*) }{\prod_{i=1}^nf(y_{ij}|\mu_{kj},\mu_{0j},\phi_j,s_i,\gamma_j,\bm{R},\bm{X},\bm{B}) \times p(\mu_{k j}|\gamma_j) \times p(\boldsymbol{\gamma})} \\
&\times \frac{J(\mu_{k j};\mu_{k j}^*|\gamma_j;\gamma_j^*) \times J(\boldsymbol{\gamma};\boldsymbol{\gamma}^*)}{ J(\mu_{k j}^*;\mu_{k j}|\gamma_j^*;\gamma_j) \times J(\boldsymbol{\gamma}^*;\boldsymbol{\gamma})}
\end{aligned}$$
**Further update of $\mu_{kj}$ when $\gamma_j ^*= 1$**: A within-model step is followed to further update each $\mu_{kj},~k=2,\ldots, K$ that corresponds to $\gamma_j^*=1$ in the current iteration. We first propose a new $\mu_{kj}^*$ from $N(\mu_{kj},(\tau_{\mu j}/2)^2)$ and then accept the proposed value with probability min($1,m_{MH}$), where $$\begin{aligned}
m_{MH} = \frac{\prod_{i=1}^nf(y_{ij}|\mu_{kj}^*,\mu_{0j},\phi_j, s_i,\gamma_j,\bm{R},\bm{X},\bm{B}) \times p(\mu_{kj}^*) \times J(\mu_{kj};\mu_{kj}^*)}{\prod_{i=1}^nf(y_{ij}|\mu_{kj},\mu_{0j},\phi_j, s_i,\gamma_j,\bm{R},\bm{X},\bm{B}) \times p(\mu_{kj}) \times J(\mu_{kj}^*;\mu_{kj})}
\end{aligned}$$
4. **Joint update of $\beta_{\cdot j}$ and $\delta_{\cdot j}$**: Very similar to the above, we perform a between-model step first using an *add-delete* algorithm. For each $j =1,\ldots, p$, we first select an $r \in \{1, \ldots, R\}$ at random and change the value of $\delta_{rj}$. For the *add* case, i.e. $ \delta_{rj} = 0 \rightarrow \delta_{rj} = 1$, we propose $\beta^*_{rj}$ from $N(0,\tau^2_{\beta j})$. For the *delete* case, i.e. $ \delta_{rj} = 1 \rightarrow \delta_{rj} = 0$, we set $\beta^*_{rj}=0$. Then finally we accept the proposed values with probability min($1,m_{MH}$), where $$\begin{aligned}
m_{MH} = &\frac{\prod_{i=1}^nf(y_{ij}|\beta_{rj}^*,\delta_{rj}^*, \mu_{0j},\mu_{\cdot j},s_i,\gamma_j,\bm{R},\bm{X}) \times p(\beta_{\cdot j}^*|\delta_{\cdot j}^*) \times p(\delta_{\cdot j}^*)}{\prod_{i=1}^nf(y_{ij}|\beta_{rj},\delta_{rj},\mu_{0j},\mu_{\cdot j},s_i,\gamma_j,\bm{R},\bm{X}) \times p(\beta_{\cdot j}|\delta_{\cdot j}) \times p(\delta_{\cdot j})} \\
&\times \frac{J(\beta_{\cdot j};\beta_{\cdot j}^*|\delta_{\cdot j};\delta_{\cdot j}^*) \times J(\delta_{\cdot j};\delta_{\cdot j}^*)}{ J(\beta_{\cdot j}^*;\beta_{\cdot j}|\delta_{\cdot j}^*;\delta_{\cdot j}) \times J(\delta_{\cdot j}^*;\delta_{\cdot j})}
\end{aligned}$$
**Further update of $\beta_{rj}$ when $\delta_{rj}^* = 1$**: A within-model step is followed to further update each $\beta_{rj},~r=1,\ldots,R$ that corresponds to $\delta_{rj}^*=1$. We first propose a new $\beta_{rj}^*$ from $N(\beta_{rj},(\sigma_{\beta j}/2)^2)$ and then accept the proposed value with probability min($1,m_{MH}$), where $$\begin{aligned}
m_{MH} =\frac{\prod_{i=1}^nf(y_{ij}|\beta_{rj}^*,\delta_{rj},\mu_{0j},\mu_{\cdot j},s_i,\phi_j,\gamma_j,\bm{R},\bm{X}) \times p(\beta_{rj}^*) \times J(\beta_{rj};\beta_{rj}^*)}{\prod_{i=1}^nf(y_{ij}|\beta_{rj},\delta_{rj},\mu_{0j},\mu_{\cdot j},s_i,\phi_j,\gamma_j,\bm{R},\bm{X}) \times p(\beta_{rj}) \times J(\beta_{rj}^*;\beta_{rj})}
\end{aligned}$$
5. **Update of $\phi_{\cdot}$**: We update each $\phi_j$ $j= 1, \ldots, p$ sequentially by using an independent Metropolis-Hasting algorithm. We first propose a new $\phi_j^*$ from the normal distribution $N(\phi_j, \tau_{\phi}^2)$ that truncated at 0, and accept the proposed value with probability min(1,$m_{MH}$), where $$\begin{aligned}
m_{MH} = \frac{\prod_{i=1}^nf(y_{ij}|\phi_j^*,\beta_{rj},\delta_{rj},\mu_{0j},\mu_{\cdot j},s_i,\gamma_j,\bm{R},\bm{X},\bm{B}) \times p(\phi_{j}^*) \times J(\phi_{j};\phi_{j}^*)}{\prod_{i=1}^nf(y_{ij}|\phi_{j},\beta_{rj},\delta_{rj},\mu_{0j},\mu_{\cdot j},s_i,\gamma_j,\bm{R},\bm{X}, \bm{B}) \times p(\phi_{j}) \times J(\phi_{j}^*;\phi_{j})}
\end{aligned}$$
S2. Results of Simulation Study {#simulation_supp .unnumbered}
===============================
We performed a comprehensive simulation study for model comparison. First, we introduce the following reference setting in the simulation study, that is, 1) $n = 60$ samples split into $K=2$ equally sized groups; 2) $p=300$ features, $20$ of which were truly discriminating ones; 3) $\pi_0 = 40\%$ false zeros (i.e. structural zeros) randomly assigned among all counts; 4) $R=7$ covariates, four of which true coefficients were nonzero; 5) noise level $\epsilon_e^2 = 1$. Furthermore, we varied the following settings to comprehensively examine the model performance, including the choices for sample size per group ($n / 2=10$ or $30$), the three log-scale noise levels ($\sigma_e=0.5$, $1.0$, or $1.5$) and the extra zero proportions ($\pi_0 =30\%$, $40\%$, or [ ]{}$70\%$). In all cases, we randomly set four out of seven nonzero $\beta_{rj}$ for each taxon $j$.
S2.1 Evaluation for Sample Size {#s2.1-evaluation-for-sample-size .unnumbered}
-------------------------------
Figure \[sample\_supp\] compares the model performance under two choices of group sizes ($n / 2=10$ or $30$) with fixed log-scale noise level at $1.0$ and $40\%$ of extra zeros as in the reference setting. Different methods are compared using the receiving operating characteristic (ROC) curve and area under the curve (AUC). The left part in Figure \[sample\_supp\] shows the results of identifying the differentially abundant taxa ($\bm{\gamma})$ and the right part is the results of detecting significant covariate-taxa associations ($\bm{\Delta}$). Clearly, decreasing the sample size hampers the performance of all the methods, but the proposed ZINB model maintains the highest AUC in both cases, and achieves the highest true positive rate under a fixed small false positive rate.
S2.2 Evaluation for Log-scale Noise Level {#s2.2-evaluation-for-log-scale-noise-level .unnumbered}
-----------------------------------------
Figure \[noise\_supp\] compares the model performance under three choices of log-scale noise level ($\sigma_e=0.5$, $1.0$, or $1.5$) with fixed group size of $n/2 =30$ and $40\%$ extra zeros as in the reference setting. The ZINB model maintains the highest AUC across all settings of identifying the differentially abundant taxa (AUC $> 0.9$), and detecting significant covariate-taxa associations (AUC $>0.8$). Notice that the true log-scale signal level is set to be $2$, and the ZINB model still shows an obvious advantage over the alternative methods under a large log-scale noise level of $1.5$.
S2.3 Evaluation for Extra Zero Proportion {#s2.3-evaluation-for-extra-zero-proportion .unnumbered}
-----------------------------------------
[ ]{}Figure S5 compares the model performance under three scenarios of extra zero proportions ($\pi_0=30\%$, $40\%$, and $70\%$) with a group size of $n/2 = 30$ and a noise level of $\epsilon_e^2=1$ as in the reference setting. Although a higher proportion of zeros like $70\%$ dose downgrade the performance of all methods, the proposed ZINB model is the best under any circumstance. Particularly, our methods always exhibits a considerably advantage over the others in terms of the identification of feature-covariate association ($\bm{\Delta}$) as shown in the right column of Figure S5.
S3. Sensitivity Analysis {#sensitivity_all .unnumbered}
========================
[ ]{}
Choice of Size Factor Estimation {#size_factor_supp}
--------------------------------
To assess model robustness with respect to the choice of size factor estimation methods, we compared the model performance under five typical normalization methods for the analysis of high-dimensional count data. They are: 1) geometric mean of pairwise ratios (GMPR) proposed by [@chen2018gmpr]; 2) cumulative sum scaling (CSS) proposed by [@Paulson2013]; 3) The 0.75-th quantile (Q75) proposed by [@Bullard2010]; 4) trimmed mean of M values (TMM) proposed by [@Robinson2010]; 5) relative log expression (RLE) proposed by [@Anders2010]. The first two, designed for normalizing the microbiome count data, have been described in Section 2.3 in the main text, while Q75, TMM and RLE are commonly used in RNA-seq data studies. In particular, Q75 calculates the size factor based on the upper-quantile (75%) of the count distribution of a sample. TMM first sets a reference sample, and calculates the trimmed mean of the log ratios between all other samples with the selected reference to estimate size factors. RLE, on the other hand, computes a reference value of each feature (taxon) as the geometric mean across all samples, and then obtains ratios by dividing all features by the reference. The size factor for a sample by RLE is set to be the median of the ratios. Due to the high sparsity observed in the microbiome data, it is needed to add a pseudo-count such as 1 to the count matrix when using RLE to estimate size factors.
To test if the performance of our model is robust to the choice of different normalization techniques, we used the simulate datasets generated by the reference setting described in Section \[simulation\]. The resulting AUCs for the discriminating feature indicator $\bm{\gamma}$ and the feature-covariate association indicator $\bm{\Delta}$ over $100$ data replicates are summarized in Figure S6. First, the result suggests that the proposed ZINB model is robust with respect to plug-in size factor estimations. Next, the ZINB-CSS and ZINB-GMPR show better performances due to the smaller variation and slightly higher average AUCs, since both are based on the normalization methods that better account for the characteristics of the microbiome data. Notice that RLE is less stable compared to the other methods for such sparse count data, which is also mentioned in [@chen2018gmpr].
S3.2 Choice of Inverse-gamma Hyperparameters {#sensitivity .unnumbered}
--------------------------------------------
We assess impacts of setting priors via sensitivity analysis. In our model, the choice of $a$ and $b$ in the IG$(a, b)$ prior for $\sigma_{\mu j}^2$ has an impact on the posterior probabilities of inclusion of $\gamma$. To investigate model performance with respect to the choice of these hyperparameters, we simulated 30 datasets under the reference setting described in Section \[simulation\], and benchmarked our model with varying values of $a$ from $0.5$ to $6$ and $b$ from $0.5$ to $25$. The choices of $a$ and $b$ are illustrated in Figure \[sensi\].
The results given by different values of ($a,b$) were compared based on the Matthews correlation coefficient (MCC) [@matthews1985homeostasis] across 30 replicated datasets. In each replicate, we controlled a $5\%$ Bayesian false discovery rate and selected discriminating features. We then calculated the number of true positive (TP), true negative (TN), false positive (FP) and false negative (FN) and MCC. Here MCC is defined as $$\begin{aligned}
\text{MCC}=\frac{\text{TP}\times\text{TN}-\text{FP}\times\text{FN}}{\sqrt{(\text{TP}+\text{FP})(\text{TP}+\text{FN})(\text{TN}+\text{FP})(\text{TN}+\text{FN})}}~.\end{aligned}$$ MCC ranges from $-1$ to $1$, and larger values represents favorable prediction results. It is also demonstrated in the above formula that the MCC-based evaluation is suitable for classes with very different sizes, since it strikes a balance between TP and FP counts. In our scenario, the size of truly discriminating features are relatively small compared to the total number. Therefore, we adopt MCC as an appropriate performance metric to handle the imbalanced setting. As can be seen in Figure \[sensi\], given a small value of $b$ ($b\leq 2$), the MCC is undesirable with any value of $a$ displayed here. As shown by [@gelman2006prior], the IG($a,b$) prior with small $a$ and $b$ would distort the posterior inferences. On the other hand, if we increase $a$ to have $a> 2$ while fixing $b$ to be small, the corresponding prior distribution is strongly informative since IG($a,b$) has the mean of $b / (a - 2)$ and the variance of $b^2/(a- 2)^2(a - 1)$. Therefore, we choose $a = 2$ and $b = 10$ to be the default setting, since this ensures a flat prior and yields a beneficial variable selection result as shown in Figure \[sensi\].
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ArXiv
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Evidence for space-time clustering of lung cancer deaths.
One parish in Louisiana has the highest reported incidence of lung cancer in the United States. Statistically significant space-time clustering (P < 1.0) was present among lung cancer deaths (1960-1975) in residents of the urban portion of this parish. The spatial distribution of cancer deaths in the urban portion of the parish was compared to age, year of death, race, and sex matched control deaths to determine the risk of lung cancer associated with residential proximity to industry. For industries with independently increased risks, the combination of industries produced risks of 1.9 to 3.2 (P < .05) for residing within 1.2 km of one or more industries to three or more industries, respectively. The results suggest residential exposure to industrial effluents is a factor contributing to the rate of lung cancer.
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PubMed Abstracts
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Prince Alexander of Kartli (1726–1791)
Alexander, son of Bakar () or Aleksandr Bakarovich Gruzinsky () (1726–1791) was a Georgian royal prince. Born in Russia into the Mukhrani branch of the Georgian royal dynasty, Alexander is known for his unsuccessful attempt to reclaim the crown of Georgia from his dynastic relatives ruling Eastern Georgia. At the request of Heraclius II, Alexander was deported back to Russia where he was held in confinement by the Russian authorities until his death. In Russia, Alexander bore the surname of Gruzinsky, meaning "Georgian".
Early life and career
Alexander was the son of Bakar, Crown Prince who had followed his father Vakhtang VI, the king of Kartli, into exile to Russia in 1724. Alexander was born and raised in Russia. After incomplete studies at the Moscow University, he enrolled into the Page Corps and then joined the Imperial Russian army, attaining the rank of a Captain-Poruchik.
Claimant to the Georgian throne
After Bakar's death, Alexander renewed his family's claims to the lost throne of Kartli, now held by their cousins from the neighbouring Kakheti. Alexander's unsanctioned attempts to make his way to Georgia, combined with his support of the Tsar Peter III of Russia, led to his fall from favour with the new Russian empress Catherine II of Russia. In 1766, the Russian government freed Alexander of his allegiance to Russia, depriving him of his military rank, and arranged his travel to the Caucasus. This came a year after Alexander's half-uncle, Prince Paata, was executed for plotting a coup against the rule of the Kakhetian Bagrationi.
Alexander first travelled to Shiraz to garner the support of Iran's ruler Karim Khan for his cause. Disappointed by Karim's reluctance to assist him, he found shelter at the court of Solomon I, the king of Imereti in western Georgia in 1779. As Solomon's relations with his eastern neighbour, King Heraclius II of Kartli and Kakheti, were not always easy, Alexander was welcomed in Imereti. From there, he entered Kartli and attempted a coup in Tbilisi while Heraclius was absent on a campaign in Erivan in 1779. The revolt was promptly suppressed and Alexander, accompanied by Prince Alexander Amilakhvari, fled to the mountains of Dagestan.
Anxious to eliminate the threat to his rule, Heraclius requested that the Russian government arrest Alexander. It was only after Georgia agreed to becoming a Russian protectorate in 1783 that Fatali Khan of Quba and Derbent was persuaded by the Russian government to surrender the pretender to the Georgian throne. The prince was deported to Smolensk and held there in confinement until his death in 1791. Thus, Heraclius II's last rival for the throne was removed from the scene.
Family
Alexander married Princess Daria Aleksandrovna née Menshikova (1747–1817), granddaughter of the once powerful Aleksandr Danilovich Menshikov. They had three sons and two daughters:
Prince Ivane (Ivan Aleksandrovich Gruzinsky), of whom almost nothing is known.
Prince Giorgi (Georgy Aleksandrovich Gruzinsky; 1762–1852). He had daughter Ana Bagration-Gruzinsky Tolstoy.
Prince Aleksandre (Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Gruzinsky; c. 1763–1823), Colonel of the Russian army. He died unmarried.
Princess Ana (Anna Aleksandrovna Gruzinskaya; c. 1763–1842). She was married first to Chevalier Alexander De Litzine (1760–1789), without issue, and then to General Prince Boris Andreyevich Galitzine (1766–1822), with eight children.
Princess Darejan (Daria Aleksandrovna Gruzinskaya; d. 1796).
References
Category:1726 births
Category:1791 deaths
Category:Politicians from Georgia (country)
Category:House of Mukhrani
Category:Imperial Russian military personnel
Category:18th-century Russian military personnel
Category:Pretenders to the Georgian throne
Category:18th-century people from Georgia (country)
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Wikipedia (en)
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When you turn 80, the NHS offers a free health check-up, including a memory test. Having reached the qualifying age earlier this year, Sheila Hancock went along for hers. "At the beginning," she recalls, "they gave me some things to look at, and then came back later to see how much I could remember. And they kept saying, 'Don't worry. You're not expected to remember all of it.' But actually, as it turned out, I could."
Hancock suggested to the impressed medics that the discipline of learning lines may actually protect actors from memory loss. "They were interested in that – and there's a possibility now that I may take part in a clinical trial."
Hancock features in one of two big openings in London's West End this week which reinforce the notion that, both on screen and on stage, performers have traditionally worked for as long as their health lasts and the opportunities still exist. She has a lead role in Clive Exton's foul-mouthed farce Barking in Essex, while James Earl Jones and Vanessa Redgrave play the reluctant lovers Benedick and Beatrice in Much Ado About Nothing. At 76 and 82, Redgrave and Jones are almost twice the age at which actors have traditionally played the squabbling couple. In his previous theatrical pairing, Jones was the junior partner, co-starring in an Australian production of Driving Miss Daisy opposite the 87-year-old Angela Lansbury.
However, such positive images of acting longevity have been countered by two leading men apparently contemplating retirement. Earlier this month, rumours emerged from Hollywood suggesting that Jack Nicholson, now 76, may have made his final film, after reportedly struggling to learn lines. Although the triple Oscar-winner has since denied these claims, the increasing difficulty of memorising a part was cited by Michael Gambon, who spoke of having suffering stress-related illness during recent theatre appearances. This perhaps explains why Gambon's most recent stage roles have been in three Samuel Beckett plays: Eh, Joe?, Krapp's Last Tape, and All That Fall. Respectively, his roles in these works have been: silent; largely tape-recorded; and with a script in his hand.
Although Hancock may have impressed the medics at her checkup, she admits that preparing for her first West End appearance as an octogenerian has taken its toll. "I certainly find that I get more tired," she says. Although she found Barking in Essex hard to commit to memory, she was relieved to discover, during rehearsals, that younger cast members – including Lee Evans, 49, and Keeley Hawes, 37 – had reported the same difficulty and so attributed it to the idiom in which the script is written, rather than encroaching senility.
Derek Jacobi in Last Tango in Halifax. Photograph: Vish/BBC
Coincidentally, the structure of Derek Jacobi's memoir, As Luck Would Have It, published last week, directly reflects the effects of passing time on an actor. The book's seven chapters are based around the "ages of man", as outlined by Jacques in As You Like It – a passage that has been driven into the heads of so many UK schoolchildren that it may well be one of the final things that elderly Britons forget. In the final section ("second childishness and mere oblivion", according to Shakespeare), Jacobi expresses the hope that there is "much more to come" after his 75th birthday. When I talked to him about the book, he stressed that he wants to "go on until I drop". After filming the new series of his BBC1 drama Last Tango in Halifax and his ITV sitcom Vicious, he hopes to return to theatre in 2015, when he will be 76, ideally in a new play.
In the earlier part of his career, Jacobi was celebrated for his powers of memory – once playing, in rapid and sometimes alternating succession, the parts of Benedick in Much Ado, Prospero in The Tempest, Peer Gynt and Cyrano de Bergerac. So, a month before his 75th birthday, does Jacobi retain this power? "It's pretty much there still," he says. "I feel desperate for Michael [Gambon] and lucky that I don't have that problem. The consolation is that he still has that great screen career."
Gambon will, in fact, return briefly to the stage when he plays, with Jacobi, a scene from Harold Pinter's No Man's Land during the National theatre's gala event in November to mark its 50th birthday, although the chosen extract gives Jacobi most of the lines. Another overlap between the actors is that Gambon reports having been hospitalised with stage-fright, a condition that Jacobi also discusses in his book: after more than 300 performances as Hamlet, he suddenly forgot the words of "To be or not to be" and stayed away from theatre for two years, suffering recurrent panic attacks.
Jacobi says that experience, in middle age, places a bigger question over his theatrical longevity than the approach of old age: "I still have the vestiges of that fear. Once you've had it, it's always there. If I ever did stop stage acting, it wouldn't be because I was worried about not having the physical or vocal capacity, but because of the stress. I do get very frightened."
Hancock also acknowledges that stage work makes demands that can't be tested in a medical: "I have started to feel – which is new for me – that, at 80 and with limited years left, I'm not sure I want to go on giving months to the discipline of theatre. I write, I do other things. So I think there is a question now over how long I'd want to go on doing theatre."
Even if their memories remain supple, older actors are statistically more at risk from illness and injury: earlier this year, 87-year-old Robert Hardy had to pull out of The Audience, Peter Morgan's play about the Queen's relationships with her PMs, after a fall; and certain horror stories circulate in the profession, such as the case of the elderly performer who lost control of his bladder on the stage of a major theatre.
James Earl Jones and Vanessa Redgrave in Much Ado About Nothing. Photograph: Tristram Kenton for the Guardian
Senior cast members must accept, says Hancock, increasingly stringent medicals after being offered a part, for the purposes of insurance. "Although," she says, "I would maintain that, in some ways, I am probably in better shape now than when I was young, and used to do all sorts of bad things, which I've stopped now."
Another drawback of ageing, it is often said, is that the range and number of parts reduces. "Personally, I've been lucky," says Hancock. "Although I know that it is a problem for some people. I think you just have to accept that the roles will progress from lover to mother to grandmother, and so on. Sometimes producers approach my agents and say, 'Would Sheila be offended if we offered her the part of an old person?' And I say, 'Look, I am fucking old! Don't be so silly!'"
Jacobi's part in Last Tango in Halifax – his biggest TV role since I, Claudius in the 1970s – arose from a deliberate effort by television producers to make shows for older viewers, a strategy that should result in more work for older performers. "I think the success of that series has shown," says Jacobi, "that there is a demand for stories that put older people at the centre. To some extent, it has started a trend."
If new parts are in short supply, then an alternative is to follow the Redgrave/Jones Much Ado About Nothing (and a 2010 Bristol Old Vic Romeo and Juliet, in which the star-crossed lovers were in their 80s) by simply ageing the characters in classic plays. Hancock says that she would love to be in a revival of Noel Coward's Private Lives, in which divorcees Elyot and Amanda split after their golden wedding anniversary, rather than after just three years together. So they would now be with much younger partners. "I think the sense that they had had a really long marriage – and had then taken a last chance of escape in old age – would bring something new to that play."
Jacobi, meanwhile, feels highly optimistic at the thought of this imminent and elderly Much Ado. "If it works for Vanessa," he says, "we'll all be doing it. Perhaps I'll finally get to give my Romeo!"
• Barking in Essex is at Wyndham's, London WC2 (0871 976 0072). Much Ado About Nothing is at the Old Vic, London SE1 (0844 871 7628). As Luck Would Have It by Derek Jacobi is published by HarperCollins.
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OpenWebText2
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Q:
Drawing text correctly using DrawString()
I'm having a problems with the Graphics.DrawString() method. My UserControl uses a monospaced font to draw on a panel, and clearly, DrawString() formats the text in such a way, that it isn't exactly monospaced anymore. I have been using a StringFormat in the hope of fixing this, but without success:
StringFormat sf = new StringFormat(StringFormatFlags.NoClip | StringFormatFlags.FitBlackBox | StringFormatFlags.LineLimit | StringFormatFlags.MeasureTrailingSpaces);
The code for drawing the text:
for (int i = 0; i < document.Text.Count; i++)
g.DrawString(document.Text[i], Font, Brushes.Black, new PointF(offset - 2, offset + Font.Height * i), sf);
For instance, when drawing "eeeeeeee", in Consolas 9, every now and then, two e's will be 1 pixel closer to another. Is there a way to display the text correctly, monospaced?
(My actual problem: I'm making my own textbox control from scratch, as an exercise and for fun. It's going quite well actually, but the panel displaying text should be able to position the caret according to the mouse click location. Finding the correct line is easy, because of the Font's Height property. Finding the current index in that line, however, is not. For non-monospaced fonts I can't imagine a way to determine the caret index, but for monospaced fonts it should be doable, since the width of a symbol is fixed. So, maybe there is a better way to determine this?)
Kind regards,
Jacco
A:
It is drawing monospaced. It's just that the width of each character isn't an integral number of pixels -- each character is probably something like 9.9 pixels wide. (To keep the characters legible, it snaps each one to the nearest pixel when it draws it, which is why you then sometimes see two closer together.)
One option is to use the AntiAlias flag, which will stop trying to snap each character to the nearest pixel -- it'll just grayscale-blur the edges so the spacing looks relatively consistent overall. However, antialising doesn't look good at small font sizes.
Or you could use TextRenderer instead of Graphics.DrawString. TextRenderer uses the old GDI rendering (instead of GDI+ like the Graphics class does), so it doesn't do sub-pixel rendering at all -- either every character is 9 pixels wide, or every character is 10 pixels wide. Sometimes, the older technology is better.
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StackExchange
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Q:
django channels redis multiple consumers receive message a different times ensured?
Does this need to be implemented or is it in Channels already?
If I have a channel group with multiple consumers subscribed to it and one consumer is sent the message is the message lost to the rest of the consumers or does the message persist until all consumers see the message?
Or does the message persist for time until time is expired regardless of consumers seeing it or not?
A:
The Group objects manages delivery to all consumers (where possible) and message expiry. But note that delivery is not ensured.
From the documentation:
Channels implements this abstraction as a core concept called Groups ...
[Groups] also automatically manage expiry of the group members - when the channel starts having messages expire on it due to non-consumption, we go in and remove it from all the groups it’s in as well ...
One thing channels do not do, however, is guarantee delivery. If you need certainty that tasks will complete, use a system designed for this with retries and persistence (e.g. Celery)
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StackExchange
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# Dedication
To the women who raised, supported, and inspired me: my mother, Cathie, and her mother, Anne; my wife, Jade; and our three daughters, London, Johanna, and Caterina.
and
In loving memory of my friend Dave Goldberg, who was a true angel among men. We miss you, Goldie.
# Disclaimer
STOP! DON'T READ THIS BOOK IF YOU CAN'T HANDLE LOSING YOUR MONEY INVESTING IN THE RISKIEST ASSET CLASS ON THE PLANET: STARTUPS.
# Contents
1. Cover
2. Frontispiece
3. Title Page
4. Dedication
5. Disclaimer
6. Contents
7. Chapter 1: Someone Else Was Supposed to Write This Book
8. Chapter 2: The Brooklyn Grinder
9. Chapter 3: What Is Angel Investing?
10. Chapter 4: Is Angel Investing for You?
11. Chapter 5: Do You Need to Be in Silicon Valley to Be a Great Angel Investor?
12. Chapter 6: What's So Special About Silicon Valley?
13. Chapter 7: Startup Funding Rounds Explained
14. Chapter 8: How to Be an Angel Investor with Little or No Money
15. Chapter 9: The Pros and Cons of Advising
16. Chapter 10: Going Straight from College to Angel Investing
17. Chapter 11: How to Hack Angel Investing: Syndicates
18. Chapter 12: Month One: Your First Ten Syndicate Deals
19. Chapter 13: Month Two: Thirty Days of Angel and Founder Meetings
20. Chapter 14: My Best and Worst Pitch Meetings
21. Chapter 15: What to Do Before a Pitch Meeting
22. Chapter 16: What to Do During a Pitch Meeting
23. Chapter 17: How to Pick a Billion-Dollar Founder
24. Chapter 18: The Four Founder Questions
25. Chapter 19: Going Deeper
26. Chapter 20: Founder or Fraud?
27. Chapter 21: Evaluating the Deal
28. Chapter 22: Why Angels Should Write Deal Memos
29. Chapter 23: The Perfect Way to Decline a Deal
30. Chapter 24: Due Diligence Checklist
31. Chapter 25: Your First Yes
32. Chapter 26: How Founders Should Treat Their Angels
33. Chapter 27: There Is Nothing More Important Than Monthly Updates
34. Chapter 28: Your Disastrous Second Year as an Angel Investor
35. Chapter 29: Keep Your Head Up
36. Chapter 30: Exits: Great Companies Are Bought, Not Sold
37. Chapter 31: Finding Your Groove
38. Chapter 32: Where Does Your Angel Story End?
39. Acknowledgments
40. About the Author
41. Copyright
42. About the Publisher
# [Chapter 1
Someone Else Was Supposed to Write This Book](nav.xhtml#nch3)
This book has a singular goal: to teach you how massive wealth is created in the twenty-first century.
It's not a system or a secret, so I'm not going to build this up into something fancy like those bullshit self-help books you've already bought.
I'm just gonna tell you how a C-minus student from Brooklyn (before Brooklyn was cool) clawed his way into the tech industry, got lucky seven times (and counting), and made tens of millions of dollars.
Most folks think I'm lucky, some say I'm a complete fraud, and a handful think I'm a brilliant hype man, and I don't agree with any of them—I agree with all of them.
That's why this will be the greatest business book ever written. I shouldn't be the one writing it, yet here we are. I'm the outsider who made it in, letting you know how he pulled it off.
I am as shocked as anyone I made it here, and it's a hell of a story: the son of a nurse and bartender watches his family lose everything when the feds—wearing raid jackets just like in the movies—burst in with shotguns to take back his dad's bar. He crosses the bridge to Manhattan with something to prove and, ultimately, he heads to the West Coast to make his fortune.
## The American Dream
The American Dream still exists, it's just not as widely distributed.
Our parents and grandparents took factory and white-collar jobs and rode them for all they were worth in the last century. Now the robots—who never sleep and self-improve on an exponential curve—are taking these jobs. Meanwhile, we humans, with our nagging physiological and emotional needs, struggle to keep up.
Most of you are screwed.
But you're here, so you're clearly willing to learn and I can radically improve your odds if you do the work.
The world is becoming controlled by the few, powerful, and clever people who know how to create those robots, or how to design the software and the tablet on which you're reading this. But please don't stop reading, because I'm going to show you how anyone can get a seat at the table with the digerati, illuminati, and moneyrati and, perhaps, tap into this hundred-year boom.
Yeah, I've got my own formula like those other business books you've bought, but there is a major difference between my formula and theirs—mine is forward-looking.
All of the other books out there, and some are great, try to explain to you how people made money in real estate, by mastering the art of the deal or by getting the right people on the bus (and the wrong ones off), but they are largely historical documents now.
The world has changed more in the last ten years than it did in the last ten decades.
That's not just some clever one-liner to say in a conference keynote or at a dinner party. It's an undebatable fact.
The changes we've seen with the internet, with mobile phones, with robotics, with sensors, and in biology are mind-blowing not just to civilians, but also to the people working in these fields—and the pace is increasing.
I could give you a list of mind-blowing breakthroughs to prove my point about how fast things are moving, but I'd like this book to stand the test of time, and the truth is that giving you examples like a computer beating a human at chess, or an encyclopedia made with no paid writers, or computers flying airplanes and cars without steering wheels, or wars being won with robots, are so commonplace that science fiction is having a hard time remaining, well, fiction.
I know because the top-tier investors who invested in the last fifty big things call me to find the next big thing. I live on the edge of the future of business and technology.
As an angel investor, it's my job to write the check when no one else believes in you—and that's the most thrilling bet in the world.
Every week I meet a dozen dreamers with insane ideas who want me to give them my money, advice, and access to my Rolodex—but mostly the money.
Oftentimes I'm the "first money" in, the first investor willing to take a chance with a company like Uber or Thumbtack when they are only worth four or five million bucks and almost everyone else has said no.
This year I invested $750,000 in a company that makes a robotic cafe called Cafe X. It eliminates the two most expensive aspects of Starbucks's business: real estate and humans.
When the founders emailed me a video of the prototype in action at a college in Hong Kong, I wrote back to them, "Is this a joke?"
They said, "No, it is not a joke," so I invited them to come to my incubator where we spent three months refining the product and helping them craft their pitch. Then I introduced them to my rich, powerful, and, in many cases, compulsive-gambling, narcissistic friends—who funded the company for millions of dollars.
If we succeed with Cafe X, we will reduce the price of a latte to $2 (again), make it perfectly every time (a computer never forgets how much foam you asked for), and reduce your wait from more than five minutes to under thirty seconds (the machines know where your smartphone is and they make your coffee when you're ninety seconds away).
Instead of a Starbucks on every other corner in a city, there will be a Cafe X machine in the lobby of every building on the block.
Instead of being open fourteen hours a day, these robots will serve us twenty-four hours a day.
Cafe X and other startups will also eliminate millions of jobs in which humans get paid to stand behind a counter and repeat back your seven precious little instructions on how to prepare your morning libation, before pressing one button and masturbating a milk-frothing pitcher for two minutes.
## The Future of Jobs—and Making Money
If right now you think I'm a horrible, marauding, free-market monster, you're only half-right—I'm also a humanist who thinks there are better things for our children to do with their time.
The quicker we eliminate the low-paying, repetitive, and menial jobs, the quicker our species can get to work on bigger issues like sustainability, being multiplanetary, and perhaps retiring the last couple dozen dictators and despots who are murdering, raping, and otherwise oppressing the weakest among us.
Of course, I could be wrong.
When we eliminate all these jobs, the world might spin into a global version of the long-forgotten dry run Occupy Wall Street where a group of savvy but poorly organized hippies and millennials slammed their feet down and said, "No more! We're not leaving until things change!"
Until, of course, the economy rebounded and they got cool jobs with free food and their own private drivers from uberPOOL, then realized that, net-net, things are actually pretty fucking awesome and they don't need to storm Michael Bloomberg's town house or stink up the Goldman Sachs lobby anymore.
In my mind, candidly, we've got a 70 percent chance of figuring out this massive sea change without starting a full-on revolution in the streets, like we saw in Greece or Egypt, or any other place where unemployment among young adults breaks 20 percent.
But I don't invest in this future because I want to sit in an ivory tower laughing at people whose jobs are replaced. I invest in this future because it's inevitable and I think I can help accelerate the efforts of the founders and innovators who are missionaries, not mercenaries. Of course, I plan to make a great deal of money in these revolutions, but I also plan to look back proudly and know that I helped propel changes that made our planet better.
## Escaping the Matrix
If you're reading this, congratulations! You chose the red pill and you've taken your first step to understanding the bitter truth: the world is going to get flipped on its head two or three more times in your lifetime.
The jobpocalypse is coming, which is not just based on my coffee-making robots. It also includes the elimination of most white-collar jobs we were told were careers, like being a lawyer, doctor, teacher, accountant, pilot, journalist, or—wait for it—a software engineer.
Yes, while the greatest opportunity on the planet today is probably being a software engineer, I just invested in a company that hopes to eliminate software engineers by letting you type into a box "make me an app that does X, Y, and Z," before spitting out your own version of "Uber for . . . [insert service that sucks right now]."
If you haven't had a panic attack reading this introduction yet, let me tell you the next product I'm looking to back: an artificially intelligent robot that studies humans and builds other robots.
I haven't found it yet, but I probably will by the time you reach the end of this book. The snake is going to eat its tail.
When that happens, there is a good chance that it will be every human for themselves.
By the way, a lot of rich folks have already planned for this outcome by buying islands or huge ranches in remote places like Wyoming or New Zealand (I'm not kidding) that are fully off the grid—complete with solar, water desalination, fortifications, and weapons.
Yeah, there are billionaire preppers, not just hillbilly ones.
A perfect storm of black swans is coming and this book is going to prepare you not only to survive it—but to ride it out on top.
# [Chapter 2
The Brooklyn Grinder](nav.xhtml#nch4)
## Is Angel Investing Gambling?
Folks in the technology industry debate if angel investing is gambling or actual investing, and it depends largely on how you approach it. Every year I place forty bets hoping to win back more in aggregate than I've put down.
I've invested just under $10 million in the six years I've been angel investing, and the portfolio I've built is worth over $150 million—that's a return of fifteen times my investment.
That's mind-blowing for a kid from Brooklyn who watched his parents fight, at least 90 percent of the time, over money.
More mind-blowing, however, is that the majority of my investment dollars were invested in the past three years ($9 million of the $10 million, in fact).
If you drill down, I invested under $100,000 in the first year as an angel and hit my two big winners to date, Uber and Thumbtack, in my first five investments.
The return multiple from the first two years of my investing is actually fifteen hundred times.
These startups take ten years to play out, so no one knows exactly where I will sit in the "hall of fame" of angel investing—if one is ever built—but it is safe to say I'll be in the top ten angel investors of all time.
I buy lottery tickets for a living, but unlike the normal schmucks on the street, I get to buy tickets that are in the top 1 percent of the winning pool.
If you have to match seven numbers to win with your lottery tickets, I have to match just two.
I've figured out, and will explain to you in detail, how I've gamed the system. I've rigged the roulette table so it falls on my number ten times more often than yours.
I'm starting every hand of poker with the ace of spades, so my chances of hitting pocket rockets are 1 in 17 while yours are 1 in 220.
If you can't tell already, I'm really excited with where I am in life. Sorry if I sound like an obnoxious narcissist who thinks he's figured it all out—but I actually have. For years people asked me to write books and I kept telling my agent "one more win."
## The Sequoia Scout Program's Secret Origin
Investing in the cab company that changed the world was that "one more win." When the _Wall Street Journal_ did a front-page story on my role as the first "Scout" for Sequoia Capital, the most famous venture capital firm in the world, everything was revealed.
Yep, the brilliant venture capitalists (VCs) who backed Apple, Google, Cisco, Yahoo!, YouTube, Airbnb, WhatsApp, and countless others had started an angel investing program called "Scouts," and I was the first one selected.
Scouts was a simple concept: Sequoia Capital would put up the money and twenty carefully selected founders of technology companies would pick founders they know to back.
The returns would be split: 45 percent to the Scout who made the investment, 50 percent to Sequoia, and 5 percent in a bonus pool to the other Scouts in the program.
This was the deal of the century for us Scouts, because venture capital firms like Sequoia actually only get 20 to 30 percent of the returns when they invest other people's money.
My hunch is that they didn't care what the split was because we were a bunch of nonprofessional investors and the chances of us hitting a home run—let alone a grand slam—were minute. For them, Scouts were a way to increase their visibility into the early-stage market.
The kid from Brooklyn was anointed by the smartest cats in the business. My job was to find the next big thing. It was like George Steinbrenner calling me and saying, "How would you like to help the Yankees win another World Series?"
Holy. Fucking. Shit. YES!
## I Used to Dream About This Life
When I was a kid I always dreamed of having a dad who was a rich banker or billionaire, going to Harvard, and having a trust fund—as opposed to having a dad who almost went to jail.
I'd dream of what it was like to be on the inside and have your college tuition paid for, your apartment in Manhattan gifted to you, and getting $100,000 to invest in a business if you lobbied your parents for fifteen minutes over Thanksgiving—like many of my friends had.
I didn't have that privilege and it put a fire in my belly.
I would sit there on the B train heading home from Fordham at Lincoln Center at ten p.m. on my way home to a three-hundred-dollar-a-month attic apartment on Tenth Avenue, where the only place you could stand upright was about 20 percent of the space in the dead center of the hallway, and think to myself, "What would it be like to be rich?"
What would it be like to have $100,000 on the ATM receipt instead of $100?
What would it be like not to have to worry about money every day of your life? I was so broke that when I was in college I would go to Manhattan at night with two tokens and $2 in my pocket, knowing how to spend it perfectly to get maximum calories from the hot dog vendor by Central Park who charged only $0.50 for a knish instead of $0.75 like everyone else.
I would buy a bagel for $0.50 on the way in, two knishes for lunch, and a third knish on the way home—unless I spent it on a Coca-Cola like an idiot so I could stay awake in class.
When you're broke and see rich people in Manhattan all around you, it makes you curious: "How did these people become rich?"
## "Pass On What You Have Learned."—Yoda
So, I studied every system in order to find one that is the most efficient for capital creation, and I believe that it's angel investing in technology. I'm going to tell you everything in the coming chapters because if just one or two hundred of you become angels, it will make an impact on society—plus we can invest together (more on this in chapter 11)!
Heck, if just one person uses this book to back the next great founder who has a world-changing idea, we'll have made an impact together.
There's an outside chance that twenty-five thousand of you might become angel investors, and if that happens, it would change everything.
The world has trillions of dollars sitting in bonds, cash, stocks, and real estate, which is all really "dead money." It sits there and grows slowly and safely, taking no risk and not changing the world at all.
Wouldn't it be more interesting if we put that money to work on crazy experiments like the next Tesla, Google, Uber, Cafe X, or SpaceX?
I'm forty-five years old at the time I'm writing this and I plan on doing five more years of angel investing—I'm on a ten-year plan.
Another two hundred bets and I'm done—then it's your turn.
By the time I'm done with my ten-year plan, I will have invested in 350 startups and my goal is to return $250 million on $25 million deployed—I'm exactly halfway there.
## No Gamble, No Future
Now, gambling has a very negative connotation here in the West, but when I would spend all night playing poker in Los Angeles, with mostly old Asian men, I would frequently hear them say "No gamble, no future," before pushing their chips into the pot, standing up, and rubbing their necks and heads furiously (a tic I soon acquired unconsciously).
It took me a couple of times to understand what these old men were saying, but I quickly started saying it myself, whether I was at the tables or not.
No gamble, no future.
If you learn anything from this book, it's that you must take risks as an angel investor and in life if you want at least the chance of an outsized outcome.
This does not mean you should be reckless; in fact, it means the opposite. I've studied and studied how people have built wealth as angel investors and I've focused on having an unfair advantage over them.
I'm going to reveal every unfair advantage I have developed in the coming chapters so that you can deploy your money intelligently, or perhaps just _more_ intelligently than everyone else, which, if you've ever won at poker, you know is the key to success.
If you can't tell who the sucker at the poker table is, it's you, so find another table or figure out how to be better than each of the other players. This might take time, but everything worthwhile in this life takes time and effort.
## For the Real Outsiders
As much as I feel like I'm an outsider—a kid from Brooklyn who didn't go to Stanford and was born into the bottom of the middle class—the truth is I'm a lot closer to an insider than most folks in America, let alone anyone born in the developing world.
Let's face it, I was born a white male in New York City at exactly the right time. I owned a thousand-dollar computer with a four hundred baud modem at the age of thirteen, and I was able to pay my way through night school at a decent college based on the skills I learned using that computer. If I didn't have that computer, I would have ended up becoming a police officer (true story).
Someone living in poverty in small-town America—without that IBM PCjr—certainly wouldn't have had the head start I did. Those facts don't even address the larger, more complex cultural issues around gender and race in our society that I haven't had to face.
I wrote this book to give outsiders a playbook that could level the playing field just a little bit—even if I'm not smart enough to understand or help solve the deeper, more systemic problems myself.
# [Chapter 3
What Is Angel Investing?](nav.xhtml#nch5)
## Angel Investing 101
Angel investing is the act of putting money into the earliest investment rounds of a private business with the goal of getting back more money than you put in—much more than you can return in a safer, more established investment vehicle.
The businesses that angels invest in are typically less than three years old, have little or no "traction," and are trying to find something we call product/market fit. If these businesses didn't look completely crazy, then everyone would want to invest in them and there would be no need for angels. In fact, the term "angel" is used because we are the investors who come to a founder's rescue in their hour of need—when nobody else believes in them.
## Product/Market Fit and Exits
Product/market fit means that the product the founder has built, whether it's Uber's ride-sharing app or Instagram's photo filters, has found a group that is delighted by it. If a large number of folks find a product delightful, there is a solid—but not guaranteed—chance that the founder can then solve the next biggest challenge: scaling and monetization.
When a founder does figure out how to make money from their product, and they've scaled it to any reasonable level, one of two things happens: the company gets bought by a bigger company or the company goes public.
Those two things are called an "exit" in our world, because that's the time when you cash in your chips—or shares—and get back money (your return).
If a company isn't venture backed, it could just end up a profitable, sustainable business that sends its investors dividend checks. But angels and venture investors hate that. We want exits and returns.
However, most companies I invest in never get past the first milestone of finding product/market fit, let alone figure out how to scale their revenue—and that's okay!
## No Risk, No Reward
You're probably thinking right about now, "Why don't you just invest in companies that have product/market fit, have a revenue model, and have scaled to millions of customers?" Well, if a company has hit those milestones, they have probably already gone public!
When you have predictable revenue, you can attract unlimited capital. But when you're just starting out, you can only attract capital from crazy, risk-taking angel investors.
As you add customers and revenue, it becomes easier to value your company. There are several established methods for determining your valuation. But when you're just two people with a prototype, the value of your company is anyone's guess.
For example, Apple and Microsoft in the '80s, and Google and Facebook in the aughts, were all once private companies with very small teams, modest products, and a small number of customers. When they were tiny, they were risky investments and had small valuations.
Famously, Mike Markkula put $250,000 into Apple to become a one-third owner and employee number three. Andy Bechtolsheim, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, invested $100,000 in Google before it was incorporated, and Peter Thiel invested $500,000 in Facebook at a $5 million valuation.
They were the crazy, risk-taking investors who all made the right bet.
## "You Only Have to Be Right Once."—Mark Cuban
I'm famous for having invested $25,000 in Uber when it was worth around $5 million—it's now worth $70 billion in the private markets. When I invested, Uber was operating in one city and they only had a couple of Lincoln Town Cars signed up.
It wasn't clear if the business could scale or make money, but I knew the founder was exceptionally driven and that I personally loved the product. In my mind, at the very least, Uber was an exceptional product for about 10 percent of the population who already used car services, typically business people in major cities.
That was enough evidence for me to place a bet.
I invited them to an event I hosted, called Open Angel Forum, which was designed to bring together a dozen investors to hear from six startup founders. The night Travis Kalanick presented on a pier in San Francisco at my event, three investors decided to write checks: Cyan Banister, First Round Capital, and me.
A dozen other professional investors passed on Uber and to this day, when I see them, they are reminded of the greatest mistake of their investing careers. Some of my guests invested in the other five companies who pitched us all that night. I don't even remember those companies' names!
Uber will be, almost assuredly, the best investment the three of us ever make. We hit the home run of home runs. Without that one investment, I wouldn't be writing this book.
And that's why angel investing is something that I believe you should consider if you want to create wealth. It can change your life if you suspend fear, squint a little, and focus on not just what could go wrong with a business but what could go right.
While it's unlikely you'll hit a return of five thousand to ten thousand times your investment, like I did, it's very possible—maybe probable if you do all the work—that if you operate for a couple of years, here in Silicon Valley, making fifty or one hundred individual investments, you will return more money than you put in.
Even if you just make back the money you invested in a hundred startups, you will have been able to hang out with the most driven and creative people in the world, building an exceptional personal network, and learning a shit ton.
All while having this amazing lottery-ticket possibility of winning one hundred to ten thousand times your money.
While it's totally crazy to make each of these bets on an individual basis, it's even crazier to not make one hundred of them.
## Angel Investing vs. Boring Investing
Now the safest investment vehicles in the world, traditionally, have been things like bonds, treasuries, gold, ETFs (exchange-traded funds), and mutual funds. These devices are highly regulated, safe, and predictable when compared to angel investing.
It's widely accepted that the stock market in the United States has returned, on average, 7 percent a year. It will take you about ten years to double your money at that rate.
Government bonds are trading around their all-time lows at the time of the writing of this book, at 2.4 percent a year. It will take you about thirty years to double your money at that rate.
People are searching for returns everywhere, but returns are becoming harder and harder to find as pools of capital become larger and larger.
I wish I could show you a chart of angel investing, but it's a very opaque practice that can be wildly profitable and the people doing it like it to be opaque. If you found a secret diamond mine that could make you tens of millions of dollars, would you share its location? Probably not.
If you want to double your money every seven to ten years or so, buying some reasonable combination of low-fee index funds is considered the best bet. In fact, a startup I'm a shareholder in, called Wealthfront, allows you to do this with software for only 25 basis points (BPS)—a fraction of what wealth managers typically charge (1 basis point is equal to one hundredth of a percent, or 0.01 percent).
As a bonus, if you use robo-advisors, you don't have to go to lunch meetings with an annoying, superslick money manager two or three times a year—but I kid!
However, you will never, ever, be able to return one hundred or one thousand or ten thousand times your money in these devices.
Angel investing is high risk and high reward.
In fact, it is the highest-risk investing in the world, with much longer odds than playing table games in Vegas, where you have a roughly 5 percent disadvantage at games like blackjack and roulette.
That 5 percent disadvantage doesn't seem like a lot, until you sit at a table for four or five hours, watching your chip stack slowly dwindle away. The casinos know this and they want to give you, at the very least, some entertainment value while they drain your wallet. This is why I've never been able to get comped while in Vegas: I don't play at the tables long enough. Plus I play poker, which is a money loser for casinos.
If you walk up to the roulette table and bet on black or red, you've got slightly less than a fifty-fifty chance of doubling your money thanks to those pesky green numbers that are neither red nor black—they are the house's advantage against the coin flippers.
Why then, if we have very predictable ways to double your money, like index funds and roulette tables, would we ever put our money into unproven startups?
The answer is simple: if a startup in which you are an early enough investor becomes a unicorn—a company valued at $1 billion—you will return life-changing money.
## A Typical Angel Investor Scenario
Let's run the numbers. In the United States, being an "accredited investor" means you are, in the eyes of the Securities and Exchange Commission, smart enough to invest in very risky things like startups.
According to the SEC, an _accredited investor_ includes anyone who:
* earned income that exceeded $200,000 (or $300,000 together with a spouse) in each of the prior two years, and reasonably expects the same for the current year, _OR_
* has a net worth over $1 million, either alone or together with a spouse (excluding the value of the person's primary residence).
This next section will walk through how an accredited investor with a net worth of $2.5 million might get into angel investing. If your net worth is much lower than that, don't worry! Later chapters explain how you can leverage smaller amounts of capital to get in the game, and these lessons will still be just as important for your success.
In this scenario, if you had $2.5 million in cash in your bank account and you put it into a fund that returned on average 7 percent a year after taxes and fees, you would double your money every ten years.
If you decided to take 10 percent of your net worth—$250,000—and angel invest it in $5,000 increments, then you have the ability to make fifty investments.
If one of those fifty companies becomes worth $10 billion, that $5,000 you invested in their angel round when they were worth just $5 million could have a return of a thousand times your investment. That means you would return $5 million.
You would have bought one-tenth of 1 percent of the startup in the angel round and owned one-tenth of 1 percent by the end when it went public or was bought.
However, there is one rub: your shares can be "diluted" over time as the company sells more shares to other investors. The impact of dilution can be mitigated against if you take your "pro rata" in future rounds.
Pro rata means you continue to invest additional money in each subsequent round to maintain your original percentage ownership in a company. It's generally a good idea, but it can get very, very expensive if you hit a major unicorn.
If you didn't take your pro rata in this scenario, my guess is your shares would have been diluted by about 50 percent over time. This means you would own 5 BPS, one-twentieth of 1 percent of this amazing startup worth $10 billion—or $2.5 million.
In the limited and early research done on unicorns—again the $1 billion companies we're looking for—there seem to be a dozen or two unicorns created every year. There are a dozen or so decacorns that have been created in the past decade or so ($10 billion companies or more) including Uber, Xiaomi, Didi Chuxing, Airbnb, Palantir, Snapchat, WeWork, SpaceX, Pinterest, and Dropbox. It seems that every decade or so a $100 billion startup is born. These include: Apple, Cisco, Microsoft, Google, and Facebook.
Now, let's say you hit no unicorns and 70 percent of your investments return zero. I've hit three unicorns in my first fifty investments (two were in my first five investments), but let's say you really suck at this and you hit no unicorns.
You will have burned $5,000 in each of thirty-five of your investments (70 percent of the 50 investments = 35 deals). That's a whopping $175,000 of your invested $250,000 up in smoke. However, it's only 7 percent of your liquid net worth, which we said earlier was $2.5 million.
I think you can live with a 7 percent decline in net worth, can't you? That's not a huge disaster—you won't be out on the street, but you will have taken fifty swings for the fences!
If the last fifteen investments get some return, that 7 percent could be reduced. Here's what I would consider a likely scenario:
* Five investments return your capital, so you get $25,000 back.
* Seven investments return two times your capital, so you get back say $70,000.
* Now you've only lost $140,000, or 5.6 percent of your liquid net worth.
If the final three investments do well, in the way technology investments tend to do, you might see the following:
* One investment returns five times your outlay, for $25,000.
* One investment returns ten times your outlay, for $50,000.
* One investment returns twenty times your outlay, for $100,000.
* Now, without any outlandish prediction, you've returned $315,000—you're up $65,000!
So, if you have a net worth of $2.5 million and are thinking about becoming an angel investor, you're basically looking at a likely, worst-case scenario of losing 7 percent, but realistically being somewhere in the range of losing 1 to 3 percent to gaining 20 percent.
To me, that's massive downside protection. It's as if the casino told you that you could multiply your money by a thousand or ten thousand or you could lose 7 percent of your money—how is that possible?!
Of course, you could screw up and return zero—you are investing in highly volatile private companies. If you can't handle losing all your angel investments, I suggest putting this book down now.
## What's the Downside?
Well, you've got to find fifty exceptional companies to invest in, and I invest in only one out of every hundred I look at. That means you need to look at five thousand startups over five years to place your bets—that's twenty startups per week. That's easily twenty to thirty hours of your life every week.
If you want to be in this game, you have to _do the work_.
I will show you how to do the work.
In chapter 11, I'll tell you how to get deal flow, how to find founders to meet with. In chapter 17, I'll tell you what I look for in a founder. And in chapter 18, I'll teach you what you need to ask founders when you meet with them.
# [Chapter 4
Is Angel Investing for You?](nav.xhtml#nch6)
## Money, Time, Network, and Expertise
In order to be an effective angel investor, you need some combination of money, time, network, and expertise.
You don't have to have all of them, mind you. I've met trust fund kids with no experience, other than being in the lucky sperm club, who jump into angel investing in their twenties by writing a ton of checks at incubator demo days.
I know folks who were broke and busy but had huge networks and tons of knowledge, who weaseled their way onto cap tables by being advisors. In fact, before I had any money, I would trade my network and knowledge of how to promote startups for equity. Twice it actually resulted in checks: sixteen dimes ($16,000) from an advisor position I had with a social network startup that failed its way into an acquihire ( _acquired_ specifically to _hire_ its talent) and 150 dimes from a coupon and deals company that had me on its board.
That's $210,000 from just going to some board meetings, making introductions, and letting founders put my name on their website. Of course, you have to have some type of reputation and industry knowledge to make those kinds of deals work.
There is a long-standing, and totally accepted, tradition of "advisors" getting 10 or 50 BPS—basis points, or hundredths of a percentage point—over two or three years, for helping a startup.
Many times, these advisors call themselves angels even though they don't write checks. Real angel investors make fun of them, calling them "broke angels," but the truth is I've seen many advisors provide more help to founders than their investors did—which makes sense since they got their shares for free!
I'll tell you more about advisors later. Let's see if you have what it takes to be an angel.
## Dealing with Wild Cards
The best angels in the world have four qualities, giving them the ability to (1) write a check (money), (2) jam out with the founders over important issues (time), (3) provide meaningful customer and investor introductions (network), and (4) give actionable advice that saves the founders time and money—or keeps them from making mistakes (expertise).
There is another quality that you'll need to ensure you enjoy your time as an angel investor. You should enjoy having coffee with, and talking to, a range of different personalities—including the brilliant and calculating founders who will drive a few of your returns, as well as the delusional and difficult ones, who will be the majority of your returns.
If you're not able to get along with a wide range of people or find it uncomfortable to hear people drone on and on about how they're going to change the world and everyone else just doesn't get it, then this is absolutely not the job for you.
Agents who manage models and actors have to deal with the insecurities of people who constantly need to be the center of attention. Likewise, as an angel investor, you'll have to deal with people who are passionately stubborn and insist that the world change to fit their unique vision.
Some folks call these people visionaries, but that's only after they've made a ton of money and launched products that people can't live without. When you meet them, they'll be just starting out and people will refer to them as assholes, narcissists, and nutjobs.
When someone tells me they have a founder they want to introduce me to but they're worried because the person is a wild card, I set that meeting up for the next day. Angel investors are looking for wild cards, because the best founders are typically inflexible and unmanageable, pursuing their visions at the expense of other people's feelings.
# [Chapter 5
Do You Need to Be in Silicon Valley to Be a Great Angel Investor?](nav.xhtml#nch7)
Yes.
# [Chapter 6
What's So Special About Silicon Valley?](nav.xhtml#nch8)
## Silicon Valley Is the Center of the Universe
Over the past five decades, Silicon Valley has emerged as the driving force not only in technology but also in media, transportation, advertising, health, and lodging.
No region in the world drives more societal change right now than the tiny peninsula in Northern California that is made up of cities like Mountain View (a town synonymous with Google and LinkedIn), Palo Alto (Facebook), San Jose (eBay, PayPal, Cisco), Cupertino (Apple), and San Francisco (Twitter, Uber, Airbnb).
If you look at the top five companies in the world by market cap right now, they are all technology companies: Apple, Google, Microsoft, Facebook, and Amazon. Of those, three are located within fifteen miles of one another in Silicon Valley and the other two are in Seattle.
Of all the venture capital money being invested in the United States, 30 percent is invested in the Bay Area. That's nearly double the money that's invested in Boston, New York, and Los Angeles—combined.
The Bay Area is the center of the world—it's not even up for discussion.
And I'm not just talking about the center of the startup world, I'm talking about the entire world. If you look at how transportation is changing, it's being completely reinvented by Tesla's electric vehicles, Uber's ride-sharing network, and Google's self-driving cars.
If you look at lodging, the most disruptive force is Airbnb.
If you look at politics, Twitter and Facebook are driving the elections—not DC or newspapers.
If you look at advertising, Google and Facebook are making the lion's share of the most important advances with things like targeting and retargeting of consumers. That's a space where newspapers, which have lost 70 percent of their revenue since their peak in 2000, are no longer leading. In fact, more than 50 percent of mobile advertising money is spent with Google and Facebook—and mobile isn't the future anymore. It's everything.
In entertainment, the most important company isn't in Los Angeles. It's Netflix, located in Los Gatos, a town of thirty thousand people formerly known for its orchards. Netflix now has more than eighty million subscribers and is spending more than $1 billion on original content yearly. In just three years, Netflix has caught up to HBO's level of quality with shows like _House of Cards_ and _Orange Is the New Black_. That's even more amazing when you consider that HBO started its Emmy-dominating original programming efforts back in the '90s.
All this from a company that specialized in mailing DVDs to your house in big red envelopes just a decade ago.
## Location, Location, Location
Your goal as an angel investor is to put yourself in a position to hit one of these decacorns (unicorns worth over $10 billion) or decade-acorns (the startups that come along once a decade, on average, and become worth over $100 billion).
There are seven tech companies that have topped the $100 billion valuation mark: Apple, Google, Microsoft, Facebook, Amazon, Oracle, and Cisco.
There are dozens more startups that have hit $10 billion, including Airbnb, Uber, Netflix, LinkedIn, Twitter, and Pinterest. At least one of those will go on to be worth more than $100 billion.
So, if you want to succeed in the angel investing world, you're going to do it here, in the world capital of innovation. If the two or three most beautiful and talented models and actors from the drama club at your high school went to Los Angeles to become movies stars, the top three or four developers and entrepreneurs at your college are coming to the Bay Area.
If you're the founder of a company, you can literally pitch dozens of investors every week for half a year here in Silicon Valley and still have plenty of new investors to meet. If you're in Austin or Los Angeles or New York, you can pitch all of the top investors in a couple of days.
There are dozens of great angel investors in the second-tier cities, but there are more than a thousand in the Valley.
If the best founders are coming here, the best angels need to be here, too.
## Second Place Is First Loser
If you choose to be an investor in New York or Los Angeles or Seattle, that's fine, but you're going to have to factor in two important things if you want to get a return:
1. You're going to have massively reduced your expectation of having a big win (i.e., a unicorn, decacorn, or a $100 billion–plus company).
2. You're going to have to get on a plane and spend ten days here a month anyway.
If you're going to spend ten days here a month anyway, you might as well just move here and take long vacations in the other place you want to live. You can do this job part-time, but I don't think you can do it if you're based in another city.
In New York, we've seen a small number of billion-dollar exits, including Tumblr (sold for $1.1 billion in 2013 to Yahoo!), Etsy ($3 billion initial public offering [IPO] in 2015), and DoubleClick (sold to Google for $3 billion in 2008).
In Los Angeles, we've seen a small number of hits, including Maker Studios (sold for $500 million to $950 million to Disney in 2014), Oculus VR (acquired by Facebook for $2 billion in 2014), Lynda.com ($1.5 billion to LinkedIn in 2015), Dollar Shave Club (sold for $1 billion to Unilever in 2016), Shopzilla (sold for $525 million to Scripps in 2005), LowerMyBills (sold to Experian for $330 million in 2005), and Snapchat (valued privately at over $20 billion before its IPO).
In other words, you are never going to invest in a decacorn outside of the Bay Area.
## Life in the Fast Lane
Remember that poker analogy I used earlier? Here in the Bay Area, you're starting every hand with an ace of spades—which just makes things so much easier. I've seen plenty of dumb people in the Bay Area get rich quick, and I've seen a lot of smart folks in New York and Los Angeles struggle to break out in angel investing and venture capital.
If you hit a Dollar Shave Club, Lynda.com. or Tumblr in the first round, you're going to be really happy, because you'll get in at a $5 million valuation and exit at 100 or 150 times that—even after your shares are diluted in the later rounds.
Your $25,000 investment could become worth $3 million—which is amazing, but it's still not a thousand or five thousand times your capital. The goal here is to be able to hit a once-in-a-decade company, and those kinds of companies almost always come out of the Bay Area these days.
You can largely forget Europe, with its socialism, red tape, and generally anti-entrepreneurial policies. The one notable exception is Sweden, which has produced recent unicorns like Spotify, King (Candy Crush), Mojang (Minecraft), Skype, and SoundCloud. Some folks argue that it's their focus on design or decreased daylight forcing them to work harder that drives them to win, but for whatever reason, Sweden is on fire right now.
China, India, and Japan are also hot markets for technology startups.
There is only one upside to angel investing in a small market like New York or Los Angeles: you are going to be worshipped. There are so few angels in these regions, you'll be constantly in demand. Also, you're going to feel great about how efficient you are, because there are so few quality deals to review. You'll get your work done early and you'll be all caught up on watching HBO's _Silicon Valley_ series. (It's a hilariously accurate look at startup life. They probably get 85 percent right—which is pretty scary.)
## Network Effect
The term "network effect" means that the value of a network increases with the square of the total number of members or nodes. If a network has ten nodes and you add an eleventh, the network becomes 21 percent more valuable—not 10 percent. It's very powerful math.
We live in a world full of network effects. The nodes in the network here in the Bay Area are the investors (angels, incubators, and venture capitalists), founders, service providers (colleges, lawyers, headhunters, and banks), and the talent pool (developers, designers, and marketers).
The number of folks rooting for and directly helping the startups you invest in will be a thousand times more in the Bay Area than anywhere else. The greatest product Silicon Valley ever built was Silicon Valley—which, generation after generation, reinvests in and propels itself to ever greater levels of efficiency.
In each cycle of technology, the next group of investors and entrepreneurs gets bolder. It was mind-blowing to see Google reach $3 billion in annual revenue in nine years, until Facebook came along and did the exact same thing—in seven years.
Investors in the Valley have learned that when you figure out a money printing machine, like Google's search ads, there is a global market waiting for you to take that machine to. Google now makes 55 percent of its revenue outside the United States.
Facebook watched Google march into dozens of markets and then did it even faster.
Airbnb and Uber watched Google and Facebook expand globally. Then their investors and management teams memorized those playbooks and improved them.
The next group of startups, the ones you'll invest in, will study how these four companies ran the table on dozens of countries, and thousands of cities, and do it that much faster.
Talent is the biggest driver here as rank-and-file developers, designers, and the recruiters who place them hop from rocket ship to startup rocket ship, locking down their four-year stock option plans.
It was very common to see Googlers become "fully vested," which means they have earned all their shares, and then negotiate an even bigger package at Facebook, taking all of the lessons of Google's money-printing advertising machine with them. Sheryl Sandberg would be the lead example, having spent seven years at Google before becoming Zuckerberg's number two at Facebook.
Now, you have groups of Facebook executives becoming fully vested, earning all of their shares and watching Facebook's run-up from a valuation of $98 million at their Series A financing to $38 a share at the IPO (a $104 billion valuation) to $128 a share at the writing of this book (a valuation of $368 billion).
With Facebook hitting "escape velocity" and reaching orbit, their employees are now searching all the launchpads for the next rocket ship, valued at $5 million to $50 million, so they can get their slice of juicy, early equity and start the journey anew.
Some of the top executives at Uber and Airbnb include folks who did their time at Facebook or Google.
If you want to make a country album? Go to Nashville.
If you want to make a movie? Go to Hollywood.
If you want to build a startup? You've got to be in the Valley.
## Literal Moonshots
The cage that tech startups were expected to operate in was ripped open by Elon Musk and Travis Kalanick back in the early aughts when they decided that software, while important, was not going to be the limit of their vision.
Nope, Elon decided to build actual rockets and electric cars—the full stack as we call it—not just the software that kept someone else's rockets on course or someone else's electric cars on the road. In fact, a number of investors tried to pressure Elon into selling just the software and motors for electric cars to legacy car companies like Mercedes and Ford.
After rejecting those suggestions, he launched the Model S, which was rated the greatest car ever by the nonprofit, and highly ethical, _Consumer Reports_. He also broke the safety rating system used by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration when the Model S was awarded 5.4 out of 5 stars in 2013.
Now Elon is building the batteries that go in his cars and setting up his own mission to Mars. The level of confidence and the boldness of entrepreneurs today is a magnitude bigger than when I started, which is amazing for angel investors. If founders set goals like "colonize Mars," our return on investment is going to be much bigger than if they set goals like "make software for people who want to launch a satellite."
Travis decided to run a marketplace that matched drivers with riders, not just a software system for cab companies like one investor was urging Travis to do. When an investor asked for my support lobbying Uber to be simply an enterprise software company and to stop competing with the cab companies, I replied, "Cab companies are the problem!" and I never discussed the idea again.
Your job as an angel investor is to block out the haters, doubters, and small thinkers, because if you think small you'll be small. I'd rather see my founders fail at a big goal than succeed at a small one.
# [Chapter 7
Startup Funding Rounds Explained](nav.xhtml#nch9)
## Is This an Angel Round or a Seed Round?
When you start angel investing, you're going to hear a lot of terms thrown around to describe the rounds of funding a startup can receive. People ask me about these rounds all the time. "What's the difference between an angel round and a seed round?" "How big is a typical A round these days?"
The funding rounds I'm going describe are not all collected by every startup, and in truth, the majority of startups in the world don't have the backing of angels or venture capitalists: they are called "small businesses."
The following rounds are presented in their natural order, but, again, many founders will skip certain rounds. I've never seen a startup do all of these.
## Sweat Equity
The first round of funding in many startups comes from the founders themselves, in the form of working on their business for free for months. It's not an official round of funding. It's the original creation of the business, and, unlike an investment round, the ownership here is paid for with the founders' own sweat. We call this sweat equity, and it should be a useful indicator to you as an angel investor because it shows that the founders are able to create value without capital.
Right now you're probably thinking, "But don't all startups begin with the founders owning 100 percent of the shares?" True. But not all founders are willing to begin working on a startup without an outside investor. Many of them hold out for that first check like it's a security blanket. I prefer founders who are willing to pursue their visions long before an investor comes along and takes some of the pressure off of them.
What this signals, in my experience, is that if these founders someday run out of money—and almost all startups do—they will likely revert back to not paying themselves, while still pushing the company forward with their effort, in order to save the business (and your investment).
These are my people, the hustlers and the builders.
As the world figures out you're an angel, you will be crushed with a legion of founders who want your backing, and most of them will not be the "sweat equity" type.
Most wannabe founders are waiting for an angel to anoint them with a $50,000 check before they start working on anything outside of a PowerPoint deck, or worse, delusionally long emails explaining why everything else out there sucks and their derivative idea will win—if only you believe in them and cut them a check.
If the most a person can create without funding is a PowerPoint deck or an insufferable email, they have DQed themselves from running a startup—and you should tell them that in your own style.
I don't recommend using my style, which is uniquely abrasive but works with my personal brand and goals. I typically tell wannabe founders, "I invest in people who build things, not people who talk about building things."
My approach is to be judgmental and combative, if you haven't figured that out. I deploy this style for two reasons: (1) It's who I am; and (2) it is effective in repelling the weak and developing deep, meaningful relationships with the strong.
## Bootstrapping
A variation on sweat equity is called bootstrapping. Bootstrapping means you are using whatever resources you can get your hands on to solve your problem and pull yourself upward, including that little strap on the back of your boots.
A company with sweat equity has built its product or service based on the talents of its team, but a bootstrapped company might have had some outside help—but not from investors. For example, many times the founder of a startup will find a client who is willing to pay for a product that they built with sweat equity.
In that way, a bootstrapped company built off sweat equity is better than a company built on simply sweat equity alone, because it's even _more_ resourceful.
When I started my first real business, a magazine called _Silicon Alley Reporter_ , it was a bootstrapped company built off my sweat equity. I wrote most of the articles, took the photos, and presold the ads to my friends' companies including Razorfish and the VC firm Flatiron Partners—back in 1995.
Bootstrapping has its origins in nineteenth-century America, when people talked about using the straps on the back of their boots to pull themselves over a fence. I don't want to waste too much time on the origins of words in this book, because when I read other authors do that over and over again, I think, "This prick is just trying to fill pages with information they found on Wikipedia because they don't actually have anything meaningful to say."
## Friends and Family
Startups that have gotten their funding from nonprofessional angels, for example, their rich uncle or friend who made a killing flipping houses, are considered to have completed their "Friends and Family" round.
These folks tend to fall in between the gritty sweat-equity-earning bootstrappers and the entitled snowflakes that won't get started without an angel investor's anointing check.
On one hand, they have the audacity to take money from their families, which if they lose will make for an awkward Thanksgiving, but on the other hand they could be entitled, self-absorbed dreamers who don't mind burning their friends' and family's money.
You can figure out what you're dealing with simply by looking at how efficient and resourceful founders have been who have only raised a friends and family round. For example, if they raised $100,000 from their grandmother and college roommate, and proceeded to give $75,000 of that money to a development shop and $25,000 of it to a public relations firm, well, you're probably dealing with someone who, unlike our sweat-equity folks, doesn't have the ability to build anything.
These kinds of founders are called check writers in my world.
They are often exceptionally good at spending money and spinning yarns, but they frequently become habitual beggars who are so disconnected from the actual product and customers that they don't reach product/market fit with anyone except, wait for it, investors. I'm looking for founders who are scrappy—what we call capital efficient.
## Self-Funding
Often, the greatest people you can invest in are the ones who are already investing in themselves. When I meet a founder who says, "I'm currently funding the company," I immediately want to know two things: how and why.
First, how did you get the money to self-fund your startup, and how much have you spent so far? Are you a trust fund kid or did you sell your last startup? Did you go into debt to get to here?
Why haven't you raised money for your startup? Is it because your inheritance is burning a hole in your pocket? Or, are you that serial founder who likes to focus 100 percent on building an MVP (minimal viable product) without having to waste time pitching investors on an idea before you, reasonably, know it's going to work?
When I meet someone who is going into debt to self-fund their startup I get worried—especially if they have a family. In my mind, if you have a family to take care of and you put them at risk to pursue a startup that you can't build with sweat equity, bootstrapping, using your friends' and family's money, or raising money from a professional investor, you are, in all likelihood, insane.
I mean, if you're only investing in your own startup because the hundred other investors—who are more experienced than you and do this for a living—passed on your vision, and you're willing to risk your entire family's future, you're basically saying that everyone in the world is wrong.
That doesn't make you courageous in my book—it makes you either extremely irresponsible or a self-absorbed asshole.
There are many better choices than risking your family's future.
Why not refine your idea? Why not learn to code and invest your own sweat equity in your startup before going into debt? Why not find another startup that has received investments from dozens of angel investors and work with them to change the world? Why not wait until you have an idea that can attract angel investors?
## Incubator Funding
Founders can also join an incubator or accelerator in order to get a modest amount of funding. Most incubators will give founders $25,000 to $150,000 in seed funding for 5 to 10 percent of their startup.
There are incubators focused on health care, hardware, enterprise software, mobile, and various regions of the world. Incubators have only become popular in the past decade in Silicon Valley and are, in fact, partially responsible for the explosion in the number of startups we've seen.
The other important reason the number of startups—or startup experiments, as I like to call them—has increased so dramatically is that the cost of getting a product to market has dropped from millions of dollars to, typically, anywhere from under $25,000 to $250,000.
Most great companies did not come out of incubators (Uber, Facebook, Tesla, Google), but once in a while a great one does. In fact, there is only one $10 billion–plus company to ever come out of an incubator, and that's Airbnb. Zenefits, Stripe, and Dropbox, valued in the single-digit billions, also came out of incubators. We will talk more about incubators in chapter 23.
Some startups have now started incubator hopping, jumping from one program to another, collecting $100,000 and a bunch of advice as they do, but with the compounding cost of repeatedly diluting their cap table.
If a founder is faced with shutting their company down or giving it another shot at a second or third incubator, I don't think that's a bad thing—it's certainly better than shutting down.
## Seed/Angel Funding
Most founders get their seed round by successfully completing two or three of the five early-stage funding strategies above. For example, someone might bootstrap their way to an incubator by having presold their software to two companies before getting their angel round.
Essentially, your job as an angel is to monitor people coming out of these channels and pick out the best ones.
You're basically acting like a college scout watching high school players, who are still developing, run up and down the field. You can't pick perfectly, but you can develop strategies to pick well.
That's what this book is really about, helping you pick better.
Some notable founders, delightful products, and hot markets can command a seed round out of the gate—skipping the five stages above. For example, if you made a seriously beautiful app in the on-demand space in 2014 or 2015, when Uber and Airbnb were red-hot, you might quickly find yourself raising a $1.5 million seed round before launching.
We often see founders who sold a startup to Google or Facebook quickly raise a significant seed round after simply building a basic prototype or, even crazier, just a slide deck.
Investors can get very excited when a category or a founder breaks out, and when they do, they lower their standards because they believe the wind will be at the startup's back. This makes some sense. If someone built and sold a company to Google or Facebook, their chances of doing it again—or going public this time—are greatly increased, because they've been to the rodeo before.
## Bridge Round, a.k.a. Seed Plus
Most founders underestimate the amount of time, and consequently money, it will take to reach the milestones they need to raise their next round of funding. When a seed stage startup runs out of money before having reached the targets that would make a VC firm fund a Series A, or before hitting breakeven or profitability, they do what's called a bridge round. It's called a bridge round because it's a bridge between where they are now and where they need to go.
This round of funding typically comes from the same investors who did the seed round. Those investors are faced with losing their investment if they don't continue to fund the startup, so they tend to be motivated to "close the bridge."
Participating in a bridge round can lead to putting "bad money after good," where an angel funds a struggling startup, or even one that is now likely to fail, out of loyalty to the founder or out of their own ego—but not based on the core fundamentals of the startup.
I've done this many times, because I'm an optimist and I want to believe, and in my earlier days as an angel investor because of ego. If a startup I invested in failed, then I must have been wrong. And I hate being wrong.
These days, I look at each bridge round I'm asked to participate in with a simple question: What has changed since I made my original investment?
If the thing that changed is my faith in the founder's ability to execute, or that we learned the market truly doesn't want or need this product, well, it's a fairly easy response to the founder: "I'm going to stand pat" or "I'm not going to participate in this round."
Founders will often want to know why, and I'm inclined to be candid with them, but I don't necessarily suggest you do the same. Most other angels I see will simply say, "We are not investing right now" or "We don't do follow-on funding," even though they really mean "We only do follow-on funding for breakout successes and founders we really believe in."
Oftentimes, the answer to "What's changed?" is that the founder and their team have learned a ton about their customers, they've built a promising product, and they've learned what they need to do in order to hit breakeven.
In those cases, it's fairly easy to justify a continued investment.
There is one serious caveat to all of this: the valuation and terms of the bridge.
If the seed round was at a $4 million valuation and the company has learned a ton and landed some customers, but the valuation has stayed the same, you should put more money in than you already have. It's a better deal. The company is more valuable now.
If the seed round was at $4 million and the company is asking for the bridge to be at $8 million, you should simply ask the founder, "How did you arrive at that valuation?" I like to leave a long pause after that question, so the founder can speak their truth and I can understand if the shares are, in fact, worth twice as much.
If they aren't, I can simply say, "I'm going to pass based on valuation."
Sometimes a founder will have raised their seed round at $8 million and accomplished a decent amount, but no one will fund their bridge at the same valuation. In this case, an investor or founder can suggest doing a "down round" or a "pot sweetener."
A down round simply means you're going to change the value of the company, making the people who invested in the last round mark their investment down. When the market crashes, like it did in 2000, 2001, and 2008, many startups went through down rounds.
Another way to deal with a bridge that won't close is to keep the valuation the same but give the bridge investors a "pot sweetener"—a bonus. There are a couple of financial and legal devices to do this. One is a liquidation preference. Another option is issuing warrants.
In both cases, the investors will typically get two or three times the value of their cash in extra stock. So, if I bought 10,000 shares at $8 each, I might get another option—a warrant—to buy 10,000 shares for $0.01 each in the future.
Here in Silicon Valley people like to have "clean terms," which means they shy away from devices like warrants and liquidation preferences. In fact, these are currently considered predatory by most professionals in the Valley.
Now, on the East Coast or in Europe, where investors are much more conservative and have had much less breakout success than in the Valley, they tend to deploy these "downside protections" often.
## Series A
The Series A is the most coveted and important round for a startup because it is typically done by a professional venture capital firm that will join the board and create proper "governance."
Proper governance means there is a board of directors that holds board meetings that have board resolutions that are all designed to increase the share price of the company.
Before the Series A, founders typically answer to no one. There is no board, there are no board meetings, there are no board resolutions, and no one is focused on the stock price, because the focus is, quite correctly, on trying to find product/market fit.
Once you have a Series A, the chief executive officer (CEO) is going to spend about 20 percent of their time "managing their board." This means, setting up a board meeting every six to ten weeks, or six to eight times a year. They will prepare a board deck, have a lawyer create resolutions around stock options for employees, and they will essentially have a boss.
As an angel investor, you will sometimes have an opportunity to invest in a Series A, but not often. Why? Because VCs are greedy and have huge stacks of chips. When they figure out that a startup deserves $5 million or $10 million in funding and a $12 million to $25 million valuation, they are going to slurp up every share they can find. In fact, sometimes the "lead investor" on a Series A will have the right to approve the other investors!
If you're getting into a Series A alongside a powerful VC, you either have a great relationship with the founders, who are demanding you get an allocation, or you provide massive value and the VC thinks that you owning shares in _their_ company will increase everyone's share value.
If one of _your_ startups, that you've angel invested in, gets a Series A from a known venture capital firm, you want to plow your chips into the pot and take your "pro rata" as much as you can.
Pro rata means you get to keep your percentage ownership in a company. Typically when you angel invest, you don't get pro rata rights—unless you demand them, and then you do. I won't do a deal without pro rata rights anymore. If someone doesn't think I deserve to get to keep my percentage ownership, even though I was one of their earliest supporters, well, I'm not the right investor for them—and they're not the right founder for me.
It's disrespectful not to give angels pro rata rights. Period.
## Series B, C, D, E, F, and Mezzanine Rounds
After the Series A, you're probably no longer actively investing in the company, and it's well on its way to an exit. In fact, if your angel investment is starting to raise a Series B, C, D, or further rounds of financing, it's probably time for you to consider selling some part of your stake in what's called a "secondary" stock sale.
Remember the old adage, when they asked the rich man how he got so rich: "By selling too early."
We'll talk about exits in chapter 30.
But first, we need to get you into the game.
And I've got a hack to help you get started.
# [Chapter 8
How to Be an Angel Investor with Little or No Money](nav.xhtml#nch10)
## Cap Table Basics
As an angel investor, your job is to provide a combination of money, time, network, and expertise to startups in order to "get on the cap table."
The cap table, short for capitalization table, is the official list of all the shareholders in a company and it includes how much they paid for their shares and what class of shares they each own. Different share classes have different benefits. We'll talk about the differences among share classes and ways to protect your angel shares in chapter 30.
The easiest way to get on the cap table is to simply buy shares, but this requires two things:
1. Money
2. Access to the deal
When you start meeting with startups to angel invest in, you will mostly be meeting with founders who have been unable to raise funding for their startup. The best founders, like Mark Pincus (Zynga) and Evan Williams (Blogger, Twitter, and Medium), for example, are able not only to pick from the top angel investors—thanks to their exceptional track records and networks—but also to fund their companies themselves from their past exits.
Those founders don't need you, they don't need your money, and they are not going to meet with you. You need to find founders who will become the next Mark Pincus and Evan Williams.
The only way you'll get into a hot deal early on is if you are invited into one or you get lucky. When you first start investing, you should meet with as many people as possible but invest in as few deals as possible.
Basically, you should go on a lot of dates, but don't propose to anyone yet. We still need to cover building your deal flow and talk about how to behave before, during, and after pitch meetings.
## Five Ways to Get on a Cap Table
In simple terms, there are five kinds of people on a cap table: founders, employees, advisors, angels, and VCs.
Companies don't exist without founders. They start out owning 100 percent of the company. Over the life of a company, it's the founder who will do the most work. Every minute of a founder's life—awake or asleep—is spent working on their startup.
Employees will spend the second most amount of time working on a startup, but their existence isn't 100 percent tied up in the business. Unlike founders, employees usually get their equity from an option pool. An option is the right to buy a certain number of shares in the future at a much lower "strike price" that was based on the company's valuation when the option was awarded. Options are a great way to align employee motivations because now they are part owners in the business, too. Options typically vest over four years. So, if an employee leaves the company after only two years, they only get to keep half of the options that were granted and the rest go back into the pool for future employees.
Third is the advisor, a.k.a. the broke angel. They trade their skills, time, connections, and reputation in exchange for shares.
Fourth is the angel investor. That's you! Your entire life is not consumed by a single startup. Your job is to support founders when no one else will and steer them into the hands of professional investors.
Fifth is the venture capitalist, a.k.a. the VC. They come in later on, once a lot of the risk has been removed, and their job is to help the company in its transition from adolescence to adulthood.
## Shareholder Motivations
Each of these five kinds of owners is working toward a common goal: increasing the value of the business—or at least they should be.
In fact, that's why shares in a company exist. They're a scorecard that allows everyone to easily understand what's at stake.
If you're an angel in a startup with fifty million shares issued and an enterprise value of $5 million, then every share is worth ten cents.
In this scenario, if you owned 2 percent of the company you would have one million of those shares. Two co-founders might have fifteen million shares each, their employees might all be participating in a five million share option pool, and a venture capital firm might own ten million shares (20 percent of the company).
You can now all make decisions based on trying to get the company to a $50 million valuation, which would, with fifty million shares outstanding (accounted for), reflect a $1 a share price—a tenfold increase from the seed round when the company was valued at $5 million.
When faced with decisions, such as "Should we sell the company for fifty million dollars?" or "Should we raise ten million dollars for twenty percent of the company?," you can have a candid discussion—informed by the cap table.
In fact, this is a very common situation that shareholders face: Should we sell the company now or raise more money and sell later?
For the two founders, with fifteen million shares each, they will often be tempted to sell their company early. In this scenario, they would be faced with a $15 million payday each, which is hard to turn down when you probably have massive credit card and student loan debt, a modest startup salary, and zero savings.
For the angel who paid $100,000 of their own money for their one million shares, getting back $1 million would be a fantastic and compelling outcome—$900,000 in profit! They also might consider selling half their shares to investors in a new round ($500,000 worth) as "idiot insurance" in case the company eventually fails, while letting the other half ride.
In that "sell half" scenario, they've returned their $100,000 investment and taken down $400,000 in profit on the investment, while still having 1 percent of the company's shares riding on future growth. If the company fails, they will feel like a genius because, well, they made five times their investment while other shareholders lost everything.
However, if the startup becomes a unicorn worth $20 a share, they are going to always think about the 500,000 shares they sold for $1, leaving $19 per share in growth—or $9.5 million—on the table. Of course, when they sell the other 500,000 in shares for $10 million, they will have returned $10.4 million on a $100,000 investment—or 104-times return—vs. $19.9 million in cash—a 199-times return.
This is a great problem to have. Once more, as the old saying goes, "You get rich by selling too early."
The point being, there are only two numbers that matter: how much you put in and how much you got out. How much your shares were worth at their peak is not remotely as important as when you choose to sell them. Many Facebook investors sold their shares shortly after the IPO at $18 a share, when Zuckerberg couldn't figure out mobile. Those investors missed the run-up to $130 a share when Zuck did master mobile, fueled by his seemingly insane, unilateral decisions to acquire Instagram ($1 billion for a startup with thirteen employees at the time) and WhatsApp (for $20 billion or so).
## Other People's Money
When you look at the venture capitalist on the cap table in our $5 million startup, you have to understand they are operating on a much different formula because they are investing OPM—other people's money.
VCs invest OPM and get a 20 percent "carry," or, simply put, 20 percent of the gains. In our example, if the VCs who invested in the startup owned ten million shares, for which they paid ten cents each, they would have a cost basis of $1 million for the investment. If it appreciated tenfold, to $1 a share, they would have a gain of $9 million, of which the VCs—the decision makers for those shares—would get 20 percent. That's $1.8 million, a great payday, except most VC firms have six partners chopping up that gain, each getting $300,000.
In other words, the angel would have a $900,000 gain, but the VC on this deal who has five other partners is only getting $300,000—one-sixth of 20 percent of the $1.8 million gain. That's only one-third of what the angel, who put their own money to work, would get.
What do you think that VC is going to suggest when faced with a $50 million exit that earns them enough money to pay for, probably, ten months of family living expenses in Silicon Valley? They are going to say, "Let's keep going. Let's build a unicorn!"
The VCs also have a board seat, in all likelihood, and would push hard to get the founders to swing for the fences—and rightfully so. If the company becomes worth twenty times more, that individual VC is going to pull down twenty times as much in carry—$6 million for each partner!
Startup founders often sell too early, leaving money on the table. VCs often force founders to hold out and swing for the fences, risking blowing up companies and locking in gains. We angel investors are generally along for the ride. The good news is that our industry has figured out this divergence of interest and has come up with an effective way to address it: secondary share transactions.
If a founder with 35 percent ownership in their company has no money in their bank account, and they get a $100 million offer for the company, they are faced with a $35 million payday—life changing to be sure. Now, in today's modern age, I think the first $5 million you make is "take the edge off" money. You now have a decade of capital to rest on. However, when you break $10 million you have "escape velocity," where you will never have to work again. The $500,000 in yearly interest you net should cover your expenses for a lifetime.
However, when you get over $20 million, you're in the "fuck you money" zone, where you can tell anyone to go fuck themselves. It's a dangerous test of a founder's resolve in my experience to go from being under the gun to being able to tell anyone who stands in your way to go make you a ham sandwich.
## Secondary Sales
This is where secondary sales come in. What a VC firm will do is offer to buy some of the founder's shares to provide the "idiot insurance" we talked about before. This is a delicate balance, and it usually results in a founder being able to sell 10 to 20 percent of their position, which in this case would be $3.5 million to $7 million, which after taxes would be somewhere in the "take the edge off" money range. This is the preferred amount of money VCs like to give to a founder to give them the freedom to keep going because it doesn't distract them. It simply allows them to buy a fancy car, fly business class, get a decent house, and pay off their student loans.
VCs really don't like to have founders get to "escape velocity" or "fuck you money," because it could result in them coming in to a board meeting and saying, "Fuck you, I'll fund the company," or worse yet, "calling in rich" saying, "I don't need to deal with your bullshit anymore. I'm going kitesurfing on Necker Island for the rest of the year."
For angels, secondary shares are a wise way to "dollar cost average" your returns. If you have a chance to sell 25 percent of your position once or twice before the IPO, it would be wise to do so because we've all seen companies worth billions go to zero many, many, many times.
The velocity at which startups can rise in technology is second only to how quickly they can implode. Remember, these are rocket ships and sometimes they blow up right before they reach orbit—just ask Elon Musk!
## Broke Angels
But what if you don't have money? Is there a way to get on the cap table? As we discussed in chapter 4, there is a group of folks known as advisors who trade some combination of their networks and knowledge—and sometimes freelance work—in exchange for shares in a company.
Advising startups is often a great stepping-stone to becoming an angel. I will tell you all about my ups and downs as an advisor in the next chapter.
## Founding vs. Funding
Additionally, there are two more ways to get on the cap table: you can found/co-found a company or go to work at a company and vest shares over time. Of course, if you do those things you are going to limit yourself to one lottery ticket (or cap table) every four years (the amount of time required for folks to "vest" their shares as a founder or employee at a company).
In twenty years as a founder or early employee of a startup, doing absurdly hard and underpaid work, you will have taken three or four swings at bat. Since 70 percent of startups fail, my guess is you will have one, maybe two wins in your career. However, there is a significant chance that you will have no exits. The chances of missing a 30 percent chance at a win three times in a row is roughly 3 percent (30 percent * 30 percent * 30 percent = 2.7 percent). Also, there is a chance that a "win" could be minor, which is to say, you make only $1 million or $2 million.
The likely scenario, in fact, is that you spend twenty years of your life busting your ass and probably have a decent win and make a couple of million bucks. It's not a bad outcome, but it's not an outsized outcome like we're shooting for here.
As an angel investor, I invest in thirty startups a year—one every other week or so.
Being a founder is amazing because you get to build what you want to see in the world and you're the "god-king/queen" at your company, but the odds are wildly against founders making a huge return, while the odds are in favor of a lifelong angel or venture capitalist getting rich.
Of course, to be an angel or VC, you need to have those chips, skills, network, or knowledge to put to work.
# [Chapter 9
The Pros and Cons of Advising](nav.xhtml#nch11)
As I mentioned in chapter 8, there are five types of people on the cap table of a startup: founders, employees, advisors, angels, and VCs.
Founders and employees earn their shares by working full-time on building the company. They come to the office every day and vest their shares over four years, and all of their eggs are in one basket.
Angels and VCs buy their shares in a company, they don't go to the company's office every day, and they split their attention between many different companies—and finding new ones.
Advisors to a company don't pay for their shares with cash but rather by providing their resources to the company, be they skills, Rolodex, or reputation. They add their personal brand equity to a startup's often nonexistent brand equity.
## You've Gotta Start Somewhere
Early in my career, I didn't have the money to reach the minimum investment required by most startups, which is typically $25,000 or $50,000, but I did have a Rolodex, connections, and a lot of startup skills—especially in marketing and public relations.
So, I joined the boards of advisors and boards of directors at a number of startups in the hopes of getting some cash.
I became an advisor to a handful of startups including Wealthfront.
I joined the boards of ThisNext, Savings.com, and Dyn.com.
I advised a total of six startups, with the typical commitment being two years of service. Of these seven deals, shockingly, three resulted in me making about $700,000. One of them, Wealthfront, is still very much in play. Only a couple of them actually shut down. Disappointingly, one startup's founder, influenced by a douchebag venture capitalist, screwed me out of advisor shares I had earned. I'll tell you that story later in this chapter.
My guess is Wealthfront will be as big of a return as Dyn, putting my advisor/board record at two home runs, a double, a single, and two strikeouts. That's an absurd .667 batting average and probably not very replicable or sustainable.
## Opportunity Costs
These days I only take a board seat in my portfolio companies if—and this is a major condition—they are surging or under some sort of unfriendly attack that requires me to join the board to protect them and other shareholders.
Outside of my own investments, the only way I would join a board of a startup is if the founders were friends or I were massively passionate about the company. Why? Life is short and the return of being on a board these days would be de minimis compared to my returns as an investor. Of course, it's great to pick up another hundred or five hundred dimes as a fee for serving on the board, but considering those paydays require fifty to two hundred hours of meetings and work over two or three years, there is a serious opportunity cost to them.
Opportunity cost is an extremely important concept in life, so let's talk about it here for a moment. My definition of opportunity cost is "the lost gains resulting from the misapplication of your time."
For example, if you were a startup chief executive officer and decided to spend twenty hours a week for ten weeks teaching yourself design in order to save yourself $10,000 hiring a freelance designer, that might seem like a great way of advancing your startup while you keep your costs low—but how would you know for sure?
It's simple to calculate. Just ask yourself what else could you have done with those two hundred hours and what impact it would have had on your startup.
In this case, the founder could have cold emailed a personal note and sent a follow-up email to three hundred angels (twenty minutes for each, six thousand minutes total) and met with the top fifty of them (two hours of time each with travel, for a total of one hundred hours). If you landed 1 to 2 percent of the three hundred emails you sent, that would be three to six new angels. Those angels would typically invest $25,000 to $100,000 each, for somewhere between $100,000 and $250,000 total invested in your startup.
Now, compare the outcomes of those two efforts: saving $10,000 or raising $100,000 or more—which is a better use of your time? Clearly the latter, which means there is a huge "opportunity cost" for our non-designer founder to wasting their time learning to design.
Unless, of course, this startup in question does not have the ability to raise money yet because the design sucks and the founder has no track record. In that case, we would be comparing the ability to raise zero dollars after emailing three hundred angels with the ability to get your product "investor ready." Those ineffective emails trying to get meaningless meetings would be a huge opportunity cost vs. making a sexy product off of your sweat equity (see chapter 7).
How to allocate your finite time and energy efficiently is something you constantly have to revisit as an investor, founder, parent, and human being. The cost of not revisiting your allocation of time is great, leading to massive regret at having spent too much time on a startup, marriage, friendship, or investment that is destined to disappoint you or destroy your soul.
As you read or listen to this book, you need only look around you at the countless people on the subway or bus or freeway who are thinking about the opportunity cost of their lives.
I can't tell you how many times, as I've struggled to write this book, I've asked, "Is this the best use of my time?" What if no one reads this book that I've spent months writing—and will spend many months promoting? What else could I have done with the hundreds of hours I've put into these tens of thousands of words?
You can pay me back for sharing all these secrets, collected over years and written over six months, by taking these techniques and delivering massive returns. If just one of you becomes a billionaire, centimillionaire, or decamillionaire because of this book, it would please me to no end. When you do, invite me on your private yacht and let's eat some expensive surf and turf and toast to the fact that you were too scared or oblivious to allocate your time correctly until you read my words.
I'm counting the days until someone emails me and tells me this book changed their lives—and the lives of their friends and families—forever. It's gonna happen, I'm sure of it. I wonder if it will be you, yeah you, right there smirking as you read this, who will have the brass ones (balls or ovaries) to cut the check in the next Google, Facebook, Apple, or Uber.
## My First Advisor Check
Back in 2004, I was broke and trying to get something going. My first startup, a print magazine called _Silicon Alley Reporter_ , had been sold in a fire sale to Dow Jones. I was effectively paid two years of salary for seven years of effort. I had moved to Santa Monica to be with the woman I would eventually marry and I was treading water.
My friend Mark Jeffrey, who had let me crash on his couch when I was coming up in the industry, introduced me to his partner Jas Dhillon when they started a business social network called ZeroDegrees. I found out about the service in early 2003, half a year before LinkedIn launched and three years before Facebook was available outside of colleges. ZeroDegrees was even featured on LinkedIn's competitive landscape slide in their now-legendary Series B pitch deck.
I was a simple advisor to the company. I met Jas every couple of months for breakfast at the Ritz-Carlton in Marina Del Rey to give him product feedback on this new category of startup.
When the company was sold to Barry Diller's IAC (InterActiveCorp) in 2004, I got a handwritten check for $16,000. It was a magic moment for me, getting rewarded like that when someone else's hard work paid off, and it made me want to participate in even more startups.
## Saving Up
A couple of years later, after I had sold my blog company to AOL, I was getting a lot of attention from the press and the investment community because I had mastered the art of building a startup by using content, search engine marketing (SEM), and search engine optimization (SEO).
A company called Savings.com, which had a small office a mile from my $2,200-a-month two-bedroom apartment in Santa Monica, asked me to join their board of directors to share my knowledge.
The board had a bunch of venture capitalists on it, and it became clear to me that these boring meetings were becoming much more fun, hopeful, and entrepreneurial because of my presence. I was starting to become known not only as a marketing guru but also as a motivator of CEOs.
In this case, the company got sold to a larger competitor and I got paid $150,000 for my service on the board—over ten times what I made at ZeroDegrees for being an advisor.
I was moving up in the world.
## Dyn-o-mite!
On April 21, 2012, I got an email from Kyle York, who worked at a startup almost no one in Silicon Valley ever heard of in New Hampshire called Dyn. They were looking to raise their first round of funding and wanted an independent board member who would help them navigate raising money and the profile of the startup, so I guess they asked themselves, "Who's got the biggest mouth in Silicon Valley?" and decided that was me.
In their email, they explained that they had reached millions of dollars in not only revenue but also profit. I was shocked and delighted to get this email because being able to get on a rocket ship before it takes off is always a good idea, and Dyn was already in orbit when they asked me to get on—which is extremely rare.
"Yes, I would like to be transported to your rocket ship that is already in orbit," I told them, and for two years, I worked in much the same way I did at Savings.com, bringing excitement, hope, and marketing strategies to the company and board meetings. My podcast, blog, emails, and conference had made me into a microcelebrity in Silicon Valley—as did my investment in the "cab company"—and I put my full effort into promoting Dyn, calling it "the Google of the Northeast," a label that stuck.
A year after I finished my two years of service to the board I executed my stock options, which were going to expire. It cost me tens of thousands of dollars to do so, but my faith was instantly rewarded when, three months after I did, the company was bought for over $600 million by Oracle.
My payday was almost a half million, more than thirty times what I made as an advisor to ZeroDegrees and triple what I made as a board member at Savings.com, all without having to be an investor in the company.
