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Learning Objectives
1. Explain why students need adequate sleep to succeed in college.
2. Determine how much sleep you need.
3. Change your habits and routines in ways to ensure you get the sleep you need.
Like good nutrition and exercise, adequate sleep is crucial for wellness and success. Sleep is particularly important for students because there seem to be so many time pressures—to attend class, study, maintain a social life, and perhaps work—that most college students have difficulty getting enough. Yet sleep is critical for concentrating well. First, use the Sleep Self-Assessment to consider your current habits and attitudes.
Sleep Self-Assessment
Check the appropriate boxes.
Usually Sometimes Seldom
1. I usually get enough sleep.
2. I feel drowsy or unfocused during the day.
3. I take a nap when I need more sleep.
4. I have fallen asleep in class or had trouble staying awake.
5. I have fallen asleep while studying.
6. I have pulled an “all-nighter” when studying for a test or writing a class paper.
Write your answers.
1. How many hours of sleep do you usually get on weeknights?
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2. How many hours of sleep do you usually get on weekends?
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3. How would you rank the importance of sleep in relation to studying, working, spending time with friends, and other activities?
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4. How many hours of sleep do you think you ideally need?
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5. Generally, do you believe you are getting as much sleep as you think you need?
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The Importance of a Good Night’s Sleep
You may not realize the benefits of sleep, or the problems associated with being sleep deprived, because most likely you’ve had the same sleep habits for a long time. Or maybe you know you’re getting less sleep now, but with all the changes in your life, how can you tell if some of your stress or problems studying are related to not enough sleep?
On the positive side, a healthy amount of sleep has the following benefits:
• Improves your mood during the day
• Improves your memory and learning abilities
• Gives you more energy
• Strengthens your immune system
• Promotes wellness of body, mind, and spirit
In contrast, not getting enough sleep over time can lead to a wide range of health issues and student problems. Sleep deprivation can have the following consequences:
• Affects mental health and contributes to stress and feelings of anxiety, depression, and general unhappiness
• Causes sleepiness, difficulty paying attention in class, and ineffective studying
• Weakens the immune system, making it more likely to catch colds and other infections
• Increases the risk of accidents (such as while driving)
• Contributes to weight gain
How Much Sleep Is Enough?
College students are the most sleep-deprived population group in the country. With so much to do, who has time for sleep?
Most people need seven to nine hours of sleep a night, and the average is around eight. Some say they need much less than that, but often their behavior during the day shows they are actually sleep deprived. Some genuinely need only about six hours a night. New research indicates there may be a “sleep gene” that determines how much sleep a person needs. So how much sleep do you actually need?
There is no simple answer, in part because the quality of sleep is just as important as the number of hours a person sleeps. Sleeping fitfully for nine hours and waking during the night is usually worse than seven or eight hours of good sleep, so you can’t simply count the hours. Do you usually feel rested and alert all day long? Do you rise from bed easily in the morning without struggling with the alarm clock? Do you have no trouble paying attention to your instructors and never feel sleepy in a lecture class? Are you not continually driven to drink more coffee or caffeine-heavy “power drinks” to stay attentive? Are you able to get through work without feeling exhausted? If you answered yes to all of these, you likely are in that 10 percent to 15 percent of college students who consistently get enough sleep.
How to Get More and Better Sleep
You have to allow yourself enough time for a good night’s sleep. Using the time management strategies discussed in Chapter 2 “Staying Motivated, Organized, and On Track”, schedule at least eight hours for sleeping every night. If you still don’t feel alert and energetic during the day, try increasing this to nine hours. Keep a sleep journal, and within a couple weeks you’ll know how much sleep you need and will be on the road to making new habits to ensure you get it.
Myths about Sleep
• Having a drink or two helps me get to sleep better.False: Although you may seem to fall asleep more quickly, alcohol makes sleep less restful, and you’re more likely to awake in the night.
• Exercise before bedtime is good for sleeping.False: Exercise wakes up your body, and it may be some time before you unwind and relax. Exercise earlier in the day, however, is beneficial for sleep.
• It helps to fall asleep after watching television or surfing the Web in bed.False: Rather than helping you unwind, these activities can engage your mind and make it more difficult to get to sleep.
Tips for Success: Sleep
• Avoid nicotine, which can keep you awake—yet another reason to stop smoking.
• Avoid caffeine for six to eight hours before bed. Caffeine remains in the body for three to five hours on the average, much longer for some people. Remember that many soft drinks contain caffeine.
• Don’t eat in the two to three hours before bed. Avoid alcohol before bedtime.
• Don’t nap during the day. Napping is the least productive form of rest and often makes you less alert. It may also prevent you from getting a good night’s sleep.
• Exercise earlier in the day (at least several hours before bedtime).
• Try to get to bed and wake about the same time every day—your body likes a routine.
• Make sure the environment is conducive to sleep: dark, quiet, comfortable, and cool.
• Use your bed only for sleeping, not for studying, watching television, or other activities. Going to bed will become associated with going to sleep.
• Establish a presleep winding-down routine, such as taking a hot bath, listening to soothing music, or reading (not a textbook). Try one of the relaxation techniques described in Chapter 10 “Taking Control of Your Health”, Section 10.5 “Stress”.
If you can’t fall asleep after ten to fifteen minutes in bed, it’s better to get up and do something else rather than lie there fitfully for hours. Do something you find restful (or boring). Read, or listen to a recorded book. Go back to bed when you’re sleepy.
If you frequently cannot get to sleep or are often awake for a long time during the night, you may be suffering from insomnia, a medical condition. Resist the temptation to try over-the-counter sleep aids. If you have tried the tips listed here and still cannot sleep, talk with your health-care provider or visit the student health clinic. Many remedies are available for those with a true sleep problem.
Key Takeaways
• Getting enough sleep is very important for wellness and success in college. It’s easy to determine if you’re getting enough sleep.
• Don’t fall for popular myths about sleep. It’s worthwhile to get enough sleep, which gives you an improved ability to focus and apply yourself more efficiently in your studies and work.
Checkpoint Exercises
1. List at least three things you should not do before going to bed in order to get a good night’s sleep.
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2. Identify one or two things you can do as a regular presleep routine to help you relax and wind down.
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Learning Objectives
1. Define the terms “substance,” “abuse,” and “addictive.”
2. Describe physical and mental effects associated with smoking and frequent or heavy drinking.
3. List the risks of using drugs.
4. Know how to get help if you have a substance use habit to break.
Substance is the word health professionals use for most things you might take into your body besides food. When people talk about substances, they often mean drugs—but alcohol and nicotine are also drugs and are considered substances.
Substances—any kind of drug—have effects on the body and mind. People use these substances for their effects. But many substances have negative effects, including being physically or psychologically addictive. What is important with any substance is to be aware of its effects on your health and on your life as a student, and to make smart choices. Use of any substance to the extent that it has negative effects is generally considered abuse.
First, consider your own habits and attitudes with the Substance Use Self-Assessment.
Substance Use Self-Assessment
Check the appropriate boxes.
Daily Sometimes Never
1. I smoke cigarettes or use smokeless tobacco.
2. I drink beer or other alcohol.
3. I have missed a class because I was hung over from drinking the night before.
4. I have taken a medication that was not prescribed for me.
5. I have used an illegal drug.
Write your answers.
1. If you smoke cigarettes, how many a day do you usually smoke?
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2. If you drink alcohol (including beer), on how many days in a typical week do you have at least one drink?
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3. If you drink at parties or when out with friends, how many drinks (or beers) do you typically have at one time?
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4. If you use a pharmaceutical or illegal drug, how often do you take it?
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5. Are your habits of smoking, drinking, or using other drugs affecting your studies or grades?
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Smoking and Tobacco: Why Start, and Why Is It So Hard to Stop?
Everyone knows smoking is harmful to one’s health. Smoking causes cancer and lung and heart disease. Most adult smokers continue smoking not because they really think it won’t harm them but because it’s very difficult to stop.
If you have never smoked or used smokeless tobacco, feel good about your choices. But read this section anyway because you may have friends now or in the future who smoke, and it’s important to understand this behavior. If you do smoke, even only rarely as a “social smoker,” be honest with yourself—wouldn’t you like to stop if you thought you could without suffering? Simply by being in college now, you’ve shown that you care about your future and your life. You likely care about your health, too.
Many young smokers think there is plenty of time to quit later. Social smokers, who may have a cigarette only occasionally with a friend, usually think they won’t develop a habit. But smokers are fooling themselves. Nicotine is one of the most addictive drugs in our society today. Admitting this to yourself is the first step toward becoming smoke free.
First, the good news. Stopping smoking brings immediate health benefits, and the benefits get better over time. Just twenty minutes after quitting, your heart rate drops. After two weeks to three months, your heart attack risk begins to drop and your lung function begins to improve. After one year, your added risk of coronary heart disease is half that of a smoker’s. And every year your health continues to improve.
Tips for Stopping Smoking
Stopping isn’t easy. Many ex-smokers say it was the hardest thing they ever did. Still, over 45 million adults in the United States once smoked and then successfully stopped.
You know it’s worth the effort. And it’s easier if you think it through and make a good plan. There’s lots of help available. Before you quit, the National Cancer Institute suggests you START with these five important steps:
1. S = Set a quit date.
2. T = Tell family, friends, and coworkers that you plan to quit.
3. A = Anticipate and plan for the challenges you’ll face while quitting.
4. R = Remove cigarettes and other tobacco products from your home, car, and work.
5. T = Talk to your doctor about getting help to quit.
To get ready, download the booklet “Clearing the Air: Quit Smoking Today” at www.smokefree.gov. The table of contents of that booklet (Figure 10.3) outlines the basic steps that will help you be successful.
Figure 10.3
smokefree.gov/free-resources .
When You Really Crave a Cigarette
Remember that the urge to smoke will come and go. Try to wait it out. Use these tips:
• Keep other things around instead of cigarettes. Try carrots, pickles, sunflower seeds, apples, celery, raisins, or sugar-free gum.
• Wash your hands or the dishes when you want a cigarette very badly. Or take a shower.
• Learn to relax quickly by taking deep breaths.
• Take ten slow, deep breaths and hold the last one.
• Then breathe out slowly.
• Relax all of your muscles.
• Picture a soothing, pleasant scene.
• Just get away from it all for a moment.
• Think only about that peaceful image and nothing else.
• Light incense or a candle instead of a cigarette.
• Where you are and what is going on can make you crave a cigarette. A change of scene can really help. Go outside or go to a different room. You can also try changing what you are doing.
• No matter what, don’t think, “Just one won’t hurt.” It will hurt. It will undo your work so far.
• Remember that trying something to beat the urge is always better than trying nothing.
Get Help to Stop Smoking
A lot of people are not able to stop smoking by themselves, so don’t feel bad if you aren’t successful the first try. Ask your doctor about other ways to stop. Maybe nicotine-replacement therapy is what you need. Maybe you need prescription medication. Stop by your college’s student health center and learn about smoking cessation programs. Your doctor and other health professionals at your school have a lot of experience helping people—they can help you find what works for you.
What’s the Big Deal about Alcohol?
Of all the issues that can affect a student’s health and success in college, drinking causes more problems than anything else. Everyone knows what happens when you drink too much. Your judgment is impaired and you may behave in risky ways. Your health may be affected. Your studies likely are affected.
Most college students report drinking at least some alcohol at some time—and even those who do not drink are often affected by others who do. Here are a few facts about alcohol use among college students from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism:
• Death. Each year, 1,700 college students between the ages of 18 and 24 die from alcohol-related unintentional injuries, and 599,000 students are injured.
• Assault. More than 696,000 students between the ages of 18 and 24 are assaulted by another student who has been drinking.
• Sexual abuse. More than 97,000 students between the ages of 18 and 24 are victims of alcohol-related sexual assault or date rape.
• Academic problems. About 25 percent of college students report academic consequences of their drinking, including missing class, falling behind, doing poorly on exams or papers, and receiving lower grades overall.
• Health problems. More than 150,000 students develop an alcohol-related health problem.
• Alcohol abuse and dependence. In the past twelve months, 31 percent of college students met criteria for a diagnosis of alcohol abuse and 6 percent for a diagnosis of alcohol dependence.
So why is drinking so popular if it causes so many problems? You probably already know the answer to that: most college students say they have more fun when drinking. They’re not going to stop drinking just because someone lectures them about it.
Like everything else that affects your health and happiness—eating, exercise, use of other substances—drinking is a matter of personal choice. Like most decisions we all face, there are trade-offs. The most that anyone can reasonably ask of you is to be smart in your decisions. That means understanding the effects of alcohol and deciding to take control.
Myths about Alcohol
Myth: I can drink and still be in control.
Fact: Drinking impairs your judgment, which increases the likelihood that you will do something you’ll later regret such as having unprotected sex, being involved in date rape, damaging property, or being victimized by others.
Myth: Drinking isn’t all that dangerous.
Fact: One in three 18- to 24-year-olds admitted to emergency rooms for serious injuries is intoxicated. And alcohol is also associated with homicides, suicides, and drownings.
Myth: I can sober up quickly if I have to.
Fact: It takes about three hours to eliminate the alcohol content of two drinks, depending on your weight. Nothing can speed up this process—not even coffee or cold showers.
Myth: I can manage to drive well enough after a few drinks.
Fact: About one-half of all fatal traffic crashes among 18- to 24-year-olds involve alcohol. If you are under 21, driving after drinking is illegal and you could lose your license.
Myth: Beer doesn’t have as much alcohol as hard liquor.
Fact: A 12-ounce bottle of beer has the same amount of alcohol as a standard shot of 80-proof liquor (either straight or in a mixed drink) or 5 ounces of wine.
College Alcohol Awareness Programs
Colleges have recognized the problems resulting from underage and excessive alcohol use, and in recent years they have designed programs to help students become more aware of the problems. If you are a new student, you may be in such a program now. Two popular online programs, AlcoholEdu and My Student Body, are used at many schools.
Figure 10.4 The AlcoholEdu Online Alcohol Awareness Program from Outside the Classroom
The goal of these courses is not to preach against drinking. You’ll learn more about the effects of alcohol on the body and mind. You’ll learn about responsible drinking versus high-risk drinking. You’ll think about your own attitudes and learn coping strategies to help prevent or manage a problem. These courses are designed for you—to help you succeed in college and life. They’re worth taking seriously.
How Much Alcohol Is Too Much?
There’s no magic number for how many drinks a person can have and how often. If you’re of legal drinking age, you may not experience any problems if you have one or two drinks from time to time. “Moderate drinking” is not more than two drinks per day for men or one per day for women. More than that is heavy drinking.
As with most things that can affect your health and your well-being as a student, what’s important is being honest with yourself. You’re likely drinking too much or too often if
• you have missed classes or work because you were hung over or overslept after drinking;
• your friends or family members have hinted that you drink too much, or you’ve hidden your drinking from others;
• your drinking is causing trouble in a relationship;
• you can’t remember what you did or said while drinking;
• you need to drink to have a good time at a party or with friends;
• you’ve driven a car when you know you shouldn’t have after drinking;
• you binge drink (consume five or more drinks at a time).
Did you know that one night of heavy drinking can affect how well you think for two or three weeks afterward? This can really affect how well you perform as a student.
Pressures to Party
Most of us can remember times when we were influenced by our friends and others around us to behave in some way we might not have otherwise. Say, for example, I have a big test tomorrow, and I’ve been studying for hours, and just when I knock off to relax for a while, a friend stops by with a six-pack of beer. I’d planned to get to bed early, but my friend pops open a beer and sticks it in my hand, saying it will help me relax. So I tell myself just one, or maybe two—after all, that’s not really drinking. And let’s say I stop after two (or three) and get to bed. Maybe I don’t sleep quite as well, but I still pass the test in the morning. So—was that peer pressure or my decision?
There are no easy answers! What matters is that you think about your own habits and choices and how to take control of your own life.
Read this case study about a student who joins a college fraternity and feels pressured to drink. You may be very different from him—maybe you’re older and work full time and are taking night courses—but you still should be able to relate to his issues. As you answer the questions about his situation, think about how the same questions might also apply to someone in your own situation.
Case Study
Pressured to Drink
When John decided to pledge a fraternity in college, he knew there would likely be drinking in the house. He had had a few beers at parties through high school but had never binged and felt there was nothing wrong with that as long as he kept it under control. But he was surprised how much alcohol flowed through the fraternity house, and not just at parties—and the house advisor just seemed to look the other way. He wanted to fit in, so he usually had a few whenever his roommate or others called him away from studying. One night he definitely drank too much. He slept late, missed his first two classes, and felt rotten most of the day. He told himself he’d drink only on weekends and only in moderation. Being underage didn’t bother him, but his grades hadn’t been all that great in high school, and he didn’t want to screw up his first year in college. But it was only one day before some of the older fraternity brothers interrupted his studying again and stuck a beer in his hand. He didn’t know what to do.
1. Is John at risk for developing any problems if he tries to fit in with the drinkers while promising himself he would drink only moderately? Why or why not?
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2. If John decides to hold firm and drink only on weekends when he didn’t have to study, is he still at any risk for developing a problem? Why or why not, depending on what circumstances?
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3. If John decides to tell his fraternity brothers he does not want to drink, what should he say or do if they continue to pressure him?
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What to Do
If you think you may be drinking too much, then you probably are. Can you stop—or drink moderately if you are of age—and still have fun with your friends? Of course. Here are some tips for enjoying yourself in social situations when others are drinking:
• Drink only moderately (if above legal age) and slowly. Your body processes alcohol at a rate of about one drink an hour—drinking faster than that leads to problems. Sip slowly. Set yourself a limit and stick to it.
• Drink a mixer without the alcohol. It tastes just as good or better. Alternate alcoholic drinks with nonalcoholic ones to slow down the pace.
• Rather than just standing around with others who are drinking, stay active: move about and mingle with different people, dance, and so on.
• If someone tries to make you uncomfortable for not drinking, go talk to someone else.
Because drinking is a serious issue in many places, it’s a good idea to know what to do if you find yourself with a friend who has had too much to drink:
• Stay with the person if there is any risk of him hurting himself (driving, biking) or passing out. Take away his keys if necessary.
• If he passes out after drinking a great deal of alcohol fast and cannot be awakened, get medical help.
• An intoxicated person who falls asleep or passes out on his back is at risk of choking on vomit—roll him on his side or face down.
• Do not try to give him food or other substances in an effort to sober him up.
• Don’t put him in a cold shower, which could cause unconsciousness.
If You Feel You Need Help
Visit the student health center or talk with your college counselor. They understand how you feel and have a lot of experience with students feeling the same way. They can help.
Prescription and Illegal Drugs
People use drugs for the same reasons people use alcohol. They say they enjoy getting high. They may say a drug helps them relax or unwind, have fun, enjoy the company of others, or escape the pressures of being a student. While alcohol is a legal drug for those above the drinking age, most other drugs—including the use of many prescription drugs not prescribed for the person taking them—are illegal. They usually involve more serious legal consequences if the user is caught. Some people may feel there’s safety in numbers: if a lot of people are using a drug, or drinking, then how can it be too bad? But other drugs carry the same risks as alcohol for health problems, a risk of death or injury, and a serious impact on your ability to do well as a student.
As with alcohol, the choice is yours. What’s important is to understand what you’re doing and make smart choices. What’s the gain, and what are the risks and costs?
While society may seem to condone drinking, and the laws regarding underage drinking or being drunk in public may not seem too harsh, the legal reality of being caught with an illegal drug can impact the rest of your life. Arrest and conviction may result in being expelled from college—even with a first offense. A conviction is a permanent legal record that can keep you from getting the job you may be going to college for.
Although the effects of different drugs vary widely, a single use of a drug can have serious effects and consequences. Even if you’re told that a pill is a prescription medication whose effects are mild or safe, can you really be sure of the exact ingredients and strength of that pill? Do you fully understand how it can affect you with repeated use? Can it be addictive? Could it show up on an unexpected random drug test at work?
Table 10.1 “Common Prescription and Illegal Drugs on Campuses” lists some of the possible effects of drugs used by college students. Good decisions also involve being honest with oneself. Why do I use (or am thinking about using) this drug? Am I trying to escape some aspect of my life (stress, a bad job, a boring class)? Could the effects of using this drug be worse than what I’m trying to escape?
Table 10.1 Common Prescription and Illegal Drugs on Campuses
Drug and Common Names Intended Effects Adverse Effects Common Overdose Effects
Anabolic Steroids Muscle development Liver cancer, sterility, masculine traits in women and feminine traits in men, aggression, depression, mood swings
Barbiturates Reduced anxiety, feelings of well-being, lowered inhibitions Addiction; slowed pulse and breathing; lowered blood pressure; poor concentration; fatigue; confusion; impaired coordination, memory, and judgment Coma, respiratory arrest, death
Prescription Opioids: OxyContin, Vicodin, Demerol Pain relief, euphoria Addiction, nausea, constipation, confusion, sedation, respiratory depression Respiratory arrest, unconsciousness, coma, death
Heroin Pain relief, anxiety reduction Addiction, slurred speech, impaired vision, respiratory depression Respiratory failure, coma, death
Morphine Pain relief, euphoria Addiction, drowsiness, nausea, constipation, confusion, sedation, respiratory depression Respiratory arrest, unconsciousness, coma, death
Ritalin Stimulant: mood elevation, increased feelings of energy Fever, severe headaches, paranoia, excessive repetition of movements and meaningless tasks, tremors, muscle twitching Confusion, seizures, aggressiveness, hallucinations
Amphetamines: Dexedrine, Benzedrine, methamphetamine Stimulant: mood elevation, increased feelings of energy Addiction, irritability, anxiety, increased blood pressure, paranoia, psychosis, depression, aggression, convulsions, dizziness, sleeplessness Convulsions, death
Cocaine, Crack Stimulant: mood elevation, increased feelings of energy Addiction, paranoia, hallucinations, aggression, insomnia, and depression, elevated blood pressure and heart rate, increased respiratory rate, insomnia, anxiety, restlessness, irritability Seizures, heart attack, death
Ecstasy Stimulant: mood elevation Panic, anxiety, depression, paranoia, nausea, blurred vision, increased heart rate, hallucinations, fainting, chills, sleep problems Seizures, vomiting, heart attack, death
Marijuana, Hash Euphoria Impaired or reduced comprehension, altered sense of time; reduced ability to perform tasks requiring concentration and coordination; paranoia; intense anxiety attacks; impairments in learning, memory, perception, and judgment; difficulty speaking, listening effectively, thinking, retaining knowledge, problem solving
LSD Hallucinogen: altered states of perception and feeling Elevated blood pressure, sleeplessness, tremors, chronic recurring hallucinations (flashbacks)
Resources for Help
If you have questions or concerns related to drug use, your doctor or student health center can help. Check these Web sites for additional information:
Key Takeaways
• Excessive drinking or substance abuse is a common—but unhealthy—response to the stresses of college life. While the decisions are yours, it’s important to understand the effects of tobacco, alcohol, and drugs and how they impact your life.
• Quitting smoking is hard, but it’s clearly worth it—and lots of help is available. If you’re a smoker, make this the year you become proud of yourself for quitting.
• If you like to drink, be honest with yourself. How much does drinking enrich your life, and how much do the effects of drinking interfere with your life? Make smart decisions so that you live your life to its fullest without regrets about losing control.
• Avoiding drugs can be a complicated issue, certainly not as simple as simply deciding to say no. But you’ve already made the decision to attend college, and that’s a smart decision. Make smart choices in other areas of your life as well.
Checkpoint Exercises
1. “Social smoking”—having a cigarette just every now and then with a friend—may not have significant health effects, but why is this still a problem?
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2. For each of the following statements about drinking, circle T for true or F for false:
T F After a few drinks, you can sober up more quickly by eating or drinking coffee.
T F A fourth of college students experience academic consequences from their drinking.
T F A 12-ounce beer has about half the alcohol of a standard shot of 80-proof liquor.
T F Moderate drinking is defined as no more than four drinks a day for men or two drinks a day for women.
T F A night of heavy drinking affects your thinking ability for up to two weeks afterward.
3. If smoking marijuana relaxes you, can it minimize the stress you may feel over time in your life? Why or why not?
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Learning Objectives
1. List common causes of stress for college students.
2. Describe the physical, mental, and emotional effects of persistent stress.
3. List healthy ways college students can manage or cope with stress.
4. Develop your personal plan for managing stress in your life.
We all live with occasional stress. Since college students often feel even more stress than most people, it’s important to understand it and learn ways to deal with it so that it doesn’t disrupt your life.
Stress is a natural response of the body and mind to a demand or challenge. The thing that causes stress, called a stressor, captures our attention and causes a physical and emotional reaction. Stressors include physical threats, such as a car we suddenly see coming at us too fast, and the stress reaction likely includes jumping out of the way—with our heart beating fast and other physical changes. Most of our stressors are not physical threats but situations or events like an upcoming test or an emotional break-up. Stressors also include long-lasting emotional and mental concerns such as worries about money or finding a job. Take the Stress Self-Assessment.
Stress Self-Assessment
Check the appropriate boxes.
Daily Sometimes Never
1. I feel mild stress that does not disrupt my everyday life.
2. I am sometimes so stressed out that I have trouble with my routine activities.
3. I find myself eating or drinking just because I’m feeling stressed.
4. I have lain awake at night unable to sleep because I was feeling stressed.
5. Stress has affected my relationships with other people.
Write your answers.
1. What is the number one cause of stress in your life?
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2. What else causes you stress?
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3. What effect does stress have on your studies and academic performance?
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4. Regardless of the sources of your own stress, what do you think you can do to better cope with the stress you can’t avoid?
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What Causes Stress?
Not all stressors are bad things. Exciting, positive things also cause a type of stress, called eustress. Falling in love, getting an unexpected sum of money, acing an exam you’d worried about—all of these are positive things that affect the body and mind in ways similar to negative stress: you can’t help thinking about it, you may lose your appetite and lie awake at night, and your routine life may be momentarily disrupted.
But the kind of stress that causes most trouble results from negative stressors. Life events that usually cause significant stress include the following:
• Serious illness or injury
• Serious illness, injury, or death of a family member or loved one
• Losing a job or sudden financial catastrophe
• Unwanted pregnancy
• Divorce or ending a long-term relationship (including parents’ divorce)
• Being arrested or convicted of a crime
• Being put on academic probation or suspended
Life events like these usually cause a lot of stress that may begin suddenly and disrupt one’s life in many ways. Fortunately, these stressors do not occur every day and eventually end—though they can be very severe and disruptive when experienced. Some major life stresses, such as having a parent or family member with a serious illness, can last a long time and may require professional help to cope with them.
Everyday kinds of stressors are far more common but can add up and produce as much stress as a major life event:
• Anxiety about not having enough time for classes, job, studies, and social life
• Worries about grades, an upcoming test, or an assignment
• Money concerns
• Conflict with a roommate, someone at work, or family member
• Anxiety or doubts about one’s future or difficulty choosing a major or career
• Frequent colds, allergy attacks, other continuing health issues
• Concerns about one’s appearance, weight, eating habits, and so on.
• Relationship tensions, poor social life, loneliness
• Time-consuming hassles such as a broken-down car or the need to find a new apartment
• _______________________________________
• _______________________________________
• _______________________________________
Take a moment and reflect on the list above. How many of these stressors have you experienced in the last month? The last year? Circle all the ones that you have experienced. Now go back to your Stress Self-Assessment and look at what you wrote there for causes of your stress. Write any additional things that cause you stress on the blank lines above.
How many stressors have you circled and written in? There is no magic number of stressors that an “average” or “normal” college student experiences—because everyone is unique. In addition, stressors come and go: the stress caused by a midterm exam tomorrow morning may be gone by noon, replaced by feeling good about how you did. Still, most college students are likely to circle about half the items on this list.
But it’s not the number of stressors that counts. You might have circled only one item on that list—but it could produce so much stress for you that you’re just as stressed out as someone else who circled all of them. The point of this exercise is to start by understanding what causes your own stress as a base for learning what to do about it.
What’s Wrong with Stress?
Physically, stress prepares us for action: the classic “fight-or-flight” reaction when confronted with a danger. Our heart is pumping fast, and we’re breathing faster to supply the muscles with energy to fight or flee. Many physical effects in the body prepare us for whatever actions we may need to take to survive a threat.
But what about nonphysical stressors, like worrying about grades? Are there any positive effects there? Imagine what life would feel like if you never had worries, never felt any stress at all. If you never worried about grades or doing well on a test, how much studying would you do for it? If you never thought at all about money, would you make any effort to save it or make it? Obviously, stress can be a good thing when it motivates us to do something, whether it’s study, work, resolving a conflict with another, and so on. So it’s not stress itself that’s negative—it’s unresolved or persistent stress that starts to have unhealthy effects. Chronic (long-term) stress is associated with many physical changes and illnesses, including the following:
• Weakened immune system, making you more likely to catch a cold and to suffer from any illness longer
• More frequent digestive system problems, including constipation or diarrhea, ulcers, and indigestion
• Elevated blood pressure
• Increased risk of diabetes
• Muscle and back pain
• More frequent headaches, fatigue, and insomnia
• Greater risk of heart attack and other cardiovascular problems over the long term
Chronic or acute (intense short-term) stress also affects our minds and emotions in many ways:
• Difficulty thinking clearly or concentrating
• Poor memory
• More frequent negative emotions such as anxiety, depression, frustration, powerlessness, resentment, or nervousness—and a general negative outlook on life
• Greater difficulty dealing with others because of irritability, anger, or avoidance
No wonder we view stress as such a negative thing! As much as we’d like to eliminate all stressors,however, it just can’t happen. Too many things in the real world cause stress and always will.
Unhealthy Responses to Stress
Since many stressors are unavoidable, the question is what to do about the resulting stress. A person can try to ignore or deny stress for a while, but then it keeps building and starts causing all those problems. So we have to do something.
Consider first what you have typically done in the past when you felt most stressed; use the Past Stress-Reduction Habits Self-Assessment.
Past Stress-Reduction Habits Self-Assessment
On a scale of 1 to 5, rate each of the following behaviors for how often you have experienced it because of high stress levels.
Stress Response Never Seldom Sometimes Often Usually Always
1. Drinking alcohol 0 1 2 3 4 5
2. Drinking lots of coffee 0 1 2 3 4 5
3. Sleeping a lot 0 1 2 3 4 5
4. Eating too much 0 1 2 3 4 5
5. Eating too little 0 1 2 3 4 5
6. Smoking or drugs 0 1 2 3 4 5
7. Having arguments 0 1 2 3 4 5
8. Sitting around depressed 0 1 2 3 4 5
9. Watching television or surfing the Web 0 1 2 3 4 5
10. Complaining to friends 0 1 2 3 4 5
11. Exercising, jogging, biking 0 1 2 3 4 5
12. Practicing yoga or tai chi 0 1 2 3 4 5
13. Meditating 0 1 2 3 4 5
14. Using relaxation techniques 0 1 2 3 4 5
15. Talking with an instructor or counselor 0 1 2 3 4 5
Total your scores for questions 1–10: _______________
Total your scores for questions 11–15: _______________
Subtract the second number from the first: _______________
Interpretation: If the subtraction of the score for questions 11 to 15 from the first score is a positive number, then your past coping methods for dealing with stress have not been as healthy and productive as they could be. Items 1 to 10 are generally not effective ways of dealing with stress, while items 11 to 15 usually are. If you final score is over 20, you’re probably like most beginning college students—feeling a lot of stress and not yet sure how best to deal with it.
What’s wrong with those stress-reduction behaviors listed first? Why not watch television or get a lot of sleep when you’re feeling stressed, if that makes you feel better? While it may feel better temporarily to escape feelings of stress in those ways, ultimately they may cause more stress themselves. If you’re worried about grades and being too busy to study as much as you need to, then letting an hour or two slip by watching television will make you even more worried later because then you have even less time. Eating too much may make you sluggish and less able to focus, and if you’re trying to lose weight, you’ll now feel just that much more stressed by what you’ve done. Alcohol, caffeine, smoking, and drugs all generally increase one’s stress over time. Complaining to friends? Over time, your friends will tire of hearing it or tire of arguing with you because a complaining person isn’t much fun to be around. So eventually you may find yourself even more alone and stressed.
Yet there is a bright side: there are lots of very positive ways to cope with stress that will also improve your health, make it easier to concentrate on your studies, and make you a happier person overall.
Coping with Stress
Look back at your list of stressors that you circled earlier. For each, consider whether it is external (like bad job hours or not having enough money) or internal, originating in your attitudes and thoughts. Mark each item with an E (external) or an I (internal).
You may be able to eliminate many external stressors. Talk to your boss about changing your work hours. If you have money problems, work on a budget you can live with (see Chapter 11 “Taking Control of Your Finances”), look for a new job, or reduce your expenses by finding a cheaper apartment, selling your car, and using public transportation.
What about other external stressors? Taking so many classes that you don’t have the time to study for all of them? Keep working on your time management skills (Chapter 2 “Staying Motivated, Organized, and On Track”). Schedule your days carefully and stick to the schedule. Take fewer classes next term if necessary. What else can you do to eliminate external stressors? Change apartments, get a new roommate, find better child care—consider all your options. And don’t hesitate to talk things over with a college counselor, who may offer other solutions.
Internal stressors, however, are often not easily resolved. We can’t make all stressors go away, but we can learn how to cope so that we don’t feel so stressed out most of the time. We can take control of our lives. We can find healthy coping strategies.
All the topics in this chapter involve stress one way or another. Many of the healthy habits that contribute to our wellness and happiness also reduce stress and minimize its effects.
Get Some Exercise
Exercise, especially aerobic exercise, is a great way to help reduce stress. Exercise increases the production of certain hormones, which leads to a better mood and helps counter depression and anxiety. Exercise helps you feel more energetic and focused so that you are more productive in your work and studies and thus less likely to feel stressed. Regular exercise also helps you sleep better, which further reduces stress.
Get More Sleep
When sleep deprived, you feel more stress and are less able to concentrate on your work or studies. Many people drink more coffee or other caffeinated beverages when feeling sleepy, and caffeine contributes further to stress-related emotions such as anxiety and nervousness.
Manage Your Money
Worrying about money is one of the leading causes of stress. Try the financial management skills in Chapter 11 “Taking Control of Your Finances” to reduce this stress.
Adjust Your Attitude
You know the saying about the optimist who sees the glass as half full and the pessimist who sees the same glass as half empty. Guess which one feels more stress?
Much of the stress you feel may be rooted in your attitudes toward school, your work—your whole life. If you don’t feel good about these things, how do you change? To begin with, you really need to think about yourself. What makes you happy? Are you expecting your college career to be perfect and always exciting, with never a dull class or reading assignment? Or can you be happy that you are in fact succeeding in college and foresee a great life and career ahead?
Maybe you just need to take a fun elective course to balance that “serious” course that you’re not enjoying so much. Maybe you just need to play an intramural sport to feel as good as you did playing in high school. Maybe you just need to take a brisk walk every morning to feel more alert and stimulated. Maybe listening to some great music on the way to work will brighten your day. Maybe calling up a friend to study together for that big test will make studying more fun.
No one answer works for everyone—you have to look at your life, be honest with yourself about what affects your daily attitude, and then look for ways to make changes. The good news is that although old negative habits can be hard to break, once you’ve turned positive changes into new habits, they will last into a brighter future.
Learn a Relaxation Technique
Different relaxation techniques can be used to help minimize stress. Following are a few tried-and-tested ways to relax when stress seems overwhelming. You can learn most of these through books, online exercises, CDs or MP3s, and DVDs available at your library or student health center. Practicing one of them can have dramatic effects.
• Deep breathing. Sit in a comfortable position with your back straight. Breathe in slowly and deeply through your nose, filling your lungs completely. Exhale slowly and smoothly through your mouth. Concentrate on your breathing and feel your chest expanding and relaxing. After five to ten minutes, you will feel more relaxed and focused.
• Progressive muscle relaxation. With this technique, you slowly tense and then relax the body’s major muscle groups. The sensations and mental concentration produce a calming state.
• Meditation. Taking many forms, meditation may involve focusing on your breathing, a specific visual image, or a certain thought, while clearing the mind of negative energy. Many podcasts are available to help you find a form of meditation that works best for you.
• Yoga or tai chi. Yoga, tai chi, and other exercises that focus on body position and slow, gradual movements are popular techniques for relaxation and stress reduction. You can learn these techniques through a class or from a DVD.
• Music and relaxation CDs and MP3s. Many different relaxation techniques have been developed for audio training. Simply play the recording and relax as you are guided through the techniques.
• Massage. Regular massages are a way to relax both body and mind. If you can’t afford a weekly massage but enjoy its effects, a local massage therapy school may offer more affordable massage from students and beginning practitioners.
Get Counseling
If stress is seriously disrupting your studies or your life regardless of what you do to try to reduce it, you may need help. There’s no shame in admitting that you need help, and college counselors and health professionals are there to help.
Tips for Success: Stress
• Pay attention to, rather than ignore, things that cause you stress and change what you can.
• Accept what you can’t change and resolve to make new habits that will help you cope.
• Get regular exercise and enough sleep.
• Evaluate your priorities, work on managing your time, and schedule restful activities in your daily life. Students who feel in control of their lives report feeling much less stress than those who feel that circumstances control them.
• Slow down and focus on one thing at a time—don’t check for e-mail or text messages every few minutes! Know when to say no to distractions.
• Break old habits involving caffeine, alcohol, and other substances.
• Remember your long-range goals and don’t obsess over short-term difficulties.
• Make time to enjoy being with friends.
• Explore new activities and hobbies that you enjoy.
• Find a relaxation technique that works for you and practice regularly.
• Get help if you’re having a hard time coping with emotional stress.
Journal Entry
All college students feel some stress. The amount of stress you feel depends on many factors, including your sleeping habits, your exercise and activity levels, your use of substances, your time management and study skills, your attitude, and other factors. As you look at your present life and how much stress you may be feeling, what short-term changes can you start making in the next week or two to feel less stressed and more in control? By the end of the semester or term, how would you ideally like your life to be different—and how can you best accomplish that? Write your thoughts here.
___________________________________________________________________________
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Key Takeaways
• Everyone feels stress, and many of the things that cause stress won’t go away regardless of what we do. But we can examine our lives, figure out what causes most of our stress, and learn to do something about it.
• Stress leads to a lot of different unhealthy responses that actually increase our stress over the long term. But once we understand how stress affects us, we can begin to take steps to cope in healthier ways.
Checkpoint Exercises
1. Why should it not be your goal to try to eliminate stress from your life completely?
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2. List three or more unhealthful effects of stress.
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3. Name at least two common external stressors you may be able to eliminate from your life.
__________________________________________________________________
4. Name at least two common internal stressors you may feel that you need to learn to cope with because you can’t eliminate them.
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5. List at least three ways you can minimize the stress you feel.
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Learning Objectives
1. Explain the common causes of anxiety, depression, and other negative emotions in college-age people.
2. Describe changes you can make in your life to achieve or maintain emotional balance.
3. List characteristics of healthy relationships.
4. Describe the steps of conflict resolution.
Your emotional health is just as important as your physical health—and maybe more so. If you’re unhappy much of the time, you will not do as well as in college—or life—as you can if you’re happy. You will feel more stress, and your health will suffer.
Still, most of us are neither happy nor unhappy all the time. Life is constantly changing, and our emotions change with it. But sometimes we experience more negative emotions than normally, and our emotional health may suffer. Use the Emotional Self-Assessment to evaluate your emotional health.
Emotional Self-Assessment
Check the appropriate boxes.
Daily Sometimes Never
1. I sometimes feel anxious or depressed—without disruption of my everyday life.
2. I sometimes feel so anxious or depressed that I have trouble with routine activities.
3. I sometimes feel lonely.
4. I sometimes feel that I have little control over my life.
5. I have sometimes just wanted to give up.
6. Negative emotions have sometimes kept me from studying or getting my work done.
7. Negative emotions have affected my relationships with others.
Write your answers.
1. Describe your emotional mood on most days.
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2. Describe what you’d ideally like to feel like all the time.
__________________________________________________________________
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3. What specific things are keeping you from feeling what you’d ideally like to feel like most of the time?
__________________________________________________________________
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4. Are you happy with your relationships with others?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. What do you think you can do to be a happier person?
__________________________________________________________________
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Problematic Emotions
When is an emotion problematic? Is it bad to feel anxious about a big test coming up or to feel sad after breaking up a romantic relationship?
It is normal to experience negative emotions. College students face so many demands and stressful situations that many naturally report often feeling anxious, depressed, or lonely. These emotions become problematic only when they persist and begin to affect your life in negative ways. That’s when it’s time to work on your emotional health—just as you’d work on your physical health when illness strikes.
Anxiety
Anxiety is one of the most common emotions college students experience, often as a result of the demands of college, work, and family and friends. It’s difficult to juggle everything, and you may end up feeling not in control, stressed, and anxious.
Anxiety typically results from stress. Some anxiety is often a good thing if it leads to studying for a test, focusing on a problem that needs to be resolved, better management your time and money, and so on. But if anxiety disrupts your focus and makes you freeze up rather than take action, then it may become problematic. Using stress-reduction techniques often helps reduce anxiety to a manageable level.
Anxiety is easier to deal with when you know its cause. Then you can take steps to gain control over the part of your life causing the anxiety. But anxiety can become excessive and lead to a dread of everyday situations. There are five types of more serious anxiety:
1. Generalized anxiety disorder is characterized by chronic anxiety, exaggerated worry and tension, even when there is little or nothing to provoke it. The person may have physical symptoms, especially fatigue, headaches, muscle tension, muscle aches, difficulty swallowing, trembling, twitching, irritability, sweating, and hot flashes.
2. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is characterized by recurrent, unwanted thoughts (obsessions), repetitive behaviors (compulsions), or both. Repetitive behaviors such as hand washing, counting, checking, or cleaning are often performed with the hope of preventing obsessive thoughts or making them go away.
3. Panic disorder is characterized by unexpected and repeated episodes of intense fear accompanied by physical symptoms that may include chest pain, heart palpitations, shortness of breath, dizziness, or abdominal distress.
4. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can develop after exposure to a terrifying event or ordeal in which grave physical harm occurred or was threatened. Traumatic events that may trigger PTSD include violent personal assaults, natural or human-caused disasters, accidents, or military combat.
5. Social phobia (or social anxiety disorder) is a persistent, intense, and chronic fear of being watched and judged by others and being embarrassed or humiliated by one’s own actions. Their fear may be so severe that it interferes with work or school, and other ordinary activities. Physical symptoms often accompany the intense anxiety of social phobia and include blushing, profuse sweating, trembling, nausea, and difficulty talking.
These five types of anxiety go beyond the normal anxiety everyone feels at some times. If you feel your anxiety is like any of these, see your health-care provider. Effective treatments are available to help you regain control.
Loneliness
Loneliness is a normal feeling that most people experience at some time. College students away from home for the first time are likely to feel lonely at first. Older students may also feel lonely if they no longer see their old friends. Loneliness involves not feeling connected with others. One person may need only one friend to not feel lonely; others need to feel more connected with a group. There’s no set pattern for feeling lonely.
If you are feeling lonely, there are many things you can do to meet others and feel connected. Don’t sit alone in your room bemoaning the absence of friends. That will only cause more stress and emotional distress. You will likely start making new friends through going to classes, working, studying, and living in the community. But you can jump-start that process by taking active steps such as these:
• Realize you don’t have to be physically with friends in order to stay connected. Many students use social Web sites to stay connected with friends at other colleges or in other locations. Telephone calls, instant messaging, and e-mail work for many.
• Understand that you’re not alone in feeling lonely. Many others like you are just waiting for the opportunity to connect, and you will meet them and form new friendships fast once you start reaching out.
• Become involved in campus opportunities to meet others. Every college has a wide range of clubs for students with different interests. If you’re not the “joiner” type, look for individuals in your classes with whom you think you may have something in common and ask them if they’d like to study for a test together or work together on a class project.
• Remember that loneliness is a temporary thing—it’s only a matter of time until you make new friends.
If your loneliness persists and you seem unable to make friends, then it’s a good idea to talk with your counselor or someone at the student health center. They can help.
Depression
Depression, like anxiety and loneliness, is commonly experienced by college students. It may be a mild sadness resulting from specific circumstances or be intense feelings of hopelessness and helplessness. Many people feel depressed from time to time because of common situations:
• Feeling overwhelmed by pressures to study, work, and meet other obligations
• Not having enough time (or money) to do the things you want to do
• Experiencing problems in a relationship, friendship, or work situation
• Feeling overweight, unhealthy, or not in control of oneself
• Feeling that your new life as a student lacks some of the positive dimensions of your former life
• Not having enough excitement in your life
Depression, like stress, can lead to unhealthy consequences such as poor sleep, overeating or loss of appetite, substance abuse, relationship problems, or withdrawal from activities that formerly brought joy. For most people, depression is a temporary state. But severe depression can have crippling effects. Not everyone experiences the same symptoms, but the following are most common:
• Persistent sad, anxious, or “empty” feelings
• Feelings of hopelessness or pessimism
• Feelings of guilt, worthlessness, or helplessness
• Irritability or restlessness
• Loss of interest in activities or hobbies once pleasurable, including sex
• Fatigue and decreased energy
• Difficulty concentrating, remembering details, and making decisions
• Insomnia, early morning wakefulness, or excessive sleeping
• Overeating or appetite loss
• Thoughts of suicide or suicide attempts
• Persistent aches or pains, headaches, cramps, or digestive problems
If you have feelings like this that last for weeks at a time and affect your daily life, your depression is more severe than “normal,” temporary depression. It’s time to see your health-care provider and get treatment as you would for any other illness.
Suicidal Feelings
Severe depression often makes a person feel there is no hope—and therefore many people with depression do not seek help. In reality, depression can be successfully treated, but only if the person seeks help.
Suicidal feelings, which can result from severe depression, are more common in college students than in the past. Suicide is now the second leading cause of death in American college students (after accidents). In most cases, the person had severe depression and was not receiving treatment. Recognizing severe depression and seeking treatment is crucial.
Depression can strike almost anyone at any age at any kind of college. It is a myth that high-pressure colleges have higher suicide rates or that students who feel compelled to excel because of college pressures are more likely to commit suicide. In reality, anyone can be ill with severe depression and, if not treated, become suicidal.
Following are risk factors for suicide:
• Depression and other mental disorders or a substance-abuse disorder (more than 90 percent of people who die by suicide have these risk factors)
• Prior suicide attempt
• Family history of mental disorder, substance abuse, or suicide
• Family violence, including physical or sexual abuse
• Exposure to the suicidal behavior of others, such as family members, peers, or media figures
Warning Signs for Suicide
• Being depressed or sad most of the time
• Having feelings of worthlessness, shame, or hopelessness about the future
• Withdrawing from friends and family members
• Talking about suicide or death
• Being unable to get over a recent loss (broken relationship, loss of job, etc.)
• Experiencing changes in behavior, sleep patterns, or eating habits
If you or a friend is in a crisis and needs help at any time, call the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline: 1-800-273-TALK (8255). Call for yourself or for someone you care about. All calls are confidential.
If you think someone is suicidal, do not leave him or her alone. Try to get the person to seek immediate help by calling the hotline number. Many campuses also have twenty-four-hour resources. In an emergency, call 911. Try to ensure that the person does not have access to a firearm or other potential tool for suicide, including medications.
Achieving Emotional Balance
Emotional balance is an essential element of wellness—and for succeeding in college. Emotional balance doesn’t mean that you never experience a negative emotion, because these emotions are usually natural and normal. Emotional balance means we balance the negative with the positive, that we can be generally happy even if we’re saddened by some things.
Emotional balance starts with being aware of our emotions and understanding them. If you’re feeling angry, stop and think about the real cause of your anger. Are you really angry because your friend said something about one of your bad habits, or are you angry because you haven’t been able to break that habit? Are you feeling anxiety because you’re worried you might not be cut out for college, or are you just anxious about that test tomorrow?
See the “Tips for Success” for other ways you can achieve and maintain a healthy emotional balance.
Tips for Success: Emotional Health
• Accept that most emotions can’t be directly controlled. But the things you do—such as getting exercise, using a relaxation technique, trying the various stress-reduction methods discussed in this chapter—do improve your emotional state.
• Connect with others. Your emotional state is less likely to change when you keep to yourself and “stew over” the feeling.
• Develop your empathy for others. Empathy involves recognizing the emotions that others are feeling. You’ll find yourself in better emotional balance as a result, and your relationships will improve.
• Be honest in your relationships. If you try to hide your feelings, the other person will know something is wrong and may react the wrong way.
• Understand that negative emotions are temporary. You may be feeling bad now, but it will pass in time. But if a negative feeling does last a long time, recognize that you likely need help resolving it—and that help is available.
• If you’ve just become a college student, know that the first term is usually the hardest. Hang in there. Once you’ve developed effective study habits and time management skills, each term will be easier and happier than the one before.
Relationships
Romantic relationships are often as much a part of a rich emotional life for college students as for anyone else. But the added challenges of college, especially while also working and maintaining a family life, often stress these relationships. You may have to give extra attention to a relationship to keep it healthy and avoid conflicts that lead to unhappiness and other problems.
Building Relationships
Ideally, a healthy relationship should have these characteristics:
• Both partners should respect each other as individuals with unique interests and personality traits. Don’t expect your partner to be just like you; embrace rather than reject differences. Both partners should be supportive of each other.
• Both partners should trust each other and be honest with each other. You must feel that you can open up emotionally to the other without fear of rejection. Starting out with deceptions is certain to cause eventual problems.
• Both partners should be understanding and have empathy for each other. Good communication is essential. Many relationship problems are rooted in misunderstandings, such as when one partner doesn’t make the effort to understand what the other wants or needs.
These positive characteristics of a good relationship don’t happen overnight. The relationship may begin with romantic attraction and only slowly develop into a trusting, mutually supportive friendship as well. The following signs may indicate that a dating relationship is not developing well:
• Your partner is pressuring you for sex when you’re not ready
• Your partner seems angry or abusive when you disagree about something
• Your partner seems possessive when others want to spend time with you
• Your partner treats you unequally in any way
• Your partner is emotionally or physically abusive (whether it happens once or many times)
If you recognize that any of these things are happening with someone you’re dating, it may be time to reconsider, even if you still feel attracted. Any relationship that begins this way is not likely to end well.
Resolving Conflicts
In any friendship or relationship, conflict will eventually happen. This is just natural because people are different. If a conflict is ignored, or the partners just argue without resolving it, it may simmer and continue to cause tension, eventually weakening the relationship. It’s better to take steps to resolve it.
Conflict resolution is a process of understanding what’s really going on and then finding a solution. The same general steps of conflict resolution can work to solve a relationship conflict or a conflict between any people or groups because of a disagreement about anything. Following are the general principles of conflict resolution:
1. Allow things to cool off. It’s difficult to resolve a conflict while either party is still emotional. Wait a few minutes or agree to talk about it later.
2. Using “I statements” rather than “you statements,” each party explains what bothers him or her about the cause of the conflict. For example, don’t say, “You’re always playing loud music when I’m trying to study.” Instead, say, “I have difficulty studying when you play loud music, and that makes me frustrated and irritable.” “You statements” put the other person on the defensive and evoke emotions that make resolution more difficult.
3. Listen carefully to what the other person says. Then restate the message in your own words to give the other a chance to clarify their thoughts and feelings. Each party should listen to the other and restate the other’s message to ensure the real issue is out on the table for discussion.
4. Accept responsibility for your role in the conflict, instead of blaming the other. A good example of accepting responsibility is to say, “I know I’m always studying and need the quiet. I guess that makes it hard for you to listen to your music.”
5. Brainstorm together to find a solution that satisfies both of you. Some compromise is usually needed, but that is usually not difficult to reach when you’re calm and are working together on a solution. In this example, you might compromise by going elsewhere to study at selected times when the other has friends over and wants to listen to music, and the other may compromise by agreeing to use headphones at other times and never to play music aloud after 10 p.m.
6. Apologize, thank, and forgive. After reaching a resolution, emotional closure is needed to restore your relationship and end on a positive, affirming note. When appropriate, apologize for your past anger or arguing. Thank the other for being willing to compromise to resolve the conflict. In your mind, forgive the person for past misunderstandings and actions so that you do not carry any grudge into the future.
Online and Long-Distance Relationships
Can your relationship survive if you and your partner are living at a distance? This is a common issue for young people going off to college at different schools—and for older college students, too, who may move because of work or school. Sometimes the relationship survives, and sometimes it doesn’t. It’s important, if you’re making an effort to stay together, for both partners to accept that being apart will add new pressures on the relationship. Accept also that both of you will be changing in many ways. You may naturally grow apart and decide to break up.
Yet often long-distance relationships do survive successfully. If you do decide to work to keep your relationship alive and vibrant, there are things you can do:
• Acknowledge that you are both changing, and accept and celebrate your new lives.
• Don’t feel guilty about being excited by your new life, and don’t try to pretend to your partner that you’re always miserable because you’re separated.
• Don’t be upset or jealous when your partner tells you about new friends and activities—be happy that he or she seems happy. Talk about these changes and be happy for each other.
• If your relationship is solid, it is already based on trust and mutual support, which should continue to give you strength when apart.
Key Takeaways
• Emotional health is just as important as physical health. We can take steps to reduce the negative emotions that plague us from time to time and gain control over our emotional health.
• Emotional balance results from a variety of things in our lives. We need to connect with others, to be honest and empathetic in our relationships, and to resolve conflicts that can cause bad feelings and threaten our daily happiness. We can learn skills in these areas just as in other areas of our lives.
Checkpoint Exercises
1. For each of the following statements about emotional health, circle T for true or F for false:
T F Anxiety is always a mental health disorder.
T F It’s normal to feel depressed sometimes about the pressures of studying, working, and other obligations in your life.
T F When you’re feeling depressed or anxious, it’s best to keep to yourself and not try to connect with others until after these feelings pass.
T F If someone says he is feeling suicidal, he is only seeking attention and is unlikely to actually try to kill himself.
2. List at least two things you can do to make new friends at college.
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3. Describe three characteristics of a good relationship.
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4. List the six steps for effective conflict resolution.
1. ________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________
4. ________________________________________________
5. ________________________________________________
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Learning Objectives
1. Explain the importance of understanding your sexual values and making wise decisions regarding your sexuality.
2. Describe guidelines for sexually active college students to protect themselves against sexually transmitted infections and unwanted pregnancy.
3. List actions some can take to protect against sexual assault.
Sexuality is normal, natural human drive. As an adult, your sexuality is your own business. Like other dimensions of health, however, your sexual health depends on understanding many factors involving sexuality and your own values. Your choices and behavior may have consequences. Learning about sexuality and thinking through your values will help you make responsible decisions. Begin with the Sexual Health Self-Assessment.
Sexual Health Self-Assessment
Check the appropriate boxes.
Often Sometimes Never
1. I think about issues related to sexuality.
2. I have experienced unwanted sexual advances from another.
3. If I am sexually active, I protect myself from the risk of sexually transmitted infections.
4. If I am sexually active, I protect myself from the risk of unwanted pregnancy.
5. I am proud of the choices I have made regarding sexual activity.
6. I am concerned about the possibility of sexual assault including date rape.
7. I have been in situations involving some risk of date rape.
Write your answers.
1. How comfortable are you with your past and present decisions related to sexual behavior?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. If you are not presently sexually active, do you feel prepared to make responsible decisions about sexual activity if you become active in the near future?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. If you are sexually active, how well protected are you against the risks of sexually transmitted infection? If you are not active now, how well do you understand protections needed if you become active?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. If you are sexually active, how well protected are you against the risk of unwanted pregnancy? If you are not active now, how well do you understand the different types of protection available if you become active?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. If you suddenly found yourself in a situation with a potential for sexual assault, including date rape, would you know what to do?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Sexual Values and Decisions
It’s often difficult to talk about sexuality and sex. Not only is it a very private matter for most people, but the words themselves are often used loosely, resulting in misunderstandings. Surveys have shown, for example, that about three-fourths of college students say they are “sexually active”—but survey questions rarely specify exactly what that phrase means. To some, sexual activity includes passionate kissing and fondling, while to others the phrase means sexual intercourse. Manual and oral sexual stimulation may or may not be included in an individual’s own definition of being sexually active.
We should therefore begin by defining these terms. First, sexuality is not the same as sex. Human sexuality is a general term for how people experience and express themselves as sexual beings. Since all people are sexual beings, everyone has a dimension of human sexuality regardless of their behavior. Someone who practices complete abstinence from sexual behavior still has the human dimension of sexuality.
Sexuality involves gender identity, or how we see ourselves in terms of maleness and femaleness, as well as sexual orientation, which refers to the gender qualities of those to whom we are attracted. The phrase sexual activity is usually used to refer to behaviors between two (or more) people involving the genitals—but the term may also refer to solo practices such as masturbation or to partner activities that are sexually stimulating but may not involve the genitals. For the purposes of this chapter, with its focus on personal health, the term sexual activity refers to any behavior that carries a risk of acquiring a sexually transmitted disease. This includes vaginal, oral, and anal intercourse. The term sexual intercourse will be used to refer to vaginal intercourse, which also carries the risk of unwanted pregnancy. We’ll avoid the most confusing term, sex, which in strict biological terms refers to reproduction but is used loosely to refer to many different behaviors.
There is a stereotype that sexual activity is very prominent among college students. One survey found that most college students think that other students have had an average of three sexual partners in the past year, yet 80 percent of those answering said that they themselves had zero or one sexual partner. In other words, college students as a whole are not engaging in sexual activity nearly as much as they think they are. Another study revealed that about 20 percent of eighteen- to twenty-four-year-old college students had never been sexually active and about half had not been during the preceding month.
In sum, some college students are sexually active and some are not. Misperceptions of what others are doing may lead to unrealistic expectations or feelings. What’s important, however, is to be aware of your own values and to make responsible decisions that protect your sexual health.
Information and preparation are the focus of this section of the chapter. People who engage in sexual activity in the heat of the moment—often under the influence of alcohol—without having protection and information for making good decisions are at risk for disease, unwanted pregnancy, or abuse.
Alcohol and Sexual Activity
Figure 10.5
Drinking alcohol increases the likelihood of having unprotected sexual activity.
Almost all college students know the importance of protection against sexually transmitted infections and unwanted pregnancy. So why then do these problems occur so often? Part of the answer is that we don’t always do the right thing even when we know it—especially in the heat of the moment, particularly when drinking or using drugs. Some four hundred thousand eighteen- to twenty-four-year-old college students a year engage in unprotected sexual activity after drinking, and one hundred thousand report having been too intoxicated to know if they had consented to the sexual activity.
What’s “Safe Sex”?
It has been said that no sexual activity is safe because there is always some risk, even if very small, of protections failing. The phrase “safer sex” better describes actions one can take to reduce the risk of sexually transmitted infections and unwanted pregnancy.
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)
About two dozen different diseases can be transmitted through sexual activity. Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) range from infections that can be easily treated with medications to diseases that may have permanent health effects to HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), the cause of AIDS, a fatal disease. Despite decades of public education campaigns and easy access to protection, STIs still affect many millions of people every year. Often a person feels no symptoms at first and does not realize he or she has the infection and thus passes it on unknowingly. Or a person may not use protection because of simple denial: “It can’t happen to me.”