Being a board member or advisor is nice work if you can get it, but you have to be willing to put the work in over a decade in the tiny startups that need you before the bigger companies that don't need you as much will let you join their boards.
Even today, with a much higher-profile reputation, I've yet to be asked to join a major public or pre-public board like Twitter, Snapchat, or Google. This is understandable since I haven't done it before, but still frustrating for me since it's on my professional bucket list and I see so many dopey people join these boards and drive companies like Yahoo! into the ground.
Perhaps if one of my investments goes public, I will get that opportunity to join a major board, but for now I continue to grind it out one investment at a time.
## Collision Course
On a trip to Chicago to speak at a conference about mobile startups, I was contacted by a local entrepreneur who had been reaching out to me for a couple of months to get involved in his startup in the gift card space.
Let's call him "Alex."
Like me, Alex was a Greek and he was passionate about his startup, so I agreed to have lunch with him. Candidly, it was easy to choose between sitting with a bunch of mobile advertising tech executives in bad suits eating dry hotel ballroom chicken or going for local Greek food with a passionate founder.
The kid was dialed up to 11, he had major plans to take over the world, and, although his business had a horrible name and was kind of unsexy, I thought there was something there. I had a rule about investing in startups outside of Silicon Valley (see chapter 5), but he didn't need money at the time, so I accepted his offer to be an advisor.
For a year or two, we did regular calls. I introduced him to the top venture capitalists in the Valley and generally did what great advisors do—whatever is asked of them by the founder.
Alex was a hustler and the son of a very successful grocery store scion. His Instagram was a nonstop feed of private planes and popping bottles not only at famous clubs but in the booth with his arms around the DJ.
Alex was a player.
The future looked bright for the business, but it had a long, clunky name. I told him over and over that he needed to have a more polished brand if he was going to make it in the big leagues.
He called me one day with some amazing news. He had acquired a five-letter domain name.
Let's call it "Money.com."
I was over the moon. Even though we were just buying and selling gift cards right now, in the future a name like Money.com could help us expand into other categories without having to rebrand—just like Amazon doesn't need to come up with new brand when they launch new products like Kindle, Fire, Web Services, Echo, or Alexa. They just put those words after "Amazon."
At some point, he bragged to me that he got Jay Z to become an advisor just like me. He even sent me Shawn Carter's signature page. I was blown away because I know Jay Z takes his brand seriously. How in the world did Alex get Jay Z interested in a site that resells gift cards? I was so impressed by Alex's hustle—I couldn't knock it.
Years later he bragged to me that Jay Z didn't execute his advisor shares paperwork by the deadline, so he canceled them. I was perplexed because it's really bad form to talk someone high-profile into being an advisor and then drop them on a technicality.
It would be like asking Steven Spielberg to put his name as an executive producer on your TV show as a favor and then cutting him out of the deal when the show became a hit. You just don't do it. It's petty and it's small and it's dumb because all you have in this life is your reputation.
I found out that a new venture capitalist was "cleaning up the bad deals Alex had done" and I realized that if they were willing to throw Jay Z under the bus, they would have no problem throwing Jay C under the bus as well.
I fought with the new venture capitalist a bit. After all, my paperwork was signed. I didn't miss any deadlines. But it turned into an argument over whether I'd lived up to my end of the deal and delivered the value they expected. Finally, they demanded that I land a couple of employees for the company—like literally recruit and hire developers for them—to keep the shares I had already earned.
That was never what I had agreed to do.
In the end, my Greek brother Alex didn't even have the courage to tell me the news directly. He had his chief financial officer cancel all of my shares. He didn't even give me a token tenth of my shares, let alone the 75 percent of them I had vested and earned.
I could have fought him on it, but the truth is, I've done so well in this life that fighting with a founder just isn't worth it. I'm sure that's what Alex and his investor were counting on.
I considered leaving this story out of the book, but since I've only been screwed by a founder like this once, I thought this was an important story to share. Also, I'm still fond of Alex, I believe in the business, and I wish him well. Maybe when he reads this he will reach out to me and buy me some saganaki and we can settle up like grown-ups over Greek coffee.
I'm still fairly certain Alex will be a great CEO someday. If you're willing to screw the greatest hip-hop artist of all time and an early advisor who you doggedly pursued, you're probably gonna make a lot of money—at the cost of fans and friends.
The point of this story is to remind you that advisor shares are not guaranteed, and in the private company game, there are very few rules and very many ways to screw over your partners. You only have to look at Mark Zuckerberg's early lawsuits—and settlements—to see how ugly and often these things go down.
You're going to need to have a great lawyer, have clearly defined deals, and be selective about the people you partner with. Even when you do all of those things, you're still gonna have people try to screw you. It's the nature of money, power, and, most of all, shares in companies.
People can get really ugly when they see how many shares everyone else has on the cap table.
## Three Out of Four Ain't Bad
Looking back on my experiences with the founders of Dyn, Wealthfront, and Savings.com, each has been thrilled to have me as an advisor, they have continued to engage me over the years, and none have begrudged me the value that my shares had accrued or tried to renegotiate our deal after the fact.
In fact, the founders of Savings.com and Dyn were proud that their success got me a big payday. We won together and we are set up to do more in the future.
Having good and bad experiences as an angel or advisor helps you improve your ability to pick great founders—and avoid the bad, immature, or clueless ones.
Life is short, you should spend your time working with the good people, and if you do get screwed, look at it as a small price to pay for getting that person out of your life.
# [Chapter 10
Going Straight from College to Angel Investing](nav.xhtml#nch12)
## The Sucker at the Table
If I could go back and do it all over again, I would have graduated college and gone directly into angel investing. When I was in my twenties, I was sharp as a tack and knew that certain companies, from Microsoft to Cisco, were going to be huge.
Having spent years "playing computer," as my parents used to call it, I knew the entire ecosystem and it was obvious to me that Windows was a massive step function from DOS for Microsoft. The command line interface, with its obscure language, made computers a secret club, but the graphical user interface and mouse made it McDonald's. If I had bet on Microsoft back in the 1980s, when I witnessed this change, by getting my father to take $1,000 from a hot Saturday night at his bar or my mom to do five double shifts as a nurse, my family would have had a fortune twenty years later.
Heck, if I had made a $1,000 bet on Microsoft in 1984, two years before it went public, and when I got the first PCjr computer—running DOS and a Microsoft Basic Cartridge—we would probably be millionaires.
Why didn't I take that chance? I had the insider information from my sixty hours a week "playing computer," but because we thought poor, we stayed poor.
There is no reason anyone reading this right now couldn't figure out a way to scrape together $500 or $1,000 to start placing bets. The average American spends over $100 on their cable bill every month and you can make $18 an hour driving for a ridesharing service. If you simply quit watching cable TV for five years and took the five hours a day that the average American spends watching TV in that time and used half of it for driving and half for searching for deals, you would have over $15,000 to apply toward angel investing—a year.
At $2,500 per company, that's four bets a year—twenty bets over five years—during your self-imposed boob-tube ban. What if you got a hundred times your return on one? What if you got a thousand times your return on one?
Yum! Yum!
However, most of you reading this have been trained by society, your parents, and your friends to be helpless, so you spend your free time lying on the couch, watching TV, sliding into depression—instead of actively placing bets on your future.
You've been hoodwinked. Bamboozled. Fooled. Slipped the mickey.
Fallen for it.
You're the sucker at the table who doesn't realize that you're just another monthly subscription, and random ad clicker, for corporate America.
It's time for you to unplug from the Matrix and realize that you don't need to pretend you're rich by getting the premium channel package, and actually get rich by taking intelligent risks.
## The Future Is All Around Us
At my second real job, at Amnesty International, I installed their first computer network. Instead of the dozen senior executives in the company using a dial-up modem to get their email on a 2400 baud modem attached to a dedicated phone line in their office, we were putting Ethernet cards into everyone's computers and running Ethernet cables through the walls and having all the computers on a LAN (local area network).
It was clear to me that Novell, Hewlett-Packard, Cisco, and countless other vendors in this era were going to print money, but yet again I missed the boat. If I had taken just forty hours of my pay—at an amazing $10 an hour—and invested it in Cisco in 1990 when they went public, I would have bought about 10,000 shares. Thirty-seven years later, those shares would be worth $300,000—and that's the growth rate of a public company. Private companies can grow much faster.
If I could do it all over again, I would have put "Computer Specialist & Angel Investor" on my business card, asking everyone I knew to introduce me to hot startups. I would then beg the founders to let me invest in exchange for consulting around IT (information technology) issues—trading my knowledge and meager cash for equity.
Even if the investments had failed, even if people had laughed at me calling myself an angel, even though I was only investing $500 at a time, I would have learned a heck of a lot and met a ton of entrepreneurial people.
You can make your own luck in this life by putting yourself next to the people who are already winning.
# [Chapter 11
How to Hack Angel Investing: Syndicates](nav.xhtml#nch13)
## The Easiest Way to Become an Angel
To be a successful angel investor, you need to invest in dozens of companies and do it in the hottest market in the world: Silicon Valley.
However, when you're starting out as an angel investor, you're going to suck at meetings and picking companies because, well, you're so new at this.
What if you could invest in ten startups in the next thirty days, but instead of having to pick them yourself, you could simply invest alongside other angels who have been doing this for many more years than you. Might that interest you?
What if you could do this all from your laptop and for as little as $1,000 per investment. Might that interest you?
This was impossible to do ten years ago, but over the past five years, a handful of platforms have emerged that allow angels to syndicate deals via a legal construct called a special purpose vehicle (SPV).
## Angel Syndicates
There are a number of sites offering angel syndicates here in the United States including AngelList, SeedInvest, and Funders Club.
At these sites, successful angel investors create an investment group, or syndicate, where they explain what they typically invest in, what they've already invested in (their track record), how much they typically invest per deal (typically $10,000 to $100,000), and how much in "carry" they will charge you on a successful exit.
Carry is short for "carried interest," and it's defined as the share of profits that go to the fund manager—in this case called the syndicate lead.
The term dates back to the sixteenth century, according to the Wikipedia entry, where captains of ships would charge merchants 20 percent of the profits from cargo that they took the risk and effort to "carry" around the world.
On these platforms, the syndicate leads typically take a 15 percent carry and the platform itself takes another 5 percent, for a total of a 20 percent carry. This is exactly how venture capital firms charge their own investors, who are called limited partners (LPs), with one critical difference: fees.
Venture capitalists typically charge what's called "20 and 2" to their LPs: 20 percent carry and a 2 percent management fee. The management fee is money advanced by the LPs to the partners in the venture fund in order to pay for their overhead (salaries, office space, tickets to expensive conferences like TED and Davos). Those management fees get paid back out of the returns, but they are a point of contention with LPs in the venture capital industry. On a $300 million fund, a 2 percent management fee is $6 million per year. For a seven-year fund, that's $42 million in management fees! Many LPs think these fees are extreme and want them reduced.
With angel syndicates, you simply pay the carry. There are no fees other than some minor legal and filing fees (typically less than $10,000 per deal, spread out across the dozens of investors in a deal).
Individual angels like you can sign up for a syndicate (like mine) and make a nonbinding pledge to invest a small dollar amount per deal. On my syndicate, the minimum is $1,000, but most syndicates set this number at $2,500 to weed out the more casual investors.
When a syndicate lead shares a deal, each of the syndicate members gets a chance to evaluate the deal via an online profile for that startup that typically includes a pitch deck and why the syndicate lead is investing.
A syndicate normally negotiates an allocation with the founder of the startup, typically $200,000 to $500,000 (or 10 to 50 percent of a seed round). If the syndicate can pull together enough investment interest, the deal is consummated.
If the syndicate lead invested $20,000 in a deal personally, while syndicating another $200,000, they now represent $220,000 in this round of funding.
So why do people do this?
Founders love syndicates because they can leverage an established angel investor to round up dozens of smaller investors for them.
Founders also love angel syndicates because they exist as only one entity on their cap table: the SPV. This means they don't have to collect dozens of investor signatures when doing future deals. Instead, they just need to get one signature from the syndicate lead who legally represents all of the other investors in the group.
Angel syndicates love the program because it can easily triple their returns, simply by sharing their deal flow. In the example below, if I invested $20,000 in a startup and got a 20 percent carry on $300,000 raised from a syndicate, and the company had a ten-times return, the leader of the angel syndicate would get a return of $740,000 vs. $200,000 on their $20,000 investment.
How? It's simple. I would get back ten times my $20,000 investment for $200,000, as well as a 20 percent carry on the $2.7 million gain from the syndicate's return—for an additional $540,000!
Now, syndicate members love syndicates because they can invest in startups that more established angels have (hopefully) vetted. It is possible you can invest alongside a lazy angel who doesn't do a lot of thinking before they invest, but even in that case you would have had, at the very least, the ability to make bets alongside someone with some sort of track record. Plus you don't have to say yes to every deal. You can always opt out.
The only thing you give up by being in a syndicate is 20 percent of the return, which seems like a fair trade of services. At the time of this writing, platforms for doing angel syndicates were still very new. The jury is out on exactly what the levels of returns will be, but the fact remains that they are an efficient and low-risk way to get some experience in angel investing.
In fact, I was the first syndicate on AngelList and in two years I did fifty deals—the most any individual had ever done—with more than $12 million invested. I'm a huge fan of these platforms because they give angels the ability to work as a group toward a common goal: increasing their portfolio companies' value and chances of success.
If syndicates had existed twenty years ago, I could have started angel investing when I was only twenty-five or thirty years old, because back then I wouldn't have put $1 million to work angel investing. I could have just put $25,000 to $50,000 of my own money to work.
This is the great angel investing hack that syndicates provide. Whether you put $1,000 or $100,000 into a startup, you're still an angel in that startup, reaping all the cachet that comes from that association. You can meet with founders before and after you invest and build deep relationships with them by asking the right questions, which also allows you to provide material help to those founders on their journeys.
That's why I advocate that new angels do ten small angel syndicates before they start doing direct investing. Beyond the very real chance of getting a positive return on your investment, if you do this hack, you will build your reputation, have a chance to prove your worth to founders, and jump-start your network—all for the bargain price of $25,000. That's only 20 percent of the cost of an MBA and you can do it in a month!
## The Benefits of Syndicates
As a neophyte angel, the benefits of starting your education and investing adventure with syndicates is huge. You can, if you choose to, do all of your investments in your underwear or while working at your current job. (I don't recommend doing both of those things concurrently.)
Syndicates require very little paperwork and you can choose to invest without taking any meetings or doing any due diligence. The only thing you need be able to do is prove that you're an accredited investor here in the United States and have your wire transfer clear.
After you make ten investments for $2,500 each, you'll be on the cap table of ten startups along with dozens of other investors. After just one month and ten deals, you will have a network of hundreds of co-investors, as well as a network of twenty to thirty founders you have invested in, since most startups have two to four founders these days.
Once you have ten investments, you can list them all on your LinkedIn profile, in your Twitter and Facebook bios, and on your gorgeous-looking, $15-a-month Squarespace website. (I missed investing in Squarespace—damn it!)
You'll also be able to be as unapologetic and gauche as I was in my early career and put "Angel investor in . . ." in your really long email signature.
Once you have the phrase "angel investor" on your online profiles, you will have instant deal flow.
It will be an ugly and desperate deal flow at the start, since no one knows you and how brilliant you are, but it will be _your_ deal flow—and that means something because everyone in this industry starts as an outsider.
Unless your last name is Draper or Conway, you weren't born into this business. Some of the biggest outcomes in our industry have come from people without track records like Larry and Sergey at Google and Zuckerberg at Facebook.
There is a chance that the founder of the next big thing might stumble upon your profile while searching LinkedIn or browsing AngelList and—boom!—you might be the person who takes a meeting with them and gives them their first check.
Someone has to write these early checks. Why not you?
# [Chapter 12
Month One: Your First Ten Syndicate Deals](nav.xhtml#nch14)
## Picking the Syndicate Deals to Join
As we discussed in the previous chapter, investing in angel syndicates is a wildly effective hack as you start your angel investing journey. Every month, dozens of startups are syndicated on AngelList, SeedInvest, and Funders Club.
As an angel investor, you are going to need to invest in fifty startups (diversification!) in Silicon Valley (location!) over three years in order to have a chance at an outsize return. That's one to two startups a month.
You should plan to put $1.5 million to work in these fifty deals, which is $30,000 per startup on average. However, you're probably going to want to put $1 million into the first forty-five deals and an extra $100,000 into each of your top five winners. This gives you a chance to get a five-times return on the winners, any one of which might go to a fifteen-times return based on the inside knowledge you have—and return your entire $1.5 million invested.
In the investment community, we have a term for an investment that returns all your capital invested: a "dragon." So your job is to find dragon eggs.
Right now, however, we want to get your résumé filled with ten quality angel investments that include dozens of well-known, successful angels.
When you visit the various sites offering syndicates and browse the deals, I suggest looking for these basic characteristics:
1. A syndicate lead who has been investing for at least five years and has at least one notable, unicorn investment
2. A startup that is based in Silicon Valley
3. A startup that has at least two founders (with two, you have a backup in case one quits)
4. A startup that has a product or service that is already in the market (you're not qualified to invest in startups that haven't released their products—and frankly you don't need to take this risk)
5. A startup that has either (a) six months of continuous user growth or (b) six months of revenue
6. A startup that has notable investors
7. A startup that, post-funding, will have eighteen months of cash remaining, commonly referred to as runway (ask the founder and syndicate lead how many months of runway they will have post-funding)
If you invest $2,500 in each of these ten startups, you will have invested at the end of this process $25,000. If your goal was to invest $1.5 million in fifty startups over three years, you've just gotten the first ten under your belt for less than 2 percent of your total chip stack.
Note: "Chip stack" in this book refers to the amount of money you've allocated to your angel investing. Chip stack in poker refers to the chips you have on the table during a single session and is only a portion of your bankroll. Your bankroll is your complete net worth. In the case of poker, or in real life as an angel investor, you would never, ever put your whole bankroll on the table at once because you could face the risk of total ruin.
The risk of ruin is your bankroll going to zero and you having to leave the game.
So what percentage of your net worth—your bankroll—should you put on the table? How much of your net worth should you risk angel investing? It largely depends on three things:
1. How tied up can you afford this portion of your net worth to be (i.e., do you need to tap into this money for college and retirement in three years or in thirty years?)?
2. How easy is it for you to get more money (i.e., are you a twenty-five-year-old NBA player with a $100 million contract and two more contracts to come, or are you a sixty-five-year-old retiree with $10 million in net worth?)?
3. How would you feel if you lost 100 percent of the money you allocated to angel investing?
If you love taking risks and don't mind being locked up for a decade, I could see you putting 10 to 20 percent of your bankroll into angel investing. If you can tolerate risk, but don't love it, and you can handle being illiquid for a decade, I could see you putting 5 percent of your bankroll into angel investing.
If you were learning how to play poker, would you sit at the $100,000 buy-in table with a bunch of sharks or would you play at the $100 buy-in table for a couple of months until you were a winner?
That's what I'm advocating here: use this process to learn the game.
If you put only about 2 percent of your chip stack to work ($25,000) on your first ten angel investments, and your chip stack is only 15 percent of your net worth (i.e., you allocated $1.5 million of your $10 million net worth to angel investing), well, if your first ten deals return zero, you've lost only $25,000 of $10 million—or 0.25 percent of your net worth. If your bond portfolio or the stock market returns 4 percent a year, you will recoup that loss in a month.
If your net worth is only $1 million and you lose the $25,000, well, you've lost 2.5 percent of your net worth—which the stock market or bond portfolio would pay you back in just over half a year.
In either case, you should invest only to the point that you're still able to weather the "storm."
## How to Act in a Syndicate
As a member of an angel syndicate, you are ceding control to the syndicate lead, but that doesn't mean you have to be passive.
In fact, you can and should behave as if you are directly investing in the company. What being part of a syndicate means is that the founder of the startup has chosen to take on a collection of smaller investors who are listed on their cap table as one entity, represented by one lead investor.
The upside for the founder, outside of the money, is that they only have to get signatures from the lead when it comes time to make important decisions for the company, like when they need to get approval for a bridge round or a sale.
In my experience, founders who opt in to doing syndicates see great value in the fifty or so angels that invest in an angel syndicate. Founders love hearing from investors, even ones who have put as little as $2,500 into a deal.
If you're able to put $2,500 into a deal, you're probably able to "add a zero" and put $25,000 into the next round, and savvy founders know this.
Also, as a syndicate member, you can easily do important things like retweet a news story about the company, provide introductions to potential employees or customers via your LinkedIn network, or help advise them on something you have expertise in like sales or marketing or copywriting.
In short, you should look at angel investing as a competition where you're trying to provide more value than any other angel in the company—including me!
Good luck with that, because I've developed an entire platform over twenty-plus years to help founders, something you can replicate—or exceed—but that will take another book, which I'm willing to write if you're willing to do the work and be an angel investor.
I'm not going to lie to you, that two-decade head start isn't going to be easy to top. But hey, records are made to be broken, right?
## Write Deal Memos
For all ten of the startups you select, you need to write a "deal memo" explaining why you're investing, what you think the risks are, and what you think has to go right for the startup to return money on your investment.
You will review these deal memos every time the startup raises a new round of funding so that you can test if your original thesis still applies. What you'll undoubtedly learn is that no one knows exactly how or why a startup breaks out, but there are trends—especially in how _you_ think.
For every startup you didn't invest in, write clear notes on the reasons why you passed. You will look back on these notes and learn exactly how bad you were at this, and over time see how much better you've gotten.
Even when you are investing in a startup via a syndicate, I recommend you meet in person with the founders at least once—if not twice. Visiting their office, even if it's a dump, is advisable.
You can really get a sense for a company if you go to their office. Are they wasting money on expensive chairs and tables or are they sitting on folding chairs and using wooden doors on horses as tables like Amazon.com did?
Most important, you should only invest in these ten startups if you would buy stock in the founders themselves. I explain this in more detail in chapter 17.
## Jedi Poker
Syndicates are your Dagobah, a place where you can learn from other angel masters without losing a limb or your head. Go ahead and ask the syndicate lead why they are investing, meet with the founders, and talk to their customers—learn how to hold a lightsaber without cutting your fingers off.
When I started playing poker in Los Angeles around 2004, I knew I was but a padawan and not ready to face a Jedi Knight. So, I would go to the $1 and $2 poker table at Hollywood Park, where old ladies wager their social security checks.
I knew these old biddies were conservative and smart. They had played poker six days a week for ten hours a day for years.
I would buy $40 in chips, or twenty big blinds (the $2 in the $1/$2 game), and proceed to play in what I called "Jedi mode."
When the action was on me, I would look down at my cards and peel them up with my thumb covering the top corner so I didn't know what my two hole cards were. The ladies thought I was considering my cards when, in fact, the only thing I was considering was what they were holding and what they were likely to do if I bet.
I was playing completely blind!
This disadvantage, like Luke Skywalker wearing his helmet with the blast shield lowered during his lightsaber training at Obi-Wan's command, forced me to rely on other information: the expressions on the biddies' faces and their reactions to my bets.
For weeks and weeks, I would lose my $40 buy-in three or four times. I probably lost two or three thousand dollars to those ladies before figuring out the finer points of poker—which I then deployed in the biggest poker games on the West Coast: $200 and $400 no-limit hold'em, with a $25,000 buy-in.
When I started I played poker and lost with $40 on the table in front of me. Now I've played poker and won with $200,000 on the table in front of me.
If you're going to be a great angel investor, start at the small tables while you learn—there is no rush. Every year, billion-dollar companies are created, and that will continue for the rest of our lives—unless, of course, one of these startups figures out how to make us live for two hundred years, in which case you might live to see the era where a trillion-dollar company is made every year.
If you're doing deal memos, office visits, and talking to customers when investing $2,500, you're going to be a powerful Jedi by the time I'm finished training you. I know angels who invest $50,000 without ever meeting the founders of a startup in person, let alone writing a deal memo or visiting their offices.
## Angel: It's Not Just a Job
As far as I'm concerned, angel investing is a vocation or a calling. It's like teaching or being a Jedi. You should take it seriously because your actions can help create massive change in the world.
A couple of angel investors backed Tesla and Tesla forced the world to take a second look at electric cars.
A couple of angels backed Twitter and revolutions all around the world—and here in the United States—have been started, accelerated, and recognized because of a simple tweet.
## My Biggest Miss: Twitter
I passed on investing in Twitter because I was, at the time, a founder of companies. I stupidly thought that the best investment I could make was in my own company.
One Sunday I went to brunch with Evan Williams and Biz Stone and they showed me how Twitter worked.
"Go ahead and send the number I gave you a text message describing what you're eating right now and Biz and I will do the same," said Ev.
My BlackBerry vibrated and it showed me that Ev was eating some tofu scramble and Biz was having pancakes.
"Ev, no one cares what Biz is eating. This is kinda stupid. Every text costs money. They're only used for important messages and emergencies."
Evan and Biz then explained to me exactly how the system would work, and that eventually the messages would be free and come via the web and that they would cut deals with the carriers to make money from the text messages—it was a revenue stream!
I didn't see it, because I was a blogging snob. I had sold my blogging company, Weblogs, Inc., to AOL for $30 million shortly before Twitter was invented and I thought I knew better than anyone how this shit worked.
My berating continued: "Ev, let me explain something to you. You took the most important part of a blog post—the body of the post, the contents—and you removed it, leaving only the subject line. Every idiot in the world will now think they are a blogger and they will be on even footing with all the other writers, except now we'll all be writing headlines!"
Ev explained to me exactly why I was wrong, but I cut him off and told him, "No, Ev, you're wrong and I would never, ever invest in something as inane and pointless as Twitter."
That was a $50 million mistake.
Fifty. Million. Dollars.
It was at that point I realized that I didn't need to know if the idea would be successful. I only needed to know if the person would be.
It was clear as day to me that whatever Ev worked on would be successful, but my own ego and my need to be right and understand everything got in the way of me hitting my first big home run.
Since then, I've stopped trying to understand what will work and what won't, and instead I use my Jedi powers to understand how strong the Force is in the founder.
I'm here so you don't repeat my mistakes.
Especially not the $50 million ones.
# [Chapter 13
Month Two: Thirty Days of Angel and Founder Meetings](nav.xhtml#nch15)
## Building Your Network
After doing ten syndicate deals, you're ready to build your network with the supreme knowledge that you can now introduce yourself like this: "Hello, I'm Jane Smith and I'm an angel investor in ten new startups with angel investors including Chris Sacca, Jason Calacanis, Cyan Banister, Naval Ravikant, and Gil Penchina."
You've arrived!
That was easy, wasn't it? For a fraction of the cost of going to business school, you are now deep in the angel investing game, except no one knows you. We're going to change all that by setting up two meetings a day over the next thirty days.
## Meet Twelve Angels
The best deals are typically not on platforms like AngelList or at incubators like Y Combinator or 500 Startups. The best deals never see the light of day. They're quickly filled by insiders who are sharing deal flow, and by elite founders with killer startups tapping their existing network.
This is why it is critical that you build a deal-sharing network. Lucky for you there's a radical new technology that can help you to build this network, and everyone important is already using it. It's called email.
Step one, create a spreadsheet of all the co-investors in those ten startups you've invested in. There should be about fifty investors from the syndicate and a dozen other investors for each startup. That means you will have a pool of six hundred potential investors you can reach out to, minus duplicates.
In your spreadsheet, put the person's LinkedIn, AngelList, Twitter, and Facebook URLs. Connect with each of them on each of these four critical services. When you connect with them, send them a message that says, "Hey Jason, we're co-investors in Evan Williams's startup Twitter."
It will take you a couple of days to do this, but in the process you will learn how other investors present themselves to the world.
Step two, make a private Twitter list called "co_investors," and include all these investors in it. Bookmark that list on your browser and open it once or twice a day, favoriting, retweeting, and replying to your fellow investors' tweets.
Now you've started building basic "social currency" with a huge swath of Silicon Valley insiders by doing about a month of work—congratulations, you're an insider!
The next step is to start emailing the top, most interesting investors in this process. They might be the syndicate leads, or they might be people who co-invested with you in a syndicate.
Now write them an email or send them a private message on any of the common social networks. Here's a good template:
Hey Jason, we co-invested in Company X together. Do you have time for a quick cup of coffee next week? I'll be investing at least $2,500 into 2 startups per month going forward and I'd like to trade notes. All the best, Jane Smith.
When you meet with fellow investors, your goals are:
1. Figure out what they invest in and why.
2. Figure out what value they bring to startups.
3. Make sure they understand what value you bring to startups.
4. Ask them, "Have you seen anything interesting lately?"
5. Offer them, "I just invested in these two startups, which are exceptional. Would you like to get introduced to the founders?"
6. Determine if they prefer double opt-in introductions or blind introductions.
Keep the meeting short and be willing to travel to the angel. Let them know, "I'm happy to meet you at a time and place that works best for you. I know you're busy."
As in all things, be interested in the other person and think deeply about their answers. Be in the moment and have your mobile phone turned off during these casual meetings.
When meeting with other investors, always remember that you are auditioning. In my mind, how you behave in our meeting should be the peak professional version of yourself. I need to know that a meeting with you is worth my founders' valuable time. Remember, the hottest deals close before most people even know they even exist. You need to make me want to include you in those deals.
I don't want to introduce my founders to newbie angel investors who aren't legit, and in my book legit people are ones who are present, considerate, and courteous.
After you meet with each of these angels, promptly email them and thank them for their time. Include a list of the ten startups you've invested in, with links to each one. Always ask them if they are interested in meeting any of your founders.
Inevitably, people will want one or two introductions from you, and, as a lowly $2,500 investor, you will be introducing your founders to two or three angels each!
Now you're starting to provide value to everyone else in the ecosystem, which you will receive back tenfold in the coming years.
Finally, you need to email all of your founders and let them know that they don't need permission to introduce you to other founders who are looking for investors or other investors who are looking to expand their networks. Tell them they can email you blind, without asking you first.
If you are bothered by people sending you random email introductions, you are in the wrong business!
## Meet Twenty-Five Founders
After you've met with a dozen angel investors, it's time for you to start looking for "proprietary deal flow," which is to say, deal flow that is yours—not the public stuff on AngelList, on FundersClub, or at Y Combinator's demo day.
Here are two different styles of email you can try with your existing twelve angel investors that you've met in person with:
Jason, it was great getting coffee with you last week. I noticed that you're an angel investor in Tesla and I think they have a really interesting vision of a carbon-free future. Was wondering, would you mind introducing me to Elon Musk? I believe strongly in Elon's vision and I've got two specific ideas that I'm positive will help improve Tesla's marketing and social media.
You'll notice the template above is not "Jason, can you introduce me to Elon Musk?" While short, that email doesn't show any passion, deliberateness, or intentionality—in other words, you are telling me you don't give a shit.
People want to meet with people who are fascinated by their vision, so take a moment to state why you think their vision is important and how you think you can help them achieve it—because they might just hit reply and introduce you to the founder.
A second email you can send to your new network of angels is the simple and sincere:
Have you seen anything compelling recently?
If you try this with your dozen angels, my guess is you will get leads for at least two startups from each. That sets you up for your next twenty-five meetings, with founders you've been introduced to by a current investor!
You're now an insider's insider, getting warm introductions to founders who are either raising money or will be in the future, by people who have already given them money.
I call this process "reputation in a box."
Now take a moment and consider just how quickly you've gotten into the Star Chamber.
Okay, the moment's over.
Get back to work.
## Getting Good at Saying No
In month two, you are going to meet with twenty-five founders. You're going to listen to their pitches and ask lots of short questions and write long notes about their answers. When they ask you if you're in, you're going to tell them that you need some time to come to a decision.
Again, never say yes in a meeting. Let them know that you need to do research and think about the deal terms. Then, only after you have seen all twenty-five, circle back and pick the best one.
If you're having a hard time sorting through the twenty-five, I suggest putting them into a spreadsheet with the words Great, Good, or Okay next to each one. These are three really easy terms to apply. Put one sentence next to each Okay, saying why you're not going to invest. This is a candid sentence that is for you to look back at six, twelve, and twenty-four months from now when you check your ability to forecast.
Now do the same thing for the Goods, writing why you're not going to invest. For the Greats, let's say there are four of them: write out why you think they are going to win. You now have three columns: company name, a Great/Good/Okay rating, why you are not investing, and why you are considering investing in the great ones.
Remember there are a hundred reasons why these things fail, so you're not going to have a hard time saying no, and there are typically only one or two reasons to say yes.
For your top four companies—the Great ones—ask for a second meeting and do a little due diligence (see chapter 24). Add a fourth column to your Google spreadsheet where you put your second round of comments on the Great companies, detailing why you said no to three of the Great companies and yes to one.
Put a recurring calendar reminder for every six months to visit this spreadsheet and make a fifth column with notes on how the twenty-four companies you passed on are doing—specifically whether they've raised more money or shut down.
Forecasting is about learning from your past decisions, and you can't forecast well if you don't write down your thoughts and check back on them.
A word of warning: the founders who have gone to Y Combinator and 500 Startups have been trained to set artificial deadlines and manufacture scarcity. Don't fall for it. I can't tell you how many times I've been told by Y Combinator companies that their round is closing next week and that they need to know if I'm in or not.
This charade reached an epic level of silliness when one company sent me a term sheet with $100,000 filled in before I ever met with them. I simply told them that is not how I work and that they could talk to my assistant about stopping by my office in two or three weeks. When they did arrive three weeks later, their round—that they originally told me was closing in hours—was still open.
Shocking.
This part of your angel journey is the opposite of getting into syndicate deals. In syndicate deals, you just need to get ten logos on your site from vetted startups. In these direct deals, however, you need to be methodical.
Next, let's talk about everything you need to know for these pitch meetings.
Once you've finished these next eleven chapters, you will be ready to say your first yes.
What?!
Nope, not kidding.
Let's do the work.
# [Chapter 14
My Best and Worst Pitch Meetings](nav.xhtml#nch16)
## Pitch Overload
If you're doing it right, your days as an angel investor will be packed with pitch meetings. Like anything in life, though, no matter how unique and special those days are, they can become repetitive—and you can develop bad habits, unprofessional tendencies, indifference, and even outright contempt.
When I was younger I worked on a volunteer ambulance in Brooklyn one or two overnights a week. I started as a dispatcher and eventually became an EMT (emergency medical technician). It was a rush when the phone rang in our headquarters, sometimes waking us up from a light sleep and other times forcing us to drop our bagels and rush to the "bus." We'd fire up the lights and sirens as we rushed into the night to see where we would land on the roulette wheel of scared, suffering, dying—and sometimes dead—people.
It was so impressive to me when we worked on my first couple of patients that some of the older, more experienced EMTs could do their work with a level of calm that reminded me of a Jedi Knight. On the other side of the spectrum, it was disturbing to watch many senior EMTs cracking jokes, breaking protocols, and often being rude to patients and their families.
When you spend time in a role, whether it's being a pilot, an EMT, or an investor, you're going to develop strong habits. To be successful, it's important that you develop good habits and be aware of the bad ones.
Founders always share investor meeting details with each other and your reputation is everything in our industry. If you are helpful, present, and considerate, then you're going to get a great reputation. If you are unprofessional, cavalier, or conceited, or use your position of power in any way that isn't in service of the founder, then you're toast.
Great founders have many options to fund their companies, and your $25,000 isn't any different from mine or another investor's. But how a person feels coming out of an investor meeting will determine whether you're getting in or missing out.
## The Best and Worst Investors I've Pitched
When I had the idea for my second company, I wanted to know if venture capitalists would be interested in funding it. I emailed two firms and one angel a two-line email message telling them that I was starting my next company after having sold my last one for $30 million to AOL—just eighteen months after starting it.
I figured if I kept it absurdly short and stated how quickly I sold my last business, it would intrigue these investors and they would respond. The first VC was Michael Moritz of Sequoia Capital and he responded to my email, called my desk phone, and left me a message on my mobile phone within a few hours.
Yep, the greatest venture firm in the world, who made early investments in startups like Google, Apple, Cisco, and YouTube, replied to my email three different ways the same day.
There's a reason that Sequoia is, far and away, the greatest venture firm of all time.
Mark Cuban, who had invested $300,000 in my first company, also responded in the same day. And so did John Doerr of Kleiner Perkins.
Within weeks I had multiple meetings at both firms. Sequoia gave me a term sheet, Kleiner gave me a verbal commitment to a two-phase funding, and Mark committed to me on the spot.
Three great firms, three said yes, and all of them were absurdly quick to follow up.
However, here's where things get interesting: John Doerr fell asleep in our meeting.
While we were doing the Q&A session, John's eyes fluttered shut and he startled right back awake. Everyone in the room—including myself—said nothing. In fact, we all pretended not to notice it, because, well, JD is a legend. This is the cat who invested in Google, Netscape, Sun, and Amazon! He's venture royalty.
That wasn't the only bizarre thing. John had a scratch on his head that he touched a couple of times, and his arm was in a sling. Nothing was broken and he wasn't bleeding, but he just didn't seem right.
When he left the room, one of his partners pulled me aside and apologized. He told me John had taken a spill on his bike that morning and was bruised up. He was on pain medication and his partners asked him not to come to the office, but he did anyway.
Holy. Fucking. Shit.
In spite of a bike crash, JD showed up for my pitch meeting on pain meds. That's why he's a billionaire!
Now, as I was wrapping up this investment, a smaller firm, which I was told passed on the Google investment that Sequoia had made, got wind that I was closing a deal with Sequoia from one of my angel investors. Let's call them "Extra Ventures."
They asked me if they could lob in a term sheet—a formal offer to invest. I told them that I had already made my decision, but I would still meet with them. The meeting with a young partner—who I won't name here—was wildly enthusiastic. He told me things went so well, he wanted me to meet with his partners at their next partner meeting.
Although I was living in Los Angeles, out of courtesy to my angel investor friend I flew to San Francisco to attend the partner meeting at Extra Ventures on Sand Hill Road, right next to Stanford University. I figured I could meet with them and then go to Sequoia a few buildings away to visit Roelof Botha, the new partner who would be joining my board.
There was no Uber back then, so after an absurdly early morning flight I dragged my tired butt over to Hertz and collected my car. I hadn't gotten much sleep and I'm not a morning person, so getting up at five a.m. and all the travel had me on tilt.
As I was starting my car, I saw that I got a new voicemail while I was in the air. It was the young VC who had set up the meeting at Extra Ventures—the second-rate VC firm that I had flown up to pitch.
The junior partner said that he had talked to the senior partners and they had concluded that my startup wasn't a fit, so I didn't need to come in and meet with them today. What?!? My blood boiled and the Irish came out in me and I decided that I was going to confront this partner, as insane and embarrassing as this is to write.
In person.
At his office.
Right now.
In the middle of his partner meeting.
When I got to their office, the receptionist asked me who I was there to see. I told her and even pointed at him in the big conference room where he was sitting with a dozen people in the partner meeting.
He turned white. His partners all looked over at me and he came rushing out. "Didn't you get my message? Our meeting was canceled. I'm so sorry!"
I proceeded to tell him exactly how clueless I thought he was and that I would tell every founder I knew how I had been treated. He implored me to calm down and offered to take me for sushi. I am not proud of my reply: "You're so stupid that you didn't consider that I was flying up, wasting a day of my life and hundreds of dollars, for our meeting . . ." He cut me off. "You're right. I'm so sorry."
I just couldn't relent. In my younger days, I had a horrible habit—back to those habits—of needing to explain to stupid people just how stupid they were. I've since learned that the best way to deal with stupid people is not to have them anywhere near your company and, if possible, not even in your life!
My lobby rant continued: "Here's how stupid you are. You didn't have to cancel on me! You could have simply let me pitch, patted me on the head, and then told me how brilliant my idea was. Then tell me that you couldn't reach consensus with your partners the day after our meeting!"
"You're right," he said.
To this day, that entire episode—both the needless canceling of my meeting once I had already traveled to their town and my own angry antics in their lobby—has informed how I conduct my meetings with founders. Because now I'm on the other side of the table writing the checks—and managing entrepreneurs' egos.
Let's get into that, shall we?
# [Chapter 15
What to Do Before a Pitch Meeting](nav.xhtml#nch17)
## Hint: It's Not Just a Google Search
You should allocate three hours for each startup meeting: one hour of prep, one hour with the founders, and one hour of postmortem.
If you're going to meet with a founder, you need to do some research on them. This includes reviewing their product, understanding the market they operate in, knowing who their competitors are, and knowing who else has already invested in the company.
Some of this information is freely available, some of it is in their deck, and sometimes it doesn't exist publicly.
Facebook was far from the first social network, so there was a lot of opportunity for research. In fact, they had a number of well-established competitors, like MySpace, LinkedIn, and Friendster. So, even if you couldn't use the Facebook product because it was limited to folks at certain colleges and required a dot-edu email address, you could still study the space in advance of a pitch meeting.
For Uber or Airbnb, where they created, or at the very least transformed, their markets, it was harder to do research. What Ford and your local car service did had little to do with what Uber was doing, and your classic hotel guests weren't the types who stayed in Airbnb in the early days back when the service was for adventurous people who thought staying in other people's homes—surrounded by their creepy knickknacks—was appealing.
That being said, if you took just one ride in an Uber or—GASP!—stayed at someone's Airbnb for as little as an hour, you would have done so much more research than many folks who invested in those two companies, and you would have impressed the hell out of the founders.
Remember, your competition doesn't take meetings with founders seriously because they think, incorrectly, that they have the power.
Your challenge isn't writing the checks, it's convincing the right founders to cash them.
# [Chapter 16
What to Do During a Pitch Meeting](nav.xhtml#nch18)
## One Hour Minimum
You should dedicate a full hour for your in-person meetings. This signals to a founder that you take them seriously enough to spend time understanding their business.
These days, not only do I take a full hour for a meeting, I leave thirty minutes open after it just in case they keep going. I let founders talk and talk until they are tired of talking. I've had many meetings that last two hours and some that have broken that mark—I'm not kidding.
The reason I do this is that I want to be known for always having time for founders. People tell me, "I know you're really busy, I don't want to keep you." But it's my job to meet with founders. There is nothing I love more!
And those aren't just words. It's absolutely true. I love talking to people about their ideas, their products, and their vision for our future. The only thing I love more than that professionally is actually developing the ideas and being on the winning team myself.
My poker pals bust my balls relentlessly by introducing me as an investor in Wealthfront, Uber, and Thumbtack—before I get to mention it myself.
Here's another way to look at your time: if you take a meeting, it makes little difference if it is thirty or forty-five or sixty minutes because you're doing two hours of research and communication in addition to the meeting. If you do a thirty-minute meeting, you've spent two and a half hours on that startup. If you meet for an hour, you've spent three hours. There is no difference when you look at it holistically, is there?
## Give Them Your Full Attention
Now, when you get into the meeting, you should check your phone one last time, let them know if you have a hard stop, and ask them how they would like to run the meeting. Here's what I say: "Would you like to run me through your deck, show me your product, or just talk about your business?"
This flips the script they are used to. My contemporaries are known for dictating to investments how they should do _their_ meetings—as in the investor's meeting. That's reasonable—each investor has their process—but I look at those other investors and think, "How can I be more valuable than they are?"
I remember one time I saw my friend Dave McClure, who is a self-admitted scatterbrain, grab a laptop from a founder and flip it around, take control of the keyboard, and start rifling through their deck. Another time at my LAUNCH Festival, a conference where startups pitch themselves to get into my incubator, he wouldn't stop tweeting and was not paying attention to a founder who was onstage pitching. Dave was one of our expert judges.
Now while we are not the strictest of competitors, as most angel deals have a dozen investors these days, we are both developing brands in the world designed to increase our deal flow.
If Dave's brand is distracted, my brand is laser-focused.
## Bring Pen and Paper
So, when you get in that meeting, look at it like you're being videotaped and it will be on the local news that night. Show up focused, with a notebook and pen so you can take notes like an adult. Never take notes on your laptop, and certainly don't be "that guy" who takes notes on their tablet with a stylus.
For the love of God, never take notes on your smartphone—you'll look like a clueless idiot. Adults take notes on paper and review them later. If you take notes in a book, you are signaling this person that their product and their vision are worthy of being commemorated in your journal for all time.
## Activate Silent Mode
When the meeting starts, say, "Let me take a moment to turn off my phone."
Important people have the ability to turn off their phones because the world can wait for them. People who are not important have to react to their phones and be at the mercy of people pinging them.
If you haven't figured this out in life yet, it's okay. It took me a while to figure this out.
## Coffee Shops Are a Last Resort
It is permissible for the meeting to take place at a cafe, but if you're going to do this professionally, a proper conference room is required. In fact, if you are writing checks and don't have a conference room available, it makes me wonder why not.
Ever since I started going to meetings with people like Barry Diller, who has crisp, sharpened pencils and pads in the middle of the table, or at the elite banker Allen & Company, where they have a button that allows them to call a waiter without you ever knowing it, I've become obsessed with "conference room prep."
In our conference room, we will have fresh-pressed juices, a snack basket, phone chargers, pads, pens, and every dongle you can think of to hook up your phone. My assistant or chief of staff escorts our guests to the room, sets up their computer, and tests it before the meeting starts and, critically, asks them if we can get them a hipster coffee or tea from one of San Francisco's many elite roasters.
I want folks to feel like meeting with me is like going to a restaurant with multiple Michelin stars. I want folks to understand that we are professionals.
I'm not trying to impress folks with expensive offices, but I do want to impress upon them that they are meeting with the best angel investor in the world—even if I'm only in the top five or ten right now.
Details matter.
## The Best Interview Questions Are the Ones You Didn't Write
Over time I've learned that your best next question is hidden in the subject's answer to your last question. I've interviewed thousands of people as a journalist, podcaster, and investor, and in that time the best interviews are the ones that morph into conversations. In a conversation you don't have a list of questions to run through, you have a discussion partner who you volley ideas back and forth with.
The more you listen to the partner, and really take in what they are saying, the greater conversationalist you will be. Sure, I've given you important questions to ask in this book (see chapter 18), but those questions are not as important as your ability to listen. Being present and keeping your mouth shut is something that does not come naturally to successful people, but I see it often in the most successful people I know.
I've pushed the envelope on this technique while interviewing subjects for my podcasts, one time taking a live wire of a subject and simply saying one or two words inquisitively, like "solar?" or "food production?"
## Never Say Yes or No During a Pitch
There is no reason to say yes or no during a meeting. I've done it and I've regretted it. If you say yes or no during a pitch meeting, you're going to seem impulsive and not considered—which is a bad look for an angel, who should be wise and methodical.
Founders are very charismatic and so convincing that they get people to follow them to build things on spec or for half the salary they would normally command. The superpower that most founders have in common is persuasiveness, and that superpower fades as you leave their reality distortion field. It weakens even more over time.
Good founders will ask you straight up, "Are you in?" or "How much would you like to invest?" Your best response is, "This has been great. Give me a couple of days to give it some thought and let's talk on Monday. I might have some follow-up questions on email as well."
After you do that, set a to-do list item for Monday and let them know if you're in or not.
Of course, if you choose to meet with the founders two or three more times, by all means, feel free to give them the news in person during a follow-up meeting.
# [Chapter 17
How to Pick a Billion-Dollar Founder](nav.xhtml#nch19)
## The Billion-Dollar Question
People always ask me, "How do you pick billion-dollar companies to invest in?"
You don't pick billion-dollar companies.
You pick billion-dollar founders.
## Filtering Your Deal Flow
When I started angel investing five years ago, I got two pieces of advice over and over again.
First, people told me that being a great angel investor is about picking the right startups. Great! That makes sense, thank you for the advice, I will now go about picking the right startups!
Second, I heard that no one has the ability to know—even here in Silicon Valley, where it's our jobs—which companies will actually _break_ , instead of _sputtering_ or _flaming_ _out_.
How was I to reconcile these two commonly agreed on but contradicting statements, that you need to pick the right startups but that no one can know for sure?
What I learned is that, while no one knows which of the great founders and startups will have breakout success, it's fairly easy to know which founders and ideas are so shitty—or worse, small—that they have no chance of breaking out.
I use two methods to sort through the deluge of startups contacting me. I eliminate the small ideas and weak founders. Then I double down on the great founders and big ideas.
While I can't be sure which businesses will be the next Google, Uber, or Facebook, I can be pretty sure which businesses will not be—and not waste time engaging them.
That's really half the battle, focusing on the winners, the big markets, and the clear ideas.
When I get an email, I never go straight to the meeting. I ask how many full-time employees they have, how much money they've made, their funding history, how they acquire customers, and why they are building this business. The FTE and money-raised answers tell me what their burn rate is and how much they have left in the bank. Most founders think I'm psychic when I tell them these numbers, numbers they haven't shared with me!
If they insist on an in-person meeting, they are either famous or clueless. Or maybe both.
Asking for more detail before an in-person meeting shows founders that you are focused on things that matter, not just taking meetings because you're lonely.
Angel investing requires a level of ruthlessness and promiscuity with your time because the odds are so challenged. You need to say no, or, as I passive-aggressively taunt folks, "not yet," to at least fifty founders for every one you invest in, while understanding that one of your two hundred investments will make 99.9-plus percent of your overall returns.
Let's think about that for a moment. If I do my job correctly, I'll review over ten thousand startups in my decade as an angel—meeting with thousands of them in person—in order to place just two hundred bets, of which perhaps 197, 198, or 199 will have little or no impact on my overall returns.
Said another way, thousands of meetings and millions invested will amount to nothing, while one bet—the longest of the long shots—will return five thousand times my investment, making me the guy who splits William Tell's arrow, which had moments ago split the arrow that had landed in the bull's-eye.
That's angel investing.
Let's keep going as candidly and quickly as possible, because you need to start taking thousands of meetings in order to find your first dozen investments, which, who knows, could result in you hitting your five-thousand-times returner this year!
Someone reading this book inevitably will, so why couldn't that be you?
## Finding Businesses That Can Scale
Okay, there are two types of businesses in my world: insanely scalable ones and everything else.
Independent films, restaurants, bars, bed-and-breakfasts, consulting firms, clothing lines, and microbreweries are—with very rare exceptions—the businesses that, no matter how hard you and the founders work on them, will not scale.
Scaling in my world means achieving a valuation of billions of dollars, which means making tens to hundreds of millions of dollars, which means my shares become worth a hundred, two hundred, or five hundred times more valuable.
Even if you make a movie that sweeps the Oscars, the chances of me making two to ten times my money are slim. Oftentimes the investor agreements for movies cap the actual upside and, if it doesn't, the studio that buys your film for a flat rate and distributes the hell out of it will make sure you see little or nothing with their creative accounting.
As one rich person I know said, "Want to know how to make a billion dollars making movies? Start with ten billion dollars." Another Hollywood insider told me that the only reason for rich people to invest in movies is to go to cool parties.
Now, you're probably thinking I'm wrong about scaling businesses right now because you can think about McDonald's, Starbucks, and lululemon as examples of things that have broken out, but those businesses were very, very hard to scale, typically taking many decades to reach billions of dollars in enterprise value.
Most of us don't have three or four decades to build our fortunes. We want to do it in five to ten years, which I think is a reasonable window if you read this book and do what I tell you.
If you compare businesses made from atoms (brick-and-mortar shops like Starbucks and McDonald's) to businesses made from bits (software), there is no comparison.
In order for Starbucks to reach a billion customers, they needed to open tens of thousands of stores, which on average serve five hundred to seven hundred cups a day, according to reports. Starbucks was founded in 1971.
Facebook launched their Messenger product in 2011 and reached one billion customers in 2016. To do this, they put their software on a server on the internet, translated the interface to a couple dozen languages, and it was instantly available to 100 percent of the modern world, capable of making them money (essentially, those people with internet access).
If McDonald's wants to make $1 million in profit today, they have to sell ten million more hamburgers to five to ten million people, as they're reportedly making about a dime on each. A software company like Slack, which sells each "seat" of their chat software for about $150 a year, needs to sell only sixty-seven hundred executives their software because their incremental cost of selling and delivering software is nearly zero.
Once you've written software, it costs essentially the same to have one thousand people use it as one million—not so for hamburger or lattes, each of which requires massive amounts of real estate, cows being murdered for their meat or tortured for their milk, and low-paid humans to prepare them and hand them to you with a fake smile and a broken spirit.
Now, you're probably wondering about Facebook's ability to reach the billions who are not yet online, but the harsh truth is that they are largely worthless as customers because if they don't have the resources to own a computer or mobile phone, they don't have the resources to buy your software or be meaningful eyeballs to sell to advertisers.
Don't cry about it for too long, because Bill Gates, the greatest entrepreneur-turned-philanthropist in history, and his wife, Melinda, are busy leading the charge to eliminate abject poverty in the world. And you know what, they're going to succeed. When they do, we'll have another couple of billion customers available to sell into.
## Overcoming Blind Spots
Of course, as you get better and better at this, you build up "signaling" that allows you to quickly qualify founders and startups. Of course, you have to be careful that your signaling is not off because, well, the rules and heuristics you build up over the years can create blind spots.
Let's say, for example, you learn over time that the founders you've met with who do copycat products never seem to win. Then you're introduced to Mark Zuckerberg, who shows you an early version of Facebook. Because the first iterations of Facebook weren't much different than Friendster or MySpace, you might dismiss him as a rip-off artist.
And you'd miss out, because the social media space was ripe for someone to come up with a cleaner, more easily understandable design than Friendster and MySpace and a tech team who could handle scaling the platform to handle hundreds of millions of users.
The world needed someone like Zuckerberg to just "do it right," and a guy named Peter Thiel famously gave Zuck $500,000 for 10 percent of the company to "do it right."
## Limit Signaling to Founders, Not Ideas or Markets
I try to choose companies based on the people running them, not the idea or market, because I've learned that no one can tell the future but I am an exceptional judge of talent.
"I don't need to know if your idea is going to succeed, I need to know if you are," is a line from my blog that has been repeated over and over again.
As you go through your angel investing life, take some time to evaluate the person and their motivations. Ask yourself a simple question: "Would I buy stock in this person if I could?" If you wouldn't buy stock in a founder, you shouldn't buy stock in their company—because there is no difference between the founder and their company; they are one and the same.
Facebook is Zuck, Zuck is Facebook. Sean Parker recognized that Zuck's stock was high and he became Facebook's first president and brought him to his friend Peter Thiel the second he figured out how special Zuck was.
People aren't everything, they are the only thing.
# [Chapter 18
The Four Founder Questions](nav.xhtml#nch20)
## A Thousand First Dates
The life of an angel is all about managing a deal funnel, which includes three distinct steps: sourcing deals, evaluating deals, and, finally, picking which founders you're going to fund.
Meeting with founders for an hour is the most frequent technique for angels to decide who to invest in, but certainly not the only one. There are some angels whose primary technique for selecting investments is to follow other smart investors, drafting off of their meetings and deal flow.
Another technique is simply to review the core metrics and decide based on those. This can be done by reviewing a deck or by checking public information sources, like the App Store rankings, and traffic monitoring services, like Alexa and Quantcast.
Some investors have a huge Rolodex and simply invest in the founders they already know, a technique that worked extremely well for investors who knew Elon Musk (Zip2 and PayPal before Tesla and SpaceX), Evan Williams (Blogger before Twitter), and Mark Pincus (Freeloader and Tribe before Zynga).
Of course, the "invest in who you know" approach would mean you missed the biggest startups in history: Mark Zuckerberg, Bill Gates, Evan Spiegel, and Larry Page, who all hit the ball out of the park on their first try—at the ages of nineteen, twenty, twenty-one, and twenty-five, respectively.
Meetings are important and free. You should take a lot of them. Ten one-hour meetings a week is a good target for a professional angel. Half that if you're doing this part-time.
My best advice to you as you start dating is to be promiscuous with meetings—but a prude when it comes to writing checks. Don't be a tramp like I was.
I'm going to take you through the four most important questions I ask all founders. The goal of asking these questions is not just for you to understand the business but also so you yourself can answer four critical investor questions:
1. Why has _this_ founder chosen _this_ business?
2. How committed is this founder?
3. What are this founder's chances of succeeding in this business—and in life?
4. What does winning look like in terms of revenue and my return?
## How to Ask Questions
Your job in these meetings is to play Columbo, the unassuming and always underestimated detective from the classic TV show that started in the '70s and ran for more than three decades. Your job is not to show off or demonstrate how smart you are by explaining to the founder what they're doing wrong or by bragging about your heroics as an investor or, even worse, as a founder yourself.
You want to have big ears and a small mouth in these meetings. You want to ask concise questions that take no more than a couple of seconds and then listen deeply to the answers, considering them with every fiber of your consciousness as you write your notes on paper—just like Columbo.
Listening like this will serve two virtuous goals, the first being that the founder will feel heard and understood by you.
If people believe they are being deeply listened to, they will talk more.
This is why, when you talk to your therapist about your mom, they say "hmm . . ." while tilting their head and looking at you with sympathy. Then they add, "Tell me more about your mother," or "Unpack that some more," or simply "Your mother . . ."
There are six words, four words, and two words in those responses. The last one is the most powerful because it just hangs there, inviting you to build on the topic.
You want to be Dr. Melfi, Tony Soprano's therapist, sitting patiently while the passion and pain pour out from the boss you're meeting with. If you're a great listener, you will be a great investor, as well as a great friend, a great parent, and a great human being.
Second, if you are hyper-present in the meeting, thinking deeply about the founder and why they are taking on the irrational pursuit of starting a company, which comes with a greater than 80 percent chance of failure and a 100 percent chance of suffering, then you will be able to make a better decision on whom to invest in.
Basically, if you shut your trap and listen like a detective or a therapist, you'll be able to uncover the answers to those four questions better than other angel investors.
You'll have more hits and fewer misses.
## Question Zero
When you are starting a founder meeting, ask one icebreaker question to get your subject warmed up.
**0. How do you know Jane?**
If you were introduced to this founder by a mutual connection, you can quickly establish common ground by asking these five simple words. Listen to the answer you are given and construct a follow-up question based on their answer. So, if the founder said that they worked with Jane, your next move is to say, "You worked with Jane? What was that like?"
I have a game where I try to say things with as few words as possible because it reminds me that this meeting is not about me, it's about them. It also makes me sound wise, like Obi-Wan or a Toshiro Mifune character.
These are the exact four questions I ask every founder. The answers to these questions will give you most of what you need to make your investment decision. We spend the first half of our hour-long meeting exclusively on them. Then we go deeper.
**1. What are you working on?**
The reason I phrase this question as "What are you working on?," versus something more company-specific, like "What does Google do?" or "Why should I invest in Google?" or the supremely horrible "Why do you think Google is going to succeed after eleven search engines have already failed?," is that it celebrates the founder (the "you") and what founders do (the "work"). It shows that you have deep empathy and you recognize that this isn't about what the thing does (Google helps you find stuff), but rather it's about people (Larry and Sergey write software that helps people find information faster).
**2. Why are you doing this?**
Again, five simple words that are focused on the founder. When I ask these first two questions, I almost universally see founders melt into their chairs. They relax, let their guard down, and feel like I care about them, which I do. Just like Columbo cares deeply about the suspects he's interviewing when he asks, "So, what do you do here?" when he walks into their office, as opposed to leading with "Where were you on the night of the murder?"
Just like Columbo, I'm looking for killers and I'm trying to eliminate suspects.
There are some really, really bad answers to the question "Why are you doing this?" The worst two answers, which you'll hear often, are "To make money" and "Because INSERT-SUCCESSFUL-COMPANY-NAME-HERE doesn't do it."
If folks are building a startup for money, they will eventually quit when they realize there are many better ways to make money faster and with more certainty. If you want to make a lot of money, you're better off being a world-class programmer on a very esoteric and in-demand vertical and getting Google or Facebook to give you $1 million-plus a year in stock and cash for ten years in a row. You have no downside, you can work a couple of hours a day, and you get unlimited free food.
If you're building something because another hugely successful company doesn't already have that feature, well, you're wildly naive or, more often than not, plain old stupid. For years people pitched me on startups that were supposedly going to be Google search for news, Google search for video, and Google search for books and magazines. We all know how that turned out.
More recently I've been pitched hard on "Uber for food," "Uber for helicopters," and "Uber for shopping."
While there have been some successful startups built by running ahead of market leaders, in general, those kinds of startups get crushed or bought for small dollar amounts. Summize was a search engine for Twitter, back when Twitter was so technologically incompetent that they could barely keep the service online. They bought Summize to catch up, as well as TweetDeck, a more advanced client for reading multiple feeds at once, but the return to the investors in Summize and TweetDeck for these acquisitions were minor when compared to the returns of the company that bought them.
The big problem with "founders" who build a feature that a market leader will inevitably get to—and I use quotes here for a reason—is that they lack vision. The act of selecting a feature as their life's work, as opposed to a full-blown product or a mission, disqualifies them from being a true founder.
Elon Musk didn't build a battery pack: he built a car and eventually an energy solution that included solar, home batteries, and, perhaps when you read this, a ride-sharing service like Uber's.
It's okay to start small, but it's not okay to be a small thinker.
The right answers to "Why are you building this?" tend to be personal. Travis Kalanick and Garrett Camp built Uber because they couldn't get a cab in Paris at a technology conference. Elon Musk built SpaceX because he wanted a backup plan for humanity. Elon's earlier idea, that no one knows about, was to put a series of greenhouses in space to back up the biosphere—just like the Bruce Dern movie _Silent Running_ —which, as an interesting aside, came out five years before _Star Wars_ and featured drones that were an inspiration for R2-D2.
Zuckerberg was awkward with the ladies, so he built a social network that would show him their relationship statuses.
Think about that for a second: Is there anything more important than procreation? Not according to Darwin or Freud, so Zuck's lack of game led to the fastest-growing consumer product in the history of humanity, largely based on people needing to find a mate or to connect with previous lovers (as demonstrated by the number of divorces that mention Facebook in their filings).
**3. Why now?**
This question has been floating around the Valley for a while, and the first time I heard it was from my friend, Sequoia Capital's Roelof Botha—the venture capitalist who convinced me to become a "Scout" for their firm, which led to my two greatest investments to date: Uber and Thumbtack.
If you unpack this question, you're really asking, "Why will this idea succeed now?"
For Uber it was simple: mobile phones were becoming ubiquitous and they had GPS. In fact, another company had already tried to help you order a cab via SMS messages a year before Uber came on the scene. Their "why now" was simply "text messaging," but that, frankly, wasn't enough. Without advanced mobile CPUs (central processing units) to power big beautiful touch screens with military precision GPS (global positioning system), there would be no Uber.
For YouTube, which had Roelof Botha as its first investor, the "Why now?" was a confluence of factors and breakout successes that tend to be born during these perfect storms. First, bandwidth costs plummeted after the dot-com crash. Second, storage costs were dropping due to this new thing called cloud computing. Third, blogging was taking off. Millions of folks were writing tens of millions of posts every week and YouTube offered a clever way to embed their videos on other people's sites—reaching a massive audience for free.
There were dozens of video companies before YouTube, but they all charged people for bandwidth and storage, which meant that if you wanted to post a video on the internet, your reward for going viral was a ten-thousand-dollar server bill. Instead, YouTube sends you a thousand-dollar check from the ads they run on your hit video.
Dropbox, which launched onstage at the first year of my LAUNCH Festival and was also funded by Sequoia Capital, had the same "Why now?" as YouTube: plummeting bandwidth and storage costs.
Founders tend to have these "Why now?" insights without recognizing how profound they are. When I started my blogging company, Weblogs, Inc., in 2004, I had a very simple thesis: I believed that great new writers publishing five short, unfiltered posts a day would get more readers than established journalists writing one story, edited by a half dozen people, once a week.
When I had this realization, it was perfectly clear to me, but even the _New York Times_ journalists didn't see it. I remember running into legendary tech journalist John Markoff at the Consumer Electronics Show in Vegas when our blog Engadget was covering it for the first time. He asked me how many people we had at the show and I said fifteen. His jaw dropped and he asked me how often they were filing and I said four times.
He replied, "You're going to do sixty stories at CES?"
I said, "Actually they're posting four times a day. So sixty stories . . . per day. How often is your team filing?"
He said they had three journalists at the show and they would do two or three pieces each over the next month. So, they were doing six stories and we were doing sixty a day for five days—three hundred total.
In some ways, "Why now?" is the most important question about the business you can ask because there are so many folks constantly trying the same ideas over and over again in our business.
Google was the twelfth search engine. Facebook was the tenth social network. iPad was the twentieth tablet. It's not who gets there first. It's who gets there first when the market's ready.
**4. What's your unfair advantage?**
Founders with breakout startups often have an unfair advantage. Google had their Stanford connections, filled with talented algorithm-writing engineering geniuses. Facebook launched while Zuckerberg was still a student at Harvard, and they used their understanding of campus culture and directories to figure out the dynamics of building online social networks that scale. Mark Pincus launched Zynga with a multiyear cross-promotion deal with Facebook, which allowed Zynga to tag along with Facebook as it grew at an astounding rate. Mary Gates was on the board of United Way with the CEO of IBM, which led directly to IBM hiring her son Bill's new company, Microsoft, to build the operating system for their first personal computer.
Said another way, this question is asking, in just four words, "What makes you uniquely qualified to pursue this business? What secrets do you know that will help you beat both the incumbents and your fast followers?"
Sometimes, founders will not have an answer for this question. And that's okay. This is one you often end up answering while looking in the rearview mirror.
## What Have We Learned?
After asking these four founder questions, which in total are sixteen words, you should have an excellent idea of what this person is building and why.
These four founder questions give you a great starting point for answering the four investor questions every angel needs to ask themselves before investing. Remember, we want to figure out:
1. Why has _this_ founder chosen _this_ business?
2. How committed is this founder?
3. What are this founder's chances of succeeding in this business—and in life?
4. What does winning look like in terms of revenue and my return?
After thirty minutes and four questions, you're going to have a strong sense of why the founder picked this business, why it might work right now, and, of course, what they are building.
What you probably won't know are the tactical details of how they plan on executing on their vision, including their go-to-market strategy, what kind of team they have, the competitive landscape, and the nuances of their business model.
We are going to find out the answers to those questions in the second half of your meeting.
We also don't know the founder's backstory. There's another set of high-level, deeply personal questions I like to ask so I know what type of person I'm really dealing with.
Is this a trust fund kid who is playing the role of "founder" with his mommy and daddy's money?
Is this the daughter of a working-class family who watched her parents drive cabs and clean houses so that she could have a better life and go to Stanford?
Were this founder's parents both litigation attorneys who see everything in life, from hiring to investing to landing customers, as one giant lawsuit that painfully and slowly winds its way to an eventual lose-lose situation?
We'll find that out next.
Let's continue the interrogation . . . urr . . . I mean, meeting!
# [Chapter 19
Going Deeper](nav.xhtml#nch21)
## The Next Five Questions You Should Ask
In the last chapter, we spent a lot of time on the four most important, open-ended founder questions you must ask when you're considering investing in a startup.
Each of those questions will take five minutes for the founder to answer, or thirty of the sixty minutes you have allocated for your meeting. (There are no "quick coffees" in angel investing.)
Remember, when the founder is talking you should be writing notes in your notebook—not typing on your laptop or iPad. If you use an iPad to take notes, you're a multitasking schmuck, so please act like an adult and take notes with a refined writing instrument in a classy notebook.
These things matter. People notice them.
Now, we are just taking down the important facts, including those that might come up in due diligence, such as their previous company's name, their competitors, and the customers they've cited (more on this in chapter 24).
You can also jot down industry terms or keywords the founder uses that jump out at you like I did when "medallion owners" kept coming up when I was making my Uber investment. (I would later research who they were, how they made their money, and why they were a massive inefficiency in the marketplace.)
You should also write down questions you have that, while important, are not worth interrupting the founder during the critical first half of your meeting.
Perhaps you heard an acronym for a technology you've never heard of (i.e., MVP, minimal viable product), or the name of a book that contained a theory that you've never heard of (i.e., Dunbar's Number, the Trolley Problem). Write those things down and ask the founder later, "You mentioned the Trolley Problem. Forgive me, I've never heard of that before. What is it?"
I ask founders to explain to me every word I've never heard of, be it a company or technology or theory. This helps me in three ways. First, I get points for being considerate. Second, I get to hear how well they can explain things. And third, I get smarter.
When I meet with founders, they are frequently awed by my knowledge of their business, and over time I've gone from being viewed as an outsider to one of the most considered and knowledgeable strategists in the business.
Even if I lost half the money I've invested in startups, I would still do it for the massive education it's given me!
Now, as a rookie investor, you'll probably break the "big ears, small mouth" rule we talked about, and do the idiotic things I've warned you not to do. You'll probably inject yourself unnecessarily into the founder's answers, you'll interrupt them with your minor questions instead of writing them down, and you'll probably waste the precious time you have to collect the most important information you need to answer the four critical investor questions we discussed twice in the last chapter, and which I will repeat for the third time here:
1. Why has _this_ founder chosen _this_ business?
2. How committed is this founder?
3. What are this founder's chances of succeeding in this business—and in life?
4. What does winning look like in terms of revenue and my return?
In order for you to answer these big, sweeping investor questions, you need to let founders talk and reveal their true selves. If you are talking more than 5 percent of the time during the first half of the meeting, you're doing it wrong and you won't extract the information you need to make your investment decision.
It should take you ten seconds to ask each of the four questions—well under a minute. The other twenty-nine minutes should be you listening and taking notes.
I trained myself to not talk—which is not an easy task when you're me—by simply looking at my watch and saying, "I will not interrupt the founder for at least three minutes." It worked, and soon I was able to sit silently and take notes for five or ten minutes, studying the founder like a Jedi Knight in waiting.
Bombarding the founder with questions in the first half of the meeting, before you've taken the time to understand the "why," will only demonstrate to the founder that you're a nudge. In the worst-case scenario, the founder will wonder, "Is this investor going to interrupt me and break my balls like this every time we meet _after_ we close the round?"
I used to be that investor.
Don't be that investor.
Now that you've learned how not to talk, it's time for you to finish up the meeting by getting tactical and personal by asking another dozen concise questions.
Let's go to the second half, with the action already under way.
## Tactical Questions
Here are some quick tactical questions you can get into with the founder so you understand how they plan on executing on their vision. You can prepare them for this part of the meeting by saying, "Can I ask you a couple of quick tactical questions?"
They will say yes, and you can rip through a bunch of these, with a qualifier in front (or back) of them like "briefly" or "quickly," so the founder knows that you just want the short version.
1. Tell me about the competition.
2. How do you make money?
3. How much do you charge customers?
4. How much does your average customer spend?
5. Tell me the top three reasons why this business might fail.
These questions shouldn't take a lot of work to answer, and great founders tend to be able to answer them efficiently. Here is how Airbnb might answer these five:
1. Hotels and HomeAway are our two biggest competitors. Hotels and HomeAway are both much more expensive—typically two to three times more expensive—than an Airbnb.
2. We take a transaction fee.
3. We take 3 percent from the host and charge a 10 percent fee from the guest.
4. Our average stay is 1.7 nights, with a total charge of $225, of which we keep about $40.
5. Regulations are our biggest challenge, finding inventory is our second-biggest challenge, and having a consistent, high-quality experience is our third-biggest challenge.
Now, if a founder answers a question that tightly, you should be drooling. Many founders, and most fakers, are unable to talk about their business objectively—and that's why they have a board, a monthly update, and investors to keep them honest.
Here is how many founders would answer those five questions in my experience:
1. We don't have any competition, except maybe someone putting their couch on Craigslist. No one is capable of doing what we do!
2. We take a transaction fee, we're going to have advertising, we're going to sell our data to marketers, and we're going to sell our software. Plus we're going to have merch!
3. A lot!
4. We had one person stay for a month, and this other host put their mansion on for $5,000 a night and sold it for ten days last month!
5. There is no way we can lose. The only question is how big this business can be!
Being delusional is an essential part of being an entrepreneur, but there is a point at which someone jumps the fence and leaves the reservation. They're just AWOL, and their answers have no relation to reality.
It's your job to understand just how much crazy a founder should have. It's sort of like being a rock star, where you need to be punk rock and take a ton of drugs and trash a bunch of hotel rooms, but not so much that you OD and die or get arrested.
Just watch Aldous Snow in _Get Him to the Greek_ and you'll understand.
## My Burn Rate Party Trick
In meetings with founders, I'm often able to tell them exactly how much money they are burning and when they will be out of cash. It's fairly easy to do: you simply write down what their revenue is and how many full-time employees they have.
If a startup called the Delta Corporation is making $10,000 a month selling enterprise software and they have five FTEs here in Silicon Valley, I simply calculate the FTEs by $120,000 each all in—or $10,000 a month—because they might have non-engineers getting $70,000 sitting next to developers making $150,000. Everyone is getting benefits and you have to pay some payroll taxes.
In another American city, I'd put it at slightly less, say $8,000 a month per early-stage FTE.
So, Delta Corp is spending $50,000 on head count and probably has $10,000 in miscellaneous expenses a month, for a total spend of $60,000 a month, which means they have a burn of $50,000 (remember, they make $10,000 selling their software already).
I've also asked at some point during the conversation how much they've raised. Let's say they raised $1 million a year ago. I can now estimate that they've lost $50,000 a month over twelve months, for $600,000, and have $400,000 left in the bank. They are burning $50,000 a month, so they have eight months left.
I'll say something to the founder like, "So, you're burning about fifty thousand dollars a month and have six to eight months of runway left? Like four hundred thousand dollars in the bank?"
They look at me with shock. How do I know that?
Sometimes I'll follow up, based on the revenue ramp, with something like, "And the Delta Corporation is doubling revenue every two months, so you'll be break-even in six months. With eight months of runway, you don't actually need to raise money, do you?"
Now the founders really freak out.
One time the founder asked me, "Did someone send you our projections and P&L?"
Nope.
It's all very simple. I pay attention, write down numbers, and do back-of-the-envelope math all the time.
I've seen founders working full-time on a startup not do this easy calculation themselves, the same one I do during our meetings, and unexpectedly they run out of money.
## Personal Questions
There are personal questions you can ask founders to get a sense of what they're about. The one I care about most is, "What did your parents do?"
I used to ask, "Tell me about your mom and dad," but that's a bit of a biased question since some folks grow up with two moms or two dads or a single parent, so the best way to do this is to ask about the founder's parents.
There is nothing more bonding between two people in my experience than talking about how you grew up. Sometimes this question will turn into a wonderful twenty-minute detour and you'll hear that someone is from a blue-collar background and their parents worked as nurses and janitors to put them through an Ivy League school. Other times, people might talk about their mother dying when they were ten years old.
The reason I like to ask this question is because it bonds me with the founder. What a founder's parents think of their path is critical, almost as critical as what the founders themselves think of their chosen path.
You might have someone tell you, like someone once told me, that their parents created a legendary company and that they were raised watching them grow it from their basement to taking it public. Would you make an investment decision based on this? Probably not, but you can learn a lot about how much this matters to someone by understanding how they grew up. You'll also learn about their approach to startups.
In Silicon Valley, most folks think that the kids of immigrants are the hungriest and most driven. Maybe there is something to that, but Bill Gates and Mark Zuckerberg came from various levels of privilege here in the United States.
I've watched a literal trust fund kid, a descendant with the last name of their literal robber baron great-great-grandfather, become an exceptionally gritty founder despite having been born with a silver spoon in his mouth. I've also watched the child of immigrant parents—who are supposed to be the most dogged—give up on a startup quickly to take a job at a big company.
While there are no hard-and-fast rules about investing in founders based on their family history, I find the information I learn from these stories to be incredibly useful.
# [Chapter 20
Founder or Fraud?](nav.xhtml#nch22)
## Going the Distance
Being the founder of a tech startup today is like being in a rock band in the '60s or '70s. They made movies and TV shows about lead singers and band dynamics back then, and now they make them about startups.
Bill Gates and Steve Jobs were my era's inspiration. Soon after, it was Jerry Yang, Jeff Bezos, and Marc Andreessen. Of their five startups, three are still some of the largest companies in the world: Microsoft, Apple, and Amazon.
Then came Facebook, with the movie _The Social Network,_ not only making Zuckerberg famous but also turning his first angel investor, Peter Thiel, and his wildcard advisor, Sean Parker, into legends.
The CD peaked at nearly $15 billion in sales in 1999, then nose-dived due to the impact of technology, specifically the internet. As the revenue plummeted, so declined the music idol.
And while the music industry was looking down, our industry's jester, Steve Jobs, stole their crown, with the iPod and iPhone transforming Apple from literally being our industry's laughing stock—an AOL- or Yahoo!-level cautionary tale—into our North Star.
Steve Jobs created the biggest money printing machine the industry has ever seen, with Apple making more in a single quarter these days ($78 billion) than the music industry makes in a year—globally ($42 billion).
At the time I'm writing this book, it's Elon Musk and Jeff Bezos that founders idolize. By the time you read this, it might be the founder of CafeX or an AI (artificial intelligence) startup that captures the world's attention while solving problems faster than we could ever imagine.
Everyone wants to be a founder, but they don't understand exactly what that means. Being the leader sucks because you're ultimately responsible not only for your performance but also for the performance of your entire team, the market, your investors, your competitors, and even your customers.
Most people calling themselves founders today are just playing the role of founder—whether they know it or not.
Yep, the buck stops with the founder and 100 percent of the blame is on you when things go bad.
No one remembers _how_ you won or lost, only _whether_ you won or lost.
The results are all that people will judge you on. You can pile up the lawsuits and bad will for years—just ask Zuckerberg—but if you build a billion-dollar business, no one will care. Build a hundred-billion-dollar business and they will say you're a genius—even if you screwed all your friends and double-crossed your customers in the process (again, ask Zuckerberg).
Being the founder means that all of the hard problems, even the ones the smartest people you convinced to join your team can't solve, are now yours to solve. Imagine you have six people at your startup and every week they run into just three problems they can't solve—one problem every other day. That means you're going to face over fifty challenging problems every month—many of them unsolvable—in addition to the ones you're facing as the founder.
If you're sick, tired, or feeling blue, guess what? F you. Solve the problem!
If you don't have enough resources and your best developer just quit to work at Google? Guess what? F you. Solve the problem!
If your most supportive investor, who promised to fund your next round, gets a divorce at the same time their number one portfolio company gets hammered by a shareholder lawsuit and loses 90 percent of their customers? Guess what? F you. Solve the problem!
Patent troll wakes up and decides to sue you the day after you launch your product? Guess what? F you. Solve the problem!
It sucks to be the founder, but if you're a young person watching social media and TV and you see Snapchat's Evan Spiegel getting engaged to a model and filing to go public, you're going to think that it's all champagne and roses.
I love that fact that people are drawn to the light, even if it may singe them and eventually burn out. At least they tried.
However, as an investor, you have to be careful that you don't invest in thirty schmucks who are not capable of dealing with the never-ending shitshow that is the life of a founder.
Now let's talk about how you, the angel investor, can determine if the person pitching you is a fraud or a founder.
## Key Founder Traits
At the core of being a great founder is the unrelenting desire to see your vision—or version—of the world realized. When you meet with founders as often as an angel should, you're going to very quickly be able to sense if their startup matters enough to them.
What you need to figure out is if this founder will quit when things get hard. Anyone can come to work if there is three million in the bank, people are getting paid top salaries, and you have free food.
Will this founder go without pay for three months, cut the free food, and ask everyone on the team to take 50 percent deferred salaries for a few months when the money runs out?
The number one reason a startup shuts down is not actually running out of money, which is what most people believe. The number one reason a startup fails is that the founder gives up.
I've seen many founders run on fumes, take side jobs, and even put payroll on their personal credit cards to rescue the business.
There is a new generation of fauxtrepreneurs out there now, who are obsessed with the startup "lifestyle," and totally stoked to build a company when it's easy, but who would never consider taking less than what they could make working for Google.
If a founder starts a discussion about their compensation at a startup with "I would like to make what Google just offered me," you can be sure that this founder will quit when they get a better offer. Of course, you can get max money at Google given the fact that they have a massive money printing machine and literally don't know what to do with all their profits.
Another huge red flag is founders who won't start working until they are funded.
Or founders who won't do certain jobs, like making a sales call. Or ones who want to have balance in their lives.
The founders who want to go to Coachella, TED, TEDx, or to other conferences before their company is profitable are not the ones you want to invest in.
When I see founders wasting time at events that will not directly result in landing investors, clients, or team members, I cringe. And I take my chip stack elsewhere.
The same goes for founders who spend their money and time on their office space instead of their products.
Taj Mahal syndrome is perhaps the surest sign that a company has peaked. When I saw that Apple was building the most amazing campus in the history of humanity, with a 2.8-million-square-foot spaceship-shaped building at its center, while their phones and laptops were being panned by their most loyal fans, I shook my head.
Is Apple's greatest creation since the passing of Steve Jobs really going to be their new campus?
Maybe so. Damn.
## It's No Secret
One huge red flag is when the founders of a company sell off a great deal of shares early, transferring all of the risk and responsibility to their investors. That's what the two founders of a horrible little app called Secret, which let you slander people anonymously, did back in 2015.
The founders reportedly demanded $3 million each from investors who were participating in their Series B funding and some dopey venture capitalists, desperate to get in on their viral success—which was based on slandering people, and apparently did just that.
Not only did these dopes cash in big, they went out and bought an actual Ferrari to wave in the faces of their employees and the rest of the industry.
Rule number one if you do a big hit is to keep your head down and not do any conspicuous consumption.
When they shut the company down shortly after raising all this money, Bill Maris, then the head of Google's venture capital arm, said, "It's like a bank heist. I think they should return all the money."
## Silent but Deadly or Silent and Dead
If a founder doesn't communicate with their investors, it's almost universally a sign that they are going out of business (see chapter 27 on monthly updates), but a small percentage of founders are introverts who have their noses to the grindstone.
A great way to test this is to see how the founders behave during your meetings and to questions over email. Sometimes when people cold email me, and if I think the product or their LinkedIn profile looks strong, I will ask them three specific questions. Usually, I'll send an email that goes like this:
Jane,
Nice start, couple of quick questions:
1. revenue by quarter?
2. how long has the product been in market (months)?
3. i've seen a couple of businesses in this space fail over the years—why will it work this time?
Best @jason
These kinds of short emails can result in amazingly concise replies from founders who are efficient. However, most of the time you'll get a long email that doesn't answer the questions, as the founder goes off on a wild tangent.
These founders, who are not concise in their communications, are probably not going to do well in the long term. They are probably playing the role of founder.
"The empty can makes the most noise," as my Tae Kwon Do instructor's instructor told him—and he often told me. If you're constantly asking for your next belt test or asking why someone else took theirs, you are not ready to move to the next level. The noisy students often quit during the two-year-long experience of being a brown belt. It's the quiet, focused students who move on to become black belts.
# [Chapter 21
Evaluating the Deal](nav.xhtml#nch23)
## Timing
When you're evaluating deals at the earliest stages of a startup's life, there is not a lot of data to go on. You can put angel investing into two basic buckets: pre-traction and post-traction. Traction comes in the form of people using and sometimes paying for a product. Pre-traction means the product doesn't have users or revenue.
In the pre-traction bucket, you will hear investors discuss startups in various phases of progress including, roughly from early to later: back of the napkin, basic research, business plan, mock-ups, functional prototype, MVP (minimum viable product), beta testing, and stealth mode.
In the early stages, the chances are greater that you will lose your money, but the valuations are lower to reward you for taking the risk.
A first-time founder with an idea written on the back of a napkin is, generally speaking, not deserving of your funding. If you're a first-time founder, it is your job to build a functioning prototype, or MVP, and hopefully run a beta test. A first-time founder might, if they have a wealthy family, ask their rich aunt and parents to put up $25,000 so they can quit their jobs and hire a designer to complete these first steps (see "Friends and Family" in chapter 7).
If you're a seasoned founder who has built and sold a company before, you can go to your friends and raise $500,000 in seed funding based on a plan written on the back of a napkin, or simply an idea (i.e., "I'm going to focus on educational apps"), but it does raise a big red flag with investors if a seasoned founder does this because, well, they should be able to build an MVP and run a beta on their own.
When evaluating deals in Silicon Valley, there is no reason for you, a new angel investor, to invest in pre-traction startups. You can, but you will be taking unnecessary risk. Furthermore because of your limited time, I recommend that you not meet with anyone who doesn't have a product in the market.
In my mind, founders shouldn't be contacting angel investors in the idea, business plan, or pre-MVP stage. If they are reaching out to you, it's a sign that they can't build the product themselves, nor do they have the ability to get talented folks to build the product with them on the weekends or with friends and family funding.
Is this fair? No.
Is the world fair? No.
You have thirty bullets to fire and this is not a charity; this is a war. You should meet with the best teams capable of building products with sweat equity (see chapter 7) and who have the most traction.
Perhaps after you make a huge return, you can run an incubator for people with business plans, or a coding school for people who don't know how to code, but this book is focused on your investing in thirty startups that will return more capital than you put in.
In my experience, getting in too early is the cardinal mistake of new angel investors. Here is what I see in the market—back of the envelope—and it should give you pause:
* 99 percent of people who write an idea on the back of napkin never do it.
* 95 percent of people who write a business plan never execute on it.
* 90 percent of people who build a prototype never build an MVP.
* 80 percent of people who build an MVP never do a beta test.
* 80 percent of people who do a beta test never incorporate.
* 95 percent of people who run a successful beta never raise money.
Now, put all of those percentages against an 80 or 90 percent mortality rate of startups that do raise money and think about whether you want to give your cousin's friend $25,000 to build their prototype or MVP.
Simply put, there are enough companies that have product/market fit, some traction, and some angel investors but need more capital to finish their mission.
Those are the startups you need to focus on with these first thirty angel investments.
You want the people who are doing it, not the people talking about maybe doing it after you fund them.
## Pro Rata
Pro rata is the ability for you to maintain your percentage position in a company by investing in future rounds. For example, if you were to invest $25,000 in a company with a $2.5 million post-money valuation (the value of the company after your investment goes in), you would own 1 percent of the company.
If the company decides to raise $1 million a year later at a $10 million post-money valuation, which would be a $9 million pre-money valuation that pops up to $10 million when the money is in the bank, you would need to invest more money to keep your 1 percent.
In this case, if you didn't invest more money, and the company did dilute their shares by 10 percent by raising $1 million, you would own approximately 0.9 percent of the company. While the percentage you own would go down if you didn't invest more in this next round of financing, you would own shares in a company that had a valuation of four times what it had when you invested. That's a very good thing!
In this situation, where a company you invested in is suddenly worth a lot more, you should look at who is investing that money. If they are smart people, you will want to quadruple down and ask the founder if you can put $100,000 into the round, which in this case would give you another 1 percent and a stake of almost 2 percent.
Pro rata is the right to maintain your percentage, and it's important because sometimes a new investor will want to invest and take the entire round for themselves. In practice, if one of your companies becomes worth $1 billion, you're likely to pass on investing millions to maintain your percentage, but if you had the option to do so, you could actually build a syndicate of other investors to do so and share the upside with them.
Pro rata rights are a must and you should never do a deal without them.
Most founders will give their angel investors pro rata rights. If they don't, something is off. Why wouldn't you want your early investors to get rewarded? If a founder has been convinced not to give pro rata, or says you're too small of an investor to deserve it, I suggest letting them know that "Hey, I'm taking a real chance on you, so I'm hoping you will let me keep rooting for you in future rounds by writing more checks. I'm not asking for free equity, just the ability to write you even larger checks as you grow!"
This typically works because, well, it's reasonable.
## Valuation
When I started investing in early-stage startups in Silicon Valley in 2010, the price of entrance was $2 million to $4 million. As the market went bonkers, and huge winners started to emerge, like Uber, Airbnb, Instagram, and Snapchat, seed round valuations moved to the $4 million to $6 million range, then peaked at $10 million, before coming back down to earth at $3 million to $6 million again.
Why would one startup get a $3 million valuation when another gets $6 million? Simply put, competition for the deal. Founders are generally going to price their rounds at the highest number they can to reduce the number of shares they have to sell to hit their funding target.
Founders, too, are perplexed at what valuation to put on their companies, so they frequently look at what their friends raised and try to beat it because they're competitive. Or they try to match it so they don't feel like suckers.
Valuations matter, but what's more important is that you get into the best deals. I know people who passed on Twitter and Zynga based on their Series A valuations, in the low tens of millions, only to see those serial entrepreneurs and their companies become worth billions.
A quick way to understand the valuation is to ask the founder directly, "How did you arrive at that valuation?"
Sometimes they will have been offered that valuation by a "lead investor," an investor who puts in the largest amount in this round—say, $250,000—and who is driving the deal.
In this case, the round is probably going to close because this investor and founder see eye to eye and want to work together. You don't have to overthink it here. Either you love the company and you're in, or you don't love the company and you're out. It's not like a $25,000 angel is going to reset the terms of a round.
If the founder picked a large number, say $10 million, and they don't have a lead, you can certainly say to the founder, "So, ten million is your target. How did you get to that number?" They may or may not have an answer. "We have fifty thousand dollars a month in revenue" would be a great answer. So would "We have twenty-five thousand daily active users and we're growing at fifty percent month over month for the past three months."
A bad answer would be "Ummm, we just picked it" or "Someone in the last Y Combinator class got twelve million dollars so we thought ten was a bargain!"
Another great technique is to simply ask the founder, "Is that valuation set in stone?" and just listen. Perhaps they, like countless startups in the past, will come back to you in a couple of weeks, after their round didn't materialize, and have a different number in mind.
This is a marketplace and valuations can go up and down, but valuations are not as important as understanding who the other investors are, how the business is doing, who the customers are, and who's on the team.
# [Chapter 22
Why Angels Should Write Deal Memos](nav.xhtml#nch24)
## The Best Way to Improve Your Selection Process
Venture capital firms invest larger sums of money in a smaller number of startups than angels. A venture capitalist typically invests millions of dollars while you will be investing tens of thousands of dollars. An individual venture capitalist might invest in one or two deals a year and join each company's board of directors until they're on eight or ten boards.
You will invest in five to fifteen startups a year and join no boards.
In fact, venture capitalists look at the startups that have survived the "angel phase" of investing, where products are desperately looking for a market, and the teams are tiny and perpetually under-resourced.
That's why it's important that you build solid relationships with venture capitalists who write bigger checks and work deeply with founders on scaling businesses that have product/market fit.
Venture capitalists place a smaller number of bets, so they are much more careful about doing so. I've seen venture capitalists not invest in a company for a year or more, while they focus on the startups they have already invested in.
Another major difference between your process for investing in startups vs. a venture capitalist's process is that you will make your decisions alone, whereas VCs will debate every investment over multiple meetings with their partners.
In fact, the main reason I've chosen to not join (or start) a venture capital firm is that the idea of debating my investments with a partnership is my own personal version of purgatory—it would be my Groundhog Day.
Waking up with massive conviction about a startup only to sit with a half-dozen bros (the investment positions in venture firms today are almost 90 percent male) in a super-politicized conference room and have to make my case to each of them in order to write a check is exactly what angels shouldn't do.
As we've discussed, in the earliest stages of startups the list of reasons why a startup will fail is long and the list of reasons it will succeed is short.
With dozens of relationships to manage in a venture capital firm, and decades of failed and successful investments made that you have to parse through, there is a simple device by which decisions are codified: the deal memo.
Angels don't write deal memos, but they should, because deal memos force you to crystalize your thinking in the short term. They also help you refine your selection ability in the future by reading your past deal memos to see what you got right and wrong.
## The Greatest Deal Memo Ever Written
The easiest way to understand what a deal memo is, and why it's important, is to discuss the greatest deal memo ever publicly released: a young Roelof Botha's passionate, and well-reasoned, plea to invest in a video startup that was burning money, had come after a dozen previous failures doing the same thing, and had massive legal risks.
That startup was called YouTube and it made Sequoia over $500 million.
In his deal memo, Botha included the following sections: Introduction, Deal, Competition, Hiring Plan, Key Risks, and a Recommendation.
As I've discussed above, the reasons why startups will fail is always long, and Roelof's list of "Key Risks" is comprehensive, including the following observations:
"YouTube faces significant potential competition," writes Roelof, who details seven different types of competitors, from direct ones like Dailymotion and Vimeo, to photo sites like Flickr that might jump into the video game at any moment. Don't forget the large internet players like Google and Yahoo!, entertainment sites, file sharing services, and IPTV (internet protocol TV) companies.
On top of all these competitive risks, Roelof details all of the challenges the revenue model could face, including "We don't know CPM rates YouTube could command" (CPM means cost per thousand views), "We don't know what percentage of inventory could be monetized," and my personal favorite, "We are not sure how much YouTube could grow from its current level of 100,000 videos served per day."
Now that you understand that there are competitors everywhere and that monetization will be hard, the memo details more risks, including scalability (i.e., YouTube's ability to keep the servers up and running cheaply), "balancing growth" (i.e., what if a lot of people come to view videos but people don't upload enough interesting ones?), and the lack of any evidence of an "exit" strategy, which Roelof sums up succinctly: "We cannot point to many high comparable exit valuations."
In summary, YouTube has massive competition, revenue challenges, is hard to scale, and no one will ever want to buy this POS—did we mention the legal issues?
Of course, even after listing all of these issues, presumably to show his partners that he's being thorough and, perhaps, even as a way to CYA if YouTube failed, Roelof ends with a simple and beautiful recommendation:
"I recommend that we proceed with the financing as proposed."
## The Pied Piper of Startups
I have played with three versions of a deal memo over my short angel career. The first was writing notes in my journal. These notes are lost in a stack of journals that I quickly fill but never review.
I've determined journal notes are important for two reasons. First, it lets the person I'm meeting with feel respected because their startup is worthy of notation by what they typically perceive as a wise, old check-writing angel. When Jeff Bezos took notes in his meeting with me and my Weblogs, Inc., partner, Brian Alvey, I felt pretty darn special, I can tell you that.
Second, when I write in a journal, I notice my focus and memory increase, as does my metacognition, which is a fancy way to say "my thinking about my thinking." When I write, I'm Zeus on Mount Olympus, looking down on myself acting out the play of my life, with a massive distance causing a unique perspective that simply listening doesn't provide.
At one point I thought I should write a deal memo as a blog post. After all, I had made almost all of my money when I started angel investing from the sale of my blogging company. I knew my blogging was very popular; frequently my posts would generate dozens of follow-on posts and inbound links. Those links would drive my blog posts to the top of Google search results and introduce more people to Calacanis.com, so why not deploy this in order to get my investments more attention.
I never predicted that the attention from blogging would result in sampling of my investor products, recruiting of talent to those companies, and meeting with powerful venture capitalists—but it did.
It soon became obvious to founders that if I invested in your company, I would probably blog about why I invested and have them as guests on my podcast, _This Week in Startups_. This increased the number of people asking me to invest in their companies. As one partner at Sequoia Capital told me, I was the Pied Piper of startups—a curious reference that later found its way into the HBO show _Silicon Valley_. (I'm sure it was just a coincidence.)
## Keep Calm and Carry On
One of my early investments was Calm.com, a meditation app. I wrote a blog post titled "Why I (We?) Invested $378,000 in Calm.com" on April 23, 2014. The company had, perhaps, five or ten thousand dollars in total revenue at the time, and the founder, Alex Tew—whom I had recently had on my podcast—was a fascinating cat.
He created the "million-dollar homepage," which was a viral sensation. He was a poor college kid who wanted $1 million, so he set up a web page where anyone could pay $1 per pixel. The press ate it up and he made a million bucks.
However, Alex was a bit unpolished as a founder, and every investor he met seemed to quickly pass on him and Calm.com.
In my blog post I wrote: "I picked this startup for a number of reasons, including: a passionate founder (a Brit named Alex Tew who loves mindful meditation & who created one of the most viral things ever: the Million Dollar Homepage), exceptional branding (a four-letter domain name that's in the dictionary!) and solid metrics (many thousands of paying customers, and many hundreds of thousands of free users)."
Looking at the market I said, "Mindful meditation is going to be as big—probably bigger—than Yoga. It's a proven technique, that is being studied deeply by serious scientists at serious universities (http://marc.ucla.edu/)."
I continued in my "blog deal memo" by admonishing venture capitalists: "However, venture capitalists are scared of making a bet on something that's so far left of center. Something that could get them made fun of when it fails ('How's that meditation mumbo jumbo going? Oh it failed, right . . . you could have put that into the next enterprise messaging play, you idiot!'). However, it was clear to me that this will work. In 10 or 20 years, folks will see it as a move as brilliant as investing in a cafe charging 5x more than average for a cup of coffee in 1987 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starbucks#History)."
Thirty months after I made this investment, I met with Alex and he told me the good news. The company was on a $10 million annual run rate and they were profitable. They never needed to raise money again and my investment had come at a critical moment for the startup, which he said probably wouldn't exist without my investment.
A profitable app company with $10 million in revenue is worth, in my experience and depending on growth, five to twenty times top line revenue or twenty-five to one hundred times their profits. Either way you slice it, if Calm.com were to be bought with only $10 million in revenue, it would be worth $25 million to $100 million (or six to twenty-five times what I invested in it).
One of my "jaters" (Jason haters) posted to the question-and-answer site Quora, "Was investing nearly $400K in Calm.com a good move by Jason Calacanis? Why?" The jater added, "Not sure what kind of motivations were behind a bit of a curveball investment like this considering its relatively small niche, ability to scale and return potential."
I wrote back to the anonymous asker on April 25, 2014: "The idea of bankers and lawyers doing yoga in 1986? Also absurd . . . but now it's not uncommon to see 15 to 70 years olds in the same yoga class! It's 100% normal. Meditation? Seems strange to some, until they do it and have a massive, life-changing event."
I added a final note: "There is still a 70% chance that a startup like Calm.com will fail . . . that's just math/historical trends. Of course, I think it has a 70% chance of being a $100 million–plus business that will get my investors 10–25x their investment."
Sometimes I scare myself with my predictions.
# [Chapter 23
The Perfect Way to Decline a Deal](nav.xhtml#nch25)
## Fifty Ways to Leave Your Founder
If you invest in one out of every twenty-five or fifty startups you meet with, you're going to have to say no to hundreds of founders. Saying no to people all day long is a new experience for almost everyone on the planet—unless you were a casting director or a supermodel on Tinder.
Very few folks find it easy to say no, but those who do will say so in a meeting with a founder or by email shortly after that. Giving a clear no is the right thing to do in most people's minds—both founders' and investors'—but the truth is that neither party really wants to hear or say these words because "what if . . ."
Instead of saying no, investors string along founders by saying things like "Let's keep the dialogue open" and "Let me check with my partners." These are code words for "no," but dogged founders, of course, hear "heck yes" when an investor says anything that is not "no." Even when they hear a clear no, many believe there is still a chance.
I've gone through a couple of different phases of handling telling founders no. Early on I would let founders pursue me, using not getting back to them as a way to test their resolve. At times I've been incredibly detailed in my feedback, giving founders all the reasons why I was not investing in them and softening the blow by telling them to "keep this email and do a blog post quoting it when you prove me wrong!"
## You Want the Truth?
Every time I met with founders—before I was banned from Y Combinator's Demo Day (more on that later in this chapter)—I would offer to let founders "take the red pill or blue pill" after they pitched me.
In 100 percent of the cases, they took the red pill and asked me to tell them the unvarnished truth. I would then explain to them, founder to founder, exactly what I thought of their business, their product, and their pitch, plus how other investors would react to it.
Founders thanked me profusely for my candor, except for the precious little snowflakes from Y Combinator. Those founders are like Harvard students, in that they've been accepted into a very competitive program and were told that they are very special, so special, in fact, that their startups are worth two or three times more than other startups at the same stage of development.