Table 10.2 “Common Sexually Transmitted Infections” lists facts about common STIs for which college students are at risk. Although there are some differences, in most cases sexual transmission involves an exchange of body fluids between two people: semen, vaginal fluids, or blood (or other body fluids containing blood). Because of this similarity, the same precautions to prevent the transmission of HIV will prevent the transmission of other STIs as well.
Although many of these diseases may not cause dramatic symptoms, always see a health-care provider if you have the slightest suspicion of having acquired an STI. Not only should you receive treatment as soon as possible to prevent the risk of serious health problems, but you are also obligated to help not pass it on to others.
Table 10.2 Common Sexually Transmitted Infections
Infection U.S. Incidence Transmission Symptoms Risks
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) Causing AIDS About 56,000 new HIV infections per year Contact with infected person’s blood, semen, or vaginal secretions during any sexual act (and needle sharing) Usually no symptoms for years or decades. Later symptoms include swollen glands, weight loss, and susceptibility to infections. Because medical treatment can only slow but not cure AIDS, the disease is currently eventually fatal.
Chlamydia Bacteria Over 1 million new cases reported annually, with many more not reported Vaginal, anal, or oral sex with infected person Often no symptoms. Symptoms may occur 1–3 weeks after exposure, including burning sensation when urinating and abnormal discharge from vagina or penis. In women, pelvic inflammatory disease may result, with permanent damage to reproductive tissues, possibly sterility. In men, infection may spread and cause pain, fever, and rarely sterility.
Genital HPV (Human Papilloma Virus) Causing Genital Warts 6.2 million new cases a year (before vaccine) Genital contact, most often during vaginal and anal sex Most infected people have no symptoms at all and unknowingly pass on the virus. Warts may appear in weeks or months. Of the 40 types of HPV, many cause no health problems. Some types cause genital warts; others can lead to cancer. Vaccine is now recommended for girls and young women and protects against cancer-causing HPV.
Genital Herpes Virus An estimated 45 million Americans have had the infection Genital-genital or oral-genital contact Often no symptoms. First outbreak within 2 weeks of contact may cause sores and flu-like symptoms. Outbreaks occur less frequently over time. Many adults experience recurrent painful genital sores and emotional distress. Genital herpes in a pregnant woman puts the infant at risk during childbirth.
Gonorrhea Bacteria 700,000 new cases each year Direct contact with the penis, vagina, mouth, or anus; ejaculation does not have to occur Often no recognized symptoms. Burning sensation when urinating. Abnormal discharge from vagina or penis. Rectal infection symptoms include itching, soreness, or bleeding. If untreated, it may cause serious, permanent health problems, including pelvic inflammatory disease in women with permanent damage to reproductive tissues and possibly sterility in both men and women.
Trichomoniasis Protozoa 7.4 million new cases each year Genital contact, most often during vaginal sex Most men have no symptoms or may have slight burning after urination or mild discharge. Some women have vaginal discharge with strong odor and irritation or itching of genital area. Trichomoniasis makes an infected woman more susceptible to HIV infection if exposed to the virus. Trichomoniasis is easily treated with medication.
Syphilis Bacteria 36,000 cases reported a year Direct contact with a syphilis sore, which occurs mainly on the external genitals, vagina, anus, or in the rectum but can also occur on the lips and in the mouth; during vaginal, anal, or oral sex Often no recognized symptoms for years. Primary stage symptom (a small painless sore) appears in 10–90 days but heals without treatment. Secondary stage symptoms (skin rashes, fever, headache, muscle aches) may also resolve without treatment. Late-stage symptoms occur after 10–20 years, including severe internal organ damage and nervous system effects. Because the infected person may feel no symptoms, the risk of transmission is great. Syphilis is easy to treat in the early stages, but treatment in late stages cannot repair damage that has already occurred. Untreated, syphilis is often fatal.
The following are guidelines to protect yourself against STIs if you are sexually active:
• Know that only abstinence is 100 percent safe. Protective devices can fail even when used correctly, although the risk is small. Understand the risks of not always using protection.
• Talk with your partner in advance about your sexual histories and health. Agree that regardless of how sure you both are about not having an STI, you will use protection because you cannot be certain even if you have no symptoms.
• Avoid sexual activity with casual acquaintances whose sexual history you do not know and with whom you have not talked about health issues. Sexual activity is safest with a single partner in a long-term relationship.
• Use a latex condom for all sexual activity. A male condom is about 98 percent effective when used correctly, and a female condom about 95 percent effective when used correctly. With both, incorrect use increases the risk. If you are unsure how to use a condom correctly and safely, do some private online reading. Good information can be found at http://www.emedicinehealth.com/how_to_use_a_condom/article_em.htm. You can watch a video demonstration of how to use condoms correctly at http://www.plannedparenthood.org/teen-talk/watch/how-use-condom-26797.htm.
• If you are sexually active with multiple partners, see your health-care provider twice a year for an STI screening even if you are not experiencing symptoms.
Preventing Unwanted Pregnancy
Heterosexual couples who engage in vaginal intercourse are also at risk for an unwanted pregnancy. There are lots of myths about how a woman can’t get pregnant at a certain time in her menstrual cycle or under other conditions, but in fact, there’s a risk of pregnancy after vaginal intercourse at any time. All couples should talk about protection before reaching the stage of having intercourse and take appropriate steps.
While a male condom is about 98 percent effective, that 2 percent failure rate could lead to tens of thousands of unintended pregnancies among college students. When not used correctly, condoms are only 85 percent effective. In addition, a couple that has been healthy and monogamous in their relationship for a long time may be less faithful in their use of condoms if the threat of STIs seems diminished. Other methods of birth control should also therefore be considered. With the exception of the male vasectomy, at present most other methods are used by the woman. They include intrauterine devices (IUDs), implants, injected or oral contraceptives (the “pill”), hormone patches, vaginal rings, diaphragms, cervical caps, and sponges. Each has certain advantages and disadvantages.
Birth control methods vary widely in effectiveness as well as potential side effects. This is therefore a very personal decision. In addition, two methods can be used together, such as a condom along with a diaphragm or spermicide, which increases the effectiveness. (Note that a male and female condom should not be used together, however, because of the risk of either or both tearing because of friction between them.) Because this is such an important issue, you should talk it over with your health-care provider, or a professional at your student health center or an agency such as Planned Parenthood.
In cases of unprotected vaginal intercourse, or if a condom tears, emergency contraception is an option for up to five days after intercourse. Sometimes called the “morning after pill” or “plan B,” emergency contraception is an oral hormone that prevents pregnancy from occurring. It is not an “abortion pill.” Planned Parenthood offices around the country can provide more information and confidential contraceptive services including emergency contraception.
Sexual Assault and Date Rape
Sexual assault is a serious problem in America generally and among college students in particular:
• About a third of all dating relationships involve some physical violence.
• One in six women and one in ten men will be sexually assaulted in their lifetimes.
• About a fourth of sexual assault victims are in the typical college age range of eighteen to twenty-four years old.
• As many as one in four women experience unwanted sexual intercourse while attending college.
• In more than three fourths of rape cases, the victim knows the perpetrator.
Sexual assault is any form of sexual contact without voluntary consent. Rape is usually more narrowly legally defined as forced sexual intercourse, a specific type of sexual assault. Both are significant problems among college students. Although men can also be victims of sexual assault and rape, the problem usually involves women, so this section focuses primarily on the issue for women in college. Men must also understand what is involved in sexual assault and help build greater awareness of the problem and how to prevent it.
Sexual assault is so common in our society in part because many people believe in myths about certain kinds of male-female interaction. Common myths include “It’s not really rape if the woman was flirting first” and “It’s not rape unless the woman is seriously injured.” Both statements are not legally correct. Another myth or source of confusion is the idea that “Saying no is just playing hard to get, not really no.” Men who really believe these myths may not think that they are committing assault, especially if their judgment is impaired by alcohol. Other perpetrators of sexual assault and rape, however, know exactly what they’re doing and in fact may plan to overcome their victim by using alcohol or a date rape drug.
College administrators and educators have worked very hard to promote better awareness of sexual assault and to help students learn how to protect themselves. Yet colleges cannot prevent things that happen at parties and behind closed doors. Students must understand how to protect themselves.
Perpetrators of sexual assault fall into three categories:
1. Strangers
2. Acquaintances
3. Dating partners
Among college students, assault by a stranger is the least common because campus police departments take many measures to help keep students safe on campus. Nonetheless, use common sense to avoid situations where you might be alone in a vulnerable place. Walk with a friend if you must pass through a quiet place after dark. Don’t open your door to a stranger. Don’t take chances. For more information and ways to reduce your risk of sexual assault, see http://www.rainn.org/get-information/sexual-assault-prevention.
Most sexual assaults are perpetrated by acquaintances or date partners. Typically, an acquaintance assault begins at a party. Typically, both the man and the woman are drinking—although assault can happen to sober victims as well. The interaction may begin innocently, perhaps with dancing or flirting. The perpetrator may misinterpret the victim’s behavior as a willingness to share sexual activity, or a perpetrator intent on sexual activity may simply pick out a likely target. Either way, the situation may gradually or suddenly change and lead to sexual assault.
Prevention of acquaintance rape begins with the awareness of its likelihood and then taking deliberate steps to ensure you stay safe at and after the party:
• Go with a friend and don’t let someone separate you from your friend. Agree to stick together and help each other if it looks like things are getting out of hand. If your friend has too much to drink, don’t leave her or him alone. Plan to leave together and stick to the plan.
• Be especially alert if you become separated from your friend, even if you are only going off alone to look for the bathroom. You may be followed.
• Be cautious if someone is pressuring you to drink heavily.
• Trust your instincts if someone seems to be coming on too aggressively. Get back to your friends.
• Know where you are and have a plan to get home if you have to leave abruptly.
These preventions can work well at a party or in other social situations, but they don’t apply to most dating situations when you are alone with another person. About half of sexual assaults on college students are date rape. An assault may occur after the first date, when you feel you know the person better and perhaps are not concerned about the risk. This may actually make you more vulnerable, however. Until you really get to know the person well and have a trusting relationship, follow these guidelines to lower the risk of sexual assault:
• Make it clear that you have limits on sexual activity. Take care that your body language or appearance does not send a message that you might be “easy.” If there is any question that your date may not understand your limits, talk about your values and limits.
• If your date initiates unwanted sexual activity of any sort, do not resist passively. The other may misinterpret passive behavior as consent.
• Be careful if your date is drinking heavily or using drugs. Avoid drinking yourself, or drink very moderately.
• Stay in public places where there are other people. Do not invite your date to your home before your relationship is well established.
• Trust your instincts if your date seems to be coming on too strong. End the date if necessary.
• Pay attention for signs of an unhealthy relationship (described in Chapter 10 “Taking Control of Your Health”, Section 10.6 “Emotional Health and Happiness”).
If you are sexually assaulted, always talk to someone. Call a rape crisis center, your student health center, or the National Sexual Assault Hotline at 1-800-656-HOPE for a confidential conversation. Even if you do not report the assault to law enforcement, it’s important to talk through your feelings and seek help if needed to prevent an emotional crisis.
Date Rape Drugs
In addition to alcohol, sexual predators use certain commonly available drugs to sedate women for sexual assault. They are odorless and tasteless and may be added to a punch bowl or slipped into your drink when you’re not looking. These drugs include the sedatives GHB, sometimes called “liquid ecstasy,” and Rohypnol, also called “roofies.” Both cause sedation in small doses but can have serious medical effects in larger doses. Date rape drugs are typically used at parties. Use the following tips to protect yourself against date rape drugs:
• Don’t put your drink down where someone else may get to it. If your drink is out of your sight for even a moment, don’t finish it.
• Never accept an open drink. Don’t accept a mixed drink that you did not see mixed from pure ingredients.
• Never drink anything from a punch bowl, even if it’s nonalcoholic. You can’t know what may have been added into the punch.
• If you experience unexpected physical symptoms that may be the result of something you drank or ate, get to an emergency room and ask to be tested.
Key Takeaways
• Sexual health is an important dimension of wellness and something we should all think about to affirm our values and make responsible decisions.
• Your time in college and your overall health and well-being would be seriously impacted if you were to acquire a sexually transmitted infection or experience an unwanted pregnancy. You owe it to yourself—and anyone with whom you are in a relationship—to have the facts and know how to protect yourself.
• The huge number of sexual assaults that occur every year is one of our society’s “dirty little secrets.” This problem is as rampant on college campuses as in society in general. You need to know what’s involved—and what to do to protect yourself from the pain of becoming a victim.
Checkpoint Exercises
1. For each of the following statements about sexual health, circle T for true or F for false:
T F As long as you always use a condom, you don’t have to worry about an STI from sexual activity.
T F You may have a very serious STI without feeling any symptoms at all.
T F Abstinence is the only 100 percent effective method of birth control.
T F It’s not rape if a man has sexual intercourse with a woman after she says no as long as he does not use force.
2. List at least three things a woman can do at a party to ensure she does not become a victim of sexual assault.
__________________________________________________________________
3. Describe a first date scenario in which a woman is well protected from the risk of sexual assault. List at least three things she should make sure of.
__________________________________________________________________
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Chapter Takeaways
• Good health helps you be more successful in college.
• For good nutrition, eat a varied diet with lots of vegetables, fruits, and whole grains and minimize fats, sugar, and salt.
• Regular exercise is not only important for good health but is a great way to reduce stress in your life.
• Sleep is one of the first areas where college students cut back when they find themselves too busy with classes, work, and other activities. Taking the time to get enough sleep, however, makes you so much more efficient when studying that it can actually save you time.
• Substance use and abuse not only takes its toll on the body but also contributes to problems in college, at work, and in the future. You may need to make a smart decision between short-term pleasures and long-term success.
• Since many stressors are unavoidable in life, we all need to find good ways to minimize their effects. The best stress-reducers over time become good habits that will increase our wellness and help us succeed in college and careers.
• If you are having an emotional or relationship problem that persists and affects your life, don’t hesitate to seek help. Most colleges have counselors and health professionals trained to help you get through any crisis.
• Sexual health is your own business—except that sexuality usually affects and is affected by others. Smart choices focus on protecting yourself from potential problems, regardless of your choices about sexual activity.
Chapter Review
1. Whose fault is it if I’m overweight now? ______________________
2. Whose fault is it if I’m overweight two years from now? __________________
3. Whom can I talk to if I want to find a weight loss program that will work best for me?
______________________________
4. Complete these sentences:
1. What I think most needs change in my diet is
______________________________________________________
2. The main reason I don’t get enough exercise is
______________________________________________________
3. When I feel stressed, I often _____________________________________ (How healthy is that? Should you choose healthier activities instead?)
4. The first step in resolving a conflict you are having with someone else is to ______________________________________________________
5. How do you know if you’re drinking too much or too often?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. As a college student, why should you care about how much stress you feel and what you do about it?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
7. If you have a friend who has seemed very depressed lately, what signs should you look for that might indicate he or she is becoming suicidal?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
8. If you do see signs of suicide in your friend, what should you do?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
9. If you are sexually active, can you be certain you are at zero risk for acquiring HIV? If so, when? If not, why not?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Outside the Book
1. Choose a friend you enjoy spending time with and see if he or she will help you with an “experiment.” Together, make a list of fun things to do together in the next week that will help minimize your stress. Choose activities that are different from your usual habits. Following are some ideas, but be creative and try to include your own healthy ideas:
• Cook a healthy meal together (if you have a kitchen) or shop together for snacks you can carry with you for when you’re hungry between classes.
• Go for a jog, bike ride, or long walk at least three times during the week.
• Study together early in the evening, with snacks and drinks that won’t slow you down or keep you up, and then get to bed on time.
At the end of the week, talk about the experiment and how you felt during and afterward. Did you have fun? Did you get some ideas for other or better things to do? Plan to keep doing some of these activities.
2. Spend twenty to thirty minutes online getting more ideas about healthy ways to minimize the stress you feel as a student. Start by typing the phrase “stress reduction” into your search engine. Look for specific ideas and activities not already covered in this chapter. Write them down here to share with other students and your instructor.
1. _______________________________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________________________
3. _______________________________________________________________
4. _______________________________________________________________
5. _______________________________________________________________
3. Go to http://www.englishclub.com/health/stress-quiz.htm and take the ten-question stress quiz to see how much you now understand about stress-related topics. (The EnglishClub.com Web site also has a lot of good information for students who speak English as a second language.)
Make an Action List
Nutrition
My worst eating habits are
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
My action plan to eat better includes the following:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Exercise
I don’t get enough exercise because
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
I’ll try to do these things to become more active:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Sleep
I sometimes/often don’t get enough sleep because
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
I can better manage my time to get enough sleep in the following ways:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Substances
I tend to overuse or abuse these substances:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
My action plan to avoid substance problems includes the following:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Stress
These things cause me the most stress:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
I will take these steps to better cope with these stresses:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Emotional Health
I am happiest when I
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
I’ll be happier if I make these changes:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Sexual Health
I am/might be putting myself at risk when/if I do these things:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
What I should always do to reduce these risks is to
__________________________________________________________________
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Thumbnail: www.pexels.com/photo/silver-...-coins-128867/ (CC0 1.0; Pixabay).
11: Taking Control of Your Finances
Learning Objectives
1. Set your financial goals to match your realities.
2. Establish financial priorities appropriate for your college years.
3. Make choices between spending less and making more.
It’s expensive to go to college. College tuition has risen for decades at virtually all schools, and very few students are fortunate enough to not have to be concerned with this reality. Still, there are things you can do to help control costs and manage your finances while in college. Begin by thinking about your financial goals.
What Are Your Financial Goals?
Whatever it is you plan to do in your future, whether work or other activities, your financial goals in the present should be realistic to enable you to fulfill your plan. Consider these scenarios:
Keri entered college planning to major in business. Her family was not able to give her much financial support, but she chose to attend an expensive private college because she thought it would help her get into a good graduate business school. She had to take large loans to pay her tuition, but she wasn’t concerned about a budget because she assumed she’d make a lot later on and be able to easily pay off the loans. Yet when she graduated and had to begin making payments on her private bank loans, she discovered she couldn’t afford to go straight to business school after all. She put her dream on hold for a few years and took a job she didn’t much like.
Jorge had worked a few years after high school but finally decided that he needed a college degree to get the kind of job he wanted. He was happy with his life otherwise and kept his nice apartment and car and enrolled in a couple night classes while continuing to work full time during the day. He was surprised how much he had to study, however, and after a couple months he felt he was struggling. He just didn’t have enough time to do it all—so he dropped first one class and then, a couple weeks later, the other. He told himself that he’d try it again in a year or two, but part of him wondered how anyone could ever get through college while working.
What Keri and Jorge have in common is a conflict between their financial goals and realities. Both were motivated to succeed in college, and both had a vision for their future. But both were unsuccessful in finding ways to make their dreams come true—because of money issues.
Could they have done things differently? Maybe Keri could have gone to a less expensive school and still reached her goal, or maybe she could have avoided such heavy student loans by working summers and part time during the school year. Maybe Jorge could have reduced his living expenses and cut back his work hours to ensure he could balance school and work better. Maybe both were spending thousands of dollars a year on things they could have done without if only they’d thought through their goals and learned to live within a budget.
Taking control of your personal finances begins with thinking about your goals and deciding what really matters to you. Here are some things to think about:
• Is it important for you to graduate from college without debt? Is it acceptable to you, or necessary, to take some student loans?
• What are your priorities for summers and other “free time”? Working to earn money? Taking nonpaying internships or volunteering to gain experience in your field? Enjoying social activities and time with friends?
• How important is it to take a full load of classes so that your college education does not take longer than necessary?
• How important is it to you to live in a nice place, or drive a nice car, or wear nice clothes, or eat in nice restaurants? How important in comparison to your educational goals?
There are no easy answers to such questions. Most people would like enough money to have and do what they want, low enough expenses that they don’t have to work too much to stay on budget, and enough financial freedom to choose activities without being swayed by financial concerns. Few college students live in that world, however. Since you will have to make choices, it’s important first to think about what really matters to you—and what you’re willing to sacrifice for a while in order to reach your goals.
Make More or Spend Less?
That often becomes an issue for college students. You begin by setting up a realistic budget and sticking to it. A budget is simply the best way to balance the money that comes in with the money that goes out.
For most college students, the only way to increase the “money coming in” side of the budget is to work. Even with financial support from your family, financial aid from the college, your savings from past jobs, and the like, you will still need to work if all your resources do not equal the “money going out” side of the budget. The major theme of this chapter is avoiding debt except when absolutely necessary to finance your education. Why is that so important? Simply because money problems and debt cause more people to drop out of college than any other single factor.
This chapter includes discussion of how students can earn money while in college and the benefits of working. But working too much can have a negative impact by taking up time you might need for studying. It’s crucial, therefore, whenever you think about your own financial situation and the need to work, to also think about how much you need to work—and consider whether you would be happier spending less if that meant you could work less and enjoy your college life and studies more. As we’ll see later, students often spend more than they actually need to and are often happier once they learn to spend less.
Key Takeaways
• Almost every college student faces money issues, but you can learn to take control of your finances.
• Being able to complete your college career should be a key priority when setting financial goals.
• Since college students need time for classes and studying, it is generally more important to spend less money rather than work more hours.
Checkpoint Exercises
1. What is the leading reason some students have to drop out of college?
__________________________________________________________________
2. List three or more things you would be willing to give up or cut back on in order to be able to finance your college education.
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Learning Objectives
1. Understand the value of different kinds of jobs while you’re in college.
2. List questions to consider when considering a particular job possibility.
3. Be able to perform an effective job search.
Most college students work while in school. Whether you work summers only or part time or full time all year, work can have both benefits and drawbacks. The difference may result as much from the type of job you work as from the number of hours you work.
A Job Can Help or Hurt
In addition to helping pay the bills, a job or internship while in school has other benefits:
• Experience for your résumé
• Contacts for your later job search network
• Employment references for your résumé
Work or internship experience related to your future career has significant value. Not all students can find such opportunities in their community, however. But even a job or volunteering outside your field can have value and say something about you to future employers. Your job may demonstrate that you have initiative, are responsible, are a team player or can work independently, and can take on financial responsibility. Potential future employers will check your work references. Having an employer from your college years say you did a good job, were always on time to work, and were honest and responsible in doing your job definitely gives you an advantage over students who graduate without having worked at all.
At the same time, some jobs contribute more to your overall college experience. Remember, you’re in college for an education and to gain a wide range of skills—not just for the degree. The best student jobs help you engage more deeply in the college experience, while the wrong kind of job gets in the way of that experience. Here are some factors to consider as you look for a job:
• What kinds of people will you be interacting with? Other students, instructors, researchers? Interacting with others in the world of college can broaden your college experience, help motivate you to study, and help you feel part of a shared experience. You may work with or meet people who in the future can refer you to employers in your field. On the other hand, working in a business far from campus, for example, may offer a steady paycheck but can separate you from the academic community and detract from a positive college experience.
• Is the job flexible enough to meet a college student’s needs? Will you be able to change your work hours during final exam week or when a special project is due? A rigid work schedule may cause difficulty at times when you really need to focus on your classes.
• What will you be able to say about your work in your future résumé? Does it involve any skills—including people skills or financial or managerial responsibilities—that your employer can someday praise you for? Will working this job help you get a different, better job next year?
These factors can make a job ideal for college students, but in the real world many students will have to work less-than-ideal jobs. Working at a fast food restaurant or overnight shipping company may not seem very glamorous or offer the benefits described previously, but it may be the only job available at present. Don’t despair—things can always change. Make the money you need to get by in college but don’t become complacent and stop looking for more meaningful work. Keep your eyes and ears open for other possibilities. Visit the campus student employment office frequently (or check online) for new postings. Talk to other students.
At the same time, even with a dull job, do your best and keep a good attitude. Remember that your boss or supervisor may someday be a work reference who can help (or hurt) your chances of getting a job you really want.
Student Jobs
The number of hours college students work per week varies considerably, from five to ten hours a week to full time and everywhere in between. Before deciding how much you need to work, first make a detailed budget as described later. Your goal should be to make as much as you need, and hopefully a little more to save, but first you need to know your true need. Remember your goals in college and stay focused on your education. Cut back on your optional spending so that you don’t have to work so many hours that your studies are impacted.
Where to Find a Job
Start at your campus financial aid office or student employment office. If they don’t have anything right for you at first, check back frequently for new job postings.
For off-campus jobs, check the classified ads in your local newspaper and Craigslist. Many jobs are never advertised, however, so ask friends, family members, and other students. Visit appropriate companies in your area and ask if they have openings.
If you applied for financial aid when you applied to your college, you probably already know whether you qualify for a work study program. Often these jobs are ideal because they are designed for students. If your financial circumstances change, be sure to check in with the financial aid office because your eligibility may have changed.
Many government agencies also have summer jobs or internships for college students. This work may be an ideal way to gain experience related to your chosen field. (See “Additional Resources” below for more information.)
Go to Work for Yourself
If you have energy and initiative, you can create your own work. While it may take some time to get started, flexibility and being your own boss can make up for this drawback. Students often make money in ways like these:
• Tutor classmates in a subject you are good in.
• Sell your technical skills to help others set up new computer hardware, teach software skills such as PowerPoint or Excel, or design Web sites.
• Sell things you no longer need (video games, DVDs, textbooks) on eBay or Craigslist. Earn a commission by helping others sell their stuff online.
• Provide services to faculty members and residents in the nearby community: lawn mowing, snow shoveling, housecleaning, babysitting, pet sitting, dog walking, and so on.
Additional Resources
Campus jobs and work study. Check with your campus student employment or financial aid office.
Broad listing of links for federal government jobs and internships for students. See www.usajobs.gov/StudentsAndGrads
Student Opportunities at the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). See http://www.epa.gov/careers.
Student Opportunities at the U.S. Department of Defense. See http://godefense.cpms.osd.mil/student_opportunities.aspx.
Student Opportunities at the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. See http://www.hhs.gov/about/careers/pathways/internship-opportunities-students/index.html.
Student Opportunities at the National Science Foundation. See http://www.nsf.gov/careers/careertypes/pathways.jsp.
Student Internships at the State Department. See https://careers.state.gov/intern/student-programs.
Balancing the Job You Have with Your Ideal Job
A growing percentage of students are working full time when they return to school, and many continue in the same jobs. If you’re in this situation, you know that balancing work and college is one of the most difficult things you’ve ever done. You’re used to working—but not used to finding time for class and studying at the same time. You likely feel harried and frustrated at times, and you may even start to wonder if you’re cut out for college. The time may come when you start thinking about dropping classes or leaving college altogether. It may be hard to stay motivated.
If you start feeling this way, focus on your big goals and don’t let the day-to-day time stresses get you down. As difficult as it may be, try to keep your priorities, and remember that while you face temporary difficulties now, a college degree is forever.
• Acknowledge that sacrifice and compromise may be needed.
• Reduce your expenses, if you can, so you can cut back on the number of hours you work. This may mean temporarily giving up some things you enjoy in order to reach your goals.
• If you cannot cut your expenses and work hours and simply do not have the time to do well in your classes, you may have to cut back on how many classes you take per term. Try everything else first, but know that it’s better to succeed a little at a time than to push too hard and risk not succeeding. If you do have to cut back, keep a positive attitude: you’re still working toward your future ideal.
If you ever feel the temptation to quit, see your college counselor to explore all your options. Resources may be available that you don’t know about.
Key Takeaways
• The best student jobs have value for your college experience and future résumé and network, while the wrong kinds of jobs may detract from your college experience.
• How much you work should be based on a realistic budget and your financial goals and needs.
• To find the best job for you, use all the resources available.
Checkpoint Exercises
1. What are the primary benefits of a student job on campus? (List as many as you can.)
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2. Considering your abilities and interests, what would be your ideal job while a college student?
__________________________________________________________________ | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/College_Success/11%3A_Taking_Control_of_Your_Finances/11.02%3A_Making_Money.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Identify how you are spending your money and what optional expenditures you can cut back on.
2. Develop a positive attitude for spending less while still enjoying a full college experience.
3. Create and manage a workable budget by tracking expenditures to reach your financial goals.
4. Recognize if you are getting in financial trouble and know what to do about it.
5. List the benefits of saving money even while in college.
Where Does the Money Go?
Most people aren’t really sure where a lot of their money goes. Take this survey to see how much you remember about how you have spent money recently.
Do your best to remember how much you have spent in the last thirty days in each of the following categories:
Category Amount in Dollars (Per Month)
Coffee, soft drinks, bottled water
Newspapers, magazines
Movies, music concerts, sports events, night life
Fast food lunches, snacks, gum, candy, cookies, and so on
Social dining out with friends (lunch, dinner)
Music, DVDs, other personal entertainment
Ringtones and mobile phone applications
Bank account fees, ATM withdrawal fees
Credit card finance charges
Lottery tickets
Cigarettes, smokeless tobacco
Beer, wine, liquor purchased in stores
Beer, wine, liquor purchased in restaurants and bars
Gadgets, video or computer games, and so on
Gifts
Hobbies
Travel, day trips
Total:
Now be honest with yourself: is this really all you spent on these items? Most of us forget small, daily kinds of purchases or underestimate how much we spend on them—especially when we pay with cash.
You’ll notice also that this list does not include essential spending for things like room and board or an apartment and groceries, utilities, college tuition and books, and so on. The greatest potential for cutting back on spending is in the area of optional things.
Spending on Essentials, Spending on Optionals
More people get into financial trouble because they’re spending too much than because they’re making (or receiving) too little. While spending may seem a simple matter—“I need to buy this, I’d like to buy that”—it’s actually very complex. America is a consumer society, and we’re deluged by advertisements promising that we’ll be happier, more successful, better liked by more people, sexier, and everything else if only we buy this. Companies have spent billions of dollars researching how to manipulate our buying behavior. No wonder it’s so tough to resist these pressures!
Why does a person feel compelled to buy fast food for lunch, or a new CD with a song they just heard on the radio, or a new video game a friend says is so good, or a new article of clothing? We owe it to ourselves to try to understand our own attitudes about money and spending. Here’s a good place to start:
• Having money or not having money doesn’t define who you are. Your real friends will think no less of you if you make your own lunch and eat it between classes or take the bus to campus rather than drive a new car. You are valued more by others for who you are as a person, not for what things you have.
• You don’t have to spend as much as your friends to be one of the group. Some people always have more money than others and spend more. Resist any feeling that your friends who are big spenders are the norm. Don’t feel you have to go along with whatever expensive activities they propose just so you fit in.
• A positive attitude leads to success. Learn to relax and not get stressed out about money. If you need to make changes in how you spend money, view this as an exciting accomplishment, not a depressing fact. Feel good about staying on a budget and being smart about how you spend your money.
• Be realistic about what you can accomplish. Most students have financial problems, and they don’t just go away by waving a magic wand of good intentions. If your budget reveals you don’t have enough money even while working and carefully controlling your spending, you may still need a student loan or larger changes in your lifestyle to get by. That’s OK—there are ways to deal with that. But if you unrealistically set your sights so high about spending less and saving a lot, you may become depressed or discouraged if you don’t meet your goals.
Before you can make an effective budget, you need to look at what you’re spending money on now and consider what’s essential and what’s optional. Essential costs are the big things:
• Room and board or rent/mortgage, utilities, and groceries
• College tuition, fees, textbooks, supplies
• Transportation
• Insurance (health insurance, car insurance, etc.)
• Dependent care if needed
• Essential personal items (some clothing, hygiene items, etc.)
These things are sometimes called fixed costs, but that term can be misleading. If you have the option to move to a less expensive apartment that is smaller or a few blocks farther away, you can partly control that cost, so it’s not really “fixed.” Still, for most people, the real savings come from spending less on optional things.
Look back at the amounts you wrote in the earlier exercise “Where Does the Money Go?” These things are “optional” expenses—you can spend more or less on them as you choose. Most people spend by habit, not really thinking about where their money goes or how quickly their spending adds up. If you knew you were spending more than a thousand dollars a year on coffee you buy every day between classes, would that make you think twice? Or another thousand on fast food lunches rather than taking a couple minutes in the morning to make your lunch? When people actually start paying attention to where their money goes, most are shocked to see how the totals grow. If you can save a few thousand dollars a year by cutting back on just the little things, how far would that go to making you feel much better about your finances?
Following are some general principles for learning to spend less. The “Tips for Success” then lists specific ways you can try to follow these principles in your daily life. Remember, spending money doesn’t define who you are!
• Be aware of what you’re spending. Carry a small notebook and write down everything—everything—you spend for a month. You’ll see your habits and be able to make a better budget to take control.
• Look for alternatives. If you buy a lot of bottled water, for example, you may feel healthier than people who drink soft drinks or coffee, but you may be spending hundreds of dollars a year on something that is virtually free! Carry your own refillable water bottle and save the money.
• Plan ahead to avoid impulse spending. If you have a healthy snack in your backpack, it’s much easier to not put a dollar in a vending machine when you’re hungry on the way to class. Make a list before going grocery shopping and stick to it. Shopping without a list usually results in buying all sorts of unneeded (and expensive) things that catch your eye in the store.
• Be smart. Shop around, compare prices, and buy in bulk. Stopping to think a minute before spending is often all it takes.
Tips for Success: Spending Less
• Make your own lunches and snacks.
• Read newspapers and magazines online or in the library.
• Cancel cable television and watch programs online for free.
• Use free campus and local Wi-Fi spots and cancel your home high-speed Internet connection.
• Buy generic products instead of name brands.
• Shop at thrift stores and yard sales.
• Pay with cash instead of a credit card.
• Cancel your health club membership and use a free facility on campus.
• Compare prices online.
• Avoid ATM fees by finding a machine on your card’s network (or change banks); avoid checking account monthly fees by finding a bank with free checking.
• Get cash from an ATM in small amounts so you never feel “rich.”
• With larger purchases, postpone buying for a couple days (you may find you don’t “need” it after all).
• Look for free fun instead of movies and concerts—most colleges have frequent free events.
• If you pay your own utility bills, make it a habit to conserve: don’t leave lights burning or your computer on all night.
• Use good study skills to avoid failing a class—paying to retake a course is one of the quickest ways to get in financial trouble!
Figure 11.2
Paying with cash rather than a credit card helps you stay aware of your spending habits.
Managing a Budget
Budgeting involves analyzing your income and expenses so you can see where your money is going and making adjustments when needed to avoid debt. At first budgeting can seem complex or time consuming, but once you’ve gone through the basics, you’ll find it easy and a very valuable tool for controlling your personal finances.
Why create and manage a budget? Going to college changes your financial situation. There are many new expenses, and you likely don’t know yet how your spending needs and habits will work out over the long term. Without a budget, it’s just human nature to spend more than you have coming in, as evidenced by the fact that most Americans today are in debt. Debt is a major reason many students drop out of college. So it’s worth it to go to the trouble to create and manage a budget.
Managing a budget involves three steps:
1. Listing all your sources of income on a monthly basis.
2. Calculating all your expenditures on a monthly basis.
3. Making adjustments in your budget (and lifestyle if needed) to ensure the money isn’t going out faster than it’s coming in.
Tracking Income
Many college students receive money or financial assistance from a number of sources. To track income in a monthly budget, consider all your sources of funds and convert them to a monthly number. For example, you may receive a student loan once during the year or you may work more in the summer and save up money then. To calculate your monthly projected income, add up your income sources and divide that number by the number of months you will be using the income. For example, if you have saved \$4,800 that you can spend over two years of college, divide the \$4,800 by twenty-four months to arrive at a monthly income of \$200 from those savings. Do the same with scholarship grants, student loans, monetary gifts, and so on.
If some of your college costs are being paid directly by parents or others, do not include that money in your budget as either income or an expense. Base your monthly budget on just those funds and expenses that involve you directly.
Use Table 11.1 “Monthly Income and Funds” to record and total all your income on a monthly basis. If you must estimate some sources, estimate low rather than high; it’s a bad trap to assume you’ll have more money coming in than you actually do—that’s a real budget buster.
Table 11.1 Monthly Income and Funds
Source of Income/Funds Amount in Dollars
Job income/salary (take-home amount)
Funds from parents/family/others
Monthly draw from savings
Monthly draw from financial aid
Monthly draw from student/other loans
Other income source: ________________
Other income source: ________________
Other income source: ________________
Total Monthly Incoming:
Tracking Expenses
Tracking expenditures is more difficult than tracking income. Some fixed expenses (tuition, rent, etc.) you should already know, but until you’ve actually written down everything you spend in a typical month, it’s hard to estimate how much you’re really spending on cups of coffee or smoothies between class, groceries, entertainment, and the like. The best way to itemize this side of your budget is to write down everything you spend—everything, every bottle of water and cookie, coins into parking meters, and so forth—for a full month. Then you can total up the different categories of expenses more realistically. We urge you to immediately start writing everything down in a small notebook you carry with you. You may be astonished how small purchases add up.
While you’re writing this down for a month, go ahead and work through the expenditure half of your budget, using Table 11.2 “Monthly Expenditures”. Set aside an hour or two to look through your past financial records, checkbook register and debit card transactions, past utility bills, credit card statements, and so on to get the numbers to put in your expenses budget. Make estimates when you have to, but be honest with yourself and don’t underestimate your usual spending. There will be plenty of time down the road to adjust your budget—but don’t start out with an unrealistic plan. Write “est” (for estimated”) next to numbers in your budget that you’re guessing at.
Once you have listed your routine expenditures using Table 11.2 “Monthly Expenditures”, write out your own budget categories that fit how you actually spend money. Everyone is unique, and you want your budget to be easy to use for your own life and habits.
As noted previously with income, if some of your expenses are paid directly by others, do not include them here. Base your monthly budget on just those funds and expenses that involve you directly.
Table 11.2 Monthly Expenditures
Expenditures Amount in Dollars
Tuition and fees (1/12 of annual)
Textbooks and supplies (1/12 of annual)
Housing: monthly mortgage, rent, or room and board
Home repairs
Renter’s insurance
Property tax
Average monthly utilities (electricity, water, gas, oil)
Optional utilities (cell phone, Internet service, cable television)
Dependent care, babysitting
Child support, alimony
Groceries
Meals and snacks out (including coffee, water, etc.)
Personal expenses (toiletries, cosmetics, haircuts, etc.)
Auto expenses (payments, gas, tolls) plus 1/12 of annual insurance premium—or public transportation costs
Loan repayments, credit card pay-off payments
Health insurance (1/12 of annual)
Prescriptions, medical expenses
Entertainment (movies, concerts, nightlife, sporting events, purchases of CDs, DVDs, video games, etc.)
Bank account fees, ATM withdrawal fees, credit card finance charges
Newspapers, magazines, subscriptions
Travel, day trips
Cigarettes, smokeless tobacco
Beer, wine, liquor
Gifts
Hobbies
Major purchases (computer, home furnishings) (1/12 of annual)
Clothing, dry cleaning
Memberships (health clubs, etc.)
Pet food, veterinary bills, and so on
Other expenditure:
Other expenditure:
Other expenditure:
Other expenditure:
Other expenditure:
Total Monthly Outgoing:
Balancing Your Budget
Now comes the moment of truth: compare your total monthly incoming with your total monthly outgoing. How balanced is your budget at this point? Remember that you estimated some of your expenditures. You can’t know for sure until you actually track your expenses for at least a month and have real numbers to work with.
What if your spending total is higher than your income total? The first step is to make your budget work on paper. Go back through your expenditure list and see where you can cut. Remember, college students shouldn’t try to live like working professionals. Maybe you are used to a nice haircut every month or two—but maybe you can go to a cheaper place or cut it yourself. There are dozens of ways to spend less, as suggested earlier. The essential first step is to make your budget balance on paper.
Then your job is to live within the budget. It’s normal to have to make adjustments at first. Just be sure to keep the overall budget balanced as you make adjustments. For example, if you find you must spend more for textbooks, you may decide you can spend less on eating out—and subtract the amount from that category that you add to the textbook category. Get in the habit of thinking this way instead of reaching for a credit card when you don’t have enough in your budget for something you want or need.
Don’t be surprised if it takes several months to make the budget process work. Be flexible, but stay committed to the process and don’t give up because it feels like to too much work to keep track of your money. Without a budget, you may have difficulty reaching your larger goal: taking control of your life while in college.
Budgeting on Your Computer
If you are good at Excel or another spreadsheet program, you can create your own budget in a spreadsheet that allows you to monitor your income and expenditures month to month, with the calculations done for you. Other budget calculators can be found online. Figure 11.3 “Simple Online Budget Calculator” shows a simple online budget calculator. The categories are general, but you can add up your numbers from Table 11.2 “Monthly Expenditures” in these categories and enter them in the online budget form, which then does the calculations for you.
Figure 11.3 Simple Online Budget Calculator
Most college students can do well with a simple budget that helps you track monthly income and expenditures so that you can make adjustments as needed. If your financial life is more complicated or you would enjoy full financial tracking and control using your computer, a software program like Quicken has all the power you need and can download your banking and credit card records to easily track categories of expenses over time. A free online budget and tracking system is available at Mint.com.
What If Your Budget Doesn’t Work?
Your budget may be unbalanced by a small amount that you can correct by reducing spending, or it may have a serious imbalance. If your best efforts fail to cut your expenditures to match your income, you may have a more serious problem, unless you plan in advance to manage this with student loans or other funds.
First, think about how this situation occurred. When you decided to go to college, how did you plan to finance it? Were you off in your calculations of what it would cost, or did you just hope for the best? Are you still committed to finding a way to continue in college?
If you are motivated to reach your college goal, good! Now look closely at your budget to determine what’s needed. If you can’t solve the budget shortfall by cutting back on “optional” expenses, then you need more dramatic changes. Are you paying a high rent because your apartment is spacious or near campus? Can you move a little farther away and get by temporarily in a smaller place, if the difference in rent makes a big difference in your overall finances? If you’re spending a lot on your car, can you sell it and get by with public transportation for a year or two? Play with the numbers for such items in your budget and see how you can cut expenses to stay in college without getting deeply in debt. If you worry you won’t be as happy if you change your lifestyle, remember that money problems are a key source of stress for many college students and that stress affects your happiness as well as how well you do in college. It’s worth the effort to work on your budget and prevent this stress.
If all else fails, see a financial aid counselor at your college. Don’t wait until you’re in real financial trouble before talking to someone who may be able to offer help.
Why People Spend Too Much, Even on a Budget
• Old habits die hard. Keep monitoring your spending habits and watch for things you’re spending money on without really thinking about it.
• Credit cards. Never use them if at all possible. They make it easy to spend too much or not see how much you’re spending. Save them for emergencies.
• Easy access to cash. Just put your card in an ATM and get some cash! It’s so easy to do, and an automatic habit for so many, that it’s easy to bust your budget with small amounts daily.
• Temptations are everywhere. Even when we’re careful, we’re often easily influenced by friends to go out or spend in other ways. Remember why you made your budget in the first place and keep your priorities in mind. The guilt you’ll feel tomorrow about spending a whole week’s food budget on one expensive dinner out probably isn’t worth the pleasure of it!
• We buy things to feel good. If that’s been a longtime habit for you, it will be hard to break. Often it’s better to find small things that make you feel good rather than trying to go without everything. Rewarding yourself with an ice cream treat for a week’s budgeting success won’t break your budget.
What If You Get in Financial Trouble?
People often don’t admit to themselves that they have a problem until it becomes unmanageable. We human beings are very good at rationalizing and making excuses to ourselves! Here are some warning signs of sliding into financial trouble:
• For two or three months in a row, your budget is unbalanced because you’re spending more than you are bringing in.
• You’ve begun using your savings for routine expenses you should be able to handle with your regular budget.
• You’ve missed a deadline for a bill or are taking credit card cash advances or overdrawing your checking account.
• You have a big balance on your credit card and have paid only the required minimum payment for the last two months.
• You have nothing in the bank in case of an emergency need.
• You don’t even know how much total debt you have.
• You’re trying to cut expenses by eliminating something important, such as dropping health insurance or not buying required textbooks.
If you are experiencing any of these warning signs, first acknowledge the problem. It’s not going to solve itself—you need to take active steps before it gets worse and affects your college career.
Second, if you just cannot budget your balance, admit that you need help. There’s no shame in that. Start with your college counselor or the financial aid office; if they can’t help you directly, they can refer you to someone who can. Take your budget and other financial records with you so that they can see what’s really involved. Remember that they’re there to help—their goal is to ensure you succeed in college.
Balance Your Checkbook!
Lots of people don’t balance their checkbook every month, thinking it’s just too much trouble. But it’s important to keep your checkbook balanced for several reasons:
• Banks sometimes make errors, and you can’t catch one without checking your record against your monthly bank statement.
• If you make a math error or forget to record a check or ATM withdrawal, you may have to pay overdraft fees.
• If you balance your checkbook only every few months, it can take many hours to examine records and find a problem.
If you’re not sure how exactly to balance your checkbook, ask a teller at your bank or get instructions online. This takes only a few minutes each month and is well worth it to avoid the stress and lost hours caused by an inevitable problem.
Saving for the Future
If you’re having problems just getting by on your budget, it may seem pointless to even think about saving for the future. Still, if you can possibly put aside some money every month into a savings plan, it’s worth the effort:
• An emergency or unexpected situation may occur suddenly. Having the savings to cope with it is much less stressful than having to find a loan or run up your credit cards.
• Saving is a good habit to develop. Saving for the future will prepare you well for the increasing financial complexities of life after graduation.
• You may need your savings to help launch your career after graduation. If you’re broke when you graduate, you may feel you have to take the first job that comes along, but with some savings you may have time to find the job that’s perfect for you.
• You may change your mind about future plans. Maybe you now think that you’ll go to work at a good job right after graduation, so you’re not concerned about saving—but maybe in a couple years you’ll decide to go to graduate school, law school, or business school—or to start your own business, or to join a volunteer program. Your savings may allow you to pursue a new goal.
Start by saving in a savings account at your bank or credit union. You can have a certain amount transferred from your checking account every month into a savings account—that makes it easier and more routine. A savings account allows withdrawal anytime but pays lower interest than other accounts. Ask at your bank about money market accounts and certificates of deposit (CDs), which generally pay higher interest but have restrictions on minimum balances and withdrawals. Savings bonds are another option. All of these options are federally insured, so your money stays safe. Risky investments like the stock market are generally not appropriate for college students on a budget.
Key Takeaways
• Financial success while in college depends on understanding and controlling your expenditures.
• There are many ways you can spend less on optional expenses, and even essentials, and still have a full life and enjoy your college experience.
• A detailed monthly budget that lists all income sources and expenditures makes it easier to track expenses and avoid sliding into financial trouble.
• Spending too much can quickly lead to financial problems. If you see the signs that you’re starting to have money problems, take steps quickly to prevent trouble before it snowballs out of control.
• While it may seem difficult just to make ends meet, make it a goal also to attempt to save something for future needs.
Checkpoint Exercises
1. List the top three optional expenditures you usually make every week.
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2. List three tips for spending less that you feel you will be able to use routinely to avoid running out of money while in college.
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3. For each of the following statements, circle T for true or F for false:
T F It’s OK to miss a deadline for paying your phone bill as long as you pay on time at least half of the time.
T F There’s really nothing wrong with not having any money in the bank as long as you have a credit card for emergencies and major purchases.
T F You should balance your checkbook every month when you receive your bank statement.
T F A good way to save money is to try to get by without buying expensive textbooks.
T F You only need to write up a budget if you’ve gotten deeply into debt and need to see a financial advisor to get out of debt. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/College_Success/11%3A_Taking_Control_of_Your_Finances/11.03%3A_Spending_Less.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the benefits of having a credit card and choosing one wisely.
2. Set personal limits for your credit card use to minimize your debt.
3. Describe steps to take to avoid overusing a credit card.
4. Understand the importance of a good credit history and how to obtain and review your credit report.
Credit cards are such a big issue because they are easy to get, easy to use—and for many people, addictive. Until new regulations in 2009 and 2010, many college students got deeply in debt and experienced financial disaster. The new regulations set limits to prevent such serious problems for students under age twenty-one, but older students may still experience problems from overuse.
Credit cards do have legitimate purposes:
• In an emergency, you may need funds you cannot obtain otherwise.
• You generally need a credit card for travel, for hotels, and other needs.
• Often it’s less expensive to make significant purchases online, and to do that you usually need a credit card. (Many ATM debit cards also function like a credit card for online purchases.)
• If you are young, responsible use of a credit card is a good way to start building a credit rating—but only if you use the credit card responsibly and always make sufficient payments on time.
Even though federal regulations require banks to disclose all fees and make it more difficult to increase fees or rates without warning credit card holders in advance, many people overuse credit cards and pay high interest rates and fees for making late payments. The average American household has credit card debt of \$5,000 to \$8,000 (reports vary). College students reportedly are more likely to be late with payments and incur additional fees.
Your first goal with a credit card is to understand what you’re getting into and how you are charged. Read the fine print on your monthly statements. You should understand about rate increases and know what happens if you miss a payment, pay less than the minimum, or pay late. It also pays to shop around. Two good Web sites—http://www.cardtrak.com and http://www.bankrate.com—compare rates of many credit cards and provide more information about how credit cards work.
Setting Limits
All credit cards come with a limit, the maximum total amount you can charge, but this is not the same as the limit you should set for how you use the card based on your budget. If you bought something that cost \$400, for example, would your monthly budget let you pay it off when the bill comes? If it will take you two or three months to have that much available in your budget, are you also including the interest you’ll be paying? What if an unexpected need then arises and you need to charge more?
Set your personal use limit by calculating how much your budget allows you to charge. If you are using the card just for convenience, such as to pay for meals or regular purchases, be sure you have enough in those categories in your budget left at the end of the month to make the payment. If tempted to buy a significant item with your credit card, do the calculations in advance.
Avoiding Debt
If your credit card debt is not limited by your age, that balance can rapidly rise. Before the 2010 regulations, the average student had accumulated a debt estimated as high as \$3,000. Following are tips that will help you avoid slipping into credit card debt:
• Pay with cash when you can. Use your budget as a guide for how much cash to carry with you. A good way is to plan how much you’ll need for a week (lunches, parking meters, snacks or drinks between classes) and start the week with that amount from an ATM. Carrying that exact amount helps you stay informed of how you’re doing on your budget and keeps you from “accidentally” spending too much on a whim.
• When possible, use a debit card instead of a credit card. A debit card is taken just like a credit card in most places, so you can use it instead of cash, but remember that a purchase is subtracted immediately from your account. Don’t risk overdraft fees by using a debit card when you don’t have the balance to back it up. Record a debit card purchase in your checkbook register as soon as possible.
• Make it a priority to pay your balance in full every month. If you can’t pay it all, pay as much as you can—and then remember that balance will still be there, so try not to use the card at all during the next month.
• Don’t get cash advances on your credit card. With most cards, you begin paying interest from that moment forward—so there will still be an interest charge even if you pay the bill in full at the end of the month. Cash advance interest rates are often considerably higher than purchase rates.
• Don’t use more than one credit card. Multiple cards make it too easy to misuse them and lose track of your total debt.
• Get and keep receipts for all credit card purchases. Don’t throw them away because you’ll see the charges on your monthly statement. Write the amounts down in your spending budget. You also need the receipts in case your monthly statement has an error.
• Stop carrying your credit card. If you don’t have enough willpower to avoid spontaneous purchases, be honest with yourself. Don’t carry the card at all—after all, the chances of having an emergency need for it are likely to be very small. Having to go home to get the card also gives you a chance to consider whether you really need whatever it is that you were about to buy.
Credit History and Reports
Many younger college students are just beginning to develop a credit history. Older students likely have had credit cards for years, as well as automobile and other types of loans, possibly a mortgage, and other financial transactions that add up to a credit history. But everyone needs to understand what a credit history is and how your monetary habits now can affect your future financial well-being and your future options. For example, frequent overdrafts on a debit card can prevent you from being approved for a credit card, or late credit card payments can prevent you in the future from obtaining a car loan.
Credit bureaus collect financial data on everyone. The credit report they issue is a detailed history of many years of your financial habits (Figure 11.4 “First Page of a Typical Credit Report”). It includes the following:
• Current and past credit accounts (credit cards and store charge cards)
• History of balances and credit payments
• History of late or missed payments
• Inquiries into your credit status (e.g., if you’ve applied for a number of credit cards, this is recorded even if you did not receive the cards)
• Bankruptcy or mortgage foreclosure proceedings
All this information remains in your credit report for up to seven to ten years. What you do today can really come back to haunt you!
Figure 11.4 First Page of a Typical Credit Report
Reviewing Your Credit History
If you have ever had a loan or credit card, you already have a credit history. It can be important to know what is in your report. Errors are common in credit histories and, if not corrected, can hurt you in the future.
You are entitled to a free copy of your credit report every year, and ideally you should check it every year for possible errors. To obtain a copy online, go to http://www.annualcreditreport.com. This is a government Web site, and the report is free.
You may also visit the Web site of any of the three main credit bureaus, but be aware that each has for-fee services they may attempt to sell you while obtaining your report.
Once you receive your credit report, go over it carefully to make sure its information is accurate. If you have paid off and closed an account, for example, it should not be listed as still open. Make sure all accounts listed actually belong to you and that the balances listed are correct. If you do find an error, report it promptly, following the procedure on the credit bureau’s Web site.
It’s also important to keep good financial records. Don’t immediately throw away your credit card statements or loan papers. You may need these to prove an error in your credit history.
Your FICO Credit Score
To sum up your creditworthiness, credit bureaus analyze all your data to come up with a single number, called your credit score or FICO score. (FICO is short for the Fair Isaac Credit Organization, which created this method of analyzing data.) The calculations of each credit bureau differ somewhat. The score may be anywhere between 250 and 336 (poor credit risk) and 843 and 900 (excellent credit risk). The score is based on the following:
• The length of your credit history
• The total amount you owe
• Your payment history
• The types of credit you have
Credit bureaus are not required to tell you the FICO score that they report to a lender who inquires about your credit history. Check with any of the individual credit bureaus listed earlier, if you need to know your score. Or you may be able to get this information from a lender with whom you have a loan. Most students have no need to know their credit score, except to understand how banks and other lenders make their decisions if you are applying for any type of loan.
Protecting Your Financial Identity
Identity theft is a serious and growing problem. Identity theft is someone else’s use of your personal information—usually financial information—to make an illegal gain. A criminal who has your credit card number or bank account information may be able to make purchases or transfer funds from your accounts. Someone with the right information about you, such as your social security number along with birth date and other data, can even pretend to be you and open new credit accounts that you don’t know about—until the bank or collection agency tries to recover amounts from you. Although innocent, you would spend a lot of time and effort dealing with the problem.
Follow these guidelines to prevent identity theft:
• Never put in the trash any document with personal or financial information (e.g., your social security number, credit card number). Shred it first.
• Carefully review bank statements, credit card bills, and the like when you receive them. If the balance seems incorrect or you do not recognize charges, contact the bank or credit card company immediately.
• Never give your social security number, credit card number, or other sensitive data when requested by telephone or e-mail. Many schemes are used to try to trick people to reveal this information, but legitimate companies do not make such requests.
• Do not use online banking or make online purchases with a credit card using a public computer or an unsecured Wi-Fi connection. Your data can be picked up by others lurking within the Wi-Fi signal range.
Case Study
Maria’s Financial Dilemma
When Maria decided to attend a community college after working full time a few years, she was confident she could afford it. She had saved enough money to pay tuition for two years, and she cut back to part-time work that paid enough, she calculated, to live on. With great enthusiasm she registered for the fall term.
Her money problems began in November when her car broke down on the way to her job. The mechanic said her transmission had to be rebuilt and her car also really needed new rear shocks The bill was well over a thousand dollars. She paid with her Visa card. At the end of the month, she didn’t have enough in her checking account to pay the credit card bill in full. She almost decided just to pay the minimum, but then she checked her statement and saw the 18 percent interest rate and decided to pay the full balance from her savings. She wouldn’t need that money for tuition until next year anyway, and that gave her a long time to save it up.
The first week in December, she slipped on an icy sidewalk and sprained her ankle. She had student health insurance, though she had to make a copayment. Unfortunately, she couldn’t do her job on crutches, so she lost two weeks’ pay.
Still, “that’s life,” she thought, although she was so worried about money now that she almost decided to register for just two courses the next term. But college was her priority, so she took a full load and increased her work hours for a couple months to help her get caught up financially. But then as midterm exams grew closer, she felt unprepared because she hadn’t had enough time for studying. Because of the stress she wasn’t sleeping well, and one day she fell asleep in class. Always rushing around, she was eating more junk food than ever and feeling too guilty to even get on the scale to see if she was gaining weight, too. She found herself daydreaming about the coming summer and being free of classes. To feel better, she took long drives in her car on the weekends.
She did pass her midterms, though she did not do as well as she’d hoped. She still hadn’t been able to save enough for next year’s tuition but felt that she had the summer to work full time and make up for it.
In April, her boss told her that business was too slow to be able to increase her hours to full time for the summer. He was very sorry, but she could keep working part time if she wanted.
Now Maria really doubted if she’d be able to make it. Her family could spare no money to help her out. She had enough for rent, food, and her car, but that was about it. If she didn’t figure something out, she couldn’t afford tuition in the fall. Even with an installment plan to break up tuition payments, she just wasn’t making enough to cover it. She didn’t know what to do.
1. What is the first step Maria should take to start sorting out her financial situation and learn about her options?
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2. Maria’s financial planning was based on making enough to cover what she spends and using her savings for tuition. If she were to make a monthly budget and analyze every expenditure, might she be able to cut back and save more for unexpected expenses that come up? List areas in which she would likely be able to spend less if she used a budget.
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3. Maria’s attitude toward her credit card is a healthy indicator that she wants to avoid debt. If this proved to be the only solution, however, should she consider a student loan to cover the tuition for her second year? Why or why not?
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4. If Maria was considering not attending college the second year but instead looking for a new full-time job that would allow her to save up tuition money again, what advice might you give her?
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Key Takeaways
• Credit cards have several important benefits when used carefully, including building a credit history and having emergency funds available.
• Don’t charge purchases up to the credit card’s limit but set your own personal limit that allows you to pay the balance in full every month.
• Avoid high credit card balances by using the card minimally, paying cash when you can, and avoiding cash advances.
• How you manage your credit and finances now affects your credit history and creditworthiness in the future.
Checkpoint Exercises
1. What is the best number of credit cards to have and carry with you?
___________________________________________________
2. For each of the following statements, circle T for true or F for false:
T F The more credit cards you have, and the larger the balances you keep, the better is your credit rating as long as you make the minimum payments every month on time.
T F Most credit cards charge the same interest rate.
T F An overdraft on an ATM cash advance won’t cost you anything as long as you pay it off at the end of the month.
T F Your credit history begins only after graduation from college, so it doesn’t matter much how you manage money while still in school.
T F Identity theft happens only to senior citizens.
3. How often can one obtain a free credit report?
___________________________________________________ | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/College_Success/11%3A_Taking_Control_of_Your_Finances/11.04%3A_Credit_Cards.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Understand the importance of researching and applying for financial aid every year even if you don’t think you qualify for assistance.
2. Identify key differences among scholarships and grants, student loans, and work study programs.
3. Avoid excessive student loans and setting yourself up for future financial difficulties.
You may already be receiving financial aid or understand what types of financial aid are available. Even if you are not receiving financial aid, however, you should understand the basics because your financial situation may change and you may need help paying for college. You owe it to yourself to learn about potential types of aid you might receive.
Every college has a financial aid office that can give you information about standard financial aid programs. Certain kinds of financial aid, however, such as private scholarships, are not administered by the college, so you may need to do some research. There are three main categories of financial aid:
1. Scholarships and grants (money or tuition waivers that do not need to be repaid)
2. Student loans (money that does need to be repaid, usually starting after graduation)
3. Work study programs (money that is earned for tuition or other expenses)
These three types of aid are described in the following sections. Remember that this section only introduces these types of financial aid—be sure to get more information from your college’s financial aid office and the online sources listed here.
Applying for Financial Aid
For financial aid administered by your college, often only one general application form is required, along with detailed information on your financial situation (and those of your parents or guardians, if you are receiving their support) provided by filling out the FAFSA (Free Application for Federal Student Aid). If you have not already done this application, learn more at www.fafsa.ed.gov. Virtually all colleges require the FAFSA.
Outside loans and scholarships are generally applied for separately. Follow these general rules to ensure you receive any aid for which you are qualified:
1. Apply to your college for financial aid every year, even if you do not receive financial aid in your first year or term. Your situation may change, and you want to remain eligible at all times in the future by filing the application.
2. Talk to the financial office immediately if you (or your family) have any change in your circumstances.
3. Complete your application accurately, fully, and honestly. Financial records are required to verify your data. Pay attention to the deadlines for all applications.
4. Research possible outside financial aid based on other criteria. Many private scholarships or grants are available, for example, for the dependents of employees of certain companies, students pursuing a degree in a certain field, or students of a certain ethnic status or from a certain religious or geographical background, and the like.
5. Do not pay for financial aid resource information. Some online companies try to profit from the anxieties of students about financial aid by promising to find financial aid for you for a fee. Legitimate sources of financial aid information are free.
Scholarships and Grants
Scholarships and grants are “free” money—you do not have to pay them back, unlike student loans. A scholarship is generally based on merit rather than demonstrated financial need—based on past grades, test scores, achievements, or experiences, including personal qualifications such as athletic ability, skills in the arts, community or volunteer experiences, and so on. Don’t make the mistake of thinking scholarships go only to students with high grades. Many scholarships, for example, honor those with past leadership or community experience or the promise of future activities. Even the grades and test scores needed for academic scholarships are relative: a grade point average (GPA) that does not qualify for a scholarship at one college may earn a scholarship at another. Never assume that you’re not qualified for any kind of scholarship or grant.
A grant also does not need to be paid back. Most grants are based on demonstrated financial need. A grant may be offered by the college, a federal or state program, or a private organization or civic group. The largest grant program for college students is the federal government’s Pell Grants program (Figure 11.5 “Student Grant Programs from the Federal Government”). Learn more about Pell Grants and other scholarship and grant programs from your college’s financial aid office or the online resources listed later.
Figure 11.5 Student Grant Programs from the Federal Government
Student Loans
Many different student loan programs are available for college students. Because many colleges do not have sufficient funds to offer full grants to students with financial need, financial aid packages often include a combination of grant and loan money. Ideally, one would like to graduate without having loan balances to repay later on. However, almost two-thirds of full-time college students do need student loans to pay for college. The amount of money students borrow has risen in recent years because tuition and fees have risen faster than inflation. The total amount owed now averages over \$20,000 for students at four-year colleges and over \$10,000 at two-year colleges.
Unfortunately this is a necessary reality for many students. For most, graduating from college owing some money is preferable to not going to college at all. With smart choices about the type of loan and a structured repayment program for your working years after graduation, there’s no reason to fear a loan. Just remember that the money eventually has to be repaid—it’s not “free” money even though it may feel that way while you’re in school.
All student loans are not the same. Interest terms vary widely, and with most private loans the interest starts building up immediately. The best loan generally is a subsidized federal Stafford loan. “Subsidized” in this case means the interest does not begin on the loan until after graduation. If you borrowed \$20,000 over four years and interest accrued during this time, you could owe as much as \$25,000 upon graduation. Be sure to talk with your college financial office first about getting a federal subsidized Stafford loan. Since the current maximum of this type of loan for most students is over \$30,000, you ideally should not have to consider other types of loans—if you qualify for the Stafford with demonstrated financial need.
How Much Should You Borrow?
Many financial analysts urge college students not to borrow more than about \$5,000 per year, or about \$10,000 for two years of college, or \$20,000 for four years. Even if you qualify for more, that doesn’t mean you should take it, and in fact, you may want to borrow much less. Think about this seriously before jumping to any conclusions about your future earning potential and how much you may have to struggle then to pay off your student loans. During an economic downturn, for example, many students have difficulty finding a job that pays well enough to cover their loan payments without hardship.
First learn the repayment rate for a loan amount. Then research the starting salary you can realistically expect after graduation. You can find this information online at many sites (such as the USNews salary finder wizard at usnews.salary.com/salarywizar..._newsearch.asp). Assume the starting salary will be at the low end of the salary range for any given career. Finally, make sure that your loan payments do not total more than 10 percent of your starting salary. If the payment amount is more than 10 percent, you are setting yourself up for future financial problems. Try to find ways to cut back on expenses instead. Many experts advise attending a less expensive college, if necessary, rather than risking your future well-being.
Work Study Programs
Work study programs are the third type of financial aid. They are administered by colleges and are a common part of the financial aid package for students with financial need. You work for what you earn, but work study programs often have advantages over outside jobs. The college runs the program, and you don’t have to spend valuable time looking for a job. Work study students usually work on or near campus, and work hours are controlled to avoid interfering with classes and study time. Work study students are more engaged with the academic community than students working off campus.
Some students who enter college already working or who have special skills or job experience can make a higher hourly rate than a work study program pays. If so, you might make the same income working fewer hours, leaving more for studying and other college activities. If this is your situation, carefully weigh the pros and cons before deciding about a work study program.
Tips for Success: Applying for Financial Aid
• Talk to your college’s financial aid office early and get the appropriate forms.
• Start your application early to ensure you make the deadline.
• Do online research to learn about additional private scholarships you may be qualified for.
• Evaluate student loans carefully and do not borrow more than you need or can repay without hardship after graduation.
Resources
Start with your local college offices to gather information about financial aid. Do additional research to make sure you’re considering all available options. Even though this takes some effort, it will prove worthwhile if you find other sources of funds for your college years. Start with the online resources listed here.
Additional Resources
Federal government information about federal grants and student loans. See studentaid.ed.gov.
Federal government scholarship information.studentaid.ed.gov/sa/types/grants-scholarships/finding-scholarships.
FinAid.org. See this private information Web site on scholarships, grants, and student loans at www.finaid.org.
CollegeScholarships.org. See this private information Web site on scholarships, grants, and student loans at http://www.collegescholarships.org.
Salary Wizard. To estimate future earning potential, use this tool available at http://www.salary.com/category/salary/.
Key Takeaways
• Many forms of financial aid are available for college students. Apply every year and notify the college financial aid office if you have a significant change in circumstances.
• Consider all forms of financial aid—not just the aid managed by your college. Look into private scholarships and grants.
• Carefully consider how much to borrow in student loans.
Checkpoint Exercises
1. What is the best kind of college financial aid to seek?
___________________________________________________
2. For each of the following statements, circle T for true or F for false:
T F You don’t need to complete the FAFSA if you are applying only for a federal student loan.
T F If you apply to your college’s financial aid office, they will tell you about all possible scholarships for which you may be qualified.
T F After graduation, you have to begin repaying the money you received in a grant.
T F A work study program job often has advantages over a job you find on your own.
3. As a general rule, your future payments on a student loan should not be more than _____ percent of what you expect to make with your starting salary. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/College_Success/11%3A_Taking_Control_of_Your_Finances/11.05%3A_Financing_College_and_Looking_Ahead.txt |
Chapter Takeaways
• Controlling your finances while in college is important both for your future well-being and for eliminating stress that can impede your academic success.
• Meeting your financial goals while in college may require some financial sacrifice but need not result in hardship.
• The best student jobs offer benefits beyond just the money.
• There are many ways to reduce expenditures while in college. Tracking your spending with an effective budget is the first step toward taking control of your finances.
• Understanding your own spending habits and practicing a few simple principles for spending less help prevent unnecessary debt. Make and use a budget to take control of your financial life.
• Credit card spending is the leading cause of out-of-control debt in America today. Use credit cards minimally and wisely.
• Protect your financial identity by maintaining good records and preventing criminals from obtaining your personal or financial information.
• Look into all forms of financial aid and apply for all aid for which you may be qualified. Do not take more in student loans than you really need.
Chapter Review
1. Why is it necessary to track all your expenditures if your goal is to spend less to avoid financial problems while in college?
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2. Imagine several situations in which a friend asks you to join some activity that would break your budget. Write down positive, upbeat things you can say in these situations instead of glumly saying “I can’t afford it.”
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3. List as many ways as you can think of to locate job openings for which you might apply.
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4. Who should you talk to if you are having difficulty paying for college or meeting your expenses?
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Outside the Book
1. Although you may not need a résumé until you seek full-time employment after graduation, go online to learn what kinds of experience are typically listed in a résumé. Make a list of your experiences, qualifications, and references that you will put on your future résumé. What areas seem weak to you? What kind of job, internship, or other experience could you potentially have now in your college years that will strengthen your résumé?
2. Choose a friend you enjoy spending time with and see if he or she will help you with an “experiment.” Together, make a list of fun free things to do over the next two weeks. For example, look for free concerts and other campus activities. Make it your goal to spend as little as possible for two weeks, cooking meals together if practical, taking lunches and snacks to classes, and finding new ways to enjoy your free time inexpensively. At the end of this experiment, compare what you spent with your past habits. How successful were you? Think about how you can continue saving in the future.
3. Make a budget as described in this chapter, based on realistic estimates of your daily and monthly expenditures. Choose two or three categories of expenses and pay special attention to these for a month. For every \$10 less that you spend in these categories during the month, put \$3 in a new category to reward yourself. Then at the end of the month, use this new fund to celebrate your success with something special.
4. It’s never too early to think about summer jobs. Go online to check out summer jobs and internships you might find interesting. Check out the application process and deadlines and write these on your calendar for the winter or spring to remind yourself to apply early.
5. Go to the following Web site and take the “Finance Quiz To Test Knowledge Of College Students”—then check other resources on this site for more financial information you may need:
Make an Action List
Spending
I spend too much money every week on
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My action plan to spend less includes the following:
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Lifestyle
The area of my lifestyle where I know I spend more than most other college students is
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I can make these adjustments in my lifestyle to reduce this expenditure:
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Job in College
Ideally, I’d like to work no more than _______ hours a week.
What I’d most enjoy doing is
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I can learn more about possible jobs close to my ideal by
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Saving Money
I believe I can realistically save this amount of money a month if I watch my spending:
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This is where I will put my savings:
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I will allow myself to spend this money only for something major like:
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Budgeting and Tracking Spending
Here’s how I have kept track of what I spent in the past:
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So that I can maintain a budget now and in the future, I know I need to record every expenditure. I will do this by
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Credit Card Use
In the past, I usually used my credit card to buy things like
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If you have not always been able to pay off your balance every month: I will try to avoid using my credit card as much by taking these steps:
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__________________________________________________________________ | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/College_Success/11%3A_Taking_Control_of_Your_Finances/11.06%3A_Chapter_Activities.txt |
Thumbnail: pixabay.com/photos/doors-choices-choose-decision-1690423/
12: Taking Control of Your Future
Learning Objectives
1. Use your life mission to inform career decisions.
2. Understand how you are already on your way to fulfilling your dream.
3. Work with changing life objectives and goals.
Throughout this book, we have covered many techniques for how to get things done effectively: how to study, how to read, how to take notes, how to manage your personal finances or your social life. This last chapter challenges you to really think about the why. Why did you decide to attend college? Why is it important to you?
We all have life goals or objectives—some are clearer than others, but they are there. You may think of your objectives in terms of finances (to hold a job that allows you to be financially independent, for example), or perhaps your goals are more personal (to be married and have a family). They might be specific (pay off my student loans within three years of leaving college) or very general (to do good). Regardless of what they may be, they are all important because they influence the decisions you are making today about your future.
Understanding what motivates your goals and aspirations is essential because you are then better able to prioritize your thoughts about the future and identify new options that you may not have thought of before that will bring you fulfillment. Beware of accepting dreams others may have for you as your own (“I want to finish college to make my parents proud” or “I want to complete my associate’s degree because my boyfriend says I can get a better job”). These are not necessarily bad dreams to pursue, but they will lead to genuine fulfillment only if they are your dreams.
Exercise 1: My Dream Machine
In the table that follows, list the four or five most important dreams you have for your future. Include your personal, professional, and economic goals. Now take some time to think about why these dreams are important to you. Revisit your answers frequently over the next week or two and fine-tune them. What do they tell you about what is important to you? How are they linked to each other?
My dreams for the future Why they are important to me
Since you were a child and first definitively stated, “When I grow up I want to be a ____________,” you have been making decisions in order to fulfill your dreams. Most likely you are in college today as a step toward fulfilling a lifetime goal. But very few of us are still passionate about our childhood dream. As we grew up, we discovered new options; were influenced by people we met; or perhaps even learned that being a fireman, nurse, circus clown, pro baseball player, or princess is not all we thought it might be. Your evolving life dreams may continue even today and should be embraced. But for most people, the motivators behind the dreams—the answers to “Why they are important to me” in Exercise 1—change very little over time. If as a child you wanted to be a princess so your kingdom would have a kind ruler, today you may want to be a teacher to help children learn—and both of these dreams, at their core, are motivated by the desire to help others.
Take a close look at your “importance” statements in Exercise 1. What do they tell you about the direction you want to take in your life? What are your priorities? Will some dreams need to be put on the back burner while you pursue others? Using your dream statements as a guide, write a two- or three-sentence mission for yourself. You don’t need to share it with anyone, but you should refer to it a few times a year and ask yourself, “Am I living up to my mission?” and “Am I taking the right steps toward this mission?” You may also want to fine-tune it as you progress.
Key Takeaways
• The world is changing quickly around you, but your dreams and aspirations may provide a sense of direction in unknown territory.
• The reasons dreams or aspirations are important to you are as important as the dreams themselves and are likely to be more consistent than your literal dreams.
• A mission statement can be very useful in helping you to make important personal decisions, but it needs to be considered often and fine-tuned as needed. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/College_Success/12%3A_Taking_Control_of_Your_Future/12.01%3A_The_Dream_of_a_Lifetime.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Define the difference between a job and a career.
2. Identify the primary types of work and which you are best suited for.
3. Learn how to explore work options.
A job: yes, it’s something you would like to have, especially if you want to pay your bills. A job lets you enjoy a minimal level of financial security. A job requires you to show up and do what is required of you; in exchange, you get paid. A career involves holding jobs, but it is more a means of achieving personal fulfillment. In a career, your jobs follow a sequence that leads to increasing mastery, professional development, and personal and financial satisfaction. A career requires planning, knowledge, and skills. If it is to be a fulfilling career, it requires that you bring into play your full set of analytical, critical, and creative thinking skills to make informed decisions that will affect your life in both the short term and the long term.
What Do You Want to Do When You “Grow Up”?
The Department of Labor defines 840 occupations in its Standard Occupation Classification system—and new occupations are being created at an ever-faster rate. Just ten years ago, would anyone have imagined the job of a social media marketing specialist? How about the concept of a competitive chef? As new careers develop and old careers morph into almost unrecognizable versions of their original, it’s OK if you aren’t able to pinpoint exactly what occupation or career will be your lifetime passion. However, it is important to define as best you can what field you will want to develop your career in, because that will help dictate your major and your course selections.
The process of career exploration can be a lot of fun, as it allows you to discover a world of possibilities. Even those students who have a pretty clear idea of what they want to do should go through this process because they will discover new options as backups and occasionally a new direction even more attractive than their original choice. The career exploration process involves four phases.
Phase A: Who Am I?
Getting to know who you are—who you really are—is the first step. As in Exercise 1, be careful to base your self-discovery on what you think, not what Auntie Ethel always said about you or the hopes that Dad had for you to join in the family business. This is all about you.
You are a unique individual with a distinct combination of likes, dislikes, personality traits, and skills. But you are not so different that you can’t be identified with certain personality types, and those types may help you narrow your career choices. Visit your campus career guidance or placement office. They will likely be able to offer you a variety of tests to define your personality type; you can also find tests online at Web sites such as SuccessHawk (www.successhawk.com) or many of the job board sites.
Many of these tests are based on the career theory developed by Dr. John Holland. Holland defined six categories of people based on personality, interests, and skills:
1. Realistic. These people describe themselves as honest, loyal, and practical. They are doers more than thinkers. They have strong mechanical, motor, and athletic abilities; like the outdoors; and prefer working with machines, tools, plants, and animals.
2. Investigative. These people love problem solving and analytical skills. They are intellectually stimulated and often mathematically or scientifically inclined; like to observe, learn, and evaluate; prefer working alone; and are reserved.
3. Artistic. These people are the “free spirits.” They are creative, emotional, intuitive, and idealistic; have a flair for communicating ideas; dislike structure and prefer working independently; and like to sing, write, act, paint, and think creatively. They are similar to the investigative type but are interested in the artistic and aesthetic aspects of things more than the scientific.
4. Social. These are “people” people. They are friendly and outgoing; love to help others, make a difference, or both; have strong verbal and personal skills and teaching abilities; and are less likely to engage in intellectual or physical activity.
5. Enterprising. These people are confident, assertive risk takers. They are sociable; enjoy speaking and leadership; like to persuade rather than guide; like to use their influence; have strong interpersonal skills; and are status conscious.
6. Conventional. These people are dependable, detail oriented, disciplined, precise, persistent, and practical; value order; and are good at clerical and numerical tasks. They work well with people and data, so they are good organizers, schedulers, and project managers.
Exercise 2: What’s My Type?
Using the descriptions above, choose the three types that most closely describe you and list them in order in the following table. Most people are combinations of two or sometimes three types. Then list the specific words or attributes that made you think you fit in that type description.
Occupational type Words and attributes that closely describe me
Primary type (the one I identify with most closely)
Secondary type
Tertiary type
Note: Your Holland occupational code is made up of the initials of the three personality types you selected, in order.
Phase B: What’s Out There?
Once you have determined your occupational type, you can begin to explore what types of careers might be best suited to you. Exercise 2 is a rough beginning to find your occupational type, but you should still seek out more detailed results through your career guidance or placement office or by taking the Self-Directed Search (SDS) online through sites such as SuccessHawk (www.successhawk.com).
The SDS will provide you with a profile of careers you might want to consider, but if you have not taken the SDS, your career guidance or placement office is the best place to start, as is the Department of Labor’s Occupation Exploration site at www.bls.gov/k12/index.htm.
The SDS and other career guidance tests are based on Holland’s work. Holland studied people who were successful and happy in many occupations and matched their occupations to their occupational type, creating a description of the types of occupations that are best suited to each personality type. Just as many individuals are more than one personality type, many jobs show a strong correlation to more than one occupational type.
Table 12.1 Occupational Options by Type
Ideal Environments Sample Occupations
Realistic
• Use the occupational code you defined in Exercise 2 to identify careers you might want to consider. Your career guidance or placement office should be a good resource for this activity, or you can check out Gottfredson and Holland’s Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes in the reference section of your library.
Use the Department of Labor’s O*Net (http://online.onetcenter.org/find) to get a deeper understanding of your occupation. For each occupation, O*Net lists the type of work, the work environment, the skills and education required, and the job outlook for that occupation. This is a truly rich resource that you should get to know.
Phase C: What Factors Might Affect My Choice?
You may now have a list of careers you want to explore. But there are other factors you will need to take into consideration as well. It is important to use your creative thinking skills to come up with alternative “right” answers to factors that may present an obstacle to pursuing the right career.
• Timing. How much time must I invest before I actually start making money in this career? Will I need to spend additional time in school? Is there a certification process that requires a specific amount of experience? If so, can I afford to wait?
• Finances. Will this career provide me with the kind of income I need in the short term and the security I’ll want in the longer term? What investment will I need to make to be successful in this field (education, tools, franchise fees, etc.)?
• Location. Does this career require me to relocate? Is the ideal location for this career somewhere I would like to live? Is it somewhere my family would like to live?
• Family/personal. How will this career affect my personal and family life? Do friends and family members who know me well feel strongly (for or against) about this career choice? How important is their input?
Phase D: Where Do I Go from Here?
It may seem odd to be thinking about life after school if you are just getting started. But you will soon be making decisions about your future, and regardless of the direction you may choose, there is a lot you can do while still in college. You will need to focus your studies by choosing a major. You should find opportunities to explore the careers that interest you. You can ensure that you are building the right kind of experience on which to base a successful career. These steps will make your dreams come to life and make them achievable.
Start by developing a relationship with the counselors in the career guidance or placement office. All too often students engage these counselors only near the end of their college days, when the pressure is just on getting a job—any job—after having completed a degree. But these counselors can be of great help in matching your interests to a career and in ensuring you are gathering the right kind of experience to put you at the top of the recruiting heap.
Keep in mind that deciding on and pursuing a career is an ongoing process. The more you learn about yourself and the career options that best suit you, the more you will need to fine-tune your career plan. Don’t be afraid to consider new ideas, but don’t make changes without careful consideration. Career planning is exciting: learning about yourself and about career opportunities, and considering the factors that can affect your decision, should be a core part of your thoughts while in college.
Key Takeaways
• The right career for you depends on your interests, your personality, and your skills.
• Defining your occupational type may confirm career choices you have already made and open entirely new options for you.
• Career planning is an ongoing process involving knowing yourself, knowing about career options, and understanding the context in which your decisions will be made.
Checkpoint Exercises
1. Using your occupational type, identify a career opportunity you might be suited for that you have not yet considered. Now write a paragraph on what life might be like if you were to pursue that career.
2. Name the six Holland occupational types, and then circle what each type likes to work with:
1. data ideas people process tools
2. data ideas people process tools
3. data ideas people process tools
4. data ideas people process tools
5. data ideas people process tools
6. data ideas people process tools
3. Visit O*Net (http://online.onetcenter.org/find) and look up one of the careers you may be considering. What kinds of things does O*Net tell you about a career? ________________________________________________________________ | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/College_Success/12%3A_Taking_Control_of_Your_Future/12.02%3A_Career_Exploration.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Understand how your major is important to your career.
2. Understand why majors are not important to a career.
3. Practice skills for selecting a good major.
Choosing a college major can have a big impact on your career choices, especially if you are following a technical or vocational program of study. After all, it’s hard to become a pharmacist if you study computer networking. But students often get too anxious about choosing a major or program of studies. Certainly many two-year students have a very clear idea of what they are studying and the job they expect to land after completing their degree, and you probably feel confident enough in your choice of program of study to make the investment for tuition in that program. But there is no need to panic over your choice of major or program of studies:
• Your choice of major or program will be important only for your first job after college; most people change careers (not just jobs, but careers) five times or more in their lifetime, so there is no possible major that will cover that level of flexibility.
• Many majors and programs share foundation courses with other majors, so you can usually change your major without having wasted your time in courses that will be unrelated to your new major. Chances are that if you change your major, it will be to something similar, especially if you have completed an occupational interest survey as recommended earlier in this chapter.
• Most students change their major at least once, and many will change majors two or three times before they graduate.
• If a change in major does cause a delay in completing your degree, it may be a good investment of time to follow a career path you are truly happy with. Before making a decision, consider the factors outlined in phase C of Chapter 10 “Taking Control of Your Health”, Section 10.2 “Activity and Exercise”. Use your creative thinking skills to find a second right answer to any dilemmas a delay like this may cause.
While these thoughts might remove some of the stress of making the choice, there is no doubt that it is not always easy to make your choice. The following tips may make it a little easier…and perhaps fun!
• Follow your dreams. Your first instinct in choosing a field of study is probably based on your dreams and life experience. Make sure you base your choice on your own dreams and interests and not those of a parent, spouse, or friend.
• Make it fun. What do you like to do for fun? What kinds of magazines do you read? What Web sites are bookmarked on your computer? What kinds of volunteer work have you done? What do the answers to these questions tell you about the kind of career you would enjoy?
• Build on your skills. A good choice of a program of study is not based exclusively on your likes; it should also consider your skills. What courses did you “ace” in high school? Consider also courses that you found challenging in which you learned a lot (it’s hard to keep a level of determination to tackle a tough subject if you don’t enjoy it). What do these courses tell you about what you are skilled at studying?
• Ask around. Find people who are following the courses of studies you are considering. Ask them what they like and dislike about their majors. If you can find recent graduates with that major, ask them about the value of their major.
• Two is better than one. Talk to your faculty advisor about a double major or a combined program; that is an effective way of preparing yourself for the uncertainties and options of future employment. Think about declaring a minor if your college allows it.
• What makes you unique? If you have a major that you’d like to pursue that is not offered at your college, find out if you can plan your own major. This option is especially attractive if you want to combine two seemingly different disciplines into a major (Dance and athletics? Sociology and film? Women’s studies and economics?).
• Be open to change. Once you have selected a major, don’t panic if it turns out to be the wrong choice; consider it a step toward finding the right program for you. Repeat the major selection process, but carefully consider what you learned from your original major choice. Why was it not the right major? (Did it not match your interests? Was the workload too heavy? Were the courses too tough?) What do you know now that you didn’t know when you made your first selection that you should consider in making a new choice?
Key Takeaways
• There is no need to panic over the choice of a major or program of studies.
• Most students will change their major during their college years.
• Many people work and have successful careers in disciplines they did not major in.
Checkpoint Exercises
1. How is your choice of major important? Why do you want to be sure you do a good job selecting one?
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2. What are some of the reasons you should not panic over the choice of major?
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Learning Objectives
1. Explore the benefits of a four-year college education.
2. Understand the difference between work-based skills and transferable skills.
3. Learn how to use jobs, internships, and volunteering.
What do you need to launch a good career? Employers will look at your education, skills, and experience. Making sure you have the “right stuff” in these three areas is what you should focus on in your college experience.
The Transfer Ticket
Are you in a two-year program or community college? Perhaps you decided to attend your college to save some money or to be able to explore a career before committing to a four-year program. Now you may find that a bachelor’s degree is worth pursuing because it appears to be a requirement for the kind of career you want or because you will be able to boost your income opportunities. If you are thinking about transferring to a four-year program, be sure to follow these steps:
1. Find out about the transfer program at your college. Most two-year colleges have a program designed to make sure you have the right kind of general education courses, electives, and courses related to your major so that you can transfer seamlessly into a junior year at a four-year institution.
2. Make sure your credits are transferable. Each four-year college or university has its own policies about what kind of credits it accepts. If you are considering one or two particular four-year colleges, find out about their transfer policies as you lay out your plan of studies. These policies are typically described in the college catalogs. Read them carefully to ensure you can transfer most if not all of your credits.
3. Talk to your advisor. Now. If you haven’t met with your advisor to discuss your ideas about transferring, do so soon. Your advisor will be a great help in formulating a plan of studies that meets your requirements for your associate’s degree and maximizes your transferable credits.
4. Does your college have articulation agreements? These agreements between your college and four-year institutions define specific requirements for transferring and make it easier for you to transfer from your college to the bachelor’s program in a four-year school.
If you are in a four-year college already but think your career objectives might be better filled in a program at another college, you should also go through steps two and three as soon as possible. It can save you a great deal of time, money, and heartbreak.
Skilled Labor
The second requirement for employment is skills. Many of the skills you will need are career specific: we call those work-based skills. These include knowing how to use equipment that is specific to your career and mastering processes that are used in your field. While some of these skills are learned and perfected on the job, you may be in a vocational track program (such as for homeland security officers, nurses aides, or paralegals) where you are learning your work-based skills.
These are not the only skills you will need to be successful. The second set of skills you must have are called transferable skills because they can be used in almost all occupations. These include thinking skills, communication skills, listening skills—in fact, most of the skills for college success we have been stressing throughout this book are transferable skills because they are also key to success in life. This skill set is very broad, and your extent of mastery will vary from skill to skill; therefore, you should identify those skills that are most important to your career objective and develop and master them. Review your occupation profile on O*Net (http://online.onetcenter.org/find) to determine which skills you need to prove to potential employers you have mastered.
Exercise 3: Transferable Skills Inventory
In the list of forty transferable skills that follows, underline five skills you believe you have mastered and then describe specific ways in which you have used each skill successfully. Then circle five skills you think are important to your career that you have not mastered yet. Describe specific steps you plan to take to master those skills.
Active listening Decision making Negotiating Researching
Active learning Editing Observing Selling
Analyzing Evaluating Organizing Speaking a second language
Budgeting Forecasting Perceiving Feelings Supervising
Coaching Goal setting Persuading Teaching
Communicating Handling a crisis Planning Teamwork
Consulting Handling details Problem solving Time management
Creative thinking Manipulating numbers Public speaking Training
Critical thinking Mentoring Reading Visualizing
Customer service Motivating Reporting Writing
Skills I have mastered Examples of how I used them
Skills I still need to master How I will master them
Going over the list in Exercise 3, you will find that you have at least some experience in many of them, but you probably haven’t thought that much about them because you use them in so many ways that you take them for granted. It is important to think about all your activities and consider the skills you have applied successfully; your transferable skills inventory is larger than you may think. For example, if you volunteer as a big brother or big sister, you have skills in active listening, mentoring, time management, and probably coaching. If you have written a college paper, you have skills in visualizing, researching, communicating, and writing.
Be aware of the ways you develop and master transferable skills. Keep a list of them, and update it every month or two. That will be a valuable tool for you as you work with your career development and ultimately with job applications.
Are You Ready for a Test Drive?
Are you frustrated by the fact that even entry-level jobs require some experience? Experience is the third set of qualifications employers look for, and it’s the one that often stumps students. Relevant experience is not only important as a job qualification; it can also provide you with a means to explore or test out occupational options and build a contact list that will be valuable when networking for your career.
But how can you gain relevant experience without experience to begin with? You should consider three options: volunteering, internships, and part-time employment.
Volunteering is especially good for students looking to work in social and artistic occupations, but students looking for work in other occupation types should not shy away from this option. You can master many transferable skills through volunteering! Certainly it is easy to understand that if you want to be in an artistic field, volunteering at a museum or performance center can provide you with relevant experience. But what if you want to work in an engineering field? Volunteering for an organization promoting green energy would be helpful. Looking for a career in homeland security? Do volunteer work with the Red Cross or the Coast Guard Auxiliary. With a little brainstorming and an understanding of your career field, you should be able to come up with relevant volunteer experiences for just about any career.
Internships focus on gaining practical experience related to a course or program of study. Interns work for an organization or company for a reduced wage or stipend or volunteer in exchange for practical experience. A successful internship program should create a win-win situation: the intern should add value to the company’s efforts, and the company should provide a structured program in which the student can learn or practice work-related skills. Internships are typically held during summers or school vacation periods, though on occasion they can be scheduled for a set block of time each week during the course of a regular school term.
Once you secure an internship (usually through a normal job application process aided by a faculty member or the career guidance or placement office), it is important to have a written agreement with the employer in which the following is stated:
1. The learning objective for the internship
2. The time commitment you will invest (including work hours)
3. The work the company expects you to do
4. The work your supervisor will do for the college and for the student (internship progress reports, evaluations, etc.)
This written agreement may seem like overkill, but it is critical to ensure that the internship experience doesn’t degrade into unsatisfying tasks such as photocopying and filing.
Remember that a key objective of your internship is to develop relationships you can use for mentoring and networking during your career. Befriend people, ask questions, go the extra mile in terms of what is expected of you, and generally participate in the enterprise. The extra effort will pay dividends in the future.
Part-time employment may be an option if your study schedule provides enough free time. If so, be sure to investigate opportunities in your field of study. Ask your instructors and the career guidance or placement office to help you generate job leads, even if they are not specifically in the area you want to be working in. It is valuable and relevant to hold a job designing Web sites for an advertising agency, for example, if your specific job objective is to produce event marketing. The understanding of how an advertising agency works and the contacts you make will make the experience worthwhile.
If you are lucky enough to have a job in your field of study already and are using your college experience to enhance your career opportunities, be sure to link what you are learning to what you do on the job—and what you do on the job to what you are learning. Ask your supervisor and employer about ideas you have picked up in class, and ask your instructors about the practices you apply at work. This cross-linking will make you a much stronger candidate for future opportunities and a much better student in the short term.
Key Takeaways
• Employers look at candidates who have the right education, the right skills, and the right experience.
• Progress in many career opportunities is enhanced by more advanced education; you should work, however, to make sure the education you are already getting counts.
• Be sure you can identify and show mastery in transferable skills as well as work-related skills.
• Experience through volunteering, internships, and part-time jobs will illustrate to potential employers that you can work in your chosen field, but it is also instrumental to help create a network of colleagues to enhance your career development.
Checkpoint Exercises
1. Read the famous “fence whitewashing” story in Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (http://www.inspirational-short-stories.com/tom-sawyer-fence.html). What transferable skills does Tom demonstrate? What work-related skills does he demonstrate?
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2. Why is having a written internship agreement important?
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Learning Objectives
1. Understand that career development is not a process that occurs only when you are searching for a job.
2. Know how to get organized for career development.
3. Use resources for career development.
Think of developing your career as if you were working in a start-up venture, because in a sense, you are. The product you are developing is yourself as a professional. While you are focused primarily on product development during your college years, you need to “seed” the market during this period as well so that when the product is ready (when you get your degree), the market will be ready to accept you. If launching a career means getting your first postcollege job, the time to start preparing is now, not six months (or six weeks) before you graduate.
Start by organizing yourself. Set aside some physical space dedicated exclusively to career development and job hunt work. It can be as small as a corner on your desk or an accordion file, but it should be a place where you can keep and access your records whenever you need them. Organize some digital space as well. Create a file for all your career-related documents on your computer. Make sure you have a backup using an online service or at least a thumb drive or other external storage device.
Get and keep two notebooks to use during your career exploration. One is for recording and tracking phone calls, and the other is for general notes. Similarly, on your computer, create a folder in your browser’s bookmark menu to use exclusively for keeping track of Web sites of good resources, interesting companies, and leading ideas from your targeted occupation. In your contact management system or personal directory, flag those individuals who may be of use to you in your exploration and search. Create group folders for them in your social networking sites. There may not be many people in those groups and directories now, but as you go through the processes described in the rest of the chapter, those numbers will multiply, so it will pay to have a system in place to identify your key professional contacts starting now.
A second step in getting organized is understanding your financial picture. If you think of yourself as a business, you are investing both time and money in your college degree, and you should have a clear picture of how and when your investment will begin to pay off. Project your cash flow and prepare a personal budget and live within it (see Chapter 11 “Taking Control of Your Finances”). Paying off student loans on an entry-level salary can be a challenge without the discipline of following a budget.
Start identifying resources that you can use to explore and select an occupation and to help land that first (or next) job in your career. Every student will have his or her own list of favored resources. For some it may be a Web site like the Department of Labor’s site or SuccessHawk (www.successhawk.com). Others may want to include a counselor at the college career guidance or placement office or their faculty advisor. You may want to add an alumnus who has been helpful or a relative who already practices in your target occupation. Most important, identify these resources and record them in your “notes” notebook, creating your own personalized reference guide.
Set goals for yourself to guide you in your process. Especially since career planning is an ongoing, long-term process, it is important to set short-term, attainable goals to keep making progress toward a fulfilling occupation. The goals should be simple, everyday steps that keep you moving in the right direction, such as “investigate metallic arts sculpture as a business by Friday” or “make an appointment to see a counselor at the guidance office by Tuesday.” As you proceed through the process of investigation, decision making, networking, selection, and application, these goals will become even more important.
Key Takeaways
• Career exploration and job hunting are not short-term projects but processes that continue over time.
• Organization is key to an effective process and sets you up for success.
• Setting goals will keep your actions organized and keep you moving forward in a long-term process.
Checkpoint Exercises
1. What are three things you should do to get organized for the process of career development?
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2. Why is it valuable to have two notebooks to work with instead of just one?
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3. Why is setting a goal important in this process?
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Learning Objectives
1. Learn how to develop a network.
2. Keep track of your contacts.
3. Attend conferences and trade shows.
There is some wisdom in the saying that it’s who you know that brings success in getting a job. Consider the following:
• It is estimated that only 20 percent of new jobs and vacancies are advertised or posted.
• A Web posting for a job typically yields over 150 applicants for a position.
• Sixty to eighty percent of jobs are found through personal contact and networking.
What exactly is networking? In its simplest terms, it is the process of engaging others in helping you reach an objective. Three words in this definition deserve a closer look:
1. Process. Networking is something that doesn’t happen casually but requires thought, planning, and deliberate activity.
2. Engaging. You are looking to have others do something for you—give you information, guidance, other contacts, or perhaps a recommendation.
3. Objective. You need to be clear about your purpose for networking—it is not merely to collect people’s contact information but to further your career development.
The process of networking involves three basic phases: prospect identification and management, making contact, and follow-up.
Student FAQs
• I won’t graduate and be in the job market for a couple years. Do I need to work on résumés and networking now? Yes, absolutely! Even though you aren’t yet graduating from college, there are many benefits to starting now. As a student, you are likely to be applying for part-time jobs, internships, and even volunteer positions. Networking is a process of building relationships, and the strongest relationships are built over time. Having a good network will help identify interesting and relevant opportunities. Having a résumé that summarizes your strengths and skills will give you an advantage over other candidates who apply without a résumé, because job application forms rarely give the opportunity to highlight your strengths. Furthermore, a résumé is an updated record of your skills and experience; it makes sense to capture your accomplishments as they happen and will save you a lot of time in the future.
• I don’t have any work experience. How can I write a résumé? You may not have any work experience, but you do have experience and skills. Focus on your transferable skills, and list examples of how you have used them. Think of organizations you have been involved in and volunteer work you have done. It is OK to include high school accomplishments; you can replace them with college accomplishments as you gain them. It is also OK to include your GPA, particularly if it is over 3.0, because that helps show you are disciplined and organized.
All Contacts Are Equal, but Some Are More So Than Others
The first phase involves identifying whom you should be speaking to and pinpointing the people who can introduce you to them. This is like the game Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon applied to your own life. Whom do you need to speak to? That really depends on your objectives. If you are trying to learn about an occupation, it can be just about anyone involved with that field. If you are in the process of trying to land an internship or a job, you want to reach the person who will make the hiring decision.
Your objective also defines how you get started with your networking. In the first case, you might want to start with people you met at an industry conference; in the job-specific case, you’ll want to think about whom you know in that company or who might know someone in that company. If you don’t have any contacts who fit that description, whom do you know who lives in the town in which the company is based or in a nearby town?
Your success in this phase of networking will be driven by the quality of the candidates (those who can directly influence your ability to reach your objectives) as well as the quantity (those who will lead you to the most contacts). This is why there is no such thing as a bad contact.
As important as having contacts is your ability to access those contacts when you need to. That is where contact management comes into play. Don’t be caught wishing you could call someone you met three weeks ago…if you could only remember what you did with their business card! There are countless ways to keep track of contacts, from writing names in an address book, to keeping a Rolodex, to using a computer-based contact management system. Choose a system you feel comfortable with—comfortable enough to use regularly. A sophisticated system that has all the bells and whistles is no good to you if you can’t use it.
Let technology help you in this endeavor. Your computer, PDA, or smartphone probably has features for capturing contact information and retrieving it based on keywords, and most will even connect with your calendar for scheduling and reminders. Consider Web-based applications such as those offered by SuccessHawk (www.successhawk.com) and networking sites focused on professional networking, such as LinkedIn. Whatever your choices, invest the time to learn to use them well; you’ll be very glad you did.
Building a network requires consistent work, and a strong network will take time to achieve. That is why we recommend you start building your professional network now—even early in your college career. Your network should include anyone who might have a connection that will help: family, friends, neighbors, past and present coworkers, bosses, people you met through associations and clubs (especially business associations), alumni from your college, and acquaintances you have met via online networking.
When you capture your contact data, use relevant keywords to help you search your database and shape your contact activity. One of the most overlooked pieces of information that you should be sure to capture is the source of the contact. That’s what turns a “cold call” into a “warm call”—and it helps engage the prospect. If a friend introduced you, be sure to note that friend’s name; if you met at a party, note the name of the host and the occasion; if you met at a conference, note the conference and date. You should also use other keywords so that you can quickly find the contacts that will be most effective for each of your objectives; keywords might describe the area of specialization, organization membership, or type of contact (family, friend, colleague, etc.).
Personal Contact
Being in the right place at the right time has much less to do with luck than with the art of personal contact. Contacts are everywhere, and you don’t know when you might turn one to your advantage. You may feel a little awkward following these tips at first, but with practice you will become quite adept at meeting new people and adding them to your network.
• Be prepared. If you are going to a conference, a party, or even a class, know ahead of time which people or kinds of people you want to meet. Be prepared with topics you can steer your contact toward so you don’t spend two minutes awkwardly talking about the weather and then slink away.
• Be confident. Prepare and learn a short introduction for yourself. Be factual, don’t brag, and give enough information about yourself to prompt your contact to ask questions.
• Be curious. The best way to get contacts to want to know you is to show you want to know them. Observe them before you step up to them. Is there something unique about them, the way they are dressed, or perhaps what you may have overheard that you can ask about? “I couldn’t help but notice that lovely necklace; is that from a local designer?” or “You have such an interesting accent; do you mind if I ask where you’re from?” After you ask the question, listen actively to keep the conversation going.
• Be prepared (part 2). Have a good supply of personal cards to give out to contacts; that will prompt them to give you their contact information, too. You don’t have to be in business to have “business cards.”
• Be courteous. If someone you know comes up to you while you are speaking with a contact, introduce them; if you see that the contact is getting antsy, tell them you enjoyed meeting them and then move on. Don’t trap them!
• Be prepared (part 3). Set yourself up for networking success by discreetly writing a word or two on the back of their card to jog your memory in the future. “World-class rodeo clown” will certainly help you remember who Jack Smith at Triangle Financial was.
Make the Call
What you say in your networking calls or e-mails will depend largely on the objective of your networking effort. (Is it to learn about an occupation or industry? Seek a job-shadowing opportunity? Ask for a job?) But some networking basics and elements of etiquette apply to all contacts:
• Be mindful of your contact’s time. Keep your calls and e-mails courteous but brief. If you are calling, ask if it is a good time to talk.
• If this is a first contact, tell the contact where you got his or her name. “I was referred to you by our friend Janet Smith” or “My colleague Richard Stewart suggested I call you” or “I heard you speak at the International Genius Conference” (remember the contact source information in your contact database?). This turns an interrupting cold call into a warm call with an interested individual.
• Be specific about how the contact can help you. Know what you are asking for and do so directly. Don’t be shy.
• Use your network for more than just asking for jobs. It is a great vehicle for learning about new trends in the industry, for launching “trial balloons” for ideas or concepts you are developing, and for seeking advice on practical aspects of your occupation.
• Help others in your network. Networking is not a one-way endeavor. Be willing to offer your assistance whenever you can; the fact that you are still in college doesn’t mean you can’t be of value. You may be able to get an introduction to an instructor for a person in the industry or help that person’s daughter learn about your college.
Care and Feeding of Your Network
Much of the success of your networking efforts depends on what you do after you’ve hung up after a call or received an e-mail reply. The first step is to thank your contact for his or her help. Do this right away; any thank-you after twenty-four hours of your contact can be considered late. Find a reason (not just an excuse) to keep in touch with people in your network. If you read an article people in your network would be interested in, send them the link. If you run across a problem one of your contacts might help you with, don’t be shy—give him or her a call to ask for help. If you meet someone you think a contact would like, make introductions. Send a follow-up note of thanks to a person who gave you a particularly productive lead. Let him or her know what you were able to accomplish. People like to know they are on a successful team. Finally, if a person in your network asks you for help, do what you say you will do.
Key Takeaways
• Networking is an ongoing process that involves identifying and managing prospects, making contact, and following up.
• All contacts are good contacts.
• Common courtesy and follow-through are the catalysts of good networking.
Checkpoint Exercises
1. Give yourself twenty minutes to list one hundred people you know. (Remember the idea of grouping items to commit them to memory in Chapter 4 “Listening, Taking Notes, and Remembering”? You may want to think of groups first and then see how quickly you can draw up the list.) Now give yourself another twenty minutes to write one or two words next to each name to describe how he or she could help you network.
2. List three things you should do whenever you contact someone for the first time.
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3. Describe two things you can do to overcome shyness and network effectively in a person-to-person setting.
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Learning Objectives
1. Understand the purpose of a résumé.
2. Describe the elements of successful résumés.
3. Know how to prepare a good cover letter.
A résumé is basically a summary of your experience. Just as an advertiser will invest a lot of resources to condense the essence of his or her product into a thirty-second ad for the Super Bowl, condensing the essence of your experience onto one or two pages can be a challenging task. Fine-tuning, updating, and rewriting your résumé will become an ongoing process as you move through your career, and it is not too early to prepare one now. The purpose of a résumé is to get you invited for an interview. Unfortunately, too often a résumé is a reason to exclude a candidate. Poor grammar, misspelled words, lengthy listings of irrelevant experience, and messy formatting motivate hiring managers to move quickly to the next candidate.
There is no such thing as a perfect format for a résumé, though hiring managers and recruiters generally agree on the following principles:
• A short résumé is generally better than a long one. One page should usually be enough—two pages if you have a lot of experience.
• Focus on your accomplishments, not just the positions you held. Your résumé should point out your strengths. Use dynamic verbs (see “101 Action Verbs” below).
• Include numbers. Be sure to include dollar amounts and percentages that support achievements. For example, you might write “Reduced costs by 20 percent.” Keep track of your accomplishments in your “notes” notebook so that you don’t have to go back and recreate history when you are revising your résumé.
• Use keywords. Most recruiters and hiring managers look for résumés online and review submitted résumés with software that looks for keywords.
• Keep information easy to find. Use the standard convention of a reverse chronological listing of experience, starting with your current or most recent job and moving backward in time, unless there is a valid reason for following a different format (a function-based résumé might be appropriate if you need to cover two or more long periods of unemployment).
Deciding what to include in your résumé is where most of the work comes in, because it is in the careful wording of the body of your résumé that you can really sell yourself for a position. Ideally, you should review your résumé for each position you are applying for, particularly to include any accomplishments that you would not include in your “general résumé” but that are relevant to that particular job. Your résumé should include these elements:
• Header. Include your full name and complete contact information. Be sure that you use personal (home) phone number and e-mail address, not your work contact information.
• Objective. Include a short one- or two-sentence summary of the kind of position you are looking for. Some résumé writers now recommend replacing or following the objective with a listing of skills, particularly when you are going to post the résumé online, because that provides a great opportunity to include keywords. Look to your list of transferable skills to populate this kind of list.
• Résumé body. Starting with your current or most recent job, internship, or volunteer position, list your experience in reverse chronological order. Each entry should include the title, the name and location of the company, and the dates you held the position. This should be followed by your major achievements in that position. Use strong action verbs and a quantitative measure for achievements. Look for things that will show that you are a better candidate than others. Consider accomplishments such as the following:
• Being promoted
• Gaining expanded responsibilities
• eing recruited by a former employer or boss, or being asked to follow him or her to another company
• Having your accomplishment copied by other departments or, even better, by other companies
• Recruiting and training others
• Receiving awards and recognitions, including speaking at conferences, writing, or being written about (if these are easily found online and you are short on space, omit these types of accomplishments, because you will be googled)
101 Action Verbs
Here are the kinds of verbs that help “sell” you to potential employers. Expand on this list to find good verbs specific to your accomplishments by doing an Internet search for “action verbs for résumés.”
acted delegated implemented persuaded
adapted demonstrated improved planned
advised designed increased prepared
analyzed developed influenced prioritized
arranged devised informed produced
assembled diagnosed initiated promoted
assessed directed inspected publicized
assigned edited instituted recruited
attained educated instructed rehabilitated
authored enabled integrated represented
balanced encouraged introduced researched
budgeted engineered invented reviewed
built enlisted investigated revitalized
calculated established lectured scheduled
chaired evaluated managed set goals
coached executed marketed shaped
collected fabricated mediated solved
communicated facilitated moderated spoke
compiled forecasted motivated stimulated
computed formulated negotiated strengthened
conceptualized founded organized supervised
consolidated generated originated trained
contracted guided overhauled translated
coordinated identified oversaw upgraded
counseled illustrated performed wrote
created
The Finishing Touches
Once you have written the body of your résumé, review and discuss it with people you respect. Ask them what stands out, what puts them to sleep, what turns them off, and whether anything is missing. Make sure your résumé is “short and sweet” and that it demonstrates your strengths. Be sure you can support every point you make on your résumé during an interview.
Great résumés are a combination of a business document, marketing piece, and personal preferences. Expect conflicting opinions from others and don’t get hung up on them; the final decision is yours.
Finally, here are some tips on format. Name your résumé file clearly. Don’t give the file the name “résumé” or “My Résumé.” Include your name, abbreviated job title, and company name in the file name. For example, if Victor Smith applies for a marketing project manager job at XYZ Company, his résumé file might be named VictorSmith-MktPM-XYZ.doc.
Choose your document formatting wisely. Use a readable font! You have approximately thirty seconds to make an impact on the person reading your résumé, and nothing turns off a reader faster than a résumé that is difficult to read.
• Serif fonts, such as Times New Roman, should be no smaller than eleven points, and sans-serif fonts, like Arial, should be no smaller than ten points.
• Try to keep margins at one inch all the way around.
• Print your résumé on a high-grade, bright white paper. Do not use cream-colored paper or paper with visible fibers, as these papers can confuse scanners and optical character recognition software that employers may use to digitally store and search résumés.
Cover Letters
The purpose of a cover letter is to entice the recipient to read your résumé. There is no better way to entice someone to read further than to demonstrate that you fit his or her needs. A successful cover letter should emphasize how your knowledge, skills, or experiences make you an ideal candidate.
When writing a cover letter, look over the job posting carefully. What are the keywords in the posting? Underline or highlight them. Think about how your experience and skills are related to those keywords. What examples can you give in short sentences? Now you can begin to write.
Be sure to state what job you are applying for and why in your opening paragraph. If you don’t hook the reader here, you will not be considered for the job. This is where you begin to show that you are a unique and qualified candidate. This, in marketing terms, is your selling proposition. Write this paragraph two or three different ways and then choose the best. When you are happy with your opening paragraph, add one or two paragraphs that illustrate your proposition from the opening paragraph.
Remember that your cover letter also demonstrates your communication skills. Be clear, be concise, and be careful. You won’t have another opportunity to make a first impression. Be sure your spelling and grammar are correct. Did you double-check the spelling of the company name? Read the document; look for mistakes your spellchecker won’t catch (like the word “you” instead of “your”). Put it down for a while and then reread it again.
Keep your formatting simple. Often you will have to copy and paste your letter and résumé into a predetermined form on a company’s Web site. You are likely to lose formatting conventions such as tabbing, tables, and bulleted lists.
Key Takeaways
• The purpose of a résumé is to secure an interview.
• A good résumé is action based and focused on accomplishments.
• The purpose of a cover letter is to entice the recipient to read your résumé.
Checkpoint Exercises
1. Explain some of the ways a résumé could block consideration of a candidate. What are some strategies for ensuring this doesn’t happen?
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2. List your top three accomplishments to date. What were the key transferable skills you used in achieving them? Do both the accomplishments and the skills play a prominent role in your résumé?
Accomplishments Transferable skills
3. Write your résumé. Everyone should have one. They are useful not only to apply for jobs, but also to secure internships and to explain who you are to your network. If you are a student who has no work experience, what kinds of accomplishments can you use to illustrate your skills? | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/College_Success/12%3A_Taking_Control_of_Your_Future/12.07%3A_Resumes_and_Cover_Letters.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Learn the types of interviews.
2. Know how to prepare for an interview.
3. Be successful in an interview.
In a job search, nothing is more exciting or more intimidating than an interview. Reaching the interview stage means that you are in serious consideration for the position, and the pressure feels cranked up. In this section, you will learn how to prepare yourself to “ace” this process.
Types of Interviews
In the process of exploring occupations and landing a job, you will likely participate in a variety of interviews. They are defined by their objective:
• Informational or networking interviews. Informational interviewing is particularly useful in helping you explore career options. This is an interview that you have requested to learn about a particular job, company, or industry and how best to present yourself to potential hiring managers. An informational interview also gives you an opportunity to create a positive impression. Be sure to get referrals, leads, and recommendations for other networking contacts.
• Screening interviews. Generally conducted by a representative of the company’s human resources department or a recruiter, a screening interview is used to determine whether you are qualified or overqualified to do the job. This initial interview is often conducted via telephone. As the name implies, the objective of this interview is to find reasons to remove, not include, people in a candidate pool. Do not consider it lightly just because someone other than the hiring manager is conducting it.
• One-on-one interviews. In a one-on-one interview, the interviewer asks a set of questions to learn if you have the knowledge and skills to handle the job for which you have applied. The hiring manager conducting the one-on-one interview also wants to get a sense of what it would be like working with you and how you would fit in the organization. It is also used to learn how you behaved in past situations as a predictor of how you are likely to behave in the future. Expect to be asked “Tell me about a time when…” or “Give me an example…” questions. This interview is the one a hiring decision is based on.
Preparing for Interviews
Just as preparation is important for exams in college, preparation is key to success in interviews. Many of the principles are the same, but in an employment interview, the subject is you. Just as in an exam, the first step in preparation is to know your material.
Learn about the organization. In almost every interview situation, you’ll be asked, “What can you do for this company?” Practice your answer. Research press releases, stories in the Wall Street Journal, annual reports, blogs, Web sites, the news, and so on. Know the company’s philosophies, goals, plans, new products, targeted customers, new executives, and major directional changes.
Use your network. Do you know anyone who works for or has worked for this company or organization? Call or have lunch with him or her before your interview to learn more. Your competition likely won’t have done their homework as well as you have. Your prospective employer will notice.
Review the job description. Be prepared to explain how your background qualifies you for the job. Did you find the job posting online? Be sure to have printed a copy, and bring it with you to the interview. Some companies take weeks to start calling people in for interviews, and by then the job description may have been removed from the site where you saw it.
Review your résumé. Think of examples that describe or illustrate your accomplishments. You will be asked about items on your résumé, and you need to be able to support them and go into more detail.
Use your study guide. Employment interviews, especially screening interviews, do not stray far from a standard list of questions. Find a quiet one to two hours to review the interview study guide provided here, prepare your answers, and actually practice them. Your answers should be short but complete.
Interview Study Guide
The following questions are typical in many employment interviews. If you prepare answers for them ahead of time, you will not be caught off guard during an interview.
• Tell me about yourself. Remember that one-minute elevator introduction you worked on for networking? Here’s your starting place.
• What can you offer us? Why should we hire you? Make a list of your qualifications for the job. Include years of experience, education, special training, technical skills, inside knowledge of a product or market, and so on. Are you a customer of this product or service?
Use your list of transferable skills like communication, leadership, organization, attention to detail, and work ethic. Review the list objectively. Which items are most valuable to the employer? Use this information to write a brief “sales pitch” that describes your qualifications for the job. Structure the information in a logical fashion and then practice saying it aloud until your delivery is smooth, natural, and confident.
• What are your strengths? Provide context and scope when answering this question. By elaborating on your strengths, it’s easier for the employer to see where and how you excel.
Think about your noteworthy and unusual achievements or experiences. What did you do to accomplish them? What kind of preparation did they require? Why are they unique?
Think about performance reviews you have received in a job. Have you won awards or received positive feedback from others in the organization or from a happy customer? What were the reasons for the positive attention?
If you are a student or recent graduate with limited professional experience, think about your papers, reports, projects, or group assignments. Think about the assignment and what you did to complete it. The same strengths that helped you academically will also help you succeed professionally.
• What are your weaknesses? Remember that employers are human and appreciate honesty. It’s OK to acknowledge your weaknesses and explain steps you’ve taken to address them. It’s also fair to point out how you’ve turned a weakness into a strength.
• Where do you see yourself three to five years from now? Think about your personal goals and answer as genuinely as possible. This is a good opportunity to ask the interviewer about the opportunities available to a person who succeeds in this job.
• What attracted you to our company? Draw from your research and personal knowledge of the company to answer this question. Keep in mind that this interview is about what you can do for them, so answering that you’re attracted to the free snacks in the break room won’t score any points.
• Tell me about a time you were under pressure to meet a deadline and what you did. When did you find pressure at school or work because something was due? Describe the problem, the actions you took, and the outcome. Choose examples in which you received positive feedback.
• What will former employers say about you? Be honest. Think about the positive things they will say about you.
• What salary are you expecting? This is a land-mine question and one you’ll almost certainly face. Typically a company has budgeted a certain salary range for a position and will do their best to stay within it. A general rule for salary discussions is that he or she who says the first number loses. Ask what the salary range is and where the interviewer sees you fitting into that range.
You owe it to yourself to find out before the interview what the salary range is for a comparable position in the geographical region. You can learn this through your network or an online salary search.
• What questions do you have for me? Before the interview, think of questions you would like answered about the company, the job, or the industry. Having good questions will tell the interviewer a lot about your listening skills and your degree of preparation. If you can, tie your questions back to something the interviewer said earlier. Remember, an interview is not just the company checking you out, it’s also you checking out the company.
Trick Questions in Interviews
These happen to the best of interviewees. The only wrong answer to an impossible question is “I don’t know.” Hiring managers are looking for employees who think through tough challenges. They want to know if you keep your cool under pressure, if you can think on your feet, whether you BS or maintain your credibility, and how you respond to the unfamiliar. So show them: think aloud.
Talk about what you know about the problem; work out the process in front of them. You are being judged not only on your ability to solve problems but also on your intelligence and potential. There is no potential in “I don’t know.”
Prepare yourself physically. Like a final exam, an interview can cause anxiety, and too much anxiety can result in a poor interview. Make sure you eat well and get a good night’s sleep before the interview. Hunger, use of energy drinks, and lack of sleep all contribute to interview anxiety.
Dress to impress. Research indicates many job applicants have unsuccessful interviews because they didn’t dress professionally. If you’re not sure, ask the person who schedules you for an interview what the dress code is. A suit or jacket, dress slacks, dress shirt, and a tie are usually fine for men. A suit or blouse and a skirt or slacks are fine for women. The rule of thumb is to dress one notch above that group’s normal attire. If in doubt, a suit is never inappropriate for men or women. Remember, you’re going to a job interview, not a casual event.
Punctuality counts. Confirm the date and time of the interview a day or two before. Make sure you know how to get there and how long it takes. Arrive at least ten to fifteen minutes before your interview. You may be asked to complete an application or other form when you arrive. If not, it’s a good time to do some relaxation exercises.