When I would meet with them, I would constantly be amazed at the audacity of their requests and how forward they were. The program is designed to create massive FOMO (fear of missing out) in angel investors who come to Demo Day. The startups are not supposed to take investment before Demo Day, when over a hundred startups take to the stage and literally yell at the audience about how large their market is and how they're going to dominate and crush it.
Dropbox and Airbnb, two of the most amazing startups of the past decade, graduated from Y Combinator, so there are reasons for angels to pay attention to them, but truthfully the program has gotten diluted over time as they raised the number of startups per class from 6 to over 120.
When meeting with these startups, I would candidly tell them what I thought and often tell them that I wouldn't invest at their lofty valuations, which were in the range of $10 million, $12 million, or $15 million—in many cases with very little progress.
One YC company that I thought was particularly interesting was called Weave. When they graduated in 2014, I met with the founder a couple of times. The product was poorly designed but a brilliant concept: Tinder meets LinkedIn.
Their idea was that if you were looking to get a business meeting with people who had a particular title, they would show you matches and then you'd swipe, swipe, swipe on the ones you wanted to meet with. So, if you wanted to meet a designer, angel investor, or lawyer, you could swipe your way into a chat room for an actual meeting.
I was very close to investing, so I had coffee with the founder. I asked him how much he was raising, who the lead investor was, and what the valuation was. He wasn't raising that much and he didn't have a lead, which is not atypical at this stage.
But I almost spit out my cortado when he said he had picked a $10 million valuation. I asked how he could justify this number and who had set the price. He said he set the price based on just below what the top valuation was in his YC cohort.
"Ten million is a really high valuation. When I invested in Uber and Thumbtack they were nine million dollars . . ."
He cut me off. "This is only a million more and we went to Y Combinator and the market is so much hotter right now!" he told me.
"Umm . . . you didn't let me finish my sentence. Uber and Thumbtack's first rounds were nine million dollars—combined," I said.
His face dropped.
"You're not Travis and you're not Marco," I told the founder of Weave, adding, "but I'm sure you will be some day."
They raised $2 million, worked hard for three years, did a pivot or two, and then closed up shop. I dodged a bullet. To this day, I think Weave was a great idea and I would still love to see someone take another shot at a professional matchmaking app that was fun, geographically based, and useful.
After meeting with a couple dozen Y Combinator startups and being super-candid with them, they gave me a bunch of bad reviews in their internal system and they banned me from coming to the next Demo Day—a ban they quickly lifted for the next one. I mean, how do you ban one of the top ten angel investors of all time?
These days, when I meet with founders who are from Y Combinator, I take a very millennial-safe approach. I let them know at least five things I love about their business and I'm not critical at all. When they ask me to invest or pursue me on email after the meeting, I let them know that "they don't fit my investment thesis," which is a polite way of saying nothing.
It's worked.
Each of the precious snowflakes now feels special and unique—even in the blizzard of startups that Y Combinator has become.
## Incubator Fatigue
Incubators are great to attend, and I recommend doing so, but I don't think you should embrace the herd mentality they typically ram down investors' throats. Go to a Demo Day and put all the startups in a spreadsheet, rank the chances of success you think each one will have (low, medium, and high), and write some notes in a column with a date.
Pick the top five or ten and invite them to come for a formal meeting. Now write down what your impressions were after the meeting, as well as the amount they're raising and the valuation.
What you will be shocked to see when you check in with those companies in six months is that they are almost always going to still be raising money and will be, in all likelihood, doing it at the same amount—or within 20 percent—of their previous raise.
By waiting to see if these turtles get from their eggs to the ocean, you will skip the bloody massacre that occurs as newborns race to the sea (more on this in chapter 28).
The truth about 95 percent of incubators is that they are for the founders of startups that couldn't raise money on their own. Y Combinator and my LAUNCH Incubator would be notable exceptions, as they accept folks farther along the path.
New angels should meet founders at incubators but invest in them six or twelve months after they've graduated.
## Say "Not Yet" Instead of "No"
These days, I am most likely to tell founders "not yet" when they ask me if I'm ready to invest. It's an elegant phrase that Roelof Botha taught me and it works like a charm. In addition to telling them that I'm just not there yet, I let them know that I'd like for them to add me to their monthly updates.
This gives me the best of all worlds for three reasons. First, I don't crush the souls of the founders, which I've come to realize is my dark superpower. As quickly as I can make someone feel like they can take on the world, my sharp tongue, quick wit, and Brooklyn bluntness can lead me to really step in it. I've told people I "just don't think you're good enough" and "I love your idea, but I don't think you're the right person to execute on it." These types of statements were 100 percent true, but there is no reason to tell a drowning person who can't be saved that they are about to die. You just smile at them as you slowly paddle away, making sure they don't drag you down with them.
The second great part about the "not yet" is that I give the founder the ability to prove me wrong but still include me. A fire in their belly has been lit and they're thinking, "I'm going to show that guy!"
Nothing pleases me more than having a founder "show me," because that means I'm going to be able to make a bet on a stronger company.
Third, I set the tone that monthly updates are something I like to see _before_ I give the founder my money.
Life is one giant test, and interacting with investors is one of those tests. Seeing a person execute on their plan over time is the best way to decide if you should invest.
# [Chapter 24
Due Diligence Checklist](nav.xhtml#nch26)
## Reducing Your Risk
Due diligence in early-stage investing is the voluntary act of looking into a business or individual before giving them your money. Due to the small amounts of money at stake, say $25,000 from a typical individual angel, many folks skip this step.
At an early-stage company, there is not much to do diligence on except for getting a better take on the founders' backgrounds and reputations. If you're investing in a company pre-product/market fit, well, there are no real customers to speak of and certainly no revenue. If they have been in the market and have customers, there will probably be under a year's worth of data to actually look at.
As the size of the checks starts to increase, the amount of diligence typically goes up, with venture capitalists doing paid background checks on individuals for things like felonies and lawsuit filings. However, as we've seen from giant frauds like Enron, Bernie Madoff, and now the spectacular collapse of Theranos, even these background checks can reveal nothing if it's the first time the founders get caught with their hands in the cookie jar. Groupthink or perhaps even delusional thinking also tends to set in during investing, with people looking around the bargaining table at each other and thinking, "If nothing is scaring off those other three successful investors, then I'm not worried, either. I'm sure if something was wrong, one of them would have uncovered it."
Additionally, there is often a perception that a due diligence process might create an uncomfortable dynamic in the earliest phase of your relationship, just like how prenuptial agreements are perceived as untrusting or unromantic.
As you would expect, investors who have been burned before are more inclined to do additional due diligence in the same way that people who have had a divorce—or two or three—are no longer scared of having that prenup conversation.
## Playing Startup Detective
I suggest a deal size–appropriate diligence process, which I've been developing over a number of years. Here's how it works. During your founder meetings, you drill into a number of factual questions, getting more specific as you go, such as:
Angel: How's business?
Founder: Great. We're crushing it. People really love our product.
Angel: How many customers do you have?
Founder: Twelve thousand.
Angel: Twelve thousand, that's impressive! Is that per month, per year, or a cumulative number over the past eighteen months?
Founder: Well, that's sort of cumulative, but we include our registered users.
Angel: Great, so you have had twelve thousand folks sign up for the product since you launched eighteen months ago, averaging six hundred or seven hundred a month. How much is each of those folks paying?
Founder: We're charging $50.
Angel: Awesome, so you are making $50 on six hundred new customers a month for $30,000 in MRR [monthly recurring revenue] and with twelve thousand total, if only half of them have stuck with the product your MRR is at $300,000 total already? You have $3.6 million in ARR [annual recurring revenue]—why do you need an angel round?
Founder: Well, not exactly . . .
Let's take a break in the action here for a minute. At this point, the truth is starting to emerge, and you're learning that there is a different definition of the word "customer" in this founder's mind.
While you might think a customer is someone who pays you money, this founder thinks a customer is anyone who clicked on the Facebook login button on their website once and then never returned.
While you might believe that $50 per customer is their monthly revenue, the founder has a big secret that is making them nervous.
Congratulations, you just learned your first lesson as a detective: your best next question is asking your last question a slightly different way.
Let's get back to the action, shall we?
Angel: Okay, are you saying that you're not charging $50 a month or are you saying that you don't have $30,000 in MRR?
Founder: Well, we just started charging, so we have $3,000 in revenue.
Angel: Okay, great, so you were in beta with twelve thousand unpaid users and you're now charging $50 a month per person and you have $3,000 a month in revenue, so you have sixty paying customers?
Founder: Well, not exactly, okay, so, actually, it's, so far, really we've got $3,000 of annual revenue.
Angel: Okay, great, so you have $3,000 a year in revenue, so you have $250 a month in revenue, which at $50 a seat is five paying customers a month, correct?
Founder: Well, ummm, almost. We have two people paying us $50 a month and we did custom software for them for a onetime fee of $2,500.
Angel: Okay, so, since the onetime fee is not something we're planning on doing, you have two customers paying $50 a month for an ARR of $1,200?
Founder: Well, yes, but they stopped using the product so we had $3,000 a year in revenue last year.
Angel: Got it.
Let's break from the action here and discuss what just happened. A savvy angel investor understands that you have to drill down into the numbers because people will, intentionally or unintentionally, come up with their own definitions of reality.
I call these alternate metrics.
In high-stakes poker games, you will sometimes see a frustrated player rip up the cards, throw them at the dealer, and shout, "Floor! Get me a new setup." In this case, the "floor" is the floor manager (or the pit boss) and a new setup will be two new decks of cards and a new dealer.
The floor managers understand how frustrating or tilting gambling can be, with 80 percent odds of winning resulting in one in five people having a very frustrating outcome, but with the possibility that someone could have three 80 percent winning hands lose—in a row. That's 20 percent of 20 percent of 20 percent—less than 1 in a 100.
Just like "the floor" (manager) has to understand the temporary reality distortion that a player experiences means they believe the deck and the dealers are responsible for their losing streak, you have to deal with the founder's delusions that users are customers or that consulting work is sustainable revenue.
It's nothing to be offended by or concerned about unless you get the sense that the person isn't displaying a normal level of founder delusion and has leveled up to outright lying.
## Crossing the Line
That first example may have seemed like I was just dealing with a harmless, overoptimistic founder, but consider the following similar exchange:
Founder: We're at a $1 million run rate.
Angel: Can you break that down for me?
Founder: We signed Acme corporation for $3,000 last week and we've got a pipeline of three hundred deals about to close.
Angel: So you have one signed deal and you expect 100 percent of the three hundred deals in your pipeline to close?
Founder: Absolutely, we're going to crush it. I just got two more verbal commitments on my way over here.
Angel: But to be clear, you have $3,000 in total deposited revenue to date.
Founder: Closed, yes. Deposited, not exactly.
Breaking from the action again, here we have a founder starting out with a very specific, outright lie: they have a $1 million run rate, which they've either convinced themselves is not a lie or they are just plain stupid.
They probably aren't stupid, since they built a product and got Acme to give them $3,000, so they are probably straight up liars. You can move on.
If you write down all the facts you have and then have your assistant or an associate confirm them with backup documents, you'll be surprised at what you find.
## It Gets Worse
A fascinating security company once presented at my conference, the LAUNCH Festival, and they were pursuing me hard to invest. They had a charismatic founder and a slick product. There were more people around their booth than anyone else's at that year's show.
They felt like a real winner to me and over lunch at the Battery, a private club in San Francisco for tech elites, they told me they had signed Facebook and Google.
At these meetings, I would bring my former chief of staff, Brice, and have him write down a ton of facts. He would put all the facts he thought he could potentially check in our diligence checklist in bold, and the Facebook and Google deals were certainly in bold for this one—those are two amazing reference clients!
When we got into diligence, Brice asked to see those two contracts, so we could look at the duration and revenue potential of them, which we assumed would be long and great.
The founder asked me to call them and confessed that the two deals were oral agreements, but he couldn't tell me with whom or when they would close.
This was, simply put, a lie. Oral contracts mean nothing, we all know that. So to claim them as clients before they signed is fraudulent.
The irony in all of this is that if he said, "We're really close to signing deals with Facebook and Google. We're sending them proposals next week and I can send you copies of all the docs," I would have invested. No one is expecting startups to be a sure thing at this stage, which is why there is an opportunity. If it was a sure thing, it would be called a "bond" or "treasury" and the returns would be measured in single-digit percentages.
Years later, the company was still chugging along, had some modest clients, but was trying to raise large amounts of money from non-accredited investors with aggressive paid advertising on Instagram directing people to an equity crowdfunding platform.
I cringed when I saw this. If it took me some legwork to figure out that this person was lying, what chances would these folks have—putting in $100 or $500 of their savings without ever having lunch with the founder and without a chief of staff to ask the right questions and cut through the nonsense?
There is a reason that financial regulators created a lot of restrictions around taking investment money from the public.
## It Gets Much Worse
The second time I was lied to by founders and almost fell for it was a clever on-demand business building software I had always dreamed would exist someday and that I had been looking to invest in.
We'll call the company "Food Right Now." Their mission was to allow you to take out your phone in a restaurant and have an ordering app know which table you were at automatically using beacon technology—a small device mounted under the table.
No longer would you need to flag down a waiter to place your order. The second you realized your kids were going to demolish the fried calamari that just landed at the table, you could simply take out your phone and order an additional plate.
During the meeting, they talked about trialing the product at a restaurant in Palo Alto that I had been to many times and raved about its effectiveness. They said the manager loved the idea, thought it was a no-brainer, and told them they could either charge $1 for every check or $10 per month per table at that restaurant.
Even now, thinking about this app, I'm in love with the idea and would fund it—but Food Right Now made a critical error that Brice uncovered in his diligence.
When I told the founders I was in pending due diligence, they went and told a bunch of other investors that I was already an investor. This led to a couple of them investing. Quite often, when a high-profile angel invests in a deal, the founders bring that as "social proof" to the angel community in order to get the other dominoes to fall. It works and I'm okay with it after the company has gotten my wire transfer—but never before.
I asked Brice to go to the restaurant where they were running the pilot to try out the system and to talk to the manager.
Brice brought me some bad news. "You're not going to believe this one, boss," he said in his unique deadpan. He was one of my all-time great lieutenants.
He explained that the only "trial" Food Right Now had done with this restaurant was to put a beacon on the table and pretend they ordered from the restaurant. There was never any real trial. What about the manager's endorsement? They didn't have the specific manager's name and they couldn't say what day it was on, but they claimed to have talked to one of the managers on duty a few weeks ago and asked him what he thought of the idea and got a positive response at the time.
What. The. Fuck?
I told Brice we were going to pass on them and then the real problem started: the angels who joined because they were told I was already an investor asked me why I was now backing out.
What. A. Mess!
The truth shall set you free. Heck, the truth shall set us all free! For founders reading this, there is no reason to lie to angels because we all understand that startups are difficult and under-resourced. If they weren't, you wouldn't need our money to fill in all the gaps!
All relationships that start with lies will end in tears.
Avoid the liars. Embrace the delusional.
There's a fine line between those two groups to the untrained eye, but after you've invested in a couple dozen companies and taken a few hundred meetings and asked a few thousand questions, you'll find that the bad ones stick out like a neon sign.
Elon Musk was delusional to think he could upend the car industry by going electric.
Travis Kalanick was delusional to think he could upend transportation by creating a network of on-demand drivers.
Larry and Sergey were delusional to think they could build a search engine ten times better than the dozens that came before them.
People lie, to themselves and their investors and the world, but there is a difference between a factual lie ("We have Facebook and Google under contract!") and a lofty mission (a.k.a. delusion) that if everything goes right, it just might turn into reality, like "We're going to get to Mars" or "We're going to index the world's information."
## The Appearance of Impropriety Is Impropriety
Here's a bonus due diligence disaster story.
Another startup, this one providing services to SMBs (small and midsize businesses), came to me with decent revenue, a solid list of investors, and a charismatic and aggressive founder.
So far, so good.
We met and they had a reasonable valuation and growing client list. I was halfway there and noticed that a notable angel with whom I had done many deals was on the board of the company.
It's always a good idea to ping existing investors, so I messaged my friend and he said the always dreaded "Calling you now."
He explained that the founder had done a bunch of things he considered unethical and I came to a simple conclusion, independent of further investigation, which I live by to this day: the appearance of impropriety is impropriety.
If you can't manage the relationship with your existing investors, you're doing it wrong. Sure, reasonable people can disagree, but savvy founders are able to manage conflict and talk people down and de-escalate. Even if the investor was at fault, I question the founder's ability to resolve the situation.
Is that fair? I have no idea, but I know I don't want to be in business with a person who leaves a lot of bad feelings all around them.
It's fine for folks to bump into each other or even for the occasional elbow to be thrown, just like in the NBA, but no one wants to be a part of a toxic team.
# [Chapter 25
Your First Yes](nav.xhtml#nch27)
## It Gets Real
After meeting with thirty startups and picking the one you think has the most traction, the best team, and the most established group of investors, it's time to let the founders know that you're interested in investing so they can send you their paperwork.
You're going to want to have a solid startup attorney review these documents for you, giving you a brief summary of the deal and calling out anything they feel is unusual. It will take an hour at most for an attorney to summarize a deal for you, and it's well worth the cost.
You should double-check that you have pro rata (see chapter 21). If it's not in there, simply ask the founder to add it for you. They will almost universally do this without much fuss.
As you consummate the deal, you should let them know how excited you are and that you're most excited to get their monthly updates so that you can help.
Put a quick check-in/coffee meeting with the founders a hundred days from now on your calendar, as well as a one-year follow-up call. These are simple things to put on the calendar and my trick is to allocate just twenty minutes so founders don't feel it's overbearing. You can extend the meetings if you want.
There is always a small chance that an early round can fill up or that one greedy investor will try to take the whole round. If this happens, you can always take a shot by asking the founder, "Is there any way you can fit me in by expanding the round or carving someone else back? I want to work with you and help make this company a huge win for everyone involved."
These kinds of heartfelt pleas rarely go unrewarded. If they absolutely can't get you in this round, you can always stay in touch and jump in down the road because startups never stop raising money. Ever.
You will sign a bunch of documents electronically and file the paperwork away in your Dropbox. You should try to get a copy of the cap table if they're willing to give it, as this gives you a very clear picture of who was involved in the round and how many shares each person owns.
Over time, you'll become good at reading these cap tables and decoding the investing strategies of other angel investors and venture capitalists.
You can write a blog post about the company and why you invested. Or you can keep the deal under wraps. Either way, make sure that you are never speaking for the company itself. If you write a blog post, it's best to share it with the founder and say, "You cool with this?"
As a founder myself, I've never been happy when investors speak on behalf of our company—unless we asked them to.
Oh yeah, you're also going to wire some money and, at some point, you may even get paper or electronic stock certificates. Not everyone does this, but it's charming when they do come in paper form.
Congratulations.
You are now an angel investor.
# [Chapter 26
How Founders Should Treat Their Angels](nav.xhtml#nch28)
## Both Sides of the Table
If you're a savvy founder who bought this book to understand how angel investors think, I salute you clever, sneaky little bastards.
You're one step ahead of the class, and you've stolen the next test from the teacher's office—congratulations! Now, when you land a meeting with your dream investor, you're going to have prepped for the "four questions" you have to answer (chapter 18) as well as the four questions the angel investor is going to be asking themselves afterward.
Answering the questions right will be easier for you having read this book, and because you understand the evaluation criteria of exceptional angel investors, you're going to know what actually matters most: your ability to build a product or service that a large group of people find delightful—and indispensable.
Early-stage investors and founders are on the same team and actually have the same goal: to win. The disconnect that sometimes occurs between founders and investors, players and coaches, soldiers and generals, padawan and Jedi Masters, and students and teachers mostly comes down to communication, execution, and prioritization.
In this chapter we will accomplish three things for founders: first, we will explain to you what investors are going through; second, we will show you how to communicate with investors—good and bad ones; and, finally, we'll talk about the value of loyalty.
## What Angels Are Going Through
Angels need you to crush it in order to have any chance of getting their money back and they will be your biggest cheerleaders. They love you and want you to succeed, so you shouldn't hide from them or bend reality to what you think they want to hear. Be honest with us so we can help.
Remember, on average we get paid out seven years after we invest in a company—if we get paid at all. If an angel has a twenty-year career investing and they start at forty years old, then they'll start seeing returns when they are almost fifty—with just twenty good years left to spend that money.
Most angels I meet are salty dogs, broken-down warriors who want to be in the arena but don't have the stamina and energy to fight anymore. They are backing young gladiators like you because they know you've got a better chance than they do to win.
That's the secret about angel investors. We wish we were you. But not.
Just like the "money" executive producers wish they were actors or directors or screenwriters, angels are in it to be part of something. Savvy founders make angels feel included, just like directors might make a producer feel wanted by showing them dailies or talking to them about the script.
Some of those producers will be industry vets with much to contribute, while others will be bankers who stole a fortune and are looking to spend it. It's your job as a founder to know which archetype you're dealing with and to sort their feedback accordingly.
Additionally, remember that 80 or 90 percent of our investments fail, and we have to suffer through shutdown after shutdown. It's depressing for us, especially in years two, three, and four of angel investing (see chapters 28 and 29).
Want to make an angel investor feel special? Ask them how they and their portfolio are doing.
If we make 95 percent of our returns from one investment and 80 percent of our investments fail, you should do a self-evaluation and ask: Am I the one breakout hit for this angel, am I part of the moderately successful 20 percent, or am I one of the weak, struggling members of the herd that takes up a disproportionate amount of this person's attention?
If you're part of the 20 percent that return capital or better, include your early investors in your success because, candidly, they deserve and need a victory lap. When Marco Zappacosta from Thumbtack or Travis Kalanick from Uber calls me, invites me to a corporate function, or sends me a holiday text, it's like having your most successful, busiest child include you in their life. It's like being invited to the White House after your friend won the presidency.
It's awesome.
You'll note that I bounce around here with student/teacher and peer/equal metaphors because the relationship of an angel can be both. With most of my angel investments, I have a magnitude more experience than they do in startup land. I'm their Obi-Wan.
Often, however, I am a peer and simply hashing things out, neither teaching nor guiding, but rather fighting the battle with them side by side.
Infrequently, I find myself being tapped for advice by people much more successful than I am, which seems laughable on the surface but is actually pragmatic given that all of my billionaire friends started from nothing and they cherish my objective advice as much as I enjoy my consigliere role.
## How to Communicate with Angels
Send us monthly updates. Or twice a month. Fuck it, send a short weekly update if it's concise—we want to help and we can't help you if we aren't up to speed.
If you do make it past the feasting seagulls to the water, while avoiding the sharks to become a wise old turtle, remember that we helped you get there—even though you did all the hard work.
Cherish us and help us get a massive return so we can keep investing in the next wave of founders. When we hit that home run, thanks to your hard work and our shares in your company become worth fifty or five hundred or five thousand times our investment, don't begrudge our windfall—celebrate it, because it is more of a reflection of our belief in your ability than in our own abilities.
We believed that you would have greater success with our money than we would. Consider that and call us when you start your next big thing. Save us a precious slice of that next cap table so we can, again, bet on you and your supreme entrepreneurial ability.
We are in awe of you and your ability to create massive value in a short period of time.
Now, if you fuck it up by wasting our money on fancy office space or going to pointless conferences, lose our cellphone numbers.
If you can't be bothered to tell us how our investment is going, especially when it's not going well, or you let other investors trample our rights, lose our numbers.
Life is short. Loyalty is all about intent. So if you're not loyal to your angels, you're an unworthy idiot or brilliant narcissist. Either way, go fuck yourself.
## Loyalty
Life may be short, but people have long memories—even if you don't think they do. I've had many experiences where someone has crossed me and then forgotten all about it, or never realized it, only bringing it up after they wondered why I wasn't doing business with them.
Conversely, I've stepped on people's toes and thrown an errant elbow or two in my day, in some cases oblivious to whom I hit.
I'm a fan of being candid if you haven't already realized by the tone of this book. Life is short, time is precious, so I like to get to the point. As such, when someone tries to screw me, I immediately explain to them my position as candidly as possible.
I will give an example here that is important for founders and investors to hear. This is a tale I call "Jason Calacanis does not eat shit."
## Jason Calacanis Does Not Eat Shit
Recently a venture capitalist friend of mine offered to do the coveted Series A of one of my angel investments. I'm going to obscure the facts below because, well, they all know who was involved and everything was worked out long ago thanks to some candid communication.
Shane, the founder of the startup, called me with the good news: "Jason, we got a term sheet from Investor Vic for four million for our Series A!" (Founder Shane, Investor Vic, and $4 million are, again, not the actual names or amount).
"That's amazing, Investor Vic is awesome. We've known each other for years and he speaks at all my conferences and we're good friends," I replied.
Founder Shane's awkward silence was followed by, "Well . . . I have an issue we need to discuss."
He explained that my pal Investor Vic would only do the deal if I lost a bunch of my legal rights, which I include in all my deals via something called a "side letter." A side letter is an agreement between the company and the investor in addition to the standard deal terms.
For me, a notable angel who brings a lot of value and a syndicate of co-investors, these rights are stronger than most angels', including the option of a board seat if I'm the lead of the seed round or represent more than 5 percent of the company's shares, as well as pro rata and information rights.
Pro rata rights are the ability to keep my percentage ownership in a company in future rounds by continuing to buy shares. Information rights can be broad or specific, but mine are very specific, including all key metrics, board documents, and bank and financial statements.
The reason I require these additional rights is because many of my friends will invest in a startup if I do, and I like to be able to help massively if the company gets in trouble. These rights don't actually give me the ability to control the company—far from it—but they do give me the ability to have more information and a greater level of influence.
Back to the story. "Vic wants to rip up the side letter. Is that okay with you?" asked Founder Shane.
"No, but I will say that it's interesting that Investor Vic wants to screw me, your earliest supporter. If he wants to screw me now, on the first day of this deal, I wonder how he will treat you down the road?" I replied.
When I got Investor Vic on the phone, he told me how excited he was, and then explained how I should have never gotten these rights, that he didn't believe I deserved them, and that he would be the one who decided if I got them. His rationale for all this was "When I got in this industry I had to eat a bunch of shit from other investors, it's part of the game."
I thought for a second of how best to handle this situation and calmly explained, "Jason Calacanis does not eat shit." Sure, it's obnoxious to talk about oneself in the third person, but as I explained, I believe in concise communication.
Investor Vic wanted to take another swing at explaining to me why I would need to eat shit and I stopped him and said, "Let me explain why you don't want to trample my rights. I am the point guard on this team. I invest in thirty or forty startups a year and the best of those make their way to your desk and you've now chosen to invest four million dollars in one of them—one that I invested in three years ago."
Continuing, in a very levelheaded way, I added, "If you try and trample my rights on this deal, I will simply not pass the ball to you in the future—but I will pass the ball to your competitors, and not only that, I will take this current deal and walk it into Alpha, Beta, and Delta ventures personally, and explain to Founder Shane how many unicorns they've invested in vs. you. We'll see if my friends at Alpha, Beta, and Delta ventures feel the need to make me eat shit."
He asked for a day to think about it.
He came back and said we should keep my side letter in place.
We have worked brilliantly together since.
The moral of the story is threefold:
First, as an angel, you need to document and fight for your rights. Be candid with people about why they should respect your rights and make clear the ramifications of them not respecting you. In most cases, people will apologize for whacking you in your privates and claim it was inadvertent. You'll forgive them, even though it might have been intentional, and everyone will move on with a deeper and more trusted relationship.
Second, as the founder of a company, you should be on high alert when a new investor or an acquirer wants you to screw your earlier investors. If someone is willing to screw your early supporters, who helped you get to where you are today, what do you think they will do when your relationship hits a bump in the road? Exactly.
Third, as a co-investor or later-stage investor, it's important to keep up the esprit des corps at all times. Building startups is brutally hard and infighting between investors is an unacceptable waste of precious time and attention that we should be giving to our founders.
I've got dozens of stories like this and I'm sure many people have their own stories about me holding my ground on issues. In every case, I like to think that honest communication, deep collaboration, and taking the work seriously win the day.
That's what I focus on.
That's what you should focus on, too.
# [Chapter 27
There Is Nothing More Important Than Monthly Updates](nav.xhtml#nch29)
## Signs of Life
I have a very simple rule of startups that is cleverly called Jason's Rule of Startups:
"If a startup isn't sending you monthly investor updates, it's going out of business."
It's critical that founders keep their investors updated, but as we've discussed, things are such a mess at early-stage startups, where resources are scarce and competition is fierce, that founders find it easier to just bury their heads in their laptops than to confront or discuss their problems.
It's human nature to avoid difficult conversations, and in startup land every discussion—even in successful startups—inevitably leads to the next set of even bigger problems that you've discovered but have no idea how to solve.
Neophyte CEOs are quickly infected with a never-ending, low-level sense of dread, which makes them avoid meeting with the very same investors they spent months or years chasing.
I often tell people that I get more updates from startups I passed on investing in than from the ones that I gave money to!
## No News Isn't Good News
The death spiral of founder and angel communication happens when a founder doesn't disclose any of their problems until they are out of money. Once I called a startup I invested in and asked them, "How's it going? I haven't heard from you in months."
One of the founders said, "Great, well, except for the fact that my co-founder quit."
"When did this happen?" I asked, puzzled since it was less than a year since I had invested.
"Six months ago," the founder replied.
"Well, that happens. How's the business doing since then?"
"Great, except we ran out of money."
"When the heck did that happen?" I asked, puzzled and increasingly frustrated.
"Four months ago, when we shut the company down," he replied.
I was furious at the founders, but even more furious at myself. How did I let this happen? Why didn't I check in with them more often?
Since that time, I've gone on an industry-wide crusade to get founders to send monthly updates. That's primarily because I want to read them, but it's also because the simple act of reporting on how their business is doing creates a discipline in founders and continues an ongoing dialogue with their investors.
The more concise and professional the updates, the greater the chances that angels will be able to help you, including investing more money and introducing you to their friends as a responsible founder who's a delight to work with.
Angels want to feel needed, and founders who don't make their angels feel needed have lost their most likely source of follow-on funding—their current investors.
You can avoid all the drama with a simple discussion, before you invest in a company, that you can strategically repeat for them at subsequent meetings after you've invested. The language I like to use will go something like this:
"I would like a monthly update from you that includes the key metrics for the business, as well as what you consider the wins and losses since the last email. I would like you to put requests for me and your other investors in the email as well. Every email should have how much cash you have left, your burn rate, and when you will be out of cash so that we can all plan for future raises."
## The Opposite of Monthly Updates
My most frustrating investment was an early one in a marketplace for video production. Let's call them "MovieGigs." I don't have a problem telling this story because I think the founders, who chased me as an angel, have clashed with many investors, and their logic in not sending updates was so stupid that I feel like I'm doing you and them a massive service by stating it here.
The company, which solved a problem I genuinely had experienced, seemed generally promising to me, having gone to a top incubator. The founders running MovieGigs had identified that while the video space was booming, making videos remained complicated, requiring many different people with different skill sets—from shooters to directors to sound engineers and editors.
They created a marketplace where you could place your job, be it a wedding video or a welcome video for your hotel's website, and quickly get back bids from various vendors. Sort of like Kayak does for travel.
After I invested in the company and extended the offer to my angel syndicate, the trouble started. The founders felt that they didn't have to update the syndicate members who had invested in their business. They consulted their incubator alumni list and were warned that information would leak to the press. I assured them this would not happen, but they told me they were not under any legal obligation to keep those investors in the loop. Instead, they would tell me quarterly how the business was doing. I asked for monthly. They insisted on quarterly.
The updates were minimal and the business struggled from day one. It became clear to me that not only were the founders incapable of sending updates, they were probably incapable of running a startup.
While I pleaded with them to send more regular information, the members of the syndicate became more and more frustrated.
This put me in the bizarre position of having to explain to my syndicate members, who are all adults and accredited investors who know what they are doing, why the founders took their money but wouldn't give any new information about the business they had funded.
Even now as I write this, my blood is boiling. If you're willing to cash someone's investment check, then you are business partners and should give your partners the common courtesy of an update.
At one point, I told them, "If your information was leaked and it got you a _TechCrunch_ or _Wall Street Journal_ story, would you be happy with that outcome or mad?"
"Would you do that for us? That would be awesome!" they responded.
I shook my head in bewilderment. The founders understood that having their information leaked to the press would be great for their business, but they were unwilling to risk having their information leaked by giving it to their existing investors.
To add insult to injury, one of the founders told their incubator that I "breathed fire down his throat" for not sending updates. To be fair, that is a pretty accurate description, but it caused some trouble between the incubator and me.
Year after year, the business struggled. As I think back on my experience with them, I am certain that I made a mistake investing in these founders. If they can't handle the simple task of sending a monthly update to their investors, how could they possibly steer that business to an exit? Negotiating an exit is way harder than writing an update.
I took a moment while writing this chapter, infuriated with this never-ending drama, to send an email to the founders and our syndicate. It said:
[ confidential]
REDACTED,
It's been almost three years since you took our investment and you now have a few short months left to save the business. Do you think you could, at the very least, give us the courtesy of telling us something meaningful about the business (revenue, burn, spend since our investment by month comes to mind), how you spent our money and how we might work with you to save the business?
Candidly, you have been the most uncooperative founders I have ever worked with in 150-plus investments and I'm shocked that, with the business on the precipice of failure, you still refuse to tell the syndicate what is going on. We might actually be able to help you, that's what angels do!
I am truly disappointed in you both. Failure is a part of startups, but not communicating with your investors is unforgivable. Is there any way you could change your strategy in the final months of the business and just be candid with us?
Jason
PS—To syndicate members, I am asking all of my future investments at jasonssyndicate.com to commit to monthly updates, and have done the same for all previous investments that have asked for follow-on funding, after our experience with MovieGigs.
[ confidential ]
A month after I sent them this email, calling them out in front of my syndicate investors, they promised to start sending me weekly updates—about the fire sale of MovieGigs and their meager assets!
## Replying to Monthly Updates
I keep a Google sheet with each startup in column A and the most recent month in column B, the previous month in Column C, and so on. When a founder sends a monthly update we put the number one in the corresponding cell, and when they don't we put a zero.
We make the zero cells red and the one cells green, then add up the number of updates we get each month from all startups, and from startups over time.
It's fine for a startup to miss a month or to do updates every other month or quarterly if they are more established, but it's never acceptable to go radio silent. If we don't get an update for two months, we email them and ask, "Did we miss your monthly update?" This sends the signal that we could have missed it, which is always possible with spam filters on email and the massive influx of email angels can get, but we are also trying to be gentle in our request, knowing that founders are in a generally anxious state most of the time.
You don't want to put unnecessary pressure on founders as an angel, nor do you want to waste their time by demanding they file TPS reports (Google it), but you do want them to know you're there to help and that you take your investment in their company seriously.
When you do get a new report, it's wise to read it fully and send a short follow-up with some positivity for what's working ("nice work landing that head of sales") while being understanding about the losses ("Sorry you lost your CTO. Is there a job description I can share on LinkedIn?").
Depending on your related experience, there are always ways for you to be helpful. I like to pose these as questions, as opposed to edicts. For example, consider these two statements:
"You need to do Facebook ads."
and
"Have you considered doing Facebook ads?"
If every investor sent the first one, the founder would feel like a child whose parents give them incessant instructions about how to eat. "Use your fork, not your fingers. Put your napkin on your lap. Eat your broccoli. Sit up straight. Finish your milk!"
Contrast that with the parent who gives their children a reasonable amount of food and a bunch of care and attention.
Which one is a more effective way to get the results you want?
The latter, obviously.
It's also less work.
# [Chapter 28
Your Disastrous Second Year as an Angel Investor](nav.xhtml#nch30)
## Losing Streak
If you follow the basic system I have outlined in this book, which is to do ten $1,000 syndicate bets before plowing into twenty $25,000 investments over twenty months, you will have deployed $510,000 in just under two years (or eight three-month quarters). I will talk in quarters in this book often because that's the cadence in which our industry works, not just when companies go public but also when being examined privately.
A funny thing starts to happen in year two, around your fifth or sixth quarter of investing. The dozen companies you invested in during your first quarter of investing start needing to raise funds again.
Remember, when startups raise money, they are targeting twelve to eighteen months of runway, which is the amount of money they raised divided by the amount they burn in the average month. So, if a startup with five team members spends $30,000 a month and makes no revenue, they will burn through their $300,000 raise in ten months—which happens really, really fast. If the same startup raises $500,000, they will last just over sixteen months if they don't have any revenue.
If the startup in this example makes just $10,000 a month, their runway will increase dramatically, which is why revenue is such a beautiful thing, third to only breaking even—which is second to profitability.
While most startups try to raise eighteen months of runway, they often raise under a year, so many of your early investments will be coyly asking you to have coffee nine to fifteen months after you invest in them.
The fundraising process for early-stage startups tends to be two to four months, so not only will you have your first-quarter investments pinging you, you'll have some of the more prepared or less frugal startups from your second- and third-quarter investments texting, "You up?"
Remember, we said the mortality rate of early-stage startups was 70, 80, or 90 percent? Well, guess what? You're about to see some of your baby turtles, ones that have recently hatched and are waddling their way to the glorious surf, get ripped limb from limb by a flock of vicious seagulls.
It's hard to watch, but this is what you signed up for, the survival of the fittest at its rawest and sometimes most unnerving. You'll see founders cry, break down, and even beg you for money, all while their team loses faith and quits to join more promising startups or, brutally, gets massive offers from Google or Facebook that you can't possibly match.
## Doubling Down
When founders from strong companies raise another round, they will simply let you know that they've found a new investor, hopefully a venture capitalist who also wants to join the board, and tell you what the new terms are and ask if you want to take your pro rata.
You will have a date by which to respond yea or nay to reinvest or get diluted by the new money coming into the company. This doesn't happen too often, and when it does, you should spend as much time as possible figuring out what this new investor sees in your startup.
If new money is willing to pay a higher price, it probably means you picked a winner and you might want to consider putting in another $100,000. If this was a $25,000 bet, you will be quadrupling down, and if you did this as a syndicate for $1,000, you will be, ummm, maybe hundred-upling?!
Centupling.
You'll be centupling.
Thank you, Google.
## A Bridge to Nowhere
You will be tempted to continue funding your failing startups, giving them a "bridge" until they can find their next set of investors, but you have to set some ground rules as you perform triage because you won't have enough plasma, I mean capital, to go around.
Years three and four are when founders confirm for you that you made the right decision when you invested in them, but years one and two are filled with only the confirmation that you are clueless.
The bad founders are revealed quickly in year two because they are no longer selling the promise of their ideas, team, and nascent product—they're selling their performance. If they have performance, they should get funding. If they don't, they will likely vanish—and that's why angel investing is hard.
You have to say goodbye to companies you once loved and that are suddenly gone for good.
The bad news comes early and in large quantities, while the good news takes years—if not a decade—to arrive.
If the startup is selling a product or is a marketplace, you have a very simple metric you can study to decide if you should invest again: revenue. If the startup started making money in month six, you can project the next six months of revenue and talk to their customers. You should look at their NPS (Net Promoter Score) (see chapter 31) and use that to make a reasonable decision as to whether to bridge the company or not.
A bridge round is not a death sentence. Many companies will do one and go on to great success, but it's not a great sign, either, because you're not getting new money to validate the company's merits.
When deciding to give a bridge, you need to have a candid talk with the founders about what the bridge will accomplish, typically by having them present some goals and what the startup will look like when this new tranche of capital comes in.
Many founders are on what I call the "feature death march," believing that if they just add two or three more features to a product they will break out. Sometimes this happens. Most times it does not.
Some founders are on a "savior search," believing that if they just add one superstar to their team, everything will fall into place. Typically they think they just need a sales executive or a growth hacker. Sometimes this happens. Most times it does not.
Other founders are on a "partner parade," believing if they just land this one key partnership, they will break out. Sometimes this happens. Most times it does not.
What you see here is a pattern. Founders believe that one magical event is going to save the startup, be it adding a feature or a team member or a customer. You have to ask yourself two questions when presented with this strategy. First, is it true that this one event will change their trajectory? Second, is it possible to reach that event given these additional resources?
In the case of the feature, you can see if they've tested the feature or started building it. You can ask how long it will take them to deploy, test, and iterate on. If the founder says two months, just triple it and compare that number to the length of the bridge. If you think this is the killer feature that will change the fate of the product, which is entirely possible, and the bridge buys them nine months, well, then, it might make sense to do the bridge.
You can do the same exercise with the savior reasoning. Does the founder have the new director of sales selected and have they accepted the offer? If so, great, go meet with the new sales savior and ask them how long it will take them to start ringing the register—and again triple that estimate. If they are starting next month and need just two months to ramp up, you can expect it to take seven months before the revenue starts coming in.
If the founder hasn't reached an agreement for this sales savior yet and they still have to hire one, well, that's a three-month process at best, but more likely six months. Add the six months to find someone to the six months to ring the register and realize that you need a fifteen-month bridge!
I think you get the point. The bridge round is more often than not a "bridge to nowhere round."
There are some exceptions. Let's say the company has $15,000 in MRR and that is double the month before ($7,500) and almost four times two months ago ($4,000), and the company is spending $50,000 a month. Well, their burn has gone down from $46,000 to $42,500 to $35,000 in three short months. If they double revenue again, they will be burning only $20,000 a month, so a $250,000 bridge is going to get you to profitability, or at the very least $30,000 to $40,000 a month in revenue—enough to trigger new investors to keep betting.
In a consumer product, where you are pre-revenue and looking to monetize when you reach critical mass, like say Twitter, Instagram, Facebook, and Snapchat all did, you can simply look at the growth. If your product is free and you're burning $50,000 a month but you're not growing, something is really wrong and you might have bet on the wrong team.
## Pivot or Persevere?
I'm fairly certain everyone in the world understands what the word _pivot_ means in a business or strategy context, but to keep it simple here, I will define it as "changing your strategy based on a change in circumstances or in light of new information."
There are many examples of great founders learning something profound and pivoting a failing business into something meaningful. For example, Twitter was a project that Evan Williams founded after becoming frustrated with his podcasting business Odeo.
The chat platform Slack was a pivot that Stewart Butterfield did based on the failure of his video game startup Glitch. Rumor has it Glitch spent the majority of their investment dollars before pivoting to Slack.
It's not surprising that Slack became a big hit, as it was Stewart's second great pivot in his career. Back when he was running another failed video game startup called Game Neverending, he pivoted that into Flickr, which was bought by Yahoo! for more than $20 million in 2005.
It's hard to call either of the previous businesses a "failure" in these examples because they ultimately led the founders to much bigger successes.
Year two sucks, but the later years of angel investing—specifically years three to seven—tend to be filled with good and sometimes great news.
# [Chapter 29
Keep Your Head Up](nav.xhtml#nch31)
## Light at the End of the Funnel
Angel investing without deep awareness and understanding can be psychologically devastating. I've met many people who made a half-dozen investments and who are so absolutely sour to the process that they won't shut up about it.
Like snowboarding, poker, kiteboarding, and love, there is a ramp-up time to understanding that the long-term payoff comes from going through the pain. The greatest love story of your life—I'm going out on a limb here—probably had its ups and downs, but the people who stick with it are often rewarded the most.
The first two days of kiteboarding or snowboarding are filled with getting knocked on your ass and having your body ache all night long. You can wake up feeling like you got hit by a car and simply give up, right before you're finally miraculously able to stand and have the most magical energy rush of your life as you and the board are one, embracing a speed and freedom that humans were simply not designed to experience out of the box.
I compare running startups or angel investing in them to being thrown into a large, pitch-black gymnasium with one light switch. You fumble around in the dark, having no idea what you're doing, until you find a tiny switch, flick it up, and all is revealed.
Searching for the switch can take five, ten, or fifty investments, but once you hit it you're going to feel like a genius, and the fear, frustration, and anxiety that comes from investments going bad—especially in year two (see chapter 28)—will lift and you'll have a level of calm when you witness $25,000, $50,000, and $100,000 piles of your cash burn up in completely avoidable barn fires.
You'll smile while your bricks of cash burn, knowing that you'll get more bricks and stack them even higher—assuming you don't give up and you keep learning.
As we've discussed, 99 percent of my time—and some weeks 100 percent—is spent dealing with the dozens of startups in my portfolio that are struggling. They're losing critical team members and running out of money or dealing with deep-pocketed rivals like Google and Facebook, building—or threatening to build—competitive products that they will give away for free.
You've chosen this life and, by reading this book, you know the odds well. They're stacked in favor of people who take a long view and who quadruple down on their winners. They're stacked in favor of the people who are self-aware enough to realize that the losses come early and the big wins come late in the process.
## Panic Is Contagious
There is a psychological technique you can use to keep yourself—and your founders—from staying upset for too long, so you can all get back to doing the work.
Complaining about things is a road to nowhere. People who constantly complain are simply not as happy as those who don't.
When you find yourself in a completely frustrating position, I suggest you take the technique I learned from a book by Mark Goulston called _Just Listen_ in which he advises, in a nutshell, to talk yourself down from an "Oh fuck" reaction to an "Oh my God" for release and on to an "Oh Jeez," "Oh well," and finally a simple "Okay."
Things seem really horrible when they blow up (see the discussion about Sparrow in chapter 30) or people screw you (see chapter 9), but if you remain aware that you're going to go through some normal phases of grief or frustration, you can accelerate those phases.
These days, when something blows up, I tend to move pretty quickly from an initial reaction of an "Oh fuck!" to an "Oh well" and then to "Okay, now let's focus on what's working."
It sucks to lose, but the more time and energy you put into your losses, the more you will feel like a loser. Instead, you should have been quadrupling down on your winners and spending more time on them.
When a founder is failing these days, after years and years of being on red alert, I walk in like a fixer asking simply, "What is going on?" Founders will typically talk themselves out after ten minutes or so, at which point I will ask the same question again phrased differently, "Is there anything else I should know?"
I watch the founder like a hawk. When they inevitably tell me the real story on the second try, I give them some gentle assurance by looking them in the eyes and repeating back to them what is going on, for example, "Hmm . . . we lost our CTO and we have ten weeks of runway left."
We have set the baseline. We have reality now. Freaking out doesn't help the situation, nor does telling a pilot of the plane over the radio to give you the controls—because you're not even on the plane. I like to get the founder's worldview after they explain the problem and I confirm it by asking, "What are you planning to do?" And following up with, "How can I help?"
This all seems like a lot of work, but the truth is that being a founder, specifically the CEO, is the worst job on the planet, as we've discussed. All the huge problems that smart people on your team are incapable of fixing are handed to you. You're facing assault from all sides and there is no one you can talk to.
If a CEO tells their investors what a disaster things are, they are likely not going to keep funding the company. If they tell the employees that it's a disaster, the employees will either quit or be paralyzed with fear.
Think about it. The reason all these people decided to quit other jobs and follow this founder is because they were swept up in the founder's passion. So it only makes sense that they will be swept up in the founder's panic. A CEO's job is to smooth out the emotional roller coaster. Never let your team experience the same highs and lows you're feeling because the odds are they aren't built to handle these kinds of ups and downs like you are.
As an angel investor, your number one job, in my mind, is to be there for the CEO when they're struggling, making sure they feel heard and that they know you are on their side. Sure, you can tell them where the land mines are and point them in the right direction, but you're not going to be able to take over as the pilot.
If you're relentlessly positive and candid with the founders and yourself, you're going to have a greater chance of success and you're going to be able to remain positive, even in the face of failure.
In fact, over and over again I bring all of my failed founders back to my incubator to tell their stories of failure and what they learned. Sharing their stories lowers their own founder post-traumatic stress disorder, prepares my next cohort of founders for the journey ahead, and keeps me focused on the only thing that matters: doing the work.
There are things in this life that you have control over, things that you have no control over, and things that you have partial control over. It's best to spend your effort on the things that you have complete control over, like your knowledge and work ethic.
If you're constantly learning and working hard—two things that are in your control—good things will happen. This goes equally for founders and investors, which is why my reality show catchphrase is going to be "Do the work."
## Don't Speak For Your Portfolio Companies
It's important for you to understand that as an angel investor in a startup you are not their communications director. It will almost certainly become public that you are an investor in a startup, unless you take specific steps to hide your activity.
The tech industry is serviced by a legion of journalists as well as dozens of databases for tracking investment activity.
When it does come out that you're an investor in a startup, the press will inevitably call you and ask you to comment on their status. The press is not your friend. In many cases they are your enemy. Almost all stories have an agenda and often it's not a positive one for your company.
Often you will be misquoted and your comments will be taken out of context. For example, you might say seven amazing things about a startup before saying "but they've got some stiff competition." The headline of that story will wind up being "Investor in Facebook warns of uphill battle against competitors."
By shooting off your mouth, you will then have a founder who is pissed off at you. As a bonus, you'll signal to other founders that you're willing to throw your partners under the bus in exchange for some personal press.
When the press contacts you, you are to do two things immediately. First, forward the email to your founder and say, "FYI, let me know if you would like me to respond." Second, don't reply to the journalist at all because writers are really clever at getting you to respond.
Even "I have no comment" can be twisted by a journalist into a headline like "Three Facebook investors refuse to comment on Zuckerberg's fifth lawsuit."
As I'm writing this book, my most notable investment—Uber—is getting beat up in the press and it's putting me in a bit of a bind. I've been a vocal and positive supporter of the firm, but obviously I'm not fully briefed on every internal issue at a company that does millions of rides a month.
The best you can do in these cases is privately support the heck out of the founders and their management teams and help them resolve their challenges. Never engage the press—unless the founders themselves ask you to.
If you see me commenting publicly on an investment of mine, you can be sure that it's with the blessing of the company.
Other investors quickly and publicly criticized the company. That's something I would never do. In my mind, if you're a shareholder it's your job to work behind the scenes to solve problems, not create more of them.
That's not a dig to my friends who like to talk on behalf of their founders. It's just a different style of doing things, and I've found it to be more productive.
## Bankroll Management
If you are managing your bankroll properly, you're going to have a much easier time enjoying angel investing. As we've outlined in this book, I believe that angel investing 5 or 10 percent of your net worth is a worthwhile pursuit, perhaps even 20 percent if you're a younger person with a steady income stream. The key is to deploy it intelligently.
If you're worth $5 million or $10 million and plan on putting $1 million into angel investing, that's 10 to 20 percent of your net worth. If you lose it all or make back half, you'll be fine. If you go five or ten times cash on cash, you can double your net worth—all while learning a lot.
However, remember that we want your first ten investments to be $1,000 syndicate-level swings at bat so you can learn at the low-stakes table, where mistakes aren't devastating. After that, in this book, we talk about making twenty $25,000 bets and quadrupling down on the winners with a $100,000 follow-on investment. In this model, no one investment is more than 12.5 percent of your angel investing portfolio, which in turn is only 10 to 20 percent of your overall net worth. That makes no one investment more than 1.25 to 2.5 percent of your net worth.
Where people get in trouble angel investing is having too few names, say four investments of $250,000, and a quick process for making those bets. There is no rush here, as great companies are going to always be built—especially in down markets.
When you are managing your bankroll as I recommend, you're going to be able to look at the $1,000 losses and not care, the $25,000 losses and say, "Oh well, it's only .25 percent or .50 percent of my net worth," and the $125,000 investments and say, "Oh fuck, oh well, okay—this is not great, but I did quadruple down on this company because they were doing really well. It was an intelligent bet."
Rich people drop into Silicon Valley every day and write checks for $250,000 and $500,000 in the businesses we pros have passed on, and they get their bells rung. Just like rich business people show up at big poker games, buy in for a ton of money, and lose it all when their pocket aces get crushed by someone who played pocket threes and hit their set.
You don't need to win every pot. You don't need to win every day. You do need to win in the long term. Think about angel investing as a decadelong pursuit.
## Starting Is Easy, Finishing Is Hard
Starting companies is really easy, but finishing them—by having an exit—is really hard. I had a sign on my wall saying starting is easy, finishing is hard for a decade while I was running my own companies.
Founders think getting funded is the hard part. Then they get the wires in and start deploying their investors' capital. At that point, they realize that raising money is easy compared with getting their investors a return on that capital.
It's just like running for president. You think the tough part is campaigning and winning the election, but once you start doing it you realize that the job is even harder!
Angels have to understand that anyone can start a company these days, given that servers, software, and bandwidth have become commoditized, costing next to nothing, while designing a decent product with a small number of people is easy, too. Heck, even acquiring a couple dozen customers is easy, given the massive scale and targeting ability of advertising networks like Facebook and Google.
You could make a Twitter clone and get to a thousand users in two weeks and build the chat software Slack in half that time. Starting these projects is now thousands of dollars and a couple of weeks, but getting them to a meaningful exit is millions of dollars and many more years.
## Learning from Failure
If you come to Silicon Valley and invest in thirty startups over two years and make this your half-time or full-time job, reflecting on the wins and losses, spending time with other investors and founders, you're going to learn a ton. If you're smart, you will read this book before you start investing, after you invest in ten startups, and again when you hit twenty, because the lessons I outline here, collected over a hundred-plus investments and twenty-five years in the industry, are simultaneously timeless and ever-changing.
What worked when I started investing, when there were one-tenth as many startups being formed every year, doesn't work today. It was wise to invest in great teams, pre-product back then, where today you almost universally want to wait for the founders to finish their product and get to market before investing.
In another five to ten years, things will change again, and the only way to understand where the market is going will be to study not just the market winners but the market failures—along with doing a postmortem on your own forecasting and behavior.
You don't have to obsess over the losers, but I would certainly meditate on them and look for patterns. I was able to fix some leaks in my investment strategy by doing this. The biggest leak in my early years was that I frequently assumed that if I, or my very qualified friends, could execute on a plan, then my investments could, too. I assumed that all founders were dogged and die-hard, but I learned the hard way—after a half-dozen startups gave up and gave their investors five to fifty cents on the dollar back—that not everyone is die-hard.
Sometimes in life, you have to go through it to get to it.
That's angel investing.
# [Chapter 30
Exits: Great Companies Are Bought, Not Sold](nav.xhtml#nch32)
## How You Get Paid
There are three ways in which angels make money from investing in a startup. They all involve the selling of the shares you bought to another party down the road, and it can happen voluntarily or involuntarily.
The best, but least common, way for you to sell your shares is almost always if your startup gets so big that it has an initial public offering. When an IPO happens, your previously illiquid shares, which lived on a spreadsheet at the company, are magically transferred into your E-Trade, Charles Schwab, or—ideally—Wealthfront account (see chapter 9; I'm an advisor).
These shares are typically locked up for the first six months you own them, but after that "lockup period" you can do what you want with them without the permission of the company, other investors, or the founder. You can hold them or sell them, but they're almost as good as cash at this point.
Should you sell them or hold them after an IPO? Well, like every financial decision, that depends on your station in life, your risk tolerance, and the strength and potential of the company.
If you were an investor in Google or Facebook, your net worth was likely 99-plus percent tied to a single stock, which is scary as hell. One friend of mine sold all of his shares when Facebook stumbled after its $38-a-share IPO, selling his shares in the high teens, only to see it go up a multiple of five in the next couple of years. In this case, it was the difference between being worth hundreds of millions of dollars or billions. Now there's a high-class problem if there ever was one.
In other cases, such as Twitter, friends of mine sold their shares at the peak of $69 a share in 2014, while others rode them down to $15 a share in 2016—just twenty-four short months later.
If you were a Facebook or Twitter holder with 90-plus percent in those two companies, there was an obviously sound investment thesis you should have followed: diversification. If you are bullish on technology, which if you're reading this book or were born in the years from 1960 to today you should be, you should have taken your $100 million in shares of Twitter and put it into the top five technology stocks you liked, including Facebook, Amazon, Netflix, and Google (the FANGs, as we call them). You would have been in much better shape.
Everyone in Silicon Valley knows that the FANGs were sharper than Twitter, so moving 80 percent of your Twitter holdings at the IPO price, or anytime during its massive run-up right after, split up evenly among these titans, would have been very smart.
You didn't have to be some genius to know that the FANGs were better run than Twitter; you need only look at the revenue and user growth to understand that.
At the time of the writing of this book, there are many Snapchat investors about to see their massive returns become liquid for the first time in years. They, too, should answer the question: Is Snapchat as well run, fast-growing, and priced as well as the FANGs? If it were me, I would diversify quickly because in ten or twenty years, folks at Snapchat might be gone—but the FANGs will not be.
I've known a lot of paper millionaires who have gotten crushed because they never sold shares or diversified when they could. In fact, there is a chance that the author of this book could see his net worth collapse or soar in the future based on a single stock or two.
## Secondary Shares
An amazing thing happened given the massive growth of Twitter and Facebook in the 2007–10 era: a market for selling private company shares emerged. The reasons for this are (1) the perfect storm of private companies not wanting to go public too soon and (2) the availability of massive pools of private funds from private equity and late-stage venture capital firms wanting to own significant positions in those companies.
While many angels and venture capitalists resisted the idea of letting founders cash out early, they quickly learned that allowing them to sell off $5 million or $10 million's worth of their equity took a great deal of pressure off these broke, first-time management teams.
A person with $10,000 in their bank account and a $10,000-a-month nut is in a constant state of low- to medium-grade pressure, but a person with $3 million or $7 million—after paying their taxes—has enough to buy a loft and take a first-class vacation with their family every year. They don't need to worry about what they spend on dinner, clothes, or vacations anymore and have enough "idiot insurance" to feel like they are ahead of the game.
Now, if a founder sells $20 million, $50 million, or $100 million in private stock, like some have, you get into a very dangerous place, as they are likely to start buying homes, planes, and boats, which leads to massive cognitive overhead. A $10,000-a-month nut suddenly turns into $100,000 and they are back to square one, worrying about how they can afford their exorbitant lifestyle.
Angel investors have been able to access these deals much more easily and I have taken advantage of the opportunity to diversify my holdings from time to time. If you have a winner and it's surging, it's tough to sell knowing that your equity is likely to grow. But taking 10 or 20 or 30 percent of your winnings off your table at a high-enough price and putting it back into your portfolio will almost always help you sleep better.
If you owned $10 million in a high-growth startup and sold 20 percent of your holdings and it increased five times from when you did, you would have missed out on an additional $42 million ($2 million from your early shares and $40 million from your $8 million stake that you didn't sell going five times) vs. $50 million if you risked it all.
If you were broke at the time, the $2 million would have taken a lot of pressure off you. If the company completely imploded, like Theranos, or got whacked for an 80 percent loss, like Zynga did after their IPO, you would feel really smart having locked in those gains instead of getting zero.
Some of my best nights playing poker are not the ones where I win $50,000. They're the nights when I claw my way back from being down $50,000 and leaving the table up $5,000.
## M&A All Day
The third, and most common way, an angel makes their money is when a startup is bought. This is a double-edged sword because most of the time a company sells it's because it can't make it on its own. We discussed the horribly early sale of YouTube to Google. While it made Sequoia Capital over $500 million and returned more than the entire fund it was a member of, it was a bittersweet day for investors.
If YouTube had stuck it out, there is no doubt the firm would be worth north of $75 billion, and I personally believe that number would be $150 billion based on the premium the market assigns to category leaders.
Instead of Sequoia making $500 million on YouTube, they should have made $50 billion.
There are three types of M&A (merger and acquisition) deals: acquihires (a.k.a. fire sales), appropriate acquisitions, and premium sales. The term "acquihire" is a combination of "acquisition" and "hire," and it's what you call it when a big company buys a smaller company only to hire the entire team without doing a complete end run around the investors. When a startup gets acquihired, shareholders are likely to get back just pennies for every dollar they invested, while a B- or C-level banker in a bad suit gets paid a $50,000 retainer and $100,000 minimum commission to sell that company for $500,000 to $2 million.
It's ugly and it sucks and no one wins except maybe the acquirer, who gains a dozen talented new employees for far less than the cost they would have paid headhunters to recruit those individuals and without losing all of the time it would have taken them to learn how to work together. As a bonus, there's always a chance that the product they were working on becomes meaningful.
## Little Birds and Big Vultures
In the recent fire sale of a promising startup let's call Sparrow, a hired CEO had run the company into the ground, turning $1 million in sales in the year he joined into $750,000 the next year. He then hired a banker to sell the company that he destroyed.
When the final sale price of around $400,000 was presented to me for my signature, I learned that almost 40 percent of that was going to the banker and the CEO's severance package and that the CEO had sent some employees to the acquiring company in advance of the deal without the consent of the investors—which sounds legally actionable to me, but taking legal action against startups you've invested in is often a waste of time, as I explained in chapter 9.
To get eight cents on the dollar going to investors with a company making $750,000 a year and being bought for way less than one times revenue was bizarre.
Of course, there is little you can do in these situations, as you're usually fighting with a bunch of vultures over a festering corpse. I withheld my signature until I extracted $100,000 in advisor shares in the acquiring company that were very tightly bound to me, my LPs (limited partners), and my syndicate.
The failed CEO kept telling me that I was holding up the sale. I kept telling him he ran the company into the ground, so it was shameful of him to collect a huge severance on the way out. Hired CEOs almost never work out, and the ones who care more about their severance packages than the business succeeding in its mission—like this one—are the worst of a bad breed.
He said I would ruin the deal if I talked to the acquiring CEO, but I did it anyway. The CEO, it turns out, was a fan of my podcast and my magazine, _Silicon Alley Reporter,_ from the '90s. He was happy to have me on his board of advisors.
So, there is a chance that an eight-cents-on-the-dollar deal that was being rammed down my throat might still wind up breaking even or returning two times my investment or more. For me, that's glorious because all returns have value—no matter if they're ten or twenty or fifty cents on the dollar. If I get two times my money back on this deal, it will be another $200,000 I can deploy into eight other startups—and that is why I fight and never give up.
I was a money-losing poker player for the first four years because I would leave when I lost a certain amount of money. Today I'm a cash-positive poker player because I try to leave the table only after I've won a big pot, buying in over and over again until I do.
## Smart and Gets Things Done
Other M&A situations come from out of the blue and you're dragged along. My friend Joel Spolsky, a fantastic founder in New York City, invited me to invest in his Trello task management software after guest starring on my podcast. I tossed in $100,000 and two years after I did, I got an email alert that a public company had purchased Trello, providing us with a return of more than eight times.
Yum! Yum! for JCal!
In these situations, you receive a bunch of paperwork to sign and you are "dragged along" with the majority of the shareholders. You don't have a choice, as your agreement states that if the majority decides to sell, then the company is sold. As an angel, you sometimes have very little control, but you have many swings at bat.
You sign the paperwork and collect your return and go back to the plate and start swinging the bat again. Singles and doubles aren't home runs, but they frequently win the game. Some angels never hit a hundred-times return, but they are so good at getting five and ten times their money on deals that it adds up.
## Everybody Wants You
"Great companies are bought, not sold" is a timeless adage here in Silicon Valley. The best possible situation you can be in is to have a growing company with a huge pile of cash and massive interest from big companies looking to acquire you.
The only thing better than this is when there is absolute fear and paranoia among your potential acquirers that one of those other companies is going to snap yours up before they do.
That's exactly what happened with Instagram and WhatsApp, both of which were acquired by Mark Zuckerberg. I say they were acquired by Zuckerberg for a reason: he did these deals personally and reportedly without needing to get permission from his board. The unique corporate structure at Facebook, as well as Zuckerberg's persuasiveness and aggressive pursuit of Google's advertising market share, have made him the best acquirer in the business since, well, Google.
Instagram had a long-standing relationship with Twitter, and it felt like a no-brainer that Kevin Systrom would sell to the then-booming social network. Instagram was doing so well that it raised $50 million in 2012 less than a week before selling the business to Facebook for $1 billion.
Instagram investors got a massive and quick return, but, much like YouTube investors, they were left wondering what could have been. If Instagram was an independent company today, with its monthly active users number comparable to Twitter's, it would easily be worth more than $10 billion.
Instagram sold way too early, which is of course a high-class problem. We don't know if the Instagram shareholders kept their Facebook stock as it doubled over and over again or if they sold it. And we don't know if Instagram could have monetized their audience, grown their infrastructure, or iterated on their product as well as they have as part of Facebook.
Either way, Instagram was a critical piece in Facebook's ascension and the Google and Twitter folks were not happy about the sale.
Google was an M&A grandmaster for the better part of a decade, with most of their success outside of their search engine and Gmail coming from writing checks. They bought their mobile operating system Android in 2005, YouTube in 2006, DoubleClick in 2007, and the pay-per-click contextual ad platform Applied Semantics in 2003.
However, when a company gets huge and the founders are ten times ahead of the next closest competitor, as Google was with Facebook, you can get lazy. While Google was busy building self-driving cars and high-speed internet balloons, Zuckerberg grabbed hundreds of millions of unique users that were obsessed with Instagram and WhatsApp, and he now has almost two billion monthly users around the globe.
The WhatsApp acquisition was spectacular, coming in at $19 billion. Unknown to me, I was an LP in one of the funds that backed WhatsApp and I got a huge check for being in that fund. Facebook looked crazy for buying WhatsApp for more than 10 percent of their market cap at the time, but what if Google had gotten it? Or Apple? Or Microsoft?
WhatsApp was a social network based on your phone book, which was really the only thing that could potentially derail Facebook, so they had to buy it. Risking 10 percent of your equity is better than losing 50 percent of it.
Operators wanting to buy your startup is the second-most-positive sign in all of entrepreneurship. The only sign that's better is paying customers raving to their friends about how awesome your product is.
When you approach twenty-five companies about buying your startup and not a single one of them gives you a term sheet, you have figured out, frankly, that you and your business suck—at least right now.
Get back to work. You're blowing it!
# [Chapter 31
Finding Your Groove](nav.xhtml#nch33)
## What's Your Strategy?
"Successful startups have a hundred angels but failures are orphans."
Or something like that.
There are dozens of theories about why startups succeed, from "It's all about timing" to "You're investing in founders" to "It's the market that makes the startup."
It's essential for us humans to build unifying theories for complex and random systems because we're scared little bugs counting the days before our death while sitting on a random rock orbiting one of a trillion suns in a random universe that we know so little about.
We create frameworks for everything from the meaning of life ("It's all a big nothing."—Livia Soprano), consciousness (we're living in a simulation), making great movies (conflict, character, acting, or dialogue), and being great parents (model the behavior you want to see in your kids), so it's no wonder we put so much effort into figuring out why _these_ two people with an idea change the world from their garage, but _those_ two people in an identical garage a few blocks over change nothing but their LinkedIn profiles.
Many of these theories we create are the products of the cognitive biases humans unknowingly suffer from, including "confirmation bias," where the person holding a belief searches out and remembers things that back up that very belief (efficient!), to the "negativity bias," which states that bad shit sticks with us and impacts our future decisions more than good shit.
For example, if you lost your money investing in a web-based photo sharing service, you might quickly dismiss the unicorn Instagram because of your "negative bias" for the photo space, never realizing that the "why now?" (see chapter 18) of photo filters combined with high-resolution cameras on mobile phones with powerful processors has the potential to turn everyone on the planet into a professional photographer.
Instagram exploded because it let everyone create sepia tones and blurred depth of field photos without spending $5,000 on a huge camera, expensive lenses, flash cards, and readers, all while wasting hours in Photoshop—which also cost hundreds of dollars!
It was a miracle that we now take for granted.
Let that sink in for a moment, because in almost every investment decision you'll face, some of your bias will be unknowingly triggered.
Remember, we have more blind spots than we do clear vision, so you must unlearn what you have learned to be a successful angel.
## Some Angels Bet on Founders
I always tell folks that I don't need to figure out if your product will succeed, I just need to know if you will succeed. If I have a gift in this angel investing game, it's that I'm good at reading people and figuring out how meaningful winning will be to them.
It probably comes from years of trying to read the best poker players in the world—and failing often.
Some of the techniques deployed in poker are applicable to startups, including "putting people on a range of hands." What this means in poker is that after playing with a person for a couple of hours, you should be able to narrow down what two cards they have by their poker actions (betting, raising, going all in) and by their non-poker-related behaviors (playing with their chips, leaning forward or backward, talking more or less than they normally do, drinking water, etc.).
This is a bit of art and a bit of science in poker, because the people who are very good at the game actually know what the common tells are and will "level you" by throwing out tells that historically equal weakness (i.e., talking a bunch and leaning in over their chips) when they're really strong, while acting strong when they're weak (leaning back and being quiet is the classic tell for strength. For example, picture a guy from Texas with a big hat leaning back and chomping on a cigar with a look on his face that says, "Go ahead, call my bet so I can flip over my cards and break your heart").
In the startup game, we generally don't have this kind of "leveling," but there is plenty of gamesmanship.
For example, the founder of Theranos, Elizabeth Holmes, took to wearing black turtlenecks like Steve Jobs and she dropped out of college just like Bill Gates and Mark Zuckerberg. She claimed she could do blood tests with micro samples of blood taken from a pinprick as opposed to drawing vial after vial of blood from your arm.
A few savvy investors passed when Holmes wouldn't show them the technology, as they should have. They didn't buy into her act. She claimed trade secrets when they asked to look at the tech, which was an obvious—but perhaps unconscious—bid to imitate Steve Jobs. Famously, Jobs deployed all kinds of secret labs, iron-clad nondisclosure agreements (NDAs), and security procedures to create an aura of importance around the next mouse or iMac.
But many equally smart investors fell for Holmes's story and they are now doing something you never see in Silicon Valley: they are suing their own portfolio company. Suing a startup you invest in is extremely rare because it's a very hard case to win.
Think about it: everyone who invests in startups for a living has a long list of failures that prove they know how risky this all is. All the documents we sign, all the interviews we give at conferences, and all of the industry statistics show a clear expectation that you will lose your money on most and make your returns on a few—perhaps just one—investment.
What judge or jury is going to believe that a professional investor didn't understand the risks in investing in a college dropout who had never run a business, and who claimed she had a secret technology that none of the other major blood testing companies could figure out over decades of research, that could diagnose diseases with a pinprick of blood?
Even the OJ jury, after doing tequila shots for hours in the hot sun, wouldn't side with the investors—unless they were presented with massive undeniable fraud.
So, the only motivation a reasonable investor would have to sue a startup they invested in is if they felt they were intentionally duped. This is why due diligence is important (see chapter 24), especially in later stages when there is actual data that can be verified. Remember, however, that in the case of Theranos, Holmes used the "tell" of Steve Jobs–like secrecy as a way to avoid showing investors the technology.
And, apparently, some of them fell for it and invested without seeing the technology.
How would an investor have been able to avoid backing Holmes, who at this point is facing assault from all sides, including the government, former employees, and investors?
Fairly simple: insist on seeing the technology early on with someone who has worked in the blood-testing space and who had signed an NDA with Theranos. It's a perfectly reasonable request.
If Theranos says no, you have an easy out because who wants to be involved with a founder with no track record and who doesn't trust you enough to let you see what you're investing in? That's like a director who has never made a film telling a money producer, "No, I can't show you the script of this movie even though you're funding it."
What?!
Now, after the Theranos product was released for a small set of diseases, there was an even simpler way to vet it: go to a random store offering the Theranos tests and take them and compare the results to traditional blood tests.
Ironically, that's exactly what a former Apple executive, Jean-Louis Gassée, who worked for Steve Jobs, did.
His results showed that the Theranos tests didn't work and Holmes never responded.
So, back to poker for a moment. I could go into a ton of examples of poker hands here, but the easiest one that even people who don't play poker could understand is the following.
Imagine you're playing poker with someone who hasn't played any hands in the past three hours. This person would be considered a "tight" player because they only play the best hands (say two aces or two kings, or an ace and king). They get to bet first, before you do, and they put out a raise. You re-raise them and they quickly call. Do you think they are playing a 5 and an 8, or do you think they have a big pocket pair, like two aces, kings, queens, jacks, or 10s?
Did they really wait hours and hours to play a shitty hand like a 5 and an 8?
If after the next set of cards comes out (the flop) and it's ace, 6, 7, and they bet again, now what do you think they have? Did they wait hours and hours at the hopes of having 5, 6, 7, and 8 so they could draw to a straight (by getting a 4 or 9)? Of course not.
Most folks in poker are easy to read. They play what is called ABC poker, which is to say, they do what is expected. It's only the top 20 percent that are the challenge.
Elizabeth Holmes represents that top 20 percent of sophisticated, and often pathologically deranged, startup founders who will do anything it takes to win, from playing a part to outright lying to investors.
At the time of publishing this book, Theranos was spinning around the drain of the toilet (end of metaphor, I think you get it). Perhaps by the time you read this she will have magically produced her technology after ten-plus years in development and filibustering when asked to show it—or maybe she'll be in jail and become the tech version of Bernie Madoff.
Anything is possible, but I think we all know what's probable in this case.
Either way, Jennifer Lawrence is set to play her in the movie by Adam McKay, the director of _The Big Short_. I'm hoping to get a cameo as an angel who laughs and passes on investing when she tells me I can't see the technology.
It could happen.
On the other side of the "people theory of startups" are founders who have a singular focus and execute at the highest level. Zuckerberg comes to mind not for being a visionary but for having a superhuman level of focus—like the Terminator.
Zuck was able to see what Friendster and MySpace created in social media and execute, in the early days, about 20 percent to 50 percent better than they did on any individual feature. Facebook's site was notably faster and its design was easier to understand.
Then he made the sign-up flow 50 percent better by not letting you see profiles before you signed up and the entire service 100 percent better by building a better newsfeed—inspired by Twitter's work.
After that, he sorted the newsfeed 50 percent better than Twitter's by sorting not chronologically but by which posts got the most likes and comments (i.e., engagement). That's why, when you load Twitter, you see a bunch of random tweets from the past fifteen minutes, but when you open Facebook you're greeted with a baby announcement, a death announcement, and the most popular viral video in the system with a note about which of your friends really like watching chubby pandas rolling around in the mud. (FYI, it's all of them. I just saved you a click.)
Important to note that Zuck and Holmes both dropped out of school.
Important to note that Zuck and Holmes both wear the same simple "uniform" every day (Zuck wears a hoodie and gray T-shirt, she the Jobs black turtleneck).
Important to note that Zuck and Holmes both believed they were building the most important company in the world.
However, Zuck showed his work and explained what they were doing and why to investors and the press. It was very clear after a couple of years of consistent product cycles that there were few people who could hold their focus on incremental product improvement and growth the way Zuck had.
Zuck might not be the most creative founder we've seen, but he is certainly the most consistent and terrifying. Just like Arnold Schwarzenegger's Terminator, everyone knows that Zuck will not stop.
## Some Angels Want to Solve a Problem
"What problem do you solve?" is a classic venture capitalist question that is sometimes phrased as "Is your startup a vitamin or a painkiller?" or "What pain do you remove?"
The bottom line is that many of the great companies in the world were built on the promise of removing pain from people's lives. Sometimes folks have a huge problem and they are searching for a solution.
When I started working in Manhattan in the late 1980s, all of the law firms still had huge mailrooms with large staffs of messengers, who would race around Manhattan with bundles of documents. It was always an interesting place for me, as a person who was building computer networks for law firms, to visit because I knew it would soon be gone.
My first jobs were setting up what was called "document management" systems on LANs (local area networks).
When we visited a law firm and studied how they went from a contract to signed contract, it went something like this: a lawyer would draft a document on paper or dictate it to their secretary who would send it to the "typing pool," which was a room full of, you guessed it, people on typewriters creating documents.
The final draft would get proofed and sent to the "copy room," which was a room full of photocopy machines, before going to the mailroom to be sent by cannabis-powered messengers whipping through Manhattan on ten-speed bikes, whose frames were tightly wrapped in electrical tape to disguise their value and protect them.
The signed copies, as well as all the revisions, would come back and be sent to the document storage lockers in the basement and a warehouse in Queens.
The document management software and email systems we were installing solved so many of these problems that law firms would literally spend thousands of dollars per year per attorney installing and maintaining them.
Lawyers couldn't spend their money fast enough with LAN Systems, the company I worked for.
We held parties, had a bonus program, took Lincoln Town Cars home every night, and our bosses took us to Scores, a strip club, every month with our clients, buying thousands of dollars' worth of "funny money," to spend on strippers.
We solved many pain points and were paid handsomely to do so. We eliminated the typing pool; we eliminated half the secretaries taking dictation because lawyers started cutting and pasting documents. We made the lawyers bionic by making templates for common documents where they filled in the blanks.
I could always tell how important our solution was because the top partners in a firm would come to the meetings with us and go over every single aspect of the software and network and what it could do. Can two of us work on the same document at a time? Can my partner in Los Angeles edit this same document or do I need to FedEx them a floppy disk?
All day long they dealt with pain, and the power of the networks and software eliminated their headaches so deftly that they created budgets for IT staffs that ballooned to over 10 percent of their total staff.
When you look at a startup that is creating the eighty-ninth photo sharing app, you have to ask yourself, Is this really solving any major pain points?
I like to put pain points into two buckets: Indiana Jones and Louis C.K.
If you remember the second Indiana Jones movie, with the greatest opening of any movie ever, Indy is trading a relic with some gangsters, who upon consummating the deal by spinning a huge diamond in exchange for an urn filled with ashes on a lazy Susan, inform Indiana Jones that he just drank poison in his champagne and that they have the only antidote and he must spin the diamond back to them to get the antidote.
Put aside the massive gaps in logic in this scenario and think about the problem of having just drunk poison and someone having the antidote.
That's as powerful as it gets, and that's why rattlesnake venom is expensive and pharmaceutical companies are so hated because they can charge so much for lifesaving drugs.
Most startups do not cure death, but if you've found one that does, put down this book and email me immediately at [email protected].
Of course, some startups are working on problems that in the long term will lower the numbers of death, but they are less critical than those in the Indiana Jones example. They include Uber and Tesla creating self-driving car technology that will reduce the number of deaths on the road here in the United States from thirty thousand–plus a year to thirty a year in the next thirty years, I predict.
Reducing death in short-and long-term situations is virtuous, but there are more pragmatic things startups work on, like the ability to show you the various versions of a document you've worked on, or collaborate on that document over thousands of miles in real time.
Microsoft has had two major cash cows over the years, Windows and Microsoft Office. The latter included Word and Excel, which made billions of dollars in profits by solving these very real pain points I've mentioned.
Of course, Office created a new set of pain points, the most notable of which was that the local storage of documents on fragile hard drives that frequently failed or were corrupted by viruses resulted in the loss of many manuscripts and business plans. These pain points created huge new categories of startups, including external hard drives, antivirus software, and backup software.
Eventually, when bandwidth and server storage costs plummeted, Dropbox pioneered a solution that solved the very real problem of lost documents: the cloud.
In ten short years, Dropbox and competitor Box, along with Amazon Web Services (AWS), have generated tens of billions of dollars in value for investors, while removing a massive pain point for consumers (lost documents).
Now the cloud has brought forth a new series of problems that will inspire a new cluster of startups to solve. The two biggest problems the cloud has brought forth seem to be, so far, the security of data stored in the cloud, which is resulting in trade secrets being stolen and ransom being charged to those who don't have two-factor authentication turned on.
The second problem that has emerged is searching and sorting through the massive amount of data being thrown into the cloud.
However, do you think either of these problems is as dire as the ones that have come before them? Are they removing as much pain—probably not. The problems around documents have been worked on for more than half a century by technology companies, so many of the problems are now becoming softer and more infrequent.
Which leads to the hilarious Louis C.K. bit on Conan O'Brien's show, in which he explained how "everything is amazing right now and nobody's happy." Louis chronicles how people used to deal with things like getting money from a bank (going inside and waiting in line) before explaining how early credit cards used to work.
For those of you who were born after 1990, it went something like this: you gave your card to a waiter, who used a pen to fill out a carbon copy form with your name and number, before sliding it in a medieval machine that made an impression of your card on the paper (this could take three or four back-and-forth motions), and then calling the credit card company to talk to a human operator who would give the waiter an authorization code.
This process could take more than ten minutes. I know because I used to do it at my dad's bar in the '80s.
Of course, all those carbon copies had to be split apart and mailed to the credit card company, which would send the money to the bar and a paper statement to the individual over postal mail. You the consumer would take out your checkbook and write a check and put it in an envelope and mail it to the credit card company.
Today you tap your card or phone and get your receipt in your email box and the money is typically deducted from your bank account—all before you get up to leave the dinner table.
In another ten years, you will look into a retina scanner at checkout and carry no money or credit cards. Amazon has already demonstrated this with their checkout-free grocery stores.
Louis C.K. ends his bit with how entitled people are when flying, explaining how pissed off his seatmate was when the internet on his flight went down.
In-flight internet is the perfect example of a soft problem that people thought was hard. Sure, people said they would pay for Wi-Fi on flights, and hundreds of millions of dollars were invested in in-flight internet companies, but the truth is that consumers lied.
Consumers were over the moon with the concept of internet access on flight and they said they would pay for it. Investors and founders were excited, too, but when presented with the option of spending about $5 an hour for internet access, people didn't bite.
The truth was, being without the internet for one to five hours wasn't a hard problem for people—it was a nice respite. Plus, people quickly learned to download games, movies, books, podcasts, music playlists, and audiobooks to their devices before they left for the airport and while on their unlimited home broadband internet connections.
In-flight internet shows a confirmation bias in investors and founders, because they focused on the data that pointed to mass adoption (surveys, mobile data subscribers, dial-up subscribers, the cost vs. in-flight movies and their ticket) while ignoring the obvious: people have said for ages that they love to read, sleep, and watch movies on flights—none of which require internet.
Just like phones on planes, which used to be on the back of every headrest, the pain wasn't deep and often, like it needs to be for people to pay.
Make an _x_ axis and _y_ axis and name them "intensity of pain" and "frequency of people experiencing that pain." In the top right, you have things that are very painful and that you experience all the time; in the bottom left you have things that are not painful and that don't happen that often. Then there are things that are very painful and infrequent or not very painful but very frequent.
You can put the pain of not having internet in the bottom left, even though we act like it's in the top right.
Now, some products exist to delight their customers, like Disneyland, ice cream, and the movies, and they make serious bank without taking away any pain.
You've probably never said "I'm in serious pain right now because I'm not waiting in line to go on a roller coaster" or "I've got to figure out a way to put some cold, fat, and sugar in my mouth quickly!"
The only time I can remember being physically in pain wanting to see a movie was _The Empire Strikes Back_ , so much so that I left school at noon, cut three classes, and was first in line at the Fortway Theatre in Brooklyn. My father got a call from my junior high school and drove directly to the movie theater, knowing I would be there.
I thought he was going to take a swing at me when he pulled up and motioned for me to come to him. I braced for impact, because I'd taken a shot or two from him before, and was delighted to see him pull $40 from his pocket and say, "Get tickets for your brothers, too, and don't cut school again."
Dealing with my dad was always a mixture of delight and pain, but I'll save all of that for another book.
## Some Angels Bet on Delight
As I mentioned, some startups are so delightful to use that people can't live without them and will pay a premium for them. These startups have pricing power, and pricing power is a magical thing in the world of business because it's rare and because it results in obscene returns.
Delight startups are the opposite of problem startups. It's common to hear investors ask, "Is your startup a vitamin or a painkiller?"
Apple makes products that are so aesthetically delightful, even when years behind competitors' products, that they command a massive premium. An Android phone with better hardware specs and better features will still sell for hundreds of dollars less than an iPhone. Same with a laptop or headphones from anyone who isn't Apple.
Most of all, we saw this when Apple launched their Cinema Display, which came in a gorgeous brushed aluminum casing, but at twice the price as the same-quality monitor from Dell. Apple fanboys and-girls bought the monitor with the sexy logo for upward of $1,000 more. Insane!
There is a simple tool for figuring out how delightful a startup's product is. It's called NPS and it stands for Net Promoter Score. You've probably taken an NPS survey before. An NPS measures the willingness of customers to recommend a company's products or services to others. Smart founders use the feedback from NPS surveys to improve their services and maximize their growth.
## Some Angels Bet on Markets
There are some investors who feel it's the market that makes the startup. They will look at the size of the insurance, food, or transportation industries and say, "Technology is going to massively impact these industries—let's find startups who are innovating in this market."
If you thought the food market was ripe for disruption, you might look at the massive trend of people wanting to eat more protein—especially red meat—and try to find mock hamburger companies or people who think they will be able to 3-D print a steak. You might consider alternative proteins, like a startup I've considered investing in that is focused on cricket protein flour (the cookies taste awesome).
Other folks will look at the transportation space and see that cars are unused 95 percent of the time and conclude that car ownership will end and car sharing will be the future. They might think Uber or Zipcar will be the big winners in this space, but as you can see from the performance of those two companies, they are two very different concepts. In the first solution, you are driven door to door, but in the second you take possession of a car for a short period and drive—and park—yourself.
The latter is a closer analogy to what people do with car ownership, so that might seem like the easier solution for people to embrace, but it's turned out to be the opposite—people don't just want to give up car ownership, they never want to even be in possession of one!
This is why the market strategy is not as effective as the founder and problem theories of startups, in my mind.
The good news is you don't need to pick one theory and live by it. You can be holistic and run a startup through all of these theories and see where they wind up. Then convince yourself to ignore the ones you don't like and use your gut!
# [Chapter 32
Where Does Your Angel Story End?](nav.xhtml#nch34)
Writing this book has been one of the most reflective and rewarding processes of my life. I'm glad I told my literary agent and rabbi, John Brockman, that I wanted to wait until I had "one more big win" to write a book because, as I codify my playbook, I'm asking myself if I still want to keep running it.
That's why you don't see any books on angel investing or meet many career angel investors. In fact, there have only been a handful of people who have done angel investing for a complete decade and I am on a first-name basis with all of them: Esther Dyson, Mark Cuban, Stewart Alsop, Mitch Kapor, and Ron Conway top my list of angels who just won't stop.
Angel investing, as we've learned, is a unique vocation, because if you're qualified to be an angel, you are overqualified to be a venture capitalist, and venture capitalists have a much easier and more financially rewarding life.
Angels deal with a mortality rate in the 80 and 90 percent range, which can make your life feel more like that of a hospice worker than a financial wizard. Venture capitalists can move so far downstream that they deal with a mortality rate half that—or less—of an angel.
Oh yeah, because venture capitalists are putting more money into a smaller number of deals, they have fewer people calling them and fewer deals to negotiate. As a reward for doing less than angel investors, they get paid more by placing a small number of bigger bets and have the management fee teat to suckle on.
These management fees are an advance on returns paid to venture capitalists by LPs every year to cover their salaries and overhead. It's typically 2 to 3 percent of the total amount raised—every single year.
I've been asked to join a number of venture firms over the years, which would allow me to make more money and have no overhead. The only requirements would be that I engage in one or two new investments a year and be on the boards of six or eight startups. I could take off summers and winters, too, and jet off to Italy and Aspen and . . . and . . . Fuck, I should do that!
Why don't I? Well, to be honest, as much as I love being an angel, I'm tempted. Seriously tempted. Why not spend more time with my kids and less time hustling? Why not wait under the basket for the next Jason Calacanis to bring the ball all the way down the court before I slam-dunk it and get the max money deal for scoring the most points on the team?
That's the biggest danger for angels: success. If you hit a huge win, you're going to quit, almost everyone does, because the chances of me hitting another Uber is next to impossible (they come once a decade), and while the chances of me hitting another Thumbtack is almost assured, the billion-dollar exits are never going to be the same level as the $50 billion or $100 billion or $250 billion ones.
But back to you. Here are all the common scenarios of what will happen if you invest in thirty startups in the manner I've described in this book, with the first ten being $1,000 syndicates and the next twenty being $25,000 bets, and then putting an extra $100,000 into each of the top five startups in your portfolio.
In this scenario, you will have put $510,000 into your first thirty deals, watched for winners, and put another $500,000 into the winners. You'll have put just over $1 million to work.
## You Return Less Than You Invested
If 90 percent of your startups die and five have modest exits that return just your money invested, you will have gotten back around $500,000 of your $1 million, losing a half-million dollars. As a high-net-worth individual, this loss will not feel great, but you will have only lost 5 to 10 percent of your $5 million to $10 million net worth. You're rich and your other investments returning 5 percent a year in the stock market will easily make up for this $500,000 loss.
You'll be able to study your investment thesis and either use the exact same exit strategy in your next thirty startups or upgrade your strategy and do even better. Certainly, you've learned something from your three to five years of angel investing that will give you an edge when you do the next thirty investments.
If you're exhausted from angel investing but you are addicted to startups, you'll have a nice track record with founders that will allow you to join a venture capital firm with a $500,000 starting salary, making this a fantastic investment similar to getting your undergrad and graduate degrees!
## You Return What You Invested
Many angels get a push, which means you learned a hell of a lot and came out even, building your network and knowledge on the house. Sort of like going to Vegas for a long weekend, getting comped for your room and some fancy meals because you spend hours having a blast playing craps or blackjack. The trip was free and your account is whole.
You now have the option to keep being an angel, join a firm, or perhaps even take a management team or board seat at your highest-performing investment, getting you 1 to 2 percent of the company and a nice salary as you help build the company to a billion.
This happens often in the angel and venture community, with investors getting bored placing bets and wanting to be in the game. With the insider experience you got working with your top-performing company, you're going to be able to negotiate a great deal with new founders who respect you for betting on them early, and together you'll get to an amazing outcome.
## You Return Two to Five Times What You Invested
If you put $1 million to work in this scenario of investing for a year, you could return $2 million to $5 million by simply having your top five double down bets (those where you put an extra $100,000 on top of your first bet of $1,000 or $25,000) return four to ten times each, or even one of them returning fifty times your investment. While a fifty-times return isn't common, four- to ten-times returns happen all the time in Silicon Valley (remember, you want to invest in Silicon Valley, where you get the ace of spades as your first card every time; see chapter 6).
If this happens, you will not only have the ability to join one of your startups, get on boards, or join a venture capital firm, but you will also have a track record to raise your own fund by sharing your return data with all the other rich people you've met, giving you a large multiplier on your future investing. Raising your own fund is another book, and since I've only raised one small $10 million fund, I'm not the person to write that book—yet.
## You Return More Than Five to One Hundred Times What You Invested
Congratulations. In all likelihood, one of your bets went supernova and you got two hundred or three hundred or four hundred times your money. A company you invested in at a $4 million valuation got sold or went public for $5 billion or $10 billion and you now have $25 million to $100 million in returns.
The F-U money will last a lifetime and your kids are going to have to deal with their trust funds and free ride in college, not to mention the shadow their rich angel-investing mom (or dad) has cast upon them—provided you don't get divorced, get addicted to flying private, or buy a boat.
Soak in what you've learned by hitting a home run in your first thirty bets while appreciating the randomness of life. You didn't exactly hit the lottery, but you did get lucky because your thirty bets probably weren't all that different from the bets of people who lost money or broke even. In fact, almost all angels probably have a very similar return profile if you take out their top investment—and the exact same return profile if you take out their top three hits.
If you hit a home run like this, you are a legend in our industry and can work for a top-tier firm or even start your own incubator like I did, with investors and founders flocking to it, assuming that you have the Midas touch—even if we both know no one actually does.
Life is random, but luck isn't.
Lucky people surround themselves with the most successful people in the world and take chances. It isn't hard or impossible. It just takes work.
Do the work.
Trust me, just do the work.
# Acknowledgments
Thanks to my agent, John Brockman, for including me in everything he does and for patiently counseling me on my career, life, and writing. Max Brockman and the team at Brockman Inc. have been spectacularly professional and supportive during this process—I feel so blessed to be on the team.
Thanks to Brian Alvey, who coached me through this book over nineteen very full days. He organized the manuscript diligently while telling me candidly when I had jumped the fence and needed to rein it in. More important, Brian has been a friend to me for three decades, from Bay Ridge to the Bay Area. I'm looking forward to the next three decades.
Thanks to my brilliant, lovely, and supportive wife, Jade, who took care of our identical twin daughters, two bulldogs, and our seven-year-old, London, all while moving into our new home and allowing me to stay in the zone while I "banged out a few more pages."
My two brothers, Jamie and Josh, who have always looked out for me—one for all and all for one. I mentioned my mom in the dedication, but it's worth stating again that she taught me how to work hard and stay humble—and to not drop so many f-bombs.
Special thanks to team members past and present, who have worked by my side to support founders and inspire innovation, including—but not limited to—Tyler "Insights From" Crowley, Lon Harris, Jason Krute, Brice Milano, Ashley Whitehurst, Luke Lightning, Jason Demant, Emmy Award–winning producer Jacqui Deegan, and Elliot Cook.
To mentors and friends, too many to count, including Roelof Botha, who pushed me to start investing; David Sacks and Naval Ravikant, who told me to start a fund; and Fred Wilson, who bought the first ad in _Silicon Alley Reporter_. To Bill Lee, who told everyone to back me; Chamath Palihapitiya, who always has time for a "walk and talk"; and David Goldberg, whose wise take always helped keep me centered.
And most of all, to all the founders who allowed me to join them on their journey—especially Travis Kalanick and Garrett Camp of Uber, who have made me look much smarter than I'll ever be.
They say no one gets there alone, and halfway through my career, I can tell you this is the truest thing I know.
Jason Calacanis
Calacanis.com
# About the Author
Jason Calacanis is a technology entrepreneur, angel investor, and the host of the popular weekly podcast _This Week in Startups._ The founder of a series of conferences that bring entrepreneurs together with potential investors, he was a "scout" for top-tier Silicon Valley venture capital firm Sequoia Capital and frequently appears in the media. He lives in San Francisco, California.
Discover great authors, exclusive offers, and more at hc.com.
# Copyright
This book is designed to provide readers with a general overview of angel investing. It is not designed to be a definitive investment guide or to take the place of advice from a qualified financial planner or other professional. Given the risk involved in investing of almost any kind, there is no guarantee that the investment methods suggested in this book will be profitable. While the method of investment described in this book has been effective for the author, there is no guarantee that the method will be profitable in specific applications, owing to the risk that is involved in investing of almost any kind. Thus, neither the publisher nor the author assume liability for any losses that may be sustained by the use of the method described in this book, and any such liability is hereby expressly disclaimed.
angel. Copyright © 2017 by Calacanis, LLC. All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. By payment of the required fees, you have been granted the nonexclusive, nontransferable right to access and read the text of this e-book on-screen. No part of this text may be reproduced, transmitted, downloaded, decompiled, reverse-engineered, or stored in or introduced into any information storage and retrieval system, in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereafter invented, without the express written permission of HarperCollins e-books.
first edition
Cover illustration © Getty Images
Photograph by Vichy Deal/Shutterstock, Inc.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data has been applied for.
Digital Edition July 2017 ISBN: 978-0-06-256071-1
Print ISBN: 978-0-06-256070-4
# About the Publisher
Australia
HarperCollins Publishers Australia Pty. Ltd.
Level 13, 201 Elizabeth Street
Sydney, NSW 2000, Australia
www.harpercollins.com.au
Canada
HarperCollins Canada
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www.harpercollins.ca
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HarperCollins Publishers New Zealand
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www.harpercollins.co.nz
United Kingdom
HarperCollins Publishers Ltd.
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www.harpercollins.co.uk
United States
HarperCollins Publishers Inc.
195 Broadway
New York, NY 10007
www.harpercollins.com
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Dear Brands, This Is How You Should Be Looking For Your Customers
Do you WATCH television? If you are older than 40 and live in a Tier III city then the answer is probably yes. However, in most other cases, it could very well be an additional screen inside your home. Something that just sits there in the living room or bedroom, playing in the background, while you stare into your laptop or phone.
According to a data shared by Facebook, over the past five years, the time spent by adults under the age of 24 in watching TV has dropped by 34 percent. The way we consume media is changing but it isn’t exactly shifting from one device to the other. It is adding up devices at the same time.
Now if we talk about the changes in media consumption, we can broadly talk about two things. First is the medium of consumption and second is the format. First things first, mobile isn’t going away anywhere. I might have to bite my tongue for saying this but anyone who says that wearables will change how we consume media is wrong. If anything, the line between tablets and mobile phones is blurring and people are opting for large screen mobile phones on average. Another fact worth mentioning here is that 60 percent of mobile owners use them as their primary source of internet access. So it isn’t just a connectivity or media tool anymore but a consumer behaviour.
Enough of the numbers. How are they relevant to me?
There is a reason the likes of Google and Facebook are bullish on mobile and that reason was just explained above. If you are a brand, big or small, B2B or B2C, product or service, you should have a stronger focus on mobile. The challenge, however, is that we are talking a lot about mobile and still not tapping into it. Taking a random example, less than a third of the total digital marketing spends in travel went towards mobile. Now it doesn’t take a genius to put 2+2 together. Ads, videos, articles, everything should be tailored for the mobile customer first.
That said, it is also crucial to not go down the Myntra route. While people prefer to watch, read and browse on mobile, they like to have the options open and prefer the bigger screen to key in their card details.
On mobile, you should be looking at the popular platforms for showcasing yourself. It is the time we stop considering Facebook to be a social platform and instead look at it as a media company that is a showcase for your beautiful images and funny videos.
From 2012 to 2014, the average time spent tinkering with third party apps by each user went up by 14 hours. The number of actively used apps remained the same. A clear indication that the popular apps like Facebook and WhatsApp are getting more eyeballs.
While mobile is clearly the medium of choice to be visible, you shouldn’t miss the new formats that are emerging. Text is boring (yes I know you are reading) and slow to consume. Every mobile user is posting images. Brands and vloggers are flooding YouTube with videos yet quality videos aren’t many. Clearly, something has to change if you want to stay on top of your customer’s mind.
Enter 360 videos and VR. Earlier there was a challenge with consumers lacking devices to view and creators having to deal with equipment cost but it has started to change now. Quality videos will still continue to get attention and get social media shares and if you think you are going to stick around there for a while, try Facebook videos for a change as the platform is taking the gun against YouTube, and prioritising video and 360 content.
However, VR and 360 is the new king of media and even some of the random brands are making headlines because more people with viewers like Cardboard and Gear VR are eager to experience anything they can.
What other formats are going to emerge is something only time will tell. Ricoh Theta S could be a good tool to start off if you plan on shooting some 360 content.
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The complete nucleotide sequence of the left very early region of Escherichia coli bacteriophage PRD1 coding for the terminal protein and the DNA polymerase.
DNA molecules replicating in a linear form have been found in certain viruses and plasmids of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic origin. Characteristic of this type of molecules are the proteins covalently linked to their 5' ends and inverted terminal nucleotide sequences. The molecules replicate via a protein-priming mechanism, where participants include terminal protein and a specific polymerase. We report here the nucleotide sequence of the left very early region of Escherichia coli bacteriophage PRD1. This region codes for the terminal protein and the phage DNA polymerase. The predicted amino acid sequence of the terminal protein does not share homology with those of other known terminal proteins. The PRD1 DNA polymerase shows four regions of extensive homology to that of Bacillus subtilis phage phi 29. One of these conserved regions is also found in several animal virus DNA polymerases.
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Modiolus
Modiolus can refer to:
Modiolus (cochlea)
Modiolus (face)
Modiolus (bivalve), a genus of mussels in the Mytilidae
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Under The Wire
Saturday, January 17, 2009
Before you start reading please, note that this post could be a little ironic.
After this premise, let’s starts with the facts, we have a video contribute, thanks to Geeks are Sexy
The poor girl, like the other girl in the girlfriend test, could not get things working. You should agree with me that this is a very important point, if the user is not able to do something their pc are going to be just expensive piece of waste.
That story obviously got reactions form the Linux world, but basically the conclusion is always the same: geeks are telling you Linux is easy to work with, noobs trust them and try Linux and a few days later they ask for a Windows operating system, the only they are able to deal with.
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Public Bank Proposal on Town Meeting Ballots Across Vermont
Voters in three Vermont towns in the Upper Valley and 17 other communities in the state will face a simple question at Town Meeting this year: Should the Legislature be urged to examine the creation of a state bank?