Tips for Success during the Interview
Now is the time to demonstrate your listening, thinking, and communication skills. Avoid unexpected distractions, and turn off your cell phone before you even enter the building. Know whom you will be interviewing with and what his or her role is in the company; if possible, get something in writing from the interview coordinator so you can get the names spelled correctly (for follow-up purposes). Once you are face-to-face with the interviewer, do the following:
• Relax, take a deep breath, and smile. You should be genuinely pleased to be there, as you were selected from a pool of many other candidates.
• Be yourself. That’s whom you want them to hire, not someone you’re trying to act like.
• Keep your tone conversational but not too informal. Avoid slang and expletives.
• Make eye contact but don’t stare.
• When answering questions, keep your answers focused on your skills and knowledge.
• Avoid one-word answers, but be succinct and direct; don’t ramble.
• Be truthful. Any statements discovered to be untrue are grounds for not hiring you.
• If you don’t understand a question, ask for clarification.
• If you don’t have the exact fact an interviewer is asking for, offer to find out and get back to them.
• At the end of the interview, thank the interviewer and tell him or her you enjoyed your conversation. If the interviewer hasn’t already told you, it is appropriate to ask about the next steps.
After the Interview
Be sure to send a thank-you note to each person you interviewed with. It is also courteous to send a short note of thanks to the person who coordinated your schedule with the company, even if he or she didn’t interview you. This person is often asked for his or her impressions of you. Keep your notes short but personal; refer to a comment or question from the interview that you found significant. An e-mail is usually acceptable, especially if the employer required you to submit an electronic application or résumé. Be sure to send it within twenty-four hours.
Key Takeaways
• Successful interviewing depends on careful preparation.
• Most interview questions can be anticipated and prepared for.
• An interview is as important for you to evaluate the company and its working environment as it is for the company to evaluate your skills and “fit.”
Checkpoint Exercises
1. Practice, even with phone interviews, will make you more comfortable in any interview situation. Set up and complete three informational interviews about a field or industry you are interested in. Write about what you learned about yourself and your approach to interviews.
2. Practice, even with mock interviews, will make you more comfortable in any interview situation. Invite a friend to conduct a mock employment interview with you for a job you select from an Internet posting. Then switch roles. Write about what you learned about yourself and your approach to interviews.
12.09: Chapter Activities
Chapter Review
1. Explain the difference between a job and a career.
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2. List three ways in which the employment environment is changing. What does this mean to you?
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3. What is your life’s mission?
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4. What is your Holland occupational type? What kinds of occupations should you explore based on your results?
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5. List two work-related skills and five transferable skills you have.
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6. What are some ways you can gain experience and explore career options before you get your degree?
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7. What are some of the factors you should consider when choosing a major or field of study?
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8. Why is networking so important?
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9. List four or five qualities of successful networking.
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10. Many people are shy about networking. How would you recommend they overcome this?
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11. What is the primary purpose of a résumé?
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12. What should the body of a résumé focus on?
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13. What is the purpose of a cover letter?
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14. What are the three types of interviews and what are their objectives?
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15. List three things you should do to prepare for an interview.
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Make an Action List
Two things I will do to further
my career exploration in…
Actions How I will know I accomplished each action
The next two weeks 1.
2.
The next two months 1.
2.
The next two years 1.
2. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/College_Success/12%3A_Taking_Control_of_Your_Future/12.08%3A_Interviewing_for_Success.txt |
Introduction
University study involves an educational transformation that can positively change a student’s future prospects and quality of life. However, in order to undergo any transformation, you must experience a period of adjustment and transition. Commencing university is one of those major transition periods in your life that can be exciting as well as challenging, so it is normal to experience some emotional ups and downs in your first study period.
“A lot of people resist transition and therefore never allow themselves to enjoy who they are. Embrace the change, no matter when it is; once you do, you can learn about the new world you’re in and take advantage of it.”
– Nikki Giovanni
Highs and Lows of University Life
Commencing university is an exciting time and students commonly feel happy and enthusiastic about their decision to study a chosen field. Your first study period at university will be a stimulating experience, but it is also a busy time as you learn about the university environment, academic expectations, learning technologies, where to go for help, as well as your course content.
These new and exciting challenges can cause students to feel anxious and unsure at various times, particularly around assessment periods. You may experience a wide range of feelings and moods and feel like you are on an emotional roller coaster in your first study period at university. Many students incorrectly believe that everyone is coping except for them, however, in reality everyone is riding the same ups and downs and you are not alone. So, remember to talk to your fellow classmates about how you are feeling (the good, the bad, and the ugly) as they will be having similar experiences and you can work through those challenging periods together.
Differences between High School and University
For most new university students, their last education experience was in secondary school, so it is important to understand what the differences will be in a higher education setting. University is an adult learning environment, which means there is a strong emphasis on students becoming independent learners and managing their own study responsibilities, as shown below.
High School
• Attendance is compulsory and classes are held five days per week
• 75 per cent classes and 25 per cent independent learning
• Teachers deliver content face-to-face
• Teachers direct learning and remind students about study responsibilities and assessment due dates
• Teachers approach students if they believe they need assistance
• Teachers highlight important information
• Teachers will review draft versions of assignments
• Assessment is more frequent and covers smaller amounts of material
• Parents receive biannual reports with grades A to F, and have access to parent-teacher interviews
University
• Students choose to enrol in university and class times and days vary
• 25 per cent classes and 75 per cent independent learning
• Lectures may be videoconferenced or delivered through online learning platforms
• Students are independent learners responsible for managing their study workloads and meeting assessment deadlines
• Students are expected to monitor their own progress and seek help if needed
• Students must review course and class content and identify important concepts
• Lecturers do not provide feedback on drafts
• Assessment is less frequent and covers larger amounts of learning material
• Results are only available to students and graded from High Distinction to Fail
Activity
1. Identify three things you are looking forward to about studying at university.
2. Identify three challenges that you might face in your first study period and consider proactive steps you can take to overcome each obstacle. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/Foundations_of_Academic_Success_(Morgan_et_al.)/01%3A_Successful_Beginnings/1.01%3A_Transition_to_Uni.txt |
Introduction
Motivation is a common challenge for university students throughout their degree. University courses are often 3-5 years of full-time study (and longer for part-time students), which is a significant period of time to remain highly motivated. Your sense of purpose for studying will often provide a beacon of light in the darkest times, so it is important to understand and remember why you are here!
“The only difference between success and failure is the ability to take action.”
– Alexander Graham Bell
How to get motivated
Motivation can be intrinsic and come from an internal drive for personal satisfaction, enjoyment or benefit, or it can be an extrinsic, external drive to provide benefits to others, gain material wealth/possessions, or secure a specific job. Your values are often associated with intrinsic motivations whereas your goals are often attached to extrinsic motivations.
Identify your values and set goals
Motivation is what drives you to achieve what needs to be done. However, if you cannot see the benefits associated with a task, you may be unmotivated to achieve it. Studies have also shown that motivated students perceive academic workloads to be less than unmotivated students – that is, they don’t feel overwhelmed by the same amount of work.
To help understand your motivations in life, reflect on the following questions:
• What is really important to you in life?
• What are you aspiring to achieve (personal and professional goals)?
• Identify a motivator for each goal (intrinsic or extrinsic)
• Are your goals specific, realistic and achievable?
• What are your short-term goals – next hour, day, or week?
If you struggled to answer these questions, don’t despair. JCU has a great resource that can help you unpack your values, motivations and direction through the interactive You and Your Career module.
Sense of Purpose and Study
A sense of purpose is to find or enact your personal purpose in life in order to realise a satisfying future. It is overarching and often associated with aspects of empowerment, motivation and drive, and a willingness to sacrifice in the support of a higher purpose. For these reasons, it is an important to understand your sense of purpose in relation to higher education study.
Your sense of purpose is intrinsically unique to you and is influenced by your journey prior to study. Some students know from an early age exactly what they want to do with their life. Some students don’t know until after they start study, and many students change course while studying. This reflects the fact that your sense of purpose changes as you grow and you learn new things about the world and yourself. A higher education exposes students to new perspectives, theories, experiences and people, which can alter their original purpose and path. This altered worldview can be exciting and revelatory, but can also create anxiety and uncertainty if it undermines your original sense of purpose. The takeaway message is that it is normal and ok to not have it all figured out – just remain open to possibilities as they evolve.
Activity
Students decide to study at university for a range of extrinsic (external) and intrinsic (internal) reasons, which can impact on their sense of purpose and motivation levels. Review the list below of common reasons that students decide to go to university to see if any of them resonate with you.
• Someone told me to do it (family/friends)
• To prove to others that I can do it
• I want to change my financial future
• I want to make a difference in the world
• I like learning new things
• I wasn’t sure what else to do
• I want to gain more self-confidence
• I missed educational opportunities in the past
• The degree will be useful in my current job/widen work options/increase promotion opportunities
• I want to be respected and recognised for my intellectual capacity
• To prove to myself that I can do it
• I want to gain educational qualifications
• It will help kickstart my dream career
• To widen my intellectual interests and skills
• It is the right time in my life
• I want to challenge myself
• I want to meet new people with the same interests. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/Foundations_of_Academic_Success_(Morgan_et_al.)/01%3A_Successful_Beginnings/1.02%3A_Motivation_and_Purpose.txt |
Introduction
Wellbeing is a combination of your physical, mental, emotional, spiritual and social health, and is strongly linked to aspects of happiness and life satisfaction. Trying to achieve a balance of these factors is the best way to maintain optimal wellbeing. Each year, a national Student Experience Survey is deployed in Australian universities, which continues to show that maintaining mental and physical health while studying is the number one challenge that students face. While, managing their study/life balance is the second greatest challenge reported each year.
“Challenges are what make life interesting. Overcoming them is what makes life meaningful.”
– Joshua J. Marine
Change and Challenges
The commencement of higher education involves a lot of life changes, which can be exciting, but also challenging. It is normal to have a range of feelings and emotions as you adjust to your new norm and find your feet over a period of time. Here are a list of common challenges that students face that can impact on their wellbeing:
• Balancing university with the rest of your life
• Managing deadlines and responsibilities
• Understanding academic expectations
• Financial changes and difficulties
• Moving away from home
• Building a new social network
• Managing carer responsibilities
• Failing an assessment or subject
• Breakdown of relationship
• Lack of motivation
• Illness or injury
• Exam anxiety
Stress Happens
A certain level of daily stress is beneficial as it can keep you energised, motivated and productive. However, too much can lead to a lack a concentration, impaired memory, inability to make decisions, avoidance behaviours (self-isolation, stop engaging with uni), and health issues. You may also experience physical symptoms, such as an increased heart rate, shortness of breath, muscle tension, nausea, reduce immunity, hot and cold flushes, and trouble sleeping. University involves change, challenges and moving outside your comfort zone, which your mind and body can perceive as threats and over activate your stress levels. These stressors can be cumulative, and too many stressors in a short period of time may trigger a response that begins to cause distress.
Top Tips
• Accept stress as part of life: Stress can’t always be escaped, but it can be managed. Stress will be around when you leave university too, so see this time as an opportunity to learn new ways of dealing with it.
• Know your stress triggers: Everyone has particular things that trigger their stress responses – giving presentations, writing assignments, being in social situations, or being asked to do too many tasks at once. Knowing your triggers helps you prepare for those situations and activate strategies when your stress levels begin to rise.
• Know your stress responses: Are the first signs of your stress response that you begin to chew your fingernails, feel pain in your chest, get a headache or indigestion, lose concentration, eating more or less, or get irritable with yourself or others? Recognising your stress response is important, so you can implement wellbeing strategies to manage it.
Tips for Wellbeing
Taking care of your wellbeing will help you better cope with everyday stressors, and enable you to be more resilient when faced with unexpected challenges. Complete wellness is not realistic and no one is ever completely well or unwell – it’s about achieving a good balance across all aspects of your health.
Be Healthy
• Consume nutritious food and eat regularly to keep your energy levels up – students often reach for junk foods when they are stressed and it is better to option brain foods instead (proteins, nuts, fruit and veg)
• Get quality sleep (eight hours a night) your brain needs time to shut down and process new information each day, so you are actually helping your studies as you snooze
• Exercise regularly or go for a brisk walk every day – it is the best stress reduction technique around
• Drink plenty of water – your brain is 73% H20, so it is vital for your cognitive functioning as well as your general wellbeing
• Moderate alcohol and caffeine intake and avoid drugs
• Take regular study breaks to help your mind and body rest and revive
• Learn relaxation, mindfulness and meditation techniques
• Have regular health check-ups with your GP
Be Kind to Yourself
• Acknowledge you are dealing with challenges and be self-compassionate
• Challenge negative thoughts and try to replace them with positive, encouraging ones – cognitive distortions or thinking errors (catastrophizing) can intensify when you are stressed or anxious
• Remind yourself of what’s going well in your study and life to foster a sense of gratitude
• Focus on your strengths and values
• Have some ‘me time’ each day and do something that makes you feel good and helps you relax
• Know it is normal to feel unhappy some times
• Try and find humour in situations
• Learn to say ‘no’ – study involves a significant time and financial investment, so you will need to practice prioritising
• Seek help if you are experiencing persistent homesickness or loneliness, which are common occurrences in first-year students
Be Connected
• Schedule regular time with friends and family and talk about how you are feeling (good, bad and the ugly)
• Find people with similar interests and values to you and spend time together
• Ask another student to be a ‘study buddy’, or just catch up for a coffee regularly
• Play with your pets (or find a friend with a pet, if you don’t have one) – it is great stress relief
Be in Control
• Don’t worry about the past and the future as you have no control over them – you can only control the here and now (present moment)
• Focus on your ‘sphere of control’ – your response to people and things around you
• Plan your day, week and semester – being organised can help reduce concerns about the future
• Recognise the difference between a current, real problem and a hypothetical one, so you use your energy wisely
• Make changes to bring your life more in line with your values and long-term goals
• Accept that sometimes you need to take action and push yourself, even when you don’t feel great
• Defuse your thinking – your thoughts are just words and pictures in your mind and you don’t have to believe them or base actions on them all the time
• Remember that stressful times are usually finite, so they do come to an end – this truism can often help you cope in the moment
• Try not to make any major life decisions when you are feeling overwhelmed as things often seem worse when you are stressed or anxious.
Life Balance
– Jana Kingsford
As outlined in the introduction to this module, study/life balance is the second greatest challenge facing Australian university students. This balance is often defined as a satisfactory level of involvement/fit between the multiple roles in a person’s life. Learning to manage your time is an important life skill to develop, particularly when you are studying and have many conflicting priorities and deadlines. However, this schedule must also include time for your social, emotional, physical and intellectual wellbeing, as well as your paid work and study. By placing a priority on your wellbeing, your work and study will be more productive.
Below is an example of a student weekly planner (it includes: lecture/tutorials, work, sport, study time, and social activities):
Time management is important in order to achieve your aspirations and goals with the least amount of stress. JCU recommends that students allocate a minimum of 10-12 hours/week/subject to study commitments. Around 25% of your time will be spent attending classes/webinars and the other 75% will involve independent study. This self-directed study will include academic reading, reviewing/synthesising notes, completing tutorial exercises, group study, as well as assignment and exam preparation. For a full-time student studying three or four subjects, it is a significant time commitment (36-48 hours/week). It is helpful to create weekly and semester planners (see below) to stay on track and share these with your nearest and dearest (parents, partners, children), so there is a shared understanding of your study commitments. For more information about how James Cook University can support you during your studies. Please go to the JCU Student Support Webpage. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/Foundations_of_Academic_Success_(Morgan_et_al.)/01%3A_Successful_Beginnings/1.03%3A_Wellbeing_and_Life_Balance.txt |
Selecting goals and priorities has the power to put you on track and on time in your journey to academic success. This chapter provides strategies to help you get the best out of every day, every week and every year at university. The chapter discusses motivation, shows you how to construct SMART goals and how to “stick” with them. It also talks about long-term and short-term goals, how to prioritise to complete tasks and work to deadlines.
Goals Give Motivation
Motivation often means the difference between success and failure. That applies to school, to specific tasks, and to life in general. One of the most effective ways to keep motivated is to set goals. Goals can be big or small. A goal can range from I am going to write one extra page tonight, to I am going to work to get an A in this course, and all the way to I am going to graduate in the top of my class so I can start my career with a really good position. Goals work towards the bigger picture. For example, if your goal is to get an A in a certain course, all the reading, studying, and every assignment you do for that course contributes to the larger goal. You are motivated to do each of those things and to do them well. Goal setting is best done with careful thought and planning. This next section will explain how you can apply strategies to set goals.
SMART Goals
Goals need to be specific and represent an end result. They should also be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound). A SMART goal will help you achieve an end result and support your decision making. Each component of a SMART goal will be described in more detail below.
• Specific—For a goal to be specific, it must be carefully defined. A goal of get a good job when I graduate is too general. It doesn’t define what a good job is. A more specific goal would be something like identify a hospital that recruits graduate nurses and has clear career paths.
• Measurable—To show effect, and report progress, goals need to be measured. What this means is that the goal should have clearly defined outcomes with enough detail to measure them. For example, setting a goal of doing well at university is a bit undefined, but making a goal of graduating with a grade point average (GPA) above 4.0 at university is measurable and something you can work with.
• AttainableAttainable or achievable goals means they are reasonable and within your ability to accomplish. While a goal to complete six subjects in a semester and work part time is something that would be nice to achieve, the odds that you could make that happen in a semester are not very realistic for most students. However, if you plan to complete three subjects this semester and work part time it may well be more achievable.
• Relevant—For goal setting, relevant means it applies to the situation. In relation to university, a goal of buying a horse to ride to for pleasure on weekends is unlikely to be relevant to your student goals, particularly if you live 100km from campus, but getting dependable transportation to the campus is something that would contribute to your success at university.
• Time-bound—Time-bound means you set a specific time frame to achieve the goal. I will get my paper written by Wednesday is time-bound. You know when you must meet the goal. I will get my paper written sometime soon does not help you plan how and when you will accomplish the goal.
In the following table you can see some examples of goals that do and do not follow the SMART system (see Table 1). As you read each one, think about what elements make them SMART or how you might change those that are not.
Table 1. Examples of goals that do and do not follow the SMART system
Goal Is it SMART? Comments
I am going to be rich someday No There is nothing specific, measurable, or time-bound in this goal.
I will graduate with a GPA of 4.0 by the end of next year. Yes The statement calls out specific, measurable, and time-bound details. The other attributes of attainable and relevant are implied. This goal can also be broken down to create smaller, semester or even weekly goals.
I will walk for 30 mins each day to help me relieve stress. Yes All SMART attributes are covered in this goal, explicitly or implied.
I would like to do well in all my courses next semester. No While this is clearly time-bound and meets most of the SMART goal attributes, it is not specific or measurable without defining what “do well” means.
I will earn at least a 4.0 GPA in all my courses next semester by seeking help from the Learning Advisor (Maths). Yes All the SMART attributes are present in this goal.
I am going to start being more organised. No While most of the SMART attributes are implied, there is nothing really measurable in this goal.
When goal setting it is important to write down your goals, keep them visible, and revisit each one every couple of weeks to make sure you are on track. It is also useful to discuss your goals with a critical friend who will help you to be realistic and support you to achieve your goals.
Stick With It!
The key to reaching goals is to stick with them, keep yourself motivated, and overcome obstacles along the way. In the graphic below, you will find seven methods successful people use to accomplish their goals (see Figure 9.2).
Keeping focused and motivated can be challenging as there are so many other things to do. Procrastination can be a problem when studying. How well we persevere towards goal or task can be referred to as “grit”. Grit drives us to succeed and to get back up when things seem hard. Grit is not about how clever you are, it is about how much you keep going until something is finished or accomplished.
Grit was defined by the psychologist Angela Duckworth and colleagues (Duckworth et al., 2007). They found that individuals with high grit were able to maintain motivation in learning tasks despite failures. The results showed that grit and perseverance were better predictors of academic success and achievement than talent or IQ. Paul Stoltz (2015) has since taken the grit concept and turned it into an acronym (GRIT) to help people remember and use the attributes of a grit mindset. His acronym is Growth, Resilience, Instinct, and Tenacity. Each element is explained in the table below (see Table 2).
Table 2. The GRIT acronym
Growth Your inclination to seek and consider new ideas, alternatives, different approaches, and fresh perspectives
Resilience Your capacity to respond constructively and to manage all kinds of adversity
Instinct Your capacity to pursue the right goals in the best and smartest ways
Tenacity The degree to which you persist, commit to, stick with, and achieve your goals
With a “grit” mindset comes an acceptance that you may not succeed on the first attempt—or the nineteenth attempt. Failed attempts are part of the process and seen as a very useful way to gain knowledge that moves you towards success. Sometimes we need to look at how we are doing something to find out why we are unsuccessful. When we are honest about the reasons why, we can then start to manage the situation and set goals. We get back up and start again.
Long-Term Goals and Short-Term Goals
Long-term goals are future goals that often take years to complete. An example of a long-term goal might be to complete a Bachelor of Arts degree within four years. Long-term goals are not exclusive to academic study. You might set long-term goals related to fitness, wellness, and relationships. When you set a long-term goal in any aspect of your life, you are demonstrating a commitment to dedicate time and effort towards making progress in that area.
Setting short-term goals helps you consider the necessary steps you’ll need to take, and also helps to chunk a larger effort into smaller, more manageable tasks. Even when your long-term goals are SMART, it’s easier to stay focused and you’ll become less overwhelmed in the process of completing short-term goals.
You might assume that short-term and long-term goals are different goals that vary in the length of time they take to complete. Instead of just being bound by the difference of time, short-term goals are the action steps that take less time to complete than a long-term goal, but that help you work towards your long-term goals.
Prioritisation
A key component in goal setting and time management is that of prioritisation. Prioritisation is ordering tasks and allotting time, based on their identified needs or value. To prioritise tasks you need to understand the requirements of each. If you have multiple assignments to complete and you assume one of those assignments will only take an hour, you may decide to put it off until the others are finished. Your assumption could be disastrous if you find, once you begin the assignment, that there are several extra components that you did not account for and the time to complete will be four times as long as you estimated. It is important to understand exactly what needs to be done to complete a task before you determine its priority.
To better see how things may need to be prioritised, you could make a list of tasks to be completed and then arrange them in a quadrant map based on importance and urgency. This is called the Eisenhower Decision Matrix.
Begin by making a list of things you need to do today and then draw the grid below. Write each item in one of the four squares. Choose the square that best describes it based on its urgency and its importance. When you have completed writing each of the tasks in its appropriate square, you will see a prioritisation order of your tasks. Those listed in the Important and Urgent square will be the things you need to finish first. After that will come things that are “important but not urgent,” followed by “not important, but urgent,” and finally “not urgent and not important” (see Figure 8).
It is also important to think of other impacts on your time. Keeping others informed about your priorities may help avert possible conflicts (e.g., letting your boss know you will need time on a certain evening to study; letting your friends know you plan to do a project on Saturday but can do something on Sunday, etc.). Time management in university is as much about managing all the elements of your life as it is about managing time for class and to complete assignments. Regardless of how much you have planned, sometimes events arise where it becomes almost impossible to accomplish everything you need to by the time required. As the saying goes, “things happen.” In this situation prioritisation becomes important. When this occurs with university assignments, it is important to not feel overwhelmed by the situation and rather to make an informed decision based on the value and impact of your choice.
Priority Conflicts
Imagine a situation where you have two assignments due at a similar time, and you must decide which one you to work on first. For example, one of the assignments may only be worth a minimal number of points towards your total grade, but it may be foundational to the rest of the course. The first step is to try to find a way to get everything finished. If that cannot happen, the next step would be to communicate with your lecturers to let them know about the situation. They may have options you had not considered. The key here is to make certain you are aware of and understand all the ramifications to help make the best decision when the situation dictates you make a hard choice among priorities.
Completing Tasks
Another important part of time management is to develop approaches that help you complete tasks in an efficient manner that works for you.
Knowing what you need to do
Understanding what you need to do and when you need to do it can be applied to any task, no matter how simple or how complex. Knowing what you need to do and planning for it can go a long way towards success. As you can see from the graphic below (see Figure 10), a task as simple as “going to class” can be broken down into a number of different elements that have are dependent on other tasks. One example of this is preparing for the class lecture by reading materials ahead of time in order to make the lecture and any complex concepts easier to follow. If you did it the other way around, you might miss opportunities to ask questions or receive clarification on the information presented during the lecture.
Knowing how you will get it done
After you have a clear understanding of what needs to be done to complete a task, the next step is to create a plan for completing everything. This may not be as easy or as simple as declaring that you will finish part one, then move on to part two, and so on. Each component may need different resources or skills to complete, and it is in your best interest to identify those ahead of time and include them as part of your plan.
Knowing what resources will you need
Make a list of the everything you will need to complete a task. If a missing resource is important, the entire project can come to a complete halt. Even if the missing resource is a minor component, it may still dramatically alter the end result. Learning activities are much the same in this way. List everything you need. It is also important to remember that resources may not be limited to physical objects such as paper or ink. Information can be a critical resource as well. In fact, one of the most often overlooked aspects in planning by new university students is just how much research, reading, and information they will need to complete assignments.
Knowing what skills will you need
Poor planning and assumptions can be disastrous. No matter how well you planned the other parts of the project, if there is some skill needed that you do not have and you have no idea how long it will take to learn, it can be a impact on your planning.
Imagine a scenario where your class projects is to create a poster. It is your intent to use some kind of imaging software to produce professional-looking graphics and charts for the poster, but you have never used the software in that way before. It seems easy enough, but once you begin, you find the charts keep printing out in the wrong resolution. You search online for a solution, but the only thing you can find requires you to recreate them all over again in a different setting. Unfortunately, that part of the project will now take twice as long.
It can be extremely difficult to recover from a situation like that, and it could have been prevented by taking the time to learn how to do it correctly before you began or by at least including in your schedule some time to learn and practise.
Set Deadlines
The best way to approach time management is to set realistic deadlines that take into account which elements are dependent on others and the order in which they should be completed. Giving yourself two days to write a ten page essay is not very realistic when even many professional authors average only six pages per day. Your intentions may be well founded, but your use of unrealistic deadlines will not be very successful. Setting appropriate deadlines and sticking to them is very important.
Be Flexible
The final item on this list after a strong encouragement to make deadlines and stick to them is the suggestion to be flexible. The reason that “be flexible” has made this list is because even the best-laid plans and most accurate time management efforts can take an unexpected turn. The idea behind being flexible is to readjust your plans and deadlines when something does happen to throw things off. The worst thing you could do in such a situation is panic or just stop working because the next step in your careful planning has suddenly become a roadblock. The moment when you see that something in your plan may become an issue is when to begin readjusting your plan.
Adjusting a plan along the way is incredibly common. It is a good idea to planning for problems, or delays from the beginning, and even add a little extra time for each task to help ensure an issue does not derail the entire project. As you work through tasks, make certain you are always monitoring and adapting to ensure you complete them.
Being flexible is helpful as sometimes it can feel overwhelming when there are too many changes needed within a short amount of time. It can help to stand back occasionally and look at the big picture to remind yourself of your major priorities for your life while at university. You may find it helpful to draw a learning map and place it on your wall to remind yourself of what really matters to you – where you will be flexible and where you won’t.
Conclusion
Goal setting and prioritisation are essential in the first year of university and beyond. Learning effective approaches to goal setting and managing priority conflicts takes time, but the steps covered in this chapter provide a strong foundation to get students started. Using a structured approach to identifying achievable goals that are personally meaningful allows you to plan for both short and long-term success. Overtime, prioritisation may also become easier as you gain experience. Keep the key points in mind to help maintain your motivation as you transition into university life.
Key points
• One of the most effective ways to keep motivated is to set goals.
• SMART Goals are a useful structured approach to plan, write down, commit to, and achieve meaningful goals.
• The key to reaching goals is to keep at it, keep yourself motivated, and overcome any obstacles along the way.
• Apply grit and adopt an attitude that looks directly to the end goal as the only acceptable outcome.
• Setting short-term goals helps you consider the necessary steps you’ll need to take to achieve your long-term goals, but it also helps to chunk a larger effort into smaller, more manageable tasks.
• Prioritisation is a key component of goal setting and time-management which involves ordering tasks, and allotting time for them based on their identified needs or value.
• If you find that you have a priority conflict, make certain you are aware of and understand all the ramifications to help make the best decision.
• Knowing what you need to do and planning for it can go a long way towards successfully completing tasks. You might need specific resources or skills. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/Foundations_of_Academic_Success_(Morgan_et_al.)/01%3A_Successful_Beginnings/1.04%3A_Goals_and_Priorities.txt |
Introduction
Universities are highly technological and much of university life is lived online. To succeed at university, students must be confident working with technologies and digitally literate. This means being able to understand, use, adapt to, and innovate with technology. This chapter begins by exploring why digital literacy is important and how it is relevant to university life. Next, it examines what universities will expect of you in terms of digital life. The chapter then outlines the digital attitudes, attributes and skills you will need to develop, and how these relate to other skills and attributes, such as finding information online. By developing each of the elements that will be discussed in this chapter, you will be well equipped for online university life.
What is a Digitally Literate Student?
People develop digital literacy throughout their lives. From using a mobile phone or typing a document, to manipulating data and engaging in social media, digital literacy is an important facet of every part of everyday life. Being digitally literate means having the skills, knowledge and attitudes that equip you for living, learning, working and flourishing in today’s technological society. All elements of these skills, knowledge and attitudes are interrelated and interdependent.
Digital literacy attitudes include being curious, open to learning, resilient to change in technology and being collaborative. Digital literacy skills encompass elements such as:
• Core computing and networking skills and knowledge to operate in a university environment (which underpin the other elements); (see below for more information)
• Skills and understanding about information sources and the media, so you can access the information you need to study and work, and ensure that it is the right information;
• The ability to create online objects such as assignments, images, presentations, audio, video and other things such as spreadsheets or data;
• Participating in online discussions, collaborations and groups while communicating effectively and appropriately online;
• Being able to use the online learning systems at your university and beyond for ongoing professional development and learning; and
• Being able to manage your “digital identity” at university and beyond into professional life and be ethical, responsible and legal in your online life.
You will develop digital literacy throughout your university journey and throughout the rest of your life. It is important to understand that digital literacy is:
• Scaffolded, so you don’t need to know everything from the start, and you will build on your knowledge and skills as you learn.
• Supported, as your university will provide you with opportunities to learn new skills and develop your understanding and attitudes to digital technologies and online learning. Look for opportunities through orientation, information technology (IT) training, library training, study support training and online resources.
• General, as some skills and capabilities are important for all students, and Specific, as other skills and capabilities are specific to a discipline or profession; and some disciplines and professions will require a much higher level of expertise and ability than others.
Digital Literacy and Universities
When you come to university, you will likely encounter a range of new technologies, systems, and environments that you will be expected to use throughout your studies. It is important to become familiar with these new platforms and tools in order to develop the skills you need for successful study.
In order to succeed at university, you will need to use:
• Your student email for communicating with lecturers;
• An online calendar for planning your class timetable and assessment schedule;
• LearnJCU (the learning management system) for accessing learning resources, posting on discussion boards, and submitting assignments;
• Blackboard Collaborate for live online lectures and workshops
• Library resources, such as journal articles, library guides, and eBooks; and,
• Productivity software, like Word, Excel, and PowerPoint to complete assignments.
You may also want to using social media or messaging apps to communicate with other students and collaborate on team projects or assessments. It is also important to learn about the threats that online life can bring. Threats to your privacy, professional image, and academic success can be magnified if you don’t live your life online securely, safely and ethically. The student IT Essentials webpage contains all the information you need in order to manage your account and access the technologies you will need for study. Developing your digital literacy skills will help you make the most of the resources available to you.
University Essentials
Starting university is a time when you will begin to collaborate online with others, either in your course or in the wider university social networks, whether it is in forums run by your lecturer or via the university’s social media platforms, such as Facebook and Twitter. Interacting with your lecturers and fellow students online will present additional chances to collaborate and co-operate to facilitate high levels of engagement. Your ability to navigate and interact in a positive way using these education and social environments will broaden your learning experiences and expedite understanding. All these lead to success both in your studies and your professional life.
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: pb.libretexts.org/foundations/?p=60
There are many positives to engaging with the platforms offered by your university. You will broaden your access to learning environments and be able to create networks with your colleagues and peers, as well as experts and mentors in your field. You will develop your online identity and improve your online interpersonal skills through communication, using both official and unofficial university systems and social media platforms. You will also develop digital problem-solving skills, and learn to innovate, collaborate, and create content in online environments.
Table 3. Digital tools and collaboration opportunities
Official University Social Media Awards, programs, partnerships, news and events, e.g. ANZAC Day, Harmony Day, graduation, career development, workshops.
Twitter Follow academics, librarians, industries, and organisations for news, events and information on research.
LinkedIn Career information, professional development and training opportunities, and networking.
University Website Student hubs, sporting groups, career opportunities, cultural activities, faith groups, international student support, library support.
LearnJCU Discussion Boards Subject information, assessment and referencing discussions, peer-review and lecturers’ support for assignments.
Unofficial groups and pages (Student run) Collaboration opportunities and study groups e.g. Discord, Slack, Snapchat and Facebook groups.
Being digitally literate is not only about engaging with these platforms, but also understanding the threats that exist when interacting with these online platforms, especially the unofficial, unmoderated sites.
Table 4. Online threats and avoiding them
Stealing your identity or hacking your accounts Do not give out personal information unless you trust the person asking for it, and set your passwords so they are hard to guess
Remember: if it looks suspicious, it probably is!
Access to your financial data Do not open email attachments from untrusted sources, and never give out your financial information to anyone you do not trust.
Bullying, cyberstalking and tracking Be careful what you share online, both information and images, and always remember that others are watching you online.
Make sure you report bullying incidents to your university or other relevant authorities.
Collusion and academic misconduct Collusion on individual assessments may carry heavy penalties and universities watch carefully for instances where students are not completing their own work (see the chapter “Integrity at University” for more information).
Misinformation and conspiracy theories Be careful about what information you trust and share online (see the chapter “Working with Information” for more information).
Remember, at university, knowing how to engage is important as you are expected to communicate professionally. Be aware of what you post, your tone, and your words as they will be there for all to read. Understanding the principles of online communication will help you at university and in your communications outside of the university. It is not uncommon for recruiters to examine your online profiles to evaluate if you are a suitable candidate, so choose and use your social media channels wisely. Building your digital identity and creating positive relationships with others online increases your chances of academic success.
Learning Online
Studying at university means being able to study in an online environment. It means using technology to participate in classes, access materials, complete assessment, and collaborate with your lecturers. It also means being able to learn new technologies and find information in the online world. Learning online brings both benefits and challenges. It can be difficult to access everything you need to study effectively. Sometimes, learning online can even be lonely. At the same time, the flexibility of being able to engage with study materials at your on pace and at times that suit you can be really beneficial. However, it is also easy to get distracted and inconsistent work practices can impact your productivity. The JCU Learning Centre has a range of resources and guides that can help you develop positive online study habits, such as:
• Tips about online learning using video lectures and collaborate sessions, including information on taking notes, and communicating with staff and classmates;
• Information about using online communication tools, like Blackboard Collaborate, discussion boards, and Zoom; and,
• Guides on creating a positive study environment that include information about tools, technologies, working from home, and planning your study time.
When learning online, it is important to see your development of digital literacy skills and attributes as a journey; you will develop skills throughout your studies and again throughout your life. Maintaining the digital literacy attitudes and developing the skills and attributes to outlined in the diagram below will help you in this journey.
Conclusion
In the modern world, it is very important to be digitally literate. Digital literacy encompasses the attitudes, attributes and skills with technology and digital environments that will help you study at university and thrive in your future workplace.
As a university student, you must be able to engage with the technologies, environments and social networks that your university will expect you to use. Your university will help you to develop digital literacy as part of your work and study, and to build on those skills and attributes to the level required by your discipline and future employment. You must have core computing skills underpinning other attributes to study online, communicate and collaborate, be secure, safe and ethical, and to find and use information.
Key points
• To succeed with university life online, you must be able to understand, use, adapt to and innovate with technology.
• Being digitally literate means having the skills, knowledge and attitudes that equip you for living, learning, working and flourishing in a today’s technological society.
• You must be able to study in the online environment, use your university’s digital systems, and communicate and collaborate online.
• You will develop your digital literacy attitudes and skills throughout your study and again throughout your life. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/Foundations_of_Academic_Success_(Morgan_et_al.)/02%3A_Successful_Foundations/2.01%3A_University_Life_Online.txt |
Introduction
Welcome to the English Language Foundations chapter. Here, we are going to discover some of the academic English foundational skills required for study at university.
Academic English
Academic English is the particular style of English that is used at the university level. It is important to note that every person who enters university studies for the first time will need the time to learn and develop their understanding of what Academic English is, and how they can apply it to their own writing. This cannot be rushed. You may seem to take longer than other people and that is okay. In the sections below, you will see what some of the basics of academic writing are and you will see some key rules and explanations of Academic English. Next you will learn and review some of the basic grammatical structures of academic writing.
It is normal for academic writing to seem a little daunting to new students. It can feel like you are learning a whole new language. Fortunately, there are many great support services available to support you at university as you develop your academic literacy. By following a few guidelines, you will also be well on your way to communicating effectively in the academic context. At the end of this chapter, you will find links to additional supports available to you at JCU.
All good writing is the result of a focused editing and revision process. Even the best writers start with very rough drafts. There are some general guidelines to be aware of and follow when drafting. Let’s look at some basic do’s and don’ts of academic writing:
Do’s
Write clearly and concisely
• It is important to write clearly and simply, which also helps you to stick to the word count.
• For example: it is better to say, “the research data” rather than “the data from the research”.
• Your first few drafts might feel like a mess, but editing will clarify your thoughts and make the sentences simpler.
Reference your research and information
• Referencing is a way to acknowledge the expert sources you have engaged with. Referencing also lends credibility to your work because it proves you have read the work of experts in the field.
• At JCU a common referencing style is APA 7.
• For more information on referencing, check out the next chapter on Working with Information.
Write in third person
• Writing in third person means not referring to yourself. For example, you avoid saying “in my opinion” or “in this essay I will”.
• The accepted form is to name other researchers/professors/academics by their surname (in the appropriate referencing system) to support what you are saying. For example, “Smith (2020) believes that….” rather than to say “I believe that…”.
• Please note, however, that first person is sometimes acceptable for some assignments, especially when you are asked to reflect. You can read more about reflective writing in the Writing Assignments chapter.
Plan your writing
• Planning is an important early step before you start writing and can help you to focus and answer all parts of the assignment question.
• For a new student, writing an essay may take up to eight weeks – 3 weeks reading and research, 2 weeks planning and reviewing, 3 weeks writing and editing.
• Check out the Writing Assignments chapter in this book for more information.
Do Not’s
Use slang words or informal spoken terms (colloquialisms)
The use of informal spoken terms or slang indicates a degree of familiarity or a friendly relationship to a subject. Because the aim of academic writing is to demonstrate evidence-based, research-informed arguments, we work to avoid seeming too casual or familiar with our reader. We want to sound knowledgeable and rational.
Academic writing is considered formal, so slang and informal spoken terms should be avoided.
• For example, avoid saying, “Managing climate change is easier said than done” because ‘easier said than done’ is a common speech like phrase. It would be better to write, “Managing climate change can be difficult in practice”. This example is more formal and academic, and therefore more appropriate for academic writing.
Note: formal language is not simply complex sentences with big words.
Write sentences that are too long or too short
• Long sentences with more than one key idea are difficult for the reader to follow.
• Sentences that are too short can sound ‘choppy’ or disjointed.
• Try to keep your sentences roughly between 15-25 words or about 2 lines long.
• You can also have sentences that are longer and shorter than this – a variety is something to aim for.
Use contractions
• Contractions are when we use an apostrophe to shorten two words together as one word. For example, ‘do not’ becomes ‘don’t’. You should always use the full words.
• For example, do not write, “It doesn’t seem accurate to label the author’s words as exceptional”. This is too much like a spoken phrase. Instead you should write, “It does not seem accurate to label the author’s words as exceptional”.
Be overly emotive in your language
• Academic writing is often described as being non-personal or ‘objective’, which means that it relies on evidence-based research to support arguments, not personal feeling or opinion.
• The opposite of objective is subjective, which relies on emotions to support a position, and is therefore considered less effective. Therefore, it is important to avoid emotive ways of backing up your arguments, as they are not considered as reliable as evidence from good quality research.
• For example, avoid using a sentence like “It is terrible that governments deny climate change, and are destroying the world our children will inherit”. Instead, it would be better to say, “Decades of research demonstrate that global warming is occurring and will have significant consequences for the environment in the future”.
Grammar for academic writing
Review of parts of speech
Parts of speech are what we call the different words that make up a full sentence. It can be useful to familiarise yourself with the parts of speech in a sentence so that you can recognise where the different parts of speech normally go in a sentence. This can also help you understand where you may need to make improvements in your own writing. Here are some of the most common parts of speech:
Table 5. Parts of speech
Part of speech Explanation/examples
Noun A noun is the name of a person/place or thing.
e.g. Australia, tree, internet, climate change
Pronoun Pronouns replace the name of a noun with something else.
e.g. It, he, she, they, that
Verb A verb is a ‘doing’ word in a sentence.
e.g. Examine, explain, write, is, suggest
Adjective An adjective is a describing word and is used to describe nouns.
e.g. vibrant, big, small, credible, extensive, limited
Adverb An adverb is a describing word used to describe verbs. They often end in ‘ly’.
e.g. confidently, quickly, smoothly, slowly, knowingly
Preposition Prepositions show the relationship between nouns or noun phrases.
e.g. on, at, in, over, into, through, from, of, with
Article Articles refer to particular nouns and/or modify the noun. There are only three articles in English:
e.g. a/an/the
Conjunction Conjunctions are important words that help to link words or phrases together in a sentence.
e.g. and, however, but, because, since, also
Word order in sentences
Active sentences are constructed with a subject, then a verb, then an object (S-V-O).
• The subject is the actor of the sentence.
• The verb is the action that is done.
• The object is the thing that the action was done to.
This is the most common word order in English. It is preferred for general academic writing.
For example John (subject) kicked (verb) the ball (object).
Passive sentences reverse this and put the object first (O-V-S).
For example The ball (object) was kicked (verb) by John (subject).
Sentence structures
There are four main types of sentence structure in English, each described below. By having a variety of sentence structures in your writing, you can assist the clear and simple expression of ideas and allow the reader to understand your argument.
Simple sentences
Simple sentences only require one subject (a noun or noun phrase), and a ‘predicate’ which is the information about the subject and contains the verb (or verb phrase).
The research is completed.
‘The research’ = the noun
‘is completed’ = the predicate
Compound sentences
Compound sentences are made up of at least two independent clauses. Independent clauses are parts of a sentence that have at least a subject and a verb (and are complete ideas). The independent clauses must be joined with a conjunction: for, and, or, nor, but, yet, so. For example:
The research is completed, and the assignment is finished.
‘The research is completed’ = independent clause one
‘and’ = conjunction
‘the assignment is finished’ = independent clause two
Complex sentences
Complex sentences are made up of at least one independent clause and one dependent clause (which does not make sense on its own). A dependent clause also contains a subject and a verb, but it relies on the other information in a sentence for it to make sense. Complex sentences can be joined together by any other conjunction not listed above for compound sentences. For example:
I completed the research which was difficult.
‘I completed the research’ = independent clause
‘which’ = conjunction
‘was difficult’ = dependent clause
In this example, you can see that the dependent clause relies on the information in the independent clause for it to make sense.
Compound-complex sentences
Finally, compound-complex sentences are a combination of compound and complex sentences. These sentences can be useful for conveying complex ideas and information. For example:
I completed the research which was difficult, but I still managed to submit my assignment on time.
‘I completed the research which was difficult’ = complex sentence clause
‘but’ = conjunction
‘I still managed to submit my assignments on time’ = independent clause
Punctuation rules
Using punctuation correctly is essential to success at university. Knowing the rules about how to use punctuation marks correctly can not only improve the logic and flow of your sentences, but also can improve the quality of your writing. Take a look at the table below which outlines the main punctuation marks used in academic writing and consider the explanation and examples.
Table 6. Punctuation rules
Punctuation mark Explanation of use Example of use
. Full stop To show the end of a sentence. Usually one or two spaces is required on the keyboard before starting a new sentence, but check your formatting and referencing requirements. I went to university today.
, comma Commas show pauses between ideas in sentences and also help to break up clauses in a sentence. 1. Today I studied chemistry, went to work, and had my dinner.
2. Harry, a good friend of mine, came over on the weekend.
: colon A colon is used before listing a series of ideas that are related to the information that was presented before the colon. There are three main parts to an essay: an introduction, body, and conclusion.
; semi-colon A semi-colon helps to join together two independent clauses within a sentence. Think of it as a longer pause than a comma, but not quite a full stop as the ideas in the sentence are related to each other. I finished my assignment on the weekend; now I can relax and watch Netflix.
Em dash
Em dashes have a variety of functions in a sentence. In academic writing, you may see them used to emphasise elements within a list, or to show a change of thought or idea within a sentence. 1. Students, admin staff, professors, researchers — these are all types of people you will meet on campus.
2. Many students believe it is a difficult assignment — I hope the professor covers it in the next class.
… ellipsis Ellipsis in academic writing usually shows the reader where there is information from a source that is taken out from the original. “One of the most significant reasons why we procrastinate…is a lack of planning.”
() parentheses Parentheses, also known commonly as ‘round brackets’, show additional information in a sentence. They are also used in many referencing systems as well to credit authors within a paper. 1. I enjoy my physics class the best (not chemistry) because the teacher is so engaging.
2. Significant research (Smith, 2020; Jones, 2014) demonstrates that…
[] brackets Brackets, also known as ‘square brackets’, are used in academic writing to show additional information within a quote that was not from the original source. “It is commonly referred to [in Australia] as the tyranny of distance.”
Correct usage of the apostrophe
Many people that are unfamiliar with Academic English misuse the apostrophe. The correct ways to use the apostrophe are:
1. To show where letters are missing: can’t – “cannot”, don’t – “do not”.
2. To show possession of something: Lisa’s house, Townsville’s greatest criminal, the moon’s shadow, Julia’s ideas.
3. In irregular constructions that do not have a plural form – the 60’s – “the sixites”, if’s – “alot of if’s and but’s”, b’s – “How many b’s in bubblegum?”
4. To show plural possession – “the jewelers’ convention is in town”.
Common mistakes:
1. Do not use apostrophes to show pluralisation in regular words: “I will buy the coffee’s”
2. Do not use apostrophes to show possession in pronouns: “Is this your’s?”, “What is it’s importance?”
Transition words
Transition words show when your ideas are moving to a new or slightly different point. They help link ideas together between sentences and between your paragraphs. They improve coherence and cohesion in your writing. Look at the image below to learn how different transition words are used.
Take a look at this academic phrase bank from the University of Manchester for some extra ideas of words and phrases that you could use in assignments.
Table 7. Transition words and phrases
For continuing an idea For providing a contrast view For showing cause and effect For showing sequence For concluding For restating a point or giving an example
Additionally…
In addition…
Moreover…
Because…
Consequently…
Clearly, then…
Furthermore…
In the same way…
Continuing this idea…
Also…
Pursuing this further…
In contrast to these…
Unlike the previous example…
Different from this…
Despite these findings…
Contrary to these findings…
In opposition to…
Nevertheless…
Following…
In response to…
Therefore…
As a result of…
For this reason…
Thus…
Due to this…
Consequently…
The reaction…
The first [concept/aspect]…
The second [concept/aspect]…
The third [concept/aspect]…
Firstly, Secondly, Finally…
After…Afterwards…
As soon as…
In the first place…
In the meantime…
Later…
Meanwhile…
Next…
Therefore…
This…
Hence…
In final analysis…
In conclusion…
In final consideration…
Indeed
In other words…
Specifically…
For instance…
One such occurrence…
This is demonstrated by…
To illustrate…
Also…
To demonstrate…
This is supported by…
Verb tenses
Verb tenses show time and duration in a sentence, for example past, present, future, or continuing. Look at the below table for how tenses are used in academic study.
Table 8. Tenses
Tense Explanation Example
Simple present tense You use the simple present tense in writing when:
• stating your main points
• giving an overview of your topic
• giving the opinion of the writer you are referring to
1. Smith (2009) states that…
2. The moon revolves around the earth.
3. It seems to be the right choice.
Simple past tense You use the simple past tense to:
• give the findings of past research
• recall something that happened in the past and the action is completed.
1. The study revealed that, in 1998, 35% of children played violent video games.
2. He was a smoker in those days.
3. She went to the gym at seven every evening.
Present perfect
tense
You use the present perfect tense:
• to show that research in a certain area is still continuing.
• when you write a general statement about past research.
The present perfect tense is formed with have + past participle verb.
1. He has lived in Australia for two years.
2. The research has shown that…
3. Researchers have found that…
General tips for using tenses in academic writing:
• Using the past tense or the present tense is most common when writing academically.
• You should also use past tense to describe the results of a study, because the results are a result of past actions. For example, ‘the participants’ results increased after the intervention’.
• However, when you wish to discuss the implications of results and the possible conclusions that can be drawn from the evidence or research, it is best to use the present tense. For example, ‘these results indicate that…’
Subject-verb agreement
Plural (more than one) verbs need plural subjects, and singular (only one) verbs need singular subjects. Such as:
• Smith and Wesson (plural subject) argue (plural verb) that history is irrelevant.
• Smith (singular subject) argues (singular verb) that history is irrelevant.
Doing this incorrectly sounds wrong, and is natural to native speakers of English.
Subject-verb agreement with ‘to be’
When you use the verb to be (e.g. am/is/are/was/were), remember to change the form according to the subject:
• I am / was
• you, we, they are / were
• she, he, it is / was
Checklist for assessing your grammar in academic writing
• Have you checked your sentences to ensure the subject and verb agree?
• Check your verbs in your sentences to ensure you have used the correct tense throughout your paper.
• Does your paper use some transition words to help your reader understand the ideas you are presenting?
• Does your paper have a good mix of simple, compound, and complex sentences?
• Have you checked the correct use of punctuation within your sentences?
Links to resources:
The JCU Learning Centre
The Purdue Online Writing Lab
Kahn Academy
Conclusion
Overall, this chapter has explored the basic English language foundations that are required when commencing university level study.
Key points
• Each university and each degree has its own English language requirements.
• Academic English takes time to master and requires practice.
• Following some basic rules for writing in academic English can help enhance your writing.
• Reviewing key grammatical concepts – such as parts of speech, tenses, subject-verb agreement, and punctuation – can help you to improve your academic writing. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/Foundations_of_Academic_Success_(Morgan_et_al.)/02%3A_Successful_Foundations/2.02%3A_English_Language_Foundations.txt |
Introduction
Working effectively with information is key to successful study and research. The effective and ethical use of information, especially scholarly information, will form the basis for writing essays, assignments, reports and examinations, and constructing visual and oral presentations.
This chapter is designed to help build your skills in finding and using information. In this chapter, you will learn how to:
• Identify the key concepts and ideas you need to research
• Brainstorm similar and related terms for your key concepts
• Use search skills like truncation and phrase searching to find the most relevant resources faster
• Construct search strings to use in databases and search engines
• Limit your results to the most appropriate information sources
Research is a process. Plan your search, try some different search strategies and evaluate the results. There is no one ‘perfect search’ and you may need to revisit the 6 Steps to Searching many times before finding the sources most relevant to your needs. Allow plenty of time for searching, and see a librarian if you need help.
Identify the Keywords
The first step is to work out what your assignment topic is about and what you have to do. Consider the context and identify the keywords in your question. These can be:
Task words: Task words are usually verbs and they tell you what to do to complete your assignment.
Content words: Content words are the main ideas and concepts you need to research.
Limiting words: Limiting words help you focus on a particular aspect of your topic, such as a particular occupation, discipline, age, gender or time period.
Example 1
Discuss some of the ethical considerations for researchers conducting research involving humans. Should researchers be made to abide to codes of conduct? Why/Why not?
Task words – Discuss, Why/Why not (give reasons)
Content words – ethical, research, codes of conduct
Limiting words – humans
Example 2
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Brainstorm Similar and Related Terms
You can conduct a simple search using just the keywords from the assignment question, but you will get better results if you expand your list of keywords to include similar and related terms for each key concept. These could be:
• synonyms (words with a similar meaning)
• alternative spellings (eg. American)
• related terms – even antonyms (opposites) sometimes work well
Watch the video Searching Databases with Keywords to learn more.
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Phrase Searching and Truncation
Phrase Searching
When searching for two or more words together, place these words in double quotation marks. This forces the search tool to search for them in that exact order, eg. “human research”, “code of conduct”, “government control”.
Watch Phrase Searching in a Minute to learn more.
Truncation
Truncation will save you time. Place an asterisk after part of a word to get results for this word with different endings. For example, a search for child* will give you results for child, children, childish and childlike.
Be careful where you put the asterisk so you get the most relevant results (think about where the word changes, and how the different endings of the word are spelled).
Watch Truncation in a Minute to learn more.
Create a Search String
A search string combines your keywords using the Boolean operators AND and OR. Boolean operators are computer commands – write the words AND and OR in capital letters so the search engine or database doesn’t mistake them for ordinary words.
AND combines different concepts, eg. burnout AND teacher* AND “secondary school”. AND narrows a search by making sure you only get results with all of the search terms.
OR combines similar and related terms for the same concept. Place these terms in parentheses (round brackets), eg. (burnout OR stress OR “mental health”). OR widens a search and gives you more results by searching for any of the search terms.
A sample search string might look like this:
(“human research” OR “research on humans”) AND ethic* AND (dementia OR Alzheimers)
(government OR State) AND (control OR censor*) AND ethic*
Watch Search Strings in a Minute to learn more.
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Search in One Search
One Search is a way of searching all the library’s resources – books and ebooks, journals and journal articles, multimedia and more. You can find the One Search search box on the home page of the library website.
Watch Using One Search to see how to find relevant resources for your assignment.
Take the search string you created using the advice in this chapter, and put it in the search bar in One Search. Then use the filters down the side of the screen to narrow your results and make them more relevent. There are a number of options in the list of Filters, but you should always think about using:
• Peer-reviewed Journals under Refine (if you have been asked to find journal articles)
• Books or Book Chapters under Content Type (if you need to find books – N.B. you can’t use this option if you have chosen “peer-reviewed journals”)
• Date (if you need to find works that aren’t too old, you should limit your results to the last 5 years)
• Subject (to find subject headings that help focus your results to the most appropriate ideas)
• Available online under Refine (if you are working online and won’t be able to come into the library)
Once you select the filters you want, remember to lock them in place before changing any of the words in the search bar, or you will lose them.
If you see something you like, click on the title to get more information. Read the description (abstract/summary), and if you want to read the whole article or book chapter/book, follow the links to read it online or find it in the library. You will need to log in to read the full text of articles, or to put a hold on a book.
You can put the results you like in a list by clicking on the pin icon next to the title. The pin at the very top of the page will take you to your list.
Referencing Your Sources
You will need to provide a reference for every source of information you use in your assignments. This involves putting a short, in-text citation in the body of your assignement to show people that your information has come from another source (and is not your original idea), and then a full reference in the reference list (or list of works cited) at the end of your asignment, so people can find the original sources.
There are different ways to do this, so check which Referencing Style you need to use for your subject, and then find a good guide for the style (see the JCU Referencing Guides).
It’s important to take good notes of the sources you have read so that you can properly attribute the right source to the information (see the chapter on Note taking).
For every source you want to use in an assignment, you will need to find:
• Who wrote it? (the author might be a person or an organisation, like Queensland Health)
• When was it published? (sometimes you just need the year, sometimes you need more details)
• What is/are the title(s)? (there can be more than one title – the title of the article or chapter as well as the title of the journal or book – get both)
• What are the publication details? (for a book you will need the publisher, for a journal article you will need the volume, issue and page numbers)
• What is the URL or DOI? (if it lives online, you have to give the address or the Digital Object Identifier to help other people find it)
Make sure you follow the correct style Guide to see how to lay out the information in the correct pattern. For example, here you can see the same information cited in APA 7th style and AMA 11th style – can you see how the same information is laid out in different ways? Look at the punctuation, and where the year of publication (2018) appears.
APA 7th in-text citation:
Hospice patients often have a positive outlook on life (Wright et al., 2018).
AMA 11th in-text citation:
Hospice patients often have a positive outlook on life.1
APA 7th reference list entry:
Wright, S. T., Breier, J. M., Depner, R. M., Grant, P. C., & Lodi-Smith, J. (2018). Wisdom at the end of life: Hospice patients’ reflections on the meaning of life and death. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 31(2), 162-185. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515070.2016.1274253
AMA 11th reference list entry:
1. Wright ST, Breier JM, Depner RM, Grant PC, Lodi-Smith J. Wisdom at the end of life: hospice patients’ reflections on the meaning of life and death. Couns Psychol Q. 2018;31(2):162-185. doi:10.1080/09515070.2016.1274253
To work out how to reference a source, ask three key questions:
1. What is it? (Journal article? Book? A Web site?)
2. How many authors does it have? (each style has rules for what to do if you have more than two authors, or if you author is a company instead of a person)
3. What style am I supposed to use?
If it’s a journal article with six authors and you have to cite it in APA style, go the the APA Guide, see how to lay out the authors, and then see how to lay out the rest of the citation for a journal article.
You can use software and programs to help you with your referencing, but always check what they have given you before you hand it in (using the Guides). Software is notoriously imperfect with referencing, and you can lose marks for not referencing correctly.
Referencing correctly can seem like a daunting task at first, but it’s just a matter of putting the right piece of information into the right part of the pattern. The library provides a lot of training and support for referencing, and you will have plenty of opportunities to attend training or ask for help.
For more information about referencing your sources and avoiding plagiarism, look a the chapter on Integrity at University. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/Foundations_of_Academic_Success_(Morgan_et_al.)/02%3A_Successful_Foundations/2.03%3A_Working_with_Information.txt |
Introduction
Let’s begin with a few questions. Would you like to be successful at university? Do you ever avoid work or delay doing difficult jobs? Would you like to stop procrastinating and prevent its negative consequences? If you answered yes to any of these questions, then this chapter can help you. Procrastination is common at university. Students tend to procrastinate if a set task seems too challenging or stressful to tackle. Therefore, it is helpful to consider both why you procrastinate and what can you do about it. In this chapter you will learn about what procrastination is, why it exists, its effects, and helpful strategies to combat it. Understanding these elements can help keep you on the path to academic success.
What is Procrastination?
Procrastination is the act of delaying tasks that need to be completed at a certain time. We all do to it to some extent. For most people, minor procrastination is not a great concern. There are however, situations where procrastination can become a serious problem and hinder academic success. For example, consistently deferring your revision to the night before the exam or leaving your assignments until the due day can threaten your success. The risks of causing anxiety, poor performance and loss of self-esteem amplify when it becomes a chronic habit affecting multiple subjects. If procrastinating is so destructive, then why do we do it?
Reasons for Procrastinating
There are several reasons why we procrastinate, and some are surprising. We may delay a task because we think we don’t need to do it yet, because other tasks seem more important, or because we simply want to avoid the strain of a challenge. If you look a little deeper, however, you may find you have hidden physical or psychological motives driving your choices.
Lack of energy and focus
Sometimes we just do not feel up to the challenge of a certain task. It might be due to discomfort, illness, or just a lack of energy. If this is the case, it is important to identify the cause. It could be something as simple as a lack of sleep, having an unhealthy diet or tiredness after working constantly all day. If a lack of energy is continually causing you to procrastinate to the point where you are beginning to feel stressed over not getting things done, it’s time to assess the situation and find the remedy. It may be as simple as improving your diet, reducing your work shifts or heading off to bed earlier instead of playing games into the early hours of the morning.
A lack of mental focus can be another reason we avoid tasks. This can be due to mental fatigue, being disorganised, or being distracted by other things. If we allow our attention to be constantly diverted by phone calls, friends, family members gaming, watching a show or social media notifications, it can hinder our progress in meeting goals on time. Lack of mental focus is something that may effects your life going beyond simply avoiding tasks. If it is something that reoccurs and seems difficult to rectify, you may find it helpful to seek professional support.
Fear of failure
A fear of failure is a hidden cause of procrastination. Sometimes even without awareness, we can be afraid that we will not be able to do a task well. Failing may make us feel incompetent or embarrassed, so we secretly find ways to sabotage doing a task. We trick ourselves into thinking that if we don’t do the work, then we won’t get those feelings of failure of not being clever enough. Then we can rationalise that we failed because we ran out of time to complete the task, not because we were incapable.
A fear of failure may not have anything to do with the actual ability of the person suffering from it. You can in fact be quite capable of doing a task and performing well, but fear holds you back from trying. Viewing ourselves in a negative manner can directly impact our self-confidence, building more fear and more avoidance (Nicholson & Scharff, 2007). One way to break this destructive cycle is to realise that not everyone does everything perfectly the first time. Failure can be a valuable learning experience that helps us improve and develop. It provides useful information about what we need to change in order to succeed. By changing our mindset about failure, you can disarm its power as an excuse to avoid tasks.
The Effects of Procrastinating
The effects of procrastinating can be detrimental to your academic success (see Figure 7.3). Many are obvious and understood easily, but some are more subtle. If you can identify the effects, it can help you to recognise when procrastinating is interfering with your study. You can increase your self-awareness about your behaviour by discussing what you are noticing with friends (Nicholson & Scharff, 2007), family, or with the support services available at your university.
Loss of time
Procrastination diverts time away from important or necessary tasks, and spends it on less important activities. The end result is you have less time to do what is really important. With less time to complete assessment tasks, the accuracy of your work and quality of the content are likely to suffer. The result can be poor academic performance (Van Eerde, 2003). Time is a precious gift that cannot be refunded. Once it is spent, it is gone forever. Procrastinating risks trading this valuable commodity for things that do not ultimately support your goal of graduating from university. Students who don’t address their habit of procrastinating, may regret their actions.
Loss of achieving goals
Another adverse effect of procrastination is its impact on achieving academic goals. Some long-term goals can only be reached if short-term goals are achieved first. For example, you may have to pass a subject on child safety and wellbeing before you are permitted to go on a practical placement. Failing to complete a task can be a sign of procrastination. The effect of not completing it is missing out on reaching a goal and every other goal that depends on it. Without the focus of goals and the satisfaction of achieving them, it can be easy to lose direction and motivation.
Loss of self-esteem
Often, when you procrastinate, you can become frustrated and disappointed in yourself for not getting important tasks completed. If this continues to happen, you can begin to develop an inferior opinion of yourself and might question your abilities. It can lead to low self-esteem and might even begin to feel like there is something wrong with you. This can trigger other increasingly negative emotional experiences such as anger and depression. Low self-esteem can be both the cause and the effect of procrastinating. It can produce a damaging cycle. Increasing our self-esteem can help us to interrupt the pattern and reduce our fears of failure (Langher et al., 2017), leading to more positive outcomes.
Stress
Procrastination causes stress and anxiety, which may seem odd since the act of procrastination is often about avoiding a task we think is stressful! Anyone who has noticed that nagging feeling when they know there is something else they should be doing is familiar with this. On the other hand, some students see this kind of stress as a boost of mental urgency. They put off a task until they feel that surge of motivation. While this may have worked in the past, students quickly learn that procrastinating when it comes to university work almost always includes an underestimation of the tasks to be completed— sometimes with disastrous results. Stress not only affects an individual’s health and wellbeing, but it can also have a negative effect on academic accomplishment. Procrastination might sometimes help us to release stress for a short period of time, but intentional avoidance can trigger even more stress, anxiety and guilt later.
Strategies for Combatting Procrastination
Now that you understand a few of the major problems procrastination can produce, let’s look at methods to manage it and get you on to completing the tasks, no matter how unpleasant you think they might be.
Get organised
The most effective way to combat procrastination is to use time management strategies such as schedules, goal setting, and other techniques to get tasks accomplished in a timely manner. In order to be more organised, you need to clarify what needs to be done, how it can be done, and when you can complete it. Contemplating these questions will assist you to manage your time appropriately by helping you to be more focused and organised. Essentially, we need to monitor our progress frequently, ensuring that we improve our approaches by figuring out which strategies work best for us.
Put aside distractions
Distractions are time-killers and are the primary way people procrastinate. It is too easy to just play a video game a little while longer, check out social media, or finish watching a movie when we are avoiding a task. Putting aside distractions is one of the primary functions of setting priorities. It is important to exercise self-discipline, so that we can focus our attention on one thing. Additionally, we can develop good study habits by delaying short term pleasure and by paying more attention to completing those tasks that are more significant.
Reward yourself
Rewarding yourself for the completion of tasks or meeting goals is a good way to fight procrastination. An example of this would be rewarding yourself with watching a movie you would enjoy after you have finished the things you need to do, rather than using the movie to keep yourself from getting things done. Completing a task successfully and getting the feeling of satisfaction and accomplishment can be considered a reward in itself. Since you have invested a lot of effort for a good purpose and you have sacrificed your comfort, you can reward yourself. This can not only motivate you, but also enhance your self-efficacy beliefs in undertaking other tasks confidently in the future.
Be accountable—tell someone else
A strong motivational tool is to hold ourselves accountable by telling someone else we are going to do something and when we are going to do it. This may not seem like it would be very effective, but on a psychological level we feel more compelled to do something if we tell someone else. This can help us stay on task and avoid procrastination—especially if we take our accountability to another person seriously enough to warrant contacting that person and apologising for not doing what we said we were going to do.
Conclusion
Procrastination is a common experience among university students. The results are often detrimental to academic achievement, produce stress and raise anxiety. This chapter examined the nature of procrastination, why we do it, how it affects us, and how to fight it. Be on the lookout for signs of procrastination and combat it actively when you see it. If you do, you can reap the benefits of having less stress, higher self-esteem and greater achievement during your academic journey.
Key points
• Procrastination is the act of delaying tasks that need to be completed by a certain time.
• Reasons for procrastinating include a lack of energy and focus, and a fear of failure.
• The effects of procrastination include a loss of time, goals, self-esteem and/or increase stress.
• Develop good study habits by being organised, putting aside distractions, rewarding yourself and remaining accountable. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/Foundations_of_Academic_Success_(Morgan_et_al.)/02%3A_Successful_Foundations/2.04%3A_Combatting_Procrastination.txt |
Introduction
The environment where you do your study can influence your ability to work well. This chapter will encourage you to think about how you can create a space to best encourage productive results when you work. It begins with explaining why your study space is important, how to choose a suitable space, and how to set it up. Electronic devices are also considered in your reorganisation. The chapter also explores how to minimise distractions, and how to identify alternative study locations. The section finishes by considering the optimal time of day for you to work in your study space. Altogether, this chapter can equip you with ideas and plans to get the best out of your study space, and ultimately help you on your journey to academic success.
Your study space matters
The space where you study plays a large part in ensuring you work effectively. Your environment can not only aid your efficiency but also impact whether you complete work at all. One example of this might be typing on a laptop. While it might seem more comfortable to lie back on a couch to type a long paper, sitting up at a table actually increases your typing speed and reduces the number of mistakes. Even deciding whether to use a mouse and mouse pad or not can impact how quickly you work.
There are other factors that can affect your productivity. For example, is there enough room? Is there a place to keep reference materials within arm’s reach while working? Is there anything you can do to make working easier or more efficient? For example, could you buy an inexpensive second monitor so you can have more than one document displayed at a time? Your workspace is another important resource you can use for academic success. The key is to discover what works for you, and that begins with finding yourself a suitable space for study.
Choosing a Space
A good study space has a few basic requirements. It needs a desk or table, a chair, access to power, an internet signal, and a good light source. Your space should be cool or warm enough for your comfort as you study.
If possible, find an area you can use exclusively for your study sessions and leave it set up all the time. Spaces with multiple purposes can have challenges. You may have to try out numerous spaces to find what works best for you.
Whatever your space limitations, make a place that you can dedicate to your reading, writing, notetaking, and reviewing. If you really don’t have any options at home for an exclusive study space, you could be to create a study box. A study box holds all the study supplies you need to access while working at a desk, such as a pen, note paper, a flash drive and a folder of notes. This box isn’t meant to hold every single item related to university , rather it holds only what you need to do your work right now. It means you can open the box quickly and be set up and ready to work within a few minutes. While a permanent study space is always a better option, a study box can be the next best thing to get you working fast in a shared space, instead of wasting time looking for a pen.
Setting Up Your Study Space
Now that you’ve chosen your space, it’s time to get it ready for use. You can begin to add stationery items to help you work, such as writing paper, notebooks, pens, pencils, markers, an eraser and highlighters. You will also need to add materials that are specific to the course you are studying, such as textbooks or a calculator. Remove excess clutter to make the most of the space you have. Having a neat and tidy desk can help you to feel in calm and in control when the work starts piling up.
Setting up a dedicated spot to work may help trigger motivation to study. Setting the right atmosphere in your study space can generate a study-mood in your mind. But don’t wait for the study fairy to appear before you start working. Sit down at your desk, follow your study plan, start work, and she’ll show up.
Bonus Items
There are some bonus items you may consider adding. You could, for example, add a wall calendar, a card with an inspiring quote, or even a diffuser to add a pleasant aroma to the room. Here are some more ideas of what students like to add to their study space. Don’t add all of the items or your space may end up cluttered. Just pick some that you value most:
• a notice board
• a whiteboard
• sticky notes
• a favourite pen and pen holder
• a decorative mouse pad
• a file holder for frequently used documents
• a spare pair of reading glasses
• a printer and paper
• a dictionary and thesaurus
• headphones
• a stress ball
• a desk lamp
• a book stand
• decorations (e.g., a photograph, a painting, a plant)
• a sit-stand adjustable desktop
• a clock
• kitchen timer
• rubbish bin
• filing cabinet or filing box
• bookshelf
There are many different ways you can make your study space work for you. You may enjoy searching the internet for ideas of how others have set up simple areas or more elaborate arrangements. Look at the images below of one table presented six different ways to prompt your thinking.
Organising Your Electronic Desktop
Spend some time organising your electronic space if you are using a computer for your studying. A cluttered electronic desktop can be just as distracting and time consuming as a cluttered wooden desktop. Take the time to, clear some digital space and set up new storage folders for your new subjects with a simple and easily accessible filing system.
Save your regularly accessed university sites as links in your browser. Place on your dock or task bar the applications you want to access quickly. Always plan how you intend to back-up your electronic work periodically so there are no last-minute disasters of lost assignments if your computer unexpectedly crashes.
Avoiding Distractions
When considering what to add into your study space it is also worth considering distractions. Remove anything that is in danger of distracting you from your study. By making it harder to access distractions, you decrease their power to tempt you. For example, what happens when it is easier to keep working through a tricky equation than it is to go down stairs to the kitchen, pull up a chair, stand on it, and reach up onto top of a cupboard to where you put your mobile, wait for it to turn on, and then text your friend? Suddenly “just” finishing off those sums seems less effort than “just” sending a text.
There will always be distractions. Video games, television, movies, surfing the internet, music, friends and even housecleaning can distract us from doing something else we need to do, like study for an exam. Mobile phones, tablets, and portable computers have brought distraction to an entirely new level. We have all become attached to the ability to check in on social media or with family and friends via text, chat, and calls. If you’re working on your computer, switch off those pop-up notifications that draw you away from your study task.
If you set a specific amount of time to study without interruptions, you can convince your mind that you will soon be able to return to your link to the outside world. Start small and set an alarm on a kitchen timer—a 30-minute period to review notes, then a brief break, then another 45-minute study session to quiz yourself on the material, and so on. By using a kitchen timer instead of your phone, you remove the temptation to access your phone.
When you prepare for your study session, remember to do these things:
• Put your phone in another room or at least some place where you will not see or hear it vibrate or ring. Just flipping it over is not enough.
• Turn off the television or music
• Turn off notifications on your computer
• Unless you are deliberately working with a study group, study somewhere alone or at least away from others enough to not hear them talking.
If you live with other people, see if you can negotiate some space alone to study. Ask others to leave one part of the house or an area in one room as a quiet zone during certain hours. Most people will respect your educational goals and be willing to accommodate you.
Many people say they work better with the television or the radio on, but the truth is that an environment with too many interruptions is rarely helpful when focus is required. If you find that your work is better without distractions, it is a good idea to create an environment that reduces interruptions. This may mean you have to go to a private room, use the university library, or use headphones, when you work. The importance of a distraction-free environment cannot be emphasised enough.
Alternative Study Spaces
If you don’t have a dedicated study space at home, there are alternative spaces that can be used. These might include your university library, community libraries, a coffee shop or local parks. When you are experimenting with locations outside of your home for study, be attuned to what genuinely works. Be conscious of the tradeoffs when picking a secondary study space. If it takes you time to pack a bag of resources, travel to a place and order a coffee, then consider what is the ratio of productive output against time lost? Be honest in your assessment in order to make secondary study spaces work for you, not against you.
Life circumstances can also create blocks of potential study time in places you don’t normally associate with study, such as waiting beside a soccer field for your child to finish training or sitting in a dental surgery waiting room. Consider, what sort of tasks can you complete effectively in these alternative study spaces? If it is a regular event, can you have a prepacked bag or box ready with what you need? You could create a folder (physical or electronic) that stores your reading matter, ready to be accessed when you find yourself with unplanned time.
Studying at the Right Time
Most people are subject to their own rhythms, and preferences. Some people prefer to study in the mornings, while others prefer to work after everyone else has gone to sleep. Be aware of your preferences and to use them to your advantage. Your study environment includes your mental and physical wellbeing. Both influence on your learning and productivity. It is important to be aware of your work preferences and to actually try to create conditions that help you in these areas. One approach is to set aside a specific time to do certain kinds of work. You might find that you concentrate better after you have eaten a meal. If that is the case, make it a habit of doing homework every night after dinner. Some people find that they are more creative during a certain time of the day or that they are more comfortable writing with subtle lighting. It is worth taking the time to find the conditions that work best for you so that you can take advantage of them.
Conclusion
A well-considered study space has the power to impact your academic success. Set up your study space and stay mindful of what honestly works for you and what doesn’t. The decisions you make about where you work and when you work can really make a difference to your productivity. Spending a little time creating the best environment is time well spent.
Key points
• Where you study affects how well you study.
• Choose a space with a desk, chair, power, internet signal, light and a comfortable temperature.
• If possible, keep your space permanently set up just for your study.
• Consider using a study box if you can’t maintain a permanent space of your own.
• Add essential stationery items and study materials to your space.
• A well organised desk can motivate you to study.
• Adding bonus items can make your space more productive and enjoyable.
• Organise your electronic desktop as well as your physical desk.
• Remove distractions from your study space.
• Tell people that you are unavailable during a set study time.
• Find some alternative study spaces to supplement your home study space.
• Find the time of day when you concentrate best to work in your study space. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/Foundations_of_Academic_Success_(Morgan_et_al.)/02%3A_Successful_Foundations/2.05%3A_Study_Space.txt |
Introduction
Poor time management is a common challenge facing students in higher education. Avoiding this challenge can be accomplished through prioritisation and time management efforts. This chapter provides looks at time management and how to identify your time management style. You will learn how to conduct a time audit of your life and create a semester, weekly and daily plan. Following this, an examination of how to break up tasks into manageable time frames and tips from three proven time management strategies will help keep you on track to graduate from university on time.
Time Management at University
Time management at university can be very different from anything you have experienced previously. At university, time management is left up to you. While it is true that there are assignment due dates and organised classroom activities, learning at the university level requires more than just the simple completion of work. It involves decision-making and the ability to evaluate information. This is best accomplished when you are an active partner in your own learning activities.
You can expect to spend much more time on learning activities outside the classroom than you will in the classroom. Most courses have a workload of 120 hours each semester. This is a workload of 10-12 hours each week to attend or listen to lectures and tutorials, prepare for assessments, and to read study material. Some weeks may be more intense, depending on the time of the semester and the courses you are taking. Not only will you be learning on a larger scale, but the depth of understanding and knowledge you will put into it will be significantly more than you may have encountered previously. This is because there are greater expectations required of university graduates in the workplace. Nearly any profession that requires a university degree has with it a level of responsibility that demands higher-level thinking and therefore higher learning.
Identifying your Time Management Style
Managing time and prioritising tasks are not only valuable skills for pursuing an education, but they can become abilities that follow you through the rest of your life, especially if your career takes you into a leadership role (see Figure 11.2).
Table 9 is an exercise that is intended to help you recognise some things about your own time management style, and identify any areas where you might be able to improve. Think about the answer that best represents your position on each statement.
Table 9. Time management
Statement Always Usually Sometimes Rarely Never
I like to be given strict deadlines for each task. It helps me stay organised and on track.
I would rather be 15 minutes early than one minute late.
I like to improvise instead of planning everything out ahead of time.
I prefer to be able to manage when and how I do each task.
I have a difficult time estimating how long a task will take.
I have more motivation when there is an upcoming deadline. It helps me focus.
I have difficulty keeping priorities in the most beneficial order.
When you have finished, consider what your answers mean in regard to potential strengths and/or challenges for you when it comes to time management in university. If you are a person who likes strict deadlines, what would you do if you took a course that only had one large paper due at the end? Would you set yourself a series of mini deadlines that made you more comfortable and that kept things moving along for you? Or, if you have difficulty prioritising tasks, would it help you to make a list of the tasks to do and order them, so you know which ones must be finished first?
Time Audit
The simple way to manage your time is to plan accurately for how much time it will take to do each task, and then set aside that amount of time. How you divide the time is up to you. If it is going to take you five hours to study for a final exam, you can plan to spread it over five days, with an hour each night, or you can plan on two hours one night and three hours the next.
This approach however relies on being able to estimate time accurately. To get organised and plan for the semester ahead, you will need to consider study and non-study commitments. Conduct an audit on how much time you spend on aspects of your daily life, include studying, working, sleeping, eating, caring for others, socialising, household chores and exercising. This will allow you to see where your time is going and where you could achieve some better balance for your life, work and study.
In this activity, write down all the things you think you will do tomorrow, and estimate the time you will spend doing each (see Table 10). Then track each thing you have written down to see how accurate your estimates were. After you have completed this activity for a single day, you may consider completing another time audit for an entire week so that you are certain to include all of your activities.
Table 10. Sample time estimate table
Daily activity Estimate time Actual time
Practice quiz 5 minutes 15 minutes
Lab conclusions 20 minutes 35 minutes
Food shopping 45 minutes 30 minutes
Drive to work 20 minutes 20 minutes
Work 4 hours 4 hours
Physical therapy 1 hour 50 minutes
Plan your Semester
Now that you have audited your time and you know how much time is required in all areas of your life you can now make a plan. It is important to view your time in three different ways
• semester plan
• weekly plan
• daily plan
Semester Plan
• Make a plan of the whole semester.
• Write in assignment due dates and exam blocks
• Write in class or lab attendance requirements
• Include other significant commitments, for example, work or family commitments
Weekly Plan
• Consider the tasks you need to complete each week
• Include all the expectations of your course such as weekly readings or tutorial preparation.
• Allocate time for exam preparation, tutorial preparation and time to work on upcoming assignments.
Daily Plan
• Write daily ‘to do’ lists
• Use time management apps on your phone to set reminders
• Allow for some flexibility
Breaking Tasks Down
Predicting how long a task will take is usually the most difficult part of time management. It is challenging to estimate accurately time spent on-task and to also account for interruptions or unforeseen problems that cause delays. When it comes to academic activities, many tasks can be dependent upon the completion of other things first, or the time a task takes can vary from one instance to another. For example, if a lecturer assigned you three chapters of reading, you would not know how long each chapter might take to read until you looked at them. The first chapter might be 30 pages long while the second is 45. The third chapter could be only 20 pages but made up mostly of charts and graphs for you to compare. By page count, it might seem that the third chapter would take the least amount of time, but actually studying charts and graphs to gather information can take longer than regular reading.
The next strategy discussed, is to break tasks into smaller, more manageable units that do not require as much time to complete. As an example, imagine you are assigned a two-page essay that is to include references. You estimate that to complete the essay would take you between four and five hours. You look at your calendar over the next week and see that there are no open five-hour blocks. While looking at your calendar, you do see that you can squeeze in an hour every night. Instead of trying to write the entire paper in one sitting, you break it up into much smaller components as shown in the table below (see Table 11).
Table 11. Breaking down projects into even small chunks.
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
8:00 a.m. –10:00 a.m. Work Work Work
10:00 a.m – 12:00 p.m Algebra Work Algebra Work Algebra 10 a.m. – 11 a.m. only if needed Work
12:00 p.m. – 2:00 p.m. Lunch/study 1pm English comp Lunch/study 1pm English comp Lunch/study Family picnic
2:00 p.m. – 4:00 p.m History English comp History English comp History Family picnic
4:00 p.m. – 6:00 p.m. Study for algebra quiz Grocery Study for history exam Study for history exam Research 5 p.m. -6 p.m. Rewrite and polish final draft Family picnic Laundry
6:00 p.m – 7:00 p.m Write outline: look for references Research references to support outline; look for good quotes Research presentation project Write second page and closing draft Create presentation Meet with Darcy Prepare university stuff for next week
7:00 p.m. – 8:00 p.m. Free time Free time Write paper introduction and first page draft Research presentation project Create presentation Free time
Or you could use a variation of the Pomodoro Technique discussed in the next section and write for three 20-minute segments each day at different times. The key is to look for ways to break down the entire task into smaller steps and spread them out to fit your schedule.
Three Strategies for Time Management
Here are three time management strategies that you can try:
• Daily Top Three,
• Pomodoro Technique, and
• Eat the Frog.
Daily Top Three
For the daily top three strategy, decide which three things are the most important to finish that day, and these become the tasks that you complete. It is a very simple technique that is effective because each day you are finishing tasks and removing them from your list. Even if you took one day off a week and completed no tasks on that particular day, a daily topthree strategy would have you finishing 18 tasks in the course of a single week. That is a good number of things crossed off your list.
Pomodoro Technique
The Pomodoro Technique allows you to tackle one task at a time with high intensity before taking a short-timed break, and then repeating this process. The Pomodoro Technique recommends 25 minutes of work and then a five-minute break, and after two hours of this, a longer break of 15-30 minutes (Cirillo, n.d). Be flexible in your approach, for example you don’t have to stop after 25 minutes if you are working well, or you may restart your 25 minutes if you get distracted. To make the most of this technique, plan your tasks ahead of time and be specific about what you want to achieve during each time block.
Eat the Frog
The Eatthefrog strategy comes from a quote attributed to Mark Twain: “Eat a live frog first thing in the morning and nothing worse will happen to you the rest of the day.” In time management this is based on the concept that if a person takes care of the biggest or most unpleasant task first, everything else will be easier after that.
We underestimate how much worry can impact our performance. If you are continually distracted by anxiety over a task you are dreading, it can affect the task you are working on at the time. When the task you are concerned with is finished, you will you have a sense of accomplishment and relief, and other tasks will seem lighter and not as difficult.
Conclusion
Managing your time effectively while you are studying at university can mean the difference between success and failure. By managing your time and using some positive strategies, you can give yourself the best possible chance of successful study outcomes.
Key points
• Time management at university level is up to you.
• Expect to spend more time on learning outside of the classroom than you will inside the classroom.
• Identify your time management style to help you create deadlines.
• Consider study and non-study commitments when auditing your time to help you to see where your time goes.
• Plan your semester first, add weekly tasks, and then make a ‘to do’ list for daily tasks.
• Break large tasks into small blocks of time which will fit into your schedule.
• Use the Daily Top Three to write down three tasks that are important to finish that day.
• Use the Pomodoro Technique to work on one task for a 25-minute period. then take a five-minute break then repeat until you have been working for two hours.
• Use Eat the Frog to take care of the biggest task first so that everything else seems easier after that. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/Foundations_of_Academic_Success_(Morgan_et_al.)/03%3A_Successful_Study_Skills/3.01%3A_Time_Management.txt |
Introduction
You will probably encounter the term “academic integrity” frequently while you are a student. Understanding and applying academic integrity is essential for success at university. This chapter will explain the essence of academic integrity. It will then focus on referencing, as referencing is a key skill that demonstrates academic integrity. This will be followed by a discussion of threats to your academic integrity and actions you can take to support and demonstrate integrity.
What is Academic Integrity?
“Academic integrity means acting with the values of honesty, trust, fairness, respect and responsibility in learning, teaching and research” (Exemplary Academic Integrity Project, 2013).
Academic integrity is honest, respectful, and ethical behaviour within the university environment. Examples include using references to show where the information you are using comes from and ensuring all the work you submit is your own original content.
Acknowledging your Sources
When you refer to someone else’s ideas, work, or data within your assignments, you need to acknowledge the original source by using references. Referencing:
• Demonstrates academic integrity;
• Allows you to provide evidence to support your ideas;
• Shows that your work is based on reliable information; and
• Allows others to verify the information you have provided.
There are two main types of references that should be included in your work:
• In-text citations should be provided throughout your work; and
• A reference list with details of the sources you have used should be added at the end of your work.
For example, when using an author-date referencing style, in-text citations are often provided in brackets at the end of the sentence, e.g. Digital literacy skills allow students to take advantage of flexible and distance learning opportunities (Yang, Catterall & Davis, 2013). The authors’ names and the date of the work cited may also be written as part of the sentence, e.g. Yang, Catterall, and Davis (2013)argued that digital literacy skills allow students to take advantage of flexible and distance learning opportunities. The reference list at the end of the assignment would then list the full bibliographic details of the works you have cited in alphabetical order.
There are lots of different referencing styles and your subject outline will provide guidance on the style you should be using in your assignments. The JCU Library’s Referencing Guide will help you work out how to use each referencing style correctly.
When do I have to Reference?
You need to provide references whenever you use someone else’s work, ideas, words, content, or data. Anything that is not your own original content needs to be referenced. This includes direct quotes, where you have used the exact wording provided in the original source. Direct quotes also need to be placed in quotation marks, e.g. Algorithmic logics “organize the space and flow of interaction” (Caliandro, 2018, p. 557). You also need to reference any content that you have paraphrased (put into your own words) or summarised, e.g. Social networks are complex assemblages of users, algorithms, and data (Pearce, 2018). It is also important to reference any images, media, statistics, or graphs that you use in your work.
Using correct referencing will help demonstrate academic integrity, but it is not the only behaviour to consider. There are some behaviours that you should avoid. Threats to your academic integrity include plagiarism, self-plagiarism, and collusion (TEQSA, 2019, p. 3).
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the accidental or deliberate use of other people’s work without sufficient attribution. In effect, you are claiming someone else’s work as your own. Accidental plagiarism can be avoided by using effective notetaking practices (see the chapter Notetaking). Notetaking will ensure you have the details needed to accurately report and attribute the resources you use. Paraphrasing – or rewriting the original ideas in your own words – is also required. Paraphrasing allows you to focus on aspects of an original work that support your arguments and to synthesise from multiple sources of information (APA, 2019). See the chapter Writing Assignments for more on paraphrasing.
Self-plagiarism
Self-plagiarism is the re-use of your own work in a subsequent assignment. At first glance, this may appear to be an efficient use of your time and effort. However, self-plagiarism does not demonstrate that you have learned anything new. Likewise, self-plagiarism does not show that you have achieved the expected outcomes of your course. You can use the same sources of information, but to avoid self-plagiarism you will need to write a new assignment to address the new topic, question, or perspective.
Collusion
Collusion occurs when a student works with others – students, friends, paid tutors, family members – and then submits that shared work as if it is their own original work (Crook & Nixon, 2018).
Working with others and discussing the content of a course or the requirements of an assignment can be productive, helpful, and enjoyable. However, the final submission for an individual piece of assessment must be your own. This does not mean that you cannot work with your peers, discuss subject material, study together, or help each other with proof-reading, but you must not:
• Provide work for another student to submit as part of their own assignment;
• Use other students’ content in your own assignment;
• Co-write individual assessment items; or
• Provide others with answers to quizzes, essay topics, or tests.
Setting clear expectations regarding peer-feedback and making sure you understand the requirements of your assessment tasks can help you avoid collusion. The university provides resources to help you with your academic integrity. These resources include the referencing guide, writing guide, and assignment writing resources. You will also have the opportunity to check drafts of your work using the university’s text matching program, SafeAssign.
SafeAssign
SafeAssign is a text matching program that is linked to assessment submission boxes in LearnJCU. This tool searches the internet and university assessment repositories to find any text in your assignment that matches with other sources, including websites, scholarly literature, and other student assignments. You will often have the opportunity to submit a draft assignment to SafeAssign before you submit your final assignment. Use of this software will generate a report and alert you to any text matches. This will allow you to use your referencing and paraphrasing skills to correctly attribute all the ideas in your work, make sure all your quotes are in quotation marks, and avoid plagiarism.
Conclusion
Academic integrity governs all that you do at university. Academic integrity is made visible by the accurate attribution of ideas, images, or other information you use in your work according to the rules of your university’s preferred referencing style. It is also important to only submit your own original work for assessment, or to clarify the contributions of others where relevant. When reading your work, your lecturer should be able to identify the ideas that you used to support your thinking and be confident that anything else is your personal contribution. Being diligent with referencing, and only submitting work that is your own, are two clear ways to act with academic integrity.
Key points
• Academic integrity requires the honest, respectful, and ethical use of information.
• Cite and reference all your information sources as described by your university referencing guides.
• Provide a citation every time you use someone else’s ideas, words, diagrams, audio, or other information.
• When sharing work with peers, provide clear instructions regarding the feedback you are seeking.
• Plagiarism and collusion undermines the value of your degree and leaves you vulnerable to academic penalties. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/Foundations_of_Academic_Success_(Morgan_et_al.)/03%3A_Successful_Study_Skills/3.02%3A_Integrity_at_University.txt |
Introduction
Maths is a common part of daily life and forms an important part of our learning journey. In many instances, although we use maths every day, we don’t always recognise it. Likewise, maths may be part of your studies in obvious and subtle ways. This chapter examines approaches to empower you to study maths in whatever form you encounter it at university. It begins by identifying the value of studying maths. It then examines a common problem experienced by students known as maths anxiety and presents six strategies for overcoming it. Next, the chapter addresses how to approach studying maths in general, then how to approach a single module of work in maths, followed by a discussion of problem-solving and hints for success. It concludes with some tips for how to approach maths assessments. Altogether, the chapter will put you on the path to a successful encounter with maths at university.
Why is Maths Important?
Maths is an integral part of day-to-day life. We all work with numbers daily, for example, telling time, calculating change when shopping and measuring ingredients when cooking. There are several professions that are highly dependent on maths such as science, engineering and accounting to name a few. Depending on the profession where you are intending to work, the level of maths required will vary. Therefore, the amount of maths that you do will also vary based on your study program. This chapter will help you approach it with a positive attitude and successful strategies to master what is required.
The study of maths is important as it allows you to train your brain to think logically, accurately and carefully helping you to make logical and informed decisions in your life. It also helps you to build confidence to undertake common routine tasks more confidently such as measuring ingredients when cooking and calculating change when shopping.
The study of maths is not about the final answer but the processes and the journey to the final answer. It is about the development of the maths skills needed to perform the required operations that produce the correct answer. These are valuable skills that can be used in future employment.
What is maths anxiety and its impact on the study maths?
When it comes to studying maths, students often become anxious and start to overanalyse the maths or statistical content. This then causes an elevated level of anxiety and difficulty in understanding the underpinning concepts. The Australian Council of Educational Research (ACER) defines maths anxiety as “feelings of unease and worry experienced when thinking about mathematics or completing mathematical tasks” (Buckley, Reid, Goos, Lipp, & Thomson, 2016). Maths anxiety is highly prevalent in today’s society. The Australian Mathematical Sciences Institute estimates that between 25% to 80% of the college population in the United States of America has some form of maths anxiety and hypotheses that the percentage is similar in Australia given the similarities in culture (Koch, 2018).
Maths anxiety causes people to have significant self-doubt in their ability to do maths, causing them great distress. When a person has maths anxiety, their brain continually thinks about the anxiety rather than the actual maths problem. This causes the brain to allocate the working memory and other resources that it would normally use with computations of the maths problem to the anxiety itself causing the person not to learn or retain the relevant skills or information (Marshall, Staddon, Wilson, & Mann, 2017).
Symptoms and causes of maths anxiety
Maths anxiety can easily be identified. The symptoms of maths anxiety range from simple low confidence problems to more complex physical symptoms. If you find yourself doing either of the following, you may have maths anxiety:
• If you have low confidence and have negative thoughts such as “I am no good at maths”, “I won’t be able to do this”, “I am never going to understand this maths concept” (Department of Education, Victoria State Government, 2020).
• If you have physical symptoms such as increased heart rate, increased breathing or a panic attack when thinking about or doing maths (Department of Education, Victoria State Government, 2020).
These symptoms are triggered when doing maths or from a thought (anticipation) of doing maths. The level of anxiety will vary from person to person (Department of Education, Victoria State Government, 2020). While maths anxiety is common, it can be managed or resolved allowing you to succeed in your maths learning journey.
Dealing with maths anxiety
Maths anxiety can be addressed in a positive way using six strategies. The strategies will need to be employed over time to see the results. The strategies are also recommended for people without maths anxiety to further develop their maths skills.
Six strategies you can use to help reduce maths anxiety are:
Strategy 1: Creating a safe, calm and comfortable environment in which to study maths: A safe and comfortable environment when studying maths is essential. When you are in a comfortable environment, you have more scope to use your working memory to understand the maths concepts which would otherwise be occupied in a busy or stressful environment.
Strategy 2: Having positive self-efficacy: Self-efficacy is the belief that we are capable of successfully performing a task, for example studying maths. It is critical to change the negative connotations associated with doing maths to positive thoughts. The human mind is probably one of the most powerful objects that can allow you to either excel or limit what you can do. Therefore, if you have maths anxiety, it is important that you change negative thoughts such as “I can’t do this” to “I can do this” or “I am no good at maths” to “I am sure if I try, I can get better at maths”. The self-efficacy that you have is a major factor that influences your confidence. As such, it is paramount that it be addressed from the beginning.
Strategy 3: Practising maths concepts by showing all the processes: Maths is all about using the maths processes. It is important for you to practise the maths concepts with all the processes, showing all your working. When practising the maths concepts with the full working, you are storing the processes in your working memory. This allows you to understand the concept and make a mental map of the concept. It allows your brain to form the connection of where and how to apply the maths concept.
Strategy 4: Seeking help: Asking for help is one of the hardest things that you may have to do. However, for you to succeed with maths (and overcome your maths anxiety if you have it), it is important that you approach your teaching team to seek assistance (or other maths support services which might be available at your university). Your teaching team has extensive experience and knows the concepts in detail. They can help you by breaking down the concepts into smaller and simpler processes that are easier for you to understand. It is also important to remember that you should seek help from the right people to ensure that you are learning the right things.
Strategy 5: Timed practice: It is essential for you to do timed practice of maths concepts and to apply the concepts in all its different forms to ensure that you build your confidence completing maths questions and build your speed in applying the concepts. Timed practice is when you set a timer and work through as many problems as you can in this time. This is modelling what you will need to do during a timed assessment item, such as an exam. During exams and other timed assessment items, the most critical factor is the time you have to complete the questions. To overcome your anxiety of doing maths in timed situations, you need to practice by recreating similar situations.
Strategy 6: Ensuring you understand the process: It cannot be emphasised enough that maths is all about the processes you use to solve problems. It is about training your brain and using your working memory. When you learn and understand the concepts, you make mental mind maps of the concepts, and these are stored in your working memory. This allows for easier recall and application of the process. Memorising or “cramming” does not help you with learning maths effectively, and thus should be avoided.
The use of the six strategies will not only make you more confident but will also help you to form good mental mind maps within your working memory. This will also improve your self-efficacy and break down the barriers that would have otherwise made studying maths more difficult. These strategies can also be used if you don’t have maths anxiety. The JCU Learning Centre has a range of resources that you can use to help you in Addressing Maths Anxiety.
Five Methods for Studying Maths Effectively
Just like the strategies to help reduce maths anxiety, there are methods that can help you study the maths in your courses effectively. These five approaches can equip you for success:
Method 1: Build your skills with practice throughout your course:
Learning maths is like learning a new language. We need to do some practice every day/week. Studying maths concepts shouldn’t be left to just before assignments are due or just before exams. No one becomes good at anything without practice, so regular practice is essential for you to succeed with maths. It is recommended that you practise your maths every day, so that you become familiar with the relevant concepts and skills required to solve the different problems you will see throughout your course. If you need additional strategies to help you with your time management skills, to allow to you practise your maths each day, please see the chapter Time Management. It is also essential to practise concepts from earlier in your course, not just the current module/chapter.
Unfortunately, procrastination and avoiding studying maths is a common experience when you are anxious about maths study. For more information about recognising and developing strategies to combat procrastination, please see the chapter Combatting Procrastination. It is important to master the foundations at the beginning of the course before progressing to the harder material.
It is also vital to show all your working, whenever you are practising maths questions. This allows you to fully practise setting out the steps and processes of the maths concept you are studying. It also allows you to identify any mistakes you may make during the process of answering a question. Practising questions will also help you to recognise similar problems using the same processes.
Method 2: Improve your self-efficacy
Just as it helps you deal with any maths anxiety, improving your self-efficacy around doing maths is important every time you sit down to study maths. If you believe that you can do the maths within your course, you are more likely to spend time working on developing your skills rather than being discouraged and giving up.
Improving your self-efficacy will also motivate you to persevere with questions that you may find difficult, resulting in better marks. If you find yourselves having negative thoughts about our maths ability, try to replace them with positive thoughts. That is, if you find you are thinking “I cannot do this problem”, try instead “I can do similar problems, and with continued practice and seeking help when I need to, I will continue to improve, which will help me to pass this course.”
Method 3: Understanding the process
To be successful in maths, it is necessary to understand the process used for solving maths problems. You are less likely to remember how to do something if you don’t understand the process. If you are shown a calculation in class, go over it again later and rewrite it in steps that you understand. Things always look easier when someone else is showing you how to do it, compared to when you try at home on your own. Rewriting the steps will make it easier to complete different questions and you will have good notes for revision. It is also important to remember that there may be more than one method for coming to the right answer. Identify the most appropriate method to complete the question and then apply it.
It is essential to always show all your working. This allows you to show yourself and others that you understand the processes involved in solving specific problems. It also allows you to go back and follow your thought processes when you need to revise for tests and quizzes. Practising your working (with full setting out) will allow you to cement the processes into your working memory. Then things in your setting out will become automatic, for example, aligning your equal signs throughout the problem using the correct symbols and notations, and adding text to explain what you are doing. When these become automatic, you won’t have to worry about them as much in your assessment, as you are doing them all the time.
Method 4: Find techniques that can help you to reduce your stress or maths anxiety
Recognise when you are starting to feel stressed or anxious and having difficulty trying to complete maths problems. You should develop some methods to help you to relax and unwind. Some different strategies you may be able use include distraction techniques including reflecting on how you feel; leaving the room to do another activity for short periods of time; mindful breathing techniques (such as breathing in for a count of 5, holding for a count of 6 and breathing out for a count of 7); or any other techniques you may have for reducing anxiety.
It is also helpful to remind yourself of what you can do by returning to a problem that you can do before attempting the problem which caused the stress. More information about mental health resources (including sections on stress and anxiety) can be found in the chapter Successful Connections.
Method 5: Asking for help
Asking for help is not the easiest thing to do. However, if you are finding certain concepts difficult, you should ask for help from either your teaching team or a learning advisor. It is also recommended that you use class discussion boards and lectures as a medium for asking questions.
Here are some suggestions to maximise the benefits of the help you can get:
• Be specific as to what you don’t understand — you do not want the tutor to cover areas where you do not need help. In other words, being specific about what you need will save you some time in any support sessions you have.
• Attempt to solve the problem(s) yourself first and have your working available so that the tutor can discuss it with you. This will develop your problem-solving skills because you will have thought through the problem and will not be expecting the tutor to do all the thinking for you. It will also show where your understanding is lacking and where you became stuck.
• Attempt similar problems from the study materials or other textbooks/websites that have answers provided, so that you can discuss your problems with the tutor rather than requiring tuition in the basic concepts. This can help tailor the support to your specific needs.
• Be organised and specific. Make a written list of problems that need clarifying, including page numbers in the text, along with your working.
Approaches for Studying each Module
Now that you have some strategies for combatting maths anxiety, and have some general methods for studying maths, you can begin your maths journey at university with a positive mindset. Maths concepts are often broken up into smaller segments for you to study, known as modules. Modules allow you to look at one new concept at a time and gradually build your knowledge, experience and confidence. When beginning a new module, try these approaches to make your maths study more manageable:
• Scan the module first to see what it is all about. The objectives in the introduction of the module will also give you a summary of what to expect.
• Start at the beginning of the module, reading through the text and examples. When you come to an activity, attempt the questions yourself. This will help you learn the formulae and when and how to apply them, thus developing your problem-solving techniques. It will also give you an idea of what you know or where you need to focus more.
• Do not skip over pages or chapters in the study materials because maths is a building process that requires the foundations to be strong before you can build upon them.
• Ensure that you have a complete understanding of the topic that you are studying. If you cannot understand a topic, look for alternative resources that may explain it in a different way, contact the teaching team or find a tutor to help. Do this as soon as you have a problem so that you can move on with your studies, and not get behind. Check to see if your university has any maths support services, for example, learning advisors, tutors or peer mentoring programs.
• Summarise the module as you work through it. List any new formulae and problem-solving techniques and take note of anything that you do not understand so you can seek assistance.
• You are encouraged to talk about your maths. It is amazing how problems can be clarified by talking with somebody. You can do this with friends, work colleagues, at our tutorials (in person or online) or through the course discussion forums or groups.
• Contact your teaching team or university maths support (if available) for help if you get stuck. This could save an enormous amount of time, especially when you have any misunderstanding within a topic or module.
Strategies for Problem-Solving
In many ways, maths is like solving a puzzle, where a question is posed, and you must find the answer. At the heart of this process is what we call problem-solving skills. Problem-solving skills are something that can be practised and developed to make you a stronger mathematician. Most people find problem-solving difficult, and as such, it is an area they need to spend time developing. Problem-solving questions are typically the worded questions you find in the application sections of your materials, or in your assignments. Here are some tips to help develop your skills:
• Read the question or problem carefully and identify what you are expected to find.
• Express the given information in mathematical terms, defining any variables that you are given and noting any special conditions.
• Determine whether any of the information is not needed for solving the problem.
• Break down the problem into smaller parts.
• Estimate the answer to the part of the problem that you cannot solve yet and proceed from there.
• Decide which of the skills or techniques you have learnt in the course that could be applied to solve the problem.
• Apply the technique that you think will solve this problem.
• Check that your answer makes sense to the problem.
Even if things haven’t gone quite right, there are problem-solving strategies you can use to help put yourself back on the right path. You can:
• Check that you copied down everything correctly without error.
• Scan for errors in your calculations.
• Look back at your working and answers to similar questions.
• Start with a fresh page where you cannot see what you have done previously.
• Read the question again slowly.
• Leave the problem for another day.
• Ask for help from your teaching team or maths support services which might be available at your university.
Tips for Maths Assessment
After you have studied the modules, you will need to complete some assessment. This section with give you some hints and tips for your assignments and exams.
Maths Assignments
When studying maths, it is essential to develop regular study patterns. Do not leave your maths study until just before an assignment is due. Make sure that you keep up to date with the recommended study schedules provided to you in your courses. This includes working through suggested questions and tutorial questions. Often your tutorial questions will help you to develop the skills needed in your assignments.
When doing a maths assignment, you must express yourself clearly both in English and mathematics. Many students think that doing maths just involves “doing the sums”. However, “doing the sums” is only one part of doing and being involved in maths. In fact, it doesn’t matter how good you are at doing these sums if you cannot communicate your answers or solutions with others. In your career, you must be able to convince your colleagues or clients that your answer is the appropriate one. Therefore, communicating is just as important in maths as it is in all other subject areas.
Finally, you need to also allow adequate time to present your assignment. Just like your other assignments, you need to complete a rough draft and then prepare a final “good” copy. Your makers are looking for assignments that are neat, tidy, with the maths formatted correctly, and with logical, well documented communication (mathematical and English). This could be as simple as following the guides for best practice for maths notation, such as aligning equal signs, centring equations on the page, defining any variables you have used including their units. Your textbooks and study modules are a good guide to how your lecturers are expecting you to format your assignments.
Conclusion
Maths is an integral part of university study, regardless of which course you select. This chapter identified the value of studying maths and provided strategies to help students manage maths anxiety. It also presented methods for approaching studying maths in general, how to study single modules, it discussed problem-solving hints for success and concluded with tips for how to approach maths assessments. Armed with these tips and strategies, you can be ready to learn and work successfully with maths in your university studies.
Key points
• Maths is an important part of the learning journey.
• The study of maths trains your brain to think logically, accurately, and carefully.
• Maths anxiety is something everyone may experience at different stages in their university studies. The six strategies to help you manage it are: Creating a safe, calm and comfortable environment in which to study, developing positive self-efficacy for maths, practising maths (including all working), seeking help when required, timed practice and understanding the process.
• When seeking help, show your tutor your attempt to solve the problem(s) (with your working) so that they can discuss it with you. This will give you the most tailored support.
• Develop your problem-solving skills to help with applying the concepts in different situations, including assessments.
• Present your maths logically with full working and communication in your assignments. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/Foundations_of_Academic_Success_(Morgan_et_al.)/03%3A_Successful_Study_Skills/3.03%3A_Studying_Maths.txt |
Introduction
In academic settings, we need to read critically and also need to read with an eye to distinguish fact from opinion and identify credible sources. This chapter will provide you with an understanding about the different ways of reading for university study, some reading strategies for you to try and information about different types of sources.
Ways of Reading
There are generally five ways of reading which include: 1) pre-reading, 2) skimming, 3) scanning, 4) detailed reading, and 5) critical reading.
Pre-reading
During the pre-reading stage, you can easily pick up on information from the cover and the front matter that may help you understand the material you’re reading. Look for:
• Author name and details
• Topics covered
• Headings and subheadings
• Bolded text or excerpts
• Key terms or words
• Abstract or summary
Use these features as you read to help you determine what are the most important ideas.
Skimming
Skimming is not just glancing over the words on a page or screen. Effective skimming allows you to take in the major points of a passage to determine the usefulness of the source. If the source is useful, you will then need to engage in a deeper level of active reading, but skimming is the first step—not an alternative to deep reading. Skimming is useful as it gives you a brief overview before reading in more detail and assists with comprehension. Instead of reading every word, skimming involves spending a brief amount of time per page, quickly looking at:
• the contents
• the headings and sub-headings
• the abstract or introductory paragraph
• the conclusion
• any diagrams or graphics you think are important
End your skimming session with writing a few notes or terms to look up, questions you still have, and an overall summary. Recognise that you likely will return to that book or article for a more thorough reading if the material is useful.
Scanning
Scanning involves reading a text with a specific purpose in mind. Rather than reading every section, scanning involves quickly looking for relevant information only. Use this technique when you are reading to find specific material or data related to an assignment topic, or to find answers for questions (e.g. for tutorial activities).
Detailed reading
Detailed reading is when you focus on the written material, really looking to gather specific information or evidence on a topic. This type of reading will provide you with a more in-depth understanding of the specific information, facts, positions and views on a topic. In detailed reading you may be looking for new information or a different perspective. Is this writer claiming a radical new definition for the topic or an entirely opposite way to consider the subject matter, connecting it to other topics or disciplines in ways you have never considered? Also, try to consider all the possible perspectives of a subject as well as the potential for misunderstanding due to personal biases and the availability of false information about the topic.
Critical reading
Critical reading requires you to actively engage with the written material by questioning and evaluating the quality and relevance of the information for your task. This may include analysing the author’s strategies, methods and reasoning. Critical reading is a vital skill to develop to help you become a better analytical thinker and writer.
The following are some questions to consider when reading critically.
• What is the purpose of the text?
• What is the argument being developed?
• Is it logical?
• Is the text biased?
• Is there supporting evidence and how valid is it?
• Are there any underlying assumptions?
• Is there an alternative conclusion given?
When reading critically it is often useful to re-read the material, both for comprehension but also to get a deeper understanding. It is good to revisit texts after reading more, or after a few more lectures/tutorials and see how this text fits with what you now know. Does your evaluation change? Do you have a greater understanding? Does your position change on the topics present?
Allow Time for Reading
You should determine the reading requirements and expectations for every class early in the semester. You also need to understand why you are reading the particular text you are assigned. Do you need to read closely for minute details that determine cause and effect? Or is your lecturer asking you to skim several sources so you become more familiar with the topic? Knowing this reasoning will help you decide your timing, what notes to take, and how best to undertake the reading assignment. To avoid feeling overwhelmed, schedule reading time when creating your weekly study timetable to allow you to time read and review.
Conclusion
Reading is one of the most important skills you need for studying at university. The strategies that have been explored in this chapter will help you to get the most out of your reading time.
Key points
• Pre-reading helps you understand the context of what you are reading.
• Skimming helps you to determine the usefulness of the source.
• Scan to find specific information related to your assignment topic.
• Detailed reading helps you to gather evidence on your topic.
• Use critical reading to question and evaluate the relevance of the information in the source
• Identify if you are reading a primary or secondary source, and watch for biases.
• Schedule weekly reading time. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/Foundations_of_Academic_Success_(Morgan_et_al.)/03%3A_Successful_Study_Skills/3.04%3A_Reading.txt |
Introduction
Notetaking and reading are two compatible skill sets. Beyond providing a record of the information you are reading or hearing, notes help you make meaning out of unfamiliar content. Well-written notes help you organise your thoughts, enhance your memory, and participate in class discussion, and they prepare you to respond successfully in exams. This chapter will provide you with guidelines for understanding your purpose for taking notes, and steps for taking notes before, during and after class. Then, a summary of different notetaking strategies will be provided so that you can choose the best method for your learning style. Finally, you will discover ways to annotate your notes to enable quick reference, along with information about taking notes specifically for assignments.
Understanding Your Purpose for Learning
Knowing your course requirements and the intended purpose for your notes should impact the type of notes you take. For example, are you:
• taking lecture notes that will become the basis of exam study?
• taking notes while watching your classes online?
• taking notes from books or articles for an assignment?
There are no right or wrong ways to take notes, but it is important to find strategies that work for you and are efficient for your purpose.
Taking Notes from Classes
Whether you are attending classes on campus or are studying online, it is still important to take notes from your lectures. Notes help you keep up with the content each week which in turn helps you prepare for your exams. There are things you should consider before, during and after your lectures to assist with your notetaking.
Before the class
In some courses the weekly class content is available before the lecture as PowerPoint slides. This may make it tempting not to take notes, however these slides usually only have key points. Further details and explanations are given verbally in the class. A good tip is to print the PowerPoint slides before the lecture and use them as the basis for your note taking. If you select the three slides per page from the print options, it will give you room to take some notes. Come to lectures prepared by completing any set reading or tasks for that week. This will help you understand the content and more easily make decisions about what relevant notes to take.
During the class
Take notes to actively engage in the process of learning. This will help with concentration. Handwriting your notes has been proven to increase memory and retention. Do not try to write down every word or you will miss important information. Keep your notes brief, use keywords, short sentences and meaningful abbreviations.
Key points are usually outlined at the beginning of the lecture, and repeated or summarised at the end. Listen for language cues emphasising important information including:
• numerical lists, e.g. “firstly…, secondly”, “there are three steps/stages…”
• phrases such as “on the other hand”, “in particular”, “remember/note/look out for”, “consequently”
• inclusion of examples or hypothetical situations
• emphasis of a particular point through tone of voice
If you do not understand the content, make a note or write a question and follow this up in your tutorial or discussion forum.
After the class
It is important that you re-read your notes as soon as possible after the class, when the content is still fresh in your mind, and make any additions. Your learning preference will inform the review strategies you choose.
Notetaking Strategies
There are several different notetaking strategies. Regardless of your method, be sure to keep your notes organised, store notes from the same subject together in one place, and clearly label each batch of notes with subject, source and date taken. Here are two notetaking strategies you can try; Cornell Method and Outline Method.
Cornell Method
One of the most recognisable notetaking systems is called the Cornell Method. In this system, divide a piece of paper into three sections: the summary area, the questions column and the notes column (see Figure 51). The Cornell Method provides you with a well-organised set of notes that will help you study and review your notes as you move through the course.
Theright-handnotescolumn: Use this section to record in your own words the main points and concepts of the lecture. Skip lines between each idea in this column and use bullet points or phrases. After your notetaking session, read over your notes column and fill in any details you missed in class.
Inthequestionscolumn: Write any one or two-word key ideas from the corresponding notes column. These keywords serve as cues to help you remember the detailed information you recorded in the ‘notes’ column.
Thesummaryarea: Summarise this page of notes in two or three sentences using the summary area at the bottom of the sheet. Before you move on, read the large notes column, and quiz yourself over the key ideas you recorded in the questions column. This review process will help your memory make the connections between your notes, your textbook reading, your in-class work, and assignments.
The main advantage of the Cornell Method is that you are setting yourself up to have organised, workable notes. This method is a useful strategy to organise your notes for exam preparation.
Outline notes
A common format for note taking is an outline style – using numbers or letters to indicate connections between concepts. Indicate the hierarchy of ideas by using headings, written in capitals, underlined or highlighted in some way. Within concepts, ideas can be differentiated by dot points, or some other indicator, to create an outline that makes the notes easier to read. The main benefit of an outline is its organisation.
The following formal outline example shows the basic pattern
Notetaking can continue with this sort of numbering and indenting format to show the connections between main ideas, concepts and supporting details.
Annotating notes
Annotations can refer to anything you do with a text to enhance it for your particular use (either a printed text, handwritten notes, or other sort of document you are using to learn concepts). The annotations may include highlighting passages or vocabulary, defining those unfamiliar terms once you look them up, writing questions in the margin of a book and underlining or circling key terms for future reference. You can also annotate some electronic texts.
Your mantra for highlighting text should be less is more. Always read your text selection first before you start highlighting anything. You need to know what the overall message is before you start placing emphasis in the text with highlighting. Another way to annotate notes after initial notetaking is underlining significant words or passages.
Taking notes for assignments
When taking notes for an assignment, be clear whether they are your own words, or a direct quote so that you do not accidentally plagiarise. When you have finished taking notes, look for key themes or ideas and highlight them in different colours. This organises your information and helps you to see what evidence you have to support various ideas you wish to make in your assignment. Make sure to record the author, title, date, publishing details and relevant page numbers of books and articles you use. This will save you time and avoid errors when referencing.
Conclusion
Notetaking is a major element of university studying and learning. As you progress through your study, your notes need to be complete so you can recall the information you learn in lectures. The strategies that have been explored in this chapter will help you to be deliberate in your notetaking.
Key points
• Know the purpose for your notes.
• Before the class, print any lecture slides with the notes option.
• During the class, keep your notes brief, use keywords, short sentences and meaningful abbreviations.
• After the class, re-read your notes and organise them.
• The Cornell Method uses a table with a summary area, a questions column and a notes column.
• Outline notetaking uses headings, numbers or letters to show hierarchy and connections between concepts.
• Annotating your notes with highlights, underlining, circling or writing in the margin can enhance your understanding.
• Notetaking for assignments must show clearly when the words are your own or are a direct quote. Record the source details for use in referencing. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/Foundations_of_Academic_Success_(Morgan_et_al.)/03%3A_Successful_Study_Skills/3.05%3A_Notetaking.txt |
Introduction
Thinking and problem-solving are core skills that university educators aim to teach students. Learning different ways of thinking and how to resolve or respond to problems creates well-rounded learners that are capable of breaking down issues or problems into manageable parts, adapting to changing situations or contexts and devising creative or novel solutions. These are key characteristics required in the 21st century digitally focused work environment.
This chapter will provide you with an overview of different types of thinking, give guidance on how you can practise these approaches before then moving onto a discussion of problem-solving. Examples of the various forms of thinking discussed will be provided.
Creative Thinking
Creativity is needed in all occupations and during all stages of life. Learning to be more in tune with your own version of creativity can help you think more clearly, resolve problems, and appreciate setbacks. You’re using creativity if you can explain complex biological concepts to your classmates in your tutorial or workshop. When creative thinking comes into play, you’ll be looking for both original and unconventional ideas, and learning to recognise those ideas improves your thinking skills all around.
The 2001 revised Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy, originally developed in 1948, placed a new word at the apex—create. That is the highest level of thinking skills. As this book shows, we do all need to use and develop the lower thinking skills that include remembering, applying, and analysing, but true intelligence and successful thinking move beyond these levels to invention.
Many assessments and lessons you’ve seen during your schooling have likely been arranged with Bloom’s taxonomy in mind. Reciting a formula shows less comprehension than explaining the underlying concepts that make it work.
Analytical Thinking
When we work out a problem or situation systematically, breaking the whole into its component parts for separate analysis, to come to a solution or a variety of possible solutions, we call that analytical thinking. Characteristics of analytical thinking include setting up the parts, using information literacy, and verifying the validity of any sources you reference. We do this sort of thinking in our everyday lives when we brainstorm, budget, detect patterns, plan, compare, work puzzles, and make decisions based on multiple sources of information. Think of all the thinking that goes into the logistics of a dinner-and-a-movie date—where to eat, what to watch, who to invite, what to wear, popcorn or ice-creams—when choices and decisions are rapid-fire, but we do it relatively successfully all the time.
Critical Thinking
The definitions vary slightly, but most agree that thinking critically includes some form of judgement that thinkers generate after careful analysis of the perspectives, opinions, or experimental results present in a particular problem or situation. Before you wonder if you’re even capable of critical thinking, consider that you think critically every day. You are constantly weighing options, consulting data, gathering opinions, making choices, and then evaluating those decisions, which is a general definition of critical thinking.