The answer is anything but simple — for both supporters and opponents.
Advocates argue that creating a state bank will save Vermont hundreds of millions in tax dollars while putting the state on a path to a sustainable economic future. Opponents view a state bank as a potential threat to the state’s 20 community banks, one that could even jeopardize their future solvency.
In short, the battle lines are drawn between visionaries and the financial establishment on an issue that has been kicking around for the last six years. This year, the fight has begun anew in Montpelier over three bills pending in the House and Senate that address the matter.
Voters in Royalton, Randolph and Tunbridge will answer the question. If they say yes, they will add support to Senate Bill 55, a compromise holdover from the last legislative session that calls on the Legislature to study the creation of a state bank.
Already moving through both houses are additional bills that would require the state to deposit 10 percent of its reserve funds — about $35 million a year — with the Vermont Economic Development Authority and to allow VEDA to operate as a state bank. The Senate bill, which was introduced by Sen. Anthony Pollina, P-Middlesex, Sen. Dick McCormack, D-Bethel, and four other state senators, calls for the money to be used for loans for such purposes as community and economic development, weatherizing homes, renewable energy, reducing student loan rates and others.
There will likely be some progress on both the House and Senate bills by mid-March, McCormack said.
“I’m not completely sold on establishing a state bank, but at first blush it looks like a good idea that could save some money. I co-sponsored the bill because I think we should take a look at it,” he said.
Senate Bill 204, and a matching bill in the House, follow closely the findings released in January of a peer-reviewed study, evaluated and written by the Gund Institute for Ecological Economics at the University of Vermont and compiled by the Political Economy Research Institute at the University of Massachusetts.
The Gund study did not recommend that Vermont start a state bank from scratch, but suggested an expansion of VEDA, which essentially functions as public bank now.
Establishing a bank that accepts only 10 percent of the state’s reserve funds is not a problem for community banks, said Ken Wells, senior vice president at Mascoma Savings Bank.
“Our concern is that government entities don’t shrink. They only grow, and if the state bank starts taking deposits from towns, school districts and municipalities, which we accept, and makes loans to businesses and homeowners, then the state has created a tax-exempt competitor that would put us at a great disadvantage,” Wells said.
All of the state’s 20 community banks oppose Senate Bill 204, said Chris D’Elia, president of the Vermont Bankers Association.
“We support depositing 10 percent of the state’s surplus funds in VEDA and the other Vermont authorities and using the money for the projects that are outlined in the bill. We think that would be wonderful and would help the state. What we oppose is letting VEDA operate as a bank. We think that’s a bad idea for a number of reasons,” D’Elia said.
The current method of financing for VEDA requires that state funds be appropriated to VEDA by the Legislature or through floating bonds. Neither of these methods allows VEDA to leverage the funds it receives to create more money the way banks are allowed to do.
The Senate Government Operations Committee has been holding hearings on Senate bills 55 and 204 and will make recommendations to the Senate Finance Committee.
On Feb. 5, State Treasurer Beth Pearce testified in support of the concept of 10 percent for Vermont but in opposition to making VEDA a bank. The state treasurer said putting state revenues into a state bank is more risky than depositing them into a large bank.
The companion bill, House Bill 627, has been assigned to the Commerce and Economic Development Committee.
Interest in public banks has been growing nationwide in the wake of the 2008 banking crisis. During the last legislative session, Vermont lawmakers considered — but didn’t pass — bills to study the impact of a state bank based on the model of North Dakota, which established its state bank in 1919 .
The proposed legislation was reintroduced this session, but proponents say the Gund study makes the bill moot.
The North Dakota bank, the only state bank in the country, typically returns 70 percent of its earnings to the state. In 2009, during the national banking crisis, the state bank delivered a $30 million dividend to public coffers. The North Dakota model, under which the state bank makes residential and business loans and operates much as a commercial bank, wasn’t supported by the Gund study, however.
A coalition of organizations, individuals and businesses called Vermonters for a New Economy commissioned the Gund study with funding from the Donella Meadows Institute of Norwich. The study supports the views of proponents that Vermont could save hundreds of millions of dollars, stimulate business and create jobs by establishing a state bank.
While the Donella Meadows Institute does not endorse the findings of the study, it funded the research, which the institute stands behind, to foster a discussion between proponents and opponents, institute Chairman Wayne Barstad said in a letter to the Valley News published Jan. 18.
“Our hope is that a healthy discussion … of public banking can help the larger public achieve greater clarity and help the Vermont Legislature and other decision-makers decide on the best course of action for the residents, businesses and communities of the state,” Barstad said in the letter.
VEDA, along with Vermont Housing Finance Authority and Vermont Student Assistance Corp., have the unrestricted net assets to meet the capital requirements for a bank and adequate holdings of securities to serve as collateral for short-term loans, the study found. It noted that, while the North Dakota model might not be the best for Vermont, the combined operations and assets of VEDA and VHFA are equivalent to the North Dakota institution.
During the last fiscal year, the state deposited funds totaling more than $313 million in two banks, TD Bank and Peoples Bank. The state could earn a better rate of return on those funds by switching to a state bank, the study says.
“If deposits of state cash funds were used for VEDA and VHFA loans, $263.2 million in public lending could result in 2,535 jobs, $192 million in value added (gross state product) and a $342 million increase in state output,” the study says. “If used to finance state capital expenditures, funding through a public bank could save close to $100 million … due to most interest payments no longer leaving the state.”
The campaign for the Town Meeting warning articles was spearheaded by Pollina and Gwendolyn Hallsmith, executive director and founder of Global Communities Initiative based in Montpelier.
Hallsmith is one of the co-founders of Vermonters for a New Economy, and she has been an outspoken advocate for public banking, complementary currencies, new measures for economic progress such as the “Genuine Progress Indicator” and “Gross National Happiness,” and democratic ownership models like co-ops and worker-owned businesses. She announced earlier this month that she is running for mayor of Montpelier, where she was recently fired from her job as director of planning and community development, which she had held for seven years.
Last year, Montpelier Mayor John Hollar accused her of being “anti-capitalist,” and called her tenure into question, sparking a controversy over her right to advocate for New Economy issues as a private citizen, Hallsmith said in an email announcing her candidacy for mayor.
Prior to working for Montpelier, Hallsmith was the town manager in Randolph.
Smaller, local banks aren’t able to handle state deposits that amounted more than $300 million last year, so Vermont has to send those funds to large, out-of-state national banks, which invest the money in Wall Street, Hallsmith said in an interview in January.
“A public bank would be able to help local banks underwrite their lending capacity, and also would help fund and coordinate existing agencies that are already lending funds to small businesses,” she said.
For example, with backing of the Bank of North Dakota, community banks in that state are able to make larger loans that they would not be able to make. Those loans are now falling to larger national banks. The big banks that are receiving Vermont’s deposits are sending that money to Wall Street for investments and are not putting the money back into the state, Pollina and other supporters of the state bank have said.
That’s not true, D’Elia of the Bankers Association said.
“TD Bank invest heavily in Vermont with business and residential loans and community support. The bank also employs hundreds of Vermonters and contributes to local economies,” he said.
Another issue with a state bank is liquidity. The state now deposits funds on a short-term basis so that the money can be used when needed. If funds deposited in a state bank are loaned out for long-term projects as specified in the Senate and House bills, then the money would not be available for budgeted needs. The state would have to turn to bonds to fund budgets. Bond ratings could be hurt and increase the cost of borrowing, D’Elia said.
“The cost of things like building schools and other projects could be affected.”
Another problem with a state bank is liability. What happens if the bank fails?
“Now, state funds deposited with TD Bank are protected by an irrevocable letter of credit from the Federal Home Loan Bank of Pittsburgh. If TD Bank fails, and that’s not going to happen, all the state has to do is contact the bank in Pennsylvania to get the money. … If a state bank suffers losses, they will be borne by the taxpayers,” he said.
“We support local investment, and we are part of the local community and have been for many years. We’d like to help make the state more efficient and work in partnership with the proponents of a state bank to come up with something that is the best for all of us,” D’Elia said.
Warren Johnston can be reached at [email protected] or 603-727-3216.
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We've written in the past about the liability that you can incur when your “agent” causes harm to a third party. The rationale for that liability is that you control how your agent is performing his or her work.
Remember, an agent is someone you authorize to act on your behalf. Your employees are considered your agents. So are individuals such as brokers or sales representatives. By engaging these agents (whether they are employees or independent contractors), you are empowering or “authorizing” them to deal with third persons on your behalf.
However, there are circumstances in which you may become liable because of the acts of a party you never perceived to be your “agent.” This “constructive agency” arises in circumstances where you assume control over the conduct of another.
Case Study
Consider Jenson Farms v. Cargill, Inc., 309 N.W. 2d 285 (Minn. 1981). Cargill is one of the world’s largest producers and marketers of agricultural products. Among the services that Cargill provides to its agricultural customers is financial assistance.
Warren Grain & Seed Co. (“WGS”) was an enterprise that operated a grain elevator, purchasing grain from local farmers and reselling it to grain companies.
In 1964, WGS applied for financing from Cargill, Inc. Cargill reviewed the operations of WGS and thereafter provided working capital to WGS on an “open account.” Under this arrangement, WGS paid its expenses by issuing drafts drawn on Cargill’s anks. Proceeds from WGS’s sales would then be deposited with Cargill and be credited to WGS’s account. As part of the arrangement, Cargill enjoyed the first right to purchase grain sold by WGS.
In 1967, a new contract was negotiated that enlarged WGS’s financing. As part of this arrangement, Cargill was given more control over WGS’s operations including a veto right over certain business decisions.
The relationship continued and, by 1976, Cargill was buying 90 percent of all grain handled by WGS. Given its economic power, Cargill was now dictating to WGS how to handle its receivables and inventories. Cargill was even “suggesting” what business lines WGS should pursue.
However, in early 1977, problems were discovered. An audit revealed that WGS’s financial statements had been falsified. WGS immediately ceased operations, stiffing 86 farmers to the tune of $2 million for unpaid grain transactions. Those farmers did not go away quietly. They filed suit against Cargill, Inc. claiming that there was an “agency” relationship between WGS and Cargill and that Cargill was liable as “principal” for WGS’s wrongdoing.
Perhaps not surprisingly, a Minnesota jury found in favor of the farmers. But Cargill appealed, contending that the elements of an agency relationship could not exist because Cargill never consented to an agency. However, the Supreme Court of Minnesota disagreed holding:
“Agency is a fiduciary relationship that results from the manifestation of consent by one person to another that the other shall act on his behalf and subject to his control, and consent by the other so to act…. In order to create an agency there must be an agreement, but not necessarily a contract between the parties…. An agreement may result in the creation of an agency relationship although the parties did not call it an agency and did not intend the legal consequences of the relationship to follow…. The existence of the agency may be proved by circumstantial evidence which shows a course of dealing between the two parties.” (emphasis added) 309 N.W. 2d at 290.
The key finding was that Cargill had undertaken control of WGS’s internal operations. It was not merely the fact that Cargill financed WGS (a borrower is not the agent of a bank). It was the evidence of control that tipped the scale in favor of the farmers and against Cargill.
Worth Noting
Certainly, there are not many instances where the party can exercise the type of control that Cargill did with WGS, but the lesson is that the foundation of the agency relationship, and the potential liability that the principal bears, is the control that the principal exercises. Even when there is no express agreement creating an agency, the element of control can create potential liability.
For more information on limiting your liability from constructive agencies, contact Patrick Delaney at MacDonald, Illig, Jones and Britton LLP at 814/870-7658 or [email protected].
Related Services
The materials provided herein include items that were created by MacDonald, Illig, Jones & Britton, LLP and are protected under U.S. Copyright Law. These materials may not be copied, duplicated, modified, or distributed without the express written permission of MacDonald, Illig, Jones & Britton, LLP. All rights reserved by MacDonald, Illig, Jones & Britton, LLP.
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Showcase Your API Developers and Their Applications
31 Oct 2010
Do you have a cool application built on top of your API? (Hopefully you do!)
I'm sure there are some amazing developers who have worked hard on developing applications that make use of your API. They have seen the value your API delivers and built an application that extends that value to their users.
An application showcase could be an important building block of your API community. An application showcase can provide an great way to reward your developers with exposure. It also will make them feel like an important part of your community. This is a great way to encourage their participation in other areas of your API ecosystem.
An application showcase also can inspire new developers looking for ideas of how they can use your API. Developers might not understand how to put your API to use, and seeing how other community members have used the API may help. You never know -- your community may even show you some ways of using your API that you never have thought of.
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Risk factors of future suicide in suicide attempters--a comparison between suicides and matched survivors.
The objective of this study was to find risk factors for suicide by looking for clinical and care/treatment consumption differences between 15 hospitalized suicide attempters, who later committed suicide ("completers"), and 15 suicide attempters who did not ("non-completers"), matched according to sex, age and principal diagnosis. Completers had significantly more often attempted suicide after the index admission. After index, completers had received more psychiatric care and treatment than non-completers. Comorbidity was common in both groups of patients. Personality disorders according to the DSM III-R, axis II, Cluster B, however, tended to be more common in the completer group. Increased comorbidity over time could also be seen to a larger extent in completers. In spite of the matching of principal diagnosis, completers tended to have higher Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale ratings than non-completers. They also had significantly higher Suicide Assessment Scale (SUAS) scores. From this study, it is apparent that suicide attempters at risk of future suicide have major and multiple psychiatric problems, which cause difficulties in the care and treatment.
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Letter to Medha
This feature is inspired by Elise at eliseblaha.typepad.com. I plan to write a letter each to Medha and Madhav once every month.
Dear Medha,
You are getting naughtier by the minute. One minute you are snatching a toy your baby brother is holding, the next you are ransacking grandma’s cupboard for her expensive cream. At the end of a school day your uniform is smeared with clay or covered in ketchup. You weren’t this naughty back in the US. Is it the effect of India or is it because of all the attention and adoration showered on you by your grandparents?
You can copy a letter or a number beautifully but when asked to identify a letter/number, you find it so hard to. All the confidence with which you begin writing just drains out of you. Your voice becomes feeble. You need a lot of practice, your teachers tell me. We are practising a lot lately. I’m surprised you don’t mind all that copy-writing and related activities I ask you to do. You seem to be taking this as a challenge. That never-give-up attitude will take you far I’m sure.
On a more lighter note, you’re thoroughly enjoying going out to parties with your grandparents. You are having a better social life than your parents are!
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DemmiDee
nikitalovessex jasmin
DemmiDee livewebcamschatgratis nikitalovessex jasmin
DemmiDee turns on: erotic chat, I like obedient men. So be one. I expect you to behave. I will make you my good boy. In return, I'll teach you to love yourself and to be the best you can possibly be. I decide. At all times. Always. Have that in mind, and focus in listening and completin
DemmiDee turns off: I really dislike negative vibes, and by that i mean disrespectful people. I like getting along with everyone, so, as long as there's mutual respect and good vibes, it's all rainbows and unicorns! :)))) xox
DemmiDee livewebcamschatgratis nikitalovessex jasmin: Describing me would take forever, so, to make it a kind of sum-up..i will say that i am a really positive person, i like people with brains and my smile (almost) never fades. As for the intimate part, i am really, really passionate and willing to please and also be pleased. xo
AmyHosk: I'm a nice girl with particular likes, sometimes I like wild sex and sometimes I prefer softly, I wanna make your fantasies come true having fun together.
Marquesa: I like obedient men. So be one. I expect you to behave. I will make you my good boy. In return, I'll teach you to love yourself and to be the best you can possibly be. I decide. At all times. Always. Have that in mind, and focus in listening and completin
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The *Lancet* Group Commission[@bib1] on the institutionalisation and deinstitutionalisation of children is important because it presents further evidence that placing children in institutions is unnecessary and harmful, and that family-based alternatives exist that deliver far better outcomes. The Commission is also important because of its timing. Amid a global pandemic, it is too easy to view the need for reform of care for children as a separate or lower priority than the public health response. Supporting families to care for children is a fundamental element in ensuring the success of any public health response and is essential in strengthening the capabilities of communities to deal with shocks. Whether as part of an emergency response or as a long-term social policy initiative, the Commission should not be viewed as a cost but as an investment. With this in mind, on behalf of Hope and Homes for Children, I offer the following reflections on the Commission.
Reform of care for children and investment in family-based care are crucial issues, because they deliver multiple dividends to the child-care sector and to broader society over time.[@bib2] These changes are fundamental to building more effective child protection systems and yield substantial benefits to initiatives to improve child health and education and to address child poverty. In this regard, the effect of moving to family-based care is rapid, but also has intergenerational benefits.
The converse is also true. Underinvestment in family-based care for children and reliance on institutions leads to lifelong secondary consequences for children when they leave institutional care as young adults.[@bib3] These consequences include increased likelihood of long-term dependency on state welfare support, especially for housing and unemployment, increased incidence of sex work and suicide, and increased likelihood of the children of those who had themselves been institutionalised being taken into care. These are all expensive human and financial costs that can be transmitted across generations.
Family-based care is not more expensive than institutionalised care.[@bib4], [@bib5] After initial investment, family-based care rapidly becomes cheaper and much more cost effective. Hope and Homes for Children has been at the forefront of developing practice for family-based care internationally for more than 20 years. In every location we operate in globally, the costs of properly supported, quality family-based care have been less per child than the cost of confinement in an institution, and the outcomes have been substantially better for the child, with additional benefits for both siblings and parents.[@bib6] Put simply, investment in family care delivers much more benefit, and causes much less harm, than the expensive costs of building and running institutions.
The humanitarian crisis precipitated by the COVID-19 pandemic is playing out in households behind closed doors. The progress that had been made in tackling extreme poverty and other global development challenges is being reversed. Worldwide, probable deaths among children aged 5 years and younger resulting from the disruption caused by the pandemic have been estimated to be 1·2 million in just 6 months.[@bib1] The humanitarian response is struggling to deal with this. Those countries with established or active commitments to family-based care are better able to mitigate and prevent this impact because they have the pre-existing infrastructure and relationships to facilitate engagement with people at a household level. In this regard, family-based care builds more resilient communities.
I am Chief Executive Officer of the charity Hope and Homes for Children. Hope and Homes for Children is the Global Fundraising Partner of RELX, owner of Elsevier, which publishes the *Lancet* journals.
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I won't be there for the gang raping you are going to get from the 'boyz in
da hood'. Make sure you eat lots of carne guisada, they might take it easy
on you and your grape.
----- Original Message -----
From: "Erik Wollam" <[email protected]>
To: <[email protected]>; <[email protected]>; <[email protected]>;
<[email protected]>; <[email protected]>; <[email protected]>;
<[email protected]>; <[email protected]>
Sent: Tuesday, February 26, 2002 8:05 AM
Subject: Re: Night of Men
> I am going to be there, even if it is by myself.
> I am going to be there between 7:15 and 7:30. Tampico, 610 north loop,
south
> on airline.
> who is going besides me and piggy?
>
>
> >From: "Brian Constantine" <[email protected]>
> >To: "Erik Wollam" <[email protected]>, <[email protected]>,
> ><[email protected]>, "Fenner, Chet" <[email protected]>, "Brad
Corrier"
> ><[email protected]>
> >Subject: Night of Men
> >Date: Tue, 26 Feb 2002 09:53:56 -0600
> >
> >
> >Men,
> >
> >Wanting to "man off", needing to "man off", are we still planning on
"being
> >with men" on Thursday?
> >
> >Only "men" need to respond...
> >
> >
> > Piggy
>
>
>
>
> _________________________________________________________________
> Chat with friends online, try MSN Messenger: http://messenger.msn.com
>
>
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Toy Matinee
Toy Matinee was a short-lived American rock band, and also the title of their only album. Their sound was an array of mixed influences, including progressive rock, AOR and pop reminiscent of both the Beatles and the Beach Boys.
Toy Matinee was formed by producer/composer/keyboardist Patrick Leonard in collaboration with singer/lyricist/multi-instrumentalist Kevin Gilbert. Backed by a group of session musicians (drummer Brian MacLeod, guitarist Tim Pierce, and bassist Guy Pratt), and with guest appearances from several other musicians including Julian Lennon, the duo recorded just one self-titled album which was released on Reprise Records in 1990.
The album was engineered and produced by Bill Bottrell. Thematically, it covered a rather broad ground. Two tracks were dedicated to Czech poet and political figure Václav Havel and painter Salvador Dalí, while "Queen of Misery" is about Madonna. Leonard was the singer's longtime songwriting and producing partner, and in addition to him most members of Toy Matinee worked on Madonna's I'm Breathless album—Gilbert as an engineer, Bottrell as producer and engineer, Pratt on bass, and Pierce on guitar.
After the album was released, session musicians Pratt, MacLeod and Pierce moved on to other work, and Leonard wasn't interested in a tour that involved replacing all of them. Gilbert took on that role himself instead, assembling a promotional band for the album which featured Gilbert's then girlfriend, Sheryl Crow, on keyboards, Marc Bonilla on guitar. Spencer Campbell on bass. Toss Panos on drums. There were a number of short tours.
A 1991 live recording of Gilbert and this touring band performing songs from the album was released in 2010 as Kevin Gilbert Performs Toy Matinee Live at the Roxy The group engaged in heavy radio promotion wherever possible, most notably frequent appearances on the Mark & Brian show on Los Angeles-area station KLOS. Some of those sessions were released on Mark & Brian's KLOS compilation recordings, such as a stripped down version of "The Ballad Of Jenny Ledge" on their You Had to Be There collection.
Two of the songs on Toy Matinee -- "The Ballad of Jenny Ledge" and "Last Plane Out"—received wide play on AOR stations partly due to Gilbert's promotional work, both of them peaking at No. 23 on Billboard's Mainstream Rock Tracks chart. Despite the chart success of the singles, the album's highest U.S. chart position was No. 129, and sales were below expectations enough that many unsold copies of the CD were widely available as cut-outs in the early '90s.
Gilbert went on to do additional work with Bottrell including Sheryl Crow's debut album and solo projects. In 1994, Leonard and former Mr. Mister frontman Richard Page released the album Meanwhile as Third Matinee. Gilbert's untimely death in 1996 ended any possibility of a second Toy Matinee album.
Personnel
Kevin Gilbert - vocals, guitar, keyboards
Patrick Leonard - keyboards, backing vocals
Session musicians
Brian MacLeod - drums, percussion
Tim Pierce - guitar
Guy Pratt - bass
Bill Bottrell - guitar, percussion, backing vocals
Sal's Clarinet Trio: Jon Clarke, Jon Kip, Donald Markese - clarinet
Julian Lennon - backing vocals
Durga McBroom - backing vocals
Live band
Kevin Gilbert - vocals, guitars, keyboards, piano
Marc Bonilla - guitars, backing vocals
Spencer Campbell - bass, backing vocals
Sheryl Crow - keyboards, piano, backing vocals
Toss Panos - drums, percussion
Album track listing
The original album Toy Matinee included the first nine tracks listed here. It was remastered and re-released with five bonus tracks in 2001, and then in 2008.
"Last Plane Out" (Kevin Gilbert, Patrick Leonard, Guy Pratt) - 5:13
"Turn It On Salvador" (Gilbert, Leonard, Pratt) - 4:54
(a tribute to painter Salvador Dalí)
"Things She Said" (Gilbert, Leonard, Pratt) - 4:57
"Remember My Name" - 5:19
(loosely dedicated to Václav Havel)
"The Toy Matinee" (Gilbert, Leonard, Pratt) - 5:02
"Queen Of Misery" (Gilbert, Leonard) - 4:31
"The Ballad Of Jenny Ledge" (Gilbert, Leonard) - 5:50
"There Was A Little Boy" (Gilbert, Leonard) - 5:35
"We Always Come Home" (Leonard) - 4:29
Bonus tracks:
"eenitaM yoT ehT" (Gilbert, Leonard) - 0:33
"Blank Page" (Gilbert) - 2:23
"Things She Said" [alternate version] (Gilbert, Leonard) - 5:13
"There Was A Little Boy" [early version] (Gilbert, Leonard) - 4:15
"Last Plane Out" [early version] (Gilbert, Leonard, Pratt) - 5:35
Surround Releases
In 1999 the album was remixed into surround by DTS Entertainment, released as a DTS encoded 5.1 compact disc with a slightly altered version of first track "Last Plane Out". A second DTS version was released in 2001 as a DVD-Audio title, using Meridian Lossless Packing and a 2.0 channel stereo version of the album encoded in Dolby Digital. The 2001 stereo remaster and the 2.0 Dolby Digital version on the DVD-Audio release all include the alternate "Last Plane Out". None of the bonus tracks were included on either surround release.
References
External links
Toy Matinee page at Blue Desert
Official Kevin Gilbert website
Unofficial Myspace Page
Category:American progressive rock groups
Category:1990 debut albums
Category:Albums produced by Bill Bottrell
Category:Reprise Records albums
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CALGARY — As the collapse of oil prices continues and the province’s economic crisis deepens, Albertans are losing their fervour for balancing the books.
A new Mainstreet Research/Postmedia poll suggests 62 per cent of Albertans no longer think balancing the books is a priority — up from 52 per cent last October. But nearly 70 per cent of Albertans believe the federal government should provide financial assistance to their provincial government.
We apologize, but this video has failed to load.
tap here to see other videos from our team. Try refreshing your browser, or 'People are hurting': Poll says Albertans want jobs, even if it means racking up debt Back to video
“I’m not surprised at all that people are saying, ‘Look, whatever we have to do to generate employment … until oil prices come back, let’s do it and let’s worry about balancing the books a little bit later,'” said Quito Maggi, president of Mainstreet Research. “Right now people are hurting.”
Albertans were asked if the NDP government should balance the books before 2019-20 “even if it has to raise taxes or cut services.” Only 15 per cent said yes; 23 per cent they were not sure.
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All Articles Tagged "Precious"
Knowing that you’re being lied on and that people believe what’s being said about you is a terrible thing, but being lied on in public and on a global scale?
That’s on a level most of us can’t even comprehend.
That is something Mo’Nique had to deal with recently. The Academy Award-winning actress experienced what many would argue was the most humiliating predicament of her career.
It all began back in February when the Precious star revealed to The Hollywood Reporter that she had supposedly been “blackballed by Hollywood,” a sentiment expressed to her by director Lee Daniels, who she also revered as a friend.
It was a risky admission that could have gone either way. It could have placed an ominous cloud over Mo’Nique’s latest film, Blackbird, which she was promoting when she shared this information, or it could drum up extra publicity for the independent production. She hadn’t been seen on the big screen since 2009, so sharing this information was a gamble. However, Mo’Nique isn’t one to shy away from risks career wise.
But everything took a strange turn when Daniels went on CNN to tell his side of the story. With the gloves officially off, Mo’Nique decided to spill more tea.
The outspoken star fired back, arguing that if she weren’t a team player as Daniels had insisted, he would not have offered her the role of Cookie Lyons on his breakout hit show, Empire.
This shook Empire fans to the core as they could not imagine anyone else being in the role besides Taraji P. Henson. And when co-creator Danny Strong shot back saying it wasn’t true, the show’s fans believed him and criticized Mo’Nique. Many people felt that she was a jilted star who needed to move on already.
That is until she produced receipts.
During Mo’Nique’s interview on Sway in the Morning, she showed off printed emails between both Daniels’ camp and her own management team as they discussed her involvement with the show. Sway read the emails aloud: “Lee Daniels had a conversation with Mo’Nique about his new television pilot for Imagine TV/Fox called Empire. We would like to screen test her for the role of ‘Cookie.’ Please contact us with her television quotes, so that we can start a test, option, deal. We are tentatively looking at Monday, Feb 24 for the screen test.”
There the proof was, in black and white. While Daniels and Strong were apparently trying to diminish Mo’Nique’s character and tarnish her professional reputation, they were ultimately exposed as shady, and now it’s their character being brought into question.
While she should have been talking about her latest creative venture in interviews, Mo’Nique has spent a lot of time and energy defending herself against Daniels, which I’m sure was pretty exhausting for her, and at times, the public.
But I don’t blame Mo’Nique. Being lied on is an awful thing (I’m speaking from experience), and had Mo’Nique put more focus on her new film rather than defending herself, we’d still have a skewed view of her. We would believe that she used this entire situation for publicity and wouldn’t want to support her or her new movie.
When someone lies on you, it is a betrayal, especially if you consider the person a friend as Mo’Nique considered Daniels.
If this happens to you, the first thing you need to digest is that if this person could lie on you, they were probably never really your friend in the first place. Owning that thought is the first step because it allows you to understand who this person is. Getting over the shock of it all will help you figure out what to do next.
In Mo’Nique’s case, she had proof. Unfortunately, sometimes we’re lied on and there is no proof. People just have to take your word. If you’ve exhausted yourself trying to prove to others that you have been lied on, I suggest letting it go and allowing karma to work its magic. There is nothing more precious than time, and once it is gone we cannot get it back. Don’t waste it trying to prove someone wrong and by trying to convince people of something you know is the truth. As long as you know the real deal, that’s what matters. The truth will reveal itself in time.
In the years since actress and comedienne Mo’Nique won an Academy Award for her role as the very malicious and abusive Mary in Precious, we’ve watched her slim down substantially and embrace a healthier lifestyle. But that’s all we’ve really watched her do, because she hasn’t had a big role on-screen since that Oscar win in 2009.
She has literally been in four movies since Precious came out: Steppin: The Movie, Blackbird (alongside Isaiah Washington), About and the TV movie Bessie, starring Queen Latifah, which is about the life of blues singer Bessie Smith. But why haven’t we seen her do anything else? According to the actress, and even Lee Daniels, the force behind Precious, it’s because Mo’Nique has been “blackballed” in the industry.
In an essay written for an upcoming issue of The Hollywood Reporter, she says that after her Oscar win, she thought the little gold man would bring her more respect, better choices for roles and more money, which it usually does. But because she didn’t campaign for her Oscar, and was cited as being somewhat “difficult” to work with, Mo’Nique says that Lee Daniels told her just a few months ago that she had been excluded in the industry.
“I got a phone call from Lee Daniels…And he said to me, ‘Mo’Nique, you’ve been blackballed.’ I said, ‘Why?’ And he said, ‘Because you didn’t play the game.’ I said, ‘Well, what game is that?’ He gave me no response.”
Campaigning for an Oscar is a pretty big deal when you’re trying to not only get recognition for a film, but want to see the effects of what happens when the film, or its actors, win (aka, a boost in ticket sales and notoriety). While most studios spend a great deal of money to campaign during awards season, according to Deadline, actors should be campaigning too:
Increasingly, the personal touch has become really helpful. If you have an actor who can plant him- or herself in Los Angeles and/or New York to do meet-and-greets during crucial voting periods, you have a better shot of making an impact. I have talked to many weary nominees at the end of the long process who have shaken so many hands, attended so many dinners, done so many Q&As and talk shows and receptions…
But Mo’Nique didn’t during the 2009-2010 awards season. When she won her Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Role, she even said in her acceptance speech that she was thankful that the Academy showed “that it can be about the performance and not the politics.” That, along with the actress claiming that people behind-the-scenes have called her “difficult,” “tactless” and “tacky,” has held her back. And interesting enough, according to her, those who claim she is difficult, tactless and tacky are “probably right.” But still, she’s not letting all that hold her back.
“That is why I have my beautiful husband because he’s so full of tact. I’m just a girl from Baltimore. But being from that place, you learn not to let anybody take advantage of you.”
Since coming to this realization, Mo’Nique says she’s learned not to take this whole game the bigwigs in Hollywood play personally, even after losing roles in The Butler, “Empire,” and Lee Daniels’ upcoming Richard Pryor biopic, roles which she says “all just went away.” But for his part in this, Daniels sent out a statement to The Hollywood Reporter saying that he still has love for the actress, but that the powers that be didn’t want her involved in such projects…
“Mo’Nique is a creative force to be reckoned with. Her demands through Precious were not always in line with the campaign. This soured her relationship with the Hollywood community. I consider her a friend. I have and will always think of her for parts that we can collaborate on, however the consensus among the creative teams and powers thus far were to go another way with these roles.”
It’s a jungle out here…especially in Hollywood. Despite being blackballed, Mo’Nique is slated to appear alongside Isaiah Washington in the upcoming film, BlackBird, which debuts April 24.
You can check out Mo’Nique’s full open letter in the new issue of The Hollywood Reporter when it drops on Feb. 27.
Tags:
Precious is a thought-provoking, gut-wrenching and heartbreaking independently-funded film that went on to become an Academy-Award winning success!
The movie is about an overweight, dark-skinned African American girl dealing with incest and child and sexual abuse who has to “push” through the abuse, her illiteracy and teen motherhood by attending an alternative school in hopes for her life to head in a new direction. Though most are familiar with these details, having read the novel the film was based on, there are many behind-the-scenes trivia you probably didn’t know happened in order to make this adapted film come to the big screen — Like the name of the film was changed from the novel’s name Push: The Novel to Precious to avoid conflict with the 2008 action film, Push. The novel was also republished as Precious: Based on the Novel ‘Push’ by Sapphire.
In 2009, we saw a grim side to Mo’Nique in the Lee Daniel’s film, Precious with Gabourey Sidibe. Mo’Nique’s role earned her an Academy Award, and if you ever needed a refresher as to why she won the Oscar, her new film Blackbird will completely remind you. Rolling Out Magazine reported Mo’Nique will play a devout Christian mother whose teenage son struggles with his sexuality. During her Rolling Out interview, Mo’Nique revealed why Blackbird’s script resonated with her and her husband/business partner, Sheldon Hicks. Of the director, Patrick Ian Polk, and cast, Mo’Nique said:
[He’s] a brilliant director. I’ve never thought I’d get the opportunity with such a fearless director as Lee Daniels or a fearless actor like Gabourey Sidibe again and to work with Patrick [he] was just fearless and wasn’t willing to waiver from the story he needed to tell. Julian Walker was fearless and wasn’t willing to waiver for fear of being ridiculed for playing that role. To work with them; it was an honor.
To see Mo’Nique’s point, watch the trailer of Blackbird below, with Isaiah Washington and newcomer, Julian Walker.
To hear more of Mo’Nique’s interview with Rolling Out, listen to the video below.
If there’s one thing I can’t stand, it’s when one minority attempts to to marginalize another for the sake of their own personal cause and that is exactly what “The Butler” director Lee Daniels did in a recent interview with Larry King.
In discussing his experience growing up gay and coming into his sexuality, Daniels made a very sharp left in what could have been a productive discussion. Apparently in a previous interview he had remarked that gay people are third class citizens and when asked to expound on this idea by King, Daniels threw this dagger:
“I think they are prejudiced upon even from the African Americans too. I think that the reason we have AIDS…I did a movie called ‘Previous’ and when I was doing the research for ‘Precious,’ I walked into the gay mens health crisis center in New York City and I expected to see studying [of] AIDS and HIV, I expected to see a room full of gay men, but there are nothing but women that are there – black women with kids, I thought I had walked into the welfare office – but they service black women with AIDS, why?
Look, I won’t pretend to know the struggle of being a homosexual black male, or to be an expert on the bureaucracy AIDS research and treatment when it comes to the black community. However, if black women are getting services in a gay men’s clinic, that’s a systematic issue, not one that has to do with prejudice from the black community. Furthermore, a man’s inability to live his life freely as an openly homosexual male has no bearing, in my mind, on his inability to be sexually responsible. Being chastised for your sexual orientation is not an excuse to one, play with a woman’s heart and pretend to be heterosexual when you’re not, and two, sleep around indiscriminately, particularity when you’re aware that there may be these biases in sexual health care as it relates to gay men.
And again I find myself asking what the hell does any of this have to do with black women being on welfare?
I don’t think I’m too far off when I say there was just a slight, if not overt, element of bitterness to Daniels’ narrative which no doubt stems back to his childhood and being beat by his father for being gay. But that’s not black women’s fault, nor is it their fault they’ve found some place to be serviced for sexual health issues. There is equal responsibility to be had amongst black men and women women it comes to the rapid spread of AIDS and finger pointting and excusing just won’t cut it if we really want to stop this epidemic and neither will stereotyping. Being the double minority that he is, Daniels should know this more than anyone else.
Since the beginning of film-making, directors have cast actors and actresses into roles based significantly on talent, often letting factors like age fall by the wayside. Age ain’t nothing but a number in Hollywood, and that’s evident when a 41-year-old Barber Streisand was cast to play a 17-year-old in Yentl, or a 34-year-old Stockard Channing was cast to play an 18-year-old girl in Grease. Let’s see what other actresses and actors are old enough to father or give birth to some of the characters they’ve played–or at least be a young aunt or uncle to them.
DONALD GLOVER
Image Source: WENN.com
Donald Glover, who currently stars as 24-year-old college student Troy Barnes on Community, is just marginally older than his character by 5 years, making Glover 29 years old.
Big screen adaptations of novels written by black authors are few and far between, which is precisely why we shouldn’t just support black movies, but black books as well – especially considering African-American achievements in literature are highly underrated. So definitely give these movies a watch, but do yourself one better and pick up the original books, because we already know that the movies are never ever as good as the original literary work
While some people watch movies and quietly root for the villain (no lie, I thought Bane in The Dark Knight Rises was bad a**!), many of us do the complete opposite–we watch these cocky, disrespectful, distasteful and often violent characters with disgust. Some are so good at being bad that we equate the actors with these characters for a long time, and some are eerily effective, to the point that you watch the character, act like you know them, and scoff at the fact that you dislike them so much. If you ever say, “UGH!” when you watch these movies, or shake your head at these characters a few times, then you’ll probably agree that they were villains you loved to hate.
Sanaa Lathan in The Family That Preys
If you watched just 30 minutes of The Family That Preys and viewed Lathan as Andrea, you were probably just as sick of her as we were. She was a conniving cheater, dogging out her hard-working and fine man (Rockmond Dunbar) for the town’s stuck-up socialite and trust-fund baby. And in the end, she revealed that *SPOILER* the son her husband thought was his blood was a product of her affair. She didn’t even look remorseful at all! Who else wanted to reach through the screen and shake her real good???
Academy Award-nominated actress Gaboury Sidibe is on top of her game and clearly living her life like it’s golden. Whether she’s telling behind-the-scenes stories from her latest film, Yelling to the Sky, or talking about her favorite date night spots, she is candid and never misses an opportunity to share a laugh.
On whether or not she prepped for her new movie Yelling to the Sky:
Not a lot. I’m from Bed-Stuy, and I grew up in Harlem so all of the things that happened in the film I’ve seen in real life. So I guess I’ve always been preparing to take on a role like that. That’s why it was so honest, and it was so familiar for me so I didn’t have to do a lot of research at all.
About that guy we saw her with last year:
Wait, what? (laughs) That was like a year and some change, it almost two years ago! That boy has been gone. Game over. That was my ex-boyfriend, and he is very, very “ex” now. I am currently not dating anyone, or maybe I am dating everyone. I love being a grown woman in my own apartment in New York City. You know hanging out with who I want to. I don’t have to call home to make sure some man knows where I am all the time. I am really enjoying that life right now.
Check out the hilarious Gabourey and the full interview over at ESSENCE
Black women aren’t always given the opportunity to portray strong or positive female leading characters on-screen, particularly because Hollywood is dominated by men…white men. Somehow, however, the following women have struck gold in films and television shows that would have them act as outstanding characters, showcasing strength and character in multiple capacities, depicting black women who are struggling with death, romance, violence, revenge, scandal, betrayal or simply trying to survive–all in a gracious and entertaining way.
“Scandal”: Kerry Washington
Kerry Washington stars in ABC’s Scandal as crisis manager, Olivia Pope. Pope’s character is loosely based on the real life crisis manager, Judy Smith. Washington portrays Pope as a headstrong, heavy-hearted woman who personally bears each burden that presents itself in her life. Pope leads a team of attorneys who are tasked with the goal of solving issues for politicians, celebrities and athletes. Scandal doesn’t elude Pope’s personal life, after all, she was carrying on an affair with the president of the United States–making the show all the more interesting.
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April 9, 2011
so ogilvy paris fucked up a little - they've just done a campagin for the WWF that (coincidentally) happens to be identical to a project by two third-year students from vega in 2009. the ads featured fish wearing masks of various endangered animals, bearing the payoff line "would you care more now?" - whereas ogilvy's version features (you guessed it) fish wearing animal masks and copy that reads "would you care more if i was a gorilla/panda/rhino etc." the students' work won a silver award for print advertising at the 2009 sappi think ahead awards. have a look at this if you want to find out more.
i guess you could argue that it's a co-incidence. if you're one of those people who thinks that the dude from survivor really lives on an uninhabited island between shows.
seriously though, part of the project i'm busy working on actually involves me playing games. that's my idea of good education. fuck you, essays and exams and other things of that nature, we can all learn something from duke nukem. (even if it is just how to kick ass and chew bubblegum)
April 7, 2011
so i go through phases of recording semi-shit songs in my room on a laptop, and i think i'll start uploading them here since there's not much else i can think of that counts as procrastination at the moment. this one is called headwounds, no idea why.
April 6, 2011
this is pretty crazy, i saw someone doing a similar thing in scotland once, no idea if it's the same guy. probably not though, "youtube" sounds really stupid in a scottish accent so i bet nobody there takes it seriously.
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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Pile-CC
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Thalassa
In Greek mythology, Thalassa (; , "sea") was the primeval spirit of the sea.
Etymology
Beekes suggested that the name is of Pre-Greek origin.
Mythology
Gaius Julius Hyginus described her in the preface to his Fabulae as daughter of Aether and Hemera (Fab. Praef., 2). With her male counterpart Pontus, she spawned the storm gods and the tribes of fish. The couple were later replaced by the other marine pairs, Oceanus and Tethys, Poseidon and Amphitrite. Nevertheless, fables were devoted to her by Aesop and she was to be depicted in both artistic and literary works during the Common Era.
Some rare sources also attribute to her the sea-nymph Halia (Diodorus Siculus 5.55.4) and the goddess Aphrodite after the severed member of Ouranos was cast into the sea (Nonnus, Dionysiaca 12.43).
Literature
Two rather similar fables are recorded by Babrius. In one, numbered 168 in the Perry Index, a farmer witnesses a shipwreck and reproaches the sea for being “an enemy of mankind”. Assuming the form of a woman, she answers by blaming the winds for her turbulence. Otherwise “I am gentler than that dry land of yours.” In the other, a survivor from a shipwreck accuses the sea of treachery and receives the same excuse. But for the winds, “by nature I am as calm and safe as the land.”
In yet another fable, Perry’s number 412 and only recorded by Syntipas, the rivers complain to the sea that their sweet water is turned undrinkably salty by contact with her. The sea replies that if they know as much, they should avoid such contact. The commentary suggests that the tale may be applied to people who criticize someone inappropriately even though they may actually be helping them.
In the 2nd century AD, Lucian represented Thalassa in a comic dialogue with Xanthus, the god of the River Scamander, who had been attacked by a rival Greek deity for complaining that his course was being choked with dead bodies during the Trojan War. In this case he had been badly scorched and asks her to soothe his wounds.
Art
While the sea-divinities Tethys and Oceanus were formerly represented in Roman-era mosaics, they were replaced at a later period by the figure of Thalassa, especially in Western Asia. There she was depicted as a woman clothed in bands of seaweed and half submerged in the sea, with the crab-claw horns that were formerly an attribute of Oceanus now transferred to her head. In one hand she holds a ship's oar, and in the other a dolphin.
In 2011, Swoon created a site-specific installation depicting the goddess in the atrium of the New Orleans Museum of Art. In fall 2016, the installation was erected once more in the atrium of the Detroit Institute of Arts.
References
External links
Category:Greek sea goddesses
Category:Aesop's Fables
Category:Greek primordial deities
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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Wikipedia (en)
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Q:
Placeholder text padding
Is it possible to have individual padding or margins on placeholder text or am I forced into
text-align:center;
example http://www.bootply.com/ei0b9daoqq
A:
You have to give another class name to each of your input and give a specific padding to each of them Link
HTML
<input class="form one" type="text" name="Name" placeholder="First and Last name"></div>
</div>
<div class="row col-md-3">
<input class="form second" type="email" name="Phone" placeholder="@gmail.com">
</div>
<div class="row col-md-3 ">
<input id="email" class="form third" type="tel" name="Zip" placeholder="Zip ">
</div>
CSS
.form {
background-color: #666;
color:#fff;
}
.second::-webkit-input-placeholder{
color:white;
letter-spacing: 1px;
font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;
padding-left:40px;
}
.third::-webkit-input-placeholder{
color:white;
letter-spacing: 1px;
font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;
padding-left:50px;
}
.one::-webkit-input-placeholder{
color:white;
letter-spacing: 1px;
font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;
padding-left:80px
}
.form::-webkit-input-placeholder{
color:white;
letter-spacing: 1px;
font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;
}
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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StackExchange
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1. Field of Invention
The present invention relates to a filament lamp and light irradiation heat treatment device, and particularly relates to a filament lamp used for heating an article to be treated and a light irradiation heat treatment device using the filament lamp.
2. Description of Related Art
At present, heat treatment by light irradiation from a light source is used on the occasion of various processes in a semiconductor manufacturing process, for example, film formation, oxidization, nitriding, film stabilization, silicidation, crystallization and ion injection activation. Particularly, rapid thermal processing (RTP) for rapidly increasing or decreasing the temperature of an article to be treated, for example, a semiconductor wafer, is preferably used because it can improve the throughput and quality.
In such a light irradiation type heat treatment device (hereafter, simply referred to as “heat treatment device”) for RTP, for example, a filament lamp is used as the light source.
In the filament lamp, filaments are arranged within a bulb made from a light transparent material, and 90% or greater of input power is radiated, and it is possible to heat the article W to be treated without any contact. Therefore, when the filament lamp is used as a heat source for heating a semiconductor wafer, it is possible to rapidly increase or decrease the temperature of the article to be treated compared to the resistance heating method, specifically, to increase the article to be treated, for example, to 1,000° C. or higher in several seconds to several tens of seconds; concurrently, after the light irradiation is stopped, the article to be treated can be rapidly cooled down.
One of the present inventors and his co-inventors have proposed a filament lamp having the configuration mentioned below to be used as a light source of such a light irradiation type heat treatment device (see, Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication 2006-279008 and corresponding U.S. Patent Application Publication 2006/0197454).
Explaining this filament lamp with reference to FIG. 8, coiled filaments 4, 5, 6 are sequentially aligned and arranged so as to extend in the tube axis direction of a bulb 1 within a straight light emitting tube whose both ends are hermetically sealed by hermetically sealed portions 2a, 2b, and internal leads 4a, 4b, 5a, 5b, 6a, 6b for electrical power supply are connected at both ends of the filaments 4, 5, 6, respectively. The internal leads of each filament extend toward both hermetically sealed portions, respectively, and are electrically connected to external leads via metal foils, individually. In other words, the internal leads 4a, 5a, 6a at one end of the filaments 4, 5, 6 are electrically connected to external leads 10a, 11a, 12a at one end via the metal foils 7a, 8a, 9a of hermetically sealed portion 2a at the respective end of the bulb 1. Similarly, internal leads 4b, 5b, 6b at the other ends are electrically connected to external leads 10b, 11b 12b via the metal foils 7b, 8b, 9b of the hermetically sealed portion 2b at the respective other end of the bulb 1. Then, the filaments 4, 5, 6 are individually connecting to feed devices 13, 14 15 via the external leads 10a, 10b, 11a, 11b, 12a, 12b, respectively.
Furthermore, an insulating tube 16 is fitted onto the internal leads 4b, 5a, 5b, 6a of the filaments 4, 5, 6, respectively, and it is placed on a section facing the filaments 4, 5, 6. Further, circular anchors 17 are arranged in parallel in the tube axis direction of the bulb 1 at positions between the inner wall of the bulb 1 and the insulating tubes 16. The filaments 4, 5, 6 are supported, for example, by two anchors, so as not to make contact with the bulb 1, respectively.
According to the heat treatment device using the filament lamp having such a configuration, since a plurality of filaments can be individually fed and luminescence of each filament can be individually controlled, even if the distribution of the degree of local temperature change, for example, on the article to be heat-treated is asymmetrical with regard to the shape of the article, light can be irradiated with the desired irradiance distribution according to the characteristic of the article to be treated, and as a result, the article to be treated can be uniformly heated; therefore, it is advantageous that uniform temperature distribution can be realized throughout the entire surface to be irradiated in the article to be treated.
For example, when RTP is conducted to a semiconductor wafer using a heat treatment device having such a filament lamp, since it becomes necessary to improve the rate of temperature increase of the article to be treated for the purpose of throughput improvement, it becomes necessary to increase the electric power to be supplied to the filament lamp more than ever before. In association with this, in the filament lamp for a heat treatment device, since it becomes necessary to apply a great electric current to the filaments, meltdown due to an excessively high temperature of the metal foils at the time of lighting the filaments has to be avoided. Consequently, it becomes necessary to widen the width of the metal foils in the direction at right angles of the tube axis of the bulb. Explaining based upon the example in FIG. 8, it becomes necessary to widen the width of the metal foils 7a, 7b, 8a, 8b, 9a, 9b in the direction at right angles of the tube axis of the bulb 1, respectively.
In order to embed the metal foils, which are wider than before, into the hermetically sealed portions, the width of the hermetically sealed portions have to be wider than before. Simply, it is believed that the width of the hermetically sealed portions can be widened by increasing the external diameter of the bulb. However, in the heat treatment device, since it is necessary to closely align and arrange many filament lamps with respect to the article to be treated in order to realize the highly accurate temperature uniformity of the article to be treated, a configuration with an increased external diameter of the bulb of the filament lamp cannot be adopted. Therefore, the conventional filament lamp shown in FIG. 8 has the problem that metal foils made wider than before cannot be arranged in the hermetically sealed portions.
As described above, in the filament lamps for the heat treatment device, the width of the metal foils to be arranged in the hermetically sealed portions needs to be wider than before while the external diameter of the bulb of the filament lamps needs to be the same level or smaller. Satisfaction of such contradictory requirements is difficult with the conventional filament lamp.
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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USPTO Backgrounds
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Q:
Python 3.6.4 - Is PIP Bundled?
I downloaded Python 3.6.4 through a Linux package manager and the PIP command is not recognized. Is PIP bundled with Python 3.6.4?
I am having problems running the get-pip.py script as I am running out of memory. So I am looking to get PIP through other ways.
Thanks,
Steve
A:
The standard distribution of Python includes pip, but Linux packages are not the same as the standard distribution. Many Linux python packages do not include pip (or other things in the standard distribution, like IDLE or turtle). This can be useful for Linux systems that only need Python to run scripts, rather than for development.
Try installing pip separately with your package manager. It's usually available when Python is, but may be a separate package.
You can also try downloading the standard source distribution from python.org (you'd have to compile it), or depending on your needs, you could use an installer from a more complete distribution like Anaconda.
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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StackExchange
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Metabolic Determinants of Impaired Pulmonary Function in Patients with Newly Diagnosed Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.
Impaired lung function associates with deterioration of glycemic control and diabetes-related oxidative stress in long-standing type 2 diabetes. We hypothesized that recent-onset type 2 diabetes patients exhibit abnormal pulmonary function when compared to glucose-tolerant controls and that the frequencies of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), known to associate with lung dysfunction, are different between both groups. Type 2 diabetes patients with a known disease duration<1 year (n=34) had similar age, sex distribution and BMI as overweight controls (n=26). Lung function was assessed by spirometry comprising predicted forced vital capacity (FVC%), predicted forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1%) and the FEV1/FVC ratio. Multivariable linear regressions were performed to investigate group differences, which were adjusted for potential confounders such as age, sex, BMI, height and smoking status. SNP genotyping was conducted using real-time polymerase chain reaction-based allelic discrimination. Patients with type 2 diabetes had lower FEV1%, FEV1/FVC and VO2max (all p<0.05). Among patients with type 2 diabetes, FEV1% correlated positively with VO2max (r=0.40, p<0.05) and FEV1/FVC correlated negatively with HbA1c (r=-0.49, p<0.01). Regression analyses across the whole cohort indicated that the group differences in FEV1/FVC can be explained by the confounding effect of HbA1c. The frequencies of the SNPs rs1042713, rs1079572, rs11172113, rs12504628, rs1422795, rs1481345, rs2235910, rs2277027, rs2284746, rs4341, rs7068966, rs925284, rs993925 and rs3824658 did not differ between both groups. Recent-onset type 2 diabetes patients exhibit reductions in features of pulmonary function, which might be at least in part resulting from glucotoxicity.
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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PubMed Abstracts
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Men's yearslong feud looms over ricin probe
This is an archived article that was published on sltrib.com in 2013, and information in the article may be outdated. It is provided only for personal research purposes and may not be reprinted.
Oxford, Miss. • The investigation into poisoned letters mailed to President Barack Obama and others has shifted from an Elvis impersonator to his longtime foe, and authorities must now figure out if an online feud between the two men might have escalated into something more sinister.
Paul Kevin Curtis, 45, was released from a north Mississippi jail on Tuesday and charges against him were dropped, nearly a week after authorities charged him with sending ricin-laced letters to the president, Republican U.S. Sen. Roger Wicker of Mississippi and an 80-year-old Lee County, Miss., Justice Court judge, Sadie Holland.
Before Curtis left jail, authorities had already descended on the home of 41-year-old Everett Dutschke in Tupelo, a northeast Mississippi town best known as the birthplace of the King himself. On Wednesday, they searched the site of a Tupelo martial arts studio once operated by Dutschke, who hasn't been arrested or charged.
Curtis, who performs as Elvis and other celebrities, describes a bizarre, yearslong feud between the two, but Dutschke insists he had nothing to do with the letters. They contained language identical to that found on Curtis' Facebook page and other websites, making him an early suspect.
Federal authorities have not said what led them to drop the charges against Curtis, and his lawyers say they're not sure what new evidence the FBI has found.
On Wednesday, dozens of investigators were searching at a small retail space where neighboring business owners said Dutschke used to operate a martial arts studio. Officers at the scene wouldn't comment on what they were doing.
Investigators in gas masks, gloves and plastic suits emerged from the business carrying five-gallon buckets full of items covered in large plastic bags. Once outside, others started spraying their protective suits with some sort of mist.
Dutschke was seen outside the studio observing the search Wednesday. His attorney, Lori Nail Basham, said Dutschke is "cooperating fully" with investigators and that as of Wednesday afternoon no arrest warrant had been issued.
Both men say they have met Wicker, and they each have a connection to Holland.
Authorities say the letters were mailed April 8, but the one sent to Holland was the only one to make it into the hands of an intended target. Her son, Democratic state Rep. Steve Holland of Plantersville, said his mother did a "smell test" of the envelope and a substance in it irritated her nose. The judge was not sickened by what authorities say was a crude form of the poison, which is derived from castor beans.
Sadie Holland has declined to comment on the case.
She was presiding judge in a case in which Curtis was accused of assaulting a Tupelo attorney in 2003. Holland sentenced Curtis to six months in the county jail. He served only part of the sentence, according to his brother.
Running as a Republican, Dutschke lost a lopsided election to Steve Holland in 2007, and observers say the judge publicly chastised Dutschke at a political rally that year.
Brandon Presley, Mississippi's northern district public service commissioner and a distant cousin of Elvis Presley, attended the 2007 political rally in Verona. He told The Associated Press on Wednesday that he remembers Dutschke giving a "militant" speech with personal and professional attacks Steve Holland.
Presley, also a Democrat, said he doesn't recall details of the speech just the tone of it, and the crowd's reaction.
"I just remember everybody's jaw dropping," Presley said.
Dutschke, who ran as a Republican, said his speech included sharp criticism of Steve Holland's record in public office.
Steve Holland said earlier this week that his mother made Dutschke get down on his knees at the 2007 rally and apologize. On Wednesday, he said he was mistaken about her telling Dutschke to kneel.
"She just got up and said 'Sir, you will apologize," Steve Holland said.
Presley said of Sadie Holland: "I don't believe the woman has an enemy in the world.... I don't know anybody who doesn't love Ms. Sadie Holland, except whoever this fool is who sent the letter. Whoever it is, they ought to be ashamed of themselves, picking on Ms. Sadie."
Dutschke who unsuccessfully ran as a Democrat for Lee County election commissioner in 2008 told AP on Tuesday that he has no problem with Sadie Holland. "Everybody loves Sadie, including me," he said.
After being released from jail Tuesday, Curtis described a long feud between himself and Dutschke, but said he's not sure exactly what started it.
The two worked together at Curtis' brother's insurance office years ago, Curtis said.
Curtis said Dutschke told him he owned a newspaper and showed interest in publishing his book called "Missing Pieces," about what Curtis considers an underground market to sell body parts.
But Dutschke decided not to publish the material, Curtis said, and later began stalking him on the Internet.
For his part, Dutschke said he didn't even know Curtis that well.
"He almost had my sympathy until I found out that he was trying to blame somebody else," Dutschke said Monday. "I've known he was disturbed for a long time. Last time we had any contact with each other was at some point in 2010 when I threatened to sue him for fraud for posting a Mensa certificate that is a lie. He is not a Mensa member. That certificate is a lie."
Curtis acknowledges posting a fake Mensa certificate on Facebook, but says it was an online trap set up for Dutschke because he believed Dutschke was stalking him online. He knew Dutschke also claimed to be a member of the organization for people with high IQs. Dutschke had a Mensa email address during his 2007 legislative campaign.
Dutschke started a campaign to prove him a liar, Curtis said, and allegedly harassed him through emails and social networking.
Curtis said the two agreed to meet at one point to face off in person, but Dutschke didn't show up.
"The last email I got from him, was, 'Come back tomorrow at 7 and the results of you being splattered all over the pavement will be public for the world to see what a blank, blank, blank you are.' And then at that point, I knew I was dealing with a coward," Curtis said.
The voicemail for Curtis' lawyer, Christi McCoy, was full on Wednesday and she did not immediately respond to a text message. A phone number Kevin Curtis provided to The Associated Press was not working and his brother's number has been changed.
The previous day, Hal Neilson, another attorney for Curtis, said the defense gave authorities a list of people who may have had a reason to hurt Curtis, and that Dutschke's name came up.
Dutschke told the AP on Wednesday that he and his wife had gone to a friend's Wednesday because they didn't feel safe at their home. He didn't immediately respond to messages Wednesday afternoon.
"They ripped everything out of the house," he said Wednesday morning, adding: "I haven't slept at all."
Reader comments on sltrib.com are the opinions of the writer, not The Salt Lake Tribune. We will delete comments containing obscenities, personal attacks and inappropriate or offensive remarks. Flagrant or repeat violators will be banned. If you see an objectionable comment, please alert us by clicking the arrow on the upper right side of the comment and selecting "Flag comment as inappropriate". If you've recently registered with Disqus or aren't seeing your comments immediately, you may need to verify your email address. To do so, visit disqus.com/account. See more about comments here.
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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Pile-CC
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Q:
Why does Lucene MatchAllDocsQuery "*:* AND name:a" and hibernate search deliver wrong results?
I have a Spring Boot Application with Hibernate Search.
My database contains 2 entries:
User a with name=a and user b with name=b.
When I search for *:* AND NOT name:a everything works fine and I get user b. (Updated: this never worked.)
When I search for *:* AND name:a I get both user a and user b (in fact all elements in db). The strange thing is that *:* AND name:b returns user b like expected!
The same thing happens when I filter for other attributes like streetname. Whenever I search for *:* AND xxxx:a I get all entries.
Can anyone explain why?
That is how I search
Analyzer analyzer = ftEm.getSearchFactory().getAnalyzer(Contact.class);
QueryParser parser = new LuceneQueryParser("description", analyzer, List.of("key"), List.of("startTime"));
Query luceneQuery = parser.parse("*:* AND streetname:a");
ftEm.createFullTextQuery(luceneQuery, Contact.class).getResultList();
The Contact class is annotated with
@Indexed
@AnalyzerDef(name = "sortTextAnalyzer", tokenizer = @TokenizerDef(factory = KeywordTokenizerFactory.class),
filters = { @TokenFilterDef(factory = ASCIIFoldingFilterFactory.class),
@TokenFilterDef(factory = LowerCaseFilterFactory.class),
@TokenFilterDef(factory = PatternReplaceFilterFactory.class,
params = { @Parameter(name = "pattern", value = "('-&\\.,\\(\\))"),
@Parameter(name = "replacement", value = " "),
@Parameter(name = "replace", value = "all") }),
@TokenFilterDef(factory = PatternReplaceFilterFactory.class,
params = { @Parameter(name = "pattern", value = "([^0-9\\p{L} ])"),
@Parameter(name = "replacement", value = ""),
@Parameter(name = "replace", value = "all") }),
@TokenFilterDef(factory = TrimFilterFactory.class) })
A:
I'm not sure what LuceneQueryParser is; it must be a custom class of yours. I'll assume it does its job right.
I'm guessing you didn't assign a specific analyzer to the field streetname? @AnalyzerDef is just that: a definition. On its own, it has no effect on your mapping. You also need to assign the analyzer to a specific field, e.g.:
@Field(analyzer = @Analyzer(definition = "sortTextAnalyzer"))
private String streetname;
Failing that, Hibernate Search 5 will default to the StandardAnalyzer. One particularity of the StandardAnalyzer (in Hibernate Search 5 / Lucene 5) is that it removes common english "stopwords" from the text during analysis. Stopwords are very common words with little meaning: "the", "that", "for", ... and, you guessed it, "a".
So essentially, what I think is happening is that your argument "a" is getting analyzed using the StandardAnalyzer, leading to the strange behavior.
I can't say why *:* AND NOT name:a returns document b; I'd expect it to return nothing at all. Maybe it's because name:a gets translated to name is empty, which only document a will match? Maybe it's related to your implementation of LuceneQueryParser? Maybe you actually assigned an analyzer to field name, and it's not exactly the same as StandardAnalyzer?
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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StackExchange
|
Member Sign-up
Pocahontas Trails is excited to be partnering with IMBA to create a stronger mountain bike community here in Pocahontas County. The partnership will help us build a strong working relationship with the Forest Service and improve the trails we know and love. But we aren’t focused just on trail work, we look forward to host events that will actually get us out riding.
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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Pile-CC
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Anchor Brewing Company
Anchor Brewing Company is an American alcoholic beverage producer, operating a
brewery and distillery on Potrero Hill in San Francisco, California. The brewery
was founded in 1896, and was purchased by its current owner, Frederick Louis
Maytag III, in 1965, saving it from closure. It moved to its current location in
1979. It is one of the last remaining breweries to produce California Common
beer, also known as Steam Beer, a trademark owned by the company.
Anchor Brewery is largely responsible for the growth of the microbrewery
movement in the United States. After prohibition ended in the U.S., many small,
locally-operated breweries were able to re-open and recommence brewing (although
many more, perhaps most, were not). The vast majority of these concerns served
only the immediate vicinity of their sole plant, a radius of a few miles to
perhaps a 100 or so. Local breweries and beers were the source of local pride in
many communities, especially those with large populations of German, Polish, or
Czech extraction. Many of these thrived on through World War II and into the
1950s. Most did not survive the 1950s, however, due to the influence of
television advertising and the mass marketing tactics of major national
breweries such as Anheuser-Busch, Schlitz, Pabst, and Miller. The whole idea of
such beers and breweries was largely forgotten in the U.S. Maytag desired to
establish such a small-scale brewery, with small-town quality and taste being
the hallmarks of his beer. He was already a fan of Anchor Steam Beer when he
learned that the brewery was about to close. In 1965, Maytag purchased 51
percent of the brewery for a few thousand dollars, and later purchased the
brewery outright.
Things began to change in the 1980s when Maytag's signature brew, Anchor Steam
Beer, began to achieve national notice. Demand skyrocketed from only a few
thousand cases a year that he had been making in the old tradition. His success
prompted many imitators, which he welcomed, since he could not have produced
Anchor Steam in the mass quantities of Budweiser or similar mass-marketed brands
and made a product with which he and his consumers would have been satisfied.
The rise of modern microbreweries also encouraged the establishment of
"brewpubs", where beer is brewed on the premises in small batches for
consumption in what is often something of a fine-dining restaurant setting.
Anchor and other microbreweries have been the beneficiaries of a trend to drink
smaller quantities of higher quality alcoholic beverages of all types which has
been developing in the United States since the 1970s. Anchor Brewing remains the
only commercially demanded producer of steam beer in the United States.
How Anchor got started
In the summer of 1965, a young Stanford grad named Fritz Maytag frequented the
Old Spaghetti Factory, a restaurant in San Francisco's North Beach known more
for its eclectic decor, bohemian clientele, and Anchor Steam Beer than its
spaghetti. One fortuitous day, as the great-grandson of the founder of the
Maytag appliance company sat at the bar enjoying his glass of Anchor Steam, the
restaurant's owner, Fred Kuh, mentioned to Fritz that if he liked Steam Beer, he
had better hurry down to see the Brewery. Kuh, who had always proudly served
just one beer on draught, Anchor Steam, knew that Fritz would appreciate the
historic little San Francisco brewery that was about to close its doors forever.
When Fritz arrived at the Brewery on 8th Street, it was love at first sight,
somewhat blinding him to equipment that was practically medieval, cleanliness
(the most unsung secret to consistently good beer, as Fritz would soon discover)
that was not even a low priority, and a Brewery bank balance (as of December 31,
1964) of $128. On September 24, 1965, Fritz bought 51% of the operation—for a
few thousand dollars—rescuing Anchor from imminent bankruptcy. That was the easy
part, for it would take Fritz the next ten years to turn the ailing Brewery and
its Steam Beer around.
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Pile-CC
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Produced by Charlene Taylor, Adrian Mastronardi and the
Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
(This file was produced from images generously made
available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
The Arts and Crafts of the Nations
GENERAL EDITOR: S. H. F. CAPENNY
THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF ANCIENT EGYPT
[Illustration: OLD KINGDOM RELIEF
55. Wood-carving of Ra-hesy]
THE
ARTS & CRAFTS
OF ANCIENT EGYPT
BY
W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE
D.C.L., F.R.S., F.B.A., ETC., PROFESSOR OF
EGYPTOLOGY IN LONDON UNIVERSITY;
AUTHOR OF “A HISTORY OF EGYPT,” ETC.
CONTAINING
ONE HUNDRED AND FORTY ILLUSTRATIONS
_SECOND EDITION
WITH ADDITIONAL CHAPTER_
T. N. FOULIS
LONDON & EDINBURGH
1910
_First Edition, November 1909_
_Second Edition, October 1910_
PRINTED BY NEILL AND CO., LTD., EDINBURGH
PREFACE
This present handbook is intended to aid in the understanding of
Egyptian art, and the illustrations and descriptions are selected for
that purpose only. The history of the art would require a far greater
range of examples, in order to illustrate the growth and decay of each
of the great periods; whereas here only the most striking works of each
period are shown, in order to contrast the different civilisations. The
origins and connections of the art in each age are scarcely touched,
and the technical details are only such as are needed to see the
conditions of the art. The archaeology of the subject would need as
wide a treatment as the history, and these subjects can only appear
here incidentally.
It should be noticed that the divisions of artistic periods are often
not the same as those of political history. Politically, the history
divides at the XVIIth dynasty with the fall of the Hyksos, and at the
XXIInd dynasty with the rise of the Delta government. But artistically
the changes are under Tahutmes I, when Syrian influences broke in, and
under the XXVIth dynasty, when the classical Greeks began to dominate
the art.
The effect of foreign influence in art is quite apart from political
power; it is due to rival activities which may or may not mean a
physical domination. The reader should ponder different cases, such
as those of the spiral design of early Europe entering Egypt, of the
Syrian and Cretan art in the XVIIIth dynasty, of the effect of Persia
upon Greece, and of Greece upon Italy (both through Magna Graecia
and the conquest of Greece), of the effect of the Goth, Lombard, and
Northman on Europe, and of Japan on modern Europe. Some reflection on
these great artistic movements will give a little insight as to the
history of art.
Regarding the illustrations, I have thought it more useful to give
details large enough to be clearly seen, rather than to contract too
much surface into a space where it cannot well be studied. Portions of
subjects are therefore often preferred to general views of a whole. The
outlines of artistic value, such as contours of faces or figures, are
left quite untouched, as an outline cannot be taken seriously which is
dependent on the block-maker clearing a white or black ground. This
latter treatment, unfortunately, puts out of artistic use many of the
lavishly spaced plates of the Cairo Catalogue, where art is subjected
to bibliophily. The liberal policy of all publications and photographs
of the Cairo Museum being free of copyright, has enabled me to use many
of the excellent untouched photographs of Brugsch Pasha and others.
My best thanks are due to Freiherr von Bissing and the publisher of
his _Denkmaeler Aegypt. Sculptur_, for permission to use figures 39,
44, 46, 48, 62, 111, and 112 from that work. Over a third of the
illustrations here are from my own photographs not yet published, and
principally taken for this volume.
W. M. F. P.
PERIODS AND KINGS REFERRED TO IN THIS VOLUME
Period. Dynasty. Names. B.C.
Prehistoric. 8000-5500
Early { I. Narmer, Mena, Zer, 5500-5400
kings. { II. Kha-sekhem, 5000
{ III. Zeser, Senoferu, 4900-4700
Pyramid { IV. Khufu, Khafra, Menkaura, 4700-4500
age: Old { V. Nofer-ar-ka-ra, Unas, 4400-4200
Kingdom. { VI. Pepy II, 4100-4000
IX. Khety, 3800
{ XI. Antef V, 3500
Middle { XII. Senusert I, Senusert II, 3400-3300
Kingdom. { Senusert III,
{ Amenemhat III, 3300-3259
{ XIII. Hor, 3200
New { XVIII. Aahmes, Queens Aah-hotep, 1587-1562
Kingdom. { Aahmes,
{ Tahutmes I, Tahutmes II, 1541-1481
{ Hatshepsut
{ Tahutmes III, Amenhotep II, 1481-1414
{ Tahutmes IV,
{ Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, 1414-1344
{ Tut-ankh-amen,
{ XIX. Sety I, Ramessu II, Merenptah, 1326-1214
{ Sety II, Tausert, 1214-1203
{ XX. Ramessu III, IV, XII, 1202-1129
XXI. Isiemkheb, 1050
XXII. Shishak kings, 952-749
XXIII. Pedubast, Pefaabast, 755-725
Ethiopian. XXV. Amenardys, Taharqa, Tanut-amen, 720-664
Saite. XXVI. Aahmes II, 570-526
XXX. Nekhthorheb (Nectanebo), 378-361
Ptolemies. Cleopatra Cocce, 130-106
Romans. 30-A.D. 640
CONTENTS
CHAP. PAGE
1. THE CHARACTER OF EGYPTIAN ART 1
2. THE PERIODS AND SCHOOLS 11
3. THE STATUARY 29
4. THE RELIEFS 48
5. THE PAINTING AND DRAWING 55
6. THE ARCHITECTURE 62
7. THE STONE-WORKING 69
8. JEWELLERY 83
9. METAL WORK 98
10. GLAZED WARE AND GLASS 107
11. THE POTTERY 126
12. IVORY-WORKING 134
13. WOODWORK 137
14. PLASTER AND STUCCO 142
15. CLOTHING 147
16. EGYPT’S PLACE IN THE ART OF THE WORLD 152
INDEX 159
BIBLIOGRAPHY 166
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig. Dynasty. Subject. Material. Source. Position. Page.
_Scenery._
1 XVIII Temple below Limestone Deir el Thebes. 4
cliffs. Bahri.
2 … Palms and canal. … Illahun. Fayum. ”
_Periods._
3 Prehist. Dog and deer. Ivory. ? Petrie Coll. 13
4 ” Bull and enemy. Slate. ? Louvre. ”
5 IV Servant of Ainofer. Limestone. Saqqareh. Cairo Mus. ”
6 XII Senusert I. ” Memphis. Carlsberg M. ”
7 XVIII Servant of ” Tomb. Thebes. 19
Kha-em-hat.
8 XIX Sons of Ramessu II. Sandstone. Luqsor. ” ”
9 XXVI Aahmes-si- Limestone. Memphis. Cambridge. ”
neit-rannu.
10 Ptolem. Cleopatra Cocce. Sandstone. ” Kom Ombo. ”
_Schools._
11 XIX Ramessu II. Black Eastern Turin. 24
granite. desert.
12 ” ” Hard Memphis. Memphis. ”
limestone.
13 ” ” Red granite. Aswan. Thebes. ”
14 ” ” Sandstone. Nubia. Abu Simbel. ”
_Sculpture._
15 Prehist. Female figure. Ivory. ? Petrie Coll. 30
16 ” ” ” Limestone. Naqadeh. Oxford Mus. ”
17 ” Male heads. Ivory. ? Petrie Coll. ”
18 ” Lion. Limestone. ? ” ”
19, I Narmer? head; ” ? ” 32
20 sculptor’s study.
21 I King standing. Ivory. Abydos. British ”
Mus.
22 II Head of Kha-sekhem. Limestone. Hierakon- Oxford Mus. ”
polis.
23 III Head of Mertitefs. ” ? Leyden Mus. 33
24 ” Head of Nofert. ” Medum. Cairo Mus. ”
25 IV Head of Ka-aper. Wood. Saqqareh. ” ”
26 ” Female figure. Wood. ” ” ”
27 ” Khafra. Diorite. Gizeh. ” 34
28 ” Head of Khafra. Cast. ” ” ”
29 V Scribe seated. Limestone. Saqqareh. Louvre. 35
30 ” Family of Khui. ” ” Cairo Mus. ”
31 ” Ranofer. ” ” ” ”
32 XII Head of Senusert I. ” Lisht. ” 39
33 ” ” Senusert Red Karnak. ” ”
III. granite.
34 ? ” Sphinx. Black Tanis. ” ”
granite.
35 XII ” Amenemhat Grey ? Univ. Coll., ”
III. granite. Lond.
36 XVIII ” statue. Quartzite. Thebes. Cairo Mus. 42
37 ” ” Tahutmes Basalt. Karnak. ” ”
III.
38 ” ” Tut-ankh- Grey ” ” ”
amen. granite.
39 ” ” Akhenaten. Limestone. Thebes. Louvre. ”
40 ” Young negress. Ebony. ? Petrie Coll. 43
41 ” Girl on tray Wood. ? Louvre. ”
handle.
42 ” Girl playing lute. ” Sedment. Univ. Coll., ”
Lond.
43 XIX Head of Ramessu II. Black Thebes. Turin Mus. 44
granite.
44 ” ” Bak-en- Hard ” Munich Mus. ”
khonsu. limestone.
45 ” ” Merenptah. Black ” Cairo Mus. ”
granite.
46 XXV ” Taharqa. Black ” ” ”
granite.
47 ” ” Amenardys. Alabaster. ” ” 46
48 ” ” Mentu-em- Black Karnak. ” ”
hat. granite.
49 XXX ” man (cast). Basalt. Memphis. Berlin Mus. ”
50 Ptol. ” woman Wood. ? ” ”
(coffin).
_Reliefs._
51 Prehist. Hyaena and calf. Limestone. Koptos. Cairo Mus. 48
52 Prehist. Gazelles and palms. Slate. ? Oxford and ”
Louvre.
53 ” Group of animals. ” Hierakon- Oxford Mus. ”
polis.
54 ” Narmer and enemy. ” Hierakon- Cairo Mus. ”
polis.
55 III Ra-hesy, half Wood. Saqqareh. ” _Front._
length.
56 V Sacrificing bull. Limestone. Ty tomb. Saqqareh. 51
57 ” Oxherd. ” Ptah-hotep ” ”
tomb.
58 XI Toilet of princess. ” Deir el Cairo Mus. 52
Bahri.
59 XII Heads of Ptah and ” Karnak. ” ”
Senusert I.
60 XVIII Hatshepsut. ” Deir el Thebes. 53
Bahri.
61 ” Servant of Kha-em-hat. ” Tomb. ” ”
62 ” Akhenaten and queen. ” ? Berlin Mus. ”
63 XX Bulls in marsh. Sandstone. Medinet, Thebes. 54
Habu.
64 XXVI Youths and girls Limestone. Memphis. Cairo Mus. ”
with animals.
_Paintings._
65 Prehist. Men fighting, vase. Pottery. ? Petrie Coll. 56
66 ” Ship, vase. ” ? Cairo Mus. ”
67 ” Ship, tomb. Fresco. Hierakon- ” ”
polis.
68 III Geese walking. ” Medum. ” ”
69 XVIII Pelicans and keeper. ” Horemheb Thebes. 57
tomb.
70 ” Gleaning girls. ” Menna ” ”
tomb.
71 ” Harvesters. ” Nekht ” ”
tomb.
72 ” Pattern in stages. ” Amenmes ” 58
tomb.
73 ” Boating scene. ” Menna ” ”
tomb.
74 ” Guests and girl. ” Nekht ” ”
tomb.
75 ” Girl somersaulting. Limestone. Thebes? Turin Mus. 60
76 ” Young princesses. Fresco. Tell-el- Oxford Mus. ”
Amarna.
77 XVIII Man hauling rope. Fresco. Amenmes Thebes. ”
tomb.
78 ” Four races. Rock wall. Rames ” ”
tomb.
79 XIX Man adoring. Limestone. Thebes. Cairo Mus. ”
80 ” Sety I offering to Rock pillar. Tomb of Thebes. ”
Osiris. Sety I.
_Architecture._
81 IV Temple of Khafra. Red granite. Gizeh. … 66
82 XX ” Ramessu Sandstone. Medinet Thebes. ”
III. Habu.
83 Ptolem. Temple of Ergamenes. ” Dakkeh. Nubia. ”
84 V Palm column, Unas. Red granite. Saqqareh. Cairo Mus. 67
85 ” Rose lotus capital. Limestone. ” ” ”
86 ” Blue lotus capital. ” Abusir. ” ”
_Stone working._
87 Pre-XVIII Stone vases. Various. Various. ” 78
88 XVIII Trial piece, Limestone. Thebes. Petrie Coll. ”
king’s head.
89 ? Figure in first Rock-crystal. ? ” ”
outlines.
90 Ptolem. Lion’s head in Limestone. ? ” ”
outlines.
91 XVIII? Man’s head, ” Thebes. ” ”
unfinished.
92 Prehist. Flint knives, etc. Chert. Naqadeh, ” 81
etc.
_Jewellery._
93 I Bracelets, gold, Amethyst. Tomb of Cairo Mus. 87
turquoise. Zer.
94 VI Chain. Gold. Mahasnah. ” ”
95 ” ? Seal with hawk ” ? Petrie Coll. ”
heads.
96 XII Uraeus, wire work. ” ? ” ”
97 ” Pectoral of Senusert ” Dahshur. Cairo Mus. 88
II.
98 ” ” ” ” ” ” ”
III.
99 ” Inlaid crown of Gold and ” ” 90
Khnumt. stones.
100 ” Floret ” Gold and ” ” ”
stones.
101 ” Granulated work. Gold. ” ” ”
102 XVIII Bracelet of Aahmes. Gold and Thebes. ” 92
lazuli.
103 XVIII Dagger of Aahmes. Gold and Thebes. Cairo Mus. ”
bronze.
104 ” Axe of Aahmes. Gold and ” ” ”
bronze.
105 XIX Pectoral of Gold and Saqqareh. Louvre. 94
Ramessu II. stones.
106 XX Earrings of Gold. Abydos. Cairo Mus. ”
Ramessu XII.
107 XXV Statuette of ” Ehnasya. Boston Mus. ”
Hershefi.
108 XXVI? Bowls from temple. Silver. Mendes. Cairo Mus. 96
109 Rom.? Chain fastening. Gold. ? Petrie Coll. ”
_Metal-working._
110 VI Head of prince. Copper. Hierakon- Cairo Mus. 100
polis
111 XXV? Bust of Takushet. Gold in ? Athens Mus. ”
bronze.
112 ” ” ” side. ” ? ” ”
113 XVIII Flask of sandal Bronze. ? Petrie Coll. 101
washer.
114 XIX Fluted vases. ” Abydos. Cairo Mus. ”
115 XXII? Anti-splash bowl. Silver. Bubastis. Petrie Coll. ”
_Glaze and Glass._
116 I Inlaid glazes Green and Abydos. Brit. Mus. 108
of Mena. violet glaze.
117 XX Lotus and grape Yehudiyeh. Cairo Mus. ”
border. glaze.
118 XXVI Head of Isis. Blue glaze. ? Petrie Coll. ”
119 ” Royal fan-bearer. ” ? ” ”
120 XVIII Dragged pattern ? British Mus. 120
vase. glass.
121 ” ” ” ” ? ” ”
122 Ptol. mosaics. Glass. ? Petrie Coll. ”
_Ivory._
123 IV Khufu. Ivory. Abydos. Cairo Mus. 136
124 VI? Girl standing. ” ? Petrie Coll. ”
125 XXVI Lotus flower. ” Memphis. Edin. Mus. ”
126 ” Man with offerings. ” ” ” ”
_Wood._
127 XVIII Bracing of chair. Wood. Tomb of Cairo Mus. 137
Yuaa.
128 ” Chair of Sitamen. ” ” ” ”
129 ” Coffer of Wood ” ” ”
Amenhotep III. inlaid.
130 ” ” ” ” ” ” ”
131 ” Couch of Yuaa. Wood. ” ” ”
_Plaster._
132 XVIII Reliefs on chariot. Stucco on Tomb of Cairo Mus. 144
wood. Tahutmes.
133 Ptol. Lion’s head, Plaster. ? Petrie Coll. ”
casting.
134 ” King’s head, casting. ” ? ” ”
135 Roman. Man’s head from ” ? ” 146
coffin.
136 ” ” ” ” Kom el Cairo Mus. ”
Ahmar.
137 ” Woman’s head from ” ? Petrie Coll. ”
coffin.
138 ” Man’s head and skull. ” Hu. British Mus. ”
_Clothing._
139 XVIII Woven patterns, Thread. Tomb of Cairo Mus. 148
Amenhotep II. Tahutmes IV.
140 ” Cut-out network. Leather. ” ” ”
Arts and Crafts of Ancient Egypt
CHAPTER I
THE CHARACTER OF EGYPTIAN ART
The art of a country, like the character of the inhabitants, belongs
to the nature of the land. The climate, the scenery, the contrasts of
each country, all clothe the artistic impulse as diversely as they
clothe the people themselves. A burly, florid Teuton in his furs and
jewellery, and a lithe brown Indian in his waist-cloth, would each
look entirely absurd in the other’s dress. There is no question of
which dress is intrinsically the best in the world; each is relatively
the best for its own conditions, and each is out of place in other
conditions. So it is with art: it is the expression of thought and
feeling in harmony with its own conditions. The only bad art is that
which is mechanical, where the impulse to give expression has decayed,
and it is reduced to mere copying of styles and motives which do
not belong to its actual conditions. An age of copying is the only
despicable age.
It is but a confusion of thought, therefore, to try to pit the art of
one country against that of another. A Corinthian temple, a Norman
church, or a Chinese pavilion are each perfect in their own conditions;
but if the temple is of Aberdeen granite, the church of Pacific island
coral, and the pavilion amid the Brighton downs, they are each of
them hopelessly wrong. To understand any art we must first begin by
grasping its conditions, and feeling the contrasts, the necessities,
the atmosphere, which underlie the whole terms of expression.
Now the essential conditions in Egypt are before all, an overwhelming
sunshine; next, the strongest of contrasts between a vast sterility of
desert and the most prolific verdure of the narrow plain; and thirdly,
the illimitable level lines of the cultivation, of the desert plateau,
and of the limestone strata, crossed by the vertical precipices on
either hand rising hundreds of feet without a break. In such conditions
the architecture of other lands would look weak or tawdry. But the
style of Egypt never fails in all its varieties and changes.
The brilliancy of light led to adopting an architecture of blank walls
without windows. The reflected light through open doorways was enough
to show most interiors; and for chambers far from the outer door, a
square opening about six inches each way in the roof, or a slit along
the wall a couple of inches high, let in sufficient light. The results
of this system were, that as the walls were not divided by structural
features, they were dominated by the scenes that were carved upon
them. The wall surface ceased to be regarded as part of a building,
and became an expansion of the papyrus or tablet. The Egyptian belief
in the magical value of representations led to the figuring of the
various parts of the worship on the walls of the temples or tombs, so
that the divine service should be perpetually renewed in figure; and
thus what we see is not so much a building in the ordinary sense, as
an illustrated service-book enclosing the centre of worship. Another
result of the fierce indirect light was that which dominated sculpture.
The reliefs, beautiful as they often were, would not be distinct in
the diffuse facing light; hence strong colouring was applied to render
them clear and effective. So much did colouring take the lead that the
finest sculptures were often smothered in a stucco facing, laid on to
receive the colour. This almost spiteful ignoring of the delicate craft
of the sculptor is seen in the XIIth dynasty, and was the ruling method
in Ptolemaic work.
The extreme contrast between the desert and the cultivation gave its
tone to the artistic sense of the people. On either hand, always in
sight, there rose the margin of the boundless waste without life or
verdure, the dreaded region of evil spirits and fierce beasts, the home
of the nomads that were always ready to swoop on unprotected fields and
cattle, if they did not sit down on the borders and eat up the country.
Between these two expanses of wilderness lay the narrow strip of
richest earth, black, wet, and fertile under the powerful sun; teeming
with the force of life, bearing the greenest of crops, as often in the
year as it could be watered. In parts may be seen three full crops
of corn or beans raised each year beneath the palms that also give
their annual burden of fruit; fourfold does the rich ground yield its
ever-growing stream of life.
[Illustration: SCENERY
1. The barren desert background
2. The luxuriance of the plain]
This exuberance amid absolute sterility is reflected in the proportion
between the minuteness of detail and the vastness of the architecture.
The most gigantic buildings may have their surfaces crowded with
delicate sculpture and minute colouring. What would be disproportionate
elsewhere, seems in harmony amid such natural contrasts.
The strongly marked horizontal and vertical lines of the scenery
condition the style of buildings that can be placed before such a
background. As the temples were approached, the dominant line was the
absolute level of the green plain of the Nile valley, without a rise
or <DW72> upon it. Behind the building the sky line was the level top
of the desert plateau, only broken by an occasional valley, but with
never a peak rising above it. And the face of the cliffs that form the
stern setting is ruled across with level lines of strata, which rise
in a step-like background or a wall lined across as with courses of
masonry. The weathering of the cliffs breaks up the walls of rock into
vertical pillars with deep shadows between them. In the face of such
an overwhelming rectangular framing any architecture less massive and
square than that of Egypt would be hopelessly defeated. The pediments
of Greece, the circular arches of Rome, the pointed arches of England,
would all seem crushed by so stern a setting. The harmony is shown most
clearly in the temple of Deir el Bahri (fig. 1) below its cliffs which
overshadow it. Let any other kind of building be set there, and it
would be an impertinent intrusion; the long level lines of the terraces
and roofs, the vertical shadows of the colonnades, repose in perfect
harmony with the mass of Nature around them. The Egyptian was quite
familiar with the arch: he constantly used it in brickwork on a large
scale, and he imitated its curve in stone; yet he always hid it in
his building, and kept it away from the external forms, instinctively
knowing that it could not serve any part of his decorative construction.
These principles, which were thus imposed on the architecture of Egypt,
were doubly enforced upon its sculpture. Not only did Nature set the
framing of plain and cliff, but her work was reflected and reiterated
by the massive walls, square pillars, and flat architraves, amid which
Egyptian sculpture had to take its place. In such shrines it would be
disastrously incongruous to place a Victory poising on one foot, or a
dancing faun. They belong to the peaks of Greece, divided by rushing
streams, and clothed with woods,--to a transient world of fleeting
beauty, not to a landscape and an architecture of eternity. Egyptian
art, however luxurious, however playful it might be, was always
framed on a tacit groundwork of its natural conditions. Within those
conditions there was scope for most vivid portraiture, most beautiful
harmony, most delicate expression, but the Egyptian was wise enough
to know his conditions and to obey them. In that obedience lay his
greatness.
The truest analysis of art--that of Tolstoy--results in defining it as
a means of communicating emotion. It may be the emotion produced by
beauty or by loathsomeness; each expression is equally art, though each
is not equally desirable art. The emotion may be imparted by words, by
forms, by sounds; all are equally vehicles of different kinds of art.
But without imparting an emotional perception to the mind there is no
art. The emotion may be the highest, that of apprehending character,
and the innate meaning of mind and of Nature; or it may be the lower
form of sharing in the transient interests and excitements of others;
or the basest form of all, that of enjoying their evil. How does the
Egyptian appear under this analysis? What emotions can we consider were
intended by his art? How far did he succeed in imparting them to the
spectators?
To understand the mind of the artist we must look to those qualities
which in their literature were held up as the ideals of life.
Stability and Strength were the qualities most admired, and the name
for public monuments was “firm things.” Assuredly all mankind has
looked on the works of Egypt as giving a sense of these qualities
before all others. Closely connected is the sense of Endurance, which
was enjoined in words, and carried into practice in the laborious work
on the hardest rocks. It was for endurance that statues were made of
diorite or granite, though they were painted with life-like hues, so
that their material was scarcely seen. Upon these primary qualities
was built a rich and varied character, reflected in the elaborate and
beautiful sculpture which covered, but never interfered with, the grand
mass of a monument. Truth and Justice were qualities much sought for in
life, and were expressed by the artist in the reality of his immense
blocks of stone, often more hidden than seen, and in the fair and even
bearing of all material, without any tricks or paradoxes of structure.
In all his earlier work his monolith columns and pillars were a protest
that a structural unit must express unity, that what supports others
must not be in itself divided. The Discipline and Harmony which were
looked on as the bond of social life are shown by the subordination
of the whole, by the carrying out of single schemes of decoration
illustrating the use of every part of a building on all its walls,
by the balance of the proportions of the whole so that there seems a
perfect fitness of connection through all parts. And the happy union
of vigorous Action with prudent Reserve, which showed the wise man in
the proverbs, is the basis of those life-like scenes which cover the
walls of the tombs, but which never betray the artist into attempting
impossibilities or revealing too much.
As true art, then--that is, the expression of his being, and the
communication to others of his best feelings and sense of things--the
Egyptian work must stand on the highest plane of reality. It would
have been a falsehood to his nature to aspire, as a Gothic architect
sometimes did, in towers and pinnacles which crush their foundations
and will not hold together without incongruous bonds. Nor did he wish
to express the romantic sense of beauty, in structure which may tend
to exceed the limits of stability. All that belongs to the atmosphere
of troubadours and knights errant. The Egyptian possessed in splendid
perfection the sense of Strength, Permanence, Majesty, Harmony, and
effective Action, tempered with a sympathy and kindliness which
cemented a vast disciplined fabric. And these aims of life as a whole
he embodied and expressed in his art, with a force and truth which has
impressed his character on all who look on his works. He fulfils the
canon of true art as completely as any race that has come after him.
CHAPTER II
THE PERIODS AND SCHOOLS
Before we can understand any art the first step is to discriminate
between the different periods and their various styles, and to observe
the characteristics of the several schools. If we consider medieval
architecture, we separate the many periods from Saxon to Renaissance;
if we turn to painting, we distinguish many stages between Cimabue and
Canaletto, yet these variations belong but to a single revolution of
civilisation, and are comprised within some centuries; in Egyptian art
we have to deal with seven revolutions of civilisation and thousands of
years. And not only the period, but also the source and traditions of
each local branch of the art are to be recognised, and we discriminate
a dozen schools of painting between Rome and Venice, each with its own
style. So in Egypt we need to learn the various schools and understand
their differences. In this chapter we shall notice the essential
characters of each period and school as compared together; while in the
following chapters the more technical detail of the statuary, reliefs,
and paintings will be considered.
In order to grasp more readily the differences of period and of place,
there are given here eight typical examples of different periods (figs.
3 to 10), and four examples of different schools during one reign
(figs. 11 to 14). These may be supplemented by reference to subsequent
illustrations, but the contrasts will be more readily seen in a
simultaneous view.
[Illustration: THE PERIODS OF ART
3. Prehistoric
4. Earliest dynastic
5. Old Kingdom (IV)
6. Middle Kingdom (XII)]
The Prehistoric work (8000-5500 B.C.) shows much more mechanical than
artistic ability. The treatment of the hardest materials was masterful;
granite and porphyry were wrought as freely as limestone and alabaster;
perfectly regular forms of vases were cut entirely by hand without any
lathe. But with this there was a very tentative idea of animate forms.
The feet and hands were omitted, and limbs ended only in points. The
form of an outline was not thought to imply a solid, and it needed
to be hatched over with cross lines (fig. 3) to show that it was a
continuous body. The noses of animals are frequently shown touching,
as in this instance of the dog and addax. In short, the figures are
mere symbols of ideas, with little regard to their actual nature and
appearance. This symbolic stage of art is found in most countries,
and often with a higher sense of form and expression than among the
prehistoric people of the Nile; there is nothing of this age in Egypt
to compare with the carvings of the cave men of Europe.
[Illustration: EARLY. LATE.]
There is no sign of progress in art during this time. The slate
palettes, cut in the forms of animal outlines, which were made through
the whole age, begin with recognisable forms; and these were degraded
by copying, until at the end their original types could hardly be
guessed. The animal figures on ivory combs are passable in the earlier
part of the age, and disappear entirely later on. The human figures,
which are frequent in early times, are very rarely found later. The
flint working shows degeneration long before historic times. And the
pottery loses its fine forms, regularity, and brilliant finish, and
becomes rough and coarse. In every direction it seems that the earliest
prehistoric civilisation, which was probably connected with Libya, was
superseded by a lower race, which was probably from the East.
The first dynasty (5500 B.C.) appears to have brought in entirely new
influences. While the material civilisation naturally went on with
many of the older elements, yet in all directions a new spirit and
moving power is seen. The conquest of the country by a race of invaders
is shown on many carvings, most of which are probably of the three
centuries of unification, before the start of the dynastic history of
the whole country. One of the most typical of these carvings is fig. 4,
where the king is represented as a bull trampling upon his enemy. Other
examples are given in figs. 51 to 54.
The whole character of the art is changed. Instead of the clumsy and
spiritless figures of the prehistoric people, we meet with vigorous
forms full of life and character. Perhaps one of the earliest is the
hyaena (fig. 51); the slates are rather later, reaching down to the
beginning of the first dynasty; and the figures in the round (19 to
22) show what a living and powerful art had suddenly sprung up and was
developed under the early kings. The same growth is seen in the advance
of glazing for important architectural use on a large scale. And the
introduction and rapid development of hieroglyphic writing stamps
the new age as the beginning of written history, the start of the
conscious preservation by man of a regular record of his past acts.
This new growth of art rejoiced in its fresh found powers. It searched
for the truth, it carefully observed anatomy, and--like a learner--it
was proud of its knowledge, and emphasised the precise place of the
muscles which it had traced out. For that very reason it is essentially
a true art, without any of the slovenly substitutes for Nature which
are termed conventions. It had no traditions to spoil it or hold it
back: it was full of observation as the only method for its work. It is
always simple and dignified, and shows more truth and precision than
any art of a later age.
After the conscious study of Nature, the greatest step in any art is
the deliberate work for the sake of its own beauty, and not merely
because it has to tell a story. It may be said that this is the birth
of true art; all before that merely consists of representations for
another purpose. But work for the sake of beauty alone is art pure
and simple, and this stage was reached at the very beginning of the
history, in the beautiful carving of the palm tree and long-necked
gazelles (fig. 52).
The Pyramid age (4700-4000 B.C.) brought in fresh ideals. The early
kings had expanded a chieftainship into a kingdom, without realising
all the new conditions of organization which were involved. The great
work of the early pyramid kings, Senoferu and Khufu, was the massive
organizing of the civil service of the country, the establishment of a
social organism which resisted all the invasions and disasters of the
land, and survived in parts to our own times. These new ideals were
naturally reflected in the art. In place of tombs such as any great
chief might have ordered, the most gigantic pyramids were erected,
buildings yet unsurpassed in bulk and in accuracy of workmanship. The
new social order of the official world followed in the same lines,
and dozens of tombs were sculptured in each reign, larger and more
elaborate than most of the royal sepulchres of other lands and ages.
The host of these tombs which remain constitute a larger treasury of
artistic work than there is of any other period in the world’s history.
A typical example of this new order is the figure of a servant of a
noble named Ainofer (fig. 5). The high rounded relief, the sense of
action, the delicacy of detail and expression, all mark this new time.
The greater part of the really fine sculpture that we possess in Egypt
comes from this time. The statuary (figs. 23 to 31), the reliefs (figs.
55 to 57), the painting (fig. 68), all show the noble spaciousness
and grandeur of the age. Its style is severe and never trifles with
superfluities. The smallest as well as the largest work seems complete
and inevitable, without being constrained by any limitations of time,
or labour, or thought. For the expression of royal energy, dignity,
and equanimity the figures of Khufu and Khafra are unsurpassed. In
the vivid expression of personal character no age has surpassed the
statues of the officials and their wives. The style of other ages may
be more scholastic, more amusing, or more graceful, but for all that
constitutes great art no period can compare with that of the mighty
pyramid kings.
All things pass away, and during the centuries of disruption which
followed the VIth dynasty the old style ran down to an incredible
coarseness and clumsy copying. At the close of the XIth dynasty a
revival took place. Like all great developments of art it rose with
extraordinary rapidity, and within a generation or two the new movement
was fully grown. Its characteristic was the use of very low relief,
with faint but perfectly clear outlines (see fig. 6). It was the style
of a school, and not that of Nature. A regular course of artistic
training is described by an artist; first was taught the positions
of figures in slow action, then the differences of male and female
figures, next mythological subjects, and lastly, the attitudes of rapid
action. This mechanical training naturally went with elaboration of
detail. The minute lining over large masses of hair, the carving of
every bead of a necklace, were the outcome of scholastic training.
The artificial reduction of figures in the round to a very delicate
variation of planes in low relief was according to the same system. The
whole works of the XIIth dynasty are beautiful, reserved, and pleasing,
with a clearness and finish which appeals to a sense of orderly
perfection. They have neither the grandeur of what went before nor the
grace of what followed them.
[Illustration: THE PERIODS OF ART
7. XVIIIth dynasty
8. XIXth dynasty
9. Saite (XXVI)
10. Ptolemaic]
The XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties are the most popularly known age of
the art. The profusion of remains, their accessibility at Thebes, and
the more intimate style of the designs, have led to their general
acceptance as typical. This position must not be allowed in a wider
knowledge of the subject. The whole level of art of the XVIIIth dynasty
is as much below that of the XIIth, as the style of the XIIth is below
that of the IVth dynasty. The scholastic work of the XIIth is followed
by a treatment which is almost always conventional in the XVIIIth; and
the XIXth dynasty shows merely a degradation of what preceded it. At
the close of the XVIIth dynasty there emerges from the turmoil of the
Hyksos barbarism a rude but lively style of drawing, with sculpture
of clumsy figures and badly-formed hieroglyphs. Stepping into the
XVIIIth dynasty we meet with stiff and rather heavy statuettes, the
female figures, however, showing the dawn of the seductive grace which
followed. Little can be said to have changed in ideals since the XIIth
dynasty, until the Asiatic conquests altered the civilisation of Egypt.
Thothmes I and III brought back thousands of Syrian captives, many of
whom were selected for their beauty and their artistic ability; their
work and their influence transformed the art, and the ideal became that
of a light, graceful, fascinating type which posed much and suggested
more.
The art of character had become secondary to the art of emotion.