Critical thinking forces you to determine the actual situation under question and to determine your thoughts and actions around that situation. Critical thinking differs according to the subject you’re thinking about, and as such it can be difficult to pin down any sort of formula to make sure you are doing a good job of thinking critically in all situations. While you may need to adapt this list of critical thinking components, you can get started if you do the following:
• Question everything
• Conduct legitimate research
• Limit your assumptions
• Recognise your own biases
• Evaluate all perspectives
Additionally, you must recognise that changes will occur and may alter your conclusions now and in the future. You may eventually have to revisit an issue you effectively resolved previously and adapt to changing conditions. Knowing when to do that is another example of critical thinking. Informed flexibility or knowing that parts of the plan may need to change and how those changes can work into the overall goal, is also a recognised element of thinking critically.
Over time, attitudes, evidence, and opinions change, and as a critical thinker, you must continue to research, synthesise newly discovered evidence, and adapt to that new information. This is true of all fields of study, and critical thinkers are constantly learning and unlearning.
Factual Arguments versus Opinions
Thinking and constructing analyses based on your thinking will bring you in contact with a great deal of information. Some of that information will be factual, and some will not be. You need to be able to distinguish between facts and opinions so you know how to support your arguments. Begin with basic definitions:
• Fact: a statement that is true and backed up with evidence; facts can be verified through observation or research
• Opinion: a statement someone holds to be true without supporting evidence; opinions express beliefs, assumptions, perceptions, or judgements
Of course, the tricky part is that most people do not label statements as fact and opinion, so you need to be aware and recognise the difference as you go about honing your critical thinking skills.
For example, mice are animals is a fact; mice make the best pets is an opinion. Many people become very attached to their opinions, even stating them as facts despite the lack of verifiable evidence. When you are reading, writing, and thinking critically, you must be on the lookout for sophisticated opinions others may present as factual information.
If you use biased and opinionated information or even incorrect facts as your evidence to support your factual arguments, then you have not validated your sources or checked your facts well enough. At this point, you would need to keep researching.
Problem Solving
Problem solving is part of our everyday life. We encounter problems in some form or the other daily. When solving a problem, we generally have a sequence of processes that we follow to effectively resolve or to dissolve a problem. In order to effectively problem solve, we may use some variation of the following strategies:
1. Identify and determine what the problem (issue) is
2. Explore (brainstorm) as many possible solutions to the problem
3. Recognise and understand that there will be varying perspectives from different people
4. Explore the results further by researching and documenting pros and cons for all the possible solutions
5. Select the best solution
6. Communicate your findings to all involved
7. Establish logical action items based on your analysis
The image below represents the problem-solving cycle:
In order to determine the best solution to any problem, it is important for us to generate a wide array of solutions. When coming up with the solutions during a brainstorming session, it is important to remember that there is no right or wrong answer. The purpose of this is to establish different solutions that can potentially solve the problem. Once you have a variety of different solutions, you can start evaluating them to see how they fit within the context of the problem and weighing up pros and cons. This will help you to narrow down your solutions until you find that one solution that will be deemed as the best. When you have established your best solution, you can then communicate the solution to all the parties who are involved within the problem and proceed to implementing the solution. Let the solution run and then evaluate whether the problem has been resolved or not. Evaluation is an important part for closing the loop when problem solving. If the problem is not resolved, then go through the process again.
Determining the best approach to any given problem and generating more than one possible solution to the problem constitutes the complicated process of problem-solving.
Faced with a problem-solving opportunity, you must assess the skills you will need to create solutions. Problem-solving can involve many different types of thinking. You may have to call on your creative, analytical, or critical thinking skills—or more frequently, a combination of several different types of thinking—to solve a problem satisfactorily. When you approach a situation, how can you decide what is the best type of thinking to employ? Sometimes the answer is obvious; if you are working a scientific challenge, you likely will use analytical thinking; if you are a design student considering the atmosphere of a home, you may need to tap into creative thinking skills; and if you are an early childhood education major outlining the logistics involved in establishing a summer day camp for children, you may need a combination of critical, analytical, and creative thinking to solve this challenge.
Key points
• Thinking and problem-solving skills are critical to learning both at university and during your career.
• Creative thinking is the highest form of thinking skills as outlined in Bloom’s revised taxonomy. The creative process appears challenging, but simply put it requires the combination of existing ideas in new ways to create novel outcomes.
• Analytical thinking requires you to break down a problem, task or issue into its smallest parts and respond to each accordingly.
• Critical thinking involves careful assessment or judgment of the available information, assumptions and bias to develop an informed perspective.
• It is important to understand the difference between facts and opinions. Facts are truthful statements supported by evidence. Opinions are statements someone believes to be true without evidence.
• Problem-solving is a critical skill developed at university and may require all the above forms of thinking to carry out. It focuses on devising solutions. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/Foundations_of_Academic_Success_(Morgan_et_al.)/03%3A_Successful_Study_Skills/3.06%3A_Thinking.txt |
Introduction
It is not unusual to feel confused or overwhelmed when encountering assessment at university. This chapter is designed to guide you through the process of assessment management and provide strategies to make preparing for assessment as stress free as possible.
We start by discussing the information you receive about your assessment items and what to do with that information. It is important to know exactly what your requirements are before beginning to research or write. Spending a little extra time at the start, analysing your question thoroughly and reading your criteria sheet, will make the assignment research and writing processes easier, and will save you time in the long run.
The next section covers assessment planning. We discuss key components of assessment preparation, including finding information, writing, revising, and submitting your assessments.
We then briefly discuss academic integrity and what it means for university students before concluding the chapter and providing some key points on managing your assessments.
Understanding your Assessment Task
It can be tempting to skip over reading the assessment information and planning. However, these steps will save you time in the long run. Knowing exactly what the task requires you to do and say will ensure that your activities are focused on what is required for the task.
Task Sheets
In your subject outline, you will find assessment tasks with detailed descriptions, and rubrics – more on these later. The descriptor provides information about your assessment task. It is important to read this carefully to undertake your assessment, as it includes essential details that you must address.
Table 12. Assessment vocabulary
Topic words These are words and concepts you have to research.
Task words These will tell you how to approach the assignment and structure the information you find in your research (e.g., discuss, analyse).
Limiting words These words define the scope or parameters of the assignment, e.g. Australian perspectives, a particular jurisdiction (this would be relevant then to which laws, codes or standards you consulted), or a timeframe.
Assessment vocabulary gives you clear direction on exactly what to do. Below is an example of an assessment task you may receive. Notice the use of topic words (coloured orange), limiting words (coloured blue) and task or directive words (coloured green). Consider what a topic and task analysis look like in this example question.
Discuss the suggestion that a wide range of skills are required to succeed in the professional workplace. Consider this in an Australian context.
Conducting a topic analysis is important to develop effective, targeted key words to search for assignment resources. You can then use these words and their synonyms to start looking for good quality information which is relevant to your topic (see the Working with Information chapter for more about finding information). View the video on Boolean operators below for more information.
Assessment style
There are a range of different assessment types you may be asked to complete (e.g. essay, report, or presentation). For more information, visit Types of Assignments.
Written assessment word count
The word count, or word length, is an important piece of information as it provides a guide to the overall size of the task. The word count indicates the number of words required to adequately address the assessment task. At JCU, a general rule is you have a 10% leeway above or below the stated word count (it is recommended to check with your lecturer or tutor). For more information see the English Language Foundations chapter about writing concisely.
Word count considerations
Things to check regarding the word count include:
• What is the penalty for going over the word limit (sometimes markers will only review your writing up to the word limit, or you may lose marks for going over the limit)?
• Does the word count include in-text citations and the reference list?
• Does the word count include figures, tables, and appendices?
How many and what kind of references do you need to include in your assignments?
The number, type, and publication date of references refers to the acceptable sources of information that you reference in your work. The chapter Working with Information provides guidance about finding, evaluating, and managing sources of information.
Marking Rubric
The marking rubric provides an overview of each marked component of the assessment task and can be helpful in the planning, writing, and reviewing phase of your assessment process. The marking rubric will help you to understand more precisely what your marker will be looking for when marking your assignment. Figure 16.2 shows an extract from a marking rubric, where the assessment task was to write an essay outlining typical and atypical development for a chosen developmental period.
The marking rubric is also useful when you are reviewing your work prior to submission. You can use the rubric as a checklist to ensure that you have included all the key pieces of information.
Assessment Weighting
The weighting of an assessment item refers to the amount, or proportion, that each assessment mark contributes to your final grade. While you should never ignore low weighted assessment tasks, the weighting should guide the amount of time you invest in an individual assessment task.
Table 13. Relative weightings of assessment items for an example subject
Assessment item Weighting
Annotated Bibliography 5%
Essay 25%
Short answer quiz 10%
Presentation 20%
End of semester exam 40%
100%
Planning
Once you have understood the requirements of your assessment task, writing a plan will assist you to:
• Break the task into manageable chunks.
• Keep your assessment study time focused on what you need to be achieving.
• Keep to your word limit.
The chapter Time Management provides useful information about breaking larger tasks into smaller ones and managing your study time. Be sure to pay attention to the information about chunking your task.
Finding information
You are usually going to need to find credible information once you understand the requirements of the assessment task. The chapter Working with Information provides guidance on finding and managing information. Remember to keep the reference information with any notes that you are taking, so you can appropriately cite this information.
Writing your assignment
You are now ready to write your assessment. Remember to refer to your original assessment plan, including which key points you will be making.
The English Language Foundations chapter provides information about enhancing your writing and the Types of Assignments chapter provides additional information about writing specific sections and types of assignments. If you are preparing a presentation, then the Presentations chapter will be a useful guide.
Revising and reviewing
Allocate time for revising and reviewing your work before submitting. This allows you to find and fix small errors that could lose you marks. It is also an opportunity to review your document as a whole to ensure that your ideas are fully explained and linked to the assessment task. If possible, leave your writing for a couple of days before you start reviewing, editing, and proofreading. This will allow you to see your work with ‘fresh eyes’ and you will be more likely to detect errors and inconsistencies. Review each of your sentences (e.g. correct punctuation, length, and spelling), paragraphs (e.g. clear topic sentences and credible appropriately cited evidence), and the document as a whole. You can also use the information from the English Language Foundations chapter as a guide when reviewing your writing.
The marking rubric and task sheet can also be used as checklists to ensure that you have covered all the key aspects required for the assessment task. For example, check that you have:
• used the correct referencing style
• cited the required number of credible sources (if specified)
• provided information on each of the required topics
• used the required headings and formatting
• written within the required word count
The English Language Foundations chapter also provides useful information about enhancing your writing and the Types of Assignments chapter provides additional information about writing specific sections and types of assignments.
Submitting
Don’t forget to submit your assessment. At JCU, this is usually done through a drop box in your LearnJCU subject site. Check that your submission has gone through if you are submitting online and keep a copy of any assessments once submitted.
Preparing for feedback
At university, staff and your peers provide you with verbal and written feedback to help you learn and develop. However, this feedback can only be effective if you are prepared to receive it. In practice, this means you need to do the following:
• Keep an open mind: The person who provides you with feedback may be critical of your work or your views. This criticism is an important feature of learning at tertiary level. It is meant to be constructive, not personal. Be prepared to accept this criticism.
• Be reflective: To ensure that you are ready to use feedback, adopt a reflective mindset. This means reading or listening to comments and thinking about how you may use this information to improve your work.
• Get ready to change: Feedback is only effective if it is used. This means that you need to be prepared to act or change how you perform a task or engage in an activity in response to feedback. If you are unwilling to make changes, you limit the positive impact feedback can have.
Engaging with feedback
Once you have received feedback in class, online, in practicals, or on a piece of assessment, you need to engage and act on it. This means you need to allow yourself time to review, think about, clarify, and apply feedback to your current and future work. As engaging with your feedback is part of the learning process, use your feedback to:
• Improve your work and/or practice
• Develop your skills
• Improve your marks
If you don’t consider your feedback, then you may continue to lose marks or make the same mistakes in future assessments or tasks. Feedback is an ongoing process and includes:
• Constructive feedback on areas for improvement during your studies.
• Feedback about your work. It is not about you as a person (try not to take it personally).
Hints and tips for using feedback
There are several strategies you can utilise to take advantage of your feedback. Remember, sometimes it helps to read through your feedback, then leave it for a while before engaging with it. Consider:
• What you did well.
• What can you improve for your next assessment.
• What information or support you will need to develop those skills.
• What areas did you receive partial or no marks for? These are areas for improvement.
Dealing with negative feedback
We all make mistakes and have areas for improvement. Therefore, try not to be too hard on yourself. Put your feedback in perspective and remember, it’s not personal. Importantly, use your feedback to your advantage and learn from it. Last but not least, ask for help. There are resources and people available to help you engage with your feedback and improve your skills.
Key resources at JCU include: your peers, your teaching staff, your subject outline, the peer advisors, and the learning advisors. Access The Learning Center here.
Did you know?
• Markers are people too, and sometimes they make mistakes.
• Most errors are discovered in the moderation process, but occasionally a marking error slips through.
• If that has happened to you, then respectfully contact the course coordinator to raise the error. Be clear and factual.
• Don’t rush to contact the marker while you are angry or upset. Make sure your contact is respectful.
• Allow appropriate time for your marks to be reviewed.
• Being close to the next grade, or usually getting better marks, are not examples of errors in marking.
Academic Integrity
Academic integrity is the commitment to act ethically, with honesty, respect, and fairness in creating and communicating information in an academic environment. This applies to both staff and students. In short, it means to produce original work and use other people’s academic work with honesty and acknowledgement. The Learning Centre has a range of resources available for you here: Academic Integrity at JCU.
For more information, view the Integrity at University chapter.
Conclusion
In this chapter, we described some of the assessment information that you will receive in your courses. We discussed the importance of planning your assessment preparation and the steps involved. We examined the importance of understanding and applying feedback to improve your assessment and finished with an overview of academic integrity. It can be tempting to skip over reading the assessment information and planning stages, however these steps will save you time overall and contribute to your academic success.
Key points
• Your task descriptors and marking rubrics provide key information about your assessment.
• Developing a plan for the assessment task will help you to keep on track.
• Allow time for reviewing and editing your work before submitting.
• Reward yourself for submitting your assessment.
• Understanding and engaging with your feedback is critical for success, and feedback is not intended to be personal.
• Academic integrity involves engaging in behaviours and actions that are honest, respectful, and ethical. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/Foundations_of_Academic_Success_(Morgan_et_al.)/04%3A_Successful_Assessment/4.01%3A_Managing_Assessment.txt |
Introduction
Assignments are a common method of assessment at university and require careful planning and good quality research. Developing critical thinking and writing skills are also necessary to demonstrate your ability to understand and apply information about your topic. It is not uncommon to be unsure about the processes of writing assignments at university.
This chapter has a collection of resources that will provide you with the skills and strategies to understand assignment requirements and effectively plan, research, write, and edit your assignments.
Task Analysis and Deconstructing an Assignment
It is important that you spend sufficient time understanding all the requirements before you begin researching and writing your assignments.
The assessment task description (located in your subject outline) provides key information about an assessment item, including the question. It is essential to scan this document for topic, task, and limiting words. If there are any elements you do not understand, you should clarify these as early as possible.
Table 14. Parts of an assignment question
Topic words These are words and concepts you have to research.
Task words These will tell you how to approach the assignment and structure the information you find in your research (e.g. discuss, analyse).
Limiting words These words define the scope or parameters of the assignment, e.g., Australian perspectives, a particular jurisdiction (this would be relevant then to which laws, codes or standards you consulted) or a timeframe.
Make sure you have a clear understanding of what the task word requires you to address.
Table 15. Task words
Task word Definition Example
Account for Give reasons for or explain why something has occurred. This task directs you to consider contributing factors to a certain situation or event. You are expected to make a decision about why these occurred, not just describe the events. Account for the factors that led to the global financial crisis.
Analyse Consider the different elements of a concept, statement or situation. Show the different components and show how they connect or relate. Your structure and argument should be logical and methodical. Analyse the political, social and economic impacts of climate change.
Assess Make a judgement on a topic or idea. Consider its reliability, truth and usefulness. In your judgement, consider both the strengths and weaknesses of the opposing arguments to determine your topic’s worth (similar to evaluate). Assess the efficacy of cogitative behavioural therapy (CBT) for the treatment of depression.
Classify Divide your topic into categories or sub-topics logically (could possibly be part of a more complex task). Classify the artists studied this semester according to the artistic periods they best represent. Then choose one artist and evaluate their impact on future artists.
Comment on State your opinion on an issue or idea. You may explain the issue or idea in more detail. Be objective and support your opinion with reliable evidence. Comment on the government’s proposal to legalise safe injecting rooms.
Compare OR Compare and contrast Show the similarities and differences between two or more ideas, theories, systems, arguments, or events. You are expected to provide a balanced response, highlighting similarities and differences. Compare the efficiency of wind and solar power generation for a construction site.
Contrast Point out only the differences between two or more ideas, theories, systems, arguments, or events. Contrast virtue ethics and utilitarianism as models for ethical decision making.
Critically (this is often used with another task word, e.g. critically evaluate, critically analyse, critically discuss) It does not mean to criticise; instead, you are required to give a balanced account, highlighting strengths and weaknesses about the topic. Your overall judgment must be supported by reliable evidence and your interpretation of that evidence. Critically analyse the impacts of mental health on recidivism within youth justice.
Define Provide a precise meaning of a concept. You may need to include the limits or scope of the concept within a given context. Define digital disruption as it relates to productivity.
Describe Provide a thorough description, emphasising the most important points. Use words to show appearance, function, process, events or systems. You are not required to make judgements. Describe the pathophysiology of Asthma.
Distinguish Highlight the differences between two (possibly confusing) items. Distinguish between exothermic and endothermic reactions.
Discuss Provide an analysis of a topic. Use evidence to support your argument. Be logical and include different perspectives on the topic (This requires more than a description). Discuss how Brofenbrenner’s ecological system’s theory applies to adolescence.
Evaluate Review both positive and negative aspects of a topic. You may need to provide an overall judgement regarding the value or usefulness of the topic. Evidence (referencing) must be included to support your writing. Evaluate the impact of inclusive early childhood education programs on subsequent high school completion rates for First Nations students.
Explain Describe and clarify the situation or topic. Depending on your discipline area and topic, this may include processes, pathways, cause and effect, impact, or outcomes. Explain the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the film industry in Australia.
Illustrate Clarify a point or argument with examples and evidence. Illustrate how society’s attitudes to disability have changed from a medical model to a wholistic model of disability.
Justify Give evidence which supports an argument or idea; show why a decision or conclusions were made. Justify may be used with other topic words, such as outline, argue. Write a report outlining the key issues and implications of a welfare cashless debit card trial and make three recommendations for future improvements. Justify your decision-making process for the recommendations.
Review A comprehensive description of the situation or topic which provides a critical analysis of the key issues. Provide a review of Australia’s asylum policies since the Pacific Solution in 2001.
Summarise An overview or brief description of a topic. (This is likely to be part of a larger assessment task.) Summarise the process for calculating the correct load for a plane.
The marking criteria or rubric, is an important document to look at before you begin your assignment. This outlines how your assignment will be marked and should be used as a checklist to make sure you have included all the information required.
The assessment task description will also include the:
• Due date
• Word limit (or word count)
• Referencing style and research expectations
• Formatting requirements
For a more detailed discussion on task analysis, criteria sheets, and marking rubrics, visit the chapter Managing Assessments.
Preparing your ideas
Brainstorm or concept map: List possible ideas to address each part of the assignment task based on what you already know about the topic from lectures and weekly readings.
Finding appropriate information: Learn how to find scholarly information for your assignments which is:
• accurate
• recent
• reliable
See the chapter Working With Information for a more detailed explanation.
What is Academic Writing?
Academic writing tone and style
Many of the assessment items you prepare will require an academic writing style. Sometimes this feels awkward when you begin. However, it is good to know that practice at academic writing reduces this feeling.
Table 16. Comparison of academic and non-academic writing
Academic writing Non-academic writing
Is clear, concise and well-structured. Is verbose and may use more words than are needed.
Is formal. It writes numbers under ten in full. Writes numbers under ten as numerals and uses symbols such as “&” instead of writing it in full.
Is reasoned and supported (logically developed). Uses humour – puns, sarcasm.
Is authoritative (writes in third person- “Evidence suggests that…”). Writes in first person “I think”, “I found”.
Utilises the language of the field/industry/subject. Uses colloquial language e.g., “mate”.
Thesis statements
One of the most important steps in writing an essay is constructing your working thesis statement. A thesis statement tells the reader the purpose, argument, or direction you will take to answer your assignment question. It is found in the introduction paragraph. The thesis statement:
• Directly relates to the task. Your thesis statement may even contain some of the key words or synonyms from the task description.
• Does more than restate the question.
• Is specific and uses precise language.
• Lets your reader know your position or the main argument that you will support with evidence throughout your assignment.
• Usually has two parts: subject and premise.
• The subject is the key content area you will be covering.
• The premise is the key argument or position.
A key element of your thesis statement should be included in the topic sentence of each paragraph.
Planning your assignment structure
When planning and drafting assignments, it is important to consider the structure of your writing. Academic writing should have a clear and logical structure and incorporate academic research to support your ideas. It can be hard to get started and at first you may feel nervous about the size of the task. This is normal. If you break your assignment into smaller pieces, it will seem more manageable as you can approach the task in sections. Refer to your brainstorm or plan. These ideas should guide your research and will also inform what you write in your draft. It is sometimes easier to draft your assignment using the 2-3-1 approach, that is, write the body paragraphs first followed by the conclusion and finally the introduction.
No one’s writing is the best quality on the first few drafts, not even professional writers. It is strongly advised that you accept that your first few drafts will feel rough. Ultimately, it is the editing and review processes which lead to good quality ideas and writing.
Writing introductions and conclusions
Clear and purposeful introductions and conclusions in assignments are fundamental to effective academic writing. Your introduction should tell the reader what is going to be covered and how you intend to approach this. Your conclusion should summarise your argument or discussion and signal to the reader that you have come to a conclusion with a final statement.
Writing introductions
An effective introduction needs to inform your reader by establishing what the paper is about and provide four basic elements:
1. A brief background or overview of your assignment topic and key information that reader needs to understand your thesis statement.
2. Scope of discussion (key points discussed in body paragraphs).
3. A thesis statement (see section above).
The below example demonstrates the different elements of an introductory paragraph.
1) Information technology is having significant effects on the communication of individuals and organisations in different professions. 2) Digital technology is now widely utilised in health settings, by health professionals. Within the public health field, doctors and nurses need to engage with ongoing professional development relating to digital technology in order to ensure efficient delivery of services to patients and communities. 3) Clearly, information technology has significant potential to improve health care and medical education, but some health professionals are reluctant to use it.
1 Brief background/overview | 2 Scope of what will be covered | 3 The thesis statement
Writing conclusions
You should aim to end your assignments with a strong conclusion. Your conclusion should restate your thesis statement and summarise the key points you have used to prove this thesis. Finish with a key point as a final impactful statement. If your assessment task asks you to make recommendations, you may need to allocate more words to the conclusion or add a separate recommendations section before the conclusion. Use the checklist below to check your conclusion is doing the right job.
Conclusion checklist
• Have you referred to the assignment question and restated your argument (or thesis statement), as outlined in the introduction?
• Have you pulled together all the threads of your essay into a logical ending and given it a sense of unity?
• Have you presented implications or recommendations in your conclusion? (if required by your task).
• Have you added to the overall quality and impact of your essay? This is your final statement about this topic; thus, a key take-away point can make a great impact on the reader.
• Do not add any new material or direct quotes in your conclusion.
This below example demonstrates the different elements of a concluding paragraph.
1) Clearly, communication of individuals and organisations is substantially influenced or affected by information technology across professions. 2) Managers must ensure that effective in-house training programs are provided for public health professionals, so that they become more familiar with the particular digital technologies 3) In addition, the patients and communities being served by public health professionals benefit when communication technologies are effectively implemented. 4) The Australian health system may never be completely free of communication problems, however, ensuring appropriate and timely professional development, provision of resource sand infrastructure will enhance service provision and health outcomes.
1 Reference to thesis statement – In this essay the writer has taken the position that training is required for both employees and employers. | 2-3 Structure overview – Here the writer pulls together the main ideas in the essay. | 4 Final summary statement that is based on the evidence.
Note: The examples in this document are adapted from the University of Canberra and used under a CC-BY-SA-3.0 licence.
Writing paragraphs
Each paragraph should have its own clearly identified Topic Sentence or main idea which relates to the argument or point (thesis) you are developing. This idea should then be explained by additional sentences which you have paraphrased from good quality sources and referenced according to the recommended guidelines of your subject (see the chapter Working with Information). Paragraphs are characterised by moving from general information to the specific details. A common structure for paragraphs in academic writing is as follows.
Topic Sentence
The first sentence of the paragraph is the Topic Sentence. This is the main idea of the paragraph and tells the reader what you will discuss in more detail below. Each Topic Sentence should address one aspect of your overall argument.
Supporting Sentences
Supporting Sentences provide more explanation, evidence, data, analogies, and/or analysis of the main idea.
Linking/Concluding Sentence
Some paragraphs are best linked to the following paragraph through a Linking/Concluding Sentence. Not every paragraph lends itself to this type of sentence.
Use the checklist below to check your paragraphs are clear and well formed.
Paragraph checklist
• Does your paragraph have a clear main idea?
• Is everything in the paragraph related to this main idea?
• Is the main idea adequately developed and explained?
• Have you included evidence to support your ideas?
• Have you concluded the paragraph by connecting it to your overall topic (where appropriate)?
Writing sentences
Make sure all the sentences in your paragraphs make sense. Each sentence must contain a verb to be a complete sentence. Avoid incomplete sentences or ideas that are unfinished and create confusion for your reader. Also avoid overly long sentences, which happens when you join two ideas or clauses without using the appropriate punctuation. Address only one key idea per sentence. See the chapter English Language Foundations for examples and further explanation.
Use transitions (linking words and phrases) to connect your ideas between paragraphs and make your writing flow. The order that you structure the ideas in your assignment should reflect the structure you have outlined in your introduction. Refer to the transition words table in the chapter English Language Foundations.
Paraphrasing and Synthesising
What is paraphrasing?
Paraphrasing is changing the writing of another author into your words while retaining the original meaning. You must acknowledge the original author as the source of the information in your citation. Follow the steps in this table to help you build your skills in paraphrasing. Note: paraphrasing generally means that the rewritten section is the same or a similar length to the original.
Table 17. Paraphrasing techniques
1 Make sure you understand what you are reading. Look up keywords to understand their meanings.
2 Record the details of the source so you will be able to cite it correctly in text and in your reference list.
3 Identify words that you can change to synonyms (but do not change the key/topic words).
4 Change the type of word in a sentence (for example change a noun to a verb or vice versa).
5 Eliminate unnecessary words or phrases from the original that you don’t need in your paraphrase.
6 Change the sentence structure (for example, change a long sentence to several shorter ones or combine shorter sentences to form a longer sentence).
Example of paraphrasing
Please note that these examples and in-text citations are for instructional purposes only.
Original text
Health care professionals assist people, often when they are at their most vulnerable. To provide the best care and understand their needs, workers must demonstrate good communication skills. They must develop patient trust and provide empathy to effectively work with patients who are experiencing a variety of situations including those who may be suffering from trauma or violence, physical or mental illness or substance abuse (French & Saunders, 2018).
Poor quality paraphrase example
This is a poor example of paraphrasing. Some synonyms have been used and the order of a few words changed within the sentences. However, the colours of the sentences indicate that the paragraph follows the same structure as the original text.
Health care sector workers are often responsible for vulnerable patients. To understand patients and deliver good service, they need to be excellent communicators. They must establish patient rapport and show empathy if they are to successfully care for patients from a variety of backgrounds and with different medical, psychological and social needs (French & Saunders, 2018).
A good quality paraphrase example
This example demonstrates a better quality paraphrase. The author has demonstrated more understanding of the overall concept in the text by using the keywords as the basis to reconstruct the paragraph.
Empathetic communication is a vital skill for health care workers. Professionals in these fields are often responsible forpatients with complex medical, psychological and social needs. Empathetic communicationassists in buildingrapport and gaining the necessary trust toassist these vulnerable patients by providing appropriate supportive care (French & Saunders, 2018).
The good quality paraphrase example demonstrates understanding of the overall concept in the text by using key words as the basis to reconstruct the paragraph. Note how the blocks of colour have been broken up to see how much the structure has changed from the original text.
What is synthesising?
Synthesising means to bring together more than one source of information to strengthen your argument. Once you have learnt how to paraphrase the ideas of one source at a time, you can consider adding additional sources to support your argument. Synthesis demonstrates your understanding and ability to show connections between multiple pieces of evidence to support your ideas and is a more advanced academic thinking and writing skill.
Follow the steps in this table to improve your synthesis techniques.
Table 18. Synthesising techniques
1 Check your referencing guide to learn how to correctly reference more than one author at a time in your paper.
2 While taking notes for your research, try organising your notes into themes. This way you can keep similar ideas from different authors together.
3 Identify similar language and tone used by authors so that you can group similar ideas together.
4 Synthesis can not only be about grouping ideas together that are similar, but also those that are different. See how you can contrast authors in your writing to also strengthen your argument.
Example of synthesis
There is a relationship between academic procrastination and mental health outcomes. Procrastination has been found to have a negative effect on students’ well-being (Balkis, & Duru, 2016). Yerdelen et al.’s (2016) research results suggest that there is a positive association between procrastination and anxiety. This is corroborated by Custer’s (2018) findings which indicate that students with higher levels of procrastination also report greater levels of anxiety. Therefore, it could be argued that procrastination is an ineffective learning strategy that leads to increased levels of distress.
Topic sentence | Statements using paraphrased evidence | Critical thinking (student voice) | Concluding statement – linking to topic sentence
This example demonstrates a simple synthesis. The author has developed a paragraph with one central theme and included explanatory sentences complete with in-text citations from multiple sources. Note how the blocks of colour have been used to illustrate the paragraph structure and synthesis (i.e. statements using paraphrased evidence from several sources). A more complex synthesis may include more than one citation per sentence.
Paraphrasing and synthesising are powerful tools that you can use to support the main idea of a paragraph. It is likely that you will regularly use these skills at university to incorporate evidence into explanatory sentences and strengthen your essay. It is important to paraphrase and synthesise because:
• Paraphrasing is regarded more highly at university than direct quoting.
• Paraphrasing can also help you better understand the material.
• Paraphrasing and synthesising demonstrate that you have understood what you have read through your ability to summarise and combine arguments from the literature using your own words.
Creating an Argument
What does this mean?
In academic writing, if you are asked to create an argument, this means you are asked to have a position on a particular topic, and then justify your position using evidence from valid scholarly sources.
What skills do you need to create an argument?
In order to create a good and effective argument, you need to be able to:
• Read critically to find evidence.
• Plan your argument.
• Think and write critically throughout your paper to enhance your argument.
For tips on how to read and write critically, refer to the chapter Thinking for more information. A formula for developing a strong argument is presented below.
What does an argument look like?
As can be seen from the figure above, including evidence is a key element of a good argument. While this may seem like a straightforward task, it can be difficult to think of wording to express your argument. The table below provides examples of how you can illustrate your argument in academic writing.
Table 19. Argument
Introducing your argument • This paper will argue/claim that…
• …is an important factor/concept/idea/ to consider because…
• … will be argued/outlined in this paper.
Introducing evidence for your argument • Smith (2014) outlines that….
• This evidence demonstrates that…
• According to Smith (2014)…
• For example, evidence/research provided by Smith (2014) indicates that…
Giving the reason why your point/evidence is important • Therefore this indicates…
• This evidence clearly demonstrates….
• This is important/significant because…
• This data highlights…
Concluding a point • Overall, it is clear that…
• Therefore, … are reasons which should be considered because…
• Consequently, this leads to….
• The research presented therefore indicates…
Editing and proofreading (reviewing)
Once you have finished writing your first draft it is recommended that you spend time revising your work. Proofreading and editing are two different stages of the revision process.
• Editing considers the overall focus or bigger picture of the assignment.
• Proofreading considers the finer details.
As can be seen in the figure above, there are four main areas that you should review during the editing phase of the revision process. The main things to consider when editing include content, structure, style, and sources. It is important to check that all the content relates to the assignment task, the structure is appropriate for the purposes of the assignment, the writing is academic in style, and that sources have been adequately acknowledged. Use the checklist below when editing your work.
Editing checklist
• Have I answered the question accurately?
• Do I have enough credible, scholarly supporting evidence?
• Is my writing tone objective and formal enough or have I used emotive and informal language?
• Have I written in third person, not first person?
• Do I have appropriate in-text citations for all my information?
• Have I included the full details for all my in-text citations in my reference list?
During proofreading, it is important to check your work for word choice, grammar and spelling, punctuation, and referencing errors. It can be easy to mis-type words like ‘from’ and ‘form’ or mix up words like ‘trail’ and ‘trial’ when writing about research, apply American rather than Australian spelling, include unnecessary commas, or incorrectly format your references list. The checklist below is a useful guide that you can use when proofreading your work.
Proofreading checklist
• Is my spelling and grammar accurate?
• Are my sentences sensible?
• Are they complete?
• Do they all make sense?
• Do the different elements (subject, verb, nouns, pronouns) within my sentences agree?
• Are my sentences too long and complicated?
• Do they contain only one idea per sentence?
• Is my writing concise? Take out words that do not add meaning to your sentences.
• Have I used appropriate discipline specific language but avoided words I don’t know or understand that could possibly be out of context?
• Have I avoided discriminatory language and colloquial expressions (slang)?
• Is my referencing formatted correctly according to my assignment guidelines? (For more information on referencing, refer to the Managing Assessment feedback section).
Conclusion
This chapter has examined the experience of writing assignments. It began by focusing on how to read and break down an assignment question, then highlighted the key components of essays. Next, it examined some techniques for paraphrasing and summarising, and how to build an argument. It concluded with a discussion on planning and structuring your assignment and giving it that essential polish with editing and proofreading. Combining these skills and practising them can greatly improve your success with this very common form of assessment.
Key points
• Academic writing requires clear and logical structure, critical thinking and the use of credible scholarly sources.
• A thesis statement is important as it tells the reader the position or argument you have adopted in your assignment.
• Spending time analysing your task and planning your structure before you start to write your assignment is time well spent.
• Information you use in your assignment should come from credible scholarly sources such as textbooks and peer reviewed journals. This information needs to be paraphrased and referenced appropriately.
• Paraphrasing means putting something into your own words and synthesising means to bring together several ideas from sources.
• Creating an argument is a four step process and can be applied to all types of academic writing.
• Editing and proofreading are two separate processes. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/Foundations_of_Academic_Success_(Morgan_et_al.)/04%3A_Successful_Assessment/4.02%3A_Writing_Assignments.txt |
Introduction
As discussed in the previous chapter, assignments are a common method of assessment at university. You may encounter many assignments over your years of study, yet some will look quite different from others. By recognising different types of assignments and understanding the purpose of the task, you can direct your writing skills effectively to meet task requirements. This chapter draws on the skills from the previous chapter, and extends the discussion, showing you where to aim with different types of assignments.
The chapter begins by exploring the popular essay assignment, with its two common categories, analytical and argumentative essays. It then examines assignments requiring case study responses, as often encountered in fields such as health or business. This is followed by a discussion of assignments seeking a report (such as a scientific report) and reflective writing assignments, which are common in nursing, education, and human services. The chapter concludes with an examination of annotated bibliographies and literature reviews. The chapter also has a selection of templates and examples throughout to enhance your understanding and improve the efficacy of your assignment writing skills.
Different Types of Written Assignments
Essay
At university, an essay is a common form of assessment. In the previous chapter Writing Assignments, we discussed what was meant by showing academic writing in your assignments. It is important that you consider these aspects of structure, tone, and language when writing an essay.
Components of an essay
Essays should use formal but reader-friendly language and have a clear and logical structure. They must include research from credible academic sources such as peer reviewed journal articles and textbooks. This research should be referenced throughout your essay to support your ideas (see the chapter Working with Information).
If you have never written an essay before, you may feel unsure about how to start. Breaking your essay into sections and allocating words accordingly will make this process more manageable and will make planning the overall essay structure much easier.
• An essay requires an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
• Generally, an introduction and conclusion are each approximately 10% of the total word count.
• The remaining words can then be divided into sections and a paragraph allowed for each area of content you need to cover.
• Use your task and criteria sheet to decide what content needs to be in your plan
An effective essay introduction needs to inform your reader by doing four basic things:
Table 20. An effective essay
1 Engage the reader’s interest and provide a brief background of the topic.
2 Provide a thesis statement. This is the position or argument you will adopt. (Note that a thesis statement is not always required. Check with your tutor).
3 Outline the structure of the essay.
4 Indicate any parameters or scope that will/will not be covered.
An effective essay body paragraph needs to:
1 State the topic sentence or main point of the paragraph. If you have a thesis statement, the topic sentence should relate to this.
2 Expand this main idea, define any terminology, and explain concepts in more depth.
3 This information should be paraphrased and referenced from credible sources according to the appropriate referencing style of your course.
4 Demonstrate critical thinking by showing the relationship of the point you are making and the evidence you have included. This is where you introduce your “student voice”. Ask yourself the “So what?” question (as outlined in the critical thinking section) to add a discussion or interpretation of how the evidence you have included in your paragraph is relevant to your topic.
5 Conclude your idea and link to your next point.
An effective essay conclusion needs to:
1 Summarise or state the main points covered, using past tense.
2 Provide an overall conclusion that relates to the thesis statement or position you raised in your introduction.
3 Not add any new information.
Common types of essays
You may be required to write different types of essays, depending on your study area and topic. Two of the most commonly used essays are analytical and argumentative. The task analysis process discussed in the previous chapter Writing Assignments will help you determine the type of essay required. For example, if your assignment question uses task words such as analyse, examine, discuss, determine, or explore, then you would be writing an analytical essay. If your assignment question has task words such as argue, evaluate, justify, or assess, then you would be writing an argumentative essay. Regardless of the type of essay, your ability to analyse and think critically is important and common across genres.
Analytical essays
These essays usually provide some background description of the relevant theory, situation, problem, case, image, etcetera that is your topic. Being analytical requires you to look carefully at various components or sections of your topic in a methodical and logical way to create understanding.
The purpose of the analytical essay is to demonstrate your ability to examine the topic thoroughly. This requires you to go deeper than description by considering different sides of the situation, comparing and contrasting a variety of theories and the positives and negatives of the topic. Although your position on the topic may be clear in an analytical essay, it is not necessarily a requirement that you explicitly identify this with a thesis statement. In an argumentative essay, however, it is necessary that you explicitly identify your position on the topic with a thesis statement. If you are unsure whether you are required to take a position, and provide a thesis statement, it is best to check with your tutor.
Argumentative essays
These essays require you to take a position on the assignment topic. This is expressed through your thesis statement in your introduction. You must then present and develop your arguments throughout the body of your assignment using logically structured paragraphs. Each of these paragraphs needs a topic sentence that relates to the thesis statement. In an argumentative essay, you must reach a conclusion based on the evidence you have presented.
Case study responses
Case studies are a common form of assignment in many study areas and students can underperform in this genre for a number of key reasons.
Students typically lose marks for not:
• Relating their answer sufficiently to the case details.
• Applying critical thinking.
• Writing with clear structure.
• Using appropriate or sufficient sources.
• Using accurate referencing.
When structuring your response to a case study, remember to refer to the case. Structure your paragraphs similarly to an essay paragraph structure, but include examples and data from the case as additional evidence to support your points (see Figure 68). The colours in the sample paragraph below show the function of each component.
The Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia (NMBA) Code of Conduct and Nursing Standards (2018) play a crucial role in determining the scope of practice for nurses and midwives. A key component discussed in the code is the provision of person-centred care and the formation of therapeutic relationships between nurses and patients (NMBA, 2018). This ensures patient safety and promotes health and wellbeing (NMBA, 2018). The standards also discuss the importance of partnership and shared decision-making in the delivery of care (NMBA, 2018, 4). Boyd and Dare (2014) argue that good communication skills are vital for building therapeutic relationships and trust between patients and care givers. This will help ensure the patient is treated with dignity and respect and improve their overall hospital experience. In the case, the therapeutic relationship with the client has been compromised in several ways. Firstly, the nurse did not conform adequately to the guidelines for seeking informed consent before performing the examination as outlined in principle 2.3 (NMBA, 2018). Although she explained the procedure, she failed to give the patient appropriate choices regarding her health care.
Topic sentence | Explanations using paraphrased evidence including in-text references | Critical thinking (asks the so what? question to demonstrate your student voice). | Relating the theory back to the specifics of the case. The case becomes a source of examples as extra evidence to support the points you are making.
Report
Reports are a common form of assessment at university and are also used widely in many professions. It is a common form of writing in business, government, scientific, and technical occupations.
Reports can take many different structures. A report is normally written to present information in a structured manner, which may include explaining laboratory experiments, technical information, or a business case. Reports may be written for different audiences, including clients, your manager, technical staff, or senior leadership within an organisation. The structure of reports can vary, and it is important to consider what format is required. The choice of structure will depend upon professional requirements and the ultimate aims of the report. Consider some of the options in the table below (see Table 18.2).
Table 21. Explanations of different types of reports
Executive or Business Reports Overall purpose is to convey structured information for business decision making.
Short form or Summary Reports Are abbreviated report structures designed to convey information in a focused short form manner.
Scientific Reports Are used for scientific documentation purposes and may detail the results of research or describe an experiment or a research problem.
Technical Reports Are used to communicate technical information for decision making, this may include discussing technical problems and solutions.
Evaluation Reports Present the results of or a proposal for an evaluation or assessment of a policy, program, process or service.
Reflective writing
Reflective writing is a popular method of assessment at university. It is used to help you explore feelings, experiences, opinions, events, or new information to gain a clearer and deeper understanding of your learning.
A reflective writing task requires more than a description or summary. It requires you to analyse a situation, problem or experience, consider what you may have learnt, and evaluate how this may impact your thinking and actions in the future. This requires critical thinking, analysis, and usually the application of good quality research, to demonstrate your understanding or learning from a situation.
Essentially, reflective practice is the process of looking back on past experiences and engaging with them in a thoughtful way and drawing conclusions to inform future experiences. The reflection skills you develop at university will be vital in the workplace to assist you to use feedback for growth and continuous improvement. There are numerous models of reflective writing and you should refer to your subject guidelines for your expected format. If there is no specific framework, a simple model to help frame your thinking is What? So what? Now what? (Rolfe et al., 2001).
Table 22. What? So What? Now What? Explained.
What? Describe the experience – who, what, why, when, where?
So what? What have you learnt from this? Why does it matter? What has been the impact on you? In what way? Why? You can include connections to coursework, current events, past experiences.
Now what? What are you going to do as a result of your experience? How will you apply what you have learnt in the future? Are there critical questions to further pursue? Make an action plan of what you will do next.
The Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle
The Gibbs’ Cycle of reflection encourages you to consider your feelings as part of the reflective process. There are six specific steps to work through. Following this model carefully and being clear of the requirements of each stage, will help you focus your thinking and reflect more deeply. This model is popular in Health.
The 4 R’s of reflective thinking
This model (Ryan and Ryan, 2013) was designed specifically for university students engaged in experiential learning. Experiential learning includes any ‘real-world’ activities, including practice led activities, placements, and internships. Experiential learning, and the use of reflective practice to heighten this learning, is common in Creative Arts, Health, and Education.
Annotated bibliography
What is it?
An annotated bibliography is an alphabetical list of appropriate sources (e.g. books, journal articles, or websites) on a topic, accompanied by a brief summary, evaluation, and sometimes an explanation or reflection on their usefulness or relevance to your topic. Its purpose is to teach you to research carefully, evaluate sources and systematically organise your notes. An annotated bibliography may be one part of a larger assessment item or a stand-alone assessment item. Check your task guidelines for the number of sources you are required to annotate and the word limit for each entry.
How do I know what to include?
When choosing sources for your annotated bibliography, it is important to determine:
• The topic you are investigating and if there is a specific question to answer.
• The type of sources on which you need to focus.
• Whether these sources are reputable and of high quality.
What do I say?
Important considerations include:
• Is the work current?
• Is the work relevant to your topic?
• Is the author credible/reliable?
• Is there any author bias?
• The strength and limitations (this may include an evaluation of research methodology).
Literature reviews
Generally, a literature review requires that you review the scholarly literature and establish the main ideas that have been written about your chosen topic. A literature review does not summarise and evaluate each resource you find (this is what you would do in an annotated bibliography). You are expected to analyse and synthesise or organise common ideas from multiple texts into key themes which are relevant to your topic (see Figure 18.10). You may also be expected to identify gaps in the research.
It is easy to get confused by the terminology used for literature reviews. Some tasks may be described as a systematic literature review when actually the requirement is simpler; to review the literature on the topic but do it in a systematic way. There is a distinct difference (see Table 15.4). As a commencing undergraduate student, it is unlikely you would be expected to complete a systematic literature review as this is a complex and more advanced research task. It is important to check with your lecturer or tutor if you are unsure of the requirements.
Table 23. Comparison of Literature Reviews
A literature review A systematic literature review
A review that analyses and synthesises the literature on your research topic in a systemic (clear and logical) way. It may be organised:
• Conceptually
• Chronologically
• Methodologically
A much larger and more complicated research project which follows a clearly defined research protocol or process to remove any reviewer bias. Each step in the search process is documented to ensure it is able to be replicated, repeated or updated.
When conducting a literature review, use a table or a spreadsheet, if you know how, to organise the information you find. Record the full reference details of the sources as this will save you time later when compiling your reference list (see Table 18.5).
Conclusion
Overall, this chapter has provided an introduction to the types of assignments you can expect to complete at university, as well as outlined some tips and strategies with examples and templates for completing them. First, the chapter investigated essay assignments, including analytical and argumentative essays. It then examined case study assignments, followed by a discussion of the report format. Reflective writing, popular in nursing, education, and human services, was also considered. Finally, the chapter briefly addressed annotated bibliographies and literature reviews. The chapter also has a selection of templates and examples throughout to enhance your understanding and improve the efficacy of your assignment writing skills.
Key points
• Not all assignments at university are the same. Understanding the requirements of different types of assignments will assist in meeting the criteria more effectively.
• There are many different types of assignments. Most will require an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
• An essay should have a clear and logical structure and use formal but reader-friendly language.
• Breaking your assignment into manageable chunks makes it easier to approach.
• Effective body paragraphs contain a topic sentence.
• A case study structure is similar to an essay, but you must remember to provide examples from the case or scenario to demonstrate your points.
• The type of report you may be required to write will depend on its purpose and audience. A report requires structured writing and uses headings.
• Reflective writing is popular in many disciplines and is used to explore feelings, experiences, opinions, or events to discover what learning or understanding has occurred. Reflective writing requires more than description. You need to be analytical, consider what has been learnt, and evaluate the impact of this on future actions.
• Annotated bibliographies teach you to research and evaluate sources and systematically organise your notes. They may be part of a larger assignment.
• Literature reviews require you to look across the literature and analyse and synthesise the information you find into themes. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/Foundations_of_Academic_Success_(Morgan_et_al.)/04%3A_Successful_Assessment/4.03%3A_Types_of_Assignments.txt |
Introduction
Presentations are a common form of assessment at university. At some point during your program, you will very likely be required to deliver information via a presentation. This chapter provides you with the foundational knowledge, skills, and tips to prepare and present your work effectively.
Types of Presentations
There are various types of presentations you may come across at university. Being aware of each type of presentation can be beneficial for you as a student. At university, most presentations will either be formal, informal, or group presentations.
• Formal presentations are instances where you are required to prepare in advance to deliver a talk. This can be for an assessment piece, interview, conference, or project. In a formal presentation, you are likely to use some form of visual tool to deliver the information.
• Informal presentations are occasions where you may be required to deliver an impromptu talk. This may occur in tutorials, meetings, or gatherings.
• Group presentations are normally formal and require you to work collaboratively with your peers in delivering information. Similar to formal presentations, group presentations require prior planning and practise. Group presentations are normally done for an assessment piece, projects, or conferences. Some visual tools may be used.
Regardless of the type of presentation you are asked to do, understanding the standard forms of presentations will assist with your preparation.
Preparation
Like other assessments or tasks, preparation is key to successfully delivering a presentation as it will help to ensure that you are heading in the right direction from the start. It will also likely increase your confidence in completing the presentation. Irrespective of the type of presentation, you can use the steps shown in Figure 19.2 for your preparation.
The steps shown in Figure 78 will essentially allow you to create tailored presentations which have directed content addressing a specific topic or task. This will allow you to engage your audience and deliver the message that you are trying to communicate effectively. Specific tips and tricks on how to present effectively are discussed later in this chapter.
Presentation Structure
Similar to written assignments, creating a structure is crucial to delivering your presentation. The benefits of having a structure are that your presentation will flow in a logical manner and your audience will be able to follow and understand the information you are delivering. Presentation structures may vary depending on whether you are presenting in a group, presenting informally, or presenting a poster. Nonetheless, using some form of structure will likely be beneficial to both you and your audience. When structuring a presentation, also consider the platform, technology and setting. For example, if you are presenting informally, you may not require the use of any form of technology or visual equipment. You may just rely on hand written notes. In contrast, if you are presenting in a more formal setting, you may prefer to use technology to assist you, such as PowerPoint. Figure 77 offers a sample you can use to create your structure. Be sure to check any task sheet given to you by your lecturer. They may have a particular structure they wish for you to use for a specific task.
Tips and Tricks
There are certain strategies you can use to help deliver a good presentation. Not every strategy is going to be applicable to all presentations and every individual. You will need to choose the strategies that work for you and meet the objectives of your presentation, relate to your audience, and importantly address the overall task. Delivering your work is one of the hardest aspects of a presentation, but it is achievable. Therefore, it is essential that you have the appropriate approach in your delivery. This includes prior planning, practise, and being confident.
The tips and tricks in this section will guide you in preparing and delivering effective presentations. Please note that some of these tips and tricks may be more relevant to oral than visual presentations.
Tip 1: Improve your delivery
Figure 78 presents five simple ways to lift the standard of your delivery.
Tip 2: Stay on track with your presentation
Figure 79 presents reminders about your audience, structure, and focus of your presentation to keep you on track.
Tip 3: Consider your voice and body
When giving an oral presentation, you should pay special attention to your voice and body. Voice is more than the sum of the noises you make as you speak. Pay attention to inflection, which is the change in pitch or loudness of your voice. You can deliberately use inflection to make a point, to get people’s attention, or to make it very obvious that what you are saying right now is important. You can also change the volume of your voice. Speak too softly, and people will think you are shy or unwilling to share your ideas; speak too loudly, and people will think you are shouting at them. Control your volume to fit the audience and the size of the venue. If you use these tips, you should do a good job of conveying your ideas to an audience.
Some people have a tendency to rush through their presentations because they are feeling nervous. This means they speed up their speech, and the audience has a difficult time following along. Take care to control the speed at which you give a presentation so that everyone can listen comfortably. You can achieve this by timing yourself when preparing and practising your talk. If you are exceeding the time limit, you may either be speaking too quickly, or have too much content to cover.
Also, to add to the comfort of the listeners, it is always nice to use a conversational tone in a presentation. This includes such components as stance, gesture, and eye contact—in other words, overall body language. How do you stand when you are giving a presentation? Do you move around and fidget? Do you look down at the ground or stare at your note cards? Are you chewing gum or sticking your hands in and out of your pockets nervously? Obviously, you don’t want to do any of these things. Make eye contact with your audience as often as possible. Stand in a comfortable manner, but don’t fidget. Use gestures sparingly to make certain points. Most importantly, try to be as comfortable as you can knowing that you have practised the presentation beforehand and you know your topic well. This will help to calm nerves.
Tip 4: Consider your attitude
Attitude is everything. Your enthusiasm for your presentation will prime the audience. If you are bored by your own words, the audience will be yawning. If you are enthused by what you have to offer, they will sit up in their seats and listen intently. Also, be interested in your audience. Let them know that you are excited to share your ideas with them because they are worth your effort.
Tip 5: Consider the visuals
You might also think about using technology to deliver your presentation. Perhaps you will deliver a slide presentation in addition to orally communicating your ideas to your audience. Keep in mind that the best presentations are those with minimal words or pictures on the screen, just enough to illustrate the information conveyed in your oral presentation. Do a search on lecture slides or presentation slides to find a myriad suggestions on how to create them effectively. You may also create videos to communicate what you found in your research.
Today, there are many different ways to take the information you found and create something memorable through which to share your knowledge. When you are making a presentation that includes a visual component, pay attention to three elements: design, method, and function. The design includes such elements as size, shape, colour, scale, and contrast. You have a vast array of options for designing a background or structuring the visual part of your presentation, whether online or offline.
Consider which method to use when visually presenting your ideas. Will it be better to show your ideas by drawing a picture, including a photograph, using clip art, or showing a video? Or will it be more powerful to depict your ideas through a range of colours or shapes? These decisions will alter the impact of your presentation. Will you present your ideas literally, as with a photograph, or in the abstract, as in some artistic rendition of an idea? For example, if you decide to introduce your ideas symbolically, a picture of a pond surrounded by tall trees may be the best way to present the concept of a calm person. Consider also the purpose of the visuals used in your presentation. Are you telling a story? Communicating a message? Creating movement for the audience to follow? Summarising an idea? Motivating people to agree with an idea? Supporting and confirming what you are telling your audience? Knowing the purpose of including the visual element of your presentation will make your decisions about design and method more meaningful and successful.
As mentioned previously, not every strategy is applicable to all presentations or to every individual. Choose the strategies that are relevant to you and focus on them.
Conclusion
Delivering a presentation may be daunting, especially if you are new to university. But as we have discussed in this chapter, there are several approaches you can use to help you prepare and deliver your presentation effectively. While each individual may have their own approach, preparing, planning, structuring and practising your presentation will go a long way to help you achieve success. Following the steps and considering the ideas in this chapter places you in a good position to deliver presentations effectively. The approaches are beneficial, but ensure you are adhering to any specific requirements included in the assignment task sheet. Following the task sheet closely and applying these presentation skills will increase your likelihood of academic success.
Key points
• Understand the type of presentation you are asked to deliver.
• Start preparing in advance and adopt a structure.
• Know your topic well and your audience.
• Try and practise different strategies, tools, and speaking approaches well before your presentation and ensure it is within the allocated time limit. Remember, practise, practise and practise!
• Be confident in yourself, your presentation skills, and follow the plan you have developed. | textbooks/socialsci/Counseling_and_Guidance/Foundations_of_Academic_Success_(Morgan_et_al.)/04%3A_Successful_Assessment/4.04%3A_Presentations.txt |
SELECTED READING
Background: Arts in Schools
Many teachers, schools, and arts programs benefit from knowing the different ways the arts can be present in schools. Without making a distinction, opportunities can be missed, programs can lack clarity, or the arts can seem like something too unwieldy to incorporate. Making a distinction among the approaches can help narrow or focus objectives as well as help educators select the most appropriate approach based on their objectives. Ultimately, students are best served when all three variations-Arts as Curriculum, ArtsEnhanced Curriculum, and Arts-Integrated Curriculum-are part of their education (Figure 1.1).
The arts find their way in to elementary, middle, and high school classrooms every day in a variety of ways. The variations can be distilled into three main categories:
• Arts as Curriculum
• Arts-Enhanced Curriculum
• Arts-Integrated Curriculum
All three variations are important, needed, and valid. All benefit from being supported by arts experienceswhere students attend performances and exhibits by professional artists to engage in authentic experiences that deepen and broaden their arts understandings.
While the three variations naturally link and support each other, there are reasons why teachers and schools target one or more approaches. Understanding the differences in the approaches can help teachers and schools make informed choices about the programs they offer.
Arts as Curriculum
If a school has a music, art, drama, or dance teacher, their approach is most likely and primarily Arts as Curriculum. Students develop knowledge and skills in a particular art form. Often referred to as “arts learning” or “art for art’s sake,” the programs are guided by national, state, or local standards for each of the art forms. For example, in visual arts, students learn the content, processes, and techniques for two- or three-dimensional work. They learn how the visual arts developed and changed throughout history and engage in creating and analyzing works created in a variety of media.
Art-Enhanced Curriculum
When the arts are used as a device or strategy to support other curriculum areas, but no objectives in the art form are explicit, then the approach is called Arts-Enhanced Curriculum. For example, students sing the ABCs as a means to other ends-remembering the letters and sequence of the alphabet. However, students are not usually expected to learn about melody, song structure, or develop specific singing skills. ArtsEnhanced Curriculum acts as a “hook” to engage students in learning content. Additionally, teachers need little or no training in the art form. Arts-Enhanced Curriculum is often mistaken for Arts-Integrated Curriculum or a distinction is not made between the two.
Arts-Integrated Curriculum
In Arts-Integrated Curriculum, the arts become the approach to teaching and the vehicle for learning. Students meet dual learning objectives when they engage in the creative process to explore connections between an art form and another subject area to gain greater understanding in both. For example, students meet objectives in theater (characterization, stage composition, action, expression) and in social studies. The experience is mutually reinforcing-creating a dramatization provides an authentic context for students to learn more about the social studies content and as students delve deeper into the social studies content their growing understandings impact their dramatizations. For Arts-Integrated Curriculum to result in deep student understanding in both the art form and the other curriculum area, it requires that teachers engage in professional development to learn about arts standards and how to connect the arts to the curriculum they teach.
Arts Integration Definition
Arts integration is an approach to teaching in which students construct and demonstrate understanding through an art form. Students engage in a creative process, which connects an art form and another subject area and meets evolving objectives in both.
Inside the Definition
Arts Integration is an APPROACH to TEACHING...
approach (n)-a path, road, or other means of reahcing a person or place
This definition begins with the assertion that arts integration is larger than an activity. Rather, arts integration is an approach to teaching that is embedded in one's daily practice.
An "approach to teaching" refers to how something is taught rather than what is taught. Every teacher has an approach to teaching, whether or not they are aware of it. Approaches fall along a continuum from traditional, teacher-centered instruction to more progressive, student-centered instruction. Ultimately, our approach is based on our beliefs about how students learn. As an approach to teaching, arts integration relies heavily on the progressive, student-centered end of the continuum.
This approach to teaching is grounded in the belief that learning is actively built, experiential, evolving, collaborative, problem-solving, and reflective. These beliefs are aligned with current research about the nature of learning and with the Constructivist learning theory. Constructivist practices that align with arts integration practices include:
• Drawing on students’ prior knowledge;
• Providing active hands-on learning with authentic problems for students to solve in divergent ways;
• Arranging opportunities for students to learn from each other to enrich their understandings;
• Engaging students in reflection about what they learned, how they learned it, and what it means to them;
• Using student assessment of their own and peers' work as part of the learning experience;
• Providing opportunities for students to revise and improve their work and share it with others;
• Building a positive classroom environment where students are encouraged and supported to take risks, explore possibilities, and where a social, cooperative learning community is created and nurtured.