Vivacity and romance led the way, and the older studies of deeper life
and fine anatomy were out of date. Fluttering ribbons and prancing
horses and galloping calves were represented without the laborious
sculpture, but merely painted with a flowing line on the tomb walls,
which were plastered smooth over the roughest hewing in the rock. The
cheapest road to effect was the favourite way, and the eternal solidity
and dignified simplicity of the older ages had vanished. The figure
of an official of Kha-em-hat (fig. 7) is typical of the best work of
this age. The other examples are shown in figs. 36-42, 60-62, 69-78.
This new order of things culminated under Akhenaten, when naturalism,
influenced largely from Greece, removed the older principles of
Egyptian art; and all the passing incidents of life, the domestic
affections of the king and the festivities of his court, became the
subjects of even funerary sculptures and painting in the tombs. After
that stage there was nothing left to do but to fall back on the old
stock subjects and copy and re-copy them worse and worse during the
succeeding dynasties. Egyptian art perishes with Akhenaten; all that
came after was a bloodless imitation.
The XIXth dynasty art is fairly represented by a figure of one of
the king’s sons (fig. 8). Here is seen the baldness of the style.
The profile is mechanical, the hair hangs in a heavy and ugly flap,
the body has no anatomy, the legs are badly drawn, and the long
streamers flying from the waist are out of keeping. The coarse, heavy
work of the temples of Abu Simbel, or the great hall of Karnak, is
obtrusive in spite of their grandiose conception. In the XXth dynasty
the inscriptions also suffered by being cut very deeply, so that the
signs appeared as black shadows without any detail. The decay was only
arrested by a deliberate copying of the style of the pyramid age.
The XXVIth dynasty tried to recover the early grandeur of sculpture by
close imitation, but it is rarely that any fragment of this work does
not betray itself by its inane treatment, bad jointing of the limbs,
and want of proportion. One of the best examples of the more original
work is the figure of an elderly official (fig. 9). The want of detail
is hidden by the stiff robe without a fold or curve, leaving only the
head and extremities to be represented. Another example is in fig. 64,
where the bad jointing and lack of anatomy is too evident.
In the Ptolemaic time these faults are even more apparent, when the bad
copy of a copy was the ideal. In fig. 10 is seen the hopelessly wrong
proportioning of the parts, the clumsy lumps of flesh and exaggerated
muscles, which are the extreme opposite to the over-refined flat relief
of the XIIth dynasty. The hair partakes of the same faults, being
carved as rows of lumps representing separate curls.
Portraiture, which compelled some attention to Nature, is the latest
surviving form of art. In the XXVIth dynasty fairly good heads were
occasionally done, but often with some disproportion. The modelled
stucco heads of the Roman age are the last stage. Some of them show
a real ability and feeling for character (figs. 135 to 137), and one
example which can be compared with the skull proves the accuracy of the
modelling (fig. 138).
The various Schools of Art should now be noticed. The styles of the
different periods that we have considered were of course obvious in all
the schools; the character of an age affected all parts of the country.
Owing to the absence of any artists’ names, and the extreme rarity of
those of architects, it is impossible to trace the personal origin of
any works. And as we cannot say how much the artists travelled about
the country, mere locality does not prove a conclusive test; probably
for royal works the artists went to any city according to orders.
Among private tombs we can see great differences of style, as between
Memphis, Thebes, and Aswan. But the difficulty of exact dating makes
comparison doubtful, as we might set side by side works of the rise
and of the climax of a period. The most satisfactory evidence about
the schools is from the statuary in different materials. When once a
sculptor was trained to the peculiarities of one stone he would not
be likely to enter on all the difficulties of a fresh material. A man
trained for years to slicing and bruising out granite without the
least fear of a crack, would not relish hewing soft sandstones that
split, or limestone that could not be trusted with its own weight on a
finished surface. Certainly the men who learned sculpture on the softer
materials would be helpless on the granite. Then we know that the
statues were at least dressed into shape--if not entirely finished--at
the quarries, and hence the work in one material would continue in
the hands of one local school. It is therefore likely that the stone
workers of each material formed an unbroken succession, probably in
certain families for the most part, and handed on their traditions for
several dynasties successively, perhaps even throughout thousands of
years. This would not be so much the case in relief sculpture, as there
the blocks were built in and sculptured at the building, wherever that
might be.
When we look for differences of treatment we see how strongly one style
of work is continued in one material through a long period. We have
here contemporaneous examples in four different stones, the statues
of Rameses II in black granite, hard limestone, red granite and Nubian
sandstone (figs. 11 to 14). In all cases work in black granite is finer
than that in the other stones at the same period. The figures of the
so-called Hyksos type (fig. 34), of the XIIIth, the XVIIIth, the XIXth
and the XXVth dynasties, and the sarcophagi of the XVIIIth dynasty,
in black granite, all show far finer forms and finish than those in
the other materials. Of briefer use there were two other stones which
show equally fine work--diorite, which was hardly ever sculptured
except in the IVth dynasty (fig. 27), and green basalt, used in the
XVIIIth (fig. 37). The green basalt must be put in the highest place
as regards minute handling and freedom of curves; the fine grain and
moderate hardness were most favourable to the artist. The black granite
work comes next in quality, having fine curves but not quite the same
freedom, owing to the coarser grain. The diorite has a beautiful grain
for work, but the hardness has influenced the detail of recesses,
and it is seldom that inner angles are as truly worked out as in the
black granite. The comparison is perhaps hardly just, as there are no
contemporary works in these two stones. It seems not improbable that
all these hard stones were found in the same region, the Eastern
desert, and that they were all worked by one school. That there was a
fine technical training there in early times is shown by the splendid
bowls and vases of the hardest rocks which were wrought in prehistoric
ages and the first dynasty. Such vases were made in the mountain
district, as the figures of a warmly-clad race bear them in tribute to
the Egyptian king (_Jour. Anthrop. Inst._, xxxi., pl. xix., 13-15).
Thus we may look on this black-granite school as belonging really to
the border people of the Eastern desert, and not to the Nile plain.
[Illustration: RAMESSU II, BY DIFFERENT SCHOOLS
11. Black granite
12. Hard limestone
13. Red granite
14. Nubian sandstone]
The limestone school was expressly that of Memphis and Middle Egypt. It
is best known from the host of private statues found in the cemetery
of Saqqareh. Work of the finest delicacy was done in this soft and
uniform material (see figs. 24, 29-32); and a branch of the same school
was that working the harder limestones which were a favourite stone
in the XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties in upper Egypt, as in the colossus
of Rameses II (fig. 12). Both branches of this school excelled in the
delicate expression of physiognomy; the proportions of the limbs and
the finish of the extremities are usually excellent. The alabaster work
is a branch of this same school, with similar proportion and finish.
It is a rare material for sculpture till the XVIIIth dynasty, but
under Amenhotep II to IV it was often used; and it serves for one of
the best works of later time, the statue of Amenardys (fig. 47). The
quarries were in the midst of the limestone hills, especially where the
hard limestone occurs near Tell-el-Amarna. Thus the same school dealt
with this whole group of calcareous rocks.
Another very fine school was that of the quartzite sandstone of Gebel
Ahmar, near Cairo. The material was closely limited to a single hill
cemented by hot springs; and what is now seen there is only the immense
heap of chippings left by workers of all ages: the hill itself has
almost vanished. This material was worked in the pyramid times, but
only roughly. The XIIth dynasty kings saw its value, and quarried
it for sarcophagi and chambers, but seldom used it for sculpture.
The XVIIIth dynasty attacked it on an enormous scale; the two great
colossi of Amenhotep III, weighing 1175 tons each, were cut and carried
up-stream 450 miles to Thebes. Statues are found, royal and private,
in all parts of the land, and naturally this stone was largely used at
Tanis. The work is usually excellent, almost equal to the limestone
sculpture; but it generally falls a little below that of the previous
schools in the depth of cutting and the freedom of work in hollows.
The red granite school was at Aswan, where the statues and obelisks are
still lying unfinished in the quarries. The artist was much hindered
by the coarse grain of the stone, which made fine work difficult.
On the obelisks this has been fairly overcome by a great amount of
emery cutting, and sharp smooth hieroglyphs were cleanly cut. But for
statuary, even in the pyramid age the features are coarsely worked and
the detail scanty; and when used later on a large scale, the forms are
heavy, the inner angles seldom worked out, and the extremities thick
and massive. This is seen in the colossus of Rameses II (fig. 13), as
well as in earlier figures.
The Nubian sandstone school was the least artistic. The softness and
ready splitting of the stone prevented clean and well-finished work.
Detail was almost impossible, and it was a mistake to use a good
building stone for the wrong purpose of fine carving. In early times
this stone was never used, except locally in its own region. The XIIth
dynasty rarely used it, but by the middle of the XVIIIth it became
general, and it was the main stone of the XIXth dynasty in Upper Egypt.
Its use, however, does not come down to Middle or Lower Egypt. The
long avenue of sphinxes at Thebes are the most familiar sculpture in
this material, and similar figures were also placed by Amenhotep III
in his temple on the Western bank. The great colossi of Abu Simbel are
the main example of sculpture in this stone (fig. 14). They show the
defects of the other southern school, that of red granite. The limbs
are square and heavy, the feet and hands are flat and mechanical, and
the muscles are crude ridges. But the face is fairly rendered, as well
perhaps as was practicable in such material.
We thus see that there were essential differences between the various
schools of Egyptian art, partly due to the various peoples, but mainly
resulting from the material used by each school.
CHAPTER III
THE STATUARY
Figures in the round are the earliest mode of modelling, and remain the
most important, as they are less conditioned than reliefs, and give
full scope to ability and knowledge. The earliest human figures are
found in the second stage of the prehistoric age, immediately after
the white-lined pottery. They are of ivory, limestone, slate, pottery,
or of stick and paste. Such figures did not continue to be made after
the middle of the prehistoric civilisation. The ivory figures usually
end in a mere peg below, with wide hips and shoulders, but no arms.
The eyes are marked, though often the mouth and nose are omitted (fig.
15). The limestone or cement figures have the division of the legs
lined out; some are standing, as fig. 16, with tatu marks painted on
the stone; others are of the armless form, seated, and clearly of the
steatopygous Bushman type. The slate figures are always of men, with
pointed beards, and white beads inserted for eyes. The pottery figures
are roughly modelled, but with the legs separated. The stick and paste
figures are made by modelling a vegetable paste over a stick; the legs
are marked, sometimes arms are added, or else there are merely shoulder
stumps. In one case the head is modelled bald, painted red, and has
a black wig modelled over it, showing that separate wigs are as old
as the prehistoric time. Some ivory tusks are carved with a much more
advanced style of heads (fig. 17), which give the best idea that we
have of the type of the people. The animal figures are rudely cut, but
have a certain ferocious air (fig. 18).
Some much more advanced figures in ivory have the legs and arms
separate, and a passable amount of modelling in the head and body.
Though quite of prehistoric style, they are probably influenced by
the school of highly developed ivory-work of the Ist dynasty, and may
shortly precede that time.
[Illustration: PREHISTORIC
15, 16, 17, 18. Prehistoric figures in the round]
The early dynastic age brought in entirely new ideals. The oldest
figures of this time are the colossal statues of the god Min from
Koptos. These are of much the same work as the prehistoric human
figures, but have spirited drawings of animals incised on them (see
fig. 51). Just before the Ist dynasty there came a finely developed
style of ivory-carving, which is known to us by the many figures of
men and women found at Hierakonpolis. The finest stone-work of that
age is a study in limestone of a king’s head (figs. 19, 20), which is
so closely like Narmer (fig. 54) that it must be just at the beginning
of the Ist dynasty. It is a sculptor’s study of a king preparatory to
making his statue, and, as Professor A. Michaelis says, “it renders
the race-type with astounding keenness, and shows an excellent power
of observation in the exact representation of the eyes.” The delicacy
of the facial curves should be noticed, and the entire absence of any
conventions in the modelling of the mouth as well as the eyes. The
widely prominent ears are a characteristic of the earliest historic
figures; such a feature belongs to a hunting race who need to catch
sounds, and suggests that they always slept on their backs. This is
unlike the prehistoric folk, who were always buried contracted and
lying on the side, as being their natural attitude; but it agrees with
the modern Egyptian, who sleeps in the mummy posture, lying on the back.
A large number of ivory figures were found at Abydos, fully developed
in style, beyond those of Hierakonpolis. They comprise figures of
girls, boys, dogs, apes, a bear, and many lions. They are admirably
easy in their pose, and perfectly natural in form with a simplicity
and truthfulness better than any later work. The figure of an old king
(fig. 21) was with these; notice the subtle expression of the face, the
droop of the head forward, and the natural air. This is probably early
in the Ist dynasty.
Rather later is the hard limestone head of King Kha-sekhem, of the
IInd dynasty (fig. 22). Fine as the modelling is about the mouth, yet
convention has already crept in; the edges of the lips are sharpened,
and the extended line at the outer corner of the eye has been
introduced. We see then under the earliest dynasties the observation
of Nature free from any artificial trammels, unconscious, simple and
dignified, on a higher plane of truthfulness and precision than is
found in later art.
[Illustration: EARLIEST DYNASTIES
19, 20. Ist dynasty king, limestone
21. Ist dynasty king, ivory
22. Kha-sekhem (IInd dynasty)]
In the pyramid age we will first observe the earlier private figures
(23 to 26). Queen Mertitefs (fig. 23) was the wife of Seneferu, at the
close of the IIIrd dynasty. In her type of face, and the treatment of
it, we see an earlier race and earlier work than that of the pyramid
times. The large, staring eyes, the mouth turning down, the natural
hair cut short and brushed straight down over the forehead beneath the
wig,--all these details disappear after this. When we compare this
with the head of Nofert (fig. 24), who was of the next generation,
the change of type and work is at once seen. In Nofert the eyes are
admirably placed, the brow is perfectly natural, and the modelling of
the features is irreproachable. Yet there is less absolute naturalism
than in the older work of the Ist dynasty. The hair is evidently kept
complete beneath the wig, and is laid out smoothly over the forehead.
[Illustration: OLD KINGDOM SCULPTURE
23. Mertitefs
24. Nofert
25. Ka-aper
26. Unknown]
The celebrated figure of Ka-aper, or the “Sheykh el Beled,” belongs
to the same period. The figure is so well known that it need not
appear here, but the full face is less familiar (fig. 25). The mouth
and chin are perhaps the most truthful part, and seem entirely free
from convention. The eyes are excellent in form, but affected by the
technical detail of inserting the eyeball of stone and crystal in a
copper frame. The similar eyes in the head of Nofert are more carefully
inserted, so that the frame is not obvious. The hair is represented as
closely cut, so as to allow the wig to be put over it. We can, however,
hardly judge of this figure as it is, stripped of the coat of
stucco which covered such work. The portions of similar wooden figures
in the temple of Abydos had all been thus painted. Such a coat would
modify the eye setting, and leave only the dark line visible which
imitated the kohl on the eyelids.
Another work of the same age is the best for the pose of the figure
(fig. 26). The vigorous, independent, frank attitude is perhaps the
finest in any portrait, ancient or modern. The profile is of the same
type as that of Nofert, alike in the strong brow and the form of the
nose and chin; the eye is more prominent, and the mouth less luxurious,
while the under-chin is firmer. Such differences are all in keeping
with the character, that of an active mistress of an estate rather than
an easy-going noble.
We shall not find in any of the subsequent work of the pyramid
age--still less in the later ages--such vitality and strength of
individual character as we have seen in these early portraits. With
these stands also the minute head of Khufu (fig. 123), which we shall
notice with the ivory-work.
[Illustration: OLD KINGDOM SCULPTURE
27, 28. King Khafra (IVth dynasty)]
The statue of Khafra (fig. 27) carved in diorite is one of the grandest
works of Egypt. The entire dignity and majesty shown contrast strongly
with the active air of the subordinate classes. The muscular detail
is powerful, but yet in keeping with the serenity of the figure. The
whole is best grasped from below, as it was intended to be seen; but
the head should be studied at its own level, and the profile, from a
cast (fig. 28), shows the form as it originally appeared when covered
with a facing which concealed the grain of the stone. The difference
of character between the calm, easy dignity of this, and the terrible
energy of Khufu (fig. 123), should be observed. It shows how free
the art is from any mere convention of majesty. The hawk behind the
king is shown as spreading out its wings to protect the royal head.
This symbolism is ingeniously hidden in the front view, so as not to
interfere with the effect of the whole figure as it was intended to be
seen. The figures of the Vth and VIth dynasties have more vivacity than
those earlier, but scarcely such a real vitality. The well-known scribe
(fig. 29) is a good piece of expression, showing the attentive, waiting
air of a man who is following dictation. The anatomy is not detailed,
and the surfaces look rather blocked out and bald as compared with
Khafra.
[Illustration: OLD KINGDOM SCULPTURE
29. The scribe
30. Wife and daughter
31. Ranofer]
The lower part of a group is given here (fig. 30) for figures of the
seated wife and daughter. These show good modelling of the figure in a
close-fitting garment, and the hair is worn over the forehead beneath
the wig, as by Nofert. The figure of Ranofer (fig. 31) is one of the
most dignified of the portraits of officials. The pose is strong; the
muscles are well rendered, and not too full though clear. The wig
stands well off the head, and gives a continuous outline with the
figure. It is hard to see how the whole expression could be better than
this.
On looking closely at the detail of these early statues, there is
very little that can be set down as conventional. All the features
are natural, well placed, and harmonious. The relation of the brow
to the eyes is generally true. But this point was entirely missed in
later times. In the XIIth dynasty the eye is rather too forward; and
in the XVIIIth there is hardly a single statue that is correct, the
eyes usually projecting to the plane of the brow. On observing even the
finest figures of later times it will be seen how purely conventional
is their treatment; the mouth and eyes are cold and mechanical, and it
is seldom that any one feature even approaches the truth of the early
art.
In the XIIth dynasty the work shows the scholastic style of deliberate
accuracy, without as much personal vitality as in earlier times. Yet it
is full of carefully observed detail, and is by no means perfunctory
like the later work.
The facial surfaces are well rendered: observe the varied treatment
of the cheek below the eye in figs. 32, 33, and 35, which are clearly
individual. The entirely different form of the mouth in these three
is as evidently personal. Throughout Egyptian work the eye is of two
distinct types, both of which we see here in the XIIth dynasty. In one
type (fig. 32) the upper lid rises to its highest point near the inner
side; and with this form the actual corner, or canthus major, may end
in a mere angle or in a lachrymal fossa more or less developed, an
extreme case of the long and wide fossa being seen in fig. 32, and in
the black granite figure from Alexandria (so-called Hyksos) in Cairo.
This may be called the gibbous form of lid, and it is the more usual
in the sculpture and on coffins. The use of a copper frame round the
inserted eye in Old Kingdom statues makes it uncertain how far the
lachrymal fossa was intended to appear. But the statues of a single
material show a small fossa in most cases, such as Khafra, Dadefra, the
(so-called) wife of the Sheykh, and Sebekhotep III. In later work there
is no fossa, but only an angle, as in Tahutmes III, Amenhotep III,
Amenhotep son of Hapi, and other instances to the end of the dynasties.
But a slight fossa is shown in Akhenaten and his family, and in
Ramessu II; and, under the Ethiopians, Taharqa and Amenardys are both
shown with a long fossa.
The other type of eye seen in figs. 33, 35 may be called the narrow
eye. This seems to belong mainly to the Middle Kingdom, and is seen
in Senusert III, Amenemhat III, Queen Nofert, and Noferhotep. It is
perhaps unknown at an earlier age; and later it rarely occurs, but may
be seen in Merenptah, and somewhat in Mentu-em-hat and some portraits
of the XXVIth dynasty. These remarks are merely to draw attention to
a detail which is easily observed and seldom defaced; but for drawing
conclusions an extensive study is needed of all the varieties of form
and treatment, not only of the eye, but also of the lips, nostrils,
ears, and hair. How far such detail belonged to the subject, and how
much is due to artistic conventions, we cannot yet say; but from the
similarities of portraits of the same person it seems probable that the
details are really due to differences of type.
[Illustration: MIDDLE KINGDOM SCULPTURE
32. Senusert I
33. Senusert III
34. Foreign type
35. Amenemhat III]
We now have a very difficult question to state as to the origin of the
remarkable type of fig. 34. This is one of the class of sphinxes and
statues commonly described as being of the Hyksos. Yet, as the Hyksos
kings’ names are roughly cut on the shoulders of the sphinxes, they
are clearly not the original inscriptions; and, as clearly, these
figures are older than the Hyksos. The type is distinguished by an
extreme muscularity of the face, deeply cut, powerful lips with strong
flexures, and the long nose, not very prominent, but broad. All these
points are much in excess of such features on any statue of a named
Egyptian king. Some similarities may be seen in the type of Senusert
III and Amenemhat III (figs. 33, 35); but these latter are much less
strong and unconventional. It is probable that some of the stock
of fig. 34 has gone to form the type of figs. 33 and 35, but it is
impossible to see in them a uniform single type. It seems most probable
that fig. 34 belongs to an invading people from Syria during the
decadence of the Old Kingdom, between the VIIth and Xth dynasties; but
until some example with an original name may be found, it is useless to
be more definite. It is noticeable how all of the heads of this type
are in black granite, or rarely some other igneous rock; this suggests
that they were wrought by the school of the eastern desert, and may
therefore not be controlled by the decadence of ordinary Egyptian work
between the Old and Middle Kingdoms.
Whether other strange works in black granite--such as the fish-offerers
of Tanis--belong to the same age, has been questioned. It may be
noted, however, that the sphinxes and the black granite bust from
Alexandria have a large lachrymal fossa, while the fish-offerers
have no fossa, but only an inner angle to the eye. The so-called
Hyksos figures from Bubastis are not really of this type, but show an
inheritance of some of its characters, such as belong to the royal
family in the XIIth dynasty. Whenever the royal portraiture of the
XIIth dynasty is fully collected and studied, it will be possible to
clear the attribution of many statues, and so to separate those which
really belong to the earlier stock.
On coming to the XVIIIth dynasty a more mechanical style prevails
(figs. 36-39). This is obvious in the formal raised band of eyebrow,
and the eyes being brought forward to the plane of the forehead. The
lips remain more natural, and are still treated expressively. The best
work of this age is the green basalt statue of Tahutmes III in Cairo
(fig. 37). It accords closely with another figure of black granite of
the same king; but the red granite head in the British Museum is much
coarser and less expressive, as is natural from that school of granite
work. The large nose is vouched for as a family characteristic in the
reliefs of Tahutmes II and Hatshepsut at Deir el Bahri, which have
precisely the same outline of brow and nose; the under-side of the
nose, the slightly rising curve of the lips to the outer corner, and
the flatness of the facing of the lips, seem to be individual details.
The head fig. 36 is of an official of Amenhotep III, in quartzite. It
has a fairly good outline of the cheek, and well-cut lips; and it shows
the more florid and romantic turn of this age in the wavy hair marked
out with lines.
Under Akhenaten (fig. 39) there came a revolution of art, which was
perhaps only a culmination of the naturalistic tendencies that were
growing during the preceding reigns. But it was enforced and supported
by the surrounding changes in religion, ethics, and politics which
were carried out by the humanist reformer who ruled. It was probably
also stimulated by the influence of the contemporary art of Crete and
Greece, the whole eastern Mediterranean apparently sharing in a general
movement. We shall notice this further when considering reliefs and
painting. Of round sculpture the best figure remaining is that of
Akhenaten now in Paris (fig. 39). It has been part of a group of the
king and queen sitting together, and it shows all the characteristics
of this school in the best form. The eyes are quite natural; the lips
are emphasised by a sharp edge along their borders; the jaw and neck
are excellently rendered; and the ear, with its large pierced lobe, is
clearly true to life.
Though the reforms of Akhenaten mostly perished with him, yet the
training of his artists is still to be seen in the sculpture of
Tut-ankh-amen (fig. 38). This has not the professional completeness
of style seen under Tahutmes III (fig. 37), but it carries on the
less precise sentimentalism of Akhenaten (fig. 39), with much feeling
for expression and beauty, but a lack of grip and force. The brow is
neglected, the eye is feeble, the cheek is without detail, but the lips
and chin are enforced as far as possible. The whole effect is sweet but
not impressive.
[Illustration: NEW KINGDOM SCULPTURE
36. Under Amenhotep III
37. Tahutmes III
38. Tut-ankh-amen
39. Akhenaten]
We now turn to the minor work in wood. In the Old Kingdom, wood was
frequently carved on a large scale; of the Middle Kingdom there is the
statue of King Hor; but under the New Kingdom the only large figures
are some rather coarse funeral statues. On the other hand, in small
figures there is a profusion of wood-carving. The wooden _ushabtis_ are
often beautifully treated; the draped figures of women are graceful and
dignified, with minute working of the hair and dress; the grotesque
figures of toilet objects are full of character; but here our space
limits us to one class, and we give the nude figures (figs. 40-42), as
such are rarely found in other material.
[Illustration: NEW KINGDOM SCULPTURE
40, 41, 42. Wood-carvings of girls (XVIIIth dynasty)]
The little negress (fig. 40), carved in ebony, is part of a group
representing her carrying a tray, which is supported by a monkey before
her. But these accessories are inferior, and merely hide the figure;
the edge of the tray has been slightly cut in on the breast and thus
disfigured it. The detail of this statuette is better than any other
such work; the perfect pose of the attitude, the poise of the head, the
fulness of the muscles, the innocent gravity of the expression, are all
excellent.
Other figures are carved in the handles of toilet trays. The girl in
fig. 41 holding flowers and birds is on a smaller and coarser scale
than the preceding, but is excellent in expression and in the modelling
of the trunk. The damsel playing a lute on her boat amid the papyrus
thicket (fig. 42) shows one of the graceful adjuncts of water-parties
in high life. The length of leg is exaggerated to harmonise with the
long stems around; but the pose is skilfully seized, the distance of
the feet being needful for balance in a little shallop, while the cling
of the thighs is maintained. There is more self-consciousness and
deliberate effect in this expression than in that of the little girls
seen before.
The age of decadence now begins with the Ramessides. One fine piece
arrests us in the black granite statue of Ramessu II (fig. 43), of
which an entire view is given in fig. 11. The whole pose is fairly
good, the face looking down toward the spectator below. The king is
no longer the dignified organiser of the Old Kingdom, with a vision
far away beyond everyday matters, but he is obviously considering the
opinion of the man in front of him. The detail is almost equal to that
of the previous dynasty; the eye is natural, the nose rather formal,
the lips with the sharp edge even more developed than before, and the
chin and throat less modelled. The elbow is carefully wrought, bringing
out the fold of flesh and the muscle separately, the accuracy of which
is questionable.
A good example of a private sculpture is the head of Bak-en-khonsu
(fig. 44). The eye is only slightly indicated, leaning to the
conventional blocking out seen in figs. 91 and 137. The profile is
good, and the lips are less exaggerated than in the royal statues. The
artist could give all his attention to the face alone, as the figure
is entirely hidden in an almost cubic block, which represents the man
seated with knees drawn up before the chest.
[Illustration: NEW KINGDOM SCULPTURE
43. Ramessu II
44. Bak-en-khonsu
45. Merenptah
46. Taharqa]
The head of Merenptah (fig. 45) shows him as inheriting and imitating
his father’s face and attitude. The style is cold and formal; the eyes
are so forward as to be even beyond the plane of the forehead, and
scarcely capped by the brow. But the nose and lips are natural and free
of the forcing which is seen rather earlier. There is no attempt at any
delicacy of facial curves, and the chin and throat are masked by the
official beard. As this is in gray granite, and was executed as the
_ka_ statue of the king’s personal temple, it may be taken as the best
that could be done at that time.
A different feeling comes in with the massive individual portrait of
Taharqa (fig. 46). The facial muscles are strongly marked, but the
mouth is singularly unformed, and is exactly the opposite of that in
the strong type of fig. 34. The eyes are of the gibbous form, with
a long slot of lachrymal fossa, which is also shown in the kindred
figure of Queen Amenardys (fig. 47). The style is not akin to any other
Egyptian work, and it seems as if an entirely different physiognomy had
challenged the sculptor and made him drop his usual treatment and study
Nature afresh.
The alabaster statue of Amenardys (fig. 47) is disproportioned as a
whole, though parts are good separately. It has just the faults due to
an imitator who does not trust to observation. The head is too large,
the jointing is weak. Each of the features is fairly well rendered;
and within the limits of later mannerism there is no forcing or
exaggeration.
The portrait of Mentu-em-hat (fig. 48) belongs to the same style as
that of Taharqa, and both are in black granite. The eyes seem too
small, but this is rather due to the depth and massiveness of the
jaws, which overweight the face. The apparent disproportion in the
low forehead is only due to the photograph being taken too close and
low down. The height above the eyes is really equal to that down to
the upper edge of the chin. The facial curves are carefully observed,
and we can well credit this with being a true portrait of the
capable governor of Thebes who continued in office under Taharqa and
Tanut-amen, and who repaired the devastations of the Assyrian invasion.
[Illustration: LATE SCULPTURE
47. Amenardys
48. Mentu-em-hat
49. Basalt head
50. Wooden head]
A head broken from a statue, found at Memphis (fig. 49), is remarkable
for the deep and searching modelling. The bony structure, the facial
muscles, and the surface folds are all scrupulously observed. The
artist’s triumph is shown in the harmony and the living character
which he has infused into his laborious precision. Very rarely can a
man rise superior to such a rigorous training. The character of work
is scarcely Egyptian; it belongs rather to the same school as the
republican Roman portraits, but is earlier than those, as it has more
precision of detail.
Lastly, we have one of the best examples of Greek influence in Egypt
shown by the wood-carving of a coffin (fig. 50). The long narrow face
shaded by thick wavy hair is Greek in feeling, while the feather
head-dress is old Egyptian. Unfortunately, the decay of the wood has
broken the surface, but it still remains an impressive example of
Egyptian influence on art which is mainly Greek.
CHAPTER IV
THE RELIEFS
In reliefs the representation of Nature is complicated by the
inevitable use of some conventions, and some kind of perspective,
to reduce solid objects to a plane delineation. It follows that for
the study of naturalistic art they are inferior to statuary, though
they give rise to a whole system of artistic conventions which are
of interest in themselves. It appears that among most races drawings
precede reliefs, and hence relief must be looked on as developed
drawing, and not as trammelled statuary.
[Illustration: EARLIEST RELIEFS
51. Hyaena and bull
52. Gazelles and palm
53. Group of animals
54. King Narmer]
The oldest reliefs are those of the prehistoric ivory carvings (see
fig. 3), in which we see maintained the pictorial convention of
crossing lines to substantiate the outline of a solid body, although
the body was now expressed by the relief. A large quantity of ivory
reliefs showing rows of animals were found at Hierakonpolis, belonging
to the earliest historic times. Of the same class are the reliefs
upon the primitive figures from Koptos (fig. 51). These comprise the
elephant, stag’s head, and swordfish, as well as the hyaena and ox.
The design is spirited, and seizes the characteristics of the animals;
while hills are conventionally shown by lumps under each foot. The
method of work is by bruising out the surface with a pointed stone
pick around the outline, and so lowering the surrounding ground (here
shaded), while the body of the animal remains of the original face of
the stone.
The next stage is that of the astonishing slate reliefs. The purely
artistic motive is seen in the group of two long-necked gazelles with
a palm-tree (fig. 52). The detail of the forms of the joints and the
general pose of the animals is excellent, and the feeling for the
graceful, slender outline and smooth surfaces is enforced by the rugged
palm stem placed between the gazelles. The love of the strange and wild
elements is seen in the rout of animals, real and mythical, in fig. 53,
which shows the lion, giraffe, wild ox, and many kinds of deer, well
known to the early artists.
The figure of King Narmer (fig. 54) is the historical point in these
slate carvings. As it is more advanced in style than any of the others,
it shows that they all belong to the age just before the Ist dynasty,
about 5500 B.C. Here the pose and jointing are excellent, and the
muscles are proclaimed by the artist as the results of his observation.
The later Egyptian canon is observed that a straight line should pass
through the middle of the head, middle of the trunk, point of the
backward knee, and middle between the heels: only, as the king is here
leaning forward in action, the line is not vertical as it is in later
standing figures. The facial characters of the king and his foe are
well distinguished; altogether five different types of race are shown
on these early carvings. The surface of the slate has been worked down
with a metal scraper, shown by the parallel grooves in the face.
On reaching the beginning of the pyramid age the finest work is seen
in the three wooden panels of Ra-hesy (fig. 55, _frontispiece_). The
anatomy is full, though not so excessive as in the earlier work. The
facial curves are carefully rendered, and the mouth is excellently
formed. The eye is of course placed in front view, as it always was
by Egyptians. The whole figure has an air of stark vigour, which is
fitting to a high official who managed a dozen different offices.
The multitude of the mastaba tomb-chapels of the pyramid age contain
so many thousands of scenes, illustrating every act of life of men and
animals, that it is impossible to give any view of their variety. Here
we can only give two scenes illustrating composition. In fig. 56 is
a group of men dragging down an ox for sacrifice. The arrangement of
the lines is clear, each figure stands out separately, the action is
vigorous and simple. Another scene of an ox-herd (fig. 57) shows quiet
motion, with the unusual turning of the head. This might be thought
unnatural, but exactly the same twist of the body may be seen among
Egyptians now. This style of relief deteriorated in the VIth dynasty,
and then continuously decayed until the middle of the XIth dynasty, by
which time it has reached a most degraded state.
[Illustration: OLD KINGDOM RELIEFS
56. The sacrifice
57. The ox-herd]
Suddenly, in the middle of the XIth dynasty, a new style of careful
elaboration begins to appear, a true archaic germ of a new school.
This rapidly grew, until at the later part of that dynasty there is a
stiff and over-elaborate style, which is well shown in the figure of
the princess Kauat having her hair curled (fig. 58). The eyes of all
the figures are gibbous, with a moderate fossa; the lips have usually a
sharp edge, though sometimes merely rounded; and there is the beginning
of facial modelling.
In the XIIth dynasty the surface modelling became elaborate, most
delicate gradations being wrought with faint outlines, as seen in
the Memphite head, fig. 6. A bold high relief and simpler treatment
was followed by the Theban school, as in fig. 59 of the god Ptah and
Senusert I embracing. The use of sunk relief, as fig. 58, was as early
as the IVth dynasty, though most of the tomb sculptures are in high
relief. Sunk relief became commoner in the Middle Kingdom, and almost
universal in the New Kingdom. It saved a large amount of labour, and
it protected the sculptures from injury; but it is so forcible a
convention that it is never so pleasing as the raised work.
[Illustration: MIDDLE KINGDOM RELIEFS
58. Toilet of princess
59. Senusert I and Ptah]
The XVIIIth dynasty opens with another revival of art, but yet it never
reached the levels of the earlier ages. The profusion of reliefs of
Thebes and other great sites has made the style of the XVIIIth and
XIXth dynasties the most familiar to us, but its inferiority to that
of the previous periods is more obvious the more it is studied. The
sculptures of Hatshepsut at Deir el Bahri are celebrated, yet the
detail in fig. 60 is not rich. There is scarcely any modelling of
face or muscles, mere flat surfaces sufficing; there is but little
expression in the features; and the whole effect is flat and tame.
More character appears under Amenhotep III (fig. 61), though even here
there is none of the muscular detail which was constantly shown in
early work. The features smile gracefully without any real expression,
and the trivial details of dress are worked out to give a picturesque
elaboration. The taste for mere prettiness and graceful personalities
ruled more and more as the XVIIIth dynasty developed.
[Illustration: NEW KINGDOM RELIEFS
60. Hatshepsut
61. Servant of Kha-em-hat
62. Akhenaten and queen]
At last this taste, stimulated by the influence of the Greek art and
its love of expressing motion, broke all bounds in the movement under
Akhenaten. The example in fig. 62 gives the essence of Atenism. The
natural but ungainly attitudes, the flourishing ribands, the heavy
collars and kilt, the ungraceful realism of the figures, the loss of
all expression and detail of structure,--all these show the death of a
permanent art in the fever of novelty and vociferation.
This ferment being passed, the Egyptian went back on his older style;
but it had lost its life, it could only be copied. The exquisite
smoothness and finish of the good work of Sety I at Abydos is entirely
lifeless and destitute of observation. It has no anatomical detail, but
was made by well-constructed human machines who could not express an
emotion which they did not feel.
The historical scenes of the great sculptures of Karnak are full of
interest, but almost destitute of art. Some parts of the work of
Ramessu III at Medinet Habu show more observation, such as the hunting
scene, fig. 63. The wild bulls are well studied, and the marsh-plants
with feathery tops show a real appreciation of natural growth and
beauty.
Under the XXVIth dynasty came the deliberate imitation of the work
of the Old Kingdom. In a few cases this is passably done, and even
some invention may be seen. But in general there is only a lifeless
imitation of various parts clumsily put together. One of the best
pieces of such art is the procession of youths and maids carrying
animals and farm produce (fig. 64). The forms are true, there is none
of the later exaggeration (as in fig. 10), and there is a loving touch
in the details, especially of the animals, which belongs to the true
artist. Observe how the girls carry the flowers and the birds, while
the boys take the heavy loads of papyrus stems and a calf and a basket
of flour. Such work is the last flicker of Egyptian art in reliefs, and
nothing later claims our notice.
[Illustration: LATE RELIEFS
63. Bulls in marshes
64. Bearers of offerings]
CHAPTER V
THE PAINTING AND DRAWING
Painting is certainly the earliest art of Egypt; but, being more
perishable than sculpture, many periods of it are hardly represented
at present. A very early prehistoric vase, painted with white slip on
the red ground, shows the crude figures of two men fighting (fig. 65).
Other such vases have plants and other objects painted. From the middle
of the prehistoric age, belonging to the second civilisation, are the
light-brown vases painted in red, with figures of ships and people
(fig. 66), plants, and imitations of stone and wicker patterns. The
joints are fairly correct in the men and animals, though deficient in
the woman with raised arms. But the whole air is very crude as compared
with the roughest efforts of the dynastic race. Another painting rather
later in the prehistoric age is the ship from a tomb fresco (fig. 67).
The arms of the woman are more correctly drawn as straight, but the
men are worse posed than in the earlier work. The idea of the figures
seen above the ships, but entirely detached from them, may be that they
are seen on the opposite bank of a narrow river, beyond the ships.
The advanced painting of the early pyramid times is shown by the geese
(fig. 68), stalking along in a meadow amid tufts of herbage. The air of
grave self-sufficiency is admirably caught, and this small piece of a
great wall-scene at Medum is deservedly admired. Of the Middle Kingdom
there is no fine example remaining.
[Illustration: EARLIEST PAINTING
65. First age of prehistoric painting
66. Second age
67. Ship on wall-painting
68. Geese of Medum]
The great age of painting was the XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties. The
sculpturing of tombs was then abandoned in favour of the cheaper paint;
and the taste of the age for graceful and light treatment found its
best scope in the use of the brush. Here we have a group of pelicans
(fig. 69) with an old herdsman and baskets of eggs. Next (fig. 70) is
a harvest scene. Two men are carrying a load of the ears of corn in a
net. Behind are the stalks of straw after the ears have been cut. Two
girls who were gleaning have stopped to quarrel over the corn; one has
seized a wrist of the other, and the two free hands have each taken a
grip of the other one’s hair. To the right, under a sycamore fig-tree,
one boy is asleep, while another plays on a long reed pipe, with a
water-skin hung over his head. In the lower line a girl with a thorn in
her foot is stretching it out to be examined by another girl. Further,
a lad is stripping the heads of millet by dragging them through a fixed
fork. The whole scene is full of incident, and the drawing of the
figures in unusual action is excellent. The curious dress of the men
is a linen waist-cloth, with a net of slit leather-work to take the
wear, and a solid piece of leather left in the middle of it for sitting
on, as in fig. 140. Such slit leather-work is dealt with in the last
chapter.
[Illustration: NEW KINGDOM PAINTING
69. Pelicans and keeper
70, 71. Harvest scenes]
A third scene (fig. 71) is in the harvest field; the ears have been put
into a net, and to press them down a stick is passed through a hole on
one edge, while a man has hooked his arm over the stick, and jumped up
so as to bring his weight with a jerk to press the stick down; with
his other hand he holds the end of a cord tied to the net, so as to be
ready to secure the stick when pressed down and prevent it springing up
again. The spirit shown in this action is very good, and it is perhaps
the only figure given in the act of jumping. On the left is a young
woman, one of the daughters, behind the owner of the tomb; on the right
is a gleaning girl, stopping in the tall corn to drink, with her basket
set on the ground.
On the next plate a portion of a ceiling pattern (fig. 72) shows how
such designs were drawn. The rhombic lines were done first, then the
dark groundwork, leaving white discs, and lastly these were filled up
with the spirals. The whole was copied from _appliqué_ leather-work,
with lines of stitching.
A boating scene (fig. 73) shows the beautifully bold, clean lines of
the drawing, for which in this case there does not seem to have been
any preliminary sketch of position. The crouching girl picking a lotus
bud from the water is very unusual. The drawing of wavy water-lines,
with lotus flowers, is the general convention, and the figures of fish
and birds are often seen.
A scene at a party (fig. 74) shows the guests seated on the ground
holding lotus flowers, while a serving-girl stretches forward to
arrange the earrings of one of the guests.
[Illustration: NEW KINGDOM PAINTING
72. Ceiling
73. Boating scene
74. A party]
Painting received a great stimulus under Akhenaten: the new movement
suited the brush much better than the chisel. The two figures of the
princesses (fig. 76) show possibilities which were not then fully
carried out. The conventional attitudes are dropped, and the actual
positions of two little girls are carefully copied. The elder is
seated on a cushion, with the knees drawn up, and resting one arm on
the knee, while with the other hand she pushes up her little sister’s
chin. The younger has none of this self-possession, but is propping
herself up with one arm, while she clings to her elder’s shoulder with
the other. The drawing is free and true, within the usual conventions
of perspective. Further, the colouring has shade on the backs of the
figures, and a high light on the thigh of the younger daughter. Such
shade does not appear in Greek art till a thousand years later. The
pattern in front is the border of the carpet on which the queen was
seated, her foot and drapery appearing above.
A surprising drawing which belongs to the same school of observation
is the tumbler (fig. 75). Here an acrobatic position is so skilfully
drawn as to suggest its truth and to avoid any impossibility. The form
of each part is admirable; and if we trace it piece by piece into an
upright position, the resulting figure is correctly proportioned,
except in the length of the arms. In reality such an attitude requires
the hands to rest on the finger-tips where the wrist now is drawn. As a
drawing of a violent attitude this is a marvellous work, not only for
the directness and perfection of the line, but also for the complete
lightness and swing of the whole figure.
Another good piece of action is the man (fig. 77) who is standing
on a boat’s cabin hauling in a rope. The dead-weight of the body is
well thrown back; and as the base is small, one leg is kept in reserve
behind so as to recover any slip. The dead pull, with both feet planted
together and the whole body rigidly leaning back, is often drawn in
the early fishing scenes; but such an attitude would be unsafe when
standing on the top of a narrow cabin.
[Illustration: NEW KINGDOM PAINTING
75. Girl somersaulting
76. The young princesses]
We now turn to outline drawing, in which the Egyptians always had a
grand facility. There is no instance, even in degraded times, of an
outline made as in modern work by little tentative touches feeling the
way. If they made a mistake, they at least “sinned splendidly.” The
long free strokes, always taking the whole length of a bone at once,
and often going down a whole figure without raising the hand--even,
true, without a quiver or hesitation--shame most modern outlines. The
group of heads (fig. 78) shows well the amount of character given by a
simple outline. The furthest is a <DW64>, the next a Syrian, the third
an Abyssinian, the last a Libyan. The type of each is shown with zest
and energy, and the line-work could not be improved.
[Illustration: NEW KINGDOM DRAWING
77. The boatman hauling
78. The four races
79. Sketched tablet
80. Tomb decoration]
In fig. 79 is a very rough sketch for a little tablet of adoration. It
shows the faint outlines in red which were laid in first to space out
the figure. Such were used in nearly all cases as a preliminary guide;
but they were freely improved on in the final black drawing, as here
the whole base has been lowered. This also shows the sketch-forms of
hieroglyphic writing.
The final work for a royal tomb is seen in fig. 80, Sety I offering to
Osiris. We can here admire the perfect freedom and exactitude of the
handling, although this was only intended as a guide to the sculptor,
and was not to be finally visible.
A large branch of drawing which we have not space to illustrate here
is that of the papyri and hieroglyphs. The papyri show the clear,
fine outlines in the good examples. In later times, rough as the work
may be, the feeling for expression never deserts the artist. The
hieroglyphs form a great study by themselves. The sources of the signs,
the various treatment of them, the minute details introduced, are all
full of interest. The great result was that the Egyptian had a writing
which, though cumbrous, was a continual pleasure to see, and which
adorned the artistic monuments on which it was placed.
CHAPTER VI
THE ARCHITECTURE
Strange to say, Egyptian architecture has never yet been systematically
studied; we know nothing of its proportions and variations.
The earliest constructions were of brick, or of palm-sticks interwoven.
From the necessary forms of these all the details of the stone
architecture have been copied. A parallel is seen in Greece, where
the architecture was an exact transcription of a wooden building, the
triglyphs, mutules, and guttae being the beam-ends, tie-boards, and
pegs formerly belonging to woodwork.
[Illustration]
For the greater security of the corners of brick buildings, the
Egyptians tilted the courses up at each end, thus building in a
concave bed, with faces sloping inwards. This <DW72> was copied in the
stone-work, and is seen on the outsides of all Egyptian buildings (see
fig. 83). The inside faces are always vertical, and this serves to
distinguish the meaning of small portions of wall in excavations.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
Slight structures were made of palm-sticks, set upright, and lashed
to a cross stick near the top, with other palm-sticks interwoven to
stiffen the face, and the whole plastered with mud. Such construction
is made now in Egypt, and is seen in the earliest figures of shrines.
At the top the ends of the palm-sticks nod over, and form a fence to
keep out intruders. This row of tops is the origin of the stone cavetto
cornice, which always stands free above the level of the roof. At the
corners the structure of palm-stick was strengthened by a bundle of
sticks or reeds lashed round, and put as a buffer to prevent a blow
breaking in the edge. This became the roll with lashing pattern which
is seen down the edges of the stone buildings, and also beneath the
cavetto cornice where it is copied from the line of sticks below the
loose tops (see fig. 83).
[Illustration]
Another form of construction was with papyrus stems. These had a
loose, wiry head like an _Equisetum_ or mare’s tail. When used for a
cabin on a boat, the roofing stems were put through the loose head,
which was tied above and below to hold them. Hence the row of heads
became copied as an ornament along the tops of walls, and continued in
use thus down to the latest times.
The use of the arch was familiar from early times. Even before the
pyramid-builders small arches of bricks were made. They were the
general mode of roofing in the XIIth dynasty, when we see them drawn
and imitated in stone. From the XIXth dynasty there remain the great
arched store-rooms of the Ramesseum. Being of dried mud brick, which is
far more easily crushed than stone or burnt brick, the circular form
was not suitable, as the apex would yield by crushing. A more or less
parabolic form was therefore used, so as to give a sharper curve at
the top. To protect these arches from the weather, they were laid four
courses thick, with a deep layer of sand and gravel over the top, to
absorb any rain as a sponge.
Arches were usually built without any centring; and to this day the
Egyptian similarly builds arches and domes of any size without centring
or support. Each ring of arch is laid on a sloping bed, so that the
thin arch bricks on edge will stick in place by the mud-mortar until
the ring is completed. The same construction is started in each corner
of a room until the arching meets in a circle, when the dome is carried
round ring on ring, increasing the dip toward the top. The successive
coats of an arch are often bedded on opposite <DW72>s, so that the rings
cross each other.
The outer form of a temple was always a blank wall on all sides, as
at Edfu, which preserves its circuit wall complete. Usually the outer
wall has been removed for building (fig. 83), and the inner courts with
columns are exposed. In further ruin all the walls of squared blocks
are gone, and only a group of pillars is left on the site.
A typical building of the early age is the temple of red granite built
by Khafra at Gizeh (fig. 81). The pillars are 41 inches square, and
there are sixteen of them in the two halls. The work is perfectly
plain; not a trace of ornament is to be seen in this or other temples
of the IIIrd-IVth dynasties. Only on the outside was there a panelling,
like that on the brick buildings and stone sarcophagi of this age.
The masonry of this temple is much less exact than that of the early
pyramids. The whole effect of it is grand and severe, with the noble
breadth which belongs to the early times.
The tower front of the temple at Medinet Habu (fig. 82) is one of
the few façades that is preserved. It was copied from the Syrian
fortresses, and shows how the Asiatic influences had entered Egypt
during the three centuries from about 1500 to 1200 B.C.
[Illustration: ARCHITECTURE
81. Granite temple
82. Medinet Habu
83. Dakkeh]
The most complete view of a whole temple is that of Dakkeh (fig. 83).
The girdle wall has been destroyed, thus exposing the components of the
temple clearly. At the left is the great pylon, the gateway through the
girdle wall. This led to the portico, which was the front of the house
of the god, like the porticoes to human houses. Behind this a cross
passage, of which the door is seen at the side, passed in front of the
shrine and its ante-chamber. This was one of the most perfect small
temples, but it has been much destroyed in recent years.
[Illustration: EARLIEST FORMS OF COLUMN
84. Palm capital
85. Rose lotus
86. Blue lotus]
The massive square pillars of the granite temple gave place before
long to more ornamental forms. The principal types are the palm and
lotus in the Vth dynasty, and later the papyrus. The palm capital is
shown on the granite columns of Unas (fig. 84). It was probably derived
from a bundle of palm-sticks bound together and plastered with mud to
stiffen them, like the bundles of maize-stalks which are still used for
columns. Around the top of it some of the loose ends of the palm-sticks
were left with the leaves to form a head.
The lotus capital appears likewise as a shaft decorated with buds
around it (fig. 85). In this case the buds are the short, thick ones
of the rose lotus, with flowers of the blue lotus put in the intervals
under the abacus. But the lotus bud soon became treated as a solid
support, and in the capital of the blue lotus (fig. 86) the whole is
formed of four lotus buds. The bands of the tie were always strongly
marked, however changed the capital might become in later time. The
papyrus column belongs mainly to the XIXth dynasty, as in the great
hall of Karnak. It was the most incongruous of all, as a single
gigantic head of loose filaments was represented as supporting the
whole weight.
Plain polygonal shafts were also common. Some octagonal ones occur in
the Vth dynasty. In the XIIth dynasty they are sixteen-sided, keeping
the four main faces flat and slightly hollowing the others. This was
continued in the earlier part of the XVIIIth dynasty, but after that
the polygonal form almost disappears.
Here we can only touch on some of the artistic elements; the
architecture as a whole is beyond the scope of so small a volume.
CHAPTER VII
THE STONE-WORKING
We here begin to deal with the more technical rather than the purely
artistic view--the crafts as well as the arts. Connected with the
last chapter is the study of the materials and methods used for the
architecture.
Limestone was the main material of the land, the Eocene cliffs fencing
in the Nile valley along four hundred miles. The two finest kinds are
the Mokattam stone opposite the pyramids, which is perfectly uniform
and free from splitting or flaws; and the hard silicified stone
occurring at Tell el Amarna and elsewhere. The next commonest material
was soft sandstone from Silsileh, used generally after the middle of
the XVIIIth dynasty, especially in the Thebaid. The less usual stones
are the red granite of Aswan, which was used from the Ist dynasty
onwards; the quartzite sandstone of Gebel Ahmar near Cairo, begun
on a large scale by the XIIth dynasty; basalt from Khankah and other
eruptions, used in the IVth and XIXth dynasties; alabaster from the
quarries near Tell el Amarna; and diorite, used by the pyramid builders
only.
The quarrying of the limestone was usually by large galleries run into
the best strata. Blocks of two or three feet in size were cut out by
picking a trench wide enough for the arm to pass downward around the
block, and then inward below it, until it could be cracked away from
the bed. The blocks were thus cut out in regular rows, from top to
bottom of the gallery face. The same method is still kept up in the
open-air quarry at Helwan. For larger blocks a trench eighteen inches
wide, in which the workman could pass, was cut around the block. In
the sandstone quarries the same mode of cutting was followed, only the
quarry was open to the sky. So carefully was inferior stone rejected,
that instead of following cracks in the rock, a wall of stone was left
on each side of a crack; and such walls, each containing a fissure,
divide the quarry to its whole depth.
The granite was first obtained from loose water-worn blocks at the
Cataract, a great advantage of such a source being that any cracks are
made visible. Later it was quarried in the bed; a large mass still in
the quarry has been trimmed and marked across to be cut up for shrines
or sarcophagi. The early mode of fissuring was by cutting a groove and
jumping holes through the thickness of the stone, to determine the
direction of the fissure. Probably the active force was dried wood
driven in and wetted, as there is no trace of bruising by metal wedges
on the sides of the groove. In later times, instead of holes, mere
pockets were sunk rather deeper in the groove to hold the splitting
agent.
For cutting passages or chambers in rock, the method was to make a
rough drift-way, then finish a true plane for the roof, next mark an
axis upon the roof plane, trim the sides true to the distance from a
plumb bob held at the axis, and finally smooth the floor to a uniform
distance from the roof. In a rock chamber the roof was finished first,
and a shaft was sunk to the intended depth of the chamber to mark it
out.
The surfaces of rock and of dressed stones were picked smooth by a
short adze, with cuts crossing in all directions. The edges of a stone
were first dressed true, and then the space between was referred to the
edges. To do this, two offset sticks with a string stretched between
the tops of them were stood on the edges, and a third offset was used
to test the depth to the face, so as to see how much was to be cut
away. For larger stones, a diagonal draft-line was cut true as well as
the edge drafts, so as to avoid any twist. The face was finally tested
with a portable plane smeared with red ochre, and wherever that left a
touch of red, the stone was cut down; this was continued until the red
touched at intervals of not more than an inch. This was the quality
of face for joints; but it was further smoothed by grinding on outer
finished surfaces. The rough hewing of rock tombs was generally done
with mauls of silicified limestone, which is found as nodules left on
the surface.
The granite and hard stones were also sawn, and cut with tubular
drills. The saws were blades of copper, which carried the hard cutting
points. The cutting material was sand for working the softer stones,
and emery for harder rocks. As far back as prehistoric times, blocks
of emery were used for grinding beads, and even a plummet and a vase
were cut out of emery rock (now in University College). There can be no
doubt, therefore, of emery being known and used.
The difficult question is whether the cutting material was used as
loose powder, or was set in the metal tool as separate teeth. An actual
example was found at the prehistoric Greek palace of Tiryns. The hard
limestone there has been sawn, and I found a broken bit of the saw
left in a cut. The copper blade had rusted away to green carbonate;
and with it were some little blocks of emery about a sixteenth of an
inch long, rectangular, and quite capable of being set, but far too
large to act as a loose powder with a plain blade. On the Egyptian
examples there are long grooves in the faces of the cuts of both saws
and drills; and grooves may be made by working a loose powder. But,
further, the groove certainly seems to run spirally round a core, which
would show that it was cut by a single point; and where quartz and
softer felspar are cut through the groove floor runs on one level, and
as the felspar is worn down by general rubbing, the quartz is actually
cut through to a greater depth than the softer felspar. This shows that
a fixed cutting point ploughed the groove, and not a loose powder.
Also, the hieroglyphs on diorite bowls are ploughed out with a single
cut of a fixed point, only one hundred and fiftieth of an inch wide,
so it is certain that fixed cutting points were used for hand-graving.
There is no doubt that sawing and grinding with loose powder was the
general method, but the use of fixed stones seems clearly shown by the
instances above.
The large hieroglyphs on hard stones were cut by copper blades fed
with emery, and sawn along the outline by hand; the block between the
cuts was broken out, and the floor of the sign was hammer-dressed, and
finally ground down with emery. Hammer-dressing was largely used in all
ages on the hard stones; the blows crushed the stone to powder, and
the stunning of the surface was often not quite removed by grinding,
and shows as white spots. The hammer was usually of black hornstone, a
tough amorphous quartz rock.
The methods of placing the stones in the building have been often
debated. The foundations were usually laid on a bed of clean sand, and
this enabled the whole course to be accurately adjusted level to begin
with. For temples, it seems most likely that the interior was filled
with earth as the building advanced; and thus the walls, drums, and
architraves could be as easily dealt with as on the lowest course.
This plan is successfully used at Karnak in present repairs. But where
stones needed to be raised for a pyramid or a pylon, some staging was
required. Remains of a massive brick <DW72> still stand against each
face of the unfinished pylons at Karnak. This, however, is only the
general mass of the staging, and the actual steps for the stones must
have been of stone, as brick would crumble to powder if any lifting
work was done directly upon it.
[Illustration]
For short blocks a cradle of wood was used, of which many models have
been found in foundation deposits along with model tools. On tilting
this to one end, and putting a wedge beneath it, it could be rocked
up the <DW72>, and so gradually raised, first to one end and then to
the other. For large blocks, the actual lifting was probably done by
rocking up. If a beam be supported by two piles near the middle, a
small force will tilt it up clear of one pile; on raising that pile
the beam may be tilted the other way, and the lower pile raised in its
turn. Thus rocking from pile to pile, a beam can be quickly raised till
it is high enough to be moved on to the next step. It was probably thus
that the fifty-six granite beams, weighing over fifty tons each, were
raised in the pyramid of Khufu.
The obelisks were transported on great barges, as shown in the
sculptures. The method of raising such stones is partly explained
by an account of setting up colossi of Ramessu IV. A causeway of
earth was made sloping up for a length of a quarter of a mile; it
was ninety-five feet wide, and one hundred and three feet high on
the <DW72>, probably about sixty or seventy feet vertically, as the
<DW72>s were held up steeply with facings of timber and brushwood. The
purpose of this evidently was to raise the great block by sliding on
its side up the <DW72>, and then to tilt it upright by gravity over
the head of the <DW72>. How the mass would be turned we have nothing
to show, but probably the simplest way, by gradually removing earth,
would be followed. By next ramming earth beneath the obelisk as it lay
on a <DW72>, it would be quite practicable to force it forward into an
upright position.
After a building was finished the sculpturing of its walls had to be
executed. For this, a long training of sculptors was needful, and
the art schools filled an important part in education. The simplest
subjects of outlines in limestone were a first step, the sign _neb_
requiring a straight and a curved line only. After the geometric forms
came studies of heads and of hands. In fig. 88 we see how, after a
fair control of the graver had been attained, there was still much to
be learned in detail and harmony before the artist could be trusted to
decorate a temple.
Statuary also needed a long training. The work was first marked out
in profile of the front and sides, and then cut along these outlines,
as in the rock-crystal figure (fig. 89), where the outlines at right
angles have been cut, but the corners are yet unrounded. In the block
for the head of a lion (fig. 90) the various planes have been already
cut for the face, before attempting any rounding. The limestone head
(fig. 91) shows a further stage, where the general rounding is done,
but the details of the lips, ears, eyes, and eyebrows are yet left in
the block. All of these stages needed incessant practice, and years
must have been spent in training in the schools before final work was
undertaken.
[Illustration: STONE VASES
87. A-H. Prehistoric
J. VIth dynasty
K. XIIth dynasty
L, M. XVIIIth dynasty]
Turning now to stone-work on a smaller scale, the hardest materials
were wrought for vases in the prehistoric age. In the first
civilisation, basalt, syenite, and porphyry were in use as well as the
softer stones, alabaster and limestone. The later civilisation brought
in slate, limestone, serpentine, and lastly diorite, which
continued to be the favourite stone into the pyramid age. The main
differences of form are shown in fig. 87. The earlier type of vase
is the standing form F, with a foot, and no piercing for suspension.
The later prehistoric age brought in the suspended stone as well as
pottery vases. The main types were A, B, D, E, G, H, and lastly C,
cut out of marbles, of syenite, and of basalt. All of these
vases were cut entirely by hand without any turning, or even any
circular grinding, on the outside. The polish lines cross diagonally
on the curved sides, and the slight irregularities of form, though
imperceptible to the eye, can be felt by rotation in the fingers. The
greatest triumph of this stone-work is the vase from Hierakonpolis
in black and white syenite, of the type A, E, two feet across and
sixteen inches high, which is highly polished, and hollowed out so
thin that it can be lifted by one finger, though if solid it would
weigh four hundred pounds. The interior of these vases was ground out
with stone grinders fed with emery, and in softer stones cut out by
crescent-shaped flint drills.
[Illustration: METHODS OF SCULPTURE
88. Trial piece of learner
89. Rough drafting
90. Lion’s head drafted
91. Head nearly finished]
The historic times show a continual decline in the quality of the stone
used. In the Ist dynasty the hard stones decreased, and the softer
slate and alabaster were more common. In the pyramid age only diorite
continued in use among the hard materials, and that but rarely compared
to soft stones; while in the XIIth and XVIIIth dynasties, beyond an
occasional vase of obsidian or serpentine, nothing is seen but the soft
alabaster. The form J belongs to the VIth dynasty. K is a type which
descends from the Ist dynasty, but in this form wide at the top belongs
to the XIIth, after which it disappears. L and M are of the XVIIIth
dynasty.
Amulets of fine stone were used from prehistoric days onwards. Of
the early ones, the bull’s head is the commonest, made of carnelian,
haematite, or glazed quartz. The fly is made of slate, lazuli, and
serpentine in prehistoric times, and of gold in historic jewellery. The
hawk is found of glazed quartz and limestone, the serpent of lazuli
and limestone; the crocodile, the frog, the claw, the spear-head are
all found in prehistoric use. In the Old Kingdom, small amulets of
carnelian or ivory were usual; the forms are the hand, the fist, the
eye, lion, jackal-head, frog, and bee. In the Middle Kingdom the more
usual material was silver or electrum. The New Kingdom used amulets but
little; the great profusion comes from the mummies of the Saite time,
when dozens may be found on one body. The great variety of forms and
materials would require a volume to explain them.
Beads were used from prehistoric times. The hard stones were cut
then--quartz, amethyst, agate, carnelian, turquoise, lazuli, haematite,
serpentine, as well as glazes on quartz and on paste. Glazed pottery
beads became the more usual in historic times; glass beads were made
from the XVIIIth dynasty onward, and hardly any other material was used
in Roman times. There are hundreds of varieties known, and an accurate
knowledge of their dates is essential in excavating.
Flint was worked to the highest perfection in the prehistoric age, and
continued in use till Roman times. Strictly, it is chert rather than
flint, as the beds in which it is found are of Eocene limestone. But in
general appearance and nature they are closely the equivalent of the
chalk with flints in England, only harder. The prehistoric forms are
shown in fig. 92. They exceed the flint-work of all other countries
in the regularity of the flaking, the thinness of the weapon, and the
minute serration of the edges. At present such work is entirely a lost
art, and we cannot imagine the methods or the skill required to produce
such results. Besides the weapons, flint armlets were made, chipped
out of a solid block, yet no thicker than a straw. These were ground
with emery finally to smooth them for wearing. Flint was commonly used
down to the XIIth dynasty for knives, but all the dynastic working is
far inferior to the earlier. In the XVIIIth dynasty, and later, sickle
teeth were still made of flint; and flakes were chipped and used in
abundance at some centres in the Roman period.
[Illustration: FLINT-WORKING
92. Knives and lances of the best prehistoric work]
Before leaving the stone-working we may note the accuracy of work,
as this is better seen here than in any other subject. The highest
pitch of accuracy on a large scale was reached under Khufu in the IVth
dynasty; his pyramid had an error of less than ·6 of an inch on its
side of 9069 inches, or 1 in 15,000; and its corners were square to
12″. A change of temperature during a day would make larger errors
than this in a measuring-rod. The accuracy of levelling, and of finish
of the stones, is on a par with this; joints over six feet long are
straight to a hundredth of an inch. The pyramid of Khafra has three
times this error, varying 1·5 inch on 8475, and 33″ of angle. That of
Menkaura is worse, being on an average 3 inches out on 4154, and 1′ 50″
of angle. At Dahshur the errors are 3·7 on 7459 inches base, and 1·1 on
2065, with angular errors of 4′ and 10′. In smaller work, a beautiful
example is the granite sarcophagus of Senusert II, which is ground flat
on the sides with a matt face like ground glass, and only has about
a two-hundredth of an inch error of flatness and parallelism of the
sides. The later ages, so far as we know, have left nothing that can be
compared with the accuracy of the early dynasties.
CHAPTER VIII
JEWELLERY
Native gold is, in all countries, one of the earliest materials for
manufactured ornaments, and it appears to have been much used in
prehistoric Egypt. Though gold is not now sought in or near Egypt,
we must remember that it is found in the stream deposits of most
countries, and its absence from the Mediterranean lands now is only
due to the ancient workers having exhausted the supply. The immediate
sources of the metal were in Nubia and Asia Minor. The Asiatic gold
was certainly used in the first dynasty, as it is marked by having a
variable amount of silver alloy, about a sixth; but looking at the
African influence on Egypt it is probable that Nubia was the first
source, though whether gold (_nūb_) was called from the country
(_nūb_), or the reverse, is uncertain.
[Illustration]
So general was the use of gold for necklaces, that the picture of a
collar of beads became the hieroglyph for gold. Strings of minute gold
beads were worn on the ankles in prehistoric times (8000-5000 B.C.).
Larger beads were economically made by beating out a thin tube, and
then drawing down the ends over a core of limestone. A thin gold finger
ring has been found, and a flat pendant with punched dots. But most of
the prehistoric gold is seen on the lips of stone vases, overlaying
the handles of vases, and forming the wire loops for carrying them.
Similarly it was used for covering the handles of flint knives; a sheet
of gold was fitted over the flint, embossed with figures of women,
animals, twisted snakes, a boat, etc. But the use of thin gold leaf
which adheres to its base, is not found until the pyramid times. At
the close of the prehistoric period we meet with a gold cylinder seal
engraved with signs. When we remember that it is very rarely that an
unplundered grave is discovered, the quantity of gold objects found
show that the metal must have been generally used in the ages when
commerce developed, before writing was known.
On reaching the historic times we obtain a good view of the production
and variety of jewellery, in the four bracelets of the Queen of Zer,
early in the first dynasty, 5400 B.C. These bracelets (fig. 93) show
how each separate piece was made to fit its own place in a complete
design, and that the later custom of merely stringing ready-made beads
was not then followed.
The bracelet of hawks has the gold blocks alternating with turquoise.
The hawks on the gold pieces are all equal, but the sizes of the blocks
vary in the height. This is due to their being all cast in the same
mould, which was filled to varying amounts. The surfaces were hammered
and chiselled, but not either ground or filed. The order of the hawks
was marked by numbering them with cross cuts on the base; these cuts
are directly across for the blocks on one half, and diagonally across
for the other half.
The bracelet with spiral beads has the gold spiral formed of a hammered
gold wire, thicker at the middle, where it forms the barrel of the
beads. This form is imitated in the three dark lazuli beads down the
middle. The triple gold balls, on either side of those, are each beaten
hollow and drawn into a thread-hole left at each end; so perfectly
wrought are they that only in one instance does the slightest ruck of
metal remain. To join the three balls together they were soldered, but
without leaving the least excess or difference of colour.
In the lowest bracelet the hour-glass-shaped beads are of gold, with
one of amethyst between each pair. The gold is doubtless cast, being
solid. None of these are pierced, but they were secured by tying round
a groove at the middle of each bead. There was also a fourth bracelet
with a ball and loop fastening which shows the skill in soldering. The
ball is beaten hollow, leaving about a quarter of it open; inside it a
hook of gold wire is soldered in without leaving the smallest trace of
solder visible. The band round the wrist was formed of very thick black
hair plaited with gold wire, which was hammered to exactly the same
thickness. We see from these bracelets that casting, chiselling, and
soldering were perfectly understood at the beginning of the monarchy.
Of about the Ist dynasty there are also copies of spiral shells made
by pressing gold foil, perhaps over shells. These were threaded as a
necklace, imitating the shell necklaces of earlier ages.
On coming to the VIth dynasty (4000 B.C.) we see gold chains (fig.
94) made of rings, each folded into a double loop and put through the
next; these may be called loop-in-loop chain. Gold seals (fig. 95) are
also found, probably made by foreigners and worn as buttons, like many
similar stone buttons.
[Illustration: JEWELLERY
93. Bracelets (Ist dynasty)
94. Chain (VIth dynasty)
95. Gold seal (VIth dynasty?)
96. Gold uraeus (XIIth dynasty)]
The XIIth dynasty has left us some magnificent groups of jewellery,
which were found at Dahshur. The general effect of this work is
graceful and sincere in design and pure in colour. There is no glitter
and pomp about it, but it has the highest beauty of careful harmony
and perfect finish. The tints of the carnelian, turquoise, and lazuli
which are used have been precisely chosen for their clear strength of
colour, while the Egyptian system of putting a line of gold between two
bright colours prevents any dazzling or clashing. The charm of this
jewellery lies in the calm, fresh, cool colouring with the unhesitating
perfection of the work, which seems to ignore all difficulty or
compromise.
Three pectoral ornaments made in successive reigns are each formed of
an open-work gold plate, engraved on one side and inlaid with
stones on the other. The engraved sides of two are here given (figs.
97, 98), as they are better suited for illustration. The earlier
pectoral, bearing the names of Senusert II, is by far the better in
design. The scheme of the whole is grasped at once, and rests the eye;
there is repose and dignity in it. Although clear open spaces are left,
the parts are sufficiently connected for strength.
The second pectoral, of Senusert III, is too complex for a single
piece of jewellery for the breast. The heavy mass of the vulture at the
top over-weights the design; the head-dress of the royal sphinxes is
too tall; and the combination of four captives between the eight legs
of the sphinxes, or twenty-four limbs in action, is far too complex
and distracting. But in the detail we must admire the expression of
the captives; and also the skill with which the parts are united,
especially where the frail length of the tails is held in by the extra
lotus flowers.
The third pectoral, of Amenemhat III, is the least successful in
design. It is made too large in order to take in whole figures of
the king fighting; the action is violent; and, not content with four
figures, the outlines are lost in a maze of emblems which fill all
the space around, so that nothing is clear or restful to the eye. The
earliest pectoral was evidently designed to be seen at a respectful
distance on royalty in movement. To see the last design the queen
would need to be closely stared at, in order to make out the cumbrous
historical document on her breast.
[Illustration: JEWELLERY
97, 98. Chased gold pectoral ornaments (XIIth dynasty)]
Two crowns of gold and inlaid stones belonged also to the princesses.
The floret crown (fig. 100) is perhaps the most charmingly graceful
head-dress ever seen; the fine wavy threads of gold harmonised with
the hair, and the delicate little flowers and berries seem scattered
with the wild grace of Nature. Each floret is held by two wires
crossing in an eye behind it, and each pair of berries has likewise an
eye in which the wires cross. The florets are not stamped, but each
gold socket is made by hand for the four inserted stones. The berries
are of lazuli. In no instance, however small, was the polishing of the
stone done in its cloison; it was always finished before setting.
The upper crown (fig. 99) is less unusual. The motive is the old one
seen on the head-dress of Nofert (fig. 24); but the flowers have become
conventionalised. The band form is broken by the upright flowers rising
from each rosette; and in front there was an aigrette of gold with
flowers formed of stones.
Turning now to the technical details, some small gold lions were cast,
but not all from a single mould. They seem to have been modelled in
wax, and after forming the mould around the model the wax was melted
out, and the metal run in. This method, known as _cire perdue_, was
usual in later periods. The details are slightly chiselled upon the
gold.
Moulding by pressure was used in making cowry beads and tie beads,
which were impressed in stout foil, aided by burnishing on to the model
so as to tool the detail.
Soldering was done most delicately for the side joints of the hollow
cowry beads; it was also used on a large scale for the dozens of
delicate ribs of gold which were fixed to the back plates for the
cloison work of the pectorals. To attach this multitude of minute ribs
exactly in place shows most practised work, for they could not be
treated separately, being so close together.
Wire was made in large quantity for the floret crown. This wire was
all cut in strips, and pieces soldered together to form a length. The
same method was later used by the Jews: “they did beat the gold into
thin plates and cut it into wires” (Ex. xxxix. 3). Drawn wire has not
been found in any ancient work. A favourite style of work for figures
of gods and sacred animals in this age was a mixture of wirework and
sheet metal; such amulets and sacred animals are usually half an inch
high: the example of the sacred cobra here shown (fig. 96) is by far
the finest known.
[Illustration: JEWELLERY
99, 100. Crowns of gold inlaid with stones
101. Granulated gold work (all XIIth dynasty)]
A new decoration which first appears in this age is that of granulated
work (fig. 101). Here it is seen on a case in a zigzag pattern, and on
two pendants. Another example is a pattern of small rhombs on the bezel
of a ring. The granules are 5 × 5 in each rhomb, and eight rhombs on
the bezel, or forty granules in about six-tenths of an inch; allowing
for spaces, the granules must be an eightieth of an inch wide. This
kind of work is found also later on in Egypt, but it may not be native;
in Etruria it was the national type of jewellery about three thousand
years after this.
[Illustration]
The mode of fastening the necklaces was by grooved pieces. One of the
gold cowries, or lion’s heads, or ties which formed the necklace, was
made in two halves with dovetail groove and tongue fitting into each
other along the whole length of the piece. The tongue ran up against a
butt end when the halves coincided.
When we reach the XVIIIth dynasty we see in the jewellery of Queen
Aah-hotep (1570 B.C.) much the same system of work as in the XIIth
dynasty. The whole style is less substantial, exact, and dignified;
both in design and execution it is at all points inferior to the
previous work. One new art appears, the plaiting of gold wire chains,
in what is now commonly called Trichinopoly pattern. This method was
continued down to Roman times.
The Aah-hotep-Aahmes bracelet (fig. 102) is a broad band of metal, with
the figures in raised gold on a dark blue ground. At first it looks as
if enamelled, as the ground runs in the small intervals between the
gold; but it is really a surface formed of pieces of dark lazuli, cut
approximately to the forms and patched around with a dark blue paste
to match it. Two other bracelets (or perhaps anklets) are formed of
minute beads of stones and gold threaded on parallel wires, forming a
band about 1½ inches wide. The pattern seems an imitation of plaiting,
as each colour forms a half square divided diagonally. The necklace
of large gold flies is heavy, and lacks the grace of earlier times.
The axe of Aahmes (fig. 104) is beautifully inlaid with gold, bearing
the king’s names, the figures of the king smiting an enemy, and the
gryphon-sphinx of the god Mentu. The dagger (fig. 103) has more of
the Mykenaean Greek style in the inlaying of the blade, with figures
of a lion chasing a bull, and four grasshoppers. The four heads which
form the pommel are unlike any other Egyptian design; but the squares
divided diagonally on the handle are like the patterns of the bead
anklets, and are probably of Egyptian source.
[Illustration: JEWELLERY
102. Bracelet
103. Dagger (both parts)
104. Axe
(all of King Aahmes, XVIIIth dynasty)]
Of the XIXth dynasty there is the Serapeum jewellery, found with the
Apis burials. The pectoral of Ramessu II (fig. 105) is of good design;
the wings of the vulture are boldly spread in wide curves, and the
king’s name is simple, without titles, and well placed. The border
band is heavy, and the colouring is rich. It is a creditable work, but
entirely missing the grace and sense of perfection of the best work
from Dahshur.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
The gold bracelets with name of Ramessu II found at Bubastis, are
of inferior work, probably for one of his fifty-nine daughters. The
name is only impressed on stout foil, which is set in a framework
of the bracelet, but the surfaces are ornamented with gold granular
work, showing that such was commonly used. There is a pair of
collar fasteners, clumsily made by filing the bent gold and working
thread-holes in the cut; there are thirty-six thread-holes, so the
collar must have been a very wide one. The fastening by two halves
sliding together is made by two wires soldered in to form the dovetail.
In this same group are thick wire bracelets of silver, with a coarse
hatched pattern on the ends; also many plain silver earrings, such as
were worn by the common people of this time.
[Illustration]
Slightly later is the jewellery of Sety II and Tausert from the
Kings’ Tombs. Here are also solid wire bangles, but of gold. And
square wire bangles have the thin tail of each end of the bar twisted
round the stem on the other side, a fastening also commonly found
on finger-rings, of this age and rather earlier. Some clumsy little
open-work beads are made by rough circles of gold wire soldered
together; a wide equatorial circle is joined to a small polar circle at
each end by six small circles touching. Flowers are made by stamping
the petals out of foil; there are ten petals to each, and four of them
are stamped with the king’s name. Some monstrous earrings overloaded
with ornament belong to the end of the Ramessides (fig. 106).
Base gold was much used at the close of the XVIIIth dynasty, and many
of the finger-rings of that age almost verge into copper. But stones
were used for inlay work until the later Ramessides, and glass or paste
does not become usual till up to 1000 B.C. Enamel fused upon metal is
not known until Roman times.
[Illustration: JEWELLERY
105. Pectoral of Ramessu II
106. Earrings of Ramessu XII
107. Gold statuette (XXVth dynasty)]
In the VIIIth century B.C. gold working was well maintained, as seen
(fig. 107) in the statuette made by the local king Pafaabast. The
modelling of the limbs is exact, the pose is free, and it shows the
maintenance of a good tradition. About a century later there is fine
cloison work on the gold birds of the Hawara amulets, as minute as any
of earlier times.
A free use of gold-work comes in with the wealth of the Ptolemaic age,
especially for bracelets and chains. A usual type of bracelet, in gold
or silver, was with busts of Serapis and Isis on the two ends of a
strip, which were turned up at right angles to the circle. These are
generally of coarse work. Plain bangles, bracelets with the two tails
of a bar twisted each round the other, coiled wire bracelets which were
elastic, and hingeing bracelets, are all found in use at this age. Much
Greek influence is seen in the patterns, both now and in the Roman
period. The bangle bracelets were often made hollow, both for lightness
and economy of metal. Cheaper styles were of thin gold foil worked over
a core of plaster; the decoration of cross lines on such shows that
they are probably Roman. The chains of Ptolemaic and Roman age (fig.
109) are simple, but of pleasing style.
In Coptic times bracelets of various forms were made, mostly of
silver and baser metal; but they are all plain and tasteless. Large
earrings were made with a big hoop and a bunch of small pendants, or an
open-work metal bead. Necklets of silver were usual, with the tails of
the strip wound round each other, so as to slide open for passing over
the head.
Gold was also used largely for gilding both metals and wood. The gold
leaf was often about a 5000th of an inch thick, weighing one grain to
the square inch. Thus a pound’s weight of gold would cover about six
feet square; and the gilding of doors and of the caps of obelisks as
described is not at all unlikely.
Silver was known to the Egyptians later than gold, as it is called
“white gold”; and it was scarcer than gold in the early ages. Of the
prehistoric time there is a cap of a jar, and a small spoon with
twisted handle. A few silver amulets are known in the XIIth dynasty. In
the XVIIIth dynasty silver became commoner, as the source in northern
Syria which supplied the Hittites became accessible. The silver dishes
of this age are rather thick, and not finely beaten. One bowl, probably
of Ramesside date from Bubastis, has the brim turned inward like a
modern anti-splash basin (fig. 115). It seems to have been made by
spinning the metal, as thin vessels are now wrought.
[Illustration: JEWELLERY
108. Silver bowls
109. Roman gold chain]
The most elaborate style of silver work is that of the bowls from
Mendes (fig. 108). These are entirely made by hammer work, and no
moulds or matrices were used for the forms. But the finish of the
surfaces is so fine that no trace of hammer or polishing is left.
The design is derived from the fluted vases and bowls of the XVIIIth
dynasty; the fluting was made deeper and stronger, and it was
suppressed below, as it interfered with the using of the bowl, while
round the sides it remained as deep bosses. The detail was all put in
by the graving tool, the sinking round the central rosette, the hollows
in the petals, and the outlines of the petals. There is no sign of
punch-work. The number of ribs is, curiously, indivisible, being 18,
26, 28, and 30; these show that it was not divided either by triangles,
hexagons, or repeated halving. Probably a suitable size of rib was
designed, and then repeated an even number of times; and the divisions
not being truly radial, show that eye-design was followed rather than
geometrical scaling.
CHAPTER IX
METAL WORK
Here we shall deal with the useful metals, apart from the ornamental
work of jewellery previously described. Copper was worked from the
beginning of the prehistoric civilisation. In one of the earliest
graves a little copper pin was found, used to fasten over the shoulders
the goat-skin, which was worn before the weaving of linen. Not long
after, a small chisel appears, then an adze and harpoon, then needles,
and larger sizes of tools come at the close of the prehistoric age.
All of this copper was shaped by hammering. Polished stone hammers
were used, and the work was so exquisitely regular that a polished
surface still remains on an adze, which shows no trace of the method
of manufacture; certainly it was not ground. The mode of hammering is
shown in some early historical sculptures; a stone hammer was held in
the palm of the right hand, which was swung overhead, and brought down
on the metal. How such work could be done without hurting the hand by
concussion is not clear to us. It is strange that down to Greek times
the Egyptians never used a long handle to a hammer.
[Illustration]
In the beginning of the kingdom, copper ewers and basins were made;
these are known from the sculpture of Narmer, and examples are found
in the royal tombs. They were skilfully hammered out, with cast spouts
inserted. The main example of early copper-work is the life-size statue
of King Pepy, and the smaller figure of his son (fig. 110). The trunk
and limbs are of hammered copper, riveted together; the face, hands,
and feet are cast doubtless by _cire perdue_. The ease and truth of
the whole figure shows that there must have been long practice in the
artistic working of copper; yet no traces of such figures are found
earlier, nor for over a thousand years later, and we may thus realise
how scattered are the points we have, in the view of the art as a whole.
The IXth dynasty has left a coarse example of cast copper tooled with a
graver, the brazier of Khety, now in Paris. Of the XIIth dynasty there
is not much copper work, except for tools. The moulds for casting tools
were found at Kahun. They were open moulds, cut out of a thick piece
of pottery, and lined smooth with fine clay and ash.
Down to this age copper was used with only small amounts of hardening
mixture; after this, bronze of copper and tin came into general use.
The earlier copper of the Ist dynasty usually contains one per cent.
of bismuth, and later than that one or two per cent. of arsenic, and
is “underpoled,” in modern terms, that is, a good deal of unreduced
oxide of copper is left in the metal. Both of these mixtures harden it;
and by strong hammering it is made still harder. Copper so treated at
present can be made as hard as mild steel. Thus the metal was fit for
the wood-cutting tools, and for the chisels used for cutting limestone.
The harder stones were worked with emery.[1]
[1] The earlier source of copper was Sinai, where there yet
remain thousands of tons of copper slag in the Wady Nasb. In
the XVIIIth dynasty and onwards, Cyprus--the Kupros island of
copper--came into regular connection with Egypt, and probably
supplied most of the metal.
[Illustration: METAL STATUARY
110. Merenra (VIth dynasty)
111, 112. Takushet (XXVth dynasty)]
Bronze has been found in one case as far back as the IIIrd dynasty,
but this was only a chance alloy. It began to be regularly used in the
XVIIIth dynasty, 1600 B.C.; and the source of the tin for it is a point
of interest in early trade. Cornwall and the Malay States are the only
modern sources of importance; but probably other surface sources have
been exhausted, as in the case of gold deposits. Now bronze is found in
Central Europe about as early as in Egypt, and it is unlikely to have
been imported there from Egypt, or to have been traded there as soon as
it would be to a great state like Egypt. The presumption would be that
it originated about Central Europe. As a district in Saxony is known
as Zinnwald, and crystallised oxide of tin is still brought from there
and from Bohemia, it is very likely that there may have been stream tin
deposits capable of supplying Europe and Egypt.
[Illustration: METAL VASES
113. Bronze pouring vase
114. Bronze fluted vase
115. Silver anti-splash bowl]
In the XVIIIth dynasty bronze vessels were wrought very skilfully by
hammer-work. The flask (fig. 113) for washing the sandals of Amen,
inscribed with the owner’s name and titles, is 9 inches high and has a
body 4 inches across; it has been hammered on anvils introduced through
the neck, which is only 1¼ inches wide. By the weight of it (7 ounces)
it cannot average more than ⅟₄₀th inch in thickness. A general mode of
stiffening the thin metal vases was by fluting the surface (fig. 114),
a method also used in prehistoric Greece.
The casting of bronze was generally done by the _cire perdue_ method.
A core of blackened sand is usually found in the casting. This was
probably sand mixed with a little organic matter; as it is never
reddened, probably no clay or mud was used. Over the core the wax was
modelled, and the traces of the modelling tool can be seen clearly on
unfinished bronzes. On an ibis there was a rolled pellet of wax put
between the beak and the breast, so as to induce the flow of the metal
along the beak; this would be easily cut away in finishing. An example
of a kneeling figure shows the legs completely modelled before putting
the pleated dress over them, and then the whole was cast. How the core
was fixed within the outer mould is a difficult question. On the many
unfinished bronzes that I have examined I have never found a definite
connection above the base, but only casual blowholes. Yet the metal was
often run as thin as ⅟₅₀th so that a shift of the core by as little
as ⅟₁₀₀th inch would throw the casting out, and make a flaw. How the
core was retained so firmly in position against the flotation of the
melted metal is not clear. No metal bars were put through the core to
steady it, as Cellini did in his large castings. A system was used of
stiffening bronze-work by casting it over iron rods; by the free use of
iron, this must be of the Greek period. Solid bronze castings come into
use in Ptolemaic and Roman work.
A favourite decoration of copper-work in later times, from about
700 B.C., was by inlaying lines of gold or silver in it. This is a
common system in India now, where it is known as _Keft_ work; the
name suggests that it was introduced from Egypt, where Keft was the
starting-point of the Indian trade route from the Nile. One of the
finest examples of this is the statue in the Athens Museum (figs. 111,
112); another is the hawk-head and collar with the name of Aahmes II in
the British Museum. The lines were first chiselled or punched in the
copper, and then the gold was beaten into the grooves.
No instance of using soft solder to copper or bronze is known till
Roman times.
Lead is found in the prehistoric times in the form of small figures and
little objects; it was probably brought from Syria. It next appears
as a rather common metal in the XVIIIth dynasty, when net-sinkers
were generally made by bending a piece of sheet lead round the edge
lines of the net, much as at the present day. In the filling of bronze
weights it is found both in the XVIIIth and XXVIth dynasties. And an
alloy of copper and lead--now known as pot-metal--was commonly used for
statuettes in Greek and Roman times. In Coptic times pewter bowls and
ladles were made; the bowls are apparently formed by spinning.
Tin is first known in a piece of bronze rod from Medum, of the IIIrd
dynasty. But this was only a freak, and bronze did not come into use
till about 1600 B.C., probably introduced from Hungary, as we have
noticed. At about 1400 B.C. there is a finger-ring of pure tin, known
by its crackling when bent. The metal is, however, scarcely known
separate otherwise.
Antimony occurs in the form of beads about 800 B.C.; as it was familiar
to the Assyrians also, it may have been traded from them.
Iron working is an important subject in the history of culture, and the
appearances of this metal in Egypt are curiously sporadic. The notion,
often suggested, that it might rust away and disappear, is absurd;
nothing is more permanent and noticeable than iron rust. The early
examples are: (1) a piece of sheet iron said to be found between the
stones of Khufu’s pyramid; (2) a lump of iron found wrapped up with
copper axes of the VIth dynasty form, and placed at the corresponding
level in the foundations of the Abydos temples; this is absolutely
certain and not open to any doubt; (3) iron ferules said to be found in
the masonry of a pyramid at Dahshur; (4) an iron falchion said to be
found beneath the base of a statue of Ramessu II. The certainty about
the second example--which was found by trained workmen, levelled at
the time, and is stuck together with tools of known date--prevents our
needing to hesitate about accepting the less precise authentication of
the other examples.
Yet iron continued so scarce until about 800 B.C. that we find then
a thin iron knife with a handle of bronze cast on it as being the
cheaper metal. The explanation of this intermittent use of iron lies in
an observation of Professor Ridgeway’s, that all the sites of native
iron in the world are where carboniferous strata and ironstone have
been heated by eruptions of basalt, and thus produced iron by natural
reduction of the ore. Exactly this combination is found in Sinai.
Carboniferous sandstone has beds of pure black haematite with it,
and a thick flow of basalt has extended over the country. Probably,
therefore, occasional pockets of native iron were found there by the
Egyptians at long intervals, and thus the use of it was intermittent.
The artificial production of iron seems to have been known earliest
in Assyria; it probably arose among the Chalybes at the head of the
Euphrates, from whom the Greek name of the metal was derived. Large
quantities of iron and steel tools have been found in the Assyrian
ruins, but were neglected by excavators. A set of armourer’s tools was
found at Thebes with a copper helmet of Assyrian form, and therefore
probably left by the expedition under Asshur-bani-pal in 666 B.C.
These tools comprise flat chisels, mortise chisels, saws, a punch, a
rasp, a file, a twist scoop, and two centre-bits. The forms of most of
these tools have already attained to the modern types; but the file
is only slight and irregular, and the centre-bits are only fit for
hard wood. The edges of these tools are of steel, probably produced by
case-hardening the iron.
We next find iron tools brought in by the Greeks at Naukratis. Chisels,
flat and mortise, with both tang and socket handles, borers and
axe-heads, were all familiar to the Greek before the Egyptian adopted
them. One instance of an iron adze of Egyptian type is known, but
otherwise it is not till Coptic times that we find a free use of iron
for knives, chisels, flesh-hooks, hoes, pruning hooks, and other tools,
probably due to Roman influence. To go further in this subject would
lead into the general history of tools, which is beyond our scope here.
CHAPTER X
GLAZED WARE
The use of glazing begins far back in the prehistoric age, some
thousands of years before any examples of glass are known. Glaze
is found on a quartz base as early as on a pottery base; and it
seems probable that it was invented from finding quartz pebbles
fluxed by wood ashes in a hot fire. Hence glazing on quartz was the
starting-point, and glazing on artificial wares was a later stage.
Amulets of quartz rock are found covered with a coat of blue-green
glaze; a model boat was made of quartz rock in sections, glazed over,
and united by gold bands; and a large sphinx of quartz, about eighteen
inches long, has evidently been glazed. The fusion of glaze on the
stone partly dissolves the surface; and even after the glaze has been
lost its effect can be seen by the surface having the appearance of
water-worn marble or sugar candy. This system of glazing on quartz was
continued in historic times; clear crystal beads flashed over with a
rich blue glaze are found in the XIIth dynasty; and large blocks were
glazed in the XVIIIth dynasty.
The use of a pottery ware for covering with glaze begins with beads
of blue and green in the prehistoric necklaces. The pottery base
for glazing is never a clay in Egypt, but always a porous body of
finely-ground silica, either sand or quartz rock. This was slightly
bound together, but the whole strength of the object was in the soaking
of glaze on the outer surface.
[Illustration: GLAZES
116. Two-colour glaze of Mena
117. Lotus border (XXth dynasty)
118. Head of Isis
119. Royal fan-bearer]
An astonishing development of glazed ware came at the beginning of the
monarchy. A piece of a vase (fig. 116) with the name of Mena, the first
king of Egypt, is of green glazed pottery, and it is surprising to find
the royal name inlaid in a second glaze, which has probably
been violet, though now decomposed. Thus two-colour glazing in designs
was used as early as 5500 B.C. And at this date glazing was not only a
fine art, it was used on a large scale for the lining of rooms. Tiles
have been found about a foot long, stoutly made, with dovetails on the
back, and holes through them edgeways in order to tie them back to the
wall with copper wire. They are glazed all over with hard blue-green
glaze. The front is ribbed in imitation of reedwork, and they probably
were copied from reed mats used to line the walls. Part of a tile
has large hieroglyphs inlaid in colour, showing that decorative
inscriptions were set up. Rather later, at the beginning of the IIIrd
dynasty, there is the doorway of glazed tiles of King Zeser, with
his name and titles in various colours; this doorway, now in Berlin,
belonged to a room in the Step pyramid entirely lined with glazed tile.
Smaller objects were also made in glaze. A tablet of the first dynasty
bears a relief of the figure and titles of an aboriginal chief,
apparently made to be left as a memorial of his visit to temples--a
sort of visiting card,--as it was found in the temple of Abydos.
Figures of women and animals were found with it, and glazed toggles to
be used in place of buttons on garments. Very little glazing has been
preserved to us from the pyramid age; there are small tablets with the
name of King Pepy (4100 B.C.) in relief, but roughly done.
The general colour of the early glaze is greenish-blue or blue-green,
never distinctly of either colour. Such appears from the prehistoric
age to the pyramid time. The glaze is full, and was not heated long
enough to soak into the body. It often has pit-holes in it, and does
not seem to have been very fluid. In the VIth dynasty a second colour
appears, a dark indigo blue; this is on a scarab of Merenra, and on
small toilet vases of the period. Some earlier scarabs are probably of
the age of the IVth, and even of the IIIrd dynasty; these have a clear
brilliant blue glaze, thin and well fused.
In the XIIth dynasty the glaze is thin and hard. On ring-stands and
vases it is often dry and of a greyish green. A rich clear blue glaze
was also used, and is best seen on scarabs and on the favourite figures
of hippopotami, which were only made in this period. The designs and
inscriptions in the glaze were of a fine black, apparently
with manganese.
The XVIIIth dynasty was the great age of the development of glazing.
It began with so close a continuance of the style of the XIIth dynasty
that it is hard to discriminate one from the other. Down to the time of
Tahutmes III the small pieces and beads with blue colour are as those
of the previous age; but the large bowls are of a brighter blue and
rather a wetter glaze. At the beginning of the dynasty there is also
a dark green glaze used upon schist, mostly seen on the elaborately
carved kohl pots. Under Amenhotep II was made the largest piece of
glazing that is known from Egypt, now in South Kensington Museum.
This was a great _uas_ sceptre made as an offering, the stem of which
is five feet long. This length was built up of separate sections of
body ware, made each about nine inches long, so as to have sufficient
firmness; after they were each baked they were then united with a slip
paste of the same ware, and finally fired with a single flow of glaze
over the whole five-feet length. The head was made separately. The
special difficulty of firing such large pieces is to maintain a uniform
heat over the whole, and to avoid any reducing flame from the fuel,
which would discolour the glaze, and produce lustre ware. The heating
must also be brief, so as to avoid the glaze running down, or soaking
into the porous body and leaving it dry.
Under Amenhotep III and IV the art of glazing reached its most
brilliant development, both in its colours and in the variety of its
applications. Beside the previously used shades of blue and green
we meet with purple-blue, violet, a brilliant apple-green, bright
chrome-yellow, lemon-yellow, crimson-red, brown-red, and milk-white.
Besides the previous uses of glaze for bowls and vases, beads and
scarabs, we now meet with a great variety of pendants and ornaments
for necklaces, more than two hundred and fifty forms of which are
known from the objects and the moulds; also flat emblems and name
plaques, with stitch holes or loops at the edge, for stitching on to
the muslin dresses then worn. The private person thus wore the king’s
name on his arm, and the king wore the titles of the sun-god to whom
he was devoted. The effect of the white muslin dresses with dazzling
blue plaques and natural daisies and other flowers scattered
over them, must have been very striking. Another use of glaze was
for architectural inlaying (fig. 117). The capitals of great columns
were inlaid all over with stripes of red and blue along the palm
leaf design, separated into small squares by gilt bands between. The
whole capital was thus copied on a vast scale from cloison jewellery.
Another use of glaze was for inlaying hieroglyphs in the
white limestone walls. This system was carried on in a simpler way
into the next dynasty, where a great quantity of cartouches of Sety II
are known; and in the walls of the temple of Luqsor are rows of holes
of corresponding size, from which they have probably been taken. A
favourite form of glazed ware in the XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties is
that of the graceful lotus flower cup.
In the XIXth dynasty there is much less variety of glazing; but we meet
with the rise of a new industry which was to eclipse all the others in
its output. Sety I had many glazed figures of _ushabtis_ of blue colour
inscribed in black, or of glazed steatite, in his tomb. Under Ramessu
II they became usual for private persons, and for a thousand years
later they were made in enormous numbers, usually four hundred being
buried in any wealthy tomb. The Ramesside _ushabtis_ are usually green
with black inscriptions, rarely white with purple. In the XXIst dynasty
they are of very intense blue with purple-black inscriptions, and very
roughly made, deteriorating throughout the dynasty. In the XXIInd and
XXIIIrd dynasties they are small, and usually green and black. In the
XXVth they are mere red pottery dipped in blue wash, or little slips
of mud were substituted. The XXVIth dynasty started a different class
of very large figures, up to ten inches high, beautifully modelled,
with incised inscriptions, back pillar, and beard, always of green
glaze; and these deteriorated to Ptolemaic times, excepting that there
are some splendid blue ones of Nectanebo, and smaller ones of bright
colour with ink inscriptions of private persons of his time.
About the XXVIth dynasty, glazed figures of the gods were made for
popular use, and by about 300 B.C. they appear in vast numbers, very
roughly moulded. Some of the earlier pieces are very beautifully
modelled, and glazed so exactly that the hollows are not at all filled
up. A head of Isis (fig. 118), and a half-length figure of a fan-bearer
(fig. 119) are perhaps the finest pieces of such work. The latter
figure is remarkable for the vigour of the muscles and the overbearing
official dignity of the expression.
Great numbers of amulets were also made to be buried with the mummies
or worn by the living. The earlier examples are fairly modelled, of
apple-green tint; in Persian times they are sharp and dry in form and
of an olive-grey colour, but they became very roughly and coarsely
moulded in Ptolemaic times. There are some interesting modelled heads
of this age, covered with blue or green glaze, such as a Ptolemaic
queen, and a woman wearing a face veil. Vases of Greek and Roman styles
were also common. A delicate thin ware with Assyrianesque figures, in
white on a slightly sunk blue ground, was made in the Persian time and
continued into the Ptolemaic age. Large blocks for legs of furniture,
and stands, were also made now. The characteristic colours are of a
dark Prussian blue bordering on violet, and an apple-green.
In the Roman age there is an entirely new style. The body of the vase
is of a purple-black colour, with a wreath of bright green leaves
around it. Such continued almost to Coptic times. The bulk of the
Roman glaze is of coarse forms, and bright Prussian blue in tint. The
vases have animals in relief, apparently under Persian influence. The
flat trays with straight sides are copies of the silver dishes of the
time. The old style of glazing continued down to Arab times; a steatite
amulet, in the cutting, and colour of the glaze, might well have been
of the Shishak age, but for the Arabic inscription upon it. And at the
present day some creditable imitations of ancient glazing are made for
fraudulent trade at Thebes.
Turning to the more technical matters, the body of the ware is always
a porous, friable, siliceous paste; in some cases so soft that it can
be rubbed away from the broken surfaces by the finger. The unglazed
beads and figures occasionally found can hardly be handled without
breaking. This paste was moulded roughly into form, and when dry it
was graved with a point to give the detail. If it broke in the fingers
a good figure would be stuck together again with a scrap of the paste
before glazing. Large objects were made in sections, dried and baked,
and then joined up with some of the same paste, and re-baked before
covering with glaze. In the XXVIth dynasty there is a beautiful hard
stoneware, apparently made by mixing some glaze with the body, enough
to fuse it together into a solid mass throughout. The surface of these
works is always very fine and smooth, without any face glaze, but only
the compact polished body. The usual colour is apple-green, but violet
is sometimes found in the early examples of the XVIIIth dynasty.
The colours were rarely anything beyond shades of green and blue.
These were produced by compounds of copper; the blue is especially
free from iron, which even in traces produces a green tint. The blue
if exposed to damp fades white; the green changes to brown, owing to
the decomposition of green silicate of iron and the production of
brown oxide of iron. This decomposition may go on beneath an unbroken
polished face of glaze, changing the glaze to brown. The shades of
blue and green were all experimentally produced in modern times by Dr
Russell, F.R.S., who succeeded in exactly copying the purple blue,
full blue, light blue and French blue, and the green-blues and full
greens in more than a hundred tints. The method was indicated by the
half-baked pans of colour found at Tell-el-Amarna. Quartz rock pebbles
had been collected, and served for the floor of the glazing furnaces.
After many heatings which cracked them they were pounded into fine
chips. These were mixed with lime and potash and some carbonate of
copper. The mixture was roasted in pans, and the exact shade depended
on the degree of roasting. The mass was half fused and became pasty;
it was then kneaded and toasted gradually, sampling the colour until
the exact tint was reached. A porous mass of frit of uniform colour
results. This was then ground up in water, and made into a blue or
green paint, which was either used with a flux to glaze objects in
a furnace, or was used with gum or white of egg as a wet paint for
frescoes.
The ovens were small, about two or three feet across; cylindrical pots
were set upside down and a fire lighted between them, and the pans
of colour rested on the bottom edges of the pots. In Roman times the
glazing furnaces were about eight feet square and deep, with an open
arch to windward half way up. The vases and dishes were stacked in
the furnace upon cylinder pots, and the successive dishes in the piles
were kept apart by cones of pottery nearly an inch high. The failure of
a furnace-load has revealed the system; by too long heating the glaze
soaked through the porous body, and it all settled down and partly fell
to pieces.
The other colours used were: for the red a body mixed with haematite
and covered with a transparent glaze; bright yellow, the composition
of which is unknown; violet in various depths, from a faint tinge on
the white lotus petals to a deep strong colour, probably made by copper
blue and one of the purples; purple in various strengths from a rich
bright tint upon white to a black purple for designs upon blue, all
produced by manganese; occasionally purple-blue made with cobalt; dead
white, which was doubtless produced by tin as at present.
Before leaving the subject of glazing we may notice the system of
moulding pendants and figures in red pottery moulds, of all sizes from
a quarter of an inch to three or four inches across. A great variety
of these is found at Tell-el-Amarna of the XVIIIth dynasty, and at
Memphis of later periods. They sometimes contain the remains of the
siliceous paste with which they were choked when they were thrown
away. At Naukratis hundreds were found for making scarabs for the Greek
trade. The moulded objects were covered with glazing wash, and put
into the furnace. Beads were commonly made on a thread, dried, and the
thread burnt out; they were then dipped in glaze-wash, and fired. In
early times small beads were rolled between the thumb and finger on the
thread, producing a long tapering form like a grain of corn.
GLASS
There has been much misunderstanding about the age of glass in Egypt.
Figures of smiths blowing a fire with reeds tipped with clay have been
quoted as figures blowing glass, though no blown glass is known in
Egypt before Roman times. A cylinder of glass of King Pepy has been
quoted; but this is really of clear iceland-spar or selenite lined with
paste. A panther’s head with the name of Antef V has been
called glass, but it is really of blue paste. Various pieces of inlaid
stone jewellery have been mistaken for glass, but none such is known
till late times.
There does not seem to have been any working of glassy material by
itself, apart from a base of stone or pottery, until after 1600
B.C. The earliest dated pieces are an eye of blue glass imitating
turquoise, with the name of Amenhotep I (1550 B.C.), and a piece of a
glass vase with an inlaid name of Tahutmes III. Beads of this age are
plain black with a white spot on opposite sides; black and white glass
cups probably belong to the same date. The variety of colours quickly
increased, and by the time of Amenhotep III and IV, about 1400 B.C.,
there were violet, deep Prussian blue, light blue, green, yellow,
orange, red (rare), clear white, milky white, and black.
[Illustration: GLASS
120, 121. Vases (XVIIIth dynasty)
122. Mosaic (late)]
The designs were entirely ruled by the method of manufacture. The glass
was never cast, but was worked as a pasty mass, and all the decoration
was made by inlaying threads of glass drawn out to various thicknesses.
The actual production of the glass we deal with below. The patterns
on a vase or bead were produced by winding threads around the body,
and then dragging the surface at regular intervals (figs. 120, 121).
If dragged always in one direction, it made a series of loops or U
pattern; if dragged alternately each way it made an ogee pattern.
Around the neck and foot a thick thread was often put on, with a thin
thread spirally round it, usually white with black spiral. The forms
of the vases are those usual in other materials at this period, such
as [Illustration]. This same method was followed in the glass found
at Cumae near Naples, dating from about 700 B.C. It is distinguished
from the Egyptian fabric by a duller surface and duller colouring,
and a common form unknown before is [Illustration]. This later glass
is usually mixed with the earlier in museums, and occasionally it is
difficult to distinguish it; but both the forms and the colour leave
very little doubt as to the age.
This system of winding threads of glass was usual for beads also. A
mere chip of a glass bead can be distinguished, whether Egyptian or
Roman, by the direction of the streaks and bubbles in it. The early
glass is all wound, with lines running around; the Roman glass is all
drawn out and nicked off, with lines running along; the medieval and
modern Venetian beads are again wound, and some of the recent ones
closely imitate Egyptian dragged patterns, but can be distinguished by
the opacity of most of the colours.
The XVIIIth dynasty workers also cut and engraved glass, though
but rarely. They sometimes produced a clear glass entirely free of
colouring, even in a thickness of half an inch. About the XXIIIrd
dynasty (750 B.C.) a clear, greenish Prussian blue glass was usual for
beads, and continued to Persian times for scarabs (500 B.C.). Rather
later, about 400-200 B.C., there appears a large development of opaque
glass figures of hieroglyphs, cut and polished, to inlay in wooden
caskets and coffins. Opaque red and blue to imitate jasper and lazuli
were the most usual colours. Figures of the four genii of the dead
and other usual amulets were commonly made by pressing the glass into
moulds while heated. A favourite colouring for such was a deep, clear,
true blue, backed with opaque white to show up the colour.
About the later Ptolemaic time and through the Roman age the main work
in glass is that of minute mosaics (fig. 122). They were built up with
glass rods, heated until they half fused together, and then drawn out
so as to produce a great length of much reduced section. Thus patterns
of extreme delicacy were produced; and one single piece of construction
could be cut across into a hundred slices, each repeating the whole
design. The patterns are sometimes purely Egyptian, as _ankh_ and _uas_
alternately, but more usually Roman, such as heads and flower patterns.
Such mosaics were mounted in jewellery, or, on a coarser scale, set in
large designs for caskets and temple furniture.
The characteristic of Roman times is the use of blown glass. The cups,
bottles, and vases were nearly all blown, often with threads woven
around, dabs attached and impressed, or patterns stamped while soft.
The feet of cups were modelled into form while pasty, the tool marks
showing plainly upon them. Ornamental stamps were pressed on soft lumps
put on the sides of vases. Such stamps became used for official marks,
and in early Arab times they registered the substance for which the
glass measure was intended, also the amount of the capacity, and the
maker’s name in many cases. Another main development of Byzantine and
Arab glass was for weights, usually to test gold and silver coins, but
also for larger amounts up to a pound. These weights bear the stamps
of the Byzantine epochs in a few cases, but are found by the hundred
of the VIIIth to Xth centuries, and by the thousand of the Xth to XIth
centuries, dying out at the early crusading age.
We now turn to the purely technical side, to describe the process of
manufacture in the time of Amenhotep IV, about 1370 B.C., when it is
best known to us, from the remains of the factory at Tell-el-Amarna. A
clear glass could be produced, which was usually not quite colourless,
but sufficiently so to take up various colours. It was free of
lead and borates, and consisted of pure silica from crushed quartz
pebbles, and alkali doubtless from wood ashes. It was fused in pans of
earthenware. This glass was by dissolving the blue or green
frit in it, or mixing other opaque colours. Samples were taken out by
pincers to test the colour at different stages. The whole mass was
fairly fused, and then left to get cold in the earthen pan, which was
about four or five inches across, and held half an inch to an inch deep
of the glass. When cold the pan was chipped away, the frothy top of the
glass was chipped off, and lumps of pure glass were obtained free from
sediment and scum. A lump of glass thus purified was heated to a pasty
state, and patted into a cylindrical form, then rolled under a bar of
metal, which was run diagonally across it, until it was reduced to a
rod about the size of a lead pencil, or rather less. Such a rod was
then heated, and drawn out into “cane” about ⅛ inch thick. Every vase
was built up from such cane.
For making a vase a copper mandril was taken, slightly tapering, of
the size of the interior of the neck. Upon the end of this was built
a body of soft siliceous paste, tied up in rag, and baked upon it, of
the size of the interior of the intended vase. The marks of the string
and cloth can still be seen inside the vases. On this body of powdery
material glass cane was wound hot until it was uniformly coated. It was
re-heated by sticking the end of the mandril into the oven as often
as needful; glass threads of various colours were wound round it; and
the whole was rolled to and fro so as to bed in the threads and make a
smooth surface. A brim, a foot, and handles were attached. Finally, on
cooling, the copper mandril contracted, and could be taken out of the
neck, the soft paste could be rubbed out of the interior, and the vase
was finished. The final face is always a fused surface, and was never
ground or polished.
A similar mode was followed for the glass beads. The thread of glass
was wound upon a hot copper wire of the size of the hole required; and
after piling on enough, and completing the pattern of colour the wire
contracted in cooling and could be withdrawn. The little point where
the thread of glass broke off can be seen at each end of the beads.
CHAPTER XI
THE POTTERY
The varieties of pottery are so extensive that from the prehistoric age
alone a thousand are figured, and the later ages give at least thrice
that number. We cannot attempt to give even an outline of a subject
which alone would far outrun this volume. A single most typical form of
each main period is here shown, to illustrate the entirely different
ideas which prevailed.
[Illustration: PRE. I V XII
XVIII XIX XXVI RO.]
_Forms._--In the prehistoric age many of the forms have no marked brim.
The bowls, conical cups, and jars simply end at a plain edge, like this
marked Pre. Brims were more usual in the later prehistoric age. A great
variety of fancy forms appeared--double vases, square bottles, fish,
birds, or women were modelled; and as the whole pottery was handmade,
such were no more difficult to make than circular forms. On coming to
the Ist dynasty the forms were more clumsy, such as that marked I;
and some of the earlier forms were continued in a very degraded state.
The main feature is the class of very large jars, two to three feet
high, which were used for storing food and drink. This class rapidly
deteriorated and became almost extinct by the IIIrd dynasty. In the
pyramid age some neatly-made pottery is found; thin sharp-brimmed
bowls were usual, and the form marked V, with a sharply pointed
base, was peculiar to this time. By the XIIth dynasty the globular
or drop-shaped pot was the prevalent type, and varies in size from a
couple of inches to a couple of feet. Drinking-cups of a hemispherical
form, very thin, without any brim, are also of this age. The XVIIIth
dynasty was begun with long graceful forms, such as XVIII; and later
some beautiful long-necked vases are found. All of these forms rapidly
degraded in the XIXth dynasty, and ugly small handles come into use,
probably influenced by Greek design. In the XXVIth dynasty, lids with
knob handles became common, and accordingly the brim disappeared, and
a plain edge was used which could be easily capped. The large jars of
this age are of Greek origin. During the Ptolemaic time debasement went
on; and the most ugly, smug, commonplace forms belong to the Roman age.
They are mostly ribbed, as in this marked Ro. The big amphorae begin
with ribbing in the latter part of the second century, in broad fluting
curves. These became narrower and sharper, until in the sixth and
seventh centuries the ribbing had become almost a mere combed pattern
around the jar. The jars also decreased in size, were thicker, softer,
and coarser, until the type vanished with the Arab times.
_Decoration._--The earliest painting on prehistoric vases was of white
slip, in line patterns, copied from basket-work, and rarely in figures,
such as fig. 65. This white paint was put over a bright red facing of
haematite; and such red and white pottery is still made with closely
similar patterns by the mountain tribes of Algeria, where the style
seems never to have died out. The black tops of the early red vases
we shall deal with under Materials. The later prehistoric painting
was in dull red on a buff body, such as fig. 66. In the pyramid age
there was only a polished red haematite facing, and in the XIIth
dynasty even this was not used. About the XVIIth dynasty a fine red
polish was common, which ceased early in the XVIIIth dynasty; white
on the brims, or dabbed in finger-spots over the inside of saucers,
was also of the XVIIth dynasty. Black or red edges to pottery next
appeared, and by Tahutmes III there was a style of narrow black and
red stripes alternating. The use of blue paint, of copper frit, began
under Amenhotep II, but it was not usual until Amenhotep III, and it
was common until the close of the XIXth dynasty, though much flatter
and poorer than at first. After this there was no decoration on pottery
until the late Roman time. About the age of Constantine a hard, fine
pottery came into use, with a thin red wash on it, and often of a pale
salmon colour throughout. When the southern tribes pushed down into
Egypt, the brown and red patterns which were usual in Nubia were
carried with the invaders, and such painting was the main influence in
the painted Coptic pottery.
_Materials._--The prehistoric pottery of the earlier period is all
of a soft body, faced with red haematite. As the pots were usually
baked mouth downward, the brim was covered with the ashes; and these
not being burnt through, reduced the red peroxide of iron to the
black magnetic sesqui-oxide, such as is familiar to us in the black
scale on sheet steel. The interior of the pots is likewise black,
owing to the reducing gases from the ashes below; rarely the heat
after the combustion has lasted long enough for the oxygen to pass
through the pottery, and so redden the inside. Open dishes were
also haematite-faced inside, and the iron is reduced to a brilliant
mirror-like coat of black all over. The reason of the polish being
smoother on the black than on the red parts is that carbonyl gas--which
is the result of imperfect combustion--is a solvent of magnetic oxide
of iron, and so dissolves and re-composes the surface facing. On once
understanding the chemistry of this, it is needless to discuss the
old idea that smoke blackened this pottery. Smoke--or fine carbon
dust--could not possibly penetrate through close-grained pottery, and
the black extends all through the mass, naturally owing to the action
of reducing gases to which the pottery is quite pervious. There may
perhaps be some other kinds of black pottery influenced by smoke; but
it is far more probable that all black pottery is due to black oxide of
iron produced by imperfect combustion, which is accompanied by smoke.
In the later prehistoric age the pottery has a hard reddish buff body
with white specks. In the pyramid period a smooth soft brown body is
usual. Hard drab pottery also appears in the Vth and VIth dynasties. In
the XIIth dynasty the common soft brown body is general, and extends
to the XVIIIth. By the middle of the XVIIIth dynasty a hard drab ware
with white specks and faced with a drab polish is very characteristic,
and continues into the XIXth. Thence onward the brown body reasserts
itself, with some inferior greenish drab ware about the XXIInd dynasty.
Greek clays appear during the XXVIth, but probably all imported from
Greece. Soft red pottery belongs to the Ptolemaic age. But the old soft
brown rules in the Roman time, being at its worst in the early Coptic.
The thin hard ware of the Constantine age is apparently not native, and
may be due either to Nubian or Roman influence.
_Modelling._--A constant use of pottery for modelling should be
mentioned, although we cannot illustrate such a large subject here, as
it is only subsidiary to stone-work in each age. In the prehistoric
time rude figures are often found, both of men and women. Little is
known of pottery modelling in the Old and Middle Kingdoms. Rough
figures of cows are placed upon the brims of bowls about the XIth and
XIIth dynasties. In the XVIIIth-XXVth dynasties a large use of roughly
modelled _ushabti_ figures of servants prevailed. But it is rarely
that the other modelling is apart from foreign influence. A class of
exquisitely formed figure-bottles, of women and animals, was made of
fine foreign clay, probably by Greeks, at this age. Also rude solid
figures of men and horses extend from this time onwards. The great
age of pottery figures begins with the modelled heads of foreigners
from the foreign quarter of Memphis, certainly due to Greek admixture.
These are admirably done, and each hand-modelled singly. They begin
about 500 B.C., and by about 300 B.C. moulded figures come into use. At
first these are solid, but from about 200 B.C. down to 300 A.D. they
are moulded hollow, being made of a front and back half united. The
enormous number of these figures, and of figure-lamps made similarly,
is very familiar from the Roman period. It is remarkable what good
work is shown in some figures even as late as 250 A.D. The late dating
of the figures and the varieties of the lamps are illustrated in _Roman
Ehnasya_ from my own excavations.
CHAPTER XII
IVORY-WORKING
In prehistoric times ivory was much used, doubtless owing to the
elephant being still abundant in southern Egypt. The natural form of
the tusk was often left, and the surface worked in low relief; but
the earlier work was on small pieces, as in figs. 3, 15, 17. Not only
elephant ivory was used, but also that of the hippopotamus. At the
beginning of the Ist dynasty ivory was largely used for statuettes and
carvings. One of the best examples of this school is the figure of the
aged king (fig. 21). Many other carvings of girls, boys, apes, lions
and dogs were found with this at Abydos. At Hierakonpolis a great mass
of ivories was found in a trench six feet long, and many of them have
been preserved. They are figures of men and women, carved tusks, wands,
and cylinders. In the tomb of Mena’s queen at Naqadeh were ivory lions
and dogs, and such were also found in the tomb of King Zer at Abydos,
used for gaming pieces. All of this early ivory-work is vigorous, and
has the character and spirit of the early art.
The finest work known in ivory is the portrait of Khufu, the builder of
the great pyramid (fig. 123). It is here much magnified, as the face
is only a quarter of an inch high. Yet in this minute space one of the
most striking portraits has been given. The far-seeing determination,
the energy and will expressed in this compass, would animate a
life-size figure; indeed, it would be hard in the illustration to
distinguish it from a work on a large scale. The correct position of
the ear should be noted, as it is always put too high up in later
sculpture. Quite apart from the marvellous minuteness of the work,
we must estimate this as one of the finest character-sculptures that
remain to us.
A piece of open work, of a girl standing, is probably of the Old
Kingdom (fig. 124). It is not of the style of hair or treatment of the
Middle or New Kingdom; and in the Saitic age, when the older style
was copied, the work is worse in pose and much more detailed and
punctilious. There are some beautiful pieces of architectural models in
ivory, from the inlaying of a casket, and, also, a figure of the Vth
dynasty.
Of the Middle Kingdom an ivory baboon is perhaps the finest work;
it has disappeared from the museum when at Bulak, and its place is
unknown. A broken figure of a boy carrying a calf shows great truth and
spirit. Ivory was also used for lion-head draughtsmen in the XVIIIth
dynasty, but there are no fine works of that time.
Of the XXVIth dynasty two fine pieces have been found at Memphis, a
lotus flower (fig. 125) and a man bearing offerings (fig. 126). These
had been applied to the sides of caskets or other small woodwork. The
figure of the man is but a stiff and coarse copy of the Old Kingdom
work, lacking the truth and freedom of the early time.
There does not seem to have been any distinctive school of ivory-work
in Egypt. The methods and nature of the objects are just what might
have been done in stone or in wood at the same period. There is no
sign of a special development due to the material, as there is in the
Chinese ivory-carving.
[Illustration: IVORY
123. King Khufu
124. Girl, Old Kingdom
125. Lotus (XXVIth dynasty)
126. Bearer of offerings]
CHAPTER XIII
WOODWORK
[Illustration: FURNITURE
127, 128, 129, 130, 131. Chair, caskets, and bed of Amenhotep III]
Wood was by no means so rare in early times as it is now in Egypt.
Floyer has shown how much the desert has been stripped by the
introduction of the tree-feeding camel. We see in the royal tombs of
the Ist dynasty a large use of wood. The funeral chamber sunk in the
ground was entirely built of massive beams and planks. The area of this
room was 900 square feet in the largest tomb, varying down to 300 in
the lesser. The framing of the floor, the supports, and the roof beams
were about 10 × 7 inches in section and up to 21 feet in length. The
planking of the floor still remains 2 to 2½ inches thick; and probably
that of the roof was equal to it, as it had to bear about three feet
of sand over it. The great scale of this timber work agrees with the
“royal axe-man” being one of the high officials; before stone came
into use, this title was the equivalent of chief architect. Such a
free use of wood shows that the elaborate framing of façades, which is
represented as a usual pattern in early stone-work, was actually copied
from wooden mansions, just as the Greek architecture was an elaborate
copy of woodwork. At the close of the IIIrd dynasty we have a glimpse
of the large use of wood for shipbuilding, when Senoferu built in one
year sixty ships, and imported forty ships of cedar. The great gates of
the temple enclosures and palaces must also have been massive works;
the outer and inner pylon at Karnak had gates fifteen feet wide on
either side, and over sixty feet high.
The wooden coffins of the Old Kingdom are heavy boxes with sides two
to three inches thick. They are fastened together by bolts of wood;
and such wooden pegs are run diagonally in different directions so as
to prevent the parts being separated. Coffins hollowed out of a single
block, to fit the outline of the mummy, were also used in all the
earlier periods. In late times such forms were built up of boards.
For securing the joints of furniture from racking, two correct systems
were used. For chairs, angle-pieces were cut from wood with bent grain,
and fitted on inside the angles. There must have been a constant
demand for such bent pieces, and probably they were grown into shape.
In other cases forms of wood have been found which had clearly been
grown for many years into the shape required. The angle-pieces can be
seen under the front of the seat in fig. 128. Another system for stands
was to put in diagonal bars, as in fig. 130. Sometimes merely the
stiffness of deep panelling was trusted, as in fig. 129. For the backs
of chairs an excellent triangular stay was made, as in fig. 127.
The light and skilful forms of the woodwork are well shown in the
furniture (figs. 127-131) from the tomb of Yuaa and Thuiu, the parents
of Queen Thyi, in the XVIIIth dynasty. The reliefs on the chair are
carved in wood and gilded. The decoration on the casket (fig. 129) is
of blue glazed hieroglyphs and inlays.
Wood was also much used for statuettes. The ebony negress and other
figures (figs. 40-42) show it on a small scale; larger figures were
also made, such as several in the Turin Museum, and some of life-size,
but the latter are coarser in work, as the figure of Sety I in the
British Museum. A fine figure almost life-size remains from the XIIIth
dynasty, King Hor, in the Cairo Museum.
A system of inlaying stones, glazes or glass, in wood as a
basis, is found as early as the Vth dynasty, in the model vases of
Nofer-ar-ka-ra. In the XVIIIth dynasty this method of decoration is
seen on the gigantic mummy-cases of the Queens Aah-hotep and Aahmes,
which were inlaid, probably with lazuli. The inlay was so valuable
that soon after it was all prised out with the corner of an adze,
and blue paint substituted for it. In the XXIIIrd dynasty decorative
figures were wrought in wood, with the whole detail in inlay, as in the
group of Pedubast. And in the Greek period large wooden coffins were
encrusted with inlay of glass, and the sides of wooden shrines
were similarly the basis for brilliant polychrome adornment.
Regarding the methods of woodworking, certainly the axe was the
primitive tool, as shown by the royal architect being designated by
the axe. In the scenes of the pyramid age we find the saw about three
feet long worked with both hands, the mallet and chisel for cutting
mortise-holes, and the adze in constant use for shaping and for
smoothing wood. To this day the small adze is a favourite tool of the
Egyptian carpenter and boat-builder. For smoothing down the caulking
inside a boat, heavy pounders of stone were used, held by a handle
worked out on each side of the block. Drills were also commonly used
both on wood and stone, worked by a bow. The subject of tools and their
variations is a very wide one, which cannot be entered upon here.
CHAPTER XIV
PLASTER AND STUCCO
In the masonry of the pyramids, plaster is constantly used, both to
fill joints as a bedding, and to level up hollows in a face. The
plaster used is a mixture of ordinary lime and plaster of Paris, the
carbonate and sulphate of lime. How it was introduced into the joints
of the pyramid casing is a mystery. The blocks at the base weigh
sixteen tons, so that no free sliding to reduce the joint-filling could
be done; yet the vertical joint, five feet high and seven feet long,
is filled with a film of plaster only a fiftieth of an inch thick.
The joints of the masonry in the passages and chambers are all filled
with plaster, though so close as to be almost imperceptible. In the
core masonry a coarse plaster was poured between the stones and filled
into hollows. The flaws and defects in the faces of stones were freely
filled with plaster, which was to match the stone. In rock
tombs plaster was used to fill up cracks and hollows; and it often
remains in perfect condition while the rock around has decayed.
Plaster was also used on the brick walls, which were faced with a
hard coat about a tenth to a sixteenth of an inch thick, upon which
paintings were executed. By the XVIIIth dynasty this became a mere
whitewash over the mud-facing of the wall. In the roughly-hewn rock
tombs of that age at Thebes, the jagged surfaces were smoothed by a
coat of plaster, often two or three inches thick in the hollows. A
strange use of stucco was for a thin coat over sculpture, as a basis
for colouring. Such a coat was even laid over statuary. In all ages
this hid to some extent the full detail of the sculptor’s work in
reliefs. In the XIIth dynasty the finest lines were hidden by it; and
on coming down to the Ptolemaic times the plasterer ignored all the
sculpture below, filling the figures with a smooth daub of plaster
on which the painter drew what he liked. It seems strange why the
sculptors should have continued to put fine work and detail on to a
surface where they were going to be at once ignored. It suggests a
rigid bureaucracy in which the sculpture had to be passed by one man,
and the painting by another, without any collaboration.
Stucco was used for independent modelling, as in Italy. It was laid on
a flat canvas base, stretched over wood, and the whole relief was in
the stucco. The chariot of Tahutmes IV is one of the main examples of
such work, of which a small portion is shown in fig. 132. The relief is
low and smooth, and full of detail; there is none of the sketchy rough
tooling, as seen in Roman stucco reliefs. Minute details of dress and
hair are all tooled in, and supply some of the best studies of Syrian
robes. The varying patterns on the shields of different branches of
Syrians, the feathering of the arrows, the shape of the daggers, and
the flowers of the papyrus and lotus of north and south, are all most
precisely rendered. It would be hard to find any point in which more
details could be introduced.
[Illustration: PLASTER
132. Stucco relief modelling (XVIIIth dynasty)
133, 134. Plaster castings for studies]
Plaster was also used for casting in moulds, and for making moulds.
The death mask of Akhenaten shows how such castings were produced in
the XVIIIth dynasty, from a single mould without any undercutting, to
serve the purpose of the sculptor as a model. Of later examples of
such castings we have here a lion’s head and a king’s head (figs. 133,
134). They were probably made to be supplied as school copies to the
workshops where the sculptors were trained. Plaster moulds are very
common at Memphis, and it is said they were even used for casting
bronze work. This is very doubtful, as plaster is reduced to powder at
260° C., while moulds for bronze casting must be heated to 1500° to
1800° C.; they are more probably for casting pewter. Plaster moulds
were also used for moulding pottery lamps. The oiling of plaster was
done on painted plaster statuettes, so as to make them waterproof. They
can still be scrubbed in water without disturbing the colour.
The most artistic use of plaster was for the modelled heads, which
were placed on mummy cases in Roman times. Though most such works were
rather crude, some are found which show real ability of portraiture. In
fig. 135 we have a sympathetic study of the face of a young man. The
lips are beautifully true, the modelling of the cheek is quite natural,
the nose and brow well formed; only the eyes have been left blank,
and marked afterwards with colour. The head, fig. 136, is evidently a
careful study, giving the cautious, cold expression of the man. Another
face (fig. 137) is subtle, and full of feeling: the faint smile on the
lips, the gracious contour of the cheek, the wavy hair, give a memory
in death of a real personality. The only jarring feature is the square
brow, copied from an unfortunate convention in Greek art. The eyes
are here again left blank; but they seem to have been intended to be
open, by the slight ridge of the raised lid. Was there a convention of
regarding the dead as incapable of seeing, though seen by memory? How
far these modelled heads were portraits is answered in a curious way by
fig. 138. The light outline there is that of the plaster modelling, the
dark outline within it is the skull from the interior of the coffin.
It will be seen how exactly they agree; there is a thin skin over the
forehead, then a fleshy part to the brow. Along the bridge of the nose
the model closely follows the bone; below the nose the angle of meeting
of the jaws exactly agrees, leaving a uniform thickness of lips;
and lastly, the fleshy fulness of the chin is seen projecting. This
agreement is one which the artist could never have expected to be thus
tested, and therefore gives us the more confidence in his skill.
[Illustration: PLASTER
135, 136, 137. Modelled heads
138. Modelled head and skull]
CHAPTER XV
CLOTHING
Though leather hides, with the hair on, are found over bodies in
the earliest graves, yet linen cloth was introduced early in the
prehistoric times, and is frequently found wrapped around the bodies.
On reaching the first dynasty the weaving is seen to be very fine
and regular, though we only have some of the stuff used for mummy
wrappings, from the tomb of King Zer. The threads are very uniform,
and there are 160 to the inch in the warp and 120 in the woof. Modern
fine cambric has 140 threads to the inch, so it was quite equalled by
hand work at the beginning of Egyptian history. A group of a dozen
different cloths on one mummy of the XVIIth dynasty show 138 x 40 and
128 x 56 as the finest, and 21 x 15 as the coarsest mesh. The greatest
disproportion of the threads is 138 to 40, or 3½ to 1, and the least
is 70 to 62, or 9 to 8; it is recognised as a principle of Egyptian
weaving that the woof was not beaten up as closely as the lay of the
warp. Unfortunately we have scarcely any cloth except mummy wrappings,
and it is not to be expected that the finest work would be thus used.
The size of the looms was considerable. The cloths on the mummy just
named are up to five feet wide; and one edge has been torn off that
amount, so it was originally more. The pieces are up to sixty feet
long, and yet not complete. The looms were horizontal on the ground for
coarse work, such as mats; but fine work was done on a vertical loom,
and from the ease of displacing threads in tapestry the warp threads
were separately weighted and not fastened to a beam. Loom weights of
baked clay or of limestone are common.
[Illustration: CLOTHING
139. tapestry (XVIIIth dynasty)
140. Cut leather net]
A few pieces of woven tapestry have been found in the tomb of Tahutmes
IV, and part of one is given here full size in fig. 139. The colours
used are red, blue, green, yellow, brown and grey. The
threads pass to and fro over the space assigned to them, thus entirely
parting the warp threads from the neighbouring ones, so that a slit is
left along the vertical margins of the colours. This was remedied by
stitching; but the same weakness is seen in the Roman and Coptic woven
tapestries. These are known from the pagan period, as there are many
mythological subjects; but the greater part belong to the Christian and
Mohammedan ages.
The Roman and Coptic tapestries are placed upon garments as derivatives
from darning, or from patches put on the garments to prevent them
wearing through. The positions are broad stripes over the shoulders
where any object would rest when carried, circular patches on the
breasts and on the knees. On referring to the hundreds of figures in
Roman dress from the third to fifth centuries (in Garucci, _Vetri
ornati di figure in oro_), embroideries or tapestries are unusual in
Italy. A dozen robes with scrolls or foliage patterns are shown, but
only three with knee patches, and one of those (xxxi, 1) is a female
servant holding an Egyptian fan, probably therefore an Egyptian slave.
It seems, then, that this system of circular patches on the wearing
parts is not Roman but Egyptian. Beside the woven tapestries, which
are nearly all in purple, embroidery was done with the needle in white
thread on the purple ground.
Leatherwork was of importance in Egypt in all ages. The two principal
arts in it were the appliqué work in colours, and the cutting of
network. The great example of the appliqué work is the funeral tent
of Queen Isiemkheb, about 1000 B.C. It was eight feet long and seven
feet wide, with sides over five feet high. Six vultures are outspread
along the top, and the sides have a long inscription. The whole of
the figures and signs are cut out in variously leather, and
stitched on to the crimson leather ground. This work we can trace in
the style of earlier decorations, back to the head fillet of Nofert,
fig. 24. It is also continued down to the present day in the appliqué
work in stuffs on the inside of Egyptian tents.
The cutting of leather nets was an art of great skill. Rows of slits
were cut, breaking joint one with other, so that a piece of leather
could be drawn out sideways into a wide net. One of the most delicate
of such nets is partly shown in fig. 140. The square patch left in
the middle of the net was for the wear of sitting on when the net was
put over the linen waist cloth. Such nets over the cloth are shown in
the figures of the harvesters, fig. 70, with the slit network and the
square patch. To cut the leather in such extremely fine threads must
have required great skill and care; and not only is the leather slit,
but considerable slips have been removed so as to produce an open net
close up to the edge band of solid leather; on some edges an inch or
two is cut away to form one side of the rhombic opening.
* * * * *
In many directions we have now traced the outlines of the artistic
skill of the Egyptians, but only outlines, which point incessantly to
the wide spaces that need to be filled in by further detail. Much of
that has yet to be discovered, but much is ready to hand whensoever
a careful observer may choose to devote attention to any of the
branches of art or technical work which we have so briefly noticed.
In every direction a complete collecting of materials and an adequate
publication of them would bring a full reward in results.
The powerful technical skill of Egyptian art, its good sense of
limitations, and its true feeling for harmony and expression, will
always make it of the first importance to the countries of the West
with which it was so early and so long connected.
CHAPTER XVI
EGYPT’S PLACE IN THE ART OF THE WORLD
In the opening chapter we have considered the point of view from which
the art of Egypt--like that of every other country--must be approached.
The physical conditions which surround man will necessarily control his
expression of thought and his perception of beauty. Forms and designs
growing out of the conditions of one land will be inappropriate in
another land, and lose most, or all, of their value if transported to
different surroundings. Hence it is futile to attempt to contrast the
art of one country directly with that of another. We might as well
compare the beauty of a tropical garden with that of an alpine forest.
The only ground of comparison is that of expressing the character and
emotions of the artists; and that art which conveys the mental state of
the people most readily is the most perfect art. This criticism leaves
aside altogether the moral question of our appreciation of the people
themselves; that does not belong to art but to ethics. And before we
can begin to judge of that, we must know their surroundings, and the
position in which they were conditioned in the world.
Our consideration here is with the art. When we look over the varied
artistic expression of different races, we see that each people has
seized some one excellence, growing out of its conditions, and adapted
to its feelings and utilities. We can admire each excellence in turn,
and see that in each of these qualities no other people has reached the
same perfection. We must recognise that artistic expression is not only
shown in sculpture and painting, but in literature, mechanical design,
and the amenities and adaptation of the social organism.
In Egypt, as we have noticed, the ruling principles of the art are
durability, strength, and dignity, and such were the features of the
national character. In vain do we look in any other country for as
great an expression of any of these principles. And, with the single
exception of Greece, it was also supreme in precision of work. Its work
was the true expression of character, and in perfect harmony with the
nature of the country.
In Crete, so far as we can yet see, the pre-eminent facilities were
the expression of motion, and the development of decorative form, and
especially colour, upon pottery. Classical art never attained to the
skill shown by the prehistoric art in these directions.
In Assyria, figure and animal sculpture stood very high in the best
period; and the free adaptation of this to the purposes of life, as we
see in the great development of friezes on the palace walls, was the
distinguishing feature. No people seem to have lived amidst their art
more than the Assyrians.
In classical Greece, the supremacy in vital sculpture and architectural
proportion has so filled the attention of the modern world that the
higher achievement of surrounding nations in other directions has been
largely overlooked. In each of the special qualities that we note in
other peoples the Greeks were their inferiors.
Rome was largely dominated by other races in its development; but in
the art of civilisation and raising subject peoples, in the shaping
of life and rule of law, it stood far above any ancient nation. In
this--as in the arts elsewhere--we must look at its best period, when
the impartiality and probity of its administrators brought all Greece
under their sway.
The Celtic and Northern arts stood first in the rhythm of intricate
decoration, and the subtlety of the curves; the ideal may not appeal
to us, but no other region has ever produced such perfect and complex
design.
In Medieval Europe, though sculpture scarcely reached the vitality of
classical work, yet in expression it stood as high as in any school of
art; and in the architecture the sense of expansion and aspiration--the
spiritual aspect--reaches a higher level than man has touched elsewhere.
In Italy, the expression of art in painting was its great achievement,
in harmony with the character of grace seen in other lines of Italian
production.
The Persian and Mesopotamian civilisation triumphed in its glorious use
of glaze decoration, which has been carried westward to Syria
and Rhodes, and still continues in the vast domes of tiles in
Spain.
In Arab art we meet the exquisite calm of geometrical design with
various angles, which cannot be analysed at a glance like a Roman
pavement: they arrest the eye to linger over them, to seek how they
arise, and what they mean.
Further east, it is difficult for us to enter sufficiently into the
fundamental feelings of the races, to enable us to value their art
truly. But we can at least feel the grand sense of profusion when
looking at the mountainous structures of the immense topes and pagodas
of India, peopled with innumerable figures on countless stages. To the
minds which produce and live amongst such forms, all other work must
seem poor and bare. In Chinese art we can admire the fine adaptation
and the sense of minute perfection in the articles before us, the
dignity and reserve shown; and, in the literature, even a stranger to
the land can feel the intimate harmony with Nature, and the mystic
sense of mood in the mountains and trees and lakes around. Hardly any
other poetry that we know touches the spirit of life so essentially.
The facile Japanese may well claim an unsurpassed skill and deftness
in the painting of Nature, and a power to grasp the greatest amount
of reality with the least means. Their perception of Nature in its
strange and mysterious moods, which they show by the brush, is almost
as penetrating as in the literature of China. Their exquisite sense of
fitness, and of taste for beauty of workmanship, only makes us begin to
realise the clumsiness of our own cast-iron performances.
To wander so far from Egypt may seem needless; and it would be so if
the essentials of other arts were more familiar in English works. We
have read lately of an alleged “tyranny of the Nile”; but the real
tyranny over English minds for a century past has been the “tyranny of
the Hellene.” The one side of art in sculpture has obscured all others;
and the English mind has, with its usual idolatry, made the standard of
Greece its sole measure. We need to see that a dozen national arts have
each been supreme over the others in some one aspect. Then we shall
see how meaningless it is to contrast the excellence of one national
art with another. Each country has to confess that it has only fully
expressed one aspect out of many in the immense range of human life.
Now we can begin to see the real meaning of the so-called limitations
of Egyptian art. Every people has had its limitations likewise, fitting
it to its conditions; and if we look at them all impartially, and not
by the standard of any one of them, we shall see that the deficiencies
and limitations of most races are of much the same extent. If the
Egyptian had tried to render not only character, but emotion also, he
would have been defying his true conditions, as much as if we put a
dado of Persian glazed tiles on the Parthenon. To refer this artistic
perception to the uniformity of the Nile, is about as true as if
we attributed any deficiencies in German art or literature to the
prevalence of cold and snow, which is a far greater tyranny than the
inundation. Every physical circumstance is a factor in human work,
but none of them singly dominates it. There is no point in calling
the Egyptian childish in his abilities, as every other nation has
been equally childish in some other respects--the Roman in his abject
submission to omens, the Greek in playing with words, the Assyrian
in his inaccuracy, the Arab in his drawing. In short, there is no
essential difference in the capacity for showing national life and
feeling by the art of each country; and in the facility and truth of
expression Egypt stands in the first rank of those lands where Art has
exhibited the character of man.
INDEX
Aah-hotep jewellery, 91, 92.
Aahmes I, jewellery, 92.
II, inlaid hawk-head, 103.
Aahmes-si neit-rannu (fig. 9), 21.
Abu Simbel, 28.
Accuracy of work, 81, 82.
Ainofer servant, 16.
Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV), art of, 20, 53;
sculpture, 41;
relief, 53;
death mask, 144.
Alabaster sculpture, 25;
vases, 78.
Amenardys, statue of, 26, 44.
Amenemhat, III, 39, 88.
Amenhotep, I, 120.
II, 26, 111, 129.
III, 26, 28, 53, 111, 120, 129.
official of, 41.
IV, 26, 111, 120.
Amethyst beads, 80, 86.
Amulets of stone, 79.
of glaze, 114.
Animals, real and mythical, 49.
Antef V, 119.
Antimony used, 104.
Arab art, 155.
Arch avoided externally, 6.
known early, 64.
form of brick, 64.
built without centring, 65.
Architecture, 62-68.
Armlets of flint, 81. _See_ Bangles.
Art belongs to country, 1, 2, 152.
absent from copying, 2, 53.
conditions in Egypt, 2.
Art dominated by strong light, 3.
accepted strong contrasts, 4.
ruled by level and vertical lines, 5.
analysis by Tolstoy, 7.
expression of character, 7-10, 19.
truth of Egyptian, 9.
greatest under pyramid kings, 16, 17.
rapidity of development, 17, 51.
decay of, 18.
of character and of emotion, 19.
of different peoples, 153-156.
Asiatic conquests influence art, 19.
Assyria, art of, 154.
Aswan, school of, 27.
Axe of Aahmes, 92.
Baboon, ivory, 136.
Bak-en-khonsu, head of, 44.
Bangles, 94. _See_ Bracelets, Armlets.
Basalt, green, sculpture in, 24, 40.
black, for building, 70.
Basalt, used for vases, 78.
Beads, materials of, 80.
gold, 84.
open-work, 94.
glazed, 119.
glass, 121, 125.
Bee amulet, 80.
Blue, manufacture of, 117.
paint on vases, 129.
Bracelets of Zer, 84.
of Aah-hotep, 92.
of Ramessu II, 93.
silver, 93.
gold, 95.
Coptic, 95.
Brick building, sloping inward, 62.
Bronze, use of, 100, 101.
origin of, 101.
Building transport, 74.
Bull hunt, 54.
Bull trampling on enemy, 14.
Bull’s head amulet, 79.
Bushman type, 29.
Button seals, 86.
Canon of drawing figures, 50.
Capitals, early forms of, 67.
Captives, influence on art, 19.
Casting of gold, 85, 89.
of bronze, 101.
in plaster, 144.
Ceiling pattern, 58.
Celtic art, 157.
Chains, patterns of, 86, 91.
Character in art, 8, 9, 19.
Chinese art, 156.
Civil service, organizing, 16.
Claw amulet, 79.
Cleopatra Cocce (Ptolemaic), 21.
Cloison inlaying, 87-89, 93, 95.
Cobalt colour of glaze, 118.
Colossi, raising of, 77.
weight of, 26.
Colours, making of, 117.
Columns, palm, lotus, polygonal, 67.
Comparative art, 152.
Conditions of Egyptian art, 2-5.
Conquest of Egypt by artistic race, 14.
Constantine, pottery of, 129, 131.
Contrasts of desert and cultivation, 4.
Conventions absent in early art, 15, 35, 36.
Copper, colours from, 116-118.
Copper work, 98-100.
Coptic pottery, painted, 130.
tapestry, 148.
Copying, a degradation, 2, 17, 20, 21.
Cornice, origin of, 63.
Crete, art of, 153.
Crocodile amulet, 79.
Crowns of XIIth Dynasty, 88.
Cumaean glass, 121.
Daggers of Aahmes, 92.
Degradation of art, 17, 20, 51.
Deir el Bahri, 5, 52.
Desert, contrasts of, 4.
art in Eastern, 25, 39.
Detail, treatment of, 18.
Diorite, sculpture in, 24, 34, 70, 78.
Divisions, political and artistic, v.
Drawing, 58-61.
Dressing stone faces, 71, 72.
Drills, tubular, 72.
flint, 79.
Dynastic new art, 14, 30.
Dynasty I, 14, 49, 84-86, 108, 126, 135, 147.
II, 32.
IV, 16, 50, 129, 135.
V, 67, 127, 131, 140.
VI, 17, 86, 109, 131.
XI, 17, 51.
XII, 18, 26, 27, 36, 52, 87, 110, 127, 129, 131, 136.
XVIII, 19, 26, 27, 40, 52, 91, 110, 120, 128, 129, 131, 139, 140,
143, 144, 148.
XIX, 20, 27, 53, 92-94, 113, 128, 129, 131.
XX, 21, 54.
XXIII, 94, 113, 121.
XXVI, 21, 54, 113, 128, 131, 136.
Ptolemaic, 21, 95, 115, 131.
Roman, 22, 95, 115, 123, 131, 145.
Earrings, 93, 94.
Coptic, 95.
Embroidery, 149.
Emery, used for cutting, 72, 73.
Emotional art, 19.
Enamel, Roman, 94.
Eye amulet, 80.
Eyes inserted in copper frames, 33.
relation to brow, 36, 40.
gibbous and narrow, 37, 38.
not detailed, 77, 145, 146.
Fan bearer, figure of, 114.
Figures, canon of drawing, 50.
modelled in pottery, 132.
Fish offerers, 39.
Fist amulet, 80.
Flask of bronze, 101.
Flint drills, 79.
working, 80.
Floret crown, 88.
Fluted metal vases, 101.
Fly amulet, 79.
Foil, impressed, 86, 90, 93, 94.
Foreign influences on art, vi.
Foundations, 74.
Frog amulet, 79, 80.
Furnaces for glazing, 117, 118.
Furniture, 138, 139.
Gates of temples, immense, 138.
Gazelles of palm, 15, 49.
Geese of Medum, 56.
Gilding, 84, 96.
Girl somersaulting, 59.
Glass, 119, 125.
earliest, 119.
black and white, 120.
varied colours, 120, 122.
patterns on, 120.
forms of vases, 121.
beads, 121, 125.
engraved, 121.
mosaic, 122.
blown, 123.
weights, 123.
manufacture of, 123-125.
Glazed ware, 107-119.
origin of, 107.
two-, 108.
tiles, 108.
tablets, 109.
colours of, 109-115, 118.
pendants, 112.
architectural, 112.
ushabtis, 113.
figures, 114.
late, 114, 115.
body, 115.
stone ware, 116.
decomposition of, 116.
manufacture of frit, 117.
moulded, 118.
inlay in wood, 140.
Glazing on quartz, 107.
on pottery, 108, 115.
Gleaners, paintings of, 56, 57.
Gold, sources of, 83.
leaf, 84, 96.
Gold casting, 85, 89.
wire, 85, 86, 90.
soldering, 85, 86, 90.
base, 94.
over plaster, 95.
Granite, black, school of, 24.
red, school of, 27.
temple, 65.
quarrying, 70, 71.
sawn, 72.
Granulated work, 90.
Greek art, 154, 157.
influence in Egypt, 47, 146.
pottery figures, 132.
Hammer dressing of stone, 74.
Hand amulet, 80.
Hand work on stone vases, 78.
Harvest scenes, 56, 57.
Hatshepsut, sculpture of, 52.
Hawk amulet, 79.
protecting king, 35.
Heads modelled in plaster, 145, 146.
Helwan quarries, 70.
Hieroglyphs, cutting of, 74.
Hor, statue of, 42, 139.
Hyaena and bull relief, 14, 49.
Hyksos type, so-called, 24, 37, 38.
Indian art, 156.
Inlaid metal, 92, 103.
Iron, rare appearances of, 104.
sources of, 105.
tools, 106.
cores for bronze, 102.
Isiemkheb, tent of, 150.
Isis, head of, 114.
Italy, art of, 155.
Ivory carving, prehistoric, 12, 134.
Ist dynasty, 31, 32, 134.
IVth dynasty, 135.
XIIth dynasty, 136.
XXVIth dynasty, 136.
Jackal head amulet, 80.
Japanese art, 156.
Jewellery, 83-97.
Ka-aper, 33.
Kauat, princess, 51.
Keft inlaying, 103.
Kha-em-hat, tomb of, 20.
Khafra, statue of, 34.
accuracy of, 82.
Khaker ornament, 64.
Kha-sekhem, head of, 32.
Khety, copper brazier of, 99.
Khufu, organizing by, 16.
figure of, 34, 135.
accuracy of, 81.
Koptos, colossi from, 30.
Lazuli beads, 80, 85.
inlaying, 88, 91.
Lead used, 103.
Leather the earliest clothing, 147.
appliqué work, 149.
slit network, 150.
Lifting of stones, 75.
Light, conditions of strong, 3.
Limitations of national arts, 157.
Limestone sculpture, school of, 25.
earliest, 31.
working in, 69.
Linen, fineness of, 147.
Lines level and vertical in Egypt, 5.
Lion, figures of, 30, 39.
amulet, 80.
Literature compared with art, 7, 8.
Looms, 148.
Lotus capitals, 67.
flower, ivory, 136.
Manganese colour of glaze, 118.
Mastaba tomb-chapels, 16, 50.
Materials of sculpture, 23.
Medieval European art, 155.
Medinet Habu temple, 66.
Memphis, head from, 46.
Mendes bowls, 96.
Menkaura, accuracy of, 82.
Mentu-em-hat, head of, 46.
Merenptah, 44.
Mertitefs, queen, 32.
Middle kingdom style, 17, 18.
statuary, 36-40.
Min, statues of, 30.
Modelling in pottery, 132.
Mosaics of glass, 122.
Moulding by pressure, 90.
Moulds for casting copper, 99, 100, 102.
for glazed ware, 118.
of plaster, 144, 145.
Mykenaean style of inlays, 92.
Narmer, 31, 49.
National arts, 157.
Naturalism of early art, 17.
later, 20.
Necklace fastening, 91, fig. 109, 93.
Necklets of silver, 95.
Negress statuette, 43.
New Kingdom, 18-20.
statuary, 40-45.
Nofert, head of, 33.
Nubian sandstone, 27, 69.
Obelisks, raising of, 77.
transport of, 77.
Observation in early art, 15.
Organization, system of social, 16.
Ovens for glazing, 117.
Oxherd, 51.
Ox, sacrifice of, 51.
Pafaabast statuette, 94.
Painting on tombs, 19.
earliest, 55.
in New Kingdom, 56-60.
light and shade, 59.
Palettes of slate, 13.
Palm capital, 67.
scenery, 4.
Palm-stick construction, 63.
Papyrus structures, 64.
capital, 67.
Pectorals of Senusert II, 87;
Senusert III, 87;
Amenemhat III, 88;
Ramessu II, 93.
Pedubast, 140.
Pelicans, painting of, 56.
Pepy, copper statue of, 99.
Periods of art, 11-21.
Persian glazing, 155.
Pewter, 104.
Plaited wire chains, 91.
Planes for testing faces, 72.
Plaster, 142-146.
in masonry, 142.
coating statues, 143.
modelling, 144-146.
castings, 144.
moulds, 144, 145.
heads, 145, 146.
oiled, 145.
Political divisions different from artistic, v.
Porphyry used for vases, 78.
Portraiture, late, 22, 38.
Pot metal, 103.
Pottery, 126-133.
forms, 126.
decoration, 128.
materials, 130.
Pottery, modelling, 132.
Prehistoric character of art, 12, 13.
statuary, 29, 30.
reliefs, 48.
painting, 55.
stone vases, 78.
amulets, 79.
Princesses, fresco, 58.
Ptolemaic art, 21.
Pyramid age, 15.
sculpture, 32-36.
Pyramids, accuracy of, 81, 82.
Qualities of Egyptians, 8, 9.
Quarrying, modes of, 70, 71.
Quartzite sandstone school, 26, 41.
Races, types of, 60.
Ra-hesy, panel of, 50, _frontispiece_.
Rameses II, 24, 25, 27, 44, 113.
III, 54.
XII, 94.
Ramesseum arches, 64.
Ranofer, statue of, 36.
Reliefs, quality of, 18, 48.
oldest, 48.
pyramid age, 50.
Middle Kingdom, 51.
New Kingdom, 52.
late, 54.
sunk, 52.
Rock cutting, 70, 71.
Roll at corner of building, 63.
Rome, art of, 157.
Sacrifice of ox, 51.
Sandstone, Nubian, 27.
quartzite, 26.
Sawing of hard stones, 72.
Scaffolding of brick, 74.
Scenery, influence of, 4, 5.
Scenes dominate wall surfaces, 3.
Schools of art, 22.
Scribe, figure of, 35.
Sculptors, training of, 17, 77.
Sculpture dominated by architecture and conditions, 6.
Seals of gold, 86.
Senoferu, 16.
Senusert I, 37, 53.
II, 82, 87.
III, 38, 39, 87.
Serapeum pectoral, 92.
Sety I, 53, 61, 113, 139.
II, 93, 112.
Shells of gold, 86, 91.
Sheykh el Beled statue, 33.
Ship, painting of, 55.
building, 138.
Shrines of palm sticks, 63.
Silsileh sandstone, 27, 69.
Silver, early, 96.
historic, 96.
bowls, 96.
Slate palettes, 13, 49.
Sleep, position in, 31.
Social organization, 16.
Soldering, 85, 86, 90, 103.
Spear-head amulet, 79.
Spinning metal bowls, 96.
Statuary, painted, 8.
local art, 23.
earliest, 29.
pyramid age, 32-36.
Middle Kingdom, 36-40.
New Kingdom, 40-45.
late, 45-47.
outlined and cut, 77.
Steatopygous type, 29.
Steel tools, 106.
Stone buildings copied from brick, 62.
copied from wooden, 62.
Stone vases, 78.
Stones, moving of, 74.
Stucco on wood statues, 33, 44, 143.
_See_ Plaster, modelling, 144.
Study in limestone, earliest, 31.
Syenite used for vases, 78.
Syrian influence, 19, 66.
Taharqa, head of, 44.
Tahutmes I, 19.
II, 40.
III, 19, 40, 110, 120, 129.
IV, 148, xvi, fig. 139.
Takushet inlaid statue, 103.
Tapestry, woven, 148.
use of, on clothing, 149.
Tausert, 94.
Temple, circuit wall, 65.
of Khafra, 65.
of Medinet Habu, 66.
of Dakkeh, 66.
Tin, sources of, 100.
used, 104.
Tiryns, stone-sawing at, 73.
Toilet tray figures, 43.
Tolstoy’s analysis of art, 7.
Tombs, early sculptured, 16.
later painted, 19, 56.
Tools of modern types, 106.
Torus roll, origin of, 63.
Training of artists, 17.
Trichinopoly pattern chains, 91.
Tubular drills, 72.
Turin statue of Ramessu II, 44.
Turquoise beads, 80, 85.
Tut-ankh-amen, 42.
Ushabtis of glazed ware, 113.
of pottery, 132.
Vases of bronze, 99, 101.
of glass, 121, 124.
of pottery, 127-133.
of stone, prehistoric, 78.
from Eastern desert, 25.
Wall surfaces dominated by scenes, 3.
Wax used for modelling, 89, 102.
Weaving, fineness of, 147, 148.
Wigs, prehistoric, 30.
put on over hair, 33.
Wire, 85, 86, 90.
amulets, 90.
plaited chains, 91.
Wooden statues stuccoed, 33, 34.
sculpture, 42.
Woodwork, 137-141.
early, 137.
shipbuilding, 138.
doors, 138.
coffins, 138.
furniture, 138, 139.
statuettes, 43, 139.
inlaid, 140.
methods, 140.
Writing, start of, 14.
Youths’ and maids’ procession, 54.
Zer, bracelet of, 84.
linen of, 147.
Zeser, glazed tiles of, 109.
PUBLICATIONS ON SUBJECTS OF THIS VOLUME
By Prof. PETRIE _where not otherwise stated_
General. Bissing, _Denkmaeler Aegypt. Sculptur_; Capart,
_Recueil de Monuments_. _Decorative Art in
Egypt_; _Racial Portraits_; _Student’s History,
I, II, III_.
Prehistoric. Capart, _Primitive Art in Egypt_. _Naqada, Diospolis_.
I-II Dynasty. _Royal Tombs, I, II_; _Abydos, I, II_; Quibell,
_Hierakonpolis, I, II_; _Koptos_.
III _Medum._ Garstang, _Mahasna_ (E.R.A.).
IV _Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh._
V _Deshasheh._ Murray, _Saqqara Mastabas_. (E.R.A.);
Davies, _Mastaba of Ptah-hetep_; Weigall, _Die
Mastaba des Gem ni kai_.
VI-XI _Dendereh._
XI Naville, _Deir el Bahari, XI dynasty_.
XII _Kahun._ _Illahun._ _Memphis, II_ (E.R.A.); Newberry,
_Beni Hasan_. Houses in _Gizeh and Rifeh_ (E.R.A.).
XVIII _Qurneh_ (E.R.A.); Naville, _Deir el Bahari, I-VI_.
_Researches in Sinai_; _Tell el Amarna_; Davies,
_Rock Tombs of El Amarna._
XIX Caulfield, _Temple of the Kings_ (E.R.A.); Murray,
_The Osireion_ (E.R.A.); _Six Temples at Thebes_.
XXVI _Tanis, Nebesheh, and Defenneh_; _Naukratis_.
Greek terra-cotta heads in _Memphis I_ (E.R.A.).
Ptolemaic _Athribis._
Roman Portraits in _Hawara_; _Kahun_; terra-cottas in
_Roman Ehnasya_.
Popular small volumes: _Ten Years’ Digging_, 6s.;
_Egyptian Tales_, i, ii, 3s. 6d.; _Religion and
Conscience_, 2s. 6d.; _Methods and Aims in
Archaeology_, 6s.; _Religion of Ancient Egypt_, 1s.;
_Personal Religion in Egypt before Christianity_,
2s. 6d.
E.R.A. Publications of Egyptian Research Account.
End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Arts and Crafts of Ancient Egypt, by
W. M. Flinders Petrie
***
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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Gutenberg (PG-19)
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Hmmm, you are using a Gmail.com email address...
Google has declared war on the independent media and has begun blocking emails from NaturalNews from getting to our readers. We recommend GoodGopher.com as a free, uncensored email receiving service, or ProtonMail.com as a free, encrypted email send and receive service.
No consent needed: How the vaccine industry mirrors Harvey Weinstein in the treatment of women
The scandalous sex crimes of Hollywood film producer and former film executive Harvey Weinstein admittedly sent shockwaves all throughout society, reminding us all that the entertainment world has a proverbial stockpile of skeletons in the closet that, were they all to be exposed, would probably lead to this corrupt industry’s total undoing. But is forcing oneself on another person without consent as Weinstein allegedly did to his female colleagues and subordinates really any different than what the vaccine industry does every single day to millions of young children who are forcibly subjected to vaccinations as a requirement to attend public school?
It’s a question that both parents and young people alike need to consider as Big Pharma continues to bore full steam ahead with trying to implement a policy of total vaccine compliance amongst all population groups throughout America. Even for all of its touted benefits in supporting public health (which is questionable in and of itself), forced vaccination programs are basically a form of medical rape, as injecting needles and the chemicals they contain into people’s bodies without their consent (and typically under duress) is a blatant violation of their right to not be penetrated against their will.
As crass as it might sound, sticking a needle into another person’s body without permission is no different than doing the same with one’s genitalia. Both actions represent a form of assault – the former being medical assault, and the latter sexual assault. In fact, medical assault might actually be more violating than sexual assault because, in many cases, it can lead to a lifetime of pain and suffering in the form of vaccine-induced illnesses and possibly even early death.
“Some of us endure the worst when we realize that the medical assault inherent in the act of coerced vaccination is only the beginning, as our children or ourselves become sick, often within minutes or hours following the assault,” explains VaxTruth.org about how medical rape in the form of forced vaccination is very similar to sexual rape, even in the aftermath when the victim has to approach the assailant.
“It is at that point that we are suddenly faced with the horror that when we reach out to those who are supposed to help us, we must again confront the assailant and beg for assistance. Not only is the help denied, the assault is also denied and the harm minimized.”
If we’re not allowed to say no to forced chemical injections, then we’re not really a free people
But if everyone doesn’t get vaccinated, then “herd immunity” will be lost and communicable diseases will once again spread like wildfire! We’ve all heard this type of thing from mainstream medicine and media sources that insist freedom must be sacrificed in order to protect the “herd.” The fact of the matter is that there’s no such thing as herd immunity. But even if there was, the concept in no way justifies scrapping the rights of other people who, for whatever reason, choose to forego getting vaccinated or having their children vaccinated.
The Constitution of the United States in no way allows government officials or anyone else to mandate that an individual is required to receive a vaccine injection – ever, or for any reason. This is something that the free people of the 50 states need to keep in mind the next time someone tries to tell them that they don’t have the right to medical freedom, which in fact is fully protected within our nation’s Bill of Rights – not to mention the fact that the international Nuremberg Code prohibits such a concept.
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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Pile-CC
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The present disclosure relates to systems and methods for monitoring a subject. Specifically, the present disclosure relates to systems and methods for directly determining brain states, as well as inferring underlying brain states that would be present in absence of current conditions, by way of analyzing physiological feedback, such as electroencephalogram (“EEG”) data associated with burst suppression states.
Since 1846 and the first public uses of ether as a means to control pain during surgical procedures, anesthesia, analgesics, and other administered compounds to control pain have been a mainstay of medicine. However, while the use of the anesthetic and the number of compounds with anesthetic properties in clinical use have grown astronomically since the initial uses of ether, the scientific understanding of the operation of the body when under anesthesia is still developing. For example, a complete understanding of the effects of anesthesia on patients and operation of the patient's brain over the continuum of “levels” of anesthesia is still lacking. As such, anesthesiologists are trained to recognize the effects of anesthesia and extrapolate an estimate of the “level” of anesthetic influence on a given patient based on the identified effects of the administered anesthesia.
Unfortunately, there are a great number of variables that can influence the effects, effectiveness, and, associated therewith, the “level” of anesthetic influence on a given patient. Some clear variables include physical attributes of the patient, such as age, state of general health, height, or weight, but also less obvious variables that are extrapolated, for example, based on prior experiences of the patient when under anesthesia. When these variables are compounded with the variables of a given anesthesiologists' practices and the variables presented by a particular anesthetic compound or, more so, combination of anesthetic compounds, the proper and effective administration of anesthesia to a given patient can appear to be an art and a science.
The anesthetized brain, though profoundly inactivated, is characterized by rich electrophysiological dynamics. At deep levels of anesthesia, the brain reaches a state of burst suppression. Burst suppression is an electroencephalogram pattern that consists of a quasi-periodic alternation between isoelectric quiescence (suppressions) lasting seconds or minutes as the brain becomes more inactivated, and high-voltage brain activity (bursts). Burst suppression appears to be a fundamental characteristic of the deeply anesthetized brain, and can also occur in a range of conditions including hypothermia, deep general anesthesia, certain infant encephalopathy and coma. It is also used in neurology as an electrophysiological endpoint in pharmacologically induced coma for brain protection after traumatic injury and during status epilepticus. However, despite the presence of burst suppression in this broad range of inactivated brain states, its biophysical mechanisms are poorly understood.
Classically, burst suppression has been regarded as a homogenous brain state. This perspective has been derived from EEG studies that burst and suppressions have been shown to occur concurrently across the scalp. However, because scalp EEG is spatially blurred, the underlying dynamics are not fully understood. In vivo studies in anesthetized animals have helped to identify the potential cellular correlates of burst suppression, showing that although nearly all cortical neurons are inhibited during suppression periods, a subset of thalamocortical neurons can continue firing at delta frequencies.
In search of a more detailed and complete mechanistic understanding, recent studies have shown that burst suppression is associated with enhanced excitability in cortical networks. These studies implicate extracellular calcium as a correlate for the switches between burst and suppression. A recent study has proposed an alternative mechanism, using computational methods, where burst suppression manifests in a state of reduced neuronal activity and cerebral metabolism. In such a state, insufficient production of adenosine triphosphate (“ATP”) in local cortical networks can gate neuronal potassium channels, leading to suppression of action potentials. Such a mechanism accounts for the general features of burst suppression previously observed, as well as its occurrence under multiple etiologies, and also predicts a specific frequency structure for the neuronal activity within each burst.
Thus, as can be appreciated, the underlying phenomenon and, hence, a more encompassing understanding of just one brain state, represented by or correlated with burst suppression, is lacking. As such, the ability to accurately discern the current or predict a future state of the individual based on the observed physiological tracking information, such as elicited by EEG data, has been elusive.
Therefore, it would be desirable to have a system and method to determine or predict a current and/or future state of a subject, based on physiological tracking or monitoring information.
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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USPTO Backgrounds
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Q:
convertToWorldSpace - cocos2d
convertToWorldSpace
Hi, I'm not sure I understand how this works.
The api states that it converts local coordinate to world space.
Let' say I have three sprites. spriteA added to scene , and spriteB added to spriteA. And spriteC added to spriteB.
- Scene
- spriteA
- spriteB
- spriteC
And I want to convert spriteC origin to world
If I do: [self convertToWorldSpace:[spriteC CGPointZero]];
or this: [spriteA convertToWorldSpace:[spriteC CGPointZero]];
or this: [spriteB convertToWorldSpace:[spriteC CGPointZero]];
or even [spriteC convertToWorldSpace:[spriteC CGPointZero]];
Shouldn't they all give the same answer since they are all transformed to world coordinates? Or do I go from one node space to parent node space ...until I get to world space.
what is the correct answer to see spriteC position in world coordinates?
A:
To find the world space origin on spriteC, you take the sprites parent, in this case spriteB and ask for the world space of its child:
[spriteB convertToWorldSpace:[spriteC CGPointZero]];
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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StackExchange
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This is my fourth move with Safe Way Moving. They are both friendly and professional. They have been there for all of my life changes. The team is excellent, organized and careful. For a female living alone, there isn't much help to move larger items it's so nice to find a company like Safe Way Moving I can trust completely. Highly recommended!
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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OpenWebText2
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Use of a vital capacity maneuver to prevent atelectasis after cardiopulmonary bypass: an experimental study.
Respiratory failure secondary to cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) remains a major complication after cardiac surgery. The authors previously found that the increase in intrapulmonary shunt was well correlated with the amount of atelectasis. They tested the hypothesis that post-CPB atelectasis can be prevented by a vital capacity maneuver (VCM) performed before termination of the bypass. Eighteen pigs received standard hypothermic CPB (no ventilation during bypass). The VCM was performed in two groups and consisted of inflating the lungs during 15 s to 40 cmH2O at the end of the bypass. In one group, the inspired oxygen fraction (FIO2) was then increased to 1.0. In the second group, the FIO2 was left at 0.4. In the third group, no VCM was performed (control group). Ventilation-perfusion distribution was measured with the inert gas technique and atelectasis by computed tomographic scanning. Intrapulmonary shunt increased after bypass in the control group (from 4.9 +/- 4% to 20.8 +/- 11.7%; P < 0.05) and was also increased in the vital capacity group ventilated with 100% oxygen (from 2.2 +/- 1.3% to 6.9 +/- 2.9%; P < 0.01) but was unaffected in the vital capacity group ventilated with 40% oxygen. The control pigs showed extensive atelectasis (21.3 +/- 15.8% of total lung area), which was significantly larger (P < 0.01) than the proportion of atelectasis found in the two vital capacity groups (5.7 +/- 5.7% for the vital capacity group ventilated with 100% oxygen and 2.3 +/- 2.1% for the vital capacity group ventilated with 40% oxygen. In this pig model, postcardiopulmonary bypass atelectasis was effectively prevented by a VCM.
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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PubMed Abstracts
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Effect of suture technique on arterial anastomotic compliance.
To determine the immediate effect of running and interrupted suture on anastomotic compliance, catheters were positioned in both femoral arteries of ten dogs for pressure measurement and introduction of an electromagnetic rheoangiometry loop probe. Changes in the area of the loop allowed simultaneous determination of the static and pulsatile internal diameter of the vessel when the loop was in an externally induced magnetic field. After dynamic diameter compliance (Cd) of the undisturbed femoral arteries was obtained, they were exposed, stripped of their adventitia, and divided. They were subsequently anastomosed with 6-0 polypropylene suture using a running anastomosis for one femoral artery and an interrupted anastomosis for the other; Cd was then measured 1 cm proximal to the anastomoses, at the anastomoses, and 1 cm distal to the anastomoses. The Cd significantly decreased with both running and interrupted anastomoses; running anastomoses showed significantly greater decrease in compliance than did interrupted.
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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PubMed Abstracts
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Chemotherapy-Induced Fatigue Correlates With Higher Fatigue Scores Before Treatment.
Cancer chemotherapy can induce fatigue in about 20% to 30% of patients. So far, there is very little information as to the predictors of chemotherapy-induced fatigue (CIF). We evaluated potential predictors of CIF in a sample of patients with cancer with several types of solid tumors scheduled to receive chemotherapy according to institutional protocols. Before their first and second chemotherapy cycles, patients answered to the Brief Fatigue Inventory (BFI), Chalder, Mini Nutritional Assessment (MNA), Stress thermometer, and HADS questionnaires as well as provided blood samples for inflammatory markers. We evaluated 52 patients, 37 (71%) were female and mean age was 53 years. The most common tumors were breast cancer 21 (40%) and gastrointestinal tumors 12 (23%). Although 14 (25.2%) patients had an increase in their fatigue BFI scores equal or above 3 points from baseline, we observed no significant overall differences between BFI scores before and after chemotherapy. The only 2 factors associated with an increase of 3 points in the BFI scores after chemotherapy were race and higher baseline BFI levels. By multivariate analysis, overall BFI and Chalder scores after chemotherapy also correlated significantly with their respective baseline scores before treatment. HADS scores before treatment correlated with overall BFI scores postchemotherapy, whereas MNA scores before chemotherapy and female sex correlated with higher Chalder scores after treatment. We conclude that fatigue induced by chemotherapy is common and consistently associated with higher fatigue scores before treatment. Screening for fatigue before chemotherapy may help to identify patients who are prone to develop CIF.
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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PubMed Abstracts
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I sat up in the middle of the bed, my legs were stretching out. Julia was in kneeling position, her feet under her bottom. She was sitting on my right, facing me. She stretched her right leg quickly and put it on both mine, and looped her arm around my neck. She bent me backwards, I was waving but can't do anything.
-Ready to lose to a little girl again? – She asked with a huge smile on her face.
She forced me on my back, and now my head was dangling from the bed!
-Pretty unsuccessful position, huh? – She said, her face above mine.
I didn’t answer. She still had me in a headlock, so I moved my arms and punched her in her back with my both fists.
-Still think you can beat me huh? – She released my headlock and grabbed my wrists with her hands. She pinned my wrists on both sides of my shoulders.
I tried to move my hands, but Julia sat up, straddling my hips, stretched her arms and pinned my wrists firmly. I could move them, but only a bit.
How does it feel, to be beaten by a girl? – She asked. – Hey, tell me! huh, it is so wonderful, to have you totally helpless under me.
I didn’t answer her and didn’t move, in a hope she would let me go.
-Hey Victor, why don’t you answer me?! – She started to get annoyed.
She asked me several more time and looked irritated now.
-You are so sad! – She said finally. – Don’t want even speak with me?! You’ll pay for this!
My head was still dangling from the bed. I started to feel it get tired.
Your neck will get tired soon! – Julia said. – What are you going to do then!
-Please let me go! – I said.
-Exactly as I predicted, - she grinned. – But no. I’m not going to let you go.
-Julia please!
- Haha, no.
- But why?
- Because I want to feel your resistance!
I tried to move my hands but she kept them firmly on place in her better position.
-Yeah, right! – She grinned. – I want to feel your struggles! I want to feel your weak attempts to escape from a girl, haha!
I started to get angry. However, I can’t do anything. I struggled and moved my arms and legs slightly, but she countered my every attempt to escape.
Several minutes after she still kept me there, and my neck was tired like hell, so I let my head to hang upside down from the bed. Suddenly I noticed some strange in her armpits. Julia was in tank top, so I could see some small black dots in her armpits. Firstly I didn’t guess what is this, but then I realized. Her armpit hair started to grow, whereas mine still didn't. Does it mean my younger sister can be more adult than me? It seemed so unfair, I felt quite humiliated by this. My pubic hair just started to grow by the time though, and I guess hers too. She had even some “tits”, no more than 1 cm but still.
-Julia please let me go, - I begged finally. – Enough of this.
- So I guess, your neck is tired already, and your muscles too! – She said. – And now I have a surprise for you: I’m still not going to let your go!
- ???
-And now, tell me the truth! – She said.
-What the hell do you want?
– Tell me your men’s secret!
-What secret?
-About your dicks. What is wrong with them? What those girls in films do with them to cause pain?
I didn’t answer.
-I won’t let you go until you tell me!
I didn’t have a choice. As you probably remember, I decided to invent a plausible version for her, and the time has come!
-OK, OK, I’ll tell you.
-I'm listening.
-You know, men’s penis is mostly invulnerable. – I started. – It is useless to pinch or punch it. However, it has one significant weakness.
-What weakness?
-Well, I should explain. Boy’s dick looks like a sausage, hanging between our legs.
-I know it well!
-It is its normal position. It should be like this. However if anybody grabs it and bends it up…
-Bend up?
-Yes, bend up to the belly… it is quite painful.
-Wow. And why is it so painful?
-Well, it’s obviously, silly girl. There is a joint in the base of the penis, so it is like armlock or bending fingers. Arm or finger is in pain when in wrong position. It is the same.
-So those girls in films just grabbed guys’ penises and did this, and the battle was over?
-Surely.
-I’m glad to hear this, - she smiled sadistically. – Today is a bad day for you, I guess.
-Why?
-Because I not only defeated you in the battle, but I made you to tell me the truth about your boys’ weakness. So from now on I can beat you anytime I want! Haha!
-What?!!! – I didn’t believe to my own ears. – Don’t you say, You are going to do this to me?!! to your brother?
- Of course, this is exactly what I’m going to do! – she confirmed.
-You can’t!
-Yes I can! What position exactly it should be in?
- Bent up and pressed to the belly. – I answered.
- OK then. – She let me go and left the room.
We wrestled several times during the week after this. Our battles were quite monotonous, not interesting at all. One interesting detail only: she really tried to reach my dick now! I didn’t want this at all and thought it is quite weird, but Julia didn’t hesitate. Of course I defended my boy’s part very good and didn’t let her to do that.
There was still a summer vacation in school. Soon after that we moved to the village where our relatives live. We lived there more than a month, and it was a really great time!
There were many witnesses everywhere, so we couldn’t wrestle anywhere in the street or in the house. However, we shared the same bedroom, only I and Julia, and all other people slept in other places. We started to wrestle every night, still in a complete secret. Our grandfather slept in the next room, but he was so deaf, he wasn’t a danger at all. Our grandmother and others slept even further. Those village nights were the hottest time of the whole year, lol.
We slept in two beds there, parallel to each other, in the opposite ends of the room. There was a lot of place in the middle of the room also. Every night after all the lights had been turned out, we started our battles in that room, in the middle. We clasped our hands and pushed each other across the room, back and forth. Sometimes the battle moved to somebody’s bed, still without a great success. Soon I realized, Julia became about as strong as me now. I couldn’t just beat her with a brute force anymore.
Once in the night wrestling I managed to force Julia to her bed, overcame her defense and pinched her pussy through her leggings. She was really furious after that! Oh, I was even in fear slightly. She threw me off her bed with a great force and followed me across the room! She looked like she was ready to kill me!!
-You’ll pay for this!! – She said furiously, but quietly, so our grandfather didn’t hear us. – You’ll pay! I’ll kill you right now! You will beg me for mercy!
She tried to bring me to my bed but didn’t succeed. So she trapped me with her foot, I dropped to the floor with Julia on top. I was surprised to say the least, it was a new tactics of her. I was lying on the floor on my back, Julia was on her elbows and knees above me. I couldn’t even imagine what she’s going to do. She grabbed my shoulders, her body still high above mine, and she put her right knee between my legs! She put it in my crotch and pressed to my dick with her knee!
-You always defended your dick with your arms, - she explained later, - And my arms were always useless to reach it. So I decided to use my legs, my knees.
She pressed her knee in different positions and I didn’t realize what exactly she was doing there.
-What the fuck!! – She exclaimed in a whisper! – How difficult it is!! I can’t hook on your dick with my knee!
I felt I reddened a bit in shame.
-Let me go! – I said, in a whisper too. – Enough of this! It is wrong!
-I won’t let you go until I bend your fucking prick up to your belly and make you cry in pain!
I didn’t know at the time, should I laugh at her or be afraid of her. This crazy silly girl was so ridiculous! Finally she did it! She pressed my flaccid dick up to my belly with her knee through my briefs! Of course it wasn’t painful at all, but I realized, I should confirm my “plausible version” now. So I started to cry falsely in a false pain.
-AAAAARGH!!!! – I moaned in whisper in the middle of the night. – AAAAARRGH!!!
-Haha! – She said. – Told you! You’ll pay! How do you feel now? Totally helpless under me!
I tried to move my arms, but the girl pinned my wrists and kept them firmly in place, still standing on her knees.
-How do you feel now? – She repeated. She pressed her knee even more on my flaccid dick.
-I’m in pain! – I said falsely. – AAAAARGH! Please enough!!
-Not so strong now? I know now how to use your weak spot!
-AAAAARGH, Julia please, stop it!
-Do you give?
- Yes!
-Say it!
-I give! I give!
-OK! – She released my dick and stood up off me.
The next day during the dinner, when we were alone, Julia looked at me and said:
-I defeated you very good last night. I’m going to do the same tonight.
-No please! – I said. – You cant!
-Of course I can. It is so amazing, looks like your whole body is in pain when I press you penis there.
-Yes it is, - I lied.
-As it turned out, your boy’s thing is so weak. Once I got it and the battle is over.
-But it is wrong! – I said. – You shouldn’t do it.
-Our wrestling as a whole is wrong, so who cares? It’s our secret. Sometimes I think, how many secrets other people have? I bet, we are not alone here.
Our battle followed the same scenario that night. She trapped me to the floor, pinned my arms and pressed my dick with her knee. I moaned in fake pain. I started to worry, what if she’ll discover the truth somewhen? I will be in a real danger.
One day I and Julia were walking in the nearby forest and she said:
-You know, we are the same height now.
-No way, you were always 1-2cm smaller, - I said.
-I was 2-3cm smaller years ago. And I was 1-2cm smaller during the last year. – She said. – But now, we are the same.
-Probably not.
-Don’t want to admit obvious? – She came up to me very closely. It looked like she really was the same height now. Our eyes were at the same level.
We measured each other’s height soon after that. We were both 157 or 158 cm at the time. I was more than 12.5 y.o. at the time and she was more than 11.5. She was younger and a girl, and she was now the same size as me! Moreover, Ifinished 7 grades at the time and she finished only 5. As I told you guys before, she’s 1 year younger than me, but she was 2 years behind me in education. I was always the youngest in my grades and she was the oldest.
Of course I realized she started her growth spurt. My classmates girls started it a year before. Some of them were taller than me and had even tiny breasts. However I felt something wrong here, that my younger sister started her growth spurt earlier than me.
-I’ll probably become even taller than you soon, - Julia said. – You should be in fear.
-No reason I should be in fear, - I said.
-Haha, you should. And you know what?
-What?
-I guess it sucks to be a boy.
-What are you talking about?! – I resented.
-I can prove you, it completely sucks to be a boy, - she said proudly.
-Why?
-You see, I’m 1 year younger than you. And I’m your sister. If I were your brother, no way I could be the same height now. I’m the tallest in my grades, taller than any boy. It’s because girls start to grow earlier. So I caught you up now. I’ll be bigger than you soon and I’ll beat you easely, exactly because I’m a girl.
I didn’t answer and internally I was agree with her.
-And the second reason is your dick, - she said. – I can use it painfully against you. And you can do nothing with this. It’s exactly because you are a boy and I’m a girl. So as a girl, I have many natural advantages over you now, - she grinned.
After that , she always started to tease me this way. She always reminded me that she is a girl and this is a reason she is better than me physically.
Sometimes she said things like “Remember, you’ll be shorter than me soon, big brother! You’re just a boy, so you can’t do anything about this” or “Don’t feel bad when I will be more adult than you, big bro! You know, I’m a young lady and you’re just a boy.”
I started to think, what if she really can be taller and stronger than me soon? I felt quite humiliated of this. I mean, she is my younger sister! But the more I thought the more I realized it can be real. Some of my classmate girls were taller and stronger, and Julia was only 1 year younger, so why not? Worse than that, I realized, Julia will became more and more girly soon. She will have nice tits, girly ass and long legs, like some girls in school. And probably she will be able to beat me at the same time!
Soon I noticed, my penis started to stiffen regularly when I think about it. However, my mind didn’t like it at all.
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The ras oncogene and tumour metastasis: observations on murine cells transfected with activated human c-Ha-ras.
Transfection of cells with cloned genes or total genomic DNA offers a means for studying aspects of neoplastic behaviour. We have used this method to examine whether incorporation of the cloned 6.6-kilobase (kb) fragment of DNA containing the mutant c-Ha-ras human oncogene can confer metastatic capability on murine NIH 3T3 cells. Cells co-transfected with the mutated ras gene and the neomycin resistance marker pSV2neo were selected by culture in neomycin. On subcutaneous inoculation into MF 1 nude mice, these cells proved to be tumourigenic with short latent periods (approximately 14 days)--nude mice were used to circumvent immunological rejection of the mouse cells expressing the product of the human oncogene. Transfectants were capable of lung colonisation after intravenous injection, but there was no evidence of spontaneous metastasis at autopsy, or on histological examination of the lungs and other organs, 90 days after inoculation. Incorporation of the transfected oncogene was confirmed by Southern blotting and its expression by dot-blot hybridisation and immunoprecipitation. The results in this experimental system indicate that transfection of a mutated human ras oncogene into non-neoplastic 3T3 cells can confer part of the metastatic phenotype, namely lung colonisation, but is not by itself sufficient to induce spontaneous metastatic behaviour.
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PubMed Abstracts
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Hayley Kiyoko Talks About Her Insecure Guest Role
Since returning to HBO in July for its second season, Insecure has been a bright spot of snappy, thoughtful summer TV. Sunday's episode, "Hella L.A.," was no exception. After meeting two girls at the grocery store, Lawrence (played by Jay Ellis) realizes they're actually both really into being with him—together. Happily, he's also on board with the idea of a threesome; things get hot quick, but also develop a curious angle that Lawrence hadn't necessarily perceived at first. What seems like a fun, casual encounter at the outset becomes a more provoking—and potentially problematic—experience of race and sexuality. As Ellis explained to Vulture, "he's told by these girls that another black guy can do it much better than him, and Lawrence is far from their first."
Hayley Kiyoko fans likely noticed the 26-year-old "Girls Like Girls" singer and actress played one of Lawrence's assertive new friends. ELLE.com caught up with Kiyoko for an exclusive chat before the episode aired to find out how she got involved with the hit show, why her mom was so enthusiastic about her nude scene, and why she loves Issa Rae (same).
How did you get involved with 'Insecure' and the episode?
It's a hilarious episode. Lawrence meets these two girls at the grocery store and has this threesome. It's very L.A. and it's very nude. The casting director who cast me for Lemonade Mouth, a Disney film I did at the beginning of my acting career, also cast me for this episode. We had this full circle moment.
I called my mom in a panic because I was like, "Oh my gosh, do I go nude? What do I do?" And she was just like, "Hayley, if you're gonna be nude, now is the time. You're 26 years old, now is the time!" And I was like, "Thanks mom, you're so right!"
Hayley Kiyoko (Miko) and Jay Ellis (Lawrence) meet in
HBO
With both music and acting on your plate, what helps you to decide what projects to take on?
It's difficult to navigate because as my music career is starting to grow, I'm having to start becoming a little more choosy. But Issa Rae is a true creator—I love Insecure, and I love that she writes and created the show. It was so wonderful to be a part of a show that is created by strong, diverse women. You could feel that energy. There's something really inspirational about it—I called my manager when I showed up on set and was like, "I feel like I can do anything!" I like to be a part of shows that are trying to make waves and changes.
Actors always say that filming sex scenes is actually very unsexy. Did you find that to be true?
Yeah. We had a sex choreographer on set and she's screaming at you, looking at the monitor being like, "And move your head back, and do this, and do that!" It's extremely unsexy. But, I do have to say, I felt very confident with my body. I felt very confident in my own skin. We all get naked, we all have bodies. So I woke up the next morning feeling more confident than ever. So it was a very good experience for me.
"It was so wonderful to be a part of a show that is created by strong, diverse women."
You've been directing your own music videos. Are you working on one now?
I have a one-take music video attached to my new single coming out in the fall. I'm really proud of that, and looking forward to everyone being able to see it. I'm in the process of getting it ready to go.
What's it like being a woman of color who's a director? That still seems rare, unfortunately.
I feel like it is pretty rare. Even women directors are still very rare. It was cool to guest star on [Insecure] and support a woman of color who writes and acts and creates and is multifaceted and is living her dream. It's very inspirational for anyone who's trying to create. What's cool nowadays is the benefit of technology and social media—there are those platforms for people to create content like that. I really love that I'm able to direct my music videos, people care and are connecting and there's a platform for me.
I think talking about it helps, because there aren't that many opportunities. Issa herself has talked a lot about the long, complicated process of getting 'Insecure' made. I'm wondering if there are any hurdles you've had to overcome or anything you had to fight for as a director/creator?
For me, every music video is a hurdle. Every time I do a music video, I'm constantly fighting to get my point across. As a gay woman, that's also a big hurdle. I remember when I did my last music video for "Sleepover," I had pitched the concept and someone said, "Is it gonna be another music video about two girls?" And I was like, "Well, yeah, it is, because that's my life!" There's only allowed to be one? All these other artists are singing about guys every single video. Why can't I sing about girls more than once? Why is that a special thing? Obviously, every video is gonna be different, but why is that something that I can't do?
That's a great example of me having to drive my point of trying to normalize girl-on-girl relationships, because people just think that's obscene. Literally, they go, "That's obscene." It's not obscene! It's my life!
I'm also still at the very beginning of my career, so I don't have as many resources as other artists. I'm working with lower budgets and having to be creative with utilizing what I've got to make my videos look more expensive than they are. I'm very proud of every video, because it's a lot of hard work. I'm working to get these stories out, because it's important. They're not just music videos with glitter and fancy moves. There's meaning behind it. I'm trying to push things forward in our society, and it's hard.
A Part of Hearst Digital Media
ELLE participates in various affiliate marketing programs, which means we may get paid commissions on editorially chosen products purchased through our links to retailer sites.
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Playlist: The Very Best of Dolly Parton
Playlist: The Very Best of Dolly Parton is a compilation album from Dolly Parton released as part of the Legacy Recordings Playlist series. The album features 14 tracks from her years at RCA Nashville ranging from her first #1 country single, 1970's "Joshua" to her 1983 #1 country and pop smash "Islands in the Stream" with Kenny Rogers. Despite Columbia Records and RCA Nashville both being owned by Sony BMG, none of her Columbia Records material is represented here. The CD is packaged in eco-friendly recycled cardboard packaging and in lieu of an actual paper booklet, the disc includes a PDF file with song credits, photos, a biography of Parton and wallpapers.
Critical reception
Playlist: The Very Best of Dolly Parton received three and a half out of five stars from Al Campbell of Allmusic. Campbell wrote that "while most will want a greatest-hits package with other mega-hits […] this is still a decent set."
Track listing
Chart performance
Playlist: The Very Best of Dolly Parton peaked at number 57 on the U.S. Billboard Top Country Albums chart the week of July 26, 2008.
References
Category:2008 compilation albums
Category:Dolly Parton compilation albums
Parton, Dolly
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Wikipedia (en)
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The much-discussed U.S. six strikes anti-piracy scheme is expected to go live on Monday. The start date hasn't been announced officially by the CCI but a source close to the scheme confirmed the plans. During the coming months millions of BitTorrent users will be actively monitored by copyright holders. After repeated warnings, Internet subscribers risk a heavy reduction in download speeds and temporary browsing restrictions.
During the summer of 2011 the MPAA and RIAA teamed up with five major Internet providers in the United States, announcing their a plan to warn and “punish” BitTorrent pirates.
The parties launched the Center for Copyright Information (CCI) and agreed on a system through which Internet account holders will be warned if their connections are used to commit copyright infringement. After five or six warnings ISPs may then take a variety of repressive measures.
Initially the first ISPs were expected to send out the first “copyright alerts” by the end of 2011, but for reasons unknown this deadline silently passed, as did the revised July 2012 and the December 2012 start dates.
But it appears that the wait is over now.
TorrentFreak learned from a source close to CCI that the system is currently scheduled to launch early next week, and we’re not the only ones. Another sign of the start of the program is that a few days ago the CCI launched their new website. This is where recipients of the copyright alerts will be directed to.
The website explains how the copyright alert system works and lists places where people can download and stream music and movies legally. It also lists details about the appeals process for people who want to dispute one of the warnings.
Copyright Alert promo
Unfortunately the new website does not give an overview of the punishments or mitigation measures that Internet subscribers will be subjected to.
We previously learned that AT&T will block users’ access to some of the most frequently visited websites on the Internet, until they complete a copyright course. Verizon will slow down the connection speeds of repeated pirates, and Time Warner Cable will temporarily interrupt people’s ability to browse the Internet.
It’s expected that the two remaining providers, Cablevison and Comcast, will take similar measures. None of the ISPs will permanently disconnect repeat infringers as part of the plan.
Of course, there are plenty of ways for people to prevent being monitored by copyright holders. BitTorrent proxies and VPN services are the most likely option here. These services replace a user’s home IP-address with one provided by the proxy service, making it impossible for tracking companies to identify who is doing the file-sharing.
Also, those who download through Usenet, cyberlockers or other non-P2P services can not be monitored by the copyright alert system at all.
These circumvention options are not news to the copyright holders and the ISPs. CCI Executive Director Jill Lesser previously said that the main purpose of the alerts is to educate the public, and that hardcore pirates are not the target of the system.
TorrentFreak asked the CCI if it had any idea how many alerts would be sent out in the first few months of the scheme, but the organization didn’t want to make any predictions. We will find out more in the weeks to come. The same is true for the backdoor lawsuit option that was baked into the plan.
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OpenWebText2
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Q:
regex: Match atleast one character between two other characters
I currently use a regex
\\\[(.*)\\\]
so if I would try to match [] it will work. But what I want is so it requires at a minimum one character between [ and ] to match my regex, but how?
Thanks!
A:
Before matching (.*). Do a match on [^]] to match something other than the closing ].
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Comparison of the first-pass metabolism of ethenzamide and salicylamide in rats.
The first-pass metabolism of ethenzamide (ETB), which is considered to be a pro-drug of salicylamide (SAM), was studied in rats in order to compare with that of SAM. The extent of first-pass metabolism after oral ETB estimated by oral and intravenous administration was as much as 82% and remaining 18% ETB entered into systemic circulation. Further, it has been confirmed that the first-pass metabolism of ETB is not due to the intestine but entirely due to the liver in which de-ethylation to SAM occurred at first, followed by exclusive conjugation with sulfuric acid and little SAM enters into systemic circulation. On the other hand, it was previously demonstrated in rats that per se administered SAM is subjected to first-pass metabolism both in the gut and liver as much as about 60% and the remaining 40% entered the systemic circulation. Thus, the behavior of SAM is considerably different depending upon whether it is per se administered or formed from ETB through metabolism. The fact that little SAM appears in the systemic circulation after oral administration of ETB suggests that the pharmacological activity of ETB comes from its own attributes but not from SAM.
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Santander
Santander may refer to:
Places
Santander, Spain, the original place to receive this name, a port city and capital of the autonomous community of Cantabria, Spain
Santander Department, a department of Colombia
Santander State, former state of Colombia
Santander de Quilichao, a municipality in the Cauca Department of Colombia
Santander, Cebu, a municipality in the province of Cebu, Philippines
Banking
Santander Group, a Spanish banking group with operations mainly in Western Europe, Latin America and United States
Santander Bank
People
Francisco de Paula Santander (1792–1840), Colombian military and political leader born in Cúcuta
Kike Santander (born 1960), Colombian composer and record producer born in Santiago de Cali
Gustavo Santander, Colombian composer and brother of Kike Santander
Federico Santander (born 1991), Paraguayan footballer
Anthony Santander (born 1994), Venezuelan professional baseball outfielder
See also
Norte de Santander Department, a department of Colombia
Puerto Santander (disambiguation)
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Wikipedia (en)
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Serum trypsin concentration and pancreatic trypsin secretion in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.
Fasting serum trypsin concentration and pancreatic trypsin output, stimulated by secretin and cholecystokinin-pancreozymin, were measured in 18 patients with insulin-dependent diabetes, to assess a possible correlation between these two indices of exocrine pancreatic function. Serum trypsin concentration was subnormal in 13, and pancreatic trypsin output was decreased in 14 patients, but there was no significant correlation between the two measurements. There was no correlation between serum trypsin and residual beta cell function measured by plasma C-peptide immunoreactivity (CPR). After an interval of four years serum trypsin measurements were repeated in 11 subjects. All individual trypsin levels were lower than the previous results, the difference being highly significant (t = 9.0; p < 0.001). Serum trypsin concentration therefore represents a qualitative index of reduced exocrine pancreatic function in diabetes, but has no value in quantitating the degree of deficiency.