Students Construct and Demonstrate UNDERSTANDING...
understand-(1) to get or perceive the meaning of; to know or grasp what is meant by; comprehend (2) to gather or assume from what is heard; to infer 3) to know thoroughly; grasp or perceive clearly and fully the nature, character, functioning, etc. of 4) to have a sympathetic rapport with
Constructing understanding of one's world is an active, mind-engaging process. Information must be mentally acted upon in order to have meaning for the learner (Brooks & Brooks, 1999).
Arts integration provides multiple ways for students to make sense of what they learn (construct understanding) and make their learning visible (demonstrate understanding). It goes beyond the initial step of helping students learn and recall information to challenging students to take the information and facts they have learned and do something with them to build deeper understanding.
"In the arts students have central and active roles as meaning makers. This role demands that they not only acquire knowledge but they develop the capacity to reflect on what they are learning and to use it as they interpret and create works of art” (Stevenson & Deasy, 2005, p. 37).
Students' visible demonstrations of learning serve as both formative assessments to guide instruction and summative assessments to determine what students have learned. For example, when students are challenged to work as choreographers to create a dance that demonstrates how the seasons change, they must build their understanding of the vocabulary and concepts shared by science and dance (such as rotate, revolve, cycles, patterns, and change). Their dance will reflect their understandings and provide teachers with a quick, effective means to determine whether individual students know the difference between rotate and revolve, if a group understood the cyclical nature of the seasons, or if the class has mastered how to demonstrate the concept of change through physical movement.
...Through an ART FORM
art form (n)-any branch of creative work in the arts (visual arts, dance, drama, music); the products of creative work
Students can construct and demonstrate their understanding in many ways. Traditionally, they are asked to communicate their learning through a report or on a test. However, when they are involved in arts integration, their learning is evident in the products they create, such as the dance, painting, or dramatization.
Students can-and should-have opportunities to construct and demonstrate their understandings in various ways. Nationwide, classrooms have become, and continue to become, more culturally, economically, and academically diverse. And yet, a great deal of instruction relies primarily, and sometimes exclusively, on speaking and writing as the way for students to show what they know. Today's research points to the power of learning through a variety of senses or modalities. Teachers are encouraged to plan instruction that engages students in visual, aural, and kinesthetic learning modalities so that students can actively process what they are learning. The recognition of the arts as powerful modalities for learning is embedded in this part of the definition. By their nature, the arts engage students in learning through observing, listening, and moving and offer learners various ways to acquire information and act on it to build understanding. They also offer a natural way to differentiate instruction as the arts offer multiple modes of representation, expression, and engagement (Wolf, 2008). Additionally, the arts provide an authentic context in which students solve problems such as those encountered by professional artists.
Students Engage in a CREATIVE PROCESS...
creativity (n)-an imaginative activity fashioned so as to produce outcomes that are original and of value (NACCC, 2007).
The heart of arts integration is engagement in the creative process. Arts integration requires that students do more than repeat (a song), copy (an art project), or follow directions. They must create something that is original and of value. The creative process in the arts is a process not a single event. It includes many interacting phases and each phase is related to every other (Robinson, 2001). There are many descriptions of the creative process. The one provided here is a synthesis of ideas from many different sources. In this diagram (Figure 1.2), the process is made visible as five open circles: 1) students imagine, examine, and perceive; 2) they explore, experiment, and develop craft; 3) they create; 4) they reflect, assess, and revise, and 5) share their products with others. Arrows indicate the ways one can enter the process and the myriad ways the phases interact.
When students engage in the creative process, they produce original work that communicates their ideas, insights, points of view, and feelings. The creative process can be "messy." It is difficult to predict what will happen, be discovered, or emerge during the process. Learners engage in inquiry and experimentation as opposed to following rigid, step-by-step rules. Some ideas, once explored, do not work well, while other ideas that were not originally considered, may surface as the perfect solution. If teachers are overly concerned with a "neat" process and product, they tend to make the creative choices for students and direct the outcome. In these cases, the creative process is present, but only for the teacher. It is the teacher's or teaching artist's responsibility to set a creative problem or challenge for students to solve, but not to take over and solve the challenge for the students.
...Which CONNECTS an art form and Another Subject Area...
connect (v)-to join, link, or fasten together; unite or bind
A distinguishing aspect of arts integration is its interdisciplinary connections. Connections are made between a specific art form and a specific curriculum area (Figure 1.3). For example, collage can be connected to the study of geographical regions or choreography can be connected to the study of life cycles. Connections can also be made between a specific art form and a school's concern or need. Schools often identify a focus for improvement that is sometimes outside the formal curriculum. For example, the arts can connect to school concerns such as character education/bullying, collaboration, habits of mind, or multiple intelligences.
Both connections-to curriculum or a concern/need-are strongest when they are mutually-reinforcing. In other words, by engaging in learning in one subject, learning in the other subject is reinforced and extended, and vice versa. Rather than imagining connections as two intersecting lines, mutually-reinforcing connections function as a cycle.
For example, students are challenged to create a tableau (motionless stage picture) that depicts a defining moment of the Trail of Tears. They must examine the social studies content, find out what led to the United States government forcibly relocating the Native Americans west of the Mississippi River, and determine the impact the dislocation had on the Native Americans. They must then distill their understandings into a tableau, which requires them to consider stage composition, characters, actions, relationships, and expression. Because a tableau is so concise, students must return to the social studies curriculum to determine the most significant information. Once the tableau is created, students are challenged to compose short statements that they will speak within the tableau. Again, they must return to the social studies content, synthesize it, and make inferences. With each rotation through the cycle, student learning in both theatre and social studies is reinforced and deepened. The more they learn about the Trail of Tears, the more their tableaus develop; the more their tableaus develop, the more they build their understanding of history.
…and meets EVOLVING OBJECTIVES in both.
evolve (v)-to develop gradually
This final part of the definition underscores two ideas. First, arts integration requires teachers to set objectives in both the art form and the other subject area. The dual objectives are balanced; students are accountable for significant learning in both the art form and the other subject. Second, just as objectives evolve (Figure 1.4) and challenge students to deepen their understandings in science, math, or language arts, objectives in the art form must also evolve if students are to remain challenged. A student does not learn to express ideas through dance in one session. As students master each objective, they are ready to take on the next, more challenging ones. Teachers monitor student progress and adjust objectives to keep students challenged and interested within a unit or across a year. As students' mastery grows, so do their feelings of self-efficacy-the belief in oneself and one's ability to achieve.
Teachers are familiar with the evolving nature of objectives in math, language arts and other subject areas. They are less familiar with evolving objectives in the arts. Here is an example in dance:
• The objective is for students to create and perform a movement phrase set to a piece of music. This objective can begin with small groups of students choosing their movement phrase from a limited set of options and where the teacher counts the beat aloud. Once mastered, the objective evolves as students create their own movement phrase without pre-set options and can recall and repeat it. The objective further evolves as students are able to count the beat on their own. The objective evolves again as students are challenged to refine the quality of their movements. The evolution of objectives can pertain to one specific experience with a dance or can evolve as students have multiple experiences with dance across a school year.
Arts Integration Checklist
Some educators confuse any effort to include the arts in their classroom with arts integration. While all types of arts-based instruction are encouraged, it is helpful for educators to know when they are engaged in arts integration. To achieve this awareness, an Arts Integration Checklist (Figure 1.5) is provided. Educators answering “yes” to the items in the Checklist can be assured that their approach to teaching is indeed integrated.
Figure 1.1.5: Arts Integration Checklist
Approach to Teaching
Are learning principles of Constructivism (actively built, experiential, evolving, collaborative, problem-solving, and reflective) evident in my lesson?
Understanding
Are the students engaged in constructing and demonstrating understanding as opposed to just memorizing and reciting knowledge?
Art Form
Are the students constructing and demonstrating their understandings through an art form?
Creative Process
Are the students engaged in a process of creating something original as opposed to copying or parroting?
Will the students revise their products?
Connects
Does the art form connect to another part of the curriculum or a concern/need?
Is the connection mutually reinforcing?
Evolving Objectives
Are there objectives in both the art form and another part of the curriculum or a concern/need?
Have the objectives evolved since the last time the students engaged with this subject matter?
REFERENCES
Brooks, J. G., & Brooks, M. G. (1999). In search of understanding: The case for constructivist classroom. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
NACCC (National Advisory Committee on Cultural and Creative Education). (2007). In P. Cochrane & M. Cockett, Building a creative school: A dynamic approach to school development (p. 7). Stoke on Trent, UK: Trentham Books.
Robinson, S. K. (2001). Out of our minds: Learning to be creative. West Sussex, England: Capstone Publishing.
Stevenson, L. M., & Deasy, R. (2005). Third space: When learning matters. Washington, DC: Arts Education Partnership.
Wolf, D. P. (2008). Building and evaluating freedom machines: When it arts education a setting for equitable learning? In D. Glass (Ed.), Contours of inclusion: Frameworks and tools for evaluating arts in education (pp. 5-6). Washington, DC: VSAarts
1.02: Additional Resources
ADDITIONAL SOURCES
WEBSITES
Arts integration: Useful resources on how you can integrate arts in the classroom. Retrieved from https://www.pinterest.com/edutopia/arts-integration/
Dorminey, S. (2015). Arts integration in a middle grades social studies classroom. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthe...ors-theses/87/
Fung, J. (2013). What to do when the arts are missing from your school. The Teaching Channel. Retrieved from: https://www.teachingchannel.org/blog...s-integration/
Jenson, E. (2012). The arts as a major discipline. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/boo...iscipline.aspx
Lajevic, L. (2012). Arts integration: What’s really happening in the elementary classroom? Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9qt3n8xt
Reif, N., & Grant, L. (2010). Culturally responsive classrooms through art integration. Journal of Praxis in Multicultural Education, 5(1). Retrieved from https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/...5&context=jpme
Riley, S. (2012). Using arts integration to enhance the common core. Retrieved from http://www.edutopia.org/blog/core-pr...on-susan-riley
Ross, C. (2008). Art integration in the classroom. Retrieved from https://epublications.regis.edu/cgi/...context=theses
Schwarts, K. (2015, January 23). How integrating arts into other subjects makes learning come alive. Retrieved from https://www.kqed.org/mindshift/38576...ing-come-alive
Sorensen, M. (2010). Integrating art and literacy in the elementary classroom. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.uni.edu/hpt/30
Tilney, V. (2013). The arts matter. Retrieved from http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/a...le/arts-matter
Why integrating art into the classroom may improve retention? (2011). Retrieved from http://artplantaetoday.com/2011/09/3...ent-retention/
Yarnbes, L. (2015, June 6). A teacher’s experience with arts integration in the classroom [Web Blog Post]. Retrieved from http://blogs.getty.edu/iris/a-teache...-theclassroom/
BOOKS AVAILABLE AT DALTON STATE COLLEGE LIBRARY
Edwards, L. C. (2006). The creative arts: A process approach for teachers and children (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Goldberg, M. R. (2006). Integrating the arts: An approach to teaching and learning in multicultural and multilingual settings (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.
Smith, R. A. (2006). Culture and the arts in education: Critical essays on shaping human experience. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
VIDEOS
Arts integration: Deepening understanding of core content [Video file]. (2016). Edutopia.
Hard fun: Transforming education through the arts [Video file]. (2013).
Infusion arts in education: Using arts to learn [Video file]. (2012).
Lavine Production Group. (2003). The Arts in every classroom: A video library, K-5. S. Burlington, VT: Annenberg/CPB.
Teaching through the arts programme [Video file]. (2014).
The power of arts integration: Series overview [Video file]. (2015).
The state of the arts in America’s schools [Video file]. (2000). Retrieved from Films on Demand database.
SCHOLARLY JOURNAL ARTICLES
Daniel, V. A. H., Stuhr, P. L., & Ballengee-Morris, C. (2006). Suggestions for integrating the arts into curriculum. Art Education, 59(1), 6-11.
Holmes, S. A. (2002). Creative by nature: Integrating the arts into environmental science education. Green Teacher, 2(69), 23-28.
Lynch, P. (2007). Making meaning many ways: An exploratory look at integrating the arts with classroom curriculum. Art Education, 60(4), 33-38.
Vitulli, P., Santoli, S. P., & Fresne, J. (2013). Arts in education: Professional development integrating the arts and collaborating with schools and community. International Journal of Pedagogies & Learning, 8(1), 45-52. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Arts_Integration_in_Elementary_Curriculum_2e_(Zhou_and_Brown)/01%3A_ARTS_INTEGRATION/1.01%3A_Selected_Reading.txt |
SELECTED READING
The three Rs of arts integration entails the reasons, rationale, and research on arts integration. There are two big reasons educators are interested in arts integration: 1) Arts integration practices are aligned with how students learn; 2) Arts integration energizes teachers by providing increased professional satisfaction. In the past, and even somewhat today, the arts have been seen as something extra, and something fun to do if students needed a break from “real learning.” We now know that arts integration aligns with current best practices for teaching and learning, and that it offers a powerful way to help teachers return to the joy of teaching.
Reason One
Arts integration practices are aligned with how students learn. Ongoing research about how humans learn supports constructivist theories of learning (Grennon & Brooks, 1999). These theories reflect the characteristics of effective learning which include learning that is active and experiential, reflective, social, evolving, and focused on problem-solving. Arts integration provides learning experiences that reflect all these characteristics.
When students learn through arts integration, they are engaged in experiences in which they actively build and demonstrate their understanding of both the art form and the other curriculum area. For example, students may create dances about the solar system, theatrical scenes about various perspectives of the Great Migration, or songs about math concepts. To do this, students must take what they know and understand about each subject area (e.g., dance and the science of the solar system) and communicate it to others through the art form. Students become active learners as they build on, extend, or challenge their prior understandings.
Reflection, an inherent part of the creative process, is integral to arts integration practice. Within the creative process, students create, reflect, assess, and revise their dance, drama, song, poem, or film based on established criteria. Reflection is woven throughout the creative process as students reconsider the impact of their choices on an ongoing basis. When students have completed their work, they engage in additional reflection about the clarity, accuracy, and meaningfulness of their products. This reflection transforms these experiences into learning (SEDL, 2000). These verbal or written reflections offer insights for teachers and students. Teachers gain insight into students’ growing understandings, which they use to guide their decisions about the next instructional steps. Students gain insight about their own learning process, creative process, and products.
By its very nature, arts integration engages students in social and collaborative learning. Dance, music, theater, and media arts are collaborative art forms; the visual and literary arts have aspects of collaboration, too. When arts integration is the approach to teaching in a classroom, purposeful conversation, not silence, is the norm. Teams of students work together to consider how they can demonstrate what they know and understand. For example, after students gain information about the solar system and the elements of dance, they work in small groups to plan ways to demonstrate their understanding. Together, students make decisions about the science content and the dance process and how to best present it. Through conversations they listen, clarify their ideas, and negotiate for the best solutions. Their understanding of both content areas is expanded and deepened as they hear each other’s ideas and explain their own.
Arts integration engages students in the creative process where learning is dynamic and evolving. The creative process involves students in revisiting ideas and revising their work. For example, at the beginning of a unit about the solar system, students might create a dance demonstrating their initial understandings. Students could return to the dance midway through the unit as their learning progresses, or they could revisit it at the end of the unit. The dance provides an authentic medium in which students demonstrate their growing understandings. Ideally, throughout a student’s school career, dance (or any other art form) would be one of the tools they would use for constructing and demonstrating their developing understandings. Each year, students would gain further knowledge and skills in dance that they would apply to the next dance they create.
Arts integration places students into the role of problem solvers. The arts demonstrate that many questions have more than one right answer. The creative process requires that students create their own solutions to problems, make choices, and evaluate the results of those choices. Students explore, test their ideas, and refine their thinking. They also develop appreciation for other students’ solutions to the same problems. When learning is active and experiential, reflective, social, evolving, and focused on problem-solving, it becomes engaging and motivating. Because arts integration aligns with how students learn best, students find it personally meaningful and are drawn to it. They seek more opportunities to learn in and through the arts. For example, at-risk high school students report that their involvement with the arts is often the reason they come to school and stay in school (Deasy, 2003).
Reason Two
Arts integration energizes teachers by providing increased professional satisfaction. Not only is arts integration engaging and motivating for students, teachers find that it also energizes them and their teaching. Teachers that have been relying primarily on textbooks and worksheets as instructional strategies report that they feel increasingly discouraged by the drudgery of teaching and the lack of student engagement (CETA, n.d.). Many become bored or disenfranchised, and even leave the profession.
Teachers participating in arts integration programs say that arts integration puts them back in touch with what originally excited them about teaching. They want classrooms full of engaged, curious, and responsive students. They want to do what is best for student learning. They want to be excited about going into the classroom every day.
Arts integration can change the entire classroom culture. When every student is participating, engaged in purposeful conversation with their peers, and focused on making sense of the content in both the art form and the other subject area, the room fills with focused energy. Arts integration’s alignment with the education of the whole child results in a similar alignment with the concept of the “whole teacher”-the energized professional that makes learning engaging and challenging for students, and who enjoys tapping into his/her own creativity for teaching. Teachers regain a sense of efficacy when they see the positive impact of arts integration on their students’ learning.
In the context of school cultures that frequently dismiss teachers as part of the problem, this approach [arts integration] affirms that teachers are part of the solution. When teachers are given the authority and responsibility to reflect on their work and make it better, their morale and their practice improves. Arts integration becomes an invitation to personal growth and learning that changes their identity as teachers… (Rabkin & Redmond, 2004, p. 114)
In Third Space: When Learning Matters, the authors comment on the impact of arts integration on teacher satisfaction and renewal:
Indeed, teachers in the case study schools said they derive delight and professional renewal and satisfaction from incorporating the arts into their teaching. They enjoy teaching more, primarily because of the responsiveness of their students, and the new level of collaboration with other teachers in the school. (Stevenson & Deasy, 2005, p. 74)
Additionally, the impact of arts integration on school culture has been documented in two evaluation reports about the Kennedy Center’s Changing Education Through the Arts (CETA) program.
Teachers and leaders…remarked that arts integration had come to define the way things are done at their school, made the entire atmosphere of their school more positive and cohesive, and helped make their school more child-centered. (Lentczner, Whitesitt, Franklin, & Wolcott, 2007, p. 19)
Repeatedly teachers and leaders reported that their school’s arts integration program had strengthened staff collegiality and collaboration. (Lentczner, Whitesitt, Franklin, & Wolcott, 2007, p. 19)
Teachers claim they are approaching curriculum differently, taking more risks, open to serendipity in the lessons, excited by the changes and the possibilities, and motivated by the professionalization of their work made by continuing education. (Kruger, 2002, p. 3)
Rationale: Explaining Why Arts Integration
If arts integration is a part of your approach to teaching or a significant school-wide effort, you will be faced with the need to answer two questions for administrators, families, and other teachers:
• What is arts integration?
• Why do you believe arts integration benefits students?
The first question, the “what” question, is answered by providing a definition and examples. The second question, the “why” question, is critical if you want to gather support for your efforts. Answering the ‘why’ question requires that you develop a rationale. A rationale describes the reasons for doing something. In this case, you identify the reasons or using arts integration as an instructional strategy. The purpose of a rationale statement is to convince others of the importance of this proposed approach. It is written in clear, concise language appropriate to those with whom you are communicating. Some confuse a rationale and a mission statement. They are different. A mission statement identifies the school’s vision and values. A rationale explains why you are using this particular approach to teaching. Why take time to craft a rationale for arts integration? There are two reasons:
• First, crafting a rationale provides an opportunity for you and your colleagues to develop a shared understanding of the outcomes you expect from your engagement with arts integration. These outcomes become the foundation for your arts integration program;
• Second, having a rationale at your fingertips will help you communicate with and gain support for your efforts from colleagues, administrators, and families.
To craft a rationale, you will need to read some of the literature and research about the benefits of the arts and arts integration. Here are a few resources to get you started:
Linda Crawford’s (2004) study offers six reasons for arts integration:
• The arts make content more accessible;
• The arts encourage joyful, active learning;
• The arts help students make and express personal connections to content;
• The arts help students understand and express abstract concepts;
• The arts stimulate higher level thinking;
• The arts build community and help children develop collaborative work skills.
Laura Stevenson and Richard Deasy (2005) describe the impact of the arts on students. The arts
• Connect students to authentic learning that matters to them;
• Provide opportunities for all learners-even struggling learners-to be successful;
• Develop feelings of self-efficacy;
• Increase intrinsic motivation to learn;
• Develop students’ abilities to apply learning to new situations and experiences.
Daniel R. Scheinfeld (2004) explains why arts integration activities show promise for learners. Arts integration
• Motivates students to engage more fully with the related subject area;
• Extends how learners process and retain information because it combines several learning
modalities (visual, aural, and kinesthetic) and thus reach a wider range of students;
• (Focused on drama and reading comprehension) “Strengthens students’ visualization of the text and their emotional engagement with it, both of which contribute to greater retention and understanding” (Scheinfeld, 2004, p. 4).
Luke Rinne and colleagues (2011) examine how arts integration may build long-term memory of content:
• Arts integration naturally involves several ways of processing information that may have positive effects on long-term memory.
The Arts Education Partnership (n.d.) outlines research findings about a range of outcomes of arts education:
• Academic Outcomes: literacy and language development, math achievement, overall academic achievement, underserved students;
• Cognitive Outcomes: creative thinking, critical thinking, problem solving and reasoning;
• Personal Outcomes: engagement and persistence, positive behavior, self-awareness, self-concept, and self-expression, self-efficacy and self-confidence;
• Social and Civic Development: arts participation, collaboration and communication, community-building, community and civic engagement, cross-cultural understanding, and social development.
Research on Arts Integration
Arts integration is a teaching strategy in which the arts are integrated with the non-arts curriculum to deepen students’ understanding of both (Isenberg & Jalongo, 2010; Werner & Freeman, 2001). A body of research explores the effects of arts education within differing frameworks and settings using quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methodologies. While little evidence suggests a clear, direct, causal link between learning through the arts and academic achievement, researchers have begun to look at the unique contributions the arts bring to student learning (Asbury & Rich, 2008; Deasy, 2002; Fiske, 1999; Hetland, Winner, Veenema & Sheridan, 2007; Winner & Hetland, 2000). Shifting the focus from traits measured by traditional testing methods to exploring the dispositions and habits of mind developed through arts-based instruction has led to a reevaluation of the role and benefits of the arts in education.
Impact of Arts Integration on Students
Arts integration and arts education, in various formats, have positively and consistently been linked to increased student engagement, motivation, and persistence (Asbury & Rich, 2008; Deasy, 2002; Fiske, 1999; Hetland, Winner, Veenema, & Sheridan, 2007; Stevenson & Deasy, 2005). Arts learning is participatory and active and requires students to interact with content and materials using both their bodies and minds. This way of learning engages students by offering them many ways to gain understanding and express their knowledge. The arts can engage students who are not typically reached through traditional teaching methods, including those from economically disadvantaged backgrounds, reluctant learners, and those with learning disabilities (Deasy, 2002; Fiske, 1999). In fact, children who frequently participate in the arts view themselves as more successful academically than those who infrequently participate in the arts (Burton, Horowtiz, & Abeles, 1999).
When the arts are used to create a frame of reference for learning, students can make meaningful connections to one another, to themselves, to their lived world, and to other content areas (Burton, Horowtiz, & Abeles, 1999; Fiske, 1999; Hetland, Winner, Veenema, & Sheridan, 2007; Stevenson & Deasy, 2005). Because they become “agents of their own learning,” students are often more willing to take responsibility for and give direction to their own learning experiences (Deasy & Stevenson, 2005). As students experiment with different art forms and processes, they learn to take risks through exploration and to develop flexible thinking skills, envisioning from different vantage points and responding to new possibilities in the creative process (Burton, Horowtiz, & Abeles, 1999; Eisner, 2002; Fiske, 1999; Hetland, Winner, Veenema, & Sheridan, 2007; Stevenson & Deasy, 2005).
Benefits of Arts Integration for Teachers and Schools
The benefits of arts integration extend beyond students, affecting teachers and schools as well. While a multitude of arts integration models are currently being applied in schools, almost all are built upon the collaborative efforts of classroom teachers and arts specialists (which may include artists in residence, visiting artists, school-based arts teachers, arts coaches, or some combination of these). Such collaborative relationships contribute to increased teacher satisfaction, interest, and success, and lead to the development of a sense of community of practice in the school (Hetland, Winner, Veenema, & Sheridan, 2007; Stevenson & Deasy, 2005; Werner & Freeman, 2001). These teachers are more willing to take risks, both in their curriculum planning and in front of their students. They are innovative in their teaching, willing to experiment, persevere in integrating the arts despite barriers, and approach their classes in a more childcentered rather than adult-centered manner (Burton, Horowtiz, & Abeles, 1999; Werner & Freeman, 2001).
Transforming the Learning Environment
Transforming a school’s learning environment to include successful and sustained arts-integrated instruction requires participation by the whole school community (Betts, 1995). Supportive administrators, ranging from superintendents to principals, are needed to ensure the continuity and depth of any partnership or program (Borden, 2006; Burton, Horowtiz, & Abeles, 1999). Principals of arts-rich schools encourage teachers to take risks, to learn new skills, and to make changes in their instruction to support arts integration (Burton, Horowtiz, & Abeles, 1999). Arts integration teaching methods, as well as the purpose, theory, and benefits of this pedagogy, must be made explicit to teachers through professional development (Betts, 1995; Borden, 2006; Werner & Freeman, 2001). Without these supports, teachers often think of arts integration as something extra and time-consuming that they must do (Werner & Freeman, 2001). With appropriate professional development, support, and collaboration with school-based arts specialists and team members, teachers discover that arts-integrated teaching can and does meet existing curriculum standards. Sustained partnerships and professional development opportunities allow teachers to become comfortable making natural connections in the curriculum and turning routine activities into deep knowledge for learners (Werner & Freeman, 2001).
REFERENCES
Asbury, C., & Rich, B. (Eds.). (2008). Learning, arts, and the brain: The Dana consortium report on arts and cognition. New York, NY: Dana Press.
Betts, J. (1995). Arts integration: Semiotic transmediation in the classroom. Paper presented at the annual meeting of American Educational Research Association (AERA), San Francisco, CA.
Borden, L. (2006). Across the blue pacific: A World War II story. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin.
Burton, J., Horowitz, R., & Abeles, H. (1999). Learning in and through the arts: Curriculum implications. In Champions of change: The impacts of the arts on learning (pp. 36-46). Washington, DC: The Arts Education Partnership, the President’s Committee on the Arts and the Humanities, and The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation.
CETA. (n.d.) based on ongoing, informal discussions with teachers and teaching artists in the Kennedy Center’s Changing Education Through the Arts (CETA) program.
Crawford, L. (2004) Lively learning: Using the arts to teach the K-8 curriculum. Greenfield, MA: Northeast Foundation for Children.
Deasy, R. (Ed.) (2002). Critical links: Learning in the arts and student academic and social development., Washington, DC: Arts Education Partnership.
Deasy, R. J. (2003). Don’t axe the arts! National Association of Elementary School Principals, 82(3), 14.
Eisner, E. (2002). The arts and the creation of mind. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Fiske, E. (Ed.). (1999). Champions of change: The impact of the arts on learning. Washington, DC: The Arts Education Partnership and the President’s Committee on the Arts and Humanities.
Grennon, J., & Brooks, M. G. (1999). In search of understanding: The case for constructivist classrooms (revised ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Hetland, L., Winner, E., Veenema, S. & Sheridan, K. (2007). Studio thinking: The real benefits of visual arts education. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Isenberg, J., & Jalongo, M. (2010). Creative thinking and arts-based learning: Preschool through fourth grade. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.
Kruger, A. C. (2002, September). The Kennedy center and schools: Changing education through the artsevaluation report. The Kennedy Center, Washington, DC.
Lentczner, B., Whitesitt, L., Franklin, E., Wolcott, N. (Eds.). (2007). Montgomery county (MD) arts integration model schools program evaluation report. Montgomery County Public Schools & Arts Education in Maryland Schools Alliance.
Rabkin, N., & Redmond, R. (2004). Putting the arts in the picture: Reframing education in the 21st century. Chicago, IL: Columbia College Chicago.
Scheinfeld, D. R. (2004). Arts integration in the classroom: Reflections on theory and application. Applied Research in Child Development, 5, 1-10. SEDL. (2000). Action + reflection = learning.
SEDL Technology Assistance Program, 3(2), 1.
Stevenson, L. M., & Deasy, R. J. (2005). Third space: When learning matters. Washington, DC: Arts Education Partnership.
Students: Research overview. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.artsedsearch.org/students/researchoverview
Werner, L., & Freeman, C. J. (2001). Arts for academic achievement: Arts Integration-A vehicle for changing teacher practice. Minneapolis, MN: Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement, College of Education and Human Development.
Winner, E., & Hetland, L. (Eds). (2000). The arts and academic achievement: What the evidence shows Executive summary. Retrieved from http://www.pz.harvard.edu/sites/defa...%20Summary.pdf
2.02: Additional Resources
ADDITIONAL SOURCES
WEBSITES
Demoss, K., & Morris, T. (2011). How arts integration supports student learning: Students shed light on the connections. Retrieved from http://www.capeweb.org/wp-content/up...05/support.pdf
Goaldblatt, P. (2006). How John Dewey’s theories underpin art and art education. Education & Culture, 22(1), 17-34. Retrieved from: http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/cgi/viewc...&context=eandc
Peterson, E. (n.d.). Multiple intelligences and arts integration. Retrieved from http://theinspiredclassroom.com/2011...s-integration/
Pool, J. (2011). Arts integration in teacher preparation: Teaching the teachers. Retrieved from https://cloudfront.escholarship.org/...p.pdf?t=lmqqr0
Sloan, W. (2009). Making content connections through arts integration. Education Update, 51(3). Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/new...tegration.aspx
Varieties of arts integration. (2012). Retrieved from https://www.cde.state.co.us/coarts/a...egrationmodels
BOOKS AVAILABLE AT DALTON STATE COLLEGE LIBRARY
Jensen, E. (2001). Arts with the brain in mind. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development (ASCD).
Kohs, E. B. (1961). Music theory: A syllabus for teacher and student. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Smith, R. A. (2006). Culture and the arts in education: Critical essays on shaping human experience. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
VIDEOS
Arts education and multiple learning modes [Video file]. (2000). Retrieved from Films On Demand database.
Arts integration at TCEA-Color theory and states of matter 1 [Video File]. (2014).
Benefits of arts education programs [Video file]. (2000). Retrieved from Films On Demand database.
Brain research and arts education [Video file]. (2000). Retrieved from Films On Demand database.
Essential arts programs for elementary children [Video file]. (2000). Retrieved from Films On Demand database.
Funding arts education [Video file]. (2000). Retrieved from Films On Demand database.
Future of arts in America [Video file]. (2000). Retrieved from Films On Demand database.
The state of the arts in America’s schools [Video file]. (2000). Retrieved from Films On Demand database.
Value of arts education [Video file]. (2000). Retrieved from Films On Demand database.
SCHOLARLY JOURNAL ARTICLES
Chemi, T. (2014). The artful teacher: A conceptual model for arts integration in schools. Studies in Art Education, 56(1), 370-383.
Mishook, J. J., & Kornhaber, M. L. (2006). Arts integration in an era of accountability. Arts Education Policy Review, 107(4), 3-11.
Smith, R. A. (1995). The limits and costs of integration in arts education. Arts Education Policy Review, 96(5), 21.
Wiebe, S., Sameshima, P., Irwin, R., Leggo, C., Gouzouasis, P., & Grauer, K. (2007). Re-imagining arts integration: Rhizomatic relations of the everyday. The Journal of Educational Thought, 41(3), 263-280. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Arts_Integration_in_Elementary_Curriculum_2e_(Zhou_and_Brown)/02%3A_ARTS_INTEGRATION_AND_THREE_RS/2.01%3A_Selected_Reading.txt |
SELECTED READING
Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in time. The common elements of music are pitch (which governs melody and harmony), rhythm (and its associated concepts tempo, meter, and articulation), dynamics (loudness and softness), and the sonic qualities of timbre and texture (which are sometimes termed the "color" of a musical sound). Different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. Music is performed with a vast range of instruments and vocal techniques ranging from singing to rapping; there are solely instrumental pieces, solely vocal pieces (such as songs without instrumental accompaniment) and pieces that combine singing and instruments.
There are many types of music, including popular music, traditional music, art music, music written for religious ceremonies and work songs such as chanteys. Music ranges from strictly organized : as Classical music symphonies from the 1700s and 1800s, through to spontaneously played improvisational music such as jazz, and avant-garde styles of chance-based contemporary music from the 20th and 21st centuries.
Although the exact definition of music varies widely even in the West, music contains melody, harmony, rhythm, timbre, pitch, silence, and form or structure. What we know about music so far…
• Music is comprised of sound.
• Music is made up of both sounds and silences.
• Music is intentionally made art.
• Music is humanly organized sound (Bakan, 2011).
In short, music is an intentionally organized art form whose medium is sound and silence, with core elements of pitch (melody and harmony), rhythm (meter, tempo, and articulation), dynamics, and the qualities of timbre and texture.
Sound:
Overtone: A fundamental pitch with resultant pitches sounding above it according to the overtone series. Overtones are what give each note its unique sound.
Timbre: The tone color of a sound resulting from the overtones. Each voice has a unique tone color that is described using adjectives or metaphors such as “nasally,” “resonant,” “vibrant,” “strident,” “high,” “low,” “breathy,” “piercing,” “ringing,” “rounded,” “warm,” “mellow,” “dark,” “bright,” “heavy,” “light,” “vibrato.”
Pitch: The frequency of the note’s vibration (note names C, D, E, etc.).
Amplitude: How loud or soft a sound is.
Duration: How long or short the sound is.
Melody: A succession of musical notes; a series of pitches often organized into phrases.
Harmony: The simultaneous, vertical combination of notes, usually forming chords.
Rhythm: The organization of music in time; closely related to meter.
Texture: The density (thickness or thinness) of layers of sounds, melodies, and rhythms in a piece: e.g., a complex orchestral composition will have more possibilities for dense textures than a song accompanied only by guitar or piano. Most common types of texture:
• Monophony: A single layer of sound; e.g. a solo voice
• Homophony: A melody with an accompaniment; e.g., a lead singer and a band; a singer and a guitar or piano accompaniment; etc.
• Polyphony: Two or more independent voices; e.g., a round or fugue.
Structure or Form: The sections or movements of a piece; i.e. verse and refrain, sonata form, ABA, Rondo (ABACADA), theme, and variations.
Expression:
Dynamics: Volume (amplitude)-how loud, soft, medium, gradually getting louder or softer (crescendo, decrescendo).
Tempo: Beats per minute; how fast, medium, or slow a piece of music is played or sung.
Articulation: The manner in which notes are played or words pronounced: e.g., long or short, stressed or unstressed such as short (staccato), smooth (legato), stressed (marcato), sudden emphasis (sforzando), slurred, etc.
Music as an Art Form: Composition, Notation, and Improvisation
Composition
Composition" is the act or practice of creating a song, an instrumental music piece, a work with both singing and instruments, or another type of music. In many cultures, including Western classical music, the act of composing also includes the creation of music notation, such as a sheet music "score", which is then performed by the composer or by other singers or musicians. In popular music and traditional music, the act of composing, which is typically called songwriting, may involve the creation of a basic outline of the song, called the lead sheet, which sets out the melody, lyrics and chord progression. In classical music, the composer typically orchestrates his or her own compositions, but in musical theatre and in pop music, songwriters may hire an arranger to do the orchestration. In some cases, a songwriter may not use notation at all, and instead compose the song in her mind and then play or record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written scores play in classical music.
Even when music is notated relatively precisely, as in classical music, there are many decisions that a performer has to make, because notation does not specify all of the elements of music precisely. The process of deciding how to perform music that has been previously composed and notated is termed "interpretation." Different performers' interpretations of the same work of music can vary widely, in terms of the tempos that are chosen and the playing or singing style or phrasing of the melodies. Composers and songwriters who present their own music are interpreting their songs, just as much as those who perform the music of others. The standard body of choices and techniques present at a given time and a given place is referred to as performance practice, whereas interpretation is generally used to mean the individual choices of a performer.
Although a musical composition often uses musical notation and has a single author, this is not always the case. A work of music can have multiple composers, which often occurs in popular music when a band collaborates to write a song, or in musical theatre, when one person writes the melodies, a second person writes the lyrics, and a third person orchestrates the songs. In some styles of music, such as the blues, a composer/songwriter may create, perform and record new songs or pieces without ever writing them down in music notation. A piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or computer programs that explain or notate how the singer or musician should create musical sounds. Examples range from avantgarde music that uses graphic notation, to text compositions, to computer programs that select sounds for musical pieces. Music that makes heavy use of randomness and chance is called aleatoric music and is associated with contemporary composers active in the 20th century. A more commonly known example of chance-based music is the sound of wind chimes jingling in a breeze.
The study of composition has traditionally been dominated by examination of methods and practice of Western classical music, but the definition of composition is broad enough to include the creation of popular music and traditional music songs and instrumental pieces as well as spontaneously improvised works like those of free jazz performers and African percussionists such as Ewe drummers.
Notation
In the 2000s, music notation typically means the written expression of music notes and rhythms on paper using symbols. When music is written down, the pitches and rhythm of the music, such as the notes of a melody, are notated. Music notation also often provides instructions on how to perform the music. For example, the sheet music for a song may state that the song is a "slow blues" or a "fast swing", which indicates the tempo and the genre.
Written notation varies with style and period of music. In the 2000s, notated music is produced as sheet music or, for individuals with computer scorewriter programs, as an image on a computer screen. In ancient times, music notation was put onto stone or clay tablets. To perform music from notation, a singer or instrumentalist requires an understanding of the rhythmic and pitch elements embodied in the symbols and the performance practice that is associated with a piece of music or a genre. In genres requiring musical improvisation, the performer often plays from music where only the chord changes and form of the song are written, requiring the performer to have a great understanding of the music's structure, harmony and the styles of a particular genre (e.g., jazz or country music).
In Western art music, the most common types of written notation are scores, which include all the music parts of an ensemble piece, and parts, which are the music notation for the individual performers or singers. In popular music, jazz, and blues, the standard musical notation is the lead sheet, which notates the melody, chords, lyrics (if it is a vocal piece), and structure of the music. Fake books are also used in jazz; they may consist of lead sheets or simply chord charts, which permit rhythm section members to improvise an accompaniment part to jazz songs. Scores and parts are also used in popular music and jazz, particularly in large ensembles such as jazz "big bands." In popular music, guitarists and electric bass players often read music notated in tablature (often abbreviated as "tab"), which indicates the location of the notes to be played on the instrument using a diagram of the guitar or bass fingerboard. Tabulature was also used in the Baroque era to notate music for the lute, a stringed, fretted instrument.
Improvisation
Musical improvisation is the creation of spontaneous music, often within (or based on) a pre-existing harmonic framework or chord progression. Improvisation is the act of instantaneous composition by performers, where compositional techniques are employed with or without preparation. Improvisation is a major part of some types of music, such as blues, jazz, and jazz fusion, in which instrumental performers improvise solos, melody lines and accompaniment parts. In the Western art music tradition, improvisation was an important skill during the Baroque era and during the Classical era. In the Baroque era, performers improvised ornaments and basso continuo keyboard players improvised chord voicings based on figured bass notation. In the Classical era, solo performers and singers improvised virtuoso cadenzas during concerts. However, in the 20th and early 21st century, as "common practice" Western art music performance became institutionalized in symphony orchestras, opera houses and ballets, improvisation has played a smaller role. At the same time, some modern composers have increasingly included improvisation in their creative work. In Indian classical music, improvisation is a core component and an essential criterion of performances.
What Do Children Hear? How Do They Respond to Music?
Children’s musical encounters can be self- or peer-initiated, or teacher- or staff-initiated in a classroom or daycare setting. Regardless of the type of encounter, the basic music elements play a significant role in how children respond to music. One of the most important elements for all humans is the timbre of a sound. Recognizing a sound’s timbre is significant to humans in that it helps us to distinguish the source of the sound, i.e. who is calling us-our parents, friends, etc. It also alerts us to possible danger. Children are ableto discern the timbre of a sound from a very young age, including the vocal timbres of peers, relatives, and teachers, as well as the timbres of different instruments.
Young children are quite sophisticated listeners. As early as two years of age, children respond to musical style, tempo, and dynamics, and even show preference for certain musical styles (e.g., pop music over classical) beginning at age five. On the aggregate level, children physically respond to music’s beat, and are able to move more accurately when the tempo of the music more clearly corresponds to the natural tempo of the child. As we might expect, children respond to the dynamic levels of loud and soft quite dramatically, changing their movements to match changing volume levels. The fact that children seem to respond to the expressive elements of music (dynamics, tempo, etc.) should not come as a surprise. Most people respond to the same attributes of music that children do. We hear changes in tempo (fast or slow), changes in dynamics (loud or soft), we physically respond to the rhythm of the bass guitar or drums, and we listen intently to the melody, particularly if there are words. These are among the most ear-catching elements, along with rhythm and melody.
Teaching Music Vocabulary
For most children, the basics are easily conveyed through concept dichotomies, such as:
• Fast or Slow (tempo)
• Loud or Soft (dynamics)
• Short or Long (articulation)
• High or Low (pitch)
• Steady or Uneven (beat)
• Happy or Sad (emotional response)
For slightly older children, more advanced concepts can be used, such as:
• Duple (2) or Triple (3) meter
• Melodic Contour (melody going up or down)
• Rough or Smooth (timbre)
• Verse and Refrain (form)
• Major or Minor (scale)
Using Music in Arts-As-Curriculum
Most schools still contain music and art teachers, who are valuable assets in providing input regarding art strategies, teaching materials, etc. This is definition of an arts-as-curriculum strategy, where the arts teacher teaches their separate material. Fully integrating the arts requires a time commitment and instructional expertise, but often there isn’t the time, resources, or incentive to fully learn or implement the entire process for a lesson. How might you utilize the music teacher in your school to enhance your lesson? What are some ways to work with the specialists to benefit the student’s learning experience?
Using Music in Arts-Enhancement Curriculum
There are many things to be learned from arts-enhancement as well. Using the arts yourself to enhance your lesson provides opportunities for students to experience music during the school day in a non-content related way.
There are ample opportunities for children to experience music in their day, including singing, moving, clapping, or stomping that are not directly related to teaching content area but provide students an alternate form of expression, a chance to re-group and focus, for motivation, learn about proper group and individual expectations and behavior, and to make transitions between subjects and activities. How might you use music to “enhance” a science or language arts lesson? Vocabulary or poetry lesson?
A Sample List of Arts-Enhancement Opportunities:
1. Organization
• Activity: lining up, cleaning up
• Aesthetic Purpose: motivation
2. Transitions
• Activity: changing from one activity to another
• Aesthetic Purpose: change of mood, re-focus energy
3. Rituals
• Activity: Greetings/Hello, goodbye, holiday music
• Aesthetic Purpose: Prepare students mentally, provides stability and repetition
4. Interstitial
• Activity: Short break between two subjects or activities
• Aesthetic Purpose: Provide relaxation, moment of expression, and alternate uses for cognitive functioning
A Sample Day That Includes Music:
9:10 Use music before the school day begins
• Ritual: Set the mood/change the atmosphere in the room with sound
9:20 Students enter and settle in to the room
9:25 Morning Work, Attendance, Calendar
• Organization: i.e. “If you’re ready for _____ clap your hands” (or stomp your feet, etc.) Ritual: “Good Morning,” and/or movement activity “Head Shoulders”
10:00-10:40 Special (Music, Art, Physical Ed)
• Transition: Focus for Math
10:45 Math Stations
• Organization: Line up for Lunch
11:30 Lunch
• Transition: Focus ready for reading
12:10-12:50 Reading/Literacy Stations
• Interstitial: Break song/movement
12:50-1:30 Writing
• Interstitial: Movement/song break
1:30-2:10 Social Studies/Science/Health
• Transition: Movement activity/song
2:10-2:25 Snack/Play time
• Organization: Focus: Line up for Library or Lab
2:25-3:05 Computer Lab or Library
• Transition 3:10 Pickup and pack-up
• Organization: “Clean up song”
3:15 Dismissal
• Ritual: “Goodbye” song
Song Examples
(Substitute any subject such as math, reading, physical education, art, instead of music, and any action instead of “stand on up” or “clap your hands.”)
Janet Elder (n.d.), in her article on “Brain Friendly Music in the Classroom” suggests the following four groups of reasons to incorporate music into the classroom:
1. Music’s effect on the physical body and brain;
2. Music’s effect on the emotional body;
3. Music’s effect on the physical and learning environment;
4. Music’s effect on group coherence and intimacy. (Elder, n.d., p. 1)
For example, music’s beats per minute (b.p.m.) or tempo, has a direct impact on the human body. Elder (n.d.) also goes on to suggest specific songs to use for different classroom situations, such as playing classical music during individual or group work or “Get Up Offa That Thing” by James Brown for stretch breaks. There are many, many different types of songs and places to use them when working with children, and the inclusion of music in the daily routine can improve transitions and the overall mood of a classroom (Figure 3.1.2).
Figure 3.1.2 Source: adapted from Elder (n.d.) “Using Brain-Friendly Music in the Classroom.”
Using Music in Arts-Integrated Curriculum
An arts integrated lesson plan will be similar to a regular lesson plan, with the exception that it will have a place for both the arts learning objectives as well as the objectives for the content area and will allow students the opportunity to construct understanding through both disciplines.
Consider that you have to create a lesson plan to celebrate the Martin Luther King, Jr. holiday. It is, of course, nice to add a song somewhere in the lesson, perhaps a song from the Civil Rights Movement. This does not make the lesson integrated, but rather an Arts-Enhanced-Curriculum as discussed above. Integration requires that there be music objectives as well as subject area objectives, and that both subjects are treated equally. Keep in mind that any lesson can be made into an arts-integrated one, by simply delving in deeper to the art form itself to find structural details and meaning from which to draw. To make a lesson integrated, it is necessary to include social science or history goals and objectives as well as musical information, goals and objectives. For example, including information about the song that incorporates the music itself (form, timbre, melody, rhythm, etc.), while discussing the genre of civil rights songs itself.
To demonstrate a deeper understanding of the tenets and issues of Civil Rights, social science connections can be made not only to slavery in the previous century, but to the pro-union struggle in the earlier part of the 20th century. Students could demonstrate their understanding of Martin Luther King’s leadership and the famous marches of the 60s through song by recreating the march on Washington, DC while singing a civil rights song (“We Shall Not Be Moved,” “This Little Light Of Mine,” “We Shall Overcome,” etc.). The types of songs used for demonstrations could be analyzed, including their roots in the pro-union movement, gospel and religious music, and/or the use of call and response in the songs, which dates back to slavery and early African-American culture, and particularly how music was used during the protests. A follow-up might focus on blues, jazz and other genres inspired by the music of the Civil Rights movement.
Activity A
Try this: Which one of these examples represents Arts as Curriculum, Arts-Enhanced Curriculum, and an Arts-Integrated Curriculum?
• Students sing a song they learned in music class for a school assembly
• Students have to explain how sequential groupings work in math and music
• Students learn the song “50 Nifty United States”
Now try this: Students complete a unit on the lifecycle of a caterpillar.
• How might this lesson be changed to reflect an Arts-Enhanced lesson? Arts-integration? Arts as Curriculum?
• Create your own examples of the three types of curriculum.
Music Integration with Core Subjects: Vocabulary, Concepts, and Learning Standards
In order to successfully create arts integrated lessons, begin with the state learning standards in the content area in which you are working, then consider the art form you will be using. Explore vocabulary that may help you to work between the two disciplines. Below are two examples of vocabulary lists from Education Closet, a website dedicated to integration and innovation in teaching.
Activity B
Try This: Review the vocabulary lists below (Table 3.2; Table 3.3). Identify which terms work best for music instruction. Select three of the terms from either list and give an example of how you might use that term to illustrate music concepts in addition to either a math or literacy concept.
Figure 3.1.3 Source: by Susan Riley (2012) from Education Closet website.
Figure 3.1.4 Source: by Susan Riley (2012) from Education Closet website.
Generating Ideas for Integrated Lessons
The following grid (Table 3.4; Table 3.5 (blank)) offers a process for generating integration ideas using music, particularly in making connections across the disciplines. The first row of the grid contains an example of how to generate ideas from a musical concept.
Concept(s)/Grade
Begin by selecting one music concept to work with. In the first column of the grid below, the word “staff” is written. The lesson is to teach the musical staff to 2nd grade students.
Objectives
What are your main objectives for the lesson? What should children be able to do by the end of the lesson that they couldn’t do at the beginning? Note: “SWBAT” stands for “Students Will Be Able To.”
Activities
What activities could you use to teach the staff? Where would you begin? You might begin by teaching the line and space notes for the treble staff (EGBDF and FACE) and teaching the mnemonics that accompany those note names (i.e. E-Every; G-Good; B-Boy; D-Deserves; F-Fudge). Even at this point, writing the lines on the board, on a smart board, PPT, or even making lines on the floor with tape can be a visual accompaniment to the lesson, and help students learn through body movement as well as visual learning.
Integration Ideas
How might you integrate this concept using different core subject areas? What higher order thinking skills, or vocabulary? Look at the second grade Vocabulary grid above from Education Closet concerning math and the arts and Music and Literacy and select the most appropriate terms to apply to the lesson:
• (Math and the Arts) Form, Sequence, Pattern, Group
• (Arts Literacy) Analyze, Compare, Contrast
Common Core Learning Standards or State Performance Standards
Now refer to the state website to look for the appropriate common core standards or state performance standards.
An Example: Integrating Music in Language Arts and Social Studies “Goober Peas”
Many older songs offer excellent material for integration. For example, the song “Goober Peas” provides students a very inside look at the life of a Confederate soldier during the Civil War. In this case, both the music and lyrics are highly informative, as is the situation in which the song was sung, lending itself to integration through three areas: music, language arts, and social sciences.
Materials:
Timeline: Civil War history timeline including various battles, Sherman’s March, etc.
Song: “Goober Peas”
Text: The Personal Story of Life as a Confederate Soldier, “The Letters of Eli Landers” http://www.gacivilwar.org/story/the-...derate-soldier
2. When a horse-man passes, the soldiers have a rule
To cry out their loudest, “Mister here’s your mule!”
But another custom, enchanting-er than these,
Is wearing out your grinders, eating goober peas. (refrain)
3. Just before the battle, the General hears a row
He says, “The Yanks are coming, I hear their rifles now”
He turns around in wonder and what d’ya think he sees?
The Georgia militia, eating goober peas. (refrain)
4. I think my song has lasted almost long enough
The subject’s interesting but the rhymes are mighty tough
I wish the war was over so free from rags and fleas
We’d kiss our wives and sweethearts and gooble goober peas. (refrain)
Integration Process Questions
How might you integrate this song beyond that of “Arts as Enhancement”? What learning principles will you use? How will students be engaged? Demonstrate their understanding? What will be the processes of creation? What connections to other parts of the curriculum can be made? Are the standards present for both the art and the subject area? Go through Silverstein & Layne’s (2012) Arts Integration Checklist below to see how to incorporate an integrated level of understanding to the lesson:
Approach to Teaching
• Does the lesson contain learning principles of Constructivism (actively built, experiential, evolving, collaborative, problem-solving, and reflective)?
Understanding
• Are students engaged in constructing and demonstrating understanding knowledge rather than memorizing and reciting?
Art Form
• Are the students constructing and demonstrating their understandings through an art form?
Creative Process
• Are students engaged in a process of creating something original as opposed to copying or parroting?
• Will the students revise their products?
Connects
• Does the art form connect to another part of the curriculum or a concern/need?
• Is the connection mutually reinforcing?
Evolving Objectives
• Are there objectives in both the art form and another part of the curriculum or a concern/need?
• Have the objectives evolved since the last time the students engaged with this subject matter? Have the objectives evolved since the last time the students engaged with this subject matter? Have the objectives evolved since the last time the students engaged with this subject matter? (Silverstein & Layne, 2014).
Analysis: Vocabulary and Concepts
You’ll find an abundance of material to integrate and connect after analyzing both the music, lyrical/poetic aspects, and social contexts. The musical forms, phrases, harmonies and the poetic structure reveal a great deal of material apart from the content of the lyrics (Table 3.6).
Social Studies
Setting: Civil War, soldiers resting on the roadside while waiting for orders for the next confrontation.
Date Written: 1866.
Singers: Popular in the South among Confederate Soldiers (losing the war).
Sentiment: Expresses the living conditions of Confederate soldiers and the public, as the war was lost. Sherman’s troops laid waste to much of Georgia, cutting off food supplies.
Song Vocabulary: Students may not be familiar with these terms:
Goober Peas-another name for boiled peanuts. Eaten by Confederate soldiers during the war when rail lines were cut off, making food and rations scarce.
Messmate-a person/friend in a military camp with which one regularly takes meals.
Grinders-teeth.
Row-an argument or fight (rhymes with “cow”).
Georgia Militia-a militia organized under the British that fought the Union during the Civil War. They fought in Sherman’s devastating “March to the Sea” and in the last battle of the Civil War at the Battle of Columbus on the Georgia-Alabama border.
Yanks-Refers to “Yankees” or Union soldiers of the North. Rags and fleas-Tattered clothing and poor health conditions
Activities:
Sing the song “Goober Peas;” Read some of the letters of Eli Landers.
Questions to think about (Historical perspectives of soldiers)
• What conditions did the soldiers have to endure?
• What was happening towards the end of the Civil War?
• How do you think they felt during this time? (i.e., anxiousness, anticipation, weariness while waiting by the road).
• Overall, what do the lyrics express on behalf of the Confederate soldiers?
• What does the reference to the Georgia Militia mean in terms of the fighting?
Ideas for Integration:
• Constructivism: Analyze the music, text, and history (timeline). Reflect what it would be like to be a soldier in the Confederacy during the beginning, middle, and end of the Civil War. Problem Solve as to how to obtain food after the railroad lines were cut off, strategize as to earlier successes during the war.
• Student Engagement: (historical perspectives). Experience: learn and sing the song. Divide into groups and read Eli Landers letters from different years comparing changes in attitude for a confederate soldier over time from the beginning of the war to the end of the war.
• Art Form: Analyze by comparing Eli Landers’ letters to the lyrics of the song. What are the differences in historical facts? Sentiment? In terms of the song itself, explore the meaning of the music itself apart from the lyrics-sing the melody of the song on a neutral syllable. What does the melody remind you of? What kind of emotion do you hear in the melody, rhythm and phrasing? Does it seem to complement the lyrics or oppose them? Why might this be the case?
• Creative Process: Work collaboratively to create further verses of the song or write “letters home” that will express the feelings of soldiers facing defeat. Read the letters from home along with singing the new verses of the song.
• Objectives (see below):
What Learning Standards or Objectives can you incorporate for this lesson for each of the following?
1. Language Arts/Social Studies
a. Language Arts 3: Use knowledge of language and its conventions when speaking, reading, or listening.
b. Writing 3: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, descriptive details, and clear event sequences.
c. Reading 2: Determine a theme of a story, drama, or poem from details in the text; summarize the text.
2. Music National Standards
a. 1: Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music.
b. 6: Listening to, analyzing, and describing music.
c. 8: Understanding relationships between music, the other arts, and disciplines outside the arts.
Additional Songs for Integrating History/Social Studies
Other examples include songs that are informative and contain a long narrative or historical information for students. For example, the song “Christofo Columbo” chronicles much of the famed voyage including detailed geographic references in a fun and light song.
To the Kings and Queens of Europe, Columbus told his theory,
They simply thought him crazy, and asked him this here query,
How could the earth stand up if round, it surely would suspend,
For answer, C’lumbus took an egg and stood it on its end.
Refrain
In Fourteen Hundred and Ninety-two, ’twas then Columbus started,
From Pales on the coast of Spain to the westward he departed,
His object was to find a route, a short one to East India,
Columbus wore no whiskers, and the wind it blew quite windy.
Refrain
When Sixty days away from land, upon the broad Atlantic,
The sailors they went on a strike which nearly caused a panic,
They all demanded eggs to eat for each man in the crew,
Columbus had no eggs aboard, but he made the ship lay too.
Refrain
The hungry crew impatient grew, and beef-steak they demanded,
Equal to the emergency, Columbus then commanded
That ev’ry sailor who proves true, and his duty never shirks,
Can have a juicy porterhouse, “I’ll get it from the bulwarks.”
Refrain
Not satisfied with steak and eggs, the crew they yelled for chicken,
Columbus seemed at a loss for once, and the plot it seemed to thicken,
The men threatened to jump overboard, Columbus blocked their pathway,
And cried: “If chicken you must have, I’ll get it from the hatchway.”
Refrain
The sailors now so long from home with fear became imbued,
On the twelfth day of October their fears were all subdued,
For after Ninety days at sea, they discovered America’s shores,
And quickly made a landing on the Isle of Salvador.
Refrain
Music and Language Arts
Of all of the content area relationships with music, language arts and music have one of the closest bonds. This bond is rooted within the inseparable relationship between lyrics and music that has existed for thousands of years. People in across countless cultures have chanted or sung poetry for all types of human rituals, ceremonies and for entertainment. When we listen to a song, a musical phrase usually accompanies a phrase of lyrics; a verse or refrain emerges from a short poem. For centuries, ballads, and epics were all sung, as were Biblical chants and Vedic hymns. Long stories and epic tales used music to draw in the audience and to help the reciter’s memorization.
In addition, there is an intrinsic relationship in the discrimination of phonemic sounds and musical sounds for children learning to read. Language and music are intertwined to the point where there is evidence of a connection in the brain between phonemic sound discrimination and musical sound discrimination. In a 1993 study, for example, Lamb and Gregory examined the correlation between phonemic and musical sound discrimination for children reading in their first year of school and discovered that a child’s ability to discriminate musical sounds is directly related to reading performance, primarily due to their awareness of changes in pitch.
This close relationship allows for multiple avenues for integration. The use of music to build characters through sound expression; create tension in the narrative; highlight important moments in the plot, and so forth, are examples of the high compatibility between words and music.
Creating a “Sound Carpet”
Since music and language have such a close relationship, one of the easiest ways to begin is to combine the two. Creating a sound carpet (it refers to extensive and liberal use of music, sound effects, and character leitmotifs in the performance of a narrative or story) entails taking a story and adding sound effects, leitmotifs, instruments, vocal sounds, body percussion, and actors and/or a narrator, in order to bring literature to life. The goal of a leitmotif (it is a recurrent theme throughout a musical or literary composition, associated with a particular person, idea, or situation) is to help the listener identify the main characters and give each a very short musical pattern, so that every time their name is mentioned, someone plays that pattern. Also, sound effects can be added to enhance the action or bring a fuller meaning or experience. For example, if the story introduces a chiming bell, hit a bell or, for more advanced or older students, play a bell peal on the glockenspiel. Folk tales and fairy tales from around the world are excellent sources for this type of activity.
Characters and Leitmotifs
To create a sound carpet, begin by making a list of the main characters in the story. For example, the story The Princess and the Frog has three main characters-the King, Princess and Frog. Sample leitmotifs might look like this:
King: (temple blocks and bass xylophone) q ioq q
Princess: (glissando on glockenspiels)
Frog: scrape guiro; hit hand drums q q q (say “ribbit!”)
Help students create a short phrase or leitmotif for each of the main characters-think of Star Wars’ Darth Vader theme as an example. Every time the name is introduced in the story, their leitmotif should be played. To help the creative process, you might give students a short, simple rhythm to work with to create the motif. Then play the leitmotif on an instrument that helps describe that character. The King’s leitmotif, for example, might be 4 quarter notes played on a trumpet sound on a keyboard, or using an interval of a 5th on any instrument to sound regal and stately.
Sound Effects
Next identify locations in the story where sound effects can be used. A running stream could be a glissando on a xylophone; thunder can be played with drums; footsteps with a woodblock, etc.
Body Percussion and Vocals
Then add body percussion (clapping, stomping) or vocal sounds (moans for wind, yells and whoops) to increase the creativity and excitement level in the story.
Introduction and Finale
Add a short song with lyrics that are based on the story, to be sung and played by everyone at the opening and closing of the story.
Finally, assign a narrator, speaking or acting parts, and along with your instruments and sound effects, you have a complete performance that incorporates music composition and creativity along with language arts and theater.
REFERENCES
Bakan, M. (2011). World music: Traditions and transformations. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Elder, J. (n.d.). Using brain-friendly music in the classroom. Retrieved from https://letsgetengaged.wikispaces.co...view/Music.pdf
Riley, S. (2012). Shake the sketch: An arts integration workbook. Westminster, MD: Author. Silverstein, L., & Layne, S. (2014). What is arts integration? Retrieved from http://artsedge.kennedycenter.org/ed...ts-integration | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Arts_Integration_in_Elementary_Curriculum_2e_(Zhou_and_Brown)/03%3A_MUSIC/3.01%3A_Selected_Reading.txt |
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES
Giles, A. M., & Frego, R. D. (2004). An inventory of music activities used by elementary classroom teachers: An exploratory study. UPDATE: Applications of Research in Music Education, 22(2), 13-22.
Brass instruments and pitch. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://artsedge.kennedycenter.org/ed...ents_and_Pitch
Make every music lesson a treasured memory. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.makingmusicfun.net/
Ms. Garrett’s music lessons and projects. (2018). Retrieved from http://www.musictechteacher.com/musi...ic_lessons.htm
Music education lesson plans by category. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.teachnology.com/teachers/...n_plans/music/
Music games and activities. (20009). Retrieved from http://www.gamequarium.org/dir/Gamequarium/Music/
SFS kids fun and games with music. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.sfskids.org/
Teoria: Music theory web. Retrieved from http://www.teoria.com/en/tutorials/
Tulga, P. (2014). Music activities and arts integration lessons. Retrieved from http://www.philtulga.com/resources.html
3.03: Technology
TECHNOLOGY
Burns, A. (2014). iPads in the elementary classroom: Teacher tools. Retrieved from http://mustech.net/2014/07/ipads-in-...teacher-tools/
Create play and print beautiful sheet music. (2015). Retrieved from http://musescore.org
Finale notepad: Your free introduction to music notation software. (2015). Retrieved from http://finalemusic.com/notepad
Garret, K. (2013). Welcome to music tech teacher. Retrieved from http://www.musictechteacher.com/
Learning with noteflight. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.noteflight.com
Welcome to the music interactive web site. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.themusicinteractive.com/
What is taught in the music classroom. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.teachnology.com/teachers/..._matter/music/
3.04: Additional Sources
ADDITIONAL SOURCES
WEBSITES
The largest classical music archive in the world. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.classicalarchives.com
Light, I. (2006). Resources for teachers and some fantastic ideas about music and the curriculum. Retrieved from http://www.childrensmusic.org
Mickela, T. (2011). Music and student development. Retrieved from http://www.childrensmusicworkshop.co...ntdevelopment/
Music K-8 journal web site. Retrieved from http://www.musick8.com/
O’Donnel, L. (1999). Music power. Retrieved from http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n15/mente/musica.html
Pappalardo, G. (2010). Using music in the classroom to inspire creative expression. Retrieved from http://www.edutopia.org/blog/music-c...tan-pappalardo
Quaver’s marvelous world of learning: Seriously fun music. (2017). Retrieved from http://www.quavermusic.com/infocenter/
Song, A. (2010). Elementary teachers integrate music activities into regular mathematics lessons: Effects on students’ mathematical abilities. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1018326
Subotnic, M. (2010). Morton subotonic’s creating music. Retrieved from http://creatingmusic.com
Teaching tip: Music in the classroom. (2012). Retrieved from https://ethemes.missouri.edu/themes/1949?locale=en
Using music in the ESL classroom. (2012). Retrieved from https://www.englishclub.com/teaching...-classroom.htm
Welcome to artsalive.ca music. (2015). Retrieved from http://artsalive.ca/en/mus
BOOKS AVAILABLE IN DALTON STATE COLLEGE LIBRARY
Athey, M., & Hotchkiss, G. (1982). Complete handbook of music games and activities for early childhood. West Nyack, NY: Parker Publishing Company.
Campbell, P. S., & Scott-Kassner, C. (1995). Music in childhood: From preschool through the elementary grades. New York & London: Schirmer Books.
Greata, J. (2006). An introduction to music in early childhood education. Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning.
Mark, M. L., & Madura Ward-Steinman, P. (2010). Music education in your hands: An introduction for future teachers [eBook]. New York, NY: Routledge.
Markel, R. (1983). Music for your child: A complete guide for parents and teachers. New York, NY: Facts On File.
VIDEOS
Curriculum connections: Using music to help children learn-Program for teachers [Video file]. (2012).
Everywhere man: Integrating music and literacy through song writing [Video file]. (2012).
Integrating music and movement with literacy [Video file]. (2012).
Learning through music and art [Video file]. (2013).
Math music integration for first grade [Video file]. (2014).
Music in the general education classroom [Video file]. (2011).
Teacher uses music to make math fun, cool [Video file]. (2013).
SCHOLARLY JOURNALS
Burns, A. (2006). Integrating technology into your elementary music classroom. General Music Today, 20(1), 1-6.
Howell, A. C. (2009). Curricular pillars in the elementary general music classroom. Music Educators Journal, 95(3), 37-41.
Kerstetter, K. (2009). Educational applications of podcasting in the music classroom. Music Educators Journal, 95(4), 23-26.
Moore, P. (2009). Beyond folk: Using contemporary music in the elementary classroom. Teaching Music, 16(5), 57.
Music every day: Transforming the elementary classroom. (2002). Music Educators Journal, 89(2), 69.
Prescott, J. O. (2005). Music in the classroom. Instructor, 114(5), 29,30,32,34,67,76. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Arts_Integration_in_Elementary_Curriculum_2e_(Zhou_and_Brown)/03%3A_MUSIC/3.02%3A_Suggested_Activities.txt |
SELECTED READING
Visual arts are art forms such as ceramics, drawing, painting, sculpture, printmaking, design, crafts, photography, video, filmmaking, and architecture (UVA, n.d.). Many artistic disciplines (performing arts, conceptual art, textile arts) involve aspects of the visual arts as well as arts of other types. Visual arts are for visual purposes in nature; however, visual arts also include applied arts such as industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, interior design, decorative art, calligraphy, jewelry design, and wood craft (The Different Forms of Art, n.d.). In this chapter, the following visual arts forms are explored: drawing, painting, printmaking, calligraphy, photography, filmmaking, computer art, and sculpture.
Drawing
Drawing is a means of making an image, using any of a wide variety of tools and techniques. It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool or moving a tool across a surface using dry media such as graphite pencils, pen and ink, inked brushes, wax color pencils, crayons, charcoals, pastels, and markers. Digital tools that simulate the effects of these are also used. The main techniques used in drawing are: line drawing, hatching, crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, stippling, and blending. An artist who excels in drawing is referred to as a draftsman or draughtsman.
Drawing goes back at least 16,000 years to Paleolithic cave representations of animals such as those at Lascaux in France and Altamira in Spain. In ancient Egypt, ink drawings on papyrus, often depicting people, were used as models for painting or sculpture. Drawings on Greek vases, initially geometric, later developed to the human form with black-figure pottery during the 7th century BC (History of Drawing, n.d.). With paper becoming common in Europe by the 15th century, drawing was adopted by masters such as Sandro Botticelli, Raphael, Michelangelo, and Leonardo da Vinci who sometimes treated drawing as an art in its own right rather than a preparatory stage for painting or sculpture (Drawing, n.d.).
Painting
Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, and airbrushes, can be used. Painting taken literally is the practice of applying pigment suspended in a carrier (or medium) and a binding agent (a glue) to a surface (support) such as paper, canvas or a wall. However, when used in an artistic sense it means the use of this activity in combination with drawing, composition, or other aesthetic considerations in order to manifest the expressive and conceptual intention of the practitioner.
Painting is also used to express spiritual motifs and ideas. Sites of this kind of painting range from artwork depicting mythological figures on pottery to The Sistine Chapel to the human body itself. Like drawing, painting has its documented origins in caves and on rock faces. The finest examples, believed by some to be 32,000 years old, are in the Chauvet and Lascaux caves in southern France. In shades of red, brown, yellow and black, the paintings on the walls and ceilings are of bison, cattle, horses and deer.
Paintings of human figures can be found in the tombs of ancient Egypt. In the great temple of Ramses II, Nefertari, his queen, is depicted being led by Isis (History of Painting, n.d.) (Figure 4.1). The Greeks contributed to painting but much of their work has been lost. One of the best remaining representations are the Hellenistic Fayum mummy portraits. Another example is mosaic of the Battle of Issus at Pompeii (Figure 4.2), which was probably based on a Greek painting. Greek and Roman art contributed to Byzantine art in the 4th century BC, which initiated a tradition in icon painting.
The Renaissance Painting and Painters
Apart from the illuminated manuscripts produced by monks during the Middle Ages, the next significant contribution to European art was from Italy's renaissance painters. From Giotto in the 13th century to Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael at the beginning of the 16th century, this was the richest period in Italian art as the chiaroscuro techniques were used to create the illusion of 3-D space (Painting in Renaissance Art, n. d) (Figure 4.3). Painters in northern Europe too were influenced by the Italian school. Jan van Eyck from Belgium, Pieter Bruegel the Elder from the Netherlands and Hans Holbein the Younger from Germany are among the most successful painters of the times. They used the glazing technique with oils to achieve depth and luminosity.
The 17th century witnessed the emergence of the great Dutch masters such as the versatile Rembrandt who was especially remembered for his portraits and Bible scenes, and Vermeer who specialized in interior scenes of Dutch life (Figure 4.4).
The Baroque started after the Renaissance, from the late 16th century to the late 17th century. Main artists of the Baroque included Caravaggio, who made heavy use of tenebrism. Peter Paul Rubens was a flemish painter who studied in Italy, worked for local churches in Antwerp and also painted a series for Marie de' Medici. Annibale Carracci took influences from the Sistine Chapel and created the genre of illusionistic ceiling painting. Much of the development that happened in the Baroque was because of the Protestant Reformation and the resulting Counter Reformation. Much of what defines the Baroque is dramatic lighting and overall visuals (Hills, 2011).
Impressionist Paintings
Impressionism began in France in the 19th century with a loose association of artists including Claude Monet (Figure 4.5), Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Paul Cézanne who brought a new freely brushed style to painting, often choosing to paint realistic scenes of modern life outside rather than in the studio. This was achieved through a new expression of aesthetic features demonstrated by brush strokes and the impression of reality. They achieved intense color vibration by using pure, unmixed colors and short brush strokes. The movement influenced art as a dynamic, moving through time and adjusting to new found techniques and perception of art. Attention to detail became less of a priority in achieving, whilst exploring a biased view of landscapes and nature to the artists eye (Impressionism, n.d.; Impressionism in Visual Arts, n.d.).
Post-Impressionist Paintings
Paintings of Symbolism, Expressionism and Cubism
Edvard Munch, a Norwegian artist, developed his symbolistic approach at the end of the 19th century, inspired by the French impressionist Manet. The Scream (1893), his most famous work, is widely interpreted as representing the universal anxiety of modern man. Partly as a result of Munch's influence, the German expressionist movement originated in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century as artists such as Ernst Kirschner and Erich Heckel began to distort reality for an emotional effect. In parallel, the style known as cubism developed in France as artists focused on the volume and space of sharp structures within a composition. Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque were the leading proponents of the movement. Objects are broken up, analyzed, and re-assembled in an abstracted form. By the 1920s, the style had developed into surrealism with Dali and Magritte (Modern Art Movements, n.d.).
Printmaking
Printmaking is creating, for artistic purposes, an image on a matrix that is then transferred to a twodimensional (flat) surface by means of ink (or another form of pigmentation). Except in the case of a monotype, the same matrix can be used to produce many examples of the print.
Historically, the major techniques (also called media) involved are woodcut, line engraving, etching, lithography, and screen printing (serigraphy, silk screening) but there are many others, including modern digital techniques. Normally, the print is printed on paper, but other mediums range from cloth and vellum to more modern materials. Major printmaking traditions include that of Japan (ukiyo-e). Prints in the Western tradition produced before about 1830 are known as old master prints. In Europe, from around 1400 AD woodcut, was used for master prints on paper by using printing techniques developed in the Byzantine and Islamic worlds. Michael Wolgemut improved German woodcut from about 1475, and Erhard Reuwich, a Dutchman, was the first to use cross-hatching. At the end of the century Albrecht Dürer brought the Western woodcut to a stage that has never been surpassed, increasing the status of the single-leaf woodcut (The Printed Image in the West, n.d.).
In China, the art of printmaking developed some 1,100 years ago as illustrations alongside text cut in woodblocks for printing on paper (Figure 4.8). Initially images were mainly religious but in the Song Dynasty, artists began to cut landscapes. During the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1616-1911) dynasties, the technique was perfected for both religious and artistic engravings (The History of Engraving in China, n.d.) (Figure 4.9).
Woodblock printing in Japan (Japanese: 木版画, moku hanga) is a technique best known for its use in the ukiyo-e artistic genre; however, it was also used very widely for printing books in the same period. Woodblock printing had been used in China for centuries to print books, long before the advent of movable type, but was only widely adopted in Japan surprisingly late, during the Edo period (1603-1867). Although similar to woodcut in western printmaking in some regards, moku hanga differs greatly in that water-based inks are used (as opposed to western woodcut, which uses oil-based inks), allowing for a wide range of vivid color, glazes and color transparency (Figure 4.10).
Calligraphy
Calligraphy is a visual art related to writing. It is the design and execution of lettering with a broad tip instrument, brush, or other writing instruments (Mediaville, 1996). A contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined as "the art of giving form to signs in an expressive, harmonious, and skillful manner" (Mediaville, 1996, p. 18).
Modern calligraphy ranges from functional inscriptions and designs to fine art pieces where the letters may or may not be readable (Mediaville, 1996). Calligraphy continues flourishing in the forms of wedding invitations and event invitations, font design and typography, original hand-lettered logo design, religious art, announcements, graphic design and commissioned calligraphic art, cut stone inscriptions, and memorial documents. It is also used for props and moving images for film and television, testimonials, birth and death certificates, maps, and other written works (Geddes & Dion, 2004; Propfe, 2005).
The principal tools for a calligrapher are the pen and the brush. Calligraphy pens (Figure 4.11) write with nibs that may be flat, round, or pointed (Child, 1985; Lamb, 1976; Reaves & Schulte, 2006). For some decorative purposes, multi-nibbed pens-steel brushes-can be used. However, works have also been created with felt-tip and ballpoint pens, although these works do not employ angled lines. There are some styles of calligraphy, such as Gothic script, that require a stub nib pen.
Writing ink is usually water-based and is much less viscous than the oil-based inks used in printing. High quality paper, which has good consistency of absorption, enables cleaner lines (Aesthetic Theory, n.d.) although parchment or vellum is often used, as a knife can be used to erase imperfections and a light-box is not needed to allow lines to pass through it. Normally, light boxes and templates are used to achieve straight lines without pencil markings detracting from the work. Ruled paper, either for a light box or direct use, is most often ruled every quarter or half inch, although inch spaces are occasionally used.
Calligraphic writing with brushes is most found in East Asian calligraphy (Figure 4.12; Figure 4.13). Traditional East Asian writing uses the Four Treasures of the Study (文房四寶/文房四宝): the ink brushes known as máobǐ (毛笔) to write Chinese characters, Chinese ink, rice paper, and inkstone, known as the Four Friends of the Study (Korean: 문방사우, translit. 文房四友) in Korea. In addition to these four tools, desk pads and paperweights are also used.
The shape, size, stretch, and hair type of the ink brush, the color, color density and water density of the ink, as well as the paper's water absorption speed and surface texture are the main physical parameters influencing the final result. The calligrapher's technique also influences the result. The calligrapher's work is influenced by the quantity of ink and water he lets the brush take, then by the pressure, inclination, and direction he gives to the brush, producing thinner or bolder strokes, and smooth or toothed borders. Eventually, the speed, accelerations, decelerations of the writer's moves, turns, and crochets, and the stroke order give the "spirit" to the characters, by greatly influencing their final shapes.
Photography
Photography is the process of making pictures by means of the action of light. Light patterns reflected or emitted from objects are recorded onto a sensitive medium or storage chip through a timed exposure. The process is done through mechanical shutters or electronically timed exposure of photons into chemical processing or digitizing devices known as cameras.
The word comes from the Greek words φως phos ("light"), and γραφις graphis ("stylus", "paintbrush") or γραφη graphê, together meaning "drawing with light" or "representation by means of lines" or "drawing." Traditionally, the product of photography has been called a photograph. The term photo is an abbreviation; many people also call them pictures. In digital photography, the term image has begun to replace photograph. (The term image is traditional in geometric optics.)
Filmmaking
Filmmaking is the process of making a motion-picture, from an initial conception and research, through scriptwriting, shooting and recording, animation or other special effects, editing, sound and music work and finally distribution to an audience; it refers broadly to the creation of all types of films, embracing documentary, strains of theatre and literature in film, and poetic or experimental practices, and is often used to refer to video-based processes as well.
Computer Art
Visual artists are no longer limited to traditional art media. Computers have been used as an ever more common tool in the visual arts since the 1960s. Uses include the capturing or creating of images and forms, the editing of those images and forms (including exploring multiple compositions) and the final rendering or printing (including 3D printing).
Computer art is any in which computers played a role in production or display. Such art can be an image, sound, animation, video, CD-ROM, DVD, video game, website, algorithm, performance or gallery installation. Many traditional disciplines are now integrating digital technologies and, as a result, the lines between traditional works of art and new media works created using computers have been blurred. For instance, an artist may combine traditional painting with algorithmic art and other digital techniques. As a result, defining computer art by its end product can be difficult. Nevertheless, this type of art is beginning to appear in art museum exhibits, though it has yet to prove its legitimacy as a form unto itself and this technology is widely seen in contemporary art more as a tool rather than a form as with painting.
Computer usage has blurred the distinctions between illustrators, photographers, photo editors, 3-D modelers, and handicraft artists. Sophisticated rendering and editing software has led to multi-skilled image developers. Photographers may become digital artists. Illustrators may become animators. Handicraft may be computer-aided or use computer-generated imagery as a template. Computer clip art usage has also made the clear distinction between visual arts and page layout less obvious due to the easy access and editing of clip art in the process of paginating a document, especially to the unskilled observer.
Sculpture
Sculpture is three-dimensional artwork created by shaping or combining hard or plastic material, sound, or text and or light, commonly stone (either rock or marble), clay, metal, glass, or wood. Some sculptures are created directly by finding or carving; others are assembled, built together and fired, welded, molded, or cast. Sculptures are often painted. A person who creates sculptures is called a sculptor.
Because sculpture involves the use of materials that can be molded or modulated, it is considered one of the plastic arts. The majority of public art is sculpture. Many sculptures together in a garden setting may be referred to as a sculpture garden.
Sculptors do not always make sculptures by hand. With increasing technology in the 20th century and the popularity of conceptual art over technical mastery, more sculptors turned to art fabricators to produce their artworks. With fabrication, the artist creates a design and pays a fabricator to produce it. This allows sculptors to create larger and more complex sculptures out of material like cement, metal and plastic, that they would not be able to create by hand. Sculptures can also be made with 3-D printing technology.
Paper Cutting
Papercutting or paper cutting is the art of paper designs. The art has evolved uniquely all over the world to adapt to different cultural styles. One traditional distinction most styles share in common is that the designs are cut from a single sheet of paper (Figure 4.14; Figure 4.15; Figure 4.16) as opposed to multiple adjoining sheets as in collage.
Paper cutting, Jianzhi (剪紙), is a traditional style of papercutting in China and it originated from cutting patterns for rich Chinese embroideries and later developed into a folk art in itself. Jianzhi has been practiced in China since at least the 6th Century AD Jianzhi has a number of distinct uses in Chinese culture, almost all of which are for health, prosperity or decorative purposes. Red is the most commonly used color. Jianzhi cuttings often have a heavy emphasis on Chinese characters symbolizing the Chinese zodiac animals.
Figure 4.15. The paper cutting is in a style that is practically identical to the original 6th-century form.
Although paper cutting is popular around the globe, only the Chinese paper cut was listed in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists, which was in 2009 (Chinese Paper Cut, n.d.). The Chinese paper-cutting was recognized and listed because it has a history of more than 1500 years and it represents cultural values of the people throughout China.
Modern paper cutting has developed into a commercial industry. Papercutting remains popular in contemporary China, especially during special events like the Chinese New Year or weddings (McCormick & White, 2011, p. 285).
Origami
Origami (折り紙) from ori meaning "folding", and kami meaning "paper" (kami changes to gami due to rendaku)) is the art of paper folding, which is often associated with Japanese culture. In modern usage, the word "origami" is used as an inclusive term for all folding practices, regardless of their culture of origin. The goal is to transform a flat square sheet of paper into a finished sculpture through folding and sculpting techniques. Modern origami practitioners generally discourage the use of cuts, glue, or markings on the paper.
Origami Paper
Almost any laminar (flat) material can be used for folding; the only requirement is that it should hold a crease. The small number of basic origami folds can be combined in a variety of ways to make intricate designs. The best-known origami model is the Japanese paper crane (Figure 4.17). In general, these designs begin with a square sheet of paper (Figure 4.18) whose sides may be of different colors, prints, or patterns. Traditional Japanese origami, which has been practiced since the Edo period (1603-1867), has often been less strict about these conventions, sometimes cutting the paper or using non-square shapes to start with. The principles of origami are also used in stents, packaging and other engineering applications (Merali, 2011).
Figure 4.18. A crane and papers of the same size used to fold it.
Ideas of Integrating Visual Arts in the Classroom
Integrating visual arts into the classroom is not as daunting as one may think. Visual arts lend itself to naturalistic, wholistic, and authentic learning. Visual arts integration does not mean integrating art for the sake of another subject; but integrating art for arts’ sake to heighten students’ overall learning experience (Harris, 2011).
To start, think about the fundamentals of visual arts such as line, shape, and color. To teach the vocabulary words of color, the following terminology is suggested: saturation (the amount of intensity a color displays, either very bright or dim), hues (color used in any design in any pixel), tone/value (the amount of lightness in a color placed along a spectrum of black (no tone) to white (highest tone), shades (shades are created by taking a hue and adding pure black to create a new deeper color), and tints (similar except you add pure white to create a new color) (The Science Behind Design Color Theory, n.d.).
To successfully integrate visual arts into the classroom, it is important for the teachers to go outside of own box to new ideas and new learning; it is important to have “cross-disciplinary thinking, collaborative and intentional works, written reflections, revisions, documentation, exhibitions, and critiques-all of which being crucial towards holistic and authentic learning and instruction” (Harris, 2011, p. 21). Visual arts can be integrated into any subject; however, it requires the teacher’s efforts for planning, researching, and reflecting (Harris, 2011).
When visual arts are added to the learning process, content learning becomes more tangible, personal, and meaningful. Visual arts allow students to engage in hands-on learning and inquiry-based learning. Visual arts add to students’ personal expression and creativity in the learning process. In other words, students are engaged in the learning process for deeper levels of learning when visual arts are integrated. There are many activities that can help teachers a jumpstart in integrating visual arts in the classroom. Below are a few activity ideas of integrating visual arts in content areas:
Activity 1: Da Vinci’s Notebook: the teacher shows the images to students and then students search images to brainstorm images for thoughts and themes for the Notebook. The teacher should make sure the images are age-appropriate before letting students surf the web. This activity can be integrated in any subject area (Koonlaba, 2015).
Activity 2: Paper Sculpture Project. Students create paper sculpture projects. This could be integrated in history, writing, language arts, science, and math (Koonlaba, 2015).
Activity 3: Pop Art. It is always very popular with students. The simple imagery is easy for them to imitate. It’s also engaging in content areas (Koonlaba, 2015).
Activity 4: Class Comic Book. Create a class comic book by combining student art pieces and having them work together to write a story with a beginning, a middle, and an ending (Koonlaba, 2015).
Activity 5: Pyramid Art Project. A Pyramid could be painted/drawn/sketched. This could be used to connect art in math and social studies content area.
Activity 6: Poster/Brochure/Advertisement Project. Ask students to create a poster, brochure, or advertisement. These art projects can be great alternative assessment products; they are also a great tool to teach students about graphic design (Hayes, n.d.).
Activity 7: A Work of Art. Ask students to draw or make a collage about a specific topic they are studying in any content area. Cartoons are great to incorporate visual art with current events in social studies (Hayes, n.d.).
REFERENCES
Aesthetic theory of Arabic calligraphy in the Islamic Art. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.calligraphyfonts.info/ae...y-islamic-art/
Child, H. (Ed.). (1985). The calligrapher's handbook. Marlboro, NJ: Taplinger Publishing Co.
Chinese paper cut. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/chinese-paper-cut-00219
Drawing. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20090314...?vendorId=FWNE .fw..dr085000.a
Geddes, A., & Dion, C. (2004). Miracle: A celebration of new life. Kansas City, MO: Andrews McMeel Publishing.
Harris, S. F. (2011). Integrating visual arts into the curriculum. Retrieved from https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/b...RP%20FINAL.pdf
Haynes, K. (n.d.). 12 ways to bring the arts into your classroom. Retrieved from http://www.teachhub.com/12-ways-brin...your-classroom
Hills, H. (2011). Rethinking the baroque. Farnham, UK: Ashgate Publishing.
History of drawing. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.dibujosparapintar.com/eng...e_history.html
History of painting. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/...HistoryID=ab20>rack=pt hc
Impressionism in visual arts. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.impressionism.org/
Impressionism. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/glo/impressionism/
Koonlaba, A. E. (2015, February 24). 3 visual artists-and tricks-for integrating the arts into core subjects. Retrieved from https://www.edweek.org/tm/articles/2...gthe-arts.html
Lamb, C. M. (Ed.). (1976) [1956]. Calligrapher's handbook. London, UK: Faber & Faber.
McCormick, C. T., & White, K. K. (2011). Folklore: An encyclopedia of beliefs, customs, tales, music, and art. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Mediaville, C. (1996). Calligraphy: From calligraphy to abstract painting (translated by A. Marshall). Wommelgem, BE: Scirpus Publications.
Merali, Z. (2011, June 17). Origami engineer flexes to create stronger, more agile materials. Science, 332(6036), 1376-1377. doi:10.1126/science.332.6036.1376
Modern art movements (1870-1970). (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/mode...tmovements.htm
Painting in renaissance art. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://faculty.evansville.edu/rl29/a...epainting.html
Post impressionism. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/poim/hd_poim.htm
Reaves, M., & Schulte, E. (2006). Brush lettering: An instructional manual in Western brush calligraphy (Revised ed.). New York, NY: Design Books.
The different forms of art. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://arthearty.com/different-forms-of-art
The history of engraving in China. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.chinavista.com/experience...e/engrave.html
The printed image in the West: History and technique. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/prnt/hd_prnt.htm
The science behind design color theory. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://designshack.net/articles/gra...-color-theory/
UVA. (n.d.). What is visual art? Retrieved from http://www.unboundvisualarts.org/wha...ual-art/Propfe, J. (2005). SchreibKunstRaume: Kalligraphie im Raum Verlag (in German). Munich, DE: Callwey Verlag. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Arts_Integration_in_Elementary_Curriculum_2e_(Zhou_and_Brown)/04%3A_VISUAL_ARTS/4.01%3A_Selected_Reading.txt |
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES
VISUAL ART
Art lessons in the classroom. (2014). Retrieved from http://artsedwashington.org/for-educ...-the-classroom
Artsedge lessons for elementary school. (2014). Retrieved from http://artsedge.kennedycenter.org/ed...ollections/k-5
Art lessons by medium or technique. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.kinderart.com/across/
Art lessons and activities. (2017). Retrieved from http://www.nga.gov/content/ngaweb/ed...ctivities.html
Teacher art resources. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.nga.gov/content/ngaweb/ed.../teachers.html
Ways to integrate art and math in an elementary classroom. (2013). Retrieved from http://educationcloset.com/2012/05/1...ary-classroom/
THREE-D ART
3D classroom art. (2015). Retrieved from https://www.pinterest.com/jenichav/3d-classroom-art/
Art lesson plans and activities. (2014). Retrieved from http://lesson-plans.theteacherscorner.net/art/
Ward, Y. (2012). 3D cubist foil art in the classroom. Retrieved from http://misswardsfirstclass.blogspot....-foil-art.html
Welfare, J. (2013). 3D sculpture art class. Retrieved from http://wellfareartclassroom.weebly.c...sculpture.html
4.03: Technologies
TECHNOLOGY
Gregory, D. C. (2009). Boxes with fires: Wisely integrating learning technologies into the art classroom. Art Education, 62(3), 47-54. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1...ccountid=10661
Gooch, K., & Paula, S. (2011). Integration of the visual arts and web 2.0 technologies in the classroom. New England Reading Association Journal, 47(1), 92-101.
DeSilva, D. (2015, March 24). The software used by Pixar to create visual effects for movies like Toy Story, Up, and WALL-E is now free [Blog Post]. Retrieved from http://9to5toys.com/2015/03/24/pixar...d/#more-139484
4.04: Additional Sources
ADDITIONAL SOURCES
WEBSITES
Chesser, L. (2013). 50 ways to integrate are into any lesson. Retrieved from http://www.opencolleges.edu.au/infor...to-any-lesson/
Keddie, J. (2010). Using art in the classroom. Retrieved from http://www.onestopenglish.com/skills...550073.article
Long, B. (2014). Arts integration: Models and methods in elementary art education. Retrieved from http://scholarworks.gsu.edu/cgi/view..._design_theses
Lynch, G. (2011). The importance of art in child development. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/parents/education...d-development/
Riley, S. (2012). Ways to integrate art and math in an elementary classroom. Retrieved from http://educationcloset.com/2012/05/1...ary-classroom/
Sorensen, M. (2010). Integrating are and literacy in the elementary classroom. Retrieved from http://digital.lib.uni.edu/cdm/ref/c...ion/hnrp/id/25
BOOKS AVAILABLE AT DALTON STATE COLLEGE LIBRARY
Chapman, L. H. (1978). Approaches to art in education. New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Dondiego, B., Ekberg, M. H., & Mohrman, G. (1998). Start with art. Torrance, CA: Totline Publications.
Klaustermeier, D., & netLibrary, I. (1997). Art projects by design: A guide for the classroom [eBook]. Englewood, CO: Teacher Ideas Press.
Pappas, C., Kiefer, B. Z., & Levstik, L. S. (2006). An integrated language perspective in the elementary school: An action approach (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Allyn & Bacon.
SCHOLARLY JOURNAL ARTICLES
Bell, A. (2007). Language arts/science/math: Animal and number poetry. School Library Media Activities Monthly, 23(8), 11-12.
Bloom, A., & Hanny, J. (2006). Integrating art from around the world into the classroom. Phi Delta Kappan, 87(8), 1.
Gregory, D. C. (2009). Boxes with fires: Wisely integrating learning technologies into the art classroom. Art Education, 62(3), 47-54.
Hale, C. (2005). Art in the classroom. Instructor, 114(5), 21-22, 24, 26.
Hasio, C., & Crane, T. J. (2014). Teaching art a greener path: Integrating sustainability concepts of interior design curriculum into the art education curriculum. Art Education, 67(6), 35-39.
McCollister, S. (2002). Developing criteria rubrics in the art classroom. Art Education, 55(4), 46-52.
Naested, I. R., & McVean, G. (1998). Art in the classroom: An integrated approach to teaching art in Canadian elementary & middle schools. A Fine FACTA, 1(1), 36-37.
Rufo, D. (2011). Allowing artistic agency in the elementary classroom. Art Education, 64(3), 18-23.
Tavin, K. M., & Anderson, D. (2003). Teaching (popular) visual culture: Deconstructing Disney in the elementary art classroom. Art Education, 56(3), 21-24, 33-35
VIDEOS
Elements of art: Texture [Video file]. (2014).
Inspiration Fridays-21st century technology, art and learning in the classroom [Video file]. (2014).
Integrating art into lessons [Video file]. (2016). Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XkjzkMcJOU
Integrating art with STEM education [Video file]. (2015). Retrieved from https://youtu.be/DjpWQkmopgY
Visual arts for the classroom teacher-young audiences of Oregon & SW Washington [Video file]. (2013).
Visual art teaching [Video file]. (2014). | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Arts_Integration_in_Elementary_Curriculum_2e_(Zhou_and_Brown)/04%3A_VISUAL_ARTS/4.02%3A_Suggested_Activities.txt |
SELECTED READING
Poetry is a form of literature that uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of language-such as phonaesthetics, sound symbolism, and meter-to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of, the prosaic ostensible meaning (Poetry, 2013a; Poetry, 2013b; Poetry, n.d.).
Poetry has a long history, dating back to the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh. Early poems evolved from folk songs such as the Chinese Shijing, or from a need to retell oral epics, as with the Sanskrit Vedas, Zoroastrian Gathas, and the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Ancient attempts to define poetry, such as Aristotle's Poetics, focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song and comedy. Later attempts concentrated on features such as repetition, verse form and rhyme, and emphasized the aesthetics which distinguish poetry from more objectively informative, prosaic forms of writing.
Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differential interpretation to words, or to evoke emotive responses. Devices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. The use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony and other stylistic elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly figures of speech such as metaphor, simile and metonymy create a resonance between otherwise disparate images-a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived (Strachan & Terry, 2000). Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between individual verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm.
Some poetry types are specific to particular cultures and genres and respond to characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. Readers accustomed to identifying poetry with Dante, Goethe, Mickiewicz and Rumi may think of it as written in lines based on rhyme and regular meter; there are, however, traditions, such as Biblical poetry, that use other means to create rhythm and euphony. Much modern poetry reflects a critique of poetic tradition, playing with and testing, among other things, the principle of euphony itself, sometimes altogether forgoing rhyme or set rhythm (Eliot, 1999; Longenbach, 1997; Schmidt, 1999). In today's increasingly globalized world, poets often adapt forms, styles and techniques from diverse cultures and languages.
History
Some scholars believe that the art of poetry may predate literacy (Hoivik & Luger, 2009). Others, however, suggest that poetry did not necessarily predate writing (Goody, 1987).
The oldest surviving epic poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh, comes from the 3rd millennium BCE in Sumer (in Mesopotamia, now Iraq), and was written in cuneiform script on clay tablets and, later, on papyrus (Sanders, 1972). A tablet dating to c. 2000 BCE describes an annual rite in which the king symbolically married and mated with the goddess Inanna to ensure fertility and prosperity; it is considered the world's oldest love poem (Arsu, 2006; Mark, 2014). An example of Egyptian epic poetry is The Story of Sinuhe (c. 1800 BCE).
Other ancient epic poetry includes the Greek epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey; the Avestan books, the Gathic Avesta and the Yasna; the Roman national epic, Virgil's Aeneid; and the Indian epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Epic poetry, including the Odyssey, the Gathas, and the Indian Vedas, appears to have been composed in poetic form as an aid to memorization and oral transmission, in prehistoric and ancient societies (Ahl & Roisman, 1996; Goody, 1987).
Other forms of poetry developed directly from folk songs. The earliest entries in the oldest extant collection of Chinese poetry, the Shijing, were initially lyrics (Ebrey, 1993).
The efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad, resulted in "poetics"-the study of the aesthetics of poetry (Abondolo, 2001). Some ancient societies, such as China's through her Shijing (Classic of Poetry), developed canons of poetic works that had ritual as well as aesthetic importance (Gentz, 2008). More recently, thinkers have struggled to find a definition that could encompass formal differences as great as those between Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and Matsuo Bashō's Oku no Hosomichi, as well as differences in context spanning Tanakh religious poetry, love poetry, and rap (Habib, 2005).
Western Traditions
Classical thinkers employed classification as a way to define and assess the quality of poetry. Notably, the existing fragments of Aristotle's Poetics describe three genres of poetry-the epic, the comic, and the tragicand develop rules to distinguish the highest-quality poetry in each genre, based on the underlying purposes of the genre (Heath, 1997). Later aestheticians identified three major genres: epic poetry, lyric poetry, and dramatic poetry, treating comedy and tragedy as subgenres of dramatic poetry (Frow, 2007).
Aristotle's work was influential throughout the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age (Bogges, 1968; Burnett, 2001), as well as in Europe during the Renaissance (Grendler, 2004). Later poets and aestheticians often distinguished poetry from, and defined it in opposition to prose, which was generally understood as writing with a proclivity to logical explication and a linear narrative structure (Kant & Bernard, 1914).
This does not imply that poetry is illogical or lacks narration, but rather that poetry is an attempt to render the beautiful or sublime without the burden of engaging the logical or narrative thought process. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic "Negative Capability" (Ou, 2009, pp. 1-3). This "romantic" approach views form as a key element of successful poetry because form is abstract and distinct from the underlying notional logic. This approach remained influential into the 20th century (Watten, 2003).
During this period, there was also substantially more interaction among the various poetic traditions, in part due to the spread of European colonialism and the attendant rise in global trade (Abu-Mahfouz, 2008). In addition to a boom in translation, during the Romantic period numerous ancient works were rediscovered (Highet, 1985).
Genres
Poetry is often thought of in terms of different genres and subgenres. A poetic genre is generally a tradition or classification of poetry based on the subject matter, style, or other broader literary characteristics (Chandler, 1997). Some commentators view genres as natural forms of literature. Others view the study of genres as the study of how different works relate and refer to other works.
Narrative Poetry
Narrative poetry is a genre of poetry that tells a story. Broadly it subsumes epic poetry, but the term "narrative poetry" is often reserved for smaller works, generally with more appeal to human interest. Narrative poetry may be the oldest type of poetry. Many scholars of Homer have concluded that his Iliad and Odyssey were composed from compilations of shorter narrative poems that related individual episodes. Much narrative poetry-such as Scottish and English ballads, and Baltic and Slavic heroic poems-is performance poetry with roots in a preliterate oral tradition. It has been speculated that some features that distinguish poetry from prose, such as meter, alliteration and kennings, once served as memory aids for bards who recited traditional tales (Kirk, 2010). Notable narrative poets have included Ovid, Dante, Juan Ruiz, William Langland, Chaucer, Fernando de Rojas, Luís de Camões, Shakespeare, Alexander Pope, Robert Burns, Adam Mickiewicz, Alexander Pushkin, Edgar Allan Poe, Alfred Tennyson, and Anne Carson.
Lyric Poetry
Lyric poetry is a genre that, unlike epic and dramatic poetry, does not attempt to tell a story but instead is of a more personal nature. Poems in this genre tend to be shorter, melodic, and contemplative. Rather than depicting characters and actions, it portrays the poet's own feelings, states of mind, and perceptions (Blasing, 2006). Notable poets in this genre include Christine de Pizan, John Donne, Gerard Manley Hopkins, Antonio Machado, and Edna St. Vincent Millay.
Epic Poetry
Epic poetry is a genre of poetry, and a major form of narrative literature. This genre is often defined as lengthy poems concerning events of a heroic or important nature to the culture of the time. It recounts, in a continuous narrative, the life and works of a heroic or mythological person or group of persons (Hainsworth, 1989). Examples of epic poems are Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, Virgil's Aeneid, the Nibelungenlied, Luís de Camões' Os Lusíadas, the Cantar de Mio Cid, the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Mahabharata, Valmiki's Ramayana, Ferdowsi's Shahnama, Nizami (or Nezami)'s Khamse (Five Books), and the Epic of King Gesar. While the composition of epic poetry, and of long poems generally, became less common in the west after the early 20th century, some notable epics have continued to be written. Derek Walcott won a Nobel prize to a great extent on the basis of his epic, Omeros (Swedish Academy, n.d.).
Satirical Poetry
Poetry can be a powerful vehicle for satire. The Romans had a strong tradition of satirical poetry, often written for political purposes. A notable example is the Roman poet Juvenal's satires (Dominik & Wehrle, 1999). The same is true of the English satirical tradition. John Dryden (a Tory), the first Poet Laureate, produced in 1682 Mac Flecknoe, subtitled "A Satire on the True Blue Protestant Poet, T.S." (a reference to Thomas Shadwell) (Black, 2011, p. 1056). Another master of 17th-century English satirical poetry was John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester (Treglown, 1973). Satirical poets outside England include Poland's Ignacy Krasicki, Azerbaijan's Sabir and Portugal's Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage.
Elegy
An elegy is a mournful, melancholy or plaintive poem, especially a lament for the dead or a funeral song. The term "elegy," which originally denoted a type of poetic meter (elegiac meter), commonly describes a poem of mourning. An elegy may also reflect something that seems to the author to be strange or mysterious. The elegy, as a reflection on a death, on a sorrow more generally, or on something mysterious, may be classified as a form of lyric poetry (Kennedy, 2007; Pigman, 1985).
Notable practitioners of elegiac poetry have included Propertius, Jorge Manrique, Jan Kochanowski, Chidiock Tichborne, Edmund Spenser, Ben Jonson, John Milton, Thomas Gray, Charlotte Turner Smith, William Cullen Bryant, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Evgeny Baratynsky, Alfred Tennyson, Walt Whitman, Louis Gallet, Antonio Machado, Juan Ramón Jiménez, Giannina Braschi, William Butler Yeats, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Virginia Woolf.
Verse Fable
The fable is an ancient literary genre, often (though not invariably) set in verse. It is a succinct story that features anthropomorphized animals, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature that illustrate a moral lesson (a "moral"). Verse fables have used a variety of meter and rhyme patterns (Abrams & Harpham, 2014). Notable verse fabulists have included Aesop, Vishnu Sarma, Phaedrus, Marie de France, Robert Henryson, Biernat of Lublin, Jean de La Fontaine, Ignacy Krasicki, Félix María de Samaniego, Tomás de Iriarte, Ivan Krylov and Ambrose Bierce.
Dramatic Poetry
Dramatic poetry is drama written in verse to be spoken or sung, and appears in varying, sometimes related forms in many cultures. Greek tragedy in verse dates to the 6th century B.C. and may have been an influence on the development of Sanskrit drama) just as Indian drama in turn appears to have influenced the development of the bianwen verse dramas in China, forerunners of Chinese Opera (Dolby, 1983; Keith, 1992). East Asian verse dramas also include Japanese Noh. Examples of dramatic poetry in Persian literature include Nizami's two famous dramatic works, Layla and Majnun and Khosrow and Shirin, Ferdowsi's tragedies such as Rostam and Sohrab, Rumi's Masnavi, Gorgani's tragedy of Vis and Ramin, and Vahshi's tragedy of Farhad.
Speculative Poetry
Speculative poetry, also known as fantastic poetry (of which weird or macabre poetry is a major subclassification), is a poetic genre which deals thematically with subjects which are "beyond reality", whether via extrapolation as in science fiction or via weird and horrific themes as in horror fiction. Such poetry appears regularly in modern science fiction and horror fiction magazines. Edgar Allan Poe is sometimes seen as the "father of speculative poetry" (Dutcher, 2005, pp. 11-17). Poe's most remarkable achievement in the genre was his anticipation, by three-quarters of a century, of the Big Bang theory of the universe's origin, in his then much-derided 1848 essay (which, due to its very speculative nature, he termed a "prose poem") Eureka: A Prose Poem (Robinson, 2015; Rombeck, 2005).
Prose Poetry
Prose poetry is a hybrid genre that shows attributes of both prose and poetry. It may be indistinguishable from the micro-story (a.k.a. the "short short story", "flash fiction"). While some examples of earlier prose strike modern readers as poetic, prose poetry is commonly regarded as having originated in 19th-century France, where its practitioners included Aloysius Bertrand, Charles Baudelaire, Arthur Rimbaud and Stéphane Mallarmé (Monte, 2000). Since the late 1980s especially, prose poetry has gained increasing popularity, with entire journals, such as The Prose Poem: An International Journal,Contemporary Haibun Online, and Haibun Today devoted to that genre and its hybrids. Latin American poets of the 20th century who wrote prose poems include Octavio Paz and Giannina Braschi (Octavio Paz, n.d.; Braschi's Empire of Dreams, n.d.).
Light Poetry
Light poetry, or light verse, is poetry that attempts to be humorous. Poems considered "light" are usually brief, and can be on a frivolous or serious subject, and often feature word play, including puns, adventurous rhyme and heavy alliteration. Although a few free verse poets have excelled at light verse outside the formal verse tradition, light verse in English is usually formal. Common forms include the limerick, the clerihew, and the double dactyl.
While light poetry is sometimes condemned as doggerel, or thought of as poetry composed casually, humor often makes a serious point in a subtle or subversive way. Many of the most renowned "serious" poets have also excelled at light verse. Notable writers of light poetry include Lewis Carroll, Ogden Nash, X. J. Kennedy, Willard R. Espy, and Wendy Cope.
Elements of Poetry
Prosody
Prosody is the study of the meter, rhythm, and intonation of a poem. Rhythm and meter are different, although closely related (Pinsky, 1998). Meter is the definitive pattern established for a verse (such as iambic pentameter), while rhythm is the actual sound that results from a line of poetry. Prosody also may be used more specifically to refer to the scanning of poetic lines to show meter (Fussell, 1965).
Rhythm
The methods for creating poetic rhythm vary across languages and between poetic traditions. Languages are often described as having timing set primarily by accents, syllables, or moras, depending on how rhythm is established, though a language can be influenced by multiple approaches. Japanese is a mora-timed language. Syllable-timed languages include Latin, Catalan, French, Leonese, Galician and Spanish. English, Russian and, generally, German are stress-timed languages (Schülter, 2005). Varying intonation also affects how rhythm is perceived. Languages can rely on either pitch, such as in Vedic Sanskrit or Ancient Greek, or tone. Tonal languages include Chinese, Vietnamese and most Subsaharan languages (Yip, 2002).
Metrical rhythm generally involves precise arrangements of stresses or syllables into repeated patterns called feet within a line. In Modern English verse the pattern of stresses primarily differentiate feet, so rhythm based on meter in Modern English is most often founded on the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables (alone or elided) (Fussell, 1965). In the classical languages, on the other hand, while the metrical units are similar, vowel length rather than stresses define the meter (Jorgens, 1982). Old English poetry used a metrical pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number of strong stresses in each line (Fussell, 1965).
The chief device of ancient Hebrew Biblical poetry, including many of the psalms, was parallelism, a rhetorical structure in which successive lines reflected each other in grammatical structure, sound structure, notional content, or all three. Parallelism lent itself to antiphonal or call-and-response performance, which could also be reinforced by intonation. Thus, Biblical poetry relies much less on metrical feet to create rhythm, but instead creates rhythm based on much larger sound units of lines, phrases and sentences (Walker-Jones, 2003). Some classical poetry forms, such as Venpa of the Tamil language, had rigid grammars (to the point that they could be expressed as a context-free grammar) which ensured a rhythm (Bala Sundara Raman, Ishwar, & Ravindranath, 2003). In Chinese poetry, tones as well as stresses create rhythm. Classical Chinese poetics identifies four tones: the level tone, rising tone, departing tone, and entering tone (Brogan, 1995).
The formal patterns of meter used in Modern English verse to create rhythm no longer dominate contemporary English poetry. In the case of free verse, rhythm is often organized based on looser units of cadence rather than a regular meter. Robinson Jeffers, Marianne Moore, and William Carlos Williams are three notable poets who reject the idea that regular accentual meter is critical to English poetry (Hartman, 1980). Jeffers experimented with sprung rhythm as an alternative to accentual rhythm (Hollander, 1981).
Meter
In the Western poetic tradition, meters are customarily grouped according to a characteristic metrical foot and the number of feet per line (Corn, 1997). The number of metrical feet in a line are described using Greek terminology: tetrameter for four feet and hexameter for six feet, for example (Corn, 1997). Thus, "iambic pentameter" is a meter comprising five feet per line, in which the predominant kind of foot is the "iamb." This metric system originated in ancient Greek poetry and was used by poets such as Pindar and Sappho, and by the great tragedians of Athens. Similarly, "dactylic hexameter", comprises six feet per line, of which the dominant kind of foot is the "dactyl". Dactylic hexameter was the traditional meter of Greek epic poetry, the earliest extant examples of which are the works of Homer and Hesiod (Annis, 2006). Iambic pentameter and dactylic hexameter were later used by a number of poets, including William Shakespeare and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, respectively (Examples of English Metrical Systems, n.d.). The most common metrical feet in English are:
• iamb-one unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable (e.g. des-cribe, in-clude, re-tract);
• trochee-one stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable (e.g. pic-ture, flow-er);
• dactyl-one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables (e.g. an-no-tate, sim-i-lar);
• anapest-two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable (e.g. com-pre-hend);
• spondee-two stressed syllables together (e.g. heart-beat, four-teen);
• pyrrhic-two unstressed syllables together (rare, usually used to end dactylic hexameter). (Fussell, 1965, pp. 23-24)
There are a wide range of names for other types of feet, right up to a choriamb, a four-syllable metric foot with a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables and closing with a stressed syllable. The choriamb is derived from some ancient Greek and Latin poetry (Annis, 2006). Languages which utilize vowel length or intonation rather than or in addition to syllabic accents in determining meter, such as Ottoman Turkish or Vedic, often have concepts similar to the iamb and dactyl to describe common combinations of long and short sounds (Kiparsky, 1975).
Each of these types of feet has a certain "feel," whether alone or in combination with other feet. The iamb, for example, is the most natural form of rhythm in the English language, and generally produces a subtle but stable verse (Thompson, 1961). Scanning meter can often show the basic or fundamental pattern underlying a verse, but does not show the varying degrees of stress, as well as the differing pitches and lengths of syllables (Pinsky, 1998).
There is debate over how useful a multiplicity of different "feet" is in describing meter. For example, Robert Pinsky has argued that while dactyls are important in classical verse, English dactylic verse uses dactyls very irregularly and can be better described based on patterns of iambs and anapests, feet which he considers natural to the language (Pinsky, 1998). Actual rhythm is significantly more complex than the basic scanned meter described above, and many scholars have sought to develop systems that would scan such complexity. Vladimir Nabokov noted that overlaid on top of the regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of verse was a separate pattern of accents resulting from the natural pitch of the spoken words and suggested that the term "scud" be used to distinguish an unaccented stress from an accented stress (Nabokov, 1964, pp. 9-13).
Metrical Patterns
Different traditions and genres of poetry tend to use different meters, ranging from the Shakespearean iambic pentameter and the Homeric dactylic hexameter to the anapestic tetrameter used in many nursery rhymes. However, a number of variations to the established meter are common, both to provide emphasis or attention to a given foot or line and to avoid boring repetition. For example, the stress in a foot may be inverted, a caesura (or pause) may be added (sometimes in place of a foot or stress), or the final foot in a line may be given a feminine ending to soften it or be replaced by a spondee to emphasize it and create a hard stop. Some patterns (such as iambic pentameter) tend to be fairly regular, while other patterns, such as dactylic hexameter, tend to be highly irregular (Fussell, 1965). Regularity can vary between language. In addition, different patterns often develop distinctively in different languages, so that, for example, iambic tetrameter in Russian will generally reflect a regularity in the use of accents to reinforce the meter, which does not occur, or occurs to a much lesser extent, in English (Nabokov, 1964). Some common metrical patterns, with notable examples of poets and poems who use them, include:
• Iambic pentameter (John Milton, Paradise Lost; William Shakespeare, Sonnets) (Adams, 1997, p. 206);
• Dactylic hexameter (Homer, Iliad; Virgil, Aeneid) (Adams, 1997, p. 63);
• Iambic tetrameter (Andrew Marvell, "To His Coy Mistress"; Alexander Pushkin, Eugene Onegin; Robert Frost, Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening) (What Is Tetrameter, n.d.);
• Trochaic octameter (Edgar Allan Poe, "The Raven") (Adams, 1997, p. 60);
• Trochaic tetrameter (Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) "The Song of Hiawatha"; the Finnish national epic "Kalevala" is also in trochaic tetrameter, the natural rhythm of Finnish and Estonian;
• Alexandrine (Jean Racine, Phèdre) (James & Jondorf, 1994, pp. 32-34).
Rhyme, Alliteration, and Assonance
Rhyme, alliteration, assonance and consonance are ways of creating repetitive patterns of sound. They may be used as an independent structural element in a poem, to reinforce rhythmic patterns, or as an ornamental element (Corn, 1997). They can also carry a meaning separate from the repetitive sound patterns created. For example, Chaucer used heavy alliteration to mock Old English verse and to paint a character as archaic (Osberg, 2001).
Rhyme consists of identical ("hard-rhyme") or similar ("soft-rhyme") sounds placed at the ends of lines or at predictable locations within lines ("internal rhyme"). Languages vary in the richness of their rhyming structures; Italian, for example, has a rich rhyming structure permitting maintenance of a limited set of rhymes throughout a lengthy poem. The richness results from word endings that follow regular forms. English, with its irregular word endings adopted from other languages, is less rich in rhyme (Alighieri & Pinsky, 1994). The degree of richness of a language's rhyming structures plays a substantial role in determining what poetic forms are commonly used in that language (Kiparsky, 1973).
Alliteration is the repetition of letters or letter-sounds at the beginning of two or more words immediately succeeding each other, or at short intervals; or the recurrence of the same letter in accented parts of words. Alliteration and assonance played a key role in structuring early Germanic, Norse and Old English forms of poetry. The alliterative patterns of early Germanic poetry interweave meter and alliteration as a key part of their structure, so that the metrical pattern determines when the listener expects instances of alliteration to occur. This can be compared to an ornamental use of alliteration in most Modern European poetry, where alliterative patterns are not formal or carried through full stanzas. Alliteration is particularly useful in languages with less rich rhyming structures.
Assonance, where the use of similar vowel sounds within a word rather than similar sounds at the beginning or end of a word, was widely used in skaldic poetry, but goes back to the Homeric epic (Russom, 1998). Because verbs carry much of the pitch in the English language, assonance can loosely evoke the tonal elements of Chinese poetry and so is useful in translating Chinese poetry (Liu, 1990). Consonance occurs where a consonant sound is repeated throughout a sentence without putting the sound only at the front of a word. Consonance provokes a more subtle effect than alliteration and so is less useful as a structural element (Kiparsky, 1973).
Rhyming Schemes
In many languages, including modern European languages and Arabic, poets use rhyme in set patterns as a structural element for specific poetic forms, such as ballads, sonnets and rhyming couplets. However, the use of structural rhyme is not universal even within the European tradition. Much modern poetry avoids traditional rhyme schemes. Classical Greek and Latin poetry did not use rhyme (Wesling, 1980). Rhyme entered European poetry in the High Middle Ages, in part under the influence of the Arabic language in Al Andalus (modern Spain) (Menocal, 2003). Arabic language poets used rhyme extensively from the first development of literary Arabic in the sixth century, as in their long, rhyming qasidas (Sperl, 1996. Some rhyming schemes have become associated with a specific language, culture or period, while other rhyming schemes have achieved use across languages, cultures or time periods. Some forms of poetry carry a consistent and well-defined rhyming scheme, such as the chant royal or the rubaiyat, while other poetic forms have variable rhyme schemes (Adams, 1997).
Most rhyme schemes are described using letters that correspond to sets of rhymes, so if the first, second and fourth lines of a quatrain rhyme with each other and the third line does not rhyme, the quatrain is said to have an "a-a-b-a" rhyme scheme. This rhyme scheme is the one used, for example, in the rubaiyat form (Fussell, 1965). Similarly, an "a-b-b-a" quatrain (what is known as "enclosed rhyme") is used in such forms as the Petrarchan sonnet (Adams, 1997). Some types of more complicated rhyming schemes have developed names of their own, separate from the "a-b-c" convention, such as the ottava rima and terza rima (Corn, 1997).
Form in Poetry
Poetic form is more flexible in modernist and post-modernist poetry and continues to be less structured than in previous literary eras. Many modern poets eschew recognizable structures or forms and write in free verse. But poetry remains distinguished from prose by its form; some regard for basic formal structures of poetry will be found in even the best free verse, however much such structures may appear to have been ignored (Whitworth, 2010). Similarly, in the best poetry written in classic styles there will be departures from strict form for emphasis or effect (Hollander, 1981).
Among major structural elements used in poetry are the line, the stanza or verse paragraph, and larger combinations of stanzas or lines such as cantos. Also sometimes used are broader visual presentations of words and calligraphy. These basic units of poetic form are often combined into larger structures, called poetic forms or poetic modes (see following section), as in the sonnet or haiku.
Lines and Stanzas
Poetry is often separated into lines on a page. These lines may be based on the number of metrical feet or may emphasize a rhyming pattern at the ends of lines. Lines may serve other functions, particularly where the poem is not written in a formal metrical pattern. Lines can separate, compare or contrast thoughts expressed in different units, or can highlight a change in tone (Corn, 1997).
Lines of poems are often organized into stanzas, which are denominated by the number of lines included. Thus a collection of two lines is a couplet (or distich), three lines a triplet (or tercet), four lines a quatrain, and so on. These lines may or may not relate to each other by rhyme or rhythm. For example, a couplet may be two lines with identical meters which rhyme or two lines held together by a common meter alone (Corn, 1997).
Other poems may be organized into verse paragraphs, in which regular rhymes with established rhythms are not used, but the poetic tone is instead established by a collection of rhythms, alliterations, and rhymes established in paragraph form (Corn, 1997). Many medieval poems were written in verse paragraphs, even where regular rhymes and rhythms were used (Dalrymple, 2004).
In many forms of poetry, stanzas are interlocking, so that the rhyming scheme or other structural elements of one stanza determine those of succeeding stanzas. Examples of such interlocking stanzas include, for example, the ghazal and the villanelle, where a refrain (or, in the case of the villanelle, refrains) is established in the first stanza which then repeats in subsequent stanzas. Related to the use of interlocking stanzas is their use to separate thematic parts of a poem. For example, the strophe, antistrophe and epode of the ode form are often separated into one or more stanzas (Corn, 1997).
In some cases, particularly lengthier formal poetry such as some forms of epic poetry, stanzas themselves are constructed according to strict rules and then combined. In skaldic poetry, the dróttkvætt stanza had eight lines, each having three "lifts" produced with alliteration or assonance. In addition to two or three alliterations