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У многих известных учёных есть нечто общее: они не работали по многу часов в день
Изучая жизнь самых творческих людей в истории, сталкиваешься с парадоксом: они посвящали своей работе всю жизнь, но не весь день. Такие разные люди, как Чарльз Диккенс, Анри Пуанкаре и Ингмар Бергман, работали в несоизмеримых областях в разное время, у всех них была страсть к их работе, огромные амбиции и почти сверхчеловеческая способность к концентрации. Но если подробно изучить их каждодневную жизнь, окажется, что на то, что считается самой важной их работой, они тратили всего несколько часов в день. Остальную часть времени они лазали по горам, спали, гуляли с друзьями, или просто сидели и размышляли. Их творческое начало и продуктивность не были результатами бесконечных часов тяжкого труда. Их достижения происходят из скромного количества рабочих часов.Как же они достигли всего? Может ли поколение, воспитанное на уверенности в необходимости 80-часовой рабочей недели для достижения успеха, научиться чему-либо на примере жизни людей, заложивших основы теории хаоса, топологии, или написавших " Большие надежды "?Думаю, может. Если величайшие фигуры в истории не работали по многу часов в день, то возможно, ключом к их творческим возможностям будет понимание не только того, как они работали, но и того, как они отдыхали, и как связаны эти два вида деятельности.Начнём с изучения жизней двух фигур. Обе они добились крупного успеха в жизни. И как удачно были соседями и друзьями, живя рядом, в деревне Даун к юго-востоку от Лондона. И, разными путями, их жизни дают нам взглянуть на то, как связаны труд, отдых и способность к творчеству.Представим, для начала, безмолвную фигуру в плаще, идущую домой по тропинке, вьющейся по сельской местности. Иногда по утрам он ходит с опущенной головой, погружённый в свои мысли. Иногда он медленно гуляет, останавливаясь, чтобы прислушаться к звукам леса. Этой привычке он «следовал и в тропических лесах Бразилии», во время своей службы натуралистом в Королевском флоте, собирая животных, изучая географию и геологию Южной Америки, закладывая основы карьеры, которая достигнет вершины с публикацией «Происхождения видов» в 1859 году. Теперь Чарльз Дарвин постарел, и от собирательства перешёл к теоретической работе. Его способность бесшумно двигаться отражает его концентрацию и потребность в тишине. По словам его сына Фрэнсиса, Дарвин мог двигаться так тихо, что однажды «подошёл к лисице, игравшей со своими детёнышами, на расстояние всего в несколько метров», и часто приветствовал лис, возвращавшихся с ночной охоты.Если бы те же самые лисы встретились бы с соседом Дарвина, Джоном Лаббоком, 1-м бароном Авебери , они бы улепётывали, спасая свою шкуру. Лаббок любил начинать день с прогулки по сельской местности в компании своих охотничьих собак. Если Дарвин немного напоминал мистера Беннета из " Гордости и предубеждения " – респектабельный джентльмен среднего достатка, вежливый и честный, но предпочитающий компанию семьи и книг, Лаббок больше напоминал мистера Бингли, экстраверта, энтузиаста, достаточно богатого для продвижения в обществе и жизни. С годами Дарвина мучили различные заболевания; Лаббок и после 60-и демонстрировал «расслабленную грацию, свойственную 18-летнему студенту», как говорил один из его гостей. Но соседи разделяли любовь к науке, даже хотя их работа различалась не меньше, чем их личности.После утренней прогулки и завтрака, Дарвин к 8 часам уже был в кабинете, и работал полтора часа. В 9:30 он читал утреннюю почту и писал письма. В 10:30 он возвращался к более серьёзной работе, иногда переходя в вольер с птицами, теплицу, или другое строение, в котором он проводил свои эксперименты. К полудню он объявлял, что «работа на сегодня закончена», и отправлялся гулять по песчаной тропинке, проложенной им вскоре после покупки Даун Хауза . Частично она шла по земле, сданной ему в аренду семейством Лаббок. Вернувшись через час с чем-то, Дарвин обедал, и снова отвечал на письма. В 15 часов он ложился немного поспать. Через час вставал, ещё раз гулял по тропинке, и возвращался в кабинет, после чего в 17:30 присоединялся к супруге, Эмме и их семье за ужином. В таком графике он написал 19 книг, включая техническую литературу по ползучим растениям, морским уточкам и другим темам; спорный труд «Происхождение человека и половой отбор»; «Происхождение видов», вероятно, самую знаменитую книгу в истории науки, которая до сих пор влияет на то, как мы представляем себе природу и нас самих.Кто бы ни изучал этот график, он не мог сразу не обратить внимания на парадокс. Жизнь Дарвина вращалась вокруг науки. Со времён студенчества Дарвин посвятил себя научному собирательству, исследовательской работе и теориям. Они с Эммой переехали в сельскую местность из Лондона, чтобы у них было больше места для семьи и для научной работы. Даун Хауз предоставлял ему место для лабораторий и теплиц, а сельская местность – спокойствие и тишину, необходимые для работы. Но в то же время, его дни не кажутся нам очень занятыми. То время, которое мы бы назвали «работой», состояло из трёх 90-минутных промежутков. Если бы он был современным профессором университета, ему бы отказали в постоянной академической должности. Если бы он работал в коммерческой организации, его бы уволили через неделю.Не то, чтобы Дарвин не заботился о времени или ему не хватало амбиций. Дарвин чрезвычайно строго следил за временем, и, несмотря на имевшиеся у него средства, считал, что времени терять нельзя. Путешествуя вокруг света на борту корабля " Бигль ", он писал своей сестре, Сюзан Элизабет, что «человек, осмеливающийся потратить час своей жизни, не понял её ценности». Когда он раздумывал, следует ли ему жениться, одним из заботивших его моментов была «потеря времени – некогда читать по вечерам», а в своих журналах он отмечал время, потерянное на хронические заболевания. Его любовь к науке «подкреплялась желанием заслужить уважение моих коллег-натуралистов», признался он в своей автобиографии. Он был пылким и увлечённым, настолько, что иногда испытывал панические атаки в связи со своими идеями и их следствиями.Джон Лаббок гораздо менее известен, чем Дарвин, но к моменту своей смерти в 1912 году он был «одним из наиболее успешных английских учёных-любителей, одним из наиболее плодовитых и успешных авторов своего времени, одним из наиболее убеждённых социальных реформаторов, и одним из наиболее успешных юристов в новой истории Парламента». Научные интересы Лаббока простирались на палеонтологию, психологию животных и энтомологию – он изобрёл муравьиную ферму – но наиболее постоянной его работой была археология. Его работы популяризовали термины «палеолит» и «неолит», используемые археологами и по сей день. Его покупка Эйвбери , древнего поселения к юго-западу от Лондона, сохранила местные каменные монументы от разрушения строителями. Сегодня он сравним по популярности и археологической важности со Стоунхенджем, и сохранение этого места принесло ему титул барона Эйвбери в 1900-м году.Достижения Лаббока не ограничиваются наукой. От своего отца он унаследовал преуспевающий банк, и превратил его в реальную силу финансового мира позднего Викторианского периода. Он помогал модернизировать британскую банковскую систему. Он проводил десятилетия в Парламенте, где был успешным и уважаемым законодателем. Его библиография насчитывает 29 книг, многие из которых стали бестселлерами и были переведены на множество языков. Непомерный объём его трудов не проигрывал сравнения даже с самыми его успешными современниками. «Как ты находишь время» на науку, писательство, политику и бизнес, «для меня остаётся загадкой», – сказал ему Дарвин в 1881 году.Возникает искушение представить Лаббока в виде эквивалента современного высокомотивированного альфа-самца, нечто вроде Тони Старка стимпанковском антураже. Но вот, в чём подвох: его политическая слава зиждилась на пропаганде отдыха. Британские банковские каникулы – четыре государственных выходных дня – были изобретены именно им, и они, вступив в силу в 1871 году, закрепили его репутацию. Их так любили и так сильно ассоциировали с ним, что в прессе их прозвали «днями св. Лаббока». Десятилетиями он боролся за принятие «закона о коротком рабочем дне», ограничивавшем рабочее время людей до 18 лет 74-мя (!) часами в неделю; и когда его, наконец, приняли в апреле 1903 года, через 30 лет после начала борьбы, его назвали «законом Эйвбери».Сам Лаббок вёл себя согласно своим убеждениям. Возможно, было трудно соблюдать такой график на заседаниях Парламента, когда дебаты и голосования могли задерживаться далеко за полночь, но в своём поместье Хай-Эльмс он вставал в 6:30, и, после молитв, поездки верхом и завтрака, начинал работу в 8:30. Он делил день на получасовые блоки – эту привычку он перенял у своего отца. После долгой практики он мог переключать внимание с «запутанного финансового вопроса» его партнёров или клиентов на «такую задачу биологии, как партеногенез», не моргнув глазом. Около полудня он проводил пару часов на свежем воздухе. Он с энтузиазмом играл в крикет, и регулярно приглашал в своё поместье профессиональных игроков в качестве тренеров. Его младшие братья играли в футбол; двое из них принимали участие в финале самого первого Кубка Англии по футболу в 1872 году. Также он очень любил играть в " пятёрки ", игру вроде гандбола, в которой он преуспел в Итоне. Позже, увлекшись гольфом, Лаббок заменил площадку для игры в крикет в своём поместье на площадку для гольфа с 9-ю лунками.Получается, что, несмотря на различия в характерах и достижениях, как Дарвин, так и Лаббок смогли сделать то, что сегодня считается всё более непривычным. Жизни их были полны, работы поражали воображение, и, тем не менее, их дни были наполнены бездействием.Выглядит как противоречие, или баланс, недостижимый для большинства из нас. Но это не так. Как мы увидим, Дарвин, Лаббок, и другие творческие и плодотворные личности, достигли успеха не вопреки свободному времени; они достигли успеха благодаря ему. И даже в сегодняшнем мире круглосуточного присутствия мы можем научиться, как совмещать работу и отдых так, чтобы становиться умнее, креативнее и счастливее.Дарвин – не единственный известный учёный, сочетавший посвящение жизни науке с недолгой ежедневной работой. Схожие случаи можно проследить во многих других карьерах, и по нескольким причинам лучше начать это делать именно с учёных. Наука – высоко конкурентное и всепоглощающее занятие. Достижения учёных – количество статей и книг, награды, количество цитирований работ – строго задокументированы, и их легко измерять и сравнивать. В результате их наследие легче определить, чем наследие бизнес-лидеров или знаменитостей. В то же время, научные дисциплины отличаются друг от друга, что даёт нам полезное разнообразие в рабочих привычках и свойствах личностей. Кроме того, большинство учёных не было подвержено возникновению мифов, окружающих обычно бизнес-лидеров и политиков.Наконец, некоторые учёные и сами были заинтересованы в том, как работа и отдых влияют на мышление и вдохновение. Один из примеров таких учёных – Анри Пуанкаре, французский математик, чьё общественное положение и достижения возводят его на одну ступень с Дарвином. Его 30 книг и 500 работ простираются на такие области, как теория чисел, топология, астрономия и небесная механика, теоретическая и практическая физика, философия. Американский математик Эрик Темпл Белл охарактеризовал его, как «последнего универсалиста». Он участвовал в стандартизации временных зон, в строительстве железных дорог на севере Франции (по образованию он был горным инженером), служил главным инспектором в технологическом корпусе и был профессором Сорбонны.Пуанкаре был не просто знаменит среди своих коллег. В 1895 году его, наряду с писателем Эмилем Золя, скульпторами Огюстом Роденом и Жюлем Далу, и композитором Камилкм Сен-Сансом в рамках работы о психологии гения изучал французский психолог Эдуарт Тулуз. Тулуз отметил, что Пуанкаре работал по очень ровному графику. Самые сложные размышления он проводил с 10 до 12 часов, а затем с 17 до 19 часов. Величайший математический гений XIX века тратил на работу не больше времени, чем было необходимо для понимания задачи – около 4 часов в день.Ту же схему мы наблюдаем и у других математиков. Годфри Харолд Харди, один из ведущих математиков Британии первой половины XX века, начинал день с неспешного завтрака и чтения результатов крикетных матчей, затем с 9 до 13 погружался в математику. После обеда он ходил гулять и играл в теннис. «Четыре часа творческой работы в день – это максимум для математика», – говорил он своему другу и коллеге, оксфордскому профессору К. П. Сноу. Долго работавший с Харди коллега, Джон Эдензор Литлвуд считал, что концентрация, необходимая для серьёзной работы, говорит о том, что математик может работать «четыре, максимум пять часов в день, с перерывами через каждый час (например, на прогулку)». Литлвуд был известен тем, что всегда отдыхал по воскресеньям, заявляя, что это гарантировало наличие у него новых идей по возвращению к работе в понедельник.Наблюдение за схемой работы учёных, проводившееся в начале 1950 годов, показало примерно такие же результаты. Профессора Иллинойского технологического института, Рэймонд Ван Зельст и Уилард Кер наблюдали за своими коллегами, фиксируя их рабочие привычки и графики, а потом построили график, соотносящий количество проведённых в офисе часов с количеством опубликованных статей. Вы могли бы подумать, что такой график выглядит, как прямая линия, показывающая, что чем больше часов работает учёный, тем больше статей он публикует. Но это не так. Данные выглядели, как кривая в виде буквы М. Она сначала быстро росла, и испытывала максимум между 10 и 20 часами в неделю. Затем она шла вниз. Учёные, проводившие на работе по 25 часов в неделю, были не более продуктивны, чем те, кто проводил 5. Учёные, работавшие по 35 часов в неделю, были в два раза менее продуктивными, чем те, кто работал по 20 часов.Затем кривая опять начинала расти, но не так быстро. Исследователи-трудоголики, проводившие по 50 часов в неделю в лаборатории, смогли вытянуть себя из 35-часовой долины. Они оказывались настолько же продуктивны, как и те, кто проводил в лаборатории по пять часов в неделю. Ван Зельст и Керр посчитали, что этот 50-часовой бугор концентрировался в «физических исследованиях, требовавших постоянного использования громоздкого оборудования», и что большую часть времени этих 10-часовых рабочих дней люди были заняты обслуживанием машин, иногда проводя измерения.После этого график шёл вниз. Учёные, проводившие на работе по 60 часов в неделю и больше, оказались наименее продуктивными.Ван Зельст и Керр также спрашивали коллег, «сколько часов в типичный рабочий день посвящено домашней работе, вносящей вклад в эффективное выполнение вашей работы», и построили график ответов. На этот раз они увидели не М, а один максимум в районе 3 – 3,5 часов в день. К несчастью, они ничего не сказали по поводу общего количества часов работы в офисе и дома. Они лишь упомянули возможность того, что наиболее продуктивные исследователи «большую часть своей творческой работы делают дома или где-то ещё», нежели на территории института. Если предположить, что самые продуктивные учёные одинаково работают дома и в офисе, получится, что они работают от 25 до 38 часов в неделю. Для шестичасовой рабочей недели это даёт в среднем 4-6 часов в день.Подобную статистику работы по 4-5 часов в день можно найти и в жизни писателей. Немецкий писатель и лауреат Нобелевской премии Томас Манн выработал свой дневной график к 1910 году, когда ему было 35 лет, и опубликовал знаменитый роман «Будденброки» . Манн начинал свой день с 9, располагался в кабинете со строгим правилом для домашних не отвлекать его, и сначала работал над повестями. После обеда, «дневное время предназначалось для чтения, обработки гор корреспонденции и прогулок», говорил он. После часового сна днём и последующего чая, он проводил час-два за работой над небольшими произведениями и редактурой.Энтони Троллоп, великий английский писатель XIX века, также придерживался строгого графика. Он так описывал выработанный им графика работы в Уолтэм-Хауз, где он жил с 1859 по 1871 года. В 5 часов утра к нему приходил слуга с кофе. Сначала он прочитывал всё, что сделал за прошлый день, затем в 5:30 заводил стоявшие на столе часы и начинал писать. Он писал по 1000 слов в час, в среднем по 40 страниц в неделю, до 8 часов, когда наступало время идти на свою обычную работу. Работая таким образом, он опубликовал 47 повестей до своей смерти в 1882 году в возрасте 67 лет, хотя он ничем не дал понять, что относился к своим достижениям, как к чему-то необычному. Ведь его мать, начавшая для финансовой поддержки семьи писать в возрасте более 50 лет, опубликовала более 100 книг. Он писал: «Думаю, все те, кто жил, как писатели – работая над литературным трудом ежедневно – согласятся со мной, что за три часа в день можно написать всё, что способен написать человек».Чёткий график Троллопа сравним с графиком его современника, Чарльза Диккенса. После того, как в молодости Диккенс не ложился до глубокой ночи, он остановился на графике, «таком же методичном или чётком», как у «городского клерка», по словам его сына Чарли. Диккенс закрывался в кабинете с 9 до 14, с перерывом на обед. Большая часть его повестей печаталась по частям в журналах, и Диккенс редко когда опережал график публикаций и художника-иллюстратора больше, чем на главу-две. И, тем не менее, проработав пять часов, Диккенс заканчивал на этом.Возможно, такая дисциплина может показаться вам следствием викторианской строгости, но многие плодотворные писатели XX века работали точно так же. Египетский писатель Нагиб Махфуз работал государственным чиновником, и обычно писал беллетристику с 16 до 19 часов. Канадская писательница Элис Манро, обладатель Нобелевской премии по литературе от 2013 года, писала с 8 до 11 утра. Австралийский романист Питер Кэри говорил о работе каждый день: «Думаю, трёх часов достаточно». Такой график позволил ему написать 13 романов, включая два, взявших Букеровскую премию. Уильям Сомерсет Моэм работал «всего по четыре часа в день», до 13:00 – но «никогда меньше», добавлял он. Габриель Гарсия Маркес писал каждый день по пять часов. Эрнест Хемингуэй начинал работу в 6 утра и заканчивал не позже полудня. При отсутствии серьёзных дедлайнов, Сол Беллоу уходил в кабинет после завтрака, писал до обеда, а затем просматривал то, что сделал в первой половине дня. Ирландская писательница Эдна О’Брайен работала с утра, «останавливалась в 13-14 часов, и проводила остаток дня за мирскими заботами». Стивен Кинг описывает день, в который он пишет и читает 5-6 часов, как «напряжённый».Карл Андерс Эриксон, Ральф Крамп и Клеменс Теш-Рёмер наблюдали похожие результаты, исследуя то, как ученики по классу скрипки обучались в берлинской консерватории в 1980-х годах. Учёных интересовало, что выделяет выдающихся студентов из толпы просто хороших. Поговорив с учениками и их преподавателями, изучив дневники работы студентов, они обнаружили, что лучших студентов кое-что выделяло.Во-первых, они не просто практиковались больше, но делали это осознанно. По словам Эриксона, во время осознанной тренировки вы «с полной концентрацией занимаетесь действиями, улучшающими технику исполнения». Вы не просто повторяете гаммы или тренируете движения. Осознанные занятия подразумевают структуру, концентрацию, у них есть чёткие цели и обратная связь. Для них требуется внимание к тому, что вы делаете, и наблюдение за тем, как вы можете улучшить своё исполнение. Студенты могут заниматься таким образом, когда у них есть чёткий план к величию, определённый пониманием того, что разделяет гениальную работу и хорошую, или победителей от проигравших. Такие занятия, в которых необходимо выполнить задание за наименьшее время, с наивысшим балом или наиболее элегантно решив задачу, составляют осознанную практику.Во-вторых, у вас должна быть цель, для которой вы готовы ежедневно заниматься. Осознанная практика – не очень интересное занятие, и отдача наступает не сразу. Для этого нужно приходить в бассейн до рассвета, работать над вашим замахом или походкой, когда можно тусоваться с друзьями, практиковаться в работе пальцев или дыхании в комнате без окон, проводить часы за совершенствованием деталей, которые почти никто не заметит. Осознанной практике не присуще моментальное удовольствие, поэтому вам нужно ощущение, что эта длительная работа окупится, и что вы не просто улучшаете свои карьерные возможности, но создаёте профессиональную личность. Вы не просто делаете это за толстую пачку денег. Вы делаете это, потому что это усиливает ваше ощущение себя и ощущение того, кем вы хотите быть.Идея осознанной практики и измерений Эриксона и других количества времени, которое исполнители мирового класса тратят на занятия, привлекла много внимания. Это исследование лежит в основе аргумента Малькольма Глэдвела и его книги «Гении и аутсайдеры» о том, что для достижения совершенства необходимы 10 000 часов практики, и что все великие люди, от Бобби Фишера до Билла Гейтса и членов Beatles наработали свои 10 000 часов до тех пор, пока о них услышал мир. Для тренеров, учителей музыки и родителей это число обещает вымощенную золотом дорогу в NFL, Juilliard или MIT: начните с юных лет, занимайте их работой, не позволяйте им сдаваться. В культуре, считающей стресс и переработку добродетелями, 10 000 – это внушительное число.Но Эриксон и другие отметили в своём исследовании и нечто другое – то, на что практически все не обратили внимание. «Осознанная практика требует усилий, которые можно выдерживать ограниченное количество часов в день». Если практиковаться слишком мало, вы никогда не достигните мирового класса. Если практиковаться слишком много, вы рискуете получить травму, перегореть или истощить себя. Для успеха студентам нужно «избегать истощения» и «ограничить практику таким промежутком времени, после которого они могут полностью восстановиться ежедневно и еженедельно».Как величайшие из студентов используют ограниченное количество часов практики? Ритм их занятий подвержен чёткой схеме. Они работают больше часов в неделю, но не за счёт удлинения ежедневных занятий. Они делают более частые и короткие подходы, по 80-90 минут, с получасовыми перерывами.Если сложить такой график, мы получим 4 часа в день. Примерно столько же времени проводил Дарвин за своей тяжёлой работой, Харди и Литлвуд за математикой, Дикенс и Кинг за написанием книг. Даже самые амбициозные студенты в лучших школах мира, готовясь к борьбе в конкурентной области, способны концентрироваться и выкладываться не более 4 часов в день.Верхнее ограничение, по заключению Эриксона, определяется не «по доступному времени, а по доступным умственным и физическим ресурсам». Студенты не просто занимались по 4 часа, и заканчивали. Лекции, прослушивания, домашняя работа и всё остальное занимали их на весь день. В интервью они рассказывали, что «ограничением для времени ежедневной работы была их возможность поддерживать концентрацию». Поэтому на 10 000 часов Глэдвела требуется десять лет. Если вы можете поддерживать концентрацию только по 4 часа в день, у вас выходит 20 часов в неделю (кроме выходных), и 1000 часов в год (с двухнедельным отпуском).Важность осознанной практики иллюстрируют не только жизни музыкантов. Рэй Бредбери серьёзно занялся писательством в 1932 году и писал по 1000 слов в день. «Десять лет я писал не меньше одного рассказа в неделю», – вспоминает он, но они не хотели объединяться друг с другом. И наконец, в 1942 году он написал «Озеро». Годы спустя он всё ещё помнит этот момент.«Десять лет неправильной работы внезапно превратились в правильную идею, правильную сцену, правильных персонажей, правильный день, правильное время для творчества. Я написал рассказ, сидя снаружи, на газоне с моей пишущей машинкой. К концу часа история была закончена, волосы стояли у меня на загривке, и я был в слезах. Я понял, что написал первый по-настоящему хороший рассказ за всю свою жизнь».Эриксон с коллегами наблюдали и ещё кое-что, отделявшее великих учеников от просто хороших, кроме большего количества часов занятий. Этот момент с тех пор практически полностью игнорируется. Это то, как они отдыхали.Лучшие исполнители спали в среднем на час больше, чем средние. Они не вставали позже, они спали днём. Конечно, у разных людей всё было по-разному, но лучшие студенты обычно плотнее и дольше всего занимались утром, спали днём, а затем ещё раз занимались во второй половине дня.Также исследователи просили студентов замечать количество времени, уходившего на практику, занятия, и всё прочее, и вести дневник в течение недели. Сравнив результаты интервью с дневниками, они обнаружили интересную аномалию.Просто хорошие скрипачи недооценивали количество часов, проводимых ими в состоянии отдыха. Они считали, что отдыхали 15 часов в неделю, хотя на самом деле отдыхали почти в два раза больше. Лучшие скрипачи, наоборот, могли довольно точно оценить время, которое они тратили на отдых, примерно 25 часов. Лучшие исполнители больше усилий тратили на организацию времени, думая о том, как они будут проводить своё время, и оценивая то, что уже сделали.Иначе говоря, лучшие студенты применяли привычки осознанной практики – концентрацию, возможность оценивать собственное исполнение, чувство ценности их времени и необходимости тратить его мудро. Они обнаруживали огромное значение осознанного отдыха. Они рано узнали о его важности, о том, что лучшая творческая работа проходит лучше, когда наши перерывы позволяют подсознанию отключаться, и что мы можем научиться лучше отдыхать. В консерватории осознанный отдых – партнёр осознанной практики. А также в студии, в лаборатории и в издательстве. Как открыли для себя Дикенс, Пуанкаре и Дарвин, важно всё. Оба этих занятия составляют половинки целой творческой жизни.И, несмотря на всё внимание, посвящённое исследованию учеников берлинской консерватории, его часть, связанная со сном, вниманием к отдыху, применение осознанного роста как необходимой части осознанной практики, нигде не упоминается. «Гении и аутсайдеры» Малькольма Глэдвела фокусируются на количестве часов, потраченных на практику, и ничего не говорят о том, что успешные студенты также спали на час больше, что они спали днём и делали перерывы.Нельзя сказать, чтобы Глэдвел неправильно прочёл исследование. Он просто пропустил часть его. И не он один. Все пропускают обсуждение сна и отдыха и концентрируются на 10 000 часов.Это слепое пятно присуще учёным, гуманитариям и почти всем нам: тенденция фокусироваться на работе, на предположениях о том, что путь к улучшению состоит из хитростей, эксцентричных привычек или приёма Adderall/LSD. Исследователи исполнителей мирового класса концентрируются только на том, что люди делают в гимнастическом зале, на треке или в комнате для тренировок. Все концентрируются на самых очевидных и измеряемых формах работы, стараясь сделать их более эффективными и продуктивными. Но никто не спрашивает, есть ли другие способы улучшить эффективность и жизнь.Вот так мы и стали верить в то, что исполнение мирового класса достигается за 10 000 часов практики. Но это не так. Оно достигается за 10 000 часов осознанной практики, 12 500 часов осознанного отдыха и 30 000 часов сна.
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(This is a long article; but Weizman has done great work in the past analysing the occupation with an architect's eye and continues it here. FF) The
frankf4491 day ago
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Group Description
Just Peace UK is a mainly, but by no means exclusively, Jewish group, part of an international movement, working against the occupation and for a just peace between Israelis and Palestinians.
Our overall aim is the end of the occupation via an immediate Israeli withdrawal to the 1967 borders and the establishment of a viable and sovereign Palestinian state alongside a safe and secure Israel, with Jerusalem as the shared capital of both states. This process must include evacuating all the Jewish settlements in the occupied Palestinian territories and a just solution for the Palestinian refugees.
In the light of the spiralling death toll, we campaign for an end to all violence, humiliation and terror. The Israeli re-occupation and destruction of Palestinian towns and villages, and the dismantling of the infrastructure of Palestinian society, have sharply increased the number of dead on both sides and prove that there can be no military solution to this conflict.
The reality of the occupation is terror. It brings daily horrors into the lives of Palestinians; its consequences make the lives of Israelis unbearable; and it breeds Palestinian terrorism in response. Whilst we recognise the desperation that is behind the suicide bombers' actions, and recognise that it is created by the terror of the occupation, we condemn these acts of indiscriminate destruction against civilians and those who initiate them. Unacceptable in itself, this kind of action also plays into the hands of the Israeli government.
We call on the Israeli government to acknowledge its proper share of historic responsibility for the Palestinian catastrophe. Such acknowledgement is a necessary start to any healing process and will enable negotiations within which solutions for the Palestinian refugees will be agreed between the Israelis and the Palestinians.
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Fernando Alonso raced into retirement from Formula One dedicated to winning the final leg of motorsports' version of the Triple Crown. The Indianapolis 500 is the missing piece on his resume, one he intends to add in May.
But Alonso has been considering his future for quite some time, and his November retirement from F1 has opened his schedule to race in anything he wants. After anchoring Wayne Taylor Racing to a victory in the Rolex 24 at Daytona, the Spaniard was coy about his future.
"The aim is to do something unprecedented in motorsport," Alonso said Sunday after picking up his new Rolex watch.
Not very specific, but a clue that Alonso is open to any and all ideas in this new chapter of his career.
"Right now full focus is on the Indy 500," he said. "But yeah, I'm thinking I'm trying to do something more, maybe in different disciplines. I need to think, I need to plan, I need to make sure that I'm competitive, to have the right people, the right teams, and the right preparations.
"Whatever adventure is next, I will not do it if I'm not competitive or I don't have a shot for winning. I need to be very calm and clever with the decisions for the future."
The plan was put in motion two years ago when the two-time F1 champion persuaded his McLaren team to let him skip the Monaco Grand Prix and instead race the Indianapolis 500. Alonso had twice won in Monte Carlo — perhaps the toughest leg of the Triple Crown — and now he wanted to kiss the bricks at Indianapolis Motor Speedway. He had never driven an Indy car before and had never raced on an oval, yet he was in contention to win his inaugural Indy 500 until a late engine failure.
His sights next turned to 24 Hours of Le Mans, with a sports car racing debut in last year's Rolex 24 as the warmup. Alonso announced he would race at Le Mans the morning after he finished his first Rolex, and six months later he won in France to move closer to the Triple Crown.
His attention turns now toward the Indy 500, but with the freedom to pick and choose what he wants to do, Alonso is studying every opportunity. A five-year losing streak in F1 had pushed him to the fringes of that series, and although he remains one of the most popular drivers in the world, some began to wonder if his skills had slipped at the tail of his 17-year F1 career.
What he has done moonlighting in different disciplines has proven his talent has not wavered and that as he prepares to turn 38, Alonso still rates among the best drivers on the planet.
"Whenever you put a guy in a different car on a different track, normally it takes four or five laps for them to get (comfortable)," said Rolex winning team owner Wayne Taylor. "I remember his first split on the first turn was as quick as everybody. I thought, 'How are we going to manage this?' He was just terrific."
Alonso did the heavy lifting for Taylor at Daytona, a race stopped twice for the first time in history for rain, then called shy of the 24-hour mark because conditions were too treacherous for drivers to be on the track.
Two of Alonso's three stints in the car were during the rain, in part because F1 had made him the most experienced driver on the Taylor lineup in wet conditions, and because he had the control and steadiness to manage the risks versus reward in a torrential rainstorm. Alonso found the limited visibility and standing water on the track to be the most dangerous conditions of his career, and he had had more than enough when he saw the pace car driver hydroplane and nearly crash when he was following under caution.
But he didn't turn a single wheel wrong and drove the Cadillac DPi to the lead every time he was on the track to win the Rolex in his second try. He noted after that that his sports car career was exactly a year old and continued to hint at his future.
Although he did a car swap with seven-time NASCAR champion Jimmie Johnson in November and ran exhibition laps in a stock car, Alonso said at Daytona that NASCAR events are not currently on his radar. He is competing this year in the World Endurance Challenge — he won in his series debut last season in the Six Hours of Spa — and quipped he has so many plans he may need to return to F1 to lessen his load.
There are plenty of opportunities for Alonso all over the world, and his next big announcement could be next year's Dakar Rally in Paris. Alonso's win in Daytona made him the third F1 champion to win the Rolex, joining Phil Hill and Mario Andretti. He seemed envious of the drivers before his time who could race all over the world in any sort of formula, and proving that it can still be done might be what Alonso does next.
"I think to win in different series, in different disciplines of motorsport which are quite specific, you need to probably be born with that talent and grow up with that knowledge of that series," he said. "Like oval racing, like IndyCar and things like that — to come there and try to be competitive or winning is something that I think in motorsport is quite difficult.
"I think in the past it was a little bit more open, motorsport in general. But now every series became very, very professional, and you need to take full dedication to each series, each driving style and things like that. I think hopefully soon I can tell you more of the plans."
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Kettenis
Kettenis is a village in the municipality of Eupen, in the German speaking area of the province of Liège, Belgium.
References
Category:Eupen
Category:Former municipalities of the German-speaking Community
Category:Populated places in the German-speaking Community
Category:Populated places in Liège (province)
Category:Populated places in Belgium
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1. Technical Field
The present invention relates to a power control apparatus and method in a display unit and, more particularly, to a power control apparatus and method wherein, instead of an existing analog switch, a digital switch is utilized for controlling and adjusting a power supply according to input of a sync signal, a display data channel (DDC) signal, or a universal serial bus (USB) signal.
2. Related Art
In some configurations of a display monitor, a special power switch is located closed to a knob installed at a predetermined location on a front surface of a monitor case, and switching on and off of the power to the monitor is accomplished by operation of the knob. Conversely, when the power switch is located a distance from the knob, the power switch cannot be directly turned on and off by operation of the knob, and therefore a special guide between the knob and power switch is necessary for proper operation of the switch. In the latter configuration, an accurate operational distance between the power switch and the knob is mandatory in order to insure proper operation of the power switch.
However, the above-described structure has drawbacks and shortcomings. Notably, a poor switching operation results from a change in the length of the knob, and from an error occurring during assembly of the knob and the power switch inserted into a printed circuit board. Moreover, when the knob is located a distance from the power switch, poor operation can result as a result of a change in the length of the guide which transmits the switching signal between the knob and the power switch. In short, such an arrangement results in the production of inferior goods, as well as in an increase and the production cost. Accordingly, special manufacturing procedures and extra labor is required.
Another disadvantage of contemporary monitors results from the fact that certain data (e.g., DDC data, USB communication data, sync signals) transmitted from the computer to the monitor are not effective when the monitor is turned off.
Certain monitors employ a power switching system which uses an analog switch. However, this has the disadvantage that a separate power switch for the monitor has to be turned on and off whenever a power switch of the computer is turned and off. For such an analog switch, an elastic member is compressed by a pushing motion of the user, and the elastic member returns to an original state when the external force exerted by the user on the power knob is removed. In addition, power switches for the computer and monitor are separately installed, and this increases the production cost. Finally, in such a system, the functions of the signals "DDC, USB and sync" from the computer cannot be carried out or achieved without turning on the monitor.
Therefore, there is a need for the development of a system wherein the functions of the USB signal, DDC signal and sync signal provided by the computer to the monitor are effective even when the monitor is turned off. There is also a need for the development of a such a system in which production cost are cut by use of a digital switch instead of a separate analog power switch for the monitor.
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Venezuela extends border closures with Colombia Published duration 28 August 2015
image copyright AFP image caption Nicolas Maduro waved the flags of Colombia and Venezuela during a rally in Caracas
Venezuelan President Nicolas Maduro has extended border closures with Colombia to another six towns in the western state of Tachira.
Mr Maduro also announced the deployment of an extra 3,000 troops in the area, which he says has been infiltrated by Colombian paramilitaries and gangs.
The main crossings were closed a week ago after Venezuelan soldiers were injured in a shootout with smugglers.
Colombian President Juan Manuel Santos criticised Mr Maduro's unilateral move.
More than 1,000 Colombians have been deported and about 6,000 have left in fear since the border closures.
'Sex slaves'
Mr Santos said the treatment of "ordinary Colombians" by its South American neighbour was "unacceptable".
But Mr Maduro said the security operation initiated a week ago has unveiled evidence that Colombian right-wing paramilitaries had infiltrated the area.
"To clean up the area from the paramilitaries and drug trafficking I have decide to close the border of another six towns in the state of Tachira: Lobatera, San Juan de Colon, La Fria, Garcia de Hevia, Panamericano and Coloncito," Mr Maduro said in a rally to his supporters in Caracas.
The border crossings will close at 05:00 local time (09:30 GMT).
image copyright AFP image caption Soldiers have been helping Colombian families cross the Tachira river, which separates the two countries
image copyright EPA image caption More than 1,000 Colombians were expelled from Venezuela over the past week
image copyright AFP image caption President Santos visited a shelter in the border city of Cucuta on Wednesday
Mr Maduro said soldiers had dismantled criminal gangs who had kept dozens of men as "economic slaves" and women as "sex slaves".
Smuggling has been a huge problem along the long, porous border area for many years.
Items subsidised by Venezuela's socialist government are sold over the border in Colombia with huge profit margins.
"Almost 80% of the people who enter [Venezuela] through the Colombian border come to take away all our petrol, our shampoo, the food of the Venezuelans, their soap, their meat, their milk and their medication," said Mr Maduro.
Mr Santos called for an emergency meeting of foreign ministers from the regional Unasur bloc to discuss the crisis. It will take place on 3 September in Ecuador.
On Thursday, Mr Santos recalled Colombia's ambassador to Caracas for consultations. The Venezuelan government followed suit later in the day.
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FC Augsburg have signed United States international Michael Parkhurst on a free transfer from Danish champions FC Nordsjaelland.
Parkhurst has 15 caps for the United States
"Michael Parkhurst is an established defender, who mostly played as a right-back for Nordsjaelland," Augsburg general manager Jurgen Rollmann said. "You all know, we have problems in that position. Parkhurst can also play on the left and in central defence. We are certain...
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In December 1999, I was based in Russia for Fox News. On New Year’s Eve, we were all busy getting ready to cover Moscow’s millennial celebrations while remaining vigilant for any Y2K meltdowns, when then-President Boris Yeltsin stopped us all dead in our tracks with an announcement we did not expect: He was handing power over to his Acting Prime Minister, Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin. That was almost twenty years ago.
This week, I went back to Moscow for Putin’s year-end press conference. As I got into a taxi and asked to be taken to the World Trade Center, the driver asked coyly what my business there was. I replied, “Putin.” He hissed, “Can we trade him in?” There followed a lengthy rant about poverty and corruption in Russia, an oil-rich state where the driver said, “there should be plenty to go around.” Instead, he proclaimed, all Russia’s wealth went into the pockets of a relative few. He missed the old Soviet Union and the certainty that came with it.
Life in Moscow has become terribly efficient and accommodating in recent years, with often cheerful customer service and a can-do attitude that didn’t exist in Soviet years. At the Starbucks on Tverskaya Street which like all others, takes your name before preparing your drink, a barista called out, “Have a nice day, Amy!” as I headed off with my coffee into the pitch black of a Russian winter morning. The champagne glass-shaped street lights still sparkled. Moscow was decorated to the hilt.
The annual press conference is a day-long commitment. Nearly 2,000 journalists trickle into the Trade Center from 8 a.m., and the Kremlin lays out a generous breakfast spread. My recollection was salami sandwiches and little cabbage pies were served among other snacks, but I also recalled from my last visit that it is very hard to get a seat for the main event, so I skipped the buffet in order to secure a good place in the line that was forming outside the conference hall. We waited for a few hours before being let inside, where the free-for-all for seats began.
Among those hoping to get a bit of attention for themselves or their chosen issues was a woman in a hard hat and another dressed like a tsarina (it often feels a bit like the Village People meets Vladimir Vladimirovich at this event). There were two young people with hair dyed in bright colors who told me they hoped to ask Putin how he avoided being sad.
“Do you think he’s depressed?” I asked.
“Have you looked at him lately?” was the reply.
Putin’s approval rating is at 70 percent, a figure many outside observers presume is inflated or skewed. But there is no disputing that the Russian leader has wide support. Strong opposition is not tolerated, so it’s not certain he would have held on to power for twenty years under different circumstances.
At his press conference, Putin tried to play down his controversially long reign, pointing out that he was Prime Minister for four of those years. He did say it might be appropriate to change Russia's constitution to say no president can serve more than two terms, as opposed to the current limit of "two consecutive terms." That clause is why Putin was able to be President, switch jobs with the Prime Minister and then return to the Kremlin. One Russian analyst said his suggestion could be about blocking anyone in the future from becoming as strong as he is.
One question to Putin concerned Russia forming a new state by merging with Belarus. Speculation is rife that Putin might become president of a new state and nothing could legally stop him. He wouldn’t be drawn on the topic.
I wanted to ask Putin what he thought about the concept of impeachment, as his press conference fell on the day after the U.S. House of Representatives impeached President Trump, but he didn’t call on me. In the nearly four and a half hours he fielded questions, I didn’t hear him call on anyone from an American media organization. He mostly chose to engage domestic reporters but representatives from China, Turkey, Japan, Germany, and the U.K. did get a word in edgewise. Many of those overlooked became noisy, boisterous and towards the end waved signs noting their affiliations or pet causes ever more frantically. The man behind me kept shouting at Putin, “You promised to talk about Iran!”
PUTIN: 'FAR-FETCHED' IMPEACHMENT OF TRUMP WILL END IN THE SENATE
Putin was, in fact, asked about Trump’s impeachment to which he replied the Senate would be “unlikely to remove a representative of their own party from office on what seems to me an absolutely far-fetched reason.” He also described the American controversy as internal political fighting, saying: "The party that lost (the 2016) election is trying to retrieve results by other means," and opining that Democrats couldn’t get Trump on alleged Russian collusion, they had to invent a story about some pressure on Ukraine.
Political analyst Masha Lipman told me that Trump's impeachment suits the Kremlin, which would prefer to see America weak and regards U.S. domestic turmoil as a relief. She is skeptical that U.S.-Russian relations will improve anytime soon.
"I think should Trump be re-elected, the anger of the Democratic establishment would be even stronger," she said. "Russia is their focus. Russia has been used as a battering ram against Trump."
Putin again brushed off suggestions of election interference Thursday, this time in last week's British vote. He was also asked if he was offended that British Prime Minister Boris Johnson had once likened him to Dobby the House Elf from the "Harry Potter" books.
"I know what my country’s interests are,” Putin said, “and whatever anyone has said about me has no importance when compared to the fundamental tasks Russia is interested in solving." Applause erupted in the room.
CLICK HERE TO GET THE FOX NEWS APP
Lipman said that one of the goals of this press conference is to show that Putin fully in control. Just a few hours after the press conference broke up, news broke of a shooting outside the FSB (Federal Security Service) headquarters in central Moscow that killed at least two security officers. At the time, Putin was inside the Kremlin listening to a concert to mark the day to honor those who work in security services. He had just told them: “Extremism in any form is a threat to our democracy, human rights and freedoms. Security must be preserved.”
As it stands, Putin has four more years to play the strongman unless any other changes to the constitution are made. There is a lot of talk and speculation about how the next chapter of Russia’s story will go. Few Russians I met, either inside that press conference or out, claim to have a crystal ball.
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Makhmalbaf and Dostoevsky: A Limited Comparison
I’d completely forgotten about my having written this piece until I came across it recently here, complete with the photo of me (apparently in late 1999) delivering this paper at a panel discussion in Chicago. Apart from correcting a few typos and adding some other photos, I’ve reproduced it here more or less as I found it. (Afterword, April 2, 2015: I’ve done a light edit on this.) — J.R.
It’s tempting but dangerous to approach artists from exotic cultures in terms of more familiar reference points such as comparing Zhang Yimou’s Ju Dou to The Postman Always Rings Twice or reading Souleymane Cissé’s Brightness as if it were an African Star Wars, as some American and English critics have done. Yet to describe the styles and visions of the two major Iranian filmmakers of the Eighties and Nineties, Abbas Kiarostami and Mohsen Makhmalbaf, I’ve been exploring comparisons to Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoevsky — a project obviously fraught with booby traps, but one that none the less clarifies some of the important differences between these two major figures.
A key difference which has only an oblique relevance to my comparison is that Makhmalbaf has been the most popular and respected filmmaker in Iran in recent years, despite his many run-ins with state censors, while Kiarostami is a hero principally elsewhere. Within Iranian society Kiarostami is widely regarded and in some cases resented as a self-serving pet of Western critics.
Though he came from a middle-class (albeit financially insecure) family, Dostoevsky, whose first novel was entitled Poor Folk, called himself an intellectual proletarian, and an identification with society’s lower strata is clearly central to his work, as it is to Makhmalbaf’s. A key traumatic event that shaped Dostoevsky’s future work was his arrest at age 27 for radical anti-government activities (during the repressive reign of Czar Nicholas II) and his subsequent sentencing to death by a firing squad. This sentence was commuted at the last moment, and Dostoevsky wound up with four years of hard labor in Siberia followed by four years of military service as an alternative sentence. But his belief that he was about to die left a permanent mark on his style and vision.
Something comparable happened to Makhmalbaf, a working-class fundamentalist and terrorist fighting the shah’s regime when he was arrested and tortured at the age of 17. Apparently it was only his youth that saved him from the firing squad; he wound up serving a five-year prison term that ended only with the 1979 revolution. Judging from a text by Makhmalbaf recently published in English that appears to be semi-autobiographical, he fully expected to be killed during the early stages of his incarceration.
The incident that led to his arrest — Makhmalbaf stabbed a policeman with a knife — is the focus of A Moment of Innocence (1995), one of his finest features. One sign of his change over 22 years is that the policeman he stabbed is invited to help recreate the event (as an unofficial, on-screen co-director who coaches the actor playing him) and show what he was going through at the time. A fictionalized version of Makhmalbaf’s arrest, torture, and stint in prison is the focus of Boycott (1985), and it’s no less telling that this film ends with its hero’s execution.
Comparing Kiarostami to Tolstoy involves a much looser set of analogies. For starters, Kiarostami hails from the upper-middle-class, not the cultured gentry, and his cautious distance from Islamic fundamentalism throughout his career has nothing in common with Tolstoy’s belated, fervent Christianity. Indeed, the physicality, serenity and cosmic overviews of both artists in contrast to what might be termed the tormented psychological and spiritual views of Dostoevsky and Makhmalbaf may constitute the sum of their shared traits. They’re both masters of framing landscapes and vistas in contemplative long shots, while Makhmalbaf and Dostoevsky are expressionist sketch artists exposing the cramped and conflicted interiors of their own brains in staccato flashes of lightning. Otherwise Tolstoy and Kiarostami seem to share common ground mainly in contrast with the nervous, twitchy, and hysterical styles of Dostoevsky and Makhmalbaf and the comparable behavior of many of their characters, although this is somewhat less true in the most recent work of both filmmakers.
When I took a course devoted to the two Russian authors in college, the class was split between partisans of each; I can’t recall anyone apart from the teacher who expressed equal fidelity to both. I belonged to the Tolstoy camp, and if I reread both writers today I’d probably feel the same. I also feel closer to Kiarostami than to Makhmalbaf, maybe because my background is closer to his. But much as I suspect that Dostoevsky has more to say about Russian culture than a universalist like Tolstoy I’m fairly certain that it’s Makhmalbaf, not Kiarostami, who has the most to teach me about Iranian culture, particularly over the past quarter of a century .
Apart from growing up poor, Makhmalbaf was an unwanted child, as we learn from Houshang Golmakani’s documentary Stardust-Stricken: Mohsen Makhmalbaf — A Portrait (1996); he was essentially raised by his grandmother, whom he later had to support and care for. (This experience inspired the middle episode of his three-part feature The Peddler about a scatterbrained, spastic, and persecuted Jerry Lewis-type whose life is devoted to caring for his aged and senile mother.) After he emerged from prison he returned to political activism for a short spell, then helped to establish a group of artists known as The Islamic Propaganda Organization and became a prolific writer of plays, essays, short stories, and eventually screenplays. One early monograph — a good indication of how far he has traveled ideologically since then — propounded a fundamentalist argument against women appearing onstage. His first screenplay to be realized (by someone else) was The Explanation (1981), and he directed his first feature the following year. Reportedly neither of his first two features, both marked by didactic Islamic propaganda, had much of a public impact.
I am told that Makhmalbaf now dislikes Fleeing From Evil To God (1984) and Boycott, his third and fourth features, and agreed to include them in a touring retrospective only after recutting them. The first is by all counts the worst of his films I’ve seen, bad on just about every level –- acting, mise en scene, script, and overall conception. But its evident sincerity combined with its naivete is undeniably fascinating, because I’ve never seen anything else like it; its rough American equivalent might be a painting of Jesus in the wilderness executed by an illiterate farmer. The only Makhmalbaf movie I’ve seen in a Scope format, it follows five nameless religious men, all dressed like monks, on a desert island as they flee from the devil’s temptations. The opening music calls to mind a spaghetti western, but very little happens in the film; the action consists mainly of metaphysical speculation spelled out in allegorical terms, not any struggle with evil or Satan in the real world.
No two Makhmalbaf films are alike. Moving from film to film, one sees a mercurial, troubled intelligence constantly seizing upon new stylistic influences, often seeming at odds with itself within individual features -– although there’s more self-acceptance in such recent work as A Moment of Innocence, Gabbeh, (1996), and The Silence (1997), not to mention his daughter Samira’s wonderful feature The Apple (1998), which he scripted and edited. But it’s still a shock to pass from a strained amateur exercise like Fleeing From Evil To God to the skillful and frenetic Boycott, which abounds in Hollywood-style action sequences (including a shoot-out, a prison escape, and an adroit car chase), goofy and upsetting subjective moments (such as the hero’s nightmare of ants devouring his face and animated ants in a later sequence), and apparently unmotivated freeze-frames tossed in the middle of a prison riot. The film clearly charts Makhmalbaf’s disillusionment with politics: “I used to fight because I existed,” the protagonist says in an early scene, after his arrest. “Now I no longer exist.” (Much later, he dryly notes that “imperialism and socialism are the same to a corpse” to a communist fellow prisoner bent on turning him into a Marxist martyr.) It also shows a growing commitment to popular film making; as a fundamentalist youth, he was so opposed to cinema that he once refused to speak to his grandmother for several days after she went to the movies. (Apparently he now dislikes Boycott for its commercialism and has similar objections to The Actor, made eight years later, a box-office hit in Iran.)
In the April, 1997 issue of Sight and Sound, Houdini Ditmars reports Makhmalbaf saying that the best Iranian films came from the 1985-90 period, when censorship was at a low ebb. Considering the output of both Makhmalbaf and Kiarostami during those six years, it’s a thesis well worth considering. During this stretch Kiarostami made The First-Graders,Where Is The Friends House?, Homework, and Close-Up; Makhmalbaf made Boycott, The Peddler, The Cyclist, Marriage of the Blessed, Time of Love, and The Nights of Zayandeh Road. The last two pictures were promptly banned, and Time of Love, a three-part theme-and-variations about adultery shot in Turkey with Turkish actors, seems a relatively minor work (albeit a thoughtful and provocative one). But the preceding three pictures may well represent Makhmalbaf’s most important achievements to date , apart from A Matter of Innocence.
All three are troubled, lyrical arias about human suffering in contemporary Iran that attack social problems — urban squalor, social cruelty and crime in The Peddler; capitalist exploitation in The Cyclist; the nervous condition of a traumatized veteran of the Iran-Iraq war in Marriage of the Blessed — with an unrelenting hallucinatory fury. All three pictures, like Boycott, are somewhat out of control, but as with Dostoevsky in novels like The Idiot, it’s when Makhmalbaf is most out of control that he seems to cover the widest emotional and poetic range of material in the everyday world. Rather like Martin Scorsese wrestling with the demons and contradictions of his childhood Catholicism, Makhmalbaf seems to be fighting with new versions of his skeptical, evolving intelligence in every project. Makhmalbaf has noted that a major difference between Iranian and Western cinema is that “in the West, the evolution of cinema began with paintings, then photography… it was a progression through image.. But in the East, our tradition of the Persian miniature did not really affect our cinema. At the beginning of the Islamic era, paintings and drawings were discouraged. So our tradition of image is not as old as our tradition of poetry… [and] we went straight from narrative to cinema… Our story-telling tradition is very poetic.”
How does Makhmalbaf’s visual style reflect this alternative tradition? Largely, it seems, through its eclectic editing and framing, including frequent recourse to what Western viewers regard as eccentric camera angles. These angles are especially apparent in Boycott, The Peddler, The Cyclist, Marriage of the Blessed, and The Actor and what seems most disorienting about them is their seeming lack of motivation. This gives his scatter-shot technique a freshness combined with an overall sense of chaos: like a restlessly shifting insomniac, a typical montage leaps around a given subject with desperate abandon, as if looking for and never finding a proper resting place.
.
The literal meeting-point between Makhmalbaf and Kiarostami’s cinema is the latter’s masterpiece Close-Up (1990), which reenacts the trial of Ali Sabzian, the real-life impersonator of Makhmalbaf who charmed his way into a bourgeois family’s household on the pretext that he was planning a film about them. Merging documentary and fiction even when it stages a first meeting between Sabzian and Makhmalbaf in its closing sequence, this singular feature finds many echoes in Makhmalbaf’s subsequent work, first when he takes on the subject of cinema himself in Once Upon a Time,Cinema (1992) and Salaam Cinema (1994), and then when he appropriates some of Kiarostami’s methodology in A Matter of Innocence. The capsule history of Iranian cinema that ends Once Upon a Time, Cinema concludes appropriately with a shot of the zigzagging footpath on a hillside from Where Is The Friends House?, a shot that epitomizes Kiarostami’s own blend of documentary and fiction because he designed the footpath in this rural location himself.
If this implies that Makhmalbaf’s Dostoevskian interior journey has gradually taken on some of the breadth of Tolstoy’s exteriors, a complementary development can be traced in the recent work of Kiarostami, whose Taste of Cherry confronts the theme of suicide –- a quintessentially Dostoevskian subject, filmed exclusively in exteriors but concerned throughout with what might be called spiritual interiors. Indeed, the exciting recent developments of both filmmakers show the limits of any comparisons with the great Russian novelists or any other restrictive definitions. At most they offer suggestive starting points for western spectators, but the remainder of the journey needs to be taken without them.
10/24/99
Bulletin of’ The 10th Festival of Film from Iran
by Film Center of Chicago
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INTRODUCTION {#s1}
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Interleukin-12 (IL-12) is a pleiotropic proinflammatory cytokine produced by activated dendritic cells (DCs) that is a key mediator of the transition from innate to adaptive immunity \[[@R1]\]. IL-12 promotes cell-mediated immunity by inducing the differentiation of T~H~1 cells \[[@R2]\] and by increasing the proliferation \[[@R3], [@R4]\] and lytic capacity \[[@R5]-[@R7]\] of cytotoxic T and NK cells. High levels of IFN-gamma are produced by T cells and NK cells in response to IL-12 \[[@R8]\], leading to enhanced antigen-presentation through paracrine upregulation of MHC class I and class II expression \[[@R9], [@R10]\]. In addition, the IL-12--induced release of IFN-gamma stimulates macrophages to produce the anti-angiogenic chemokines CXCL10/IP-10 (interferon-inducible protein 10) and CXCL9/Mig (monokine induced by interferon gamma) \[[@R11], [@R12]\]. By virtue of its potent abilities to stimulate cell-mediated immunity and inhibit angiogenesis, exogenous IL-12 administration has long been considered a promising anti-cancer treatment \[[@R13]\]. Early preclinical studies of recombinant murine (mu) IL-12 reported dramatic, even curative efficacy against syngeneic murine tumors of various types \[[@R14], [@R15]\], paving the way for subsequent clinical studies in human subjects. However, after over a decade in early clinical development, documented cases of severe toxicity \[[@R16]\] and generally low response rates \[[@R17]\] to rIL-12 have stymied its clinical development. To successfully exploit the therapeutic potential of IL-12 in the clinic, innovative approaches for improving its tolerability are clearly required.
One strategy for improving the safety of proinflammatory cytokines, such as IL-2 and IL-12, is to direct their delivery to tumors via fusion to a tumor-targeting antibody. Such antibody-cytokine fusion proteins, or "immunocytokines," have previously demonstrated the ability to enhance anti-tumor immunity in preclinical models \[[@R18]\]. To maximize immunocytokine tolerability, the antibody selected as a vehicle must bind specifically to an antigen uniquely found in tumors. Antibodies directed against necrosis-associated antigens, which are abundantly present in tumors but not in normal tissues, offer an attractive delivery approach \[[@R19], [@R20]\]. The ability of DNA/histone-binding antibodies to selectively target to regions of tumor necrosis has been well studied both preclinically and clinically \[[@R21]\]. Taking advantage of this concept, a necrosis-targeted IL-12 immunocytokine, called NHS-IL12, was engineered by genetically fusing 2 human IL-12 heterodimers to the C-termini of the heavy chains of the NHS76 antibody. NHS76 is a fully human, phage display-derived IgG1 antibody selected for its specific ability to bind to necrotic regions and thereby target to tumors *in vivo* \[[@R22]\].
Here we describe the *in vivo* pharmacokinetic and tumor-targeting properties, anti-tumor activity, and immunological mechanisms of action of NHS-IL12. For murine studies, a surrogate immunocytokine, NHS-muIL12, was engineered which consists of the human NHS76 antibody fused to 2 murine IL-12 heterodimers. The use of a surrogate molecule was necessary because human IL-12 lacks biological activity in the mouse \[[@R23]\]. To study the full mechanistic potential of the molecule, several syngeneic tumor models were used in immunocompetent mice. The efficacy and immunomodulatory activity of NHS-muIL12 were compared against administrations of non-targeted recombinant muIL-12 (rMuIL-12). In addition, the anti-tumor effects of NHS-muIL12 were studied in combination with radiation, three approved chemotherapeutic agents, and an experimental cancer vaccine.
RESULTS {#s2}
=======
Comparative stimulation of IFN-gamma production by NHS-huIL12 and recombinant human IL-12 (rHuIL-12) *in vitro* {#s2_1}
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Figure [1A](#F1){ref-type="fig"} shows a ribbon diagram that illustrates the immunocytokine NHS-IL12, which consists of the tumor necrosis-targeting NHS76 antibody fused to 2 molecules of the human IL-12 heterodimer. *In vitro* studies using PHA-stimulated human PBMCs (Figure [1B](#F1){ref-type="fig"}) or human NK-92 cells (data not shown) revealed that IFN-gamma production was severely attenuated following the addition of the immunocytokine. Since IFN-gamma production has been linked with rHuIL-12 toxicity \[[@R16]\], these findings suggest that delivering IL-12 via the immunocytokine might result in a better tolerated and safer therapeutic.
Pharmacokinetics and in vivo bioactivity of NHS-huIL12 treatment in cynomolgus monkeys {#s2_2}
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In subsequent *in vivo* studies, single s.c. or i.v. injections of human NHS-huIL12 (40 μg/kg) or rHuIL-12 (4 μg/kg) were administered to cynomolgus macaques (*n* = 2/cohort) to examine both IFN-gamma serum levels as well as comparative pharmacokinetics. Consistent with the previous *in vitro* assays, administration of NHS-huIL12 induced much lower serum IFN-gamma levels than did rHuIL-12 (Figure [1C](#F1){ref-type="fig"}). Pharmacokinetic analyses clearly showed the sustained presence of plasma NHS-huIL12 levels when injected by either route (Figure [1D-E](#F1){ref-type="fig"}), as compared with a single i.v. injection of 4 μg/kg rHuIL-12 (Figure [1F](#F1){ref-type="fig"}). NHS-huIL12 was well tolerated as evidenced by (a) an absence of any measurable increase in body temperature, (b) a minor reduction in platelet counts, and (c) no significant injection site reactions. Immunogenicity against the fully humanized NHS-huIL12 was observed in these monkeys, with a preponderance of reactivity against the Ig, rather than the IL-12 portion (data not shown).
{#F1}
*In vivo* tumor-targeting and efficacy of NHS-muIL12 {#s2_3}
----------------------------------------------------
In order to assess the tumor-targeting and anti-tumor efficacy of NHS-IL12, a second molecule was constructed that included the same human NHS76 antibody, but fused with 2 murine IL-12 heterodimers (NHS-muIL12). That immunocytokine also induced lower levels of IFN-gamma than rMuIL-12 when added to human PBMCs *in vitro* (Figure [2A](#F2){ref-type="fig"}). *In vivo* fluorescence imaging was used to study the tumor-targeting characteristics of subcutaneously (s.c.) administered NHS-muIL12 in mice bearing s.c. LLC tumors. Localization of fluorescent-labeled NHS-muIL12 within tumors was compared against BC1-muIL12, a human monoclonal antibody immunocytokine analogous in structure to NHS-muIL12 but lacking a target antigen in murine tumors \[[@R24], [@R25]\]. Following subcutaneous delivery at a distal site, NHS-muIL12 accumulated within tumors to a higher level than did BC1-muIL12 (Figure [2B](#F2){ref-type="fig"}). Quantitation of tumor accumulation of both immunocytokines is shown in Supplemental [Figure S1A](#SD1){ref-type="supplementary-material"}, also indicating some passive targeting mechanism of the BC1-muIL12.
To visualize the subcellular localization of NHS-muIL12 *in vivo*, tumor-bearing mice were treated with the molecule, the tumors were harvested and fixed, and immunohistochemical detection was performed against the NHS76 antibody (human IgG1). Strong, distinct staining in the nuclei of tumor cells was observed (Figure [2C](#F2){ref-type="fig"}), in agreement with the proposed DNA-binding mechanism of the molecule. NHS-muIL12 is a large macromolecular protein that cannot pass through intact cell membranes; therefore, the intracellular penetration of the molecule *in vivo* suggests a loss of cell membrane integrity (i.e., a necrotic/apoptotic phenotype).
In comparative studies, NHS-muIL12 was administered via the s.c. route, as this resulted in elevated levels of tumor uptake but reduced levels of liver uptake than the i.v. route (Supplemental [Figure S1B](#SD1){ref-type="supplementary-material"}). NHS-muIL12 (10μg, corresponding to a dose of 5.4μg of murine IL-12 equivalents) demonstrated greater anti-tumor effects compared with rMuIL-12 (5.4μg) in 3 different syngeneic tumor models (Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC); MC38 colon carcinoma; B16 melanoma) (2-way ANOVA with Bonferroni post-test, *P* \< 0.050) (Figure [2D--F](#F2){ref-type="fig"}). Both molecules were tolerated equally well as indicated by normal body weight gain (data not shown).
{#F2}
Dose-dependent anti-tumor activity of NHS-muIL12 {#s2_4}
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To study the anti-tumor response to NHS-muIL12 over a range of doses, C57BL/6 mice bearing s.c. MC38 tumors were treated with DPBS or a single subcutaneous injection of 1 μg, 5 μg, 25 μg, or 50 μg NHS-muIL12. The delay in tumor outgrowth (Figure [3A](#F3){ref-type="fig"}), improvement in overall survival (Figure [3B](#F3){ref-type="fig"}), and reduction in tumor burden (Figure [3C](#F3){ref-type="fig"}) were all dose-dependent. Differences in overall survival between treatment groups were statistically significant (log-rank test, *P* \< 0.0001), and tumor volumes on day 20 correlated with the dose of NHS-muIL12 (linear trend test, *P* \< 0.0001).
Fractionated dosing of NHS-muIL12 {#s2_5}
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With knowledge that the human NHS76 antibody would elicit a xenogeneic immune response over time (Supplemental [Figure S2A-B](#SD1){ref-type="supplementary-material"}), multiple daily dosing regimens were evaluated. Mice bearing s.c. MC38 tumors were injected subcutaneously with DPBS or NHS-muIL12 according to 1 of the following schedules: a single injection of 5 μg or 25 μg NHS-muIL12, or 5 daily injections of 1 μg or 5 μg each. In this study, the total dose of NHS-muIL12 given determined the delay in tumor outgrowth (Figure [3D](#F3){ref-type="fig"}), overall survival (Figure [3E](#F3){ref-type="fig"}), and tumor burden (Figure [3F](#F3){ref-type="fig"}). However, fractionated dosing did not appear to have a major advantage over single dosing of NHS-muIL12 at either total dose level (*P* \> 0.05).
{#F3}
Immune correlates of NHS-muIL12 function {#s2_6}
----------------------------------------
NHS-muIL12 did not slow the rate of MC38 tumor cell growth directly *in vitro* (data not shown), suggesting that an immune mechanism(s) was responsible for the anti-tumor effects seen *in vivo*. IL-12 is known to induce the release of IFN-gamma, so it was not surprising that NHS-muIL12 induced a dose-dependent serum IFN-gamma response *in vivo* (Figure [4A](#F4){ref-type="fig"}). In addition, NHS-muIL12 induced the *in vivo* maturation of splenic dendritic cells, as determined by quantifying MHC class I expression on DCs (Figure [4B](#F4){ref-type="fig"}). NHS-muIL12 also induced the *in vivo* activation of splenic NK cells (Figure [4C](#F4){ref-type="fig"}), tumor-infiltrating NK cells (Figure [4D](#F4){ref-type="fig"}), and splenic CD8+ T cells (Figure [4E](#F4){ref-type="fig"}) in MC38 tumor-bearing mice. Similar results were seen in B16 tumor-bearing mice treated with NHS-muIL12 (Supplemental [Figure S3A--D](#SD1){ref-type="supplementary-material"}). All of these effects were dose-dependent, and NHS-muIL12 was more effective at activating the immune response than an equimolar dose of rMuIL-12 for all of these parameters (Figure [4B--E](#F4){ref-type="fig"} and Supplemental [Figure S3A--E](#SD1){ref-type="supplementary-material"}). These correlates of immune response and anti-tumor efficacy might prove useful to monitor in NHS-IL12‒treated patients.
{#F4}
CD8+ T-cell activation by NHS-muIL12 {#s2_7}
------------------------------------
To identify the effector cells responsible for the anti-tumor activity of NHS-muIL12, MC38 tumor-bearing mice were treated with NHS-muIL12 in the presence or absence of immune cell subset-depleting antibodies. The *in vivo* depletion of CD8+ T cells, but not CD4+ cells, resulted in a substantial loss of the antitumor efficacy following the administration of NHS-muIL12 (Figure [5A--B](#F5){ref-type="fig"}). Depletion of NK cells also appeared to abrogate the antitumor efficacy of NHS-muIL12, but this effect was not statistically significant. Four mice treated with NHS-muIL12 in this study had a durable tumor regression. When rechallenged with MC38 tumor cells on the opposite rear flank, tumor outgrowth was significantly delayed compared to naïve controls (Figure [5C](#F5){ref-type="fig"}), indicating that the previously treated mice had developed a systemic anti-tumor memory response.
Although CD8+ T cells were shown to contribute to the anti-tumor effects of NHS-muIL12, the antigen specificity of this CD8+ T-cell response was unclear. The p15E endogenous retroviral antigen has previously been shown to be a tumor rejection antigen for several murine tumor models including MC38 \[[@R26]\], suggesting that this antigen may also be important in this system. ELISPOT assays detected a high frequency of p15E-specific T cells in NHS-muIL12--treated mice bearing MC38 tumors (Figure [5D](#F5){ref-type="fig"}), and similar results were observed in the B16 tumor model (Supplemental [Figure S3E](#SD1){ref-type="supplementary-material"}). In a separate experiment, mice treated with NHS-muIL12 and cured of their tumors were found to have a detectable p15E-specific CD8+ lytic T-cell response (Figure [5E](#F5){ref-type="fig"}). These immune-mediated anti-tumor effects suggest that NHS-muIL12 might further enhance the activity of cancer vaccines or immune-modulating agents.
{#F5}
Combination therapy with NHS-muIL12 and vaccine {#s2_8}
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NHS-muIL12 treatment was combined with the vaccine tecemotide \[[@R27], [@R28]\], which contains a 25-mer peptide from the VNTR region of the MUC1 tumor antigen. Tecemotide induced a potent CD4+ T-cell proliferative response to BP25 peptide in C57BL/6 mice and to a lesser degree in C57BL/6 MUC1 transgenic (Tg) mice (Figure [6A](#F6){ref-type="fig"}). This vaccine was then tested in tumor models together with NHS-muIL12 to determine their combined therapeutic potential. MUC1.Tg mice bearing subcutaneous MC38/MUC1+ tumors were treated with a single injection of cyclophosphamide (100 mg/kg intravenous (i.v.)) 1 day prior to treatment with NHS-muIL12 (10 μg s.c.) and tecemotide (100 μg peptide s.c.). Three weekly booster vaccinations of tecemotide were given following this priming vaccination. Mice treated with the full combination of cyclophosphamide, tecemotide, and NHS-muIL12 showed an increased delay in tumor growth relative to untreated controls and mice that received only 2 therapeutic agents (2-way ANOVA, *P* \< 0.001) (Figure [6B](#F6){ref-type="fig"}). An analogous study in the orthotopic Panc02/MUC1+ tumor model gave similar results (2-way ANOVA, *P* \< 0.001) (Fig. [6C](#F6){ref-type="fig"}).
![The combination of NHS-muIL12 with an experimental cancer vaccine enhances the anti-tumor response\
(A) Wild-type C57BL/6 and MUC1.Tg mice were treated with cyclophosphamide and then vaccinated 3 times with tecemotide. Isolated CD4+ splenocytes from vaccinated and naïve mice of each strain were stimulated *in vitro* with MUC1 BP25 peptide, and lymphoproliferation was measured by \[^3^H\]-thymidine incorporation. Results show mean proliferation (counts per minute) ± SE of triplicate wells for each condition. (B--C) MUC1.Tg mice bearing (B) MC38/MUC1+ s.c. tumors or (C) Panc02/MUC1+ orthotopic tumors were randomized and treated with control liposomes, cyclophosphamide and tecemotide, cyclophosphamide and NHS-muIL12, or the combination of cyclophosphamide, tecemotide, and NHS-muIL12 (*n* = 9-10 mice per group). Cyclophosphamide (2 mg i.v.) was administered on day 0. NHS-muIL12 (10 μg s.c.) was given on day 1. Tecemotide (4x25 μg per dose) was administered s.c. on days 1, 8, 15, and 22. Results show mean tumor volume ± SE over time for each treatment group. Differences in mean tumor volume between groups treated with cyclophosphamide, tecemotide, and NHS-muIL12 were statistically significant versus groups treated with cyclophosphamide and NHS-muIL12 or tecemotide (2-way ANOVA with Bonferonni\'s post-test; \*, *P* \< 0.05; \*\*\*, *P* \<0.001).](oncotarget-05-1869-g006){#F6}
Combination therapy with NHS-muIL12 and approved standard of care agents/modalities {#s2_9}
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Radiation treatment is known to induce some immune-associated changes in tumor cells, including upregulation of MHC class I molecules and diversification of the intracellular antigenic peptide pool, resulting in better anti-tumor immunity \[[@R29]\]. In mice bearing LLC tumors, the combination of NHS-muIL12 with localized, fractionated radiotherapy showed additive tumor growth inhibition (Figure [7A](#F7){ref-type="fig"}) that was statistically significant relative to either therapy given alone (2-way ANOVA, *P* \< 0.001). The therapeutic combination of radiation with NHS-muIL12 in the MC38 s.c. tumor model showed similar results (data not shown).
Sunitinib is a receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor used to treat late-stage kidney cancer and gastrointestinal stromal tumor \[[@R30]\] that has been shown to modulate immune responses \[[@R31], [@R32]\]. The treatment combination of sunitinib with NHS-muIL12 showed an additive improvement in the level of Renca tumor growth inhibition (Figure [7B](#F7){ref-type="fig"}) that was statistically significant compared to either monotherapy (2-way ANOVA, *P* \< 0.001). Gemcitabine is a nucleoside analog used to treat pancreatic cancer and some other carcinomas \[[@R33]\]. Mice bearing orthotopic Panc02 tumors were given 2 treatments of 10 μg NHS-muIL12 (s.c.) plus 120 mg/kg gemcitabine (i.v.) spaced 1 week apart. This treatment combination also showed additive anti-tumor effects (Figure [7C](#F7){ref-type="fig"}) relative to either monotherapy (2-way ANOVA, *P* \< 0.050).
{#F7}
Docetaxel is an anti-mitotic taxane that can promote tumor susceptibility to CTL-mediated killing \[[@R34]\]. Mice bearing well-established s.c. MC38 tumors were treated with docetaxel or NHS-muIL12 alone or in combination. Docetaxel treatment of mice bearing \~150mm^3^ MC38 tumors slowed tumor growth, whereas NHS-muIL12 administration resulted in significant transient tumor regression (Figure [8A](#F8){ref-type="fig"}). The combined administration of docetaxel followed by NHS-muIL-12 was able to induce the sustained regression of very large (\~640mm^3^) MC38 tumors (Figure [8B](#F8){ref-type="fig"}).
{#F8}
DISCUSSION {#s3}
==========
Interleukin-12 is clearly capable of eliciting substantial immunotherapeutic effects in various preclinical studies, but its clinical potential has yet to be successfully translated \[[@R35]-[@R38]\]. Developing new IL-12 delivery systems to maximize cytokine levels directly in the tumor microenvironment may be a safer and more effective approach to treat cancer. In the present studies, IL-12 has been engineered into an immunocytokine (NHS-IL12) with tumor-targeting capabilities and tested for efficacy. This selective targeting of NHS-IL12 is mediated by the immunoglobulin portion of the molecule (NHS76) that binds to DNA in necrotic tissue \[[@R22]\]. In both mouse and human tumors, rapid tumor growth often outpaces the development of blood vessels, leading to a lack of adequate perfusion and subsequent necrosis. Necrosis can expose intracellular antigens within the tumor microenvironment, which presents an ideal opportunity for the tumor-specific targeting of NHS-IL12. Other IL-12-based immunocytokines have been engineered previously \[[@R39],[@R40]\], but the antibody portion of NHS-IL12 may give it a unique potential to target a wider range of solid tumors.
Here we have shown that NHS76 fused to human IL-12 has a longer half-life *in vivo* but induces lower levels of IFN-gamma release by immune cells both *in vitro* and *in vivo* than IL-12 alone. Furthermore, an NHS76-murine IL-12 conjugate is able to target subcutaneous tumors *in vivo*, and this immunocytokine is superior to an equimolar dose of rMuIL-12 in delaying the growth of 3 different tumor models (LLC, MC38 and B16). The effects of NHS-muIL12 on subcutaneous tumor growth were dose-dependent over a 50-fold range, and NHS-muIL12 showed anti-tumor efficacy after a single injection. The finding that NHS-muIL12 does not directly inhibit MC38 tumor cell growth *in vitro*, combined with the previously reported immune-activating effects of IL-12, provided evidence for the immune-mediated mechanisms by which NHS-muIL12 affects tumor growth *in vivo*.
NHS-muIL12 was found to increase serum IFN-gamma levels, upregulate MHC class I protein expression on DCs, and induce the proliferation of CD49b+ NK cells and CD8+ T cells, all in a dose-dependent manner. An immune cell subset depletion study confirmed that the anti-tumor effects of NHS-muIL12 require CD8+ cells and may involve NK cells, consistent with the known mechanisms of action of IL-12 \[[@R41]\]. Further investigations into the antigen specificity of the CD8+ T-cell response focused on the p15E endogenous retroviral tumor antigen. ELISPOT analysis revealed that mice bearing MC38 or B16 tumors developed a stronger p15E-specific CTL response following NHS-muIL12 treatment. Mice that were cured of their MC38 tumors showed some resistance to tumor rechallenge and displayed long-lasting p15E-specific CTL memory. Thus fusing IL-12 to NHS76 does not alter the fundamental immune-activating mechanisms of the cytokine. The potential of NHS-muIL12 as an effective immunotherapeutic agent is underscored by the significant anti-tumor activity and CTL activation observed following a single s.c. injection.
NHS-muIL12 is clearly more potent against murine tumor models when directly compared with rMuIL-12. This enhanced efficacy of NHS-muIL12 likely stems from the more favorable pharmacokinetic properties of the immunocytokine and its DNA-binding ability at necrotic sites. Additionally, large macromolecules are known to selectively accumulate in tumors through a passive process termed the "enhanced permeabilization and retention effect" \[[@R42]\], which may also apply to immunocytokines. Tumor targeting of NHS-muIL12 may enhance the activation of CD8+ T cells at the site of the tumor and also prolong their cytotoxic effector function. The duration of CD8+ T-cell exposure to IL-12 correlates with the overall level of T-cell activation \[[@R43]\], and it is well known that regulatory T cells (Tregs), macrophages, and other cells found within tumors can be immunosuppressive \[[@R44]\]. The advantage gained by NHS-muIL12 administration is an increase in intratumoral IL-12 concentration, which seems to be biologically important to fully activate tumor antigen-specific CD8+ T cells and overcome this immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment.
In addition to increasing its therapeutic efficacy, the biochemical properties of NHS-IL12 might mitigate the toxicity that has been associated with rHuIL-12. *In vitro* assays using IFN-gamma production to compare functional potency revealed that NHS-huIL12 and NHS-muIL12 were only 5% as potent as molar equivalent amounts of human and murine rIL-12, respectively. Additionally, NHS-muIL12 was extremely well tolerated even at very high doses throughout our studies in mice. Relying on mice alone may not be appropriate for the preclinical modeling of IL-12 toxicity and it is therefore important to note that NHS-IL12 was also well tolerated by monkeys. Injection of cynomolgus monkeys with 40 μg/kg was well tolerated as evidenced by the lack of fever and any change in blood profiles. The immunogenicity against NHS76 seen in mice and monkeys indicates that only clinical trials can provide meaningful information on the repeated administration of NHS-IL12.
Pharmacokinetic data in cynomolgus monkeys and tissue distribution studies in mice indicate that subcutaneous injection is the preferred route of administration of NHS-IL12. The frequency of NHS-IL12 dosing is another important point of consideration, as it has been reported that clinical IL-12-related toxicity is highly schedule-dependent \[[@R16]\]. We have shown here that bolus and fractionated dosing of NHS-muIL12 had equivalent efficacy against MC38 tumors at 2 different total dose levels. This finding indicates that less frequent dosing in clinical studies of NHS-IL12 might reduce toxicity without a loss of efficacy.
One might expect NHS-IL12 to provide additive or synergistic effects when combined with other types of cancer therapy. Many cancer vaccines that were specifically designed to induce strong tumor-specific T-cell responses are in development \[[@R45]\]. However, effector T cells can still be inactivated upon entering the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment \[[@R46]\]. Pairing a cancer vaccine with NHS-IL12 treatment might allow for the vaccine-induced T cells to better infiltrate the tumor and remain active by virtue of their exposure to NHS-IL12. In 2 preclinical tumor models, the treatment combination of NHS-muIL12 with the vaccine tecemotide was found to delay tumor growth more effectively than either therapy alone. Combining NHS-IL12 with radiation or a chemotherapeutic agent is another attractive option for clinical development. Radiation, docetaxel, sunitinib, and gemcitabine treatment of tumor-bearing mice have all shown favorable immune changes at the tumor site (i.e., antigen modulation, reduced Treg numbers, and support of memory T-cell generation) \[[@R29], [@R34], [@R47], [@R48]\]. In addition to their own anti-tumor mechanisms, these therapies could enhance tumor necrosis and thereby increase the tumor-targeting capacity of NHS-IL12. Pairing NHS-muIL12 with radiation, sunitinib, gemcitabine, and docetaxel in the preclinical studies reported here showed additive anti-tumor effects, indicating that each of these treatment combinations might be worth investigating in the clinic.
A phase I clinical trial of NHS-IL12 in patients with metastatic or locally advanced solid tumors has recently been initiated to determine the maximum tolerated dose (MTD) and optimal biological dose (clinical trial \#NCT01417546). Once the MTD of NHS-IL12 is identified, the studies reported here will provide the rationale for phase II trials that combine NHS-IL12 with other experimental or standard of care cancer therapies.
MATERIALS AND METHODS {#s4}
=====================
Ethics statement {#s4_1}
----------------
Investigation has been conducted in accordance with the ethical standards and according to the Declaration of Helsinki and according to national and international guidelines and has been approved by the authors\' institutional review board.
Animal models and tumor cell lines {#s4_2}
----------------------------------
Adult female C57BL/6, Balb/c, and athymic mice were purchased from NCI-Frederick and Charles River Laboratories. Mice that express the human CEA gene on the C57BL/6 background were kindly provided by Dr. John Shively (City of Hope, Duarte, CA). C57BL/6 mice expressing the human MUC1 gene were a gift from Dr. Sandra Gendler (Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, AZ) and used for tecemotide studies. All animals were housed and maintained under pathogen-free conditions in microisolator cages, and were 2--6 months old at the start of each study. Animal care was in compliance with the recommendations of *The Guide for Care and Use of Laboratory Animals* (National Research Council).
Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC), B16, MC38, and Renca cells were cultured in DMEM containing 10% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum. CEA-expressing and MUC1-expressing MC38 cells were cultured in the same media supplemented with 300 μg/ml G418. At the start of each study, tumor cells were trypsinized, washed, resuspended in HBSS, and then injected s.c. into the right rear flank of each mouse. Mice were anesthetized with ketamine (15 mg/kg) and xylazine (75 mg/kg) and shaved on the rear flank prior to subcutaneous tumor cell injection.
Treatments {#s4_3}
----------
NHS-huIL12 consists of the NHS76 DNA-binding antibody \[[@R22]\] fused to 2 molecules of the human IL-12 heterodimer. NHS-muIL12 consists of the same human NHS76 antibody fused to 2 molecules of the murine IL-12 heterodimer. NHS-huIL12 was produced by transient transfection of CHO-S cells, and NHS-muIL12 and the control immunocytokine BC1-muIL12 were produced by transient transfection of HEK293. All three immunocytokines were purified by Protein A chromatography. The antigen-binding and IL-12 stimulatory functions of the fusion proteins were characterized *in vitro* (data not shown) prior to the conduct of *in vivo* studies. For anti-tumor efficacy studies, NHS-muIL12 or rMuIL-12 (R&D Systems) was injected s.c. into the inner leg contralateral to the tumor.
Tecemotide is a liposomal vaccine encapsulating monophosphoryl lipid A and a 25-mer peptide derived from the human MUC1 tumor antigen \[[@R27], [@R28]\]. Lyophilized tecemotide was obtained from Merck KGaA and resuspended in PBS prior to injection at a concentration of 0.5 mg peptide/ml. To help overcome immune tolerance to MUC1, mice were first injected once i.v. with saline containing 2 mg cyclophosphamide (Sigma) into the tail vein 1-3 days prior to the first tecemotide vaccination. Mice were then shaved in the abdominal area and injected s.c. with a weekly dose of tecemotide containing 25 μg peptide at each of 4 sites (100 μg total peptide per dose).
Sunitinib powder was obtained as a free base from Merck KGaA and dissolved to a working concentration of 2 mg/ml. The pH was adjusted to 6.0 and the drug was administered to mice orally at 20 mg/kg/day for 7 consecutive days.
Gemcitabine hydrochloride was obtained from Eli Lilly, diluted in 0.9% saline to a concentration of 12mg/ml, and injected i.v. into the tail vein at a dose of 120mg/kg. Mice received 2 separate injections spaced 14 days apart.
Docetaxel solution was obtained from Hospira, diluted in 0.9% saline to a concentration of 5mg/ml, and injected i.p. at a dose of 0.5mg/mouse. Mice received 3 separate injections spaced 2 days apart.
*In vitro* bioactivity assays {#s4_4}
-----------------------------
Freshly isolated normal human PBMCs were incubated with phytohemagglutinin (2 μg/ml, PHA-P) for 4 days to promote the formation of blastoid cells. Human IL-2 (R&D Systems) was then added for an additional day, in order to upregulate the expression of the IL-12 receptor on these cells. NHS-huIL12 and rHuIL-12 (R&D Systems) were then added and supernatants were harvested 24 h later. Secreted IFN-gamma levels were measured using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
Cynomolgus monkey studies {#s4_5}
-------------------------
Cynomolgus macaques were treated with 40 μg/kg NHS-huIL12 s.c., 40 μg/kg NHS-huIL12 i.v., or 4 μg/kg rHuIL-12 i.v. (*n* = 2/group). Serum levels of IFN-gamma were monitored for 5 days post-injection by ELISA. Drug levels were monitored for 8 days post-injection by IL-12 ELISA.
Noninvasive *in vivo* imaging {#s4_6}
-----------------------------
NHS-muIL12 and BC1-muIL12 were conjugated to Alexa Fluor 750 using the SAIVI Rapid Antibody Labeling Kit (Invitrogen) and injected either s.c. or i.v. into nude mice bearing Lewis lung tumors. Fluorescence and photographic images of the tumor site were taken over the course of 3 days using an IVIS 200 imaging system (Caliper Life Sciences). Fluorescence at the site of the tumor was analyzed using Living Image software (Caliper Life Sciences).
Immunohistochemical detection {#s4_7}
-----------------------------
Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded LLC tumors were sectioned at 3 μm and mounted onto Super Frost slides. Following deparaffinization, the slides were placed in an automated staining instrument (Ventana Medical Systems). Slides were incubated with a primary Ab (rabbit anti-huIgG1; Epitomics) for 8 h at room temperature followed by incubation with a secondary Ab (anti-rabbit IgG-HRP; OmniMap) for 16 minutes at 37˚C. Chromogenic detection was made using ChromoMap DAB substrate solution (Ventana). Counterstaining was performed with Hematoxylin II (Ventana) and a post-counterstain was performed using Bluing Reagent (Ventana).
Subcutaneous tumor growth studies {#s4_8}
---------------------------------
Mice were inoculated with LLC (5×10^5^), B16 (5×10^5^), MC38 (3−5×10^5^), MC38/CEA+ (3×10^5^), MC38/MUC1+ (10^6^), or Renca (10^6^) tumor cells in the right rear flank. Tumors became measurable 7-12 days later at which time the mice were randomly assigned to experimental groups and treatment was initiated. Tumors were measured twice per week throughout the studies using calipers, and the tumor volume was calculated as: Volume = (width)^2^ × (length) × 0.5236. Mice were euthanized when the tumor volume exceeded 1.5cm^3^.
Orthotopic pancreatic tumor growth studies {#s4_9}
------------------------------------------
Previously frozen Panc02 or Panc02/MUC1+ tumor fragments were surgically implanted onto the pancreases of female C57BL/6 or MUC1.Tg mice. Twelve days later, \~2mm^3^ tumor fragments were prepared from these seed tumors and implanted onto the pancreas of each mouse on the study. Treatment was initiated 7 days after tumor implant. To monitor tumor growth, mice were anesthetized and tumor diameter was measured with calipers. Tumor volume was calculated as: Volume = (4/3) × 3.14159 × (Diameter/2)^3^. Mice were euthanized when the tumor volume exceeded 2.0cm^3^.
Radiotherapy combination study {#s4_10}
------------------------------
Mice were inoculated into the right quadriceps muscle with 5×10^5^ LLC cells. Ten days after inoculation, mice were sorted into treatment groups with mean tumor volumes of \~135mm^3^. Tumor-bearing legs were irradiated (360 cGy daily/5 days) by timed exposure to a ^137^Cs source (GammaCell 40 Exactor); a lead collimator device was used to localize delivery. Tumors were measured twice per week throughout the study using calipers, and the tumor volume was calculated as: Volume = (length) × (width) × (height)/2. Mice were euthanized when the tumor volume exceeded 2.0cm^3^.
Serum cytokine quantification {#s4_11}
-----------------------------
Mouse serum was obtained 48 h following s.c. NHS-muIL12 treatment of non-tumor-bearing C57BL/6 mice. Murine IFN-gamma levels were determined using a standard ELISA kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific) according to the manufacturer\'s instructions. Sample ODs at 450nm were read using a Synergy HT plate reader (Bio-Tek).
MHC expression by dendritic cells {#s4_12}
---------------------------------
Single-cell suspensions prepared from spleens were labeled with an antibody cocktail containing anti-mouse-CD11c-PE-Cy7, anti-mouse-CD80-APC, anti-mouse-CD86-PE, anti-mouse-H-2K^b^-FITC, and anti-mouse-I-A^b^-Pacific Blue (all antibodies were purchased from eBioscience). The mean fluorescence intensities (MFI) of H-2K^b^ (MHC class I) and I-A^b^ (MHC class II) in the CD11c^+^CD80^high^CD86^high^ population were determined using a BD LSR II flow cytometer and BD FACSDiva software.
*In vivo* lymphocyte proliferation {#s4_13}
----------------------------------
Mice were administered 1mg of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) via intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection at 24 h, 16 h, and 1 h prior to harvest of tumors and spleens. Minced tumor slurries were dissociated in media containing collagenase IV (400 units/ml; Worthington) and DNase I (100 μg/ml; Roche). Single-cell suspensions were prepared from spleens and labeled with an antibody cocktail containing anti-mouse CD45-PerCP-Cy5.5, anti-mouse CD8-Pacific Blue, anti-mouse CD4-Alexa Fluor 750, and anti-mouse CD49b-APC (eBioscience). Intracellular antibody staining against BrdU was performed using a commercially available kit (BD) according to the manufacturer\'s instructions. Data were acquired on a BD LSR II flow cytometer and analyzed using FACS Diva software.
Immune cell subset depletions {#s4_14}
-----------------------------
To deplete CD4+ or CD8+ T-cell populations, mice were given 4 daily i.p. injections of 100 μg GK1.5 or 2.43 antibodies, respectively, the week before tumor implantation. Mice were then given additional weekly i.p. injections throughout the study to maintain these low T-cell levels. NK cells were depleted by injecting mice once per week with 25μl rabbit anti-asialo-GM1 (Cedarlane Laboratories), beginning the week before tumor cell injection and continuing through the end of the study.
Anti-drug antibody detection in mice {#s4_15}
------------------------------------
C57BL/6 mice (*n* = 4/group) received 2 s.c. injections of NHS-muIL12 (10 μg) or PBS given 7 days apart. Plasma was collected 1 week after the last administration. Antibodies against NHS-muIL12 were detected using an ELISA method: 96-well immunoassay plates (Nunc) were coated by incubation with 2 μg/ml NHS-muIL12 in carbonate buffer overnight, followed by blocking with 5% BSA. Plasma samples were serially diluted in the assay plate and incubated for 1 h. Detection was made using a rabbit anti-mouse IgG1 antibody conjugated to horse-radish peroxidase (Jackson ImmunoResearch) and TMB substrate (BioFX). A standard curve ranging from 1.56 to 100ng/ml was prepared using mouse IgG1 (Invitrogen). Sample ODs at 450 nm were read using a SpectraMax 340PC plate reader (Molecular Devices).
ELISPOT assay {#s4_16}
-------------
Pooled splenocytes from each study group were stimulated *in vitro* with 1 μg/ml of p15E peptide (KSPWFTTL, H-2K^b^). Six days later, CD8+ T cells were isolated by magnetic-bead separation (Miltenyi) and analyzed using an IFN-gamma ELISPOT kit (BD Biosciences) according to the manufacturer\'s instructions. A total of 20,000 CD8+ T cells were co-incubated with splenocytes pulsed with either p15E peptide or a negative control OVA peptide (SIINFEKL, H-2K^b^). As positive controls, CD8+ T cells were stimulated with 1 μmol/L of phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate and 10 ng/mL of ionomycin. Co-cultures were carried out in triplicate. Spot counts were analyzed using an ELISPOT plate reader (Immunospot).
CTL assay {#s4_17}
---------
A CD8+ T-cell functional assay was carried out using RPMI 1640 containing 10% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum, 2 mM L-glutamine, 50 μM β-mercaptoethanol, 0.1 mM nonessential amino acids, 15 mM Hepes buffer (pH 7.4), 1 mM sodium pyruvate, and penicillin/streptomycin. Splenocytes from mice that became tumor-free after NHS-muIL12 treatment were stimulated *in vitro* with 10 μg/ml p15E peptide (KSPWFTTL, H-2K^b^). After 6 days, these cells were co-incubated in triplicate wells of round-bottom 96-well plates with ^111^In-labeled EL-4 cells pulsed with 10 μg/ml p15E peptide or a negative control VSV-NP peptide (RGYVYQGL, H-2K^b^). After overnight incubation, ^111^In release was measured via gamma counter and cytotoxicity was calculated as % specific lysis = \[(experimental cpm - spontaneous cpm) / (total cpm -- spontaneous cpm)\] x 100. Results from triplicate wells were combined and reported as mean ± SE.
*In vitro* MUC1-specific CD4+ lymphocyte proliferation assay {#s4_18}
------------------------------------------------------------
The 25-mer peptide used to produce tecemotide (BP25, STAPPAHGVTSAPDTRPAPGSTAPP) was synthesized and purified by CPC Scientific. Two weeks after the final tecemotide booster vaccination, spleens from naïve and vaccinated mice were harvested and prepared as single cell suspensions. CD4+ splenocytes were isolated using a Dynal CD4 cell negative isolation kit (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer\'s instructions. These cells (2×10^5^/well) were then co-incubated with irradiated splenocytes (20 Gy, 10^6^/well) from syngeneic naïve mice and 3.1-100 μg/ml of BP25 peptide in flat-bottom 96-well plates. After 4 days, \[^3^H\]-thymidine (1μCi/well) was added to each well and incubated overnight. The cells were harvested onto glass fiber filtermats using a Tomtec Harvester 96, and ^3^H incorporation was measured by liquid scintillation counting on a 1450 MicroBeta counter (Perkin-Elmer). Each sample was run in triplicate, and results were combined to yield a mean ± SE.
Statistical analysis {#s4_19}
--------------------
For subcutaneous and orthotopic tumor growth studies, the tumor volume over time was plotted as mean ± SE. Survival comparisons between treatment groups were made using Kaplan-Meier plots and analyzed with the log-rank test. To analyze the differences in mean tumor volume between treatment groups, the latest time point at which all mice remained alive was selected for 1-way or 2-way ANOVA analysis followed by an appropriate post-test. The student\'s *t*-test was used to analyze a study with only 2 treatment groups. Analyses were carried out using the GraphPad Prism software package (Prism 5 for Mac OS X, version 5.0d, GraphPad Software, Inc.). Statistical significance was accepted if *P* \< 0.05.
SUPPLEMENTARY FIGURE
====================
The authors thank Garland Davis, Bertina Gibbs, Curtis Randolph, and LaJuan Chase for technical assistance, and Debra Weingarten for editorial assistance.
This research was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH as well as through a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA) between EMD Serono and the National Cancer Institute.
RT, GK, WG, AB, BN, YL, and HS are employees of EMD Serono. The other authors do not have any potential conflicts of interest to disclose.
This paper has been accepted based in part on peer-review conducted by another journal and the authors\' response and revisions as well as expedited peer-review in Oncotarget.
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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PubMed Central
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JetBlue upcycling old uniforms
JetBlue switched to a new uniform last year, but found an eco-way to keep all the old, worn and never-worn crew uniforms out of landfills.
The solution: upcycling.
JetBlue joined up with Manhattan Portage, the company that first popularized and continues to make iconic New York City bicycle messenger bags and this week (just in time for Earth Day) rolled out the “JetBlue Uniform Bag Collection,” a line of five items made from unworn recycled uniforms and available online and in Manhattan Portage stores.
JetBlue Toiletry Case
The toiletry case ($39) exteriors are made from JetBlue’s signature windowpane flight attendant shirts, the linings are made of scarves, and the handles are former neckties. The City Lights bag ($45) is made out of recycled pilot shirts, with intact pockets and pilot wings. The Sohobo bags ($89) were once all-weather jackets, the backpack ($109) is made from recycled JetBlue rain pants and all-weather vests have been turned into Europa bags ($115).
While the new line of upcycled bags puts unworn uniforms to good use, JetBlue also found a way to recycle the old uniforms crewmembers wore. In 2014, the airline donated 37,000 pounds of old uniforms, clothing and fabrics to a non-profit that planned to sell the material and use the proceeds to support a variety of programs in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean and Latin America.
Old fabrics from other airlines are also being upcycled.
Skyebags made from recycled aircraft leather donated by Delta Air Lines
Skyebags turns recycled aircraft leather from Delta Air Lines into wallets, toiletry bags and totes. Leather from replaced leather seats on Alaska Airlines is being reborn as carry-on bags in a line by Mariclaro. And while Looptworks has sold out of the totes it was making out of leather from old Southwest Airlines seats, its LUV line still has some duffle bags, toiletry cases and backpacks for sale.
(My story about JetBlue upcycling old uniforms first appeared on USA TODAY’s Today in the Sky blog in a slightly different format.)
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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Pile-CC
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---
abstract: 'We propose a distributed algorithm for controlling traffic signals. Our algorithm is adapted from backpressure routing, which has been mainly applied to communication and power networks. We formally prove that our algorithm ensures global optimality as it leads to maximum network throughput even though the controller is constructed and implemented in a completely distributed manner. Simulation results show that our algorithm significantly outperforms SCATS, an adaptive traffic signal control system that is being used in many cities.'
author:
- 'Tichakorn Wongpiromsarn, Tawit Uthaicharoenpong, Yu Wang, Emilio Frazzoli and Danwei Wang[^1] [^2] [^3]'
bibliography:
- 'ref.bib'
title: '**Distributed Traffic Signal Control for Maximum Network Throughput** '
---
Introduction
============
Traffic signal control is a key element in traffic management that affects the efficiency of urban transportation. Many major cities worldwide currently employ adaptive traffic signal control systems where the light timing is adjusted based on the current traffic situation. Examples of widely-used adaptive traffic signal control systems include SCATS (Sydney Coordinated Adaptive Traffic System) [@Lowrie82SCATS; @Keong93Glide; @Liu03Master] and SCOOT (Split Cycle Offset Optimisation Technique) [@Day1998; @Stevanovic2008].
Control variables in traffic signal control systems typically include phase, cycle length, split plan and offset. A phase specifies a combination of one or more traffic movements simultaneously receiving the right of way during a signal interval. Cycle length is the time required for one complete cycle of signal intervals. A split plan defines the percentage of the cycle length allocated to each of the phases during a signal cycle. Offset is used in coordinated traffic control systems to reduce frequent stops at a sequence of junctions.
SCATS, for example, attempts to equalize the degree of saturation (DS), i.e., the ratio of effectively used green time to the total green time, for all the approaches. The computation of cycle length and split plan is only carried out at the critical junctions. Cycle length and split plan at non-critical junctions are controlled by the critical junctions via offsets. The algorithm involves many parameters, which need to be properly calibrated for each critical junction. In addition, all the possible split plans need to be pre-specified and a voting scheme is used in order to select a split plan that leads to approximately equal DS for all the approaches.
Systems and control theory has been recently applied to traffic signal control problems. In [@Diakaki02], a multivariable regulator is proposed based on linear-quadratic regulator methodology and the store-and-forward modeling approach [@Aboudolas08]. Robust control theory has been applied to traffic signalization in [@Yu97thesis]. Approaches based on Petri Net modeling language are considered in, e.g., [@Mladenovic11thesis; @Soares08]. Optimization-based techniques are considered, e.g., in [@Dujardin11; @Shen11]. However, one of the major drawbacks of these approaches is the scalability issue, which limits their application to relatively small networks.
To address the scalability issue, in [@Cheng09], a distributed algorithm is presented where the signal at each junction is locally controlled independently from other junctions. However, global optimality is no longer guaranteed, although simulation results show that it reduces the total delay compared to the fixed-time approach. Another distributed approach is considered in [@Lammer08] where the constraint that each traffic flow is served once, on average, within a desired service interval $T$ is imposed. It can be proved that their distributed algorithm stabilizes the network whenever there exists a stable fixed-time control with cycle time $T$. However, the knowledge of traffic arrival rates is required. In addition, multi-phase operation is not considered.
An objective of this work is to develop a traffic signal control strategy that requires minimal tuning and scales well with the size of the road network while ensuring satisfactory performance. Our algorithm is motivated by backpressure routing introduced in [@Tassiulas92Stability], which has been mainly applied to communication and power networks where a packet may arrive at any node in the network and can only leave the system when it reaches its destination node. One of the attractive features of backpressure routing is that it leads to maximum network throughput without requiring any knowledge about traffic arrival rates [@Tassiulas92Stability; @NMR05; @Georgiadis06].
To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first time backpressure routing has been adapted to solve the traffic signal control problem. Since many assumptions made in backpressure routing are not valid in our traffic signalization application, certain modifications need to be made to the original algorithm. With these modifications, we formally prove that our algorithm inherits the desired properties of backpressure routing as it leads to maximum network throughput even though the signal at each junction is determined completely independently from the signal at other junctions, and no information about traffic arrival rates is provided. Furthermore, since our controller is constructed and implemented in a completely distributed manner, it can be applied to an arbitrarily large network. Simulation results show that our algorithm significantly outperforms SCATS.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: We provide useful definitions and existing results concerning network stability in the following section. Section \[sec:prob\] describes the traffic signal control problem considered in this paper. Our backpressure-based traffic signal control algorithm is described in Section \[sec:contr\]. In Section \[sec:contr\_evaluation\], we formally prove that our algorithm ensures global optimality as it leads to maximum network throughput, even though the signal at each junction is determined completely independently from other junctions. Section \[sec:results\] presents simulation results, showing that our algorithm can significantly reduce the queue length compared to SCATS. Finally, Section \[sec:conclusions\] concludes the paper and discusses future work.
Preliminaries
=============
In this section, we summarize existing results and definitions concerning network stabilility. We refer the reader to [@Tassiulas92Stability; @NMR05; @Georgiadis06] for more details.
Consider a network modeled by a directed graph with $N$ nodes and $L$ links. Each node maintains an internal queue of objects to be processed by the network, while each link $(a,b)$ represents a channel for direct transmission of objects from node $a$ to node $b$. Suppose the network operates in slotted time $t \in {{{\relax\ifmmode \mathbb N\else $\mathbb N$\fi}}^0}$ where ${{{\relax\ifmmode \mathbb N\else $\mathbb N$\fi}}^0}$ is the set of natural numbers (including zero). Objects may arrive at any node in the network and can only leave the system upon reaching the their destination node. Let $A_i(t)$ represent the number of objects that exogenously arrives at source node $i$ during slot $t$ and $U_i(t)$ represent the queue length at node $i$ at time $t$. We assume that all the queues have infinite capacity. In addition, only the objects currently at each node at the beginning of slot $t$ can be transmitted during that slot. Our control objective is to ensure that all queues are stable as defined below.
A network is *strongly stable* if each individual queue $U$ satisfies $$\limsup_{t \to \infty} \frac{1}{t} \sum_{\tau=0}^{t-1} 1_{[U(\tau) > V]} \to 0 \hbox{ as } V \to \infty,$$ where for any event $X$, the indicator function $1_X$ takes the value 1 if X is satisfied and takes the value 0 otherwise.
In this paper, we restrict our attention to strong stability and use the term “stability” to refer to strong stability defined above. For a network with $N$ queues $U_1, \ldots, U_N$ that evolve according to some probabilistic law, a sufficient condition for stability can be provided using Lyapunov drift.
\[prop:LyapunovStability\] Suppose ${\mathbb{E}}\{U_i(0)\} < \infty$ for all $i \in \{1, \ldots, N\}$ and there exist constants $B > 0$ and $\epsilon > 0$ such that $${\mathbb{E}}\Big\{L(\mathbf{U}(t+1)) - L(\mathbf{U}(t)) \Big| \mathbf{U}(t)\Big\} \leq B - \epsilon \sum_{i=1}^N U_i(t), \forall t \in {{{\relax\ifmmode \mathbb N\else $\mathbb N$\fi}}^0},$$ where for any queue vector $\mathbf{U} = [U_1, \ldots, U_N]$, $L(\mathbf{U}) \triangleq \sum_{i=1}^N U_i^2$. Then the network is strongly stable.
\[def:rate\] An arrival process $A(t)$ is *admissible with rate* $\lambda$ if:
- The time average expected arrival rate satisfies $$\lim_{t \to \infty} \frac{1}{t} \sum_{\tau=0}^{t-1} {\mathbb{E}}\{A(\tau)\} = \lambda.$$
- There exists a finite value $A_{max}$ such that ${\mathbb{E}}\{A(t)^2 \hspace{1mm}|\hspace{1mm} \mathbf{H}(t)\} \leq A_{max}^2$ for any time slot $t$, where $\mathbf{H}(t)$ represents the history up to time $t$, i.e., all events that take place during slots $\tau \in \{0,\ldots,t-1\}$.
- For any $\delta > 0$, there exists an interval size $T$ (which may depend on $\delta$) such that for any initial time $t_0$, $${\mathbb{E}}\left\{ \frac{1}{T} \sum_{k=0}^{T-1} A(t_0 + k) \hspace{1mm}\Big|\hspace{1mm} \mathbf{H}(t_0) \right\} \leq \lambda + \delta.$$
For each node $i$, we define $\lambda_i$ to be the time average rate with which $A_i(t)$ is admissible. Let $\boldsymbol{\lambda} = \left[\lambda_i\right]$ represent the arrival rate vector.
\[def:capacity region\] The *capacity region* $\Lambda$ is the closed region of arrival rate vectors $\boldsymbol{\lambda}$ with the following properties:
- $\boldsymbol{\lambda} \in \Lambda$ is a necessary condition for network stability, considering all possible strategies for choosing the control variables (including strategies that have perfect knowledge of future events).
- $\boldsymbol{\lambda} \in \mathrm{int}(\Lambda)$ is a sufficient condition for the network to be stabilized by a policy that does not have a-priori knowledge of future events.
The capacity region essentially describes the set of all arrival rate vectors that can be stably supported by the network. A scheduling algorithm is said to maximize the network throughput if it stabilizes the network for all arrival rates in the interior of $\Lambda$.
The Traffic Signal Control Problem {#sec:prob}
==================================
A road network ${{\mathcal{N}}}$ is defined as a collection of links and signalized junctions. Let $N$ and $L$ be the number of links and junctions, respectively, in ${{\mathcal{N}}}$. Then, ${{\mathcal{N}}}$ can be written as ${{\mathcal{N}}}= ({{\mathcal{L}}}, {{\mathcal{J}}})$ where ${{\mathcal{L}}}= \{{{\mathcal{L}}}_1, \ldots, {{\mathcal{L}}}_{N}\}$ and ${{\mathcal{J}}}= \{ {{\mathcal{J}}}_1, \ldots, {{\mathcal{J}}}_{L}\}$ are sets of all the links and signalized junctions, respectively, in ${{\mathcal{N}}}$. Each junction ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i$ can be described by a tuple ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i = ({{\mathcal{M}}}_i, {{\mathcal{P}}}_i, {{\mathcal{Z}}}_i)$ where ${{\mathcal{M}}}_i \subseteq {{\mathcal{L}}}^2$ is a set of all the possible traffic movements through ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i$, ${{\mathcal{P}}}_i \subseteq 2^{{{\mathcal{M}}}_i}$ is a set of all the possible phases of ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i$ and ${{\mathcal{Z}}}_i$ is a finite set of traffic states, each of which captures factors that affect the traffic flow rate through ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i$ such as traffic and weather conditions. Each traffic movement through junction ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i$ is defined by a pair $({{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b)$ where ${{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b \in {{\mathcal{L}}}$ such that a vehicle may enter and exit ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i$ through ${{\mathcal{L}}}_a$ and ${{\mathcal{L}}}_b$, respectively. Each phase $p \in {{\mathcal{P}}}_i$ defines a combination $p \subseteq {{\mathcal{M}}}_i$ of traffic movements simultaneously receiving the right-of-way. A typical set of phases of a 4-way junction is shown in Figure \[fig:phase-ex\].
\[fig:phase-ex\]
We assume that the traffic signal system operates in slotted time $t \in {{{\relax\ifmmode \mathbb N\else $\mathbb N$\fi}}^0}$. During each time slot, vehicles may enter the network at any link. For each $a \in \{1, \ldots, N\}$, $i \in \{1, \ldots, L\}$, $t \in {{{\relax\ifmmode \mathbb N\else $\mathbb N$\fi}}^0}$, we let $Q_a(t) \in {{{\relax\ifmmode \mathbb N\else $\mathbb N$\fi}}^0}$ and $z_i(t) \in {{\mathcal{Z}}}_i$ represent the number of vehicles on ${{\mathcal{L}}}_a$ and the traffic state around ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i$, respectively, at the beginning of time slot $t$. In addition, for each $i \in \{1, \ldots, L\}$, we define a function $\xi_{i} : {{\mathcal{P}}}_i \times {{\mathcal{M}}}_i \times {{\mathcal{Z}}}_i \to {{{\relax\ifmmode \mathbb N\else $\mathbb N$\fi}}^0}$ such that $\xi_{i}(p, {{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b, z)$ gives the rate (i.e., the number of vehicles per unit time) at which vehicles that can go from ${{\mathcal{L}}}_a$ to ${{\mathcal{L}}}_b$ through junction ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i$ under traffic state $z$ if phase $p$ is activated. By definition, $\xi_{i}(p, {{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b, z) = 0, \forall z \in {{\mathcal{Z}}}_i$ if $({{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b) \not\in p$, i.e., phase $p$ does not give the right of way to the traffic movement from ${{\mathcal{L}}}_a$ to ${{\mathcal{L}}}_b$. When traffic state $z$ represents the case where the number of vehicles on ${{\mathcal{L}}}_a$ that seek the movement to ${{\mathcal{L}}}_b$ through ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i$ is large, $\xi_{i}(p, {{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b, z)$ can be simply obtained by assuming saturated flow.
At the beginning of each time slot, the traffic signal controller determines the phase for each junction to be activated during this time slot. In this paper, we consider the traffic signal control problem as stated below.
**Traffic Signal Control Problem:** Design a traffic signal controller that determines the phase $p_i(t) \in {{\mathcal{P}}}_i$ for each junction ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i, i \in \{1, \ldots, L\}$ to be activated during each time slot $t \in {{{\relax\ifmmode \mathbb N\else $\mathbb N$\fi}}^0}$ such that the network throughput is maximized. We assume that there exists a reliable traffic monitoring system that provides the queue length $Q_a(t)$ and traffic state $z_i(t)$ for each $a \in \{1, \ldots, N\}$, $i \in \{1, \ldots, L\}$ at the beginning of each time slot $t \in {{{\relax\ifmmode \mathbb N\else $\mathbb N$\fi}}^0}$ to the controller.
Backpressure-based Traffic Signal Controller {#sec:contr}
============================================
In this section, we propose a distributed traffic signal control algorithm that employs the idea from backpressure routing as described in [@Tassiulas92Stability; @NMR05; @Georgiadis06]. Unlike most of the traffic signal controllers considered in existing literature, our controller can be constructed and implemented in a completely distributed manner. Furthermore, it does not require any knowledge about traffic arrival rates. We end the section with a discussion of some basic properties of the proposed controller.
Our traffic signal controller consists of a set of local controllers ${\mathcal{C}}_1, \ldots, {\mathcal{C}}_L$ where local controller ${\mathcal{C}}_i$ is associated with junction ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i$. These local controllers are constructed and implemented independently[^4] of one another. Furthermore, each local controller does not require the global view of the road network. Instead, it only requires information that is local to the junction with which it is associated. At each time slot $t$, local controller ${\mathcal{C}}_i$ computes the phase $p^* \in {{\mathcal{P}}}_i$ to be activated at junction ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i$ during time slot $t$ as described in Algorithm \[Alg:controller\].
$S_p^* \leftarrow -\infty$ $p^* \leftarrow \emptyset$
Consider an arbitrary junction ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i \in {{\mathcal{J}}}$. At the beginning of time slot $t$, we first compute (line 4 of Algorithm \[Alg:controller\]) $$\label{eq:Wab_traffic}
W_{ab}(t) \triangleq Q_a(t) - Q_b(t), $$ for each pair $({{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b) \in {{\mathcal{M}}}_i$. Then, for each phase $p \in {{\mathcal{P}}}_i$, we compute (line 6 of Algorithm \[Alg:controller\]) $$\label{eq:Sp}
S_p(t) \triangleq \sum_{({{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b) \in p} W_{ab}(t) \xi_{i}(p, {{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b, z_i(t)).$$
The local controller ${\mathcal{C}}_i$ then activates phase $p^* \in {{\mathcal{P}}}_i$ such that $S_{p^*} \geq S_p, \forall p \in {{\mathcal{P}}}_i$ during the time slot $t$ (line 7–9 of Algorithm \[Alg:controller\]). If there exist multiple options of $p^*$ that satisfy the inequality, the controller can pick one arbitrarily. Note that since the number of possible phases for each junction is typically small (e.g., less than $10$), the above computation and enumeration through all the possible phases can be practically performed in real time.
Our algorithm is similar in nature to backpressure routing for a single-commodity network. In [@Tassiulas92Stability; @NMR05; @Georgiadis06], it has been shown that backpressure routing leads to maximum network throughput. However, it is still premature to simply conclude that our backpressure-based traffic signal control algorithm inherits this property due to the following reasons. First, backpressure routing requires that a commodity at least defines the destination of the object. Implementing the algorithm for a single-commodity network implies that we assume that all the vehicles have a common destination, which is not a valid assumption for our application. Second, backpressure routing assumes that the controller has complete control over routing of the traffic around the network whereas in our traffic signal control problem, the controller does not have control over the route picked by each driver. Third, backpressure routing assumes that the network controller has control over the flow rate of each link subject to the maximum rate imposed by the link constraint. However, the traffic signal controller can only picks a phase $p_i(t)$ to be activated at each junction ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i$ during each time slot $t$ but does not have control over the flow rate of each traffic movement once $p_i(t)$ is activated. To account for this lack of control authority, we slightly modify the definition of $W_{ab}(t)$ from that used in backpressure routing. Finally, the optimality result of backpressure routing relies on the assumption that all the queues have infinite buffer storage space. Even though it is not reasonable to assume that all the links have infinite queue capacity, for the rest of the paper, we assume that this is the case. In practice, our algorithm is expected to work well when each link can accommodate a reasonably long queue.
Before evaluating the performance of our algorithm, we first provide its basic property, which is similar to the basic property of backpressure routing. Let ${{\mathcal{P}}}= {{\mathcal{P}}}_1 \times \ldots \times {{\mathcal{P}}}_L$ and ${{\mathcal{Z}}}= {{\mathcal{Z}}}_1 \times \ldots \times {{\mathcal{Z}}}_L$. For each $a \in \{1, \ldots, N\}$, we define functions $V^{out}_a : {{\mathcal{P}}}\times {{\mathcal{Z}}}\to {{{\relax\ifmmode \mathbb R\else $\mathbb R$\fi}}}$ and $V^{in}_a : {{\mathcal{P}}}\times {{\mathcal{Z}}}\to {{{\relax\ifmmode \mathbb R\else $\mathbb R$\fi}}}$ such that for any $\mathbf{p} \in {{\mathcal{P}}}$ and $\mathbf{z} \in {{\mathcal{Z}}}$, $$\begin{array}{rcl}
V^{out}_a(\mathbf{p}, \mathbf{z}) &=&
\displaystyle{\sum_{\scriptsize \begin{array}{c}b,i \hbox{ s.t. }\\ ({{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b) \in {{\mathcal{M}}}_i \end{array}} \hspace{-6mm} \xi_{i}(p_i, {{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b, z_i)},\\
V^{in}_a(\mathbf{p}, \mathbf{z}) &=&
\displaystyle{\sum_{\scriptsize \begin{array}{c}b,i \hbox{ s.t. }\\ ({{\mathcal{L}}}_b, {{\mathcal{L}}}_a) \in {{\mathcal{M}}}_i \end{array}} \hspace{-6mm} \xi_{i}(p_i, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b, {{\mathcal{L}}}_a, z_i)},
\end{array}$$ where for each $i \in \{1, \ldots, L\}$, $p_i \in {{\mathcal{P}}}_i$ is the element of $\mathbf{p}$ that corresponds to the phase of junction ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i$ and $z_i \in {{\mathcal{Z}}}_i$ is the element of $\mathbf{z}$ that corresponds to the traffic state of junction ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i$.
\[lem:basic\_prop\] Consider an arbitrary time slot $t \in {{{\relax\ifmmode \mathbb N\else $\mathbb N$\fi}}^0}$. Let $\mathbf{z}(t) \in {{\mathcal{Z}}}$ be a vector of traffic states of all the junctions during time slot $t$. For each $i \in \{1, \ldots, L\}$, let $p_i^*(t)$ denote the phase determined by Algorithm \[Alg:controller\] to be activated at junction ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i$ during time slot $t$ and $\tilde{p}_i(t)$ be the phase to be activated at junction ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i$ determined by any other algorithm for junction ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i$ during time slot $t$. Then, $$\label{eq:lem:basic_prop}
\begin{array}{l}
\displaystyle{\sum_a Q_a(t) \Big( V^{out}_a \big(\tilde{\mathbf{p}}(t), \mathbf{z}(t) \big) - V^{in}_a \big(\tilde{\mathbf{p}}(t), \mathbf{z}(t) \big) \Big)} \\
\hspace{8mm}\leq
\displaystyle{\sum_a Q_a(t) \Big( V^{out}_a \big(\mathbf{p}^*(t), \mathbf{z}(t) \big) - V^{in}_a \big(\mathbf{p}^*(t), \mathbf{z}(t) \big) \Big)},
\end{array}$$ where $\tilde{\mathbf{p}}(t) = [\tilde{p}_i(t)]$ and $\mathbf{p}^*(t) = [p^*_i(t)]$.
First, we note the following identity $$\label{pf:basic_prop1}
\begin{array}{l}
\displaystyle{\sum_a Q_a(t) \Big( V^{out}_a\big(\mathbf{p}(t), \mathbf{z}(t)\big) - V^{in}_a\big(\mathbf{p}(t), \mathbf{z}(t)\big) \Big)}\\
\hspace{8mm}=\hspace{-5mm}
\displaystyle{\sum_{\scriptsize \begin{array}{c}a,b,i \hbox{ s.t. }\\ ({{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b) \in {{\mathcal{M}}}_i \end{array}} \hspace{-6mm} \xi_{i} \big(p_i(t), {{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b, z_i(t) \big)
W_{ab}(t)},
\end{array}$$ for all $\mathbf{p}(t) \in {{\mathcal{P}}}$ and $\mathbf{z}(t) \in {{\mathcal{Z}}}$.
Since for each $i \in \{1, \ldots, L\}$, $p^*_i(t)$ is chosen such that $S_{p^*_i(t)} \geq S_{\tilde{p}_i(t)}$, we get $$\label{pf:basic_prop2}
\begin{array}{l}
\displaystyle{\sum_{\scriptsize \begin{array}{c}a,b \hbox{ s.t. }\\ ({{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b) \in {{\mathcal{M}}}_i \end{array}} \hspace{-6mm} \xi_i \big(\tilde{p}_i(t), {{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b, z_i(t) \big)
W_{ab}(t)}\\
\hspace{8mm}\leq
\displaystyle{\sum_{\scriptsize \begin{array}{c}a,b \hbox{ s.t. }\\ ({{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b) \in {{\mathcal{M}}}_i \end{array}} \hspace{-6mm} \xi_i \big(p^*_i(t), {{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b, z_i(t) \big)
W_{ab}(t)},
\end{array}$$ for all $i \in \{1, \ldots, L\}$. The result in (\[eq:lem:basic\_prop\]) can be obtained by summing the inequality in (\[pf:basic\_prop2\]) over $i \in \{1, \ldots, L\}$ and using the identity in (\[pf:basic\_prop1\]).
Controller Performance Evaluation {#sec:contr_evaluation}
=================================
Let $\Lambda$ be the capacity region of the road network as defined in Definition \[def:capacity region\]. Assume that $\mathbf{z}(t) = \left[ z_i(t) \right]$ evolve according to a finite state, irreducible, aperiodic Markov chain. Let $\pi_\mathbf{z}$ represent the time average fraction of time that $\mathbf{z}(t) = \mathbf{z}$, i.e., with probability 1, we have $\lim_{t \to \infty} \frac{1}{t} \sum_{\tau = 0}^{t-1} 1_{[\mathbf{z}(\tau) = \mathbf{z}]} = \pi_\mathbf{z}$, for all $\mathbf{z} \in {{\mathcal{Z}}}$ where $1_{[\mathbf{z}(\tau) = \mathbf{z}]}$ is an indicator function that takes the value 1 if $\mathbf{z}(\tau) = \mathbf{z} $ and takes the value 0 otherwise. In addition, we let ${{\mathcal{M}}}= \bigcup_i {{\mathcal{M}}}_i$ be the set of all the possible traffic movements. For the simplicity of the presentation, we assume that ${{\mathcal{M}}}_i \cap {{\mathcal{M}}}_j = \emptyset$ for all $i \not= j$. For each $\mathbf{p} \in {{\mathcal{P}}}$, $\mathbf{z} \in {{\mathcal{Z}}}$, we define a vector $\boldsymbol{\xi}(\mathbf{p}, \mathbf{z})$ whose $k^{th}$ element is equal to $\xi_i(p_i, {{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b, z_i)$ where $({{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b)$ is the $k^{th}$ traffic movement in ${{\mathcal{M}}}$, $i$ is the (unique) index satisfying $({{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b) \in {{\mathcal{M}}}_i$ and $p_i$ and $z_i$ are the $i^{th}$ element of $\mathbf{p}$ and $\mathbf{z}$, respectively. Define $$\label{eq:Gamma}
\Gamma \triangleq \sum_{\mathbf{z} \in {{\mathcal{Z}}}} \pi_\mathbf{z}
{\mathit{Conv}}\Big\{ \left[ \boldsymbol{\xi}(\mathbf{p}, \mathbf{z}) \right]
\hspace{1mm}\Big|\hspace{1mm} \mathbf{p} \in {{\mathcal{P}}}_1 \times \ldots \times {{\mathcal{P}}}_L \Big\},$$ where for any set $\mathcal{S}$, ${\mathit{Conv}}\{\mathcal{S}\}$ represents the convex hull of $\mathcal{S}$.
Additionally, we assume that the process of vehicles exogenously entering the network is rate ergodic and for all for all $a \in \{1, \ldots, N\}$, there are always enough vehicles on ${{\mathcal{L}}}_a$ such that for all $i \in \{1, \ldots, L\}$, $b \in \{1, \ldots, N\}$, $p \in {{\mathcal{P}}}_i$, $z \in {{\mathcal{Z}}}_i$ such that $({{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b) \in {{\mathcal{M}}}_i$, vehicles can move from ${{\mathcal{L}}}_a$ to ${{\mathcal{L}}}_b$ through junction ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i$ at rate $\xi_i(p, {{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b, z)$ under traffic state $z$ if phase $p$ is activated at ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i$. For each $a \in \{1, \ldots, N\}$, let $\lambda_a$ be the time average rate with which the number of new vehicles that exogenously enter the network at link ${{\mathcal{L}}}_a$ during each time slot is admissible. Let $\boldsymbol{\lambda} = \left[ \lambda_a \right]$ represent the arrival rate vector.
Before deriving the optimality result for our backpressure-based traffic signal control algorithm, we first characterize the capacity region of the road network, as formally stated in the following lemma.
The capacity region of the network is given by the set $\Lambda$ consisting of all the rate vectors $\boldsymbol{\lambda}$ such that there exists a rate vector $\mathbf{G} \in \Gamma$ together with flow variables $f_{ab}$ for all $a,b \in \{1, \ldots, N\}$ satisfying $$\begin{aligned}
\label{eq:f-nonnegative}
f_{ab} \geq 0, &&\forall a,b \in \{1, \ldots, N\},\\
\label{eq:f-conservation}
\lambda_a = \sum_b f_{ab} - \sum_c f_{ca}, &&\forall a \in \{1, \ldots, N\},\\
\label{eq:f-zero}
f_{ab} = 0, &&\forall a,b \in \{1, \ldots, N\} \\
\nonumber
&& \hbox{such that } ({{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b) \not\in {{\mathcal{M}}},\end{aligned}$$ $$\begin{aligned}
\label{eq:f-constraint}
f_{ab} = G_{ab}, &&\forall a,b \in \{1, \ldots, N\} \\
\nonumber
&& \hbox{such that } ({{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b) \in {{\mathcal{M}}},\end{aligned}$$ where $G_{ab}$ is the element of $\mathbf{G}$ that corresponds to the rate of traffic movement $({{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b)$.
First, we prove that $\boldsymbol{\lambda} \in \Lambda$ is a necessary condition for network stability, considering all possible strategies for choosing the control variables (including strategies that have perfect knowledge of future events). Consider an arbitrary time $t$. For each $a \in \{1, \ldots, N\}$, let $X_a(t)$ denote the total number of vehicles that exogenously enters the road network at link ${{\mathcal{L}}}_a$ during time interval $[0,t]$. Suppose the network can be stabilized by some policy, possibly one that bases its decisions upon complete knowledge of future arrivals. For each $a,b \in \{1, \ldots, N\}$, let $Q_a(t)$ and $F_{ab}(t)$ represent the number of vehicles left on ${{\mathcal{L}}}_a$ at time $t$ and the total number of vehicles executing the $({{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b)$ movement during time interval $[0,t]$ under this stabilizing policy. Due to flow conservation and link constraints, we have $$\label{eq:F-nonnegative}
F_{ab}(t) \geq 0,$$ $$\label{eq:F-conservation}
X_a(t) - Q_a(t) = \displaystyle{\sum_b F_{ab}(t) - \sum_c F_{ca}(t)},$$ $$\label{eq:F-constraint}
F_{ab}(t) = \left\{
\begin{array}{ll}
0, &\hspace{-2mm}\hbox{if } ({{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b) \not\in {{\mathcal{M}}},\\
\hspace{-2mm}\displaystyle{\int_{\tau=0}^{t} \hspace{-3mm}\xi_i(p_i(\tau), {{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b, z_i(\tau)) d\tau}, &\hspace{-2mm}\hbox{if } ({{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b) \in {{\mathcal{M}}}_i
\end{array} \right.$$ for all $a,b \in \{1, \ldots, N\}$ where $p_i(\tau)$ and $z_i(\tau)$ are the phase and traffic state, respectively, of junction ${{\mathcal{J}}}_i$ at time $\tau$.
For each $a,b \in \{1, \ldots, N\}$, define $f_{ab} \triangleq F_{ab}(\tilde{t})/\tilde{t}$ for some arbitrarily large time $\tilde{t}$. It is clear from (\[eq:F-nonnegative\]) and (\[eq:F-constraint\]) that (\[eq:f-nonnegative\]) and (\[eq:f-zero\]) are satisfied. In addition, we can follow the proof in [@NMR05] to show that there exists a sample paths $F_{ab}(t)$ such that $f_{ab}$ comes arbitrarily close to satisfying (\[eq:f-conservation\]) and (\[eq:f-constraint\]). As a result, it can be shown that $\boldsymbol{\lambda}$ is a limit point of the capacity region $\Lambda$. Since $\Lambda $ is compact and hence contains its limit points, it follows that $\boldsymbol{\lambda} \in \Lambda$.
Next, we show that $\boldsymbol{\lambda}$ strictly interior to $\Lambda$ is a sufficient condition for network stability, considering only strategies that do not have a-priori knowledge of future events. Suppose the rate vector $\boldsymbol{\lambda}$ is such that there exists $\boldsymbol{\epsilon} > 0$ such that $\boldsymbol{\lambda} + \boldsymbol{\epsilon} \in \Lambda$. Let $\mathbf{G} \in \Gamma$ be a transmission rate vector associated with the input rate vector $\boldsymbol{\lambda} + \boldsymbol{\epsilon}$ according to the definition of $\Lambda$. It has been proved in [@NMR05] that there exists a stationary randomized policy $\tilde{p}_i(\tau)$ for each $i \in \{1, \ldots, L\}$ that satisfies certain convergence bounds and such that for each $({{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b) \in {{\mathcal{M}}}_i$, $\lim_{t \to \infty} \frac{1}{t} \sum_{\tau=0}^{t} \xi_i(\tilde{p}_i(\tau), {{\mathcal{L}}}_a, {{\mathcal{L}}}_b, z_i(\tau)) = G_{ab}$. In addition, such a policy stabilizes the system.
\[cor:randomized\] Suppose $\mathbf{z}(t)$ is i.i.d. from slot to slot. Then, $\boldsymbol{\lambda}$ is within the capacity region $\Lambda$ if and only if there exists a stationary randomized control algorithm that makes phase decisions $\hat{\mathbf{p}}(t)$ based only on the current traffic state $\mathbf{z}(t)$, and that yields for all $a \in \{1, \ldots, N\}$, $t \in {{{\relax\ifmmode \mathbb N\else $\mathbb N$\fi}}^0}$, $$\begin{array}{c}
{\mathbb{E}}\Bigg\{ V^{out}_a \big(\hat{\mathbf{p}}(t), \mathbf{z}(t) \big)
- V^{in}_a \big(\hat{\mathbf{p}}(t), \mathbf{z}(t) \big) \Bigg\}
= \lambda_a,
\end{array}$$ where the expectation is taken with respect to the random traffic state $\mathbf{z}(t)$ and the (potentially) random control action based on this state.
Finally, based on the above corollary and the basic property of our backpressure-based traffic signal control algorithm, we can conclude that our algorithm leads to maximum network throughput.
If there exists $\boldsymbol{\epsilon} > 0$ such that $\boldsymbol{\lambda} + \boldsymbol{\epsilon} \in \Lambda$, then the proposed backpressure-based traffic signal controller stabilizes the network, provided that $\mathbf{z}(t)$ is i.i.d. from slot to slot.
Consider an arbitrary policy $\tilde{\mathbf{p}}(t)$. By simple manipulations, we get $$\hspace{-2mm}
\begin{array}{l}
L(\mathbf{Q}(t+1)) - L(\mathbf{Q}(t)) \leq B - \\
\hspace{3mm}2
\displaystyle{\sum_{a} Q_a(t) \Big( V^{out}_a \big( \tilde{\mathbf{p}}(t), \mathbf{z}(t) \big) - A_a(t) - V^{in}_a \big( \tilde{\mathbf{p}}(t), \mathbf{z}(t) \big) \Big)},
\end{array}$$ where $A_a(t)$ is the number of vehicle that exogenously enter the network at link ${{\mathcal{L}}}_a$ during time slot $t$, $$\begin{array}{rcl}
B &=&
\displaystyle{\sum_a \Bigg( \Big( \sup_{\scriptsize \begin{array}{c}\mathbf{p} \in {{\mathcal{P}}},\\ \mathbf{z} \in {{\mathcal{Z}}}\end{array}}
V^{out}_a \big( \mathbf{p}(t), \mathbf{z}(t) \big) \Big)^2} +\\
&&\displaystyle{\Big( A_a^{max} +
\sup_{\scriptsize \begin{array}{c}\mathbf{p} \in {{\mathcal{P}}},\\ \mathbf{z} \in {{\mathcal{Z}}}\end{array}}
V^{in}_a \big( \mathbf{p}(t), \mathbf{z}(t) \big) \Big)^2 \Bigg)}
\end{array}$$ and $A_a^{max}$ satisfies $A_a(t) \leq A_a^{max}, \forall t$. Hence, we get $$\begin{array}{l}
{\mathbb{E}}\Big\{ L(\mathbf{Q}(t+1)) - L(\mathbf{Q}(t)) \Big| \mathbf{Q}(t) \Big\} \leq\\
\hspace{8mm} \displaystyle{B + 2\sum_a Q_a(t) {\mathbb{E}}\Big\{ A_a(t) \Big| \mathbf{Q}(t) \Big\} - 2 \sum_{a} Q_a(t)}\\
\hspace{8mm} {\mathbb{E}}\Big\{ V^{out}_a \big( \tilde{\mathbf{p}}(t), \mathbf{z}(t) \big) - V^{in}_a \big( \tilde{\mathbf{p}}(t), \mathbf{z}(t) \big) \Big| \mathbf{Q}(t)\Big\}
\end{array}$$
However, from Lemma \[lem:basic\_prop\], the proposed backpressure-based traffic signal controller minimizes the final term on the right hand side of the above inequality over all possible alternative policies $\tilde{\mathbf{p}}(t)$. But since $\boldsymbol{\lambda} + \boldsymbol{\epsilon} \in \Lambda$, according to Corollary \[cor:randomized\], there exists a stationary randomized algorithm that makes phase decisions based only on the current traffic state $\mathbf{z}(t)$ and that yields for all $a \in \{1, \ldots, N\}$, $t \in {{{\relax\ifmmode \mathbb N\else $\mathbb N$\fi}}^0}$, $$\begin{array}{c}
{\mathbb{E}}\Big\{ V^{out}_a \big( \tilde{\mathbf{p}}(t), \mathbf{z}(t) \big) - V^{in}_a \big( \tilde{\mathbf{p}}(t), \mathbf{z}(t) \big)
\Big| \mathbf{Q}(t) \Big\}
= \lambda_a + \epsilon.
\end{array}$$ Hence, we get that when the proposed backpressure-based traffic signal controller is used, $${\mathbb{E}}\Big\{ L(\mathbf{Q}(t+1)) - L(\mathbf{Q}(t)) \Big | \mathbf{Q}(t) \Big\} \leq B - 2\epsilon\sum_a Q_a(t),$$ and from Proposition \[prop:LyapunovStability\], we can conclude that the network is stable.
Simulation Results {#sec:results}
==================
First, we consider a 4-phase junction with 4 approaches and 8 links as shown in Figure \[fig:sim-setup\]. Vehicles exogenously entering each of the 8 links are simulated based on the data Êcollected from the loop detectors installed at the junction between Clementi Rd and Commonwealth Ave W, Singapore. The maximum output rate of each lane is assumed to be 4 times of the maximum arrival rate of that lane.
We implemented SCATS, which is the system currently implemented in Singapore, and our algorithm in MATLAB. The parameters used in the SCATS algorithm are obtained from [@Liu03Master]. Based on [@Pecherkova08Application; @Pecherkova08Modelling], the queue length on each link ${{\mathcal{L}}}_a$ evolves as follows. $$Q_a(t+1) = Q_a(t) + I_a(t) - I_a^{\pi}(Q_a(t), I_a(t), R_a(t)),$$ where $I_a(t)$ is the number of vehicles arriving at link ${{\mathcal{L}}}_a$ during time slot $t$ and $I_a^{\pi}$ is a function that describes the number of passing vehicles and is given by $$\label{eq:sim_rate}
I_a^{\pi}(Q_a(t), I_a(t), R_a(t)) = R_a(t)\left(1 - e^{\frac{-(Q_a(t) + I_a(t))}{R_a(t)}} \right).$$ Here, $R_a(t) = S_a(t)g_a(t)$ is the maximum number of passing vehicles where $S(t)$ is the saturation flow and $g(t)$ is the green time for link ${{\mathcal{L}}}_a$.
![A 4-phase junction with 4 approaches 8 links used in our simulation.[]{data-label="fig:sim-setup"}](sim_phase1 "fig:"){width="11.00000%"} ![A 4-phase junction with 4 approaches 8 links used in our simulation.[]{data-label="fig:sim-setup"}](sim_phase2 "fig:"){width="11.00000%"}
Assuming that all the links have infinite queue capacity, queue lengths of each lane when our algorithm and SCATS are applied are shown in Figure \[fig:sim-results1\]. These simulation results show that our algorithm can reduce the maximum queue length by an order of magnitude, compared to SCATS, as shown in Figure \[fig:sim-results-max1\]. Figure \[fig:sim-results-ave1\] shows that our algorithm also performs significantly better on average.
Suppose each link can actually accommodate only 100 vehicles. Figure \[fig:sim-results2\] shows that SCATS can only support up to 0.9 times of the current vehicle arrival rate whereas the the backpressure-based controller can support up to 1.3 times of the current vehicle arrival rate before the queue length exceeds the link capacity.
Next, we employ a microscopic traffic simulator MITSIMLab [@Ben-Akiva01], whose simulation models have been validated against traffic data collected from Swedish cities, to evaluate our backpressure-based traffic signal control algorithm. We consider a road network with 112 links and 14 signalized junctions as shown in Figure \[fig:sim-MITSIM-network\]. Vehicles exogenously enter and exit the network at various links based on 46 different origin-destination pairs, with the arrival rate of 9330 vehicles/hour. We implement SCATS and our backpressure-based traffic signal control algorithm in the traffic management simulator component of MITSIMLab. Queue length (i.e., the number of vehicles) on each link when each algorithm is used is continuously recorded. Note that in this case, the rate function $\xi_i$, which is used in our algorithm, is still derived from the macroscopic model in (\[eq:sim\_rate\]). Hence, it may not accurately give the flow rate through the corresponding junction due to a possible mismatch between the macroscopic model in (\[eq:sim\_rate\]) and the microscopic model used in MITSIMLab. In addition, as opposed to the previous 1-junction case, all the links have finite queue capacity in this case.
The maximum and average queue lengths are shown in Figure \[fig:sim-results-MITSIM-max\] and Figure \[fig:sim-results-MITSIM-avg\], respectively. These simulation results show that our algorithm can reduce the maximum queue length by a factor of 3, compared to SCATS. In addition, it performs significantly better on average. One of the reasons that the difference in the queue lengths when our algorithm and SCATS are applied is not as significant as in the previous 1-junction case is because in this case, each link has a finite capacity. Hence, the number of vehicles on each link is limited by the link capacity and therefore queue length on each link cannot grow very large. In fact, as shown in Figure \[fig:sim-MITSIM-spillback\], queue spillback, where queues extend beyond one link upstream from the junction, persists throughout the simulation, especially when SCATS is used.
Conclusions and Future Work {#sec:conclusions}
===========================
We considered distributed control of traffic signals. Motivated by backpressure routing, which has been mainly applied to communication and power networks, our approach relies on constructing a set of local controllers, each of which is associated with each junction. These local controllers are constructed and implemented independently of one another. Furthermore, each local controller does not require the global view of the road network. Instead, it only requires information that is local to the junction with which it is associated. We formally proved that our algorithm leads to maximum network throughput even though the controller is constructed and implemented in such a distributed manner and no information about traffic arrival rates is provided. Simulation results showed that our algorithm performs significantly better than SCATS, an adaptive traffic signal control systems that is being used in many cities.
Future work includes incorporating fairness constraints such as ensuring that each traffic flow is served within a certain service interval. Another issue that needs to be addressed as our algorithm may not lead to periodic switching sequences of phases is the additional delay in drivers’ responses to traffic signals, unless a prediction of the next phase can be provided. We are also investigating the coordination issue such as ensuring the emergence of green waves.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
===============
The authors gratefully acknowledge Ketan Savla for the inspiring discussions, Prof. Moshe Ben-Akiva and his research group, in particular Kakali Basak and Linbo Luo, for support with MITSIMLab, and Land Transport Authority of Singapore for providing the data collected from the loop detectors installed at the junction between Clementi Rd and Commonwealth Ave W. This work is supported in whole or in part by the Singapore National Research Foundation (NRF) through the Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology (SMART) Center for Future Urban Mobility (FM).
[^1]: T. Wongpiromsarn is with the Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology, Singapore [[email protected]]{}
[^2]: T. Uthaicharoenpong, Y. Wang and D. Wang are with the Nanyang Technological University, Singapore [[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]]{}
[^3]: E. Frazzoli is with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA [[email protected]]{}
[^4]: However, a synchronized operation among all the junctions is required so that control actions for all the junctions take place according to a common time clock.
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ArXiv
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Q:
Calculating Real Network Round-trip
I would like to understand network latency a bit better.
Lets say there's one Client and two Servers. Client sends 1000 bytes to each of the Servers, each Server responds instantly with 1000 bytes.
Ping round trip times from Client:
To Server 1 - 2ms
To Server 2 - 20ms
Assume both Client and Servers are connected to quality 1 Gbps pipe (but not via dedicated line between them).
Question: how to calculate real time from when Client starts sending its 1000 bytes to when it fully receives the last byte of the response data. Will it be something close to 2ms for Server 1 and 20ms for Server 2?
A:
Yes, that's exactly right!
The ping round-trip delay measures how long it takes a small packet of data to travel from one host on the network to another, and back to the original host.
You should keep in mind that the numbers you get fluctuate a bit based on network conditions and load on the processors of the hosts. You should average the round-trip delay over a few samples but be prepared that any other packet may experience an unusual delay for a variety of reasons.
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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StackExchange
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Role of amino acids in translational mechanisms governing milk protein synthesis in murine and ruminant mammary epithelial cells.
The role of amino acids (AA) on translational regulation in mammary epithelial cells cultured under lactogenic conditions was studied. The rates of total protein synthesis and beta-lactoglobulin (BLG) synthesis in mouse CID-9 cells were 2.1- or 3.1-fold higher, respectively, than in their bovine L-1 counterparts. Total AA deprivation or selective deprivation of Leu had a negative protein-specific effect on BLG synthesis that was more pronounced in bovine cells than in murine cells. Dephosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1 (4E-BP1) and S6 kinase (S6K1) on Thr(389) but not on Ser(411) was also more prominent in bovine cells. Noteably, deprivation of Leu had a less marked effect on BLG synthesis and 4E-BP1 or S6K1 phosphorylation than deprivation of all AA. In AA-deprived CID-9 cells, Leu specifically restored BLG synthesis from pre-existing mRNA whereas AA also restored total protein synthesis. This restoration was associated with a more pronounced effect on 4E-BP1 and S6K1 phosphorylation in bovine versus murine cells. Rapamycin specifically reduced Leu- and AA-stimulated BLG translation initiation in a dose-dependent manner. A further reduction was observed for Leu-treated cells in the presence of LY294002, a PI3K (phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase) inhibitor, which also reduced total protein synthesis. These findings suggest that direct signaling from AA to the translational machinery is involved in determining the rates of milk protein synthesis in mammary epithelial cells.
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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PubMed Abstracts
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Call of Duty Modern Warfare 3 Content Collection 1 Trailer
Content Collection 1 will be the biggest DLC pack in the history of the franchise. It will come with four Multiplayer/Survival Mode Maps and two Special Ops Missions. It is all the content that ELITE owners have already received bundled into one nice package for the rest of the fans. It will be available on Xbox Live on March 20th.
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Pile-CC
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Iran, no longer under sanctions, has ended free shipping of crude oil to India and has terminated a three-year old system of getting paid for half of the oil dues in rupees.
The Persian Gulf nation is now insisting on being paid in Euros for the oil it sells to Indian refiners. It also wants refiners like Essar Oil and Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Ltd (MPRL) to clear nearly $6.5 billion of past dues in Euros, officials said.
had in November 2013 offered free delivery of crude oil to Indian refiners as tough Western sanctions crippled its exports. With shipping lines refusing to transport Iranian crude for fear of being sanctioned, used its shipping line for the delivery and did not charge for transportation.
"National Iranian Oil Company has written to Indian firms saying it will no longer be shipping oil for free," an official said.
"It will continue to ship the oil in its tankers but will charge a discounted tariff," he said.
The transportation fee will for now be less than half it takes to ferry oil from
"May be in future this 50% discount too may go," he added.
Iran however has continued with its liberal fiscal terms of offering 90-day credit period — ie payment becomes due only after three months of invoice being raised.
With US lifting sanctions in January, Iran has told Indian authorities that the three-year old mechanism of paying 45% of oil import bill in rupees and keeping the remaining 55% pending for payment channels to clear, stands terminated.
The pending payments now total to nearly $6.5 billion, which Iran has agreed to receive in instalments over the next six months, officials said.
"NIOC is raising invoice for oil it is now exporting to Indian refiners in Euros," he said.
Since February 2013, Indian refiners like Essar Oil and MRPL paid 45% of their import bill in rupees to UCO Bank account of Iranian oil company. The remaining has been accumulating, pending finalisation of a payment mechanism.
With the lifting of sanctions, the payment channels will reopen and Iran is seeking the pending $6.6 billion in Euros. The payments would be done in instalments to prevent a run on the rupee with MRPL likely to be asked to clear its outstanding dues of close to $3 billion first.
Indian Oil Corp, which owes over $580 million to Iran, may be the second in the queue followed by smaller payments by HPCL-Mittal Energy Ltd and Hindustan Petroleum Corp.
Essar Oil may be the last to clear its about $3 billion dues.
Officials said Iran has not yet decided on utilisation of the $3 billion which has accumulated in the rupee account with UCO Bank.
It could use the money to make payments for imports of steel and other commodities from India.
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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OpenWebText2
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Well, I just got the package a few days ago and have tried wearing all of them out - one a day. I haven't bought frags in a long long time so I'll count this occasion as a return and revival of my fragrance addiction! You might notice that this is a very "sweet" purchase. Lots of gourmands!
Gucci Pour Homme II Gift Set: 9.5/10 - Yes! The perfect "summer" scent for people who despises "fresh" scents. This was love at first smell -- despite a large portion of BN reviews stating that this was a disappointment. Tried sampling and resampling over and over again. This is no GPH I and is indeed very much on a direction of its own. Very refined tea and cinnamon with fresh chopped wood. The dry down for me is STILL black tea. Longevity is great, it's like I'm carrying a cup of black tea with me all day long. I'm extremely happy with this one. Oh, and it's also one of the best bottles I've seen.
Masaki Matsushimi Mat; Very Male: 8.5/10 - Wow. I wasn't really intending to buy this, but the price was attractive and I heard some good things -- so I thought -- why not? I am very impressed. IMO, this is even better than Lolita Lempicka. Smoother, more refined, less cloying, and all in all much better wearability. Good use of the sambuca - anise - licorice trio. Mat's bottle is a really cool "matte" black. Stare at it long enough and it looks like a robed man with hands clasped together. Highly recommended! (especially if you like KenzoAir)
Lolita Lempicka Au Masculin: 7.5/10 - Sweet and cloying, but has lots of personality. Sweet sweet pleasurable base. Reminds me a bit of Le Male -- but with vanilla toned down and replaced with licorice and anise. Well, at least it's really "attention grabbing" and brutally rich. Not the best, but it's something I'm sure I will wear from time to time.
JPG Gaultier2 - (2.9)^2/10 = (8.41) - No! The sweetness doesn't end just there I'm afraid! Amber. Vanilla. Musk. That's what you get at first -- and that's what you'll get in the end as well. The sweetness, for me, is "just about right." Sexy, rich, daring, and different. As a side note, I'm using it as a "fridge magnet" at the moment.
CDG 2: 8.2/10 - My initial reaction was ugh, what's this, magnolia? After an hour or so, pretty fascinating. It is strangely comforting despite being disturbing dissonant though. I can only pull this one off when wearing certain clothes and only on some days. Anyway, I'm liking it more and more by the hour. A strange oddity for my wardrobe.
CDG Vettiveru - 8/10 - Simple. Light. Green. Vetiver. Old fashioned, but modern enough for wearing. Will not buy from this category anymore. Will keep it as my sole vetiver.
CDG Kyoto - 9.25/10 - Living in Asia, I can say for sure that this IS incense. Exactly the kind I can sense when visiting temples. Very zen-like. Soothing. Contemplative. This is perfect for a rainy day. Even more perfect because the "rainy season" in Thailand starts this month. I would never ever wear it out in the heat. It's raining today and I am currently using it.
Hanae Mori HM EDP - 8.314159/10 - As citrusy as a gourmand can ever be! My initial impression was that it was really "sharp" and lemony. VERY impressive as it progresses. Please try it out! Balanced. Refined. Sweet. Unique. I like this alot more than Pi!
CK One Scene - 6.5/10 - Good - but doesn't really work that well on me. Totally different one CK One. Intense vanillic floral with some spice, "green", and musk -- didn't expect this from CK. This doesn't smell like the 90's at all.
What do you guys think? Anyway, any scents to recommend based on my reviews? I'd really love to find something else with tea as the stand-out note as well. Was thinking of ordering a sample of L'Artisan's Tea for Two.
I will come back and review the samples I recieved in a bit. =) Oh, and scores are subject to change anytime.
Funny, I gave that one a 8.17241 (well, assuming I'd smelled it [it's one that I want to]). I enjoyed reading the reviews! Glad you seemed to really enjoy all your selections as well! BN has gotten me terrified of the blind buy, I have to say.
Mat:Very Male is a BRILLIANT scent....one of THE most underrated scents around right now for men. It smells like it should cost $300 a bottle....but it doesn't. The bottle is fantastic, the scent is strong and bold.....for me, it's like Liquorice + Coffee + Cardimum + the spiciest mixture of cloves and black pepper.....i LOVE it and have been singing its praises for a while...and will continue to.
Also, Very Male is great for layering...i generally combine it with something light, like Dior Homme....and almost always get compliments for it.
I'm wearing Hanae Mori now and it's lovely, and yes, just EDT. I love Gucci II too, it is quite nice, especially that sharp tea note lingering throughout its life on my skin. Looking to get a bottle soon as at the moment I only have a sample vial.
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“Don’t forget to put the honey butter on your chicken,” the server says as he lowers a tray of fried chicken onto your table.
Though the reminder may seem silly at a place called Honey Butter, it’s crucial. In a city with no shortage of excellent, affordable fried chicken choices (HBFC’s runs $15 for four pieces, with two corn muffins), this Avondale spot differentiates itself best through accoutrements: rum-barrel-aged hot sauce; inspired sides (three, with a muffin, for $10.50) such as creamed corn with Thai green curry, cumin-laced kale slaw with dehydrated pomegranate, and pimiento mac ’n’ cheese.
And, oh, that honey butter. Whipped till silky, it oozes into the double-battered skin and moist, brined meat, injecting even more decadence into one of life’s great pleasures.
Honey Butter Fried Chicken, 3361 N. Elston Ave., 773-478-4000
Hours: 5 p.m. until 9 p.m. daily; open until 10 p.m. Friday and Saturday. Closed Tuesdays.
This article appears in the December 2013 issue of Chicago magazine. Subscribe to Chicago magazine.
Share
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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OpenWebText2
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1852 in Canada
Events from the year 1852 in Canada.
Incumbents
Monarch — Victoria
Federal government
Parliament: 4th
Governors
Governor General of the Province of Canada — James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin
Colonial Governor of Newfoundland — Charles Henry Darling
Governor of New Brunswick — Edmund Walker Head
Governor of Nova Scotia — John Harvey
Governor of Prince Edward Island — Dominick Daly
Premiers
Joint Premiers of the Province of Canada —
Francis Hincks, Canada West Premier
Augustin-Norbert Morin, Canada East Premier
Premier of Nova Scotia — James Boyle Uniacke
Premier of Prince Edward Island — John Holl
Events
January 15 – Trinity College opens
July 8 – Beginning of a fire which burns 11,000 houses in Montreal.
October – The Bank of Montreal issues notes like the Bank of England's; denomination water-marked.
October 25 – The Toronto Stock Exchange opens
December 8 – Laval's Seminaire du Quebec founds Université Laval, North America's oldest French Language university.
Full date unknown
1852 Newfoundland general election
Births
January 1 – Alexander Bethune, politician and 12th Mayor of Vancouver (died 1947)
March 22 – Theodore Davie, lawyer, politician and 9th Premier of British Columbia (died 1898)
April 5 – Alexander Warburton, politician, jurist, author and Premier of Prince Edward Island (died 1929)
August 19 – John Andrew Davidson, politician (died 1903)
September 9 – Fletcher Bath Wade, politician and barrister (died 1905)
September 24 – Joseph Martin, lawyer, politician and 13th Premier of British Columbia (died 1923)
November 2 – Paul Tourigny, politician (died 1926)
Deaths
April 3 – Alexander Rankin, timber merchant, justice of the peace, politician, and office holder (born 1788)
November 3 – Francis Gore, colonial administrator (born 1769)
Canada
Category:Years of the 19th century in Canada
Category:1852 in North America
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Wikipedia (en)
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Stage-specific nuclear antigen is expressed in rat male germ cells during early meiotic prophase.
A germ cell nuclear antigen with approximately 44-kDa molecular weight was identified by a novel monoclonal antibody designated as Mab 2F2 from the library we have accumulated against rat testicular cells. In immature 20-day-old and adult rat testis the recognized antigen was expressed in the nuclei of early meiotic cells from preleptotene to early pachytene spermatocytes exhibiting a stage-specific appearance in the cycle of the seminiferous epithelium. The immunoreactivity was clearly associated with the meiotic chromosomes. The antigen was not detected in the late pachytene spermatocytes and more advanced stages of spermatogenesis. No labeling was observed in spermatogonia and somatic Sertoli and Leydig cells. The pattern of expression of the recognized antigen during early meiotic stages of spermatogenesis but not in mitotically dividing spermatogonia could strengthen its possible role in meiotic division.
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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PubMed Abstracts
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For someone who did not start out wanting to be an actor, Kim Coates has carved out quite a career for himself. With over 132 acting credits that include films such as Black Hawk Down, Pearl Harbor and his brutally honest performance as Alexander ‘Tig’ Trader in the hit television series Sons of Anarchy, Kim Coates has come a long way from his early days in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada. Recently, we had the chance to talk to Kim about his new movie Officer Downe, life during and after Sons of Anarchy and his experiences as an actor.
So how did you get into the acting business? Was this something that always interested you or was it more like a happy accident?
Kim: No, it was a total fluke. I didn’t know I had an elective in my first year of University, the University of Saskatoon in Saskatchewan where I’m from, and the elective meant I could choose whatever I wanted and honestly, I put my finger on the catalogue of classes, leafed through it very quickly and came to rest on D and under D was drama. I thought drama, wow, I guess I could take that, I know I could pass it for sure and so that’s how it all started, man. I took no theater in high school, nothing, zero, I was the captain of the hockey team, played football, baseball the whole deal and I took one drama class when I was eighteen, my first year of college and thing I was in twenty four plays in a four year period, which is pretty unheard of, that was including Summer Stock, we won a Fringe first over in Edenborough Drama Festival and I knew I was going to be a professional actor after that. I changed my major to drama from history and that’s how it all started brother, I was such a little redneck, a big redneck actually, and I get to college and I started meeting gay people, straight people, liberal arts and jocks and Shakespeare and Tennessee Williams and it was the greatest thing that could have ever happened to me. That led to tons of theater, youngest Macbeth ever at Stratford, I went right from there to Broadway, I played Stanley Kowalski on Broadway for five months in 1989 and then the movies started right after that and the rest is history.
You’ve worked in theater, television and movies. Do you have a favorite medium in terms of acting or do you like to mix it up if you can?
Kim: Yeah, I don’t really, Jeff. I can only say that I haven’t been on stage since 1990 and it’s time to get back on the stage. I’ve got something I can’t really talk about but if things go the way they might, next year I’ll be getting back on the boards. Neither one of my kids has seen me on stage, my wife has obviously, we’ve been married thirty one years so, she’s an old hat with me on stage, has been for a long time. Yeah so, I love theater, I love TV, I think right now has never been stronger, especially on cable. These writers on television, especially for woman which is so exciting, they can write stuff that they don’t do in movies almost anymore, and I do it all. It’s always been and always will be about the script with me, always. Sons of Anarchy was magic in a bottle and that was a seven year gig and now we’re back to movies full time. I just finished my seventh movie in the last fourteen months so it’s a pretty exciting time for me.
Now the movie Officer Downe, above all e lse, looks like a hell of a lot of fun. What was your reaction when you read the script?
Kim: That’s great, make sure you use that, ‘above all else it looks like a lot of fun’, because it’s true. Yeah, Sons of Anarchy ended in the fall of 2014 and I turned down four pretty big TV gigs right away, I didn’t want to do any TV and a couple of movies too, I don’t remember what they were now. Office Downe came my way and they wanted me to read the graphic novel first by Joe Casey and the artwork done by Chris Burham and I did and honestly Jeff, holy fuck, it’s like nothing I’ve ever seen before. This guy’s a cop and he’s a good cop, he’s by the badge, by the book and he dies, they put him on ice for twenty years and when he comes back LA, he’s an LA cop, LA has gone to shit, its Gotham City gone so wrong. It’s all run by the most evil bad guys on the planet and they find out a way to bring him back, I can’t tell you how but he comes back. So for me, to look at the graphic novel and then read the script, to figure out this guy, obviously he’s real, so he’s part Frankenstein, part Robocop, like what the hell? It was so fun and I’m naked for a lot of this film I mean honestly, I had to hit the gym pretty hard, my stunt guys were great but I still did about ninety five percent of my stunts so I’m pretty proud of that, Jeff. I’ve seen the movie and the movies crazy and it’s a game changer. It’s restricted, it’s not for young kids at all, trust me, and there’s many reason for it. Deadpool did so well and while this isn’t Deadpool, it’s on that same line of graphic novel/comic book restricted movies that we don’t have enough of and I cannot wait for people to see it.
What is it about graphic novels and comics now that provide such great material for movies and television to work with?
Kim: Yeah, I don’t know, Mark Neveldine, Joe Casey and Skip Williamson who produced Officer Downe and of course Sean Crahan, clown number six from Slipnot who directed it, they were all over the rights to this graphic novel right away. I think what it is and again, I don’t want to sound negative at all because I think films are really hard to do these days, but Marvel and DC Comics and Warner Brothers, I mean there’s so many PG-13 types I can’t keep up. I don’t know who’s fighting who, I really can’t. This is different, this is a one off, and I’m not saying if this is successful we can’t do another one but seriously, no one even knows who Officer Downe is and the bad guys, who they are, and LA, this is about Los Angeles in the future and we’re opening at the LA Film Festival Jeff, which is so exciting because the film festival there said you have to open this movie here, you filmed it here, Coates is unbelievable in this film, as are all my co-stars, I’m so proud of everybody, I just can’t wait for people to see it, it’s an absolute crazy ride.
It’s now been almost been a year and a half since Sons of Anarchy ended. Can you tell me what that experience was like, what it meant to you and how hard was it to say goodbye to your character Tig as well as the show itself?
Kim: How was it? Well, it was my first foray as a regular on a television show that I wanted to do and I’m glad I said yes, I’m glad I trusted Kurt Sutter and I’m glad I took that ride. Mark Boone Jr. and I were the only two leads that new how to ride motorcycles before the show started, the rest were just fucking knuckleheads. How we got away without anyone getting seriously hurt is a miracle. I’ll never forget doing that show, ever. It will have a special place in my heart as an actor forever but I have to say, that last season was hard, I had some pretty neat stuff to do but it was so violent man, it just go so crazy violent. Charlie and I looked at each other on the fifth episode in the last season and I went ‘We’re killing these people why, and who are they?’ like we didn’t even know anymore. I really do believe that it ended when it should have and I think that it’s going to go down as one of those iconic television series for many reasons. I think we were all tired by the end, not in a bad way but it was an exhausting last couple of years on that show. We should be so lucky to be exhausted, it means we’re working hard, right? But you know what, life is good post Sons and I am so, as are all my cast mates, open one hundred percent to everything again, changing it up, I’ve done seven movies, seven completely different parts for me, like really out there different roles. This is why I became and actor in the first place and I’m just so glad to get back into movies, it’s been great.
Was there ever a time that you thought acting might not work out as a career and did you have any back up plans?
Kim: I never ever thought that no, I knew it was what I had to do, I really mean that. I knew it was going to be tough, I knew I’d have to work hard, I knew opportunity meets hard work meets luck, I knew it would be a mix of all of those three and I was so naïve and so unafraid to fail. I didn’t marry an American, I married a beautiful Canadian girl, both of my girls were born in Toronto, happily and Broadway came along and New York came along and I got my SAG card and Warner Brothers, I did all of those movies and oh my God, it never stopped so no, I never had a backup plan because I knew I was exactly where I had to be.
The look of your character in Officer Downe is fantastic. Did you have any input into all the different parts that made up that unique individual?
Kim: Oh thanks and yeah, of course I did. In fact, that’s a great question Jeff because last February, March and half of April when I was hitting the gym pretty hard getting ready to play this guy, we only shot I think twenty eight days on this film which is kind of miracle seeing as what we actually got. It looks like a fifty million dollar movie and trust me, we had nowhere near that kind of money. But the look for Officer Downe, we had a costume designer who got released from the show early and they realized that had to get this woman Dawn Ritz, she’s the real deal, she had worked with Clown before on many things that Clown has done and she and Joe Casey and Chris Burnham, who did the graphic art work for the novel, I’m telling you bro, we got right back to basics. Me picking out my shades and my mustache and my hat and these pants that allowed me to squat and bend and kick and boots that were light enough that I could use them in the right way and my Answer Man, which was my gun, which was sixteen fucking pounds, imagining lugging that around every day, cocking the trigger back and firing it, it was pretty tough to do. But boy the look, all the bad guys and me hanging upside down for well over an hour, not all at once but it was green blood and blue blood, oh my god, I just can’t wait for people to see it so yeah, the look was very pivotal and Dawn Ritz did an unbelievable job with the wardrobe.
As an actor growing up, did you find any difference between working in Canada and the USA?
Kim: Yeah I did, not for any bad reasons though, just bigger. Broadway was big and off Broadway was big. Hollywood was wow, I’ll never forget walking on the lot in 1991 and meeting Tony Scott who’s now gone, so sadly, Joel Silver and getting the Bruce Willis picture, my whole career changed. Waterworld, going to Hawaii, it’s just bigger, you know? I’ve got so many issues with America these days but it’s still the biggest game in town and that doesn’t mean I won’t go to Thunder Bay tomorrow if the script is right and the director is someone I want to work with because they’re doing some amazing things in Canada and I want to be part of wherever filming is going on as an actor so really, it’s just the game is a bit bigger down here, for sure.
You mentioned all the work you’ve done recently. Can you tell about some of the other projects you have coming up?
Kim: You bet I can, brother. So we talked about Officer Downe, it’s opening June 3rd, it’s been sold out for a while at the LA Film Festival and I’m sure we’ll do a few other festivals and then in a perfect world we’ll open it wide and some people will see it before they know it hopefully. On July 29th I have this beautiful little film called The Land, Steven Capel Jr. wrote it and directed it, a USC graduate and an unbelievable filmmaker. This young kid actor, Jorge Lendeborg Jr. watch out, he’s going to be a movie star this kid. He and four other boys are the leads, it takes place in Cleveland and is based on a true story. I play Uncle Steve, his uncle, his mother died in my arms years ago and he’s always blamed me for that, so we have some sparks flying between he and I. It opened at Sundance and got great reviews, got sold right away so it’s opening everywhere July 29th. There’s Goon 2, where I get to reprise my character Coach Ronnie Hortense, we shot that last summer in Toronto and Jay Baruchel directed this time around and he wrote it and all the usual suspects are back, it’ll be opening at the Toronto Film Festival, that will be huge. I’ve got this big movie with Kevin James and Andy Garcia and Yul Vazquez called The True Memories of an International Assassin. I actually play the president of Venezuela, if you can fucking believe that. A really bad porn mustache, I hate soccer, I love baseball, I miss San Diego, I miss my pet dolphin, I don’t want to be president, I’m in the wrong place at the wrong time. It’s a really dark comedy and it was fun to do. I have this beautiful little film called Strange Weather where my mom will be so proud. She can’t believe I’m playing the sweetest guy I’ve ever played in my life, Holly Hunter’s boyfriend, based on a true story. That will be out sometime this fall, I haven’t seen it yet but I’ve heard some great things about it. I did a big western in Vancouver a couple of months ago with Trace Atkins and Judd Nelson, I played Marshal Calhoun and it’s called Stagecoach: The Texas Jack Story and that was fun to be back on a horse. I also did a little kids movie in my own province of Saskatchewan, they didn’t think I’d do it but yeah, the scripts great, I’m coming. I played Uncle Ozzie, with these four little kids, it’ll be out on Halloween and it’s called The Adventure Club and that was so much fun so there you go, right? A total different arena for all seven parts.
I want to thank Kim Coates for taking the time to talk with us
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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OpenWebText2
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The Most Epic Image Of This Week's Super Blood Moon Eclipse
What could be more awe-inspiring than a super blood moon eclipse? Oh, I dunno, how about a super blood moon eclipse over a lightning storm? That's the jaw-dropping scene photographer Jose Antonio Hervás managed to capture this past Sunday over Ibiza, an island off southeastern Spain.
The image above was digitally constructed from over 200 individual photographs, all captured from the same location during the course of the rare astronomical event Sunday night. Soak it in, Earthlings -- the next opportunity for a shot like this isn't coming until 2033.
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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Pile-CC
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Summary
Bundles free icons from http://www.fatcow.com and provides a handful of convenient taglibs that create asynchronous buttons out of the icons.This plugin started as a clone of the grails-glyph-icons plugin with some adaptations.
Usage
fatcow:icon
For example, the following will produce an tag on the page, loading the 16x16 'accept.png' icon:
<fatcow:icon iconName="accept"/>
iconName
The file name of the plugin without the .png extension. For example, iconName="accept" would load the resource from '/images/FatCowIcons16x16/accept.png' .
size
Currently either 16x16 or 32x32 . Size is optional and will default to 16x16 .
alt
Creates the HTML alt attribute in the <img/> tag. The taglib doesn't require this attribute, although HTML standard does. If you leave this blank, the plugin will place the iconName in there instead.
width
Generates an HTML width attribute in the <img/> tag.
height
Generates an HTML height attribute in the <img/> tag.
fatcow:action
Uses an icon as a link to a remote uri that can be invoked via ajax. This tag is a thin wrapper above the remoteLink tag built into grails. The attributes for the action tag are exactly the same as icon, adding all the attributes from remoteLink .
For example, the following will produce an async link using the the accept.png icon, calling the mycontroller/list and updating the content element with the results:
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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Pile-CC
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When Prime Minister Justin Trudeau observed back on April 16 that the Ontario provincial government led by Premier Doug Ford was throwing roadblocks in the way of Ontario municipalities accessing federal money for needed transportation infrastructure, Conservatives responded with angry denials, and not just in Ontario.
The prime minister had told a news conference Kitchener, Ontario, that over the previous year Ford's Conservative government hadn't approved a single infrastructure project for which federal funds were available. Trudeau called this an example of Ford's government "letting down Ontarians."
Ontario Infrastructure Minister Monte McNaughton characterized the PM's comment as "a desperate attempt to change the channel," a phrase that was quickly picked up and repeated by Conservative echo chambers in media and on social media.
But surely this little blip on the political radar, soon forgotten in the news coverage of the Alberta general election results that evening, from which Jason Kenney's United Conservative Party emerged triumphant, seems more credible in light of recent revelations.
I speak, of course, of the news last week that Manitoba's Conservative provincial government has also refused to accept an offer from Ottawa to provide $5 million in federal carbon tax funds to finance green enhancements at elementary and secondary schools. The sum may be small, but, as they say, it's not the lousy five million bucks, it's the principle of the thing.
The offer was part of a broader federal program to use money from Ottawa's carbon tax to upgrade schools in the four Conservative-run provinces that refused to introduce their own carbon-pricing systems and therefore fell under the federal carbon tax legislation, against which Andrew Scheer's federal Conservatives have chosen to campaign.
Manitoba's seldom-seen Conservative Premier, Brian Pallister, dismissed the federal offer as "a hoax," on the grounds "the feds want to have a PR campaign to promote the carbon tax and they're on their own."
While the logic of Pallister's commentary may seem a little strained, as with Ford's policy in Ontario the motive is not difficult to figure out.
As has been said here before, modern Canadian Conservatives don't seem to have many ideas of their own, and take most of their strategies straight out of the Republican Party playbook south of the 49th parallel.
As is well known, in the age of Donald Trump, American Republicans won't do anything that might help their Democratic Party opponents, even if they have to hurt their own constituents to achieve that goal.
Consider the 14 Republican states that refuse to expand the U.S. federal Medicaid program under the Affordable Care Act, in large part because they don't want to do anything for which Democrats could take credit, but also because they have a pathological hatred of the former president Barack Obama's policies in general, and his health-care reform in particular.
The growing rural health-care crisis in the United States, New York Times economics columnist Paul Krugman wrote in June, "is largely … a direct result of political decisions."
"The simple fact is that the Republicans who run Tennessee and other 'non-expansion' states have chosen to inflict misery on many of their constituents, rural residents in particular," Krugman wrote.
"Rural voters often complain that national elites don't care about their needs," he explained. "Well, one way to make people feel hostile toward those elites is to block their access to federal benefits, and hope they don't realize who's actually causing their misery."
Don't think for a moment the same cynical calculation isn't on Conservative minds in this country, especially with a federal election campaign under way, the economy in pretty good shape, and a Liberal government in Ottawa.
It will be no surprise to see Ontario, New Brunswick and Saskatchewan also turn down similar federal offers. As will Jason Kenney's Alberta, one imagines, now that it's in the process of joining the self-styled "resistance" to carbon pricing.
After all, as has been noted here before, carbon taxes are the Obamacare of Canada, an idea invented by the political right, then cynically abandoned and misrepresented when more centrist parties like the Liberals and Alberta's NDP adopted and implemented it.
David Climenhaga, author of the Alberta Diary blog, is a journalist, author, journalism teacher, poet and trade union communicator who has worked in senior writing and editing positions with The Globe and Mail and the Calgary Herald. This post also appears on David Climenhaga's blog, AlbertaPolitics.ca.
Photo: Manitoba Government/Flickr
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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OpenWebText2
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Cristallini C, Vaccari G, Barbani N, et al. Cardioprotection of PLGA/gelatine cardiac patches functionalised with adenosine in a large animal model of ischaemia and reperfusion injury: A feasibility study. J Tissue Eng Regen Med. 2019;13:1253--1264. 10.1002/term.2875 31050859
1. INTRODUCTION {#term2875-sec-0001}
===============
Ischaemic heart disease is the leading cause of death in the human population (Gaziano, Bitton, Anand, Abrahams‐Gessel, & Murphy, [2009](#term2875-bib-0008){ref-type="ref"}) and the protection against ischaemia‐reperfusion (I/R) damage and myocardial infarction (MI) remains a challenge (Pagliaro & Penna, [2014](#term2875-bib-0023){ref-type="ref"}; Yellon & Hausenloy, [2007](#term2875-bib-0034){ref-type="ref"}).
Despite decades of impressive improvements in therapies for patients developing MI, the current therapies do not fully restore the functionality of the damaged myocardial tissue. Paradoxically, about 50% of the myocardium damage after MI is a result of the rapid re‐oxygenation of the tissues, known as reperfusion injury (Hausenloy & Yellon, [2008](#term2875-bib-0011){ref-type="ref"}). Reperfusion injury therefore remains a major problem in the treatment of MI patients.
Ischaemic postconditioning, consisting in brief repetitive ischaemic episodes during early reperfusion (Galagudza, Kurapeev, Minasian, Valen, & Vaage, [2004](#term2875-bib-0007){ref-type="ref"}; Zhao, [2010](#term2875-bib-0036){ref-type="ref"}), displays infarct‐sparing effect, which can also be achieved by administration of cardioprotective drugs at the time of the myocardial reperfusion or just prior to it (Galagudza, Blokhin, Shmonin, & Mischenko, [2008](#term2875-bib-0006){ref-type="ref"}; Pagliaro & Penna, [2014](#term2875-bib-0023){ref-type="ref"}). Among the pharmacological agents used to induce protection are included adenosine, anaesthetics, cyclosporin‐A, NO donors, and P2Y12 inhibitors, administered mostly through intracoronary or intravenous infusion (Hausenloy et al., [2017](#term2875-bib-0010){ref-type="ref"}; Pagliaro, Femminò, Popara, & Penna, [2018](#term2875-bib-0022){ref-type="ref"}). This pharmacological postconditioning focuses on attenuating the mitochondrial permeability and on promoting the activity of reperfusion injury salvage kinases (RISK), including extracellular‐regulated kinase (ERK) and the serine/threonine kinase Akt (Yellon & Hausenloy, [2007](#term2875-bib-0034){ref-type="ref"}).
However, the postconditioning translation into clinical practice has so far been disappointing. Moreover, the pharmacological agents suggested for infarct size limitation have serious side effects when used at cardioprotective doses, which further hinders their clinical use (Pagliaro & Penna, [2014](#term2875-bib-0023){ref-type="ref"}; Sanada, Komuro, & Kitakaze, [2011](#term2875-bib-0027){ref-type="ref"}). One solution to the problem might be a timely and direct delivery of the cardioprotective drugs into ischaemic‐reperfused myocardium, in order to administer the drugs in a sufficient concentration to achieve the highest efficiency and limit the side effects (Ye & Yang, [2009](#term2875-bib-0033){ref-type="ref"}).
There is now considerable evidence for adenosine involvement in the mechanisms of cardiac protection from conditioning‐induced ischaemia. In particular, by using adenosine and selective agonists and antagonists of several adenosine receptors (Donato et al., [2007](#term2875-bib-0005){ref-type="ref"}; Norton, Jackson, Turner, Virmani, & Forman, [1992](#term2875-bib-0020){ref-type="ref"}; Xi et al., [2009](#term2875-bib-0030){ref-type="ref"}), as well as genetic approaches (Morrison, Tan, Ledent, Mustafa, & Hofmann, [2007](#term2875-bib-0018){ref-type="ref"}; Xi et al., [2008](#term2875-bib-0031){ref-type="ref"}), it has been clearly demonstrated that adenosine and adenosine receptors activation plays a role of paramount importance in cardioprotection against ischaemia/reperfusion myocardial injury. The current thought is that all the adenosine receptors are needed and interact to produce cardioprotection (Lasley, Kristo, Keith, & Mentzer, [2007](#term2875-bib-0014){ref-type="ref"}; Urmaliya, Pouton, Ledent, Short, & White, [2010](#term2875-bib-0029){ref-type="ref"}; Zhan, McIntosh, & Lasley, [2011](#term2875-bib-0035){ref-type="ref"}). This point of view strongly supports the use of adenosine instead of a specific single receptor agonist.
However, the clinical use of adenosine for myocardial protection has yielded conflicting results and may be limited because of its heavy side effects, such as hypotension and bradycardia (Marzilli, Orsini, Maraccini, & Testa, [2000](#term2875-bib-0017){ref-type="ref"}). It is therefore likely that the modality of drug delivery may be crucial.
We recently produced bioartificial cardiac patches and demonstrated their micropatterning‐mediated effect to guide and control proliferation and differentiation of stem cells in cardiac sense (Cristallini et al., [2014](#term2875-bib-0003){ref-type="ref"}; Cristallini et al., [2016](#term2875-bib-0004){ref-type="ref"}).
In this research, we investigated on a small number of pigs (*n* = 4) the potentiality of multilayered Poly(lactic‐co‐glycolic acid) (PLGA)/gelatine cardiac patches for the targeted delivery of adenosine into the ischaemic‐reperfused large‐mammalian heart. The primary goal of this feasibility study was to compare the differences between functionalised and nonfunctionalised patch. Although the exact cardioprotective mechanisms of adenosine are not yet fully understood, we studied the effects of adenosine on some protective/prosurvival kinases (Ovize et al., [2010](#term2875-bib-0021){ref-type="ref"}). The physico‐chemical, degradative, and pharmacological characterisation of the scaffolds was performed before and after implantation. Furthermore, histomorphologic, biochemical, and spectroscopic analyses of the explants were carried out, to verify the cardioprotective effect of the adenosine‐loaded patch.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS {#term2875-sec-0002}
========================
2.1. Adenosine delivery microstructured multilayer patch (ADMMP) preparation {#term2875-sec-0003}
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Our delivery cardiac patch involved the functionalisation with adenosine of a microstructured bilayer based on PLGA (50:50, 40--75 kDa, Sigma Aldrich, USA) and gelatine from porcine skin (gelatine A, Sigma Aldrich, USA), prepared as already described (Cristallini et al., [2016](#term2875-bib-0004){ref-type="ref"}; Khademhosseini et al., [2007](#term2875-bib-0012){ref-type="ref"}; Kim et al., [2012](#term2875-bib-0013){ref-type="ref"}; Zong et al., [2005](#term2875-bib-0037){ref-type="ref"}). The functionalisation method with adenosine (\>99%, Sigma Aldrich, USA) was optimised (Figure [1](#term2875-fig-0001){ref-type="fig"}a) in order to reach an immediate and quantitatively elevated release of adenosine in a very short time, as described in [Supporting Information](#term2875-supitem-0001){ref-type="supplementary-material"}. Identical patches, but without adenosine functionalisation, were also produced (MMP). The patches were dried and sterilised according to a previously optimised method (Rosellini, Cristallini, Barbani, Vozzi, & Giusti, [2009](#term2875-bib-0024){ref-type="ref"}).
\]](TERM-13-1253-g001){#term2875-fig-0001}
2.2. Experimental plan and surgical procedures {#term2875-sec-0004}
----------------------------------------------
Four Large White × Landrace pigs (weight: 46 kg, aged 5 months, sex: female) were utilised. The animals were treated in accordance with the provisions of January 27th, 1992 No 116 Leg. Dec., implementation of Dir No. 86/609/EEC on the protection of animals used for experimental and other scientific purposes, art. 5 (a, b, c, d, e), and Leg. Dec. N. 66, published in "Gazzetta Ufficiale della Repubblica Italiana," issue No 61, March 14th, 2014. In line with the EU Directive 2010/63/EU, the principle of the three Rs were implemented in this work. Three animals were sacrificed after 24 hr from intervention (1‐3_AMI) and one after 3 months of follow‐up (4_AMI) (Table [1](#term2875-tbl-0001){ref-type="table"}). 1_AMI was used to set up the surgical technique, to test the proper number of biopsy samples, and to verify the presence of ischaemic areas after left anterior descending (LAD) coronary artery ligature. To assess the feasibility of patch application on a beating heart and the effect of adenosine on the acute myocardial infarct model, two pigs were sacrificed at 24 hr after implantation of the patches, one unloaded (2_AMI + MMP) and one loaded with adenosine (3_AMI + ADMMP). To evaluate patch bioabsorbance and preliminary patch effect at a medium follow‐up, one pig was sacrificed at 3 months after the implantation of an adenosine‐loaded patch (4_AMI + ADMMP). Details concerning surgical procedures and bioptic sampling can be found in [Supporting Information](#term2875-supitem-0001){ref-type="supplementary-material"}. In short, a biopsy was performed 10 min before the LAD occlusion in the area in which ischaemia would have later been induced. For all biopsies, 14G disposable guillotine needles were used. The LAD occlusion was performed by interrupting the anterior descending coronary blood flow with a tourniquet. Five minutes after the LAD ligature, the patch was sutured on the ischaemic area of the myocardium and fixed with four stitches of 5.0 prolene. Two biopsies, one in the ischaemic area and one in a remote area, were performed 45 min after LAD occlusion. After 50 min from the occlusion, the tourniquet was released (LAD reopening, reperfusion step), and 10 min later, two myocardial biopsies, one in the ischaemic area and one in a remote area, were performed. Finally, two additional biopsies, one in the ischaemic area and one in a remote area, were performed 60 min after LAD reopening; the surgical cut was then sutured, and the animal was awakened. The animals were followed daily to measure sensitive parameters such as sensorium, conjunctival mucous membranes, body temperature, ventilation rhythm and breathing rate, and heart rate. Daily dressing of surgical wounds was performed. In the early days of follow‐up, the animal was kept under drug therapy that included the use of morphine, analgesics (FANS), and antibiotics.
######
Experimental plan for the in vivo characterisation of the patch and myocardial tissue
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Large Animals White × Landrance Pigs (n = 4) Patch characterisation after explant Cardiac tissue characterisation
---------------------------------------------- ---------- ------------------------- -------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------- ------------------------------------------------
1_AMI 24 hr No patch 10′ before LAD, 45′ after LAD, 10′ LAD reopening, 60′ LAD reopening Ischaemic area\
Remote area
2_AMI + MMP 24 hr Patch without adenosine HPLC, FTIR, SEM 10′ before LAD, 45′ after LAD, 10′ LAD reopening, 60′ LAD reopening Ischaemic area\ Ischaemic area (proximal and distal sections)\
Remote area Remote area
3_AMI + ADMMP 24 hr Patch with adenosine HPLC, FTIR, SEM 10′ before LAD, 45′ after LAD, 10′ LAD reopening, 60′ LAD reopening Ischaemic area\ Ischaemic area (proximal and distal sections)\
Remote area Remote area
4_CMI + ADMMP 3 months Patch with adenosine 10′ before LAD, 45′ after LAD, 10′ LAD reopening, 60′ LAD reopening Ischaemic area\ Ischaemic area (proximal and distal sections)\
Remote area Remote area
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
*Note*. 1_AMI: animal subjected to LAD to induce ischaemia, follow up at 24‐hr acute myocardial infarct model; MMP: multilayer microstructured patch (patch nonloaded with adenosine); ADMMP: adenosine delivery multilayer microstructured patch (patch loaded with adenosine); 2_AMI + MMP: animal subjected to LAD to induce ischaemia, follow up at 24 hr acute myocardial infarct model treated with patch nonloaded with adenosine (MMP); 3_AMI + ADMMP: animal subjected to LAD to induce ischaemia, follow up at 24 hr acute myocardial infarct model treated with patch loaded with adenosine (ADMMP); 4_CMI + ADMMP: animal subjected to LAD to induce ischaemia, follow up at 3 months chronic myocardial infarct model treated with patch loaded with adenosine (ADMMP).
2.3. Histomorphological analysis {#term2875-sec-0005}
--------------------------------
After the animal sacrifice, the heart was explanted and analysed from a macroscopic and microscopic point of view. The heart was observed, and pictures were taken using a stereoscopic microscope (Leica Z6 APO) to highlight the presence of macroscopic interactions between the patch and the myocardium. At the end of the macroscopic examination, a sample of the myocardium underlying the patch was taken for histological analysis, and a sample of the myocardium in an area not interested by the ischaemic event was taken as a control. The obtained samples were processed for paraffin embedding. The samples were sliced in 4‐ to 5‐μm serial sections and stained with haematoxylin/eosin (HE) and Gomori stains. The slides were observed and photographed under a biological microscope (Nikon Eclipse E600). Ten pictures per animal, at 40× magnification, were obtained from the HE‐stained serial sections. The pictures were taken randomly in the area immediately under the patch. The epicardial thickness was measured using the image analysis software Image‐Pro Premier 9.1 (Media Cybernetics). Ten linear measures were performed on each sample (2_AMI + MMP, 3_AMI + ADMMP, and 4_AMI + ADMMP) and the epicardial thickness calculated as the mean of the obtained values. Inflammatory cells (macrophages, eosinophils, neutrophils, lymphocytes, and mastocytes) were distinguished based on their morphology and dye affinities. The total cell number and the inflammatory cell number were accurately counted using the Image‐Pro Premier 9.1 software. Other samples, both underlying the patch and in a remote area, were taken and frozen for physico‐chemical analyses.
2.4. Biochemical study of the biopsies by means of western blot analysis {#term2875-sec-0006}
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Western blot was used to analyse the heart biopsies. Specific antibodies against porcine total AKT (diluted 1:1000), phosphorylated Akt (diluted 1:1000), total ERK 1/2 (diluted 1:1000), phosphorylated ERK 1/2 (Diluted 1:500; all from Cell Signaling Technology, USA), and α‐actinin (1:10000, Sigma‐Aldrich, USA) were used. Expression levels of phospho‐AKT and phospho‐ERK 1/2 were normalised to both α‐actinin and total AKT/total ERK proteins. For each animal, the expression levels of phospho‐AKT and phospho‐ERK proteins detected in the biopsies, sampled after either LAD ligature or LAD reopening, were normalised against the expression levels detected in the biopsies taken before LAD ligature, to reduce intertest animal biological differences.
2.5. In vitro morphological, physico‐chemical, and functional ADMMP characterisation before and after apposition onto myocardium {#term2875-sec-0007}
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Release tests of adenosine from ADMMP were performed by high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC, Perkin Elmer Series 200) as described in [Supporting Information](#term2875-supitem-0001){ref-type="supplementary-material"}. Morphological analyses were carried out on gold sputtered samples by scanning electron microscopy (SEM, Jeol JSM 5600). All the samples were lyophilised before analysis. The chemical analysis was carried out by Fourier transform infrared (FT‐IR) spectroscopy chemical imaging (Perkin Elmer Spotlight 300). FTIR spectroscopy is well known as a sensitive tool in identifying chemical structures of organic compounds, including synthetic and biological polymers. In this study, FTIR technique was used to evaluate both the chemical composition of patch and possible alterations of protein conformation and nucleic acids in the treated myocardial tissue.
The attenuated total reflectance (ATR) sampling technique was performed on small fragments of ADMMP or on myocardial samples. Spectral images were acquired in μATR mode (the spectral resolution was 4 cm^−1^, and the spatial resolution was 100 × 100 μm). The spectra were collected by putting in contact the ATR objective and the sample and collecting the spectrum generated from the surface layer of the sample. The obtained correlation map indicates the areas of each image where the spectra are most similar to a reference spectrum. The band ratio analysis involves the measurement of the band intensity or area of an internal reference, with respect to that of a band of interest.
FT‐IR analysis was carried out directly on the patch detached from 2_AMI + ADMMP and 3_AMI + ADMMP tissues after 24 hr of follow‐up. The analysis was not feasible on the patch from the 4_AMI + ADMMP tissue, because the patch was completely reabsorbed after 3 months. A FT‐IR analysis was carried out on myocardium samples both from the ischaemic area and remote areas after 24 hr and 90 days of follow‐up. The myocardium samples underlying the patch were further sliced, obtaining closer (proximal) and deeper (distal) sections respect to patch positioning. Before FT‐IR analysis, all samples were lyophilised at the same temperature rate.
FT‐IR chemical imaging allows to gain information about the chemical composition of healthy and diseased human tissues (Liu et al., [1996](#term2875-bib-0016){ref-type="ref"}; Liu, Dixon, & Mantsch, [1999](#term2875-bib-0015){ref-type="ref"}); the most important parameters to distinguish acute and chronic MI are reported in Table [2](#term2875-tbl-0002){ref-type="table"}.
######
FT‐IR parameters in acute and chronic myocardial infarction (MI)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Acute MI Chronic MI
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------
Variations of the peak of GAG/protein ratio Early tissue modification in infarcted regions Increase of the band intensity at 1,082 cm^−1^ and at 1,662 cm^−1^ in the region of 31‐helix of collagen Collagen deposition
Reduction of C═O stretching vibrations of: phospholipids (1,738 cm^−1^) nucleic acids (1,721 cm^−1^) Loss of cellular components of the cardiac tissue (myocytes, quiescent fibroblasts) Variation of the CH~2~/CH~3~ peak ratio\ Reduction of the lipid content respect to collagen fibrotic tissue
CH~2~ at 2,852--2,926 cm^−1^\
CH~3~ at 2,956 cm^−1^
Modification of protein secondary structure Modification of ECM proteins Increase of absorption at 1,638 cm^−1^ in a spectral region of collagen I triple helix Fibrotic tissue
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. RESULTS {#term2875-sec-0008}
==========
3.1. In vitro characterisation of ADMMP before implantation {#term2875-sec-0009}
-----------------------------------------------------------
After sterilisation, ADMMP was subjected to the in vitro release test showing a high delivery in the interval from 1 min to 1 hr (Figure [1](#term2875-fig-0001){ref-type="fig"}b), corresponding to 43% with respect to the amount contained in the device (17.6 ± 0.2 mg), in line with the doses of intraluminally administered adenosine (Ross et al., [2005](#term2875-bib-0025){ref-type="ref"}).
SEM images of ADMMP before and after adenosine release (Figure [1](#term2875-fig-0001){ref-type="fig"}c--f) and spectra obtained by FT‐IR chemical imaging confirmed that the adenosine was completely released as described in [Supporting Information](#term2875-supitem-0001){ref-type="supplementary-material"}.
3.2. Histomorphological analyses {#term2875-sec-0010}
--------------------------------
The hearts were explanted at either 24 hr or 3 months follow‐up. The explanted hearts were observed as intact (2_AMI + MMP, 3_AMI + ADMMP, and 4_AMI + ADMMP) or after accurate slicing (1_AMI) by stereomicroscopy, to highlight possible alterations and/or interactions between patch and cardiac tissue. No important macroscopic alterations were evidenced in the examined hearts; only some areas of pericardial--epicardial adhesion, due to implant procedures, was visible in all the explants. A well‐localised necrotic area was visible in 1_AMI after LAD ligature; histology showed blood vessels necrosis, vacuolisation, inflammatory cells infiltration, and degenerated red blood cells (Figure [2](#term2875-fig-0002){ref-type="fig"}a).
\]](TERM-13-1253-g002){#term2875-fig-0002}
The patches appeared well adherent to the epicardial surface in both 2_AMI + MMP and 3_AMI + ADMMP (24‐hr follow‐up); the patch in 4_AMI + ADMMP, however, at 3‐month follow‐up, appeared completely reabsorbed with only the stitches remaining visible (Figure [2](#term2875-fig-0002){ref-type="fig"}m). No tissue growth due to foreign body reaction was detectable in any of the hearts.
The histological examination corroborated the macroscopic data. Some thrombus depositions were visible on the outer surface of 2_AMI + MMP. A good adhesion of the patch to the underlying myocardium was confirmed in the samples at 24‐hr follow‐up (Figure [2](#term2875-fig-0002){ref-type="fig"}b). A complete absorption of the patch in 4_AMI + ADMMP was also histologically confirmed (Figure [2](#term2875-fig-0002){ref-type="fig"}n). Further, the histological analysis showed a moderate epicardial thickening; after morphometrical analysis, it resulted in 0.692 ± .0.023 mm in the 24‐hr follow‐up samples and in 0.797 ± 0.031 mm in the 3‐month follow‐up samples; as the two data can be considered comparable, the epicardial thickening could be ascribed to pericardium--epicardium adhesion.
Inflammatory cells were present in all the samples, though in variable numbers: In 2_AMI + MMP, abundant inflammatory cells were present under the epicardial surface and inside the myocardium (Figure [2](#term2875-fig-0002){ref-type="fig"}c--f); in 3_AMI + ADMMP and in 4_AMI + ADMMP, inflammatory cells were less abundant and localised only under the epicardial layer (Figure [2](#term2875-fig-0002){ref-type="fig"}i,j). This suggested a lower inflammation in the animals in which the patch with adenosine (ADMMP) was implanted.
The histological analysis carried out on 4_AMI + ADMMP showed the presence of unaltered cardiomyocytes together with areas of myxoid tissue (Figure [2](#term2875-fig-0002){ref-type="fig"}o,p). Although, in the 2_AMI + MMP samples, large areas of heavily degenerated myocardial tissue with disarranged myofibrillar structure of cardiomyocytes (Gomori‐stain; Figure [2](#term2875-fig-0002){ref-type="fig"}g, h) were visible, in 3_AMI + ADMMP, only limited areas of suffering, yet not degenerated, myocardial tissue with preserved myofibrillar structure of cardiomyocytes (Gomori stain) were present (Figure [2](#term2875-fig-0002){ref-type="fig"}k,l).
Histomorphometrical analysis showed that the total cell number was considerably higher in 2_AMI + MMP than 3_AMI + ADMMP, and the number of inflammatory cells was, respectively, 62% and 38% of the total number. Furthermore, in 2_AMI + MMP, mononucleates seemed to outnumber polymorphonucleates, whereas in 3_AMI + ADMMP, most of the inflammatory cells were polymorphonucleates, mostly eosinophils. All these findings suggested protective effects of adenosine‐loaded patches.
3.3. Biochemical study {#term2875-sec-0011}
----------------------
To dissect the putative mechanisms of the cardioprotective effects of adenosine‐loaded patches, we quantified the RISK pathway activation on the heart biopsies taken at 0--10‐60 min time course after LAD. The left ventricular (LV) tissue from the non‐infarcted zone (remote area biopsies) showed no change in phospho‐ERK and phospho‐AKT expression (data not shown). However, if compared with the 2_AMI + MMP animal that did not show any significant signs of activation, LV tissue sampled close to the ischaemic area from 3_AMI + ADMMP and 4_AMI + ADMMP showed RISK pathway activation. An increase in AKT phosphorylation was highlighted in 3_AMI + ADMMP, even in the biopsy taken before LAD reopening (time: 0 min, about 45 min from scaffold implantation; Figure [3](#term2875-fig-0003){ref-type="fig"}a,c). However, phospho‐AKT was not pointed out in the biopsies sampled after LAD reopening in this condition. 4_AMI + ADMMP showed an increase in ERK 1/2 phosphorylation in the biopsy taken before LAD reopening, with a further increase in the biopsy taken 10 min after LAD reopening (time: 10 min, Figure [3](#term2875-fig-0003){ref-type="fig"}b,d). In both animals, the activation of the RISK pathway turned back to basal levels after 60 min from LAD reopening, as expected (time: 60 min, Figure [3](#term2875-fig-0003){ref-type="fig"}).
\]](TERM-13-1253-g003){#term2875-fig-0003}
These findings suggest that ADMMP implant before reperfusion activates signalling pathways that protect against reperfusion injury during MI.
3.4. Physico‐chemical, degradative, and pharmacological characterisation of the scaffolds after explant {#term2875-sec-0012}
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The results obtained by HPLC and FT‐IR on the patch at 24 hr of follow‐up revealed no appreciable amounts of adenosine in agreement with in vitro tests. The in vitro analysis carried out directly on the tissue underlying the patch after 24 hr showed the presence of not yet metabolised adenosine corresponding to 13% *w*/w, compared with that initially present in the scaffold. The SEM analysis of the patch explanted at 24 hr shows a surface with the micropatterning lines only slightly modified ([Supporting Information](#term2875-supitem-0001){ref-type="supplementary-material"}). In addition, in accordance with histological results, FT‐IR analysis confirmed a good adhesion of the scaffold to the tissue as evidenced by the presence of typical peaks of the polymeric materials (i.e., ester C═O stretching at 1,740 cm^−1^) at the level of the interface with the tissue ([Supporting Information](#term2875-supitem-0001){ref-type="supplementary-material"}).
After 3 months of follow‐up, HPLC did not detect the presence of adenosine where ADMMP was implanted and revealed that the patch was completely degraded. FT‐IR analyses confirmed the absence of scaffold components, indicating a complete resorption of the material ([Supporting Information](#term2875-supitem-0001){ref-type="supplementary-material"}).
3.5. Physico‐chemical analysis on myocardial tissue by means of FT‐IR chemical imaging {#term2875-sec-0013}
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The GAG/protein ratio at the interface with the patch was evaluated in the myocardial samples of 2_AMI + MMP and 3_AMI + ADMMP and compared with the GAG/protein ratio in a remote area of the same animal (control; Figure [4](#term2875-fig-0004){ref-type="fig"}a,b). No substantial differences were found between the GAG/protein ratio for myocardial 3_AMI + ADMMP samples taken at the level of the proximal (*R* = 0.23--0.30) and distal section (*R* = 0.24‐0.33). These results are in line with the value obtained from a control area (*R* = 0.29). As to 2_AMI + MMP myocardial tissue, a significant variability of the GAG/protein ratio (*R* = 0.18--0.44), indicative of GAG component degradation (low values) and interstitial oedema (high values), can be observed. In Figure [4](#term2875-fig-0004){ref-type="fig"}c--e, the chemical maps of tissues sampled at proximal and distal level are reported and compared with that of the control tissue. The mean values measured for the proximal area (*R* = 0.23--0.28) and for the distal area (*R* = 0.23--0.28) are only in limited domains slightly lower than the one measured for healthy tissue (*R* = 0.29). This reduction is likely not due to a fibrosis condition (a process that can last 12 months after the injury) but to the presence of collagen deposition areas, an event that is part of the normal wound healing process.
\]](TERM-13-1253-g004){#term2875-fig-0004}
For 4_AMI + ADMMP tissue, CH~2~/CH~3~ stretching peak ratio, GAG/protein ratio, and amide deconvolution were the considered parameters. The cellularisation of the tissue was evaluated by CH~2~/CH~3~ stretching peak ratio also for 4_AMI + ADMMP. In Figure [5](#term2875-fig-0005){ref-type="fig"}, second derivative spectra and corresponding chemical maps for a healthy tissue and for the myocardial tissue of 4_AMI + ADMMP acquired at both proximal and distal levels are reported. It is important to state that the CH~3~ stretching band can be attributed to the presence of membrane phospholipids, whereas the CH~2~ stretching peak derived from glycine and proline residues of collagen. The CH~2~/CH~3~ (2,926 cm^−1^/2,956 cm^−1^) peak ratio can therefore be considered as indicative of both cellularisation and collagen deposition. As evidenced by the comparison of ratio values corresponding to *R* = 2.45--2.80 for an healthy tissue, *R* = 2.10--2.45 for tissue at proximal level, and *R* = 2.10--2.80 for the tissue at distal level, no substantial variations in the ratio are observed with respect to the control tissue, indicating that there is no significant decrease of cells and/or increase of collagen in the tissue that was in contact with the device after 3 months.
\]](TERM-13-1253-g005){#term2875-fig-0005}
In Figure [6](#term2875-fig-0006){ref-type="fig"}, the second derivative spectra are reported, acquired from the maps of tissue after 3 months of contact with the ADMMP at proximal level and compared with those acquired from a negative control (healthy myocardial tissue) and from a positive control (infarcted tissue). In the spectrum of negative control (Figure [6](#term2875-fig-0006){ref-type="fig"}a), typical peaks of a healthy tissue can be observed. In Figure [6](#term2875-fig-0006){ref-type="fig"}b, the second derivative spectrum from a region involved in an infarction process was reported. Substantial differences are evident respect to the spectrum from healthy tissue; in particular, it can be observed a reduction of intensity of the bands at 1,740--1,720 cm^−1^, reflecting phagocytosis of membrane lipids and nucleic acid after infarction. In addition, an intense absorption of the amide I at 1,643 cm^−1^, typical of the infarcted tissue, was revealed. Furthermore, the adsorption at 1,655 cm^−1^ and at 1,629 cm^−1^ due to α‐helical and β‐turn protein structure, respectively, is reduced in infarcted heart tissue.
\]](TERM-13-1253-g006){#term2875-fig-0006}
In Figure [6](#term2875-fig-0006){ref-type="fig"}c, the spectrum of the proximal area at the interface with the functionalized patch was reported. The main absorption of amide I at 1,643 cm^−1^ that appears in the infarcted tissue is not significant in the area in contact with the device. In addition, the band at 1,650 cm^−1^ is more intense than that at 1,655 cm^−1^, suggesting a deposition of newly synthesised collagen. Particularly, significant is the absence, in the proximal area, of the band absorption at 1,638 cm^−1^, relative to the triple helical structure of collagen in fibrotic conditions. The presence of bands in the 1,740 to 1,720‐cm^−1^ range is highly significant for a good re‐cellularisation of post‐infarction tissue.
4. DISCUSSION {#term2875-sec-0014}
=============
The present work represents a feasibility study for the employment of an innovative PLGA/gelatine cardiac patch functionalised wth adenosine for cardioprotective purposes in a large‐animal model.
On the basis of our previous encouraging results with microstructured (Cristallini et al., [2014](#term2875-bib-0003){ref-type="ref"}) and multilayer (Cristallini et al., [2016](#term2875-bib-0004){ref-type="ref"}) patches for stem cell differentiation, the present study was designed to expand our knowledge on a functionalized PLGA/gelatine cardiac patch as drug carrier in a large‐animal model in order to validate the novel paradigm of *controlled adenosine delivery* to reduce myocardial reperfusion injury, using a patch able also to guide the cardiac tissue regeneration.
Physico‐chemical and morphological analyses confirmed the validity of the used loading method, showing how the assembling of the scaffold represents an optimal platform for a quick and sustained release of the cardio‐protective agent. After completion of the drug reservoir function, reducing the reperfusion injury, the patch can continue to carry out its second function, which consists in driving the regenerative processes, as already described in our previous work (Cristallini et al., [2014](#term2875-bib-0003){ref-type="ref"}; Cristallini et al., [2016](#term2875-bib-0004){ref-type="ref"}).
In vitro and in vivo tests indicate that the amount of adenosine in the intermediate layer is completely released. In particular, in vivo, at 24 hr of follow‐up, adenosine was completely released from the patch, whereas part of the drug was still present in the tissue underneath the patch and not yet metabolised. Remarkably, the dose of adenosine that we used, about 11 mg within the myocardial area at risk (corresponding to about 20 g of myocardium), was concentrated and present in the tissue for a long time. This dose therefore represents several times the usual dose (10--12 mg/kg for the entire body) intravenously infused for 3 hours (Ross et al., [2005](#term2875-bib-0025){ref-type="ref"}).
A series of advantages for our delivery system can therefore be considered as compared with direct injection: (a) It allows an early application of adenosine, which will be present at the moment of reperfusion when the cardioprotective mechanisms must be already operative; (b) it does not require a transit in the blood, where the half‐life of adenosine is very short; (c) it allows to achieve higher intramyocardial concentrations in a brief period of time and for long periods when compared with the intravenous infusion, thus limiting local and systemic adverse effects (eg, it limits the possibility that adenosine reaches the atrial/nodal tissue where it can alter impulse genesis/conduction and/or the systemic arterioles thus inducing hypotension); (d) finally, our system allows adenosine application to the myocardial tissue even in the absence or limited coronary flow, and under these circumstances of no‐reflow phenomenon, its biological effects could also last much longer than expected.
The biochemical findings suggest that adenosine released from ADMMP promotes transient RISK pathway activity, including phospho‐ERK and phospho‐AKT. Several studies have suggested that an increasing number of agents including adenosine, adipocytokines, erythropoietin, insulin, natriuretic peptides, and statins, to name a few, may reduce ischaemia/reperfusion injury via the RISK pathway activation when administered at the beginning of cardiac reperfusion. However, the transition to the clinical arena has been fairly successful. Nevertheless, and despite the controversial results with adenosine, this endogenous factor resulted superior to other drugs in inducing cardioprotection in several clinical studies (Niccoli et al., [2013](#term2875-bib-0019){ref-type="ref"}; Singh et al., [2012](#term2875-bib-0028){ref-type="ref"}). Here, the promising protective effect of very high doses of adenosine, with no evidences of side effects, is corroborated by the improvement of other signs and features of the lesion and by the well‐being of the treated animals.
It has been recently demonstrated that the microscopic morphology and the chemical composition of the tissue are particularly relevant for MI progression (Colley, Kazarian, Weinberg, & Lever, [2004](#term2875-bib-0002){ref-type="ref"}; Yang et al., [2011](#term2875-bib-0032){ref-type="ref"}). In this work, the use of FT‐IR allowed to gather specific chemical information on different components within an MI site, discriminating between altered and healthy regions and pointing out the effects of a patch both loaded with adenosine (ADMMP) and not loaded (MMP) on the infarcted areas. One important advantage is the possibility to carry out the analysis without the need of staining the area of interest, allowing obtaining information about molecular composition on heterogeneous substrates, such as biological samples (Yang et al., [2011](#term2875-bib-0032){ref-type="ref"}). Altogether, this and other studies (Gough, Zelinski, Wiens, Rak, & Dixon, [2003](#term2875-bib-0009){ref-type="ref"}; Liu et al., [1996](#term2875-bib-0016){ref-type="ref"}; Liu et al., [1999](#term2875-bib-0015){ref-type="ref"}; Samouillan et al., [2017](#term2875-bib-0026){ref-type="ref"}) confirm that FT‐IR chemical analysis can be used to evaluate pathological changes in MI in a very short time, and the results are consistent with the infarction fibrosis region shown with HE staining. The possibility to complement histological and biochemical analyses with the FT‐IR chemical imaging technique increases the number of investigations while limiting the number of animals to be employed; this is very important as it impinges upon the highly desirable accomplishment of the 3Rs (reduce, refine, and replace) rule in bio‐nanomedicine applications (Accomasso, Cristallini, & Giachino, [2018](#term2875-bib-0001){ref-type="ref"}).
The histological, histomorphometrical, and FT‐IR analyses carried out at the level of the tissue/patch interface provided a picture of a tissue in dynamic conditions, in which normal cardiomyocytes are associated to the biosynthesis of new collagen and to a less‐fibrotic outcome of the healing process in hearts treated with functionalised patches.
Due to the low number of analysed samples, this represents a feasibility study for an innovative and unconventional approach to cardiovascular disease, and the clinical implications of these findings will require further investigation. Concerning the pharmacological aspect, several groups of drugs with different mechanisms of action might potentially be targeted to the heart using PLGA/gelatine cardiac patches (e.g., bradykinin, opioids, insulin‐like growth factor‐1, transforming growth factor‐β1, cyclosporine A, and nicorandil). Indeed, a widespread clinical use of these drugs at the required doses for a cardioprotective response was hampered by the high risk of dangerous side effects. The targeted delivery strategy proposed here may help to overcome these limitations.
In conclusion, a PLGA/gelatine 3D cardiac patch was functionalised with adenosine in order to obtain a synergistic effect between patch cardio‐inductivity and adenosine cardioprotection, a previously unexplored combination at the basis of a recent international patent (PCT/IB2014/0580025). The major finding is that the functionalisation of bilayered PLGA/gelatine cardiac patches with adenosine enables its targeted delivery to the ischaemic‐reperfused area of the heart, where it promotes several beneficial effects. Besides the activation of pro‐survival signalling pathways, the patch functionalised with adenosine apparently promotes a more pronounced cellularisation at 24 hr follow‐up and a non‐fibrotic outcome at 3 months follow‐up.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST {#term2875-sec-0017}
====================
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION {#term2875-sec-0016}
===================
C. Cristallini and C. Giachino is responsible for the conception and design, analysis, and interpretation of data and paper drafting; G. Vaccari for the design and acquisition of data; N. Barbani, E. Cibrario Rocchietti, R. Barberis, M. Falzone, K. Cabiale, G. Perona, E. Bellotti and R. Rastaldo for the acquisition, analysis, and interpretation of data; S. Pascale for the design and interpretation of data; and P. Pagliaro for the interpretation of data and paper drafting.
Supporting information
======================
######
**Figure S1.** a) Optical image of ADMMP after release at 24 h; b) chemical surface map; c) spectra of different surface areas.
**Figure S2.** SEM image of surface of patch detached from 3_AMI + ADMMP tissue after 24 h of follow‐ up (a); FT‐IR analysis carried out directly on the 3_AMI + ADMMP tissue at the interface with the patch: chemical surface map (b); spectra of different surface areas (c).
**Figure S3.** FT‐IR Chemical Imaging carried out on the 4_AMI + ADMMP tissue that was at contact with the device after 3 months: a) Chemical map of the myocardial tissue; b) Spectrum acquired in the tissue area.
**Figure S4.** FT‐IR Chemical Imaging a) spectra acquired at three different points of the area at the interface with ADMMP, b) spectra acquired in the region 1800--1500 cm^−1^ in myocardial samples of 2_AMI + MMP at level of proximal, distal and control areas.
######
Click here for additional data file.
The research leading to these results received funding from POR FESR 2007/2013 of the Regione Piemonte, under Grant Agreement 14557 and from Compagnia di San Paolo, bando ex‐post 2018. This study was also partially supported by PAGP_RILO_16_01 and GIAC_RILO_17_02.
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tomekkorbak/pile-curse-small
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PubMed Central
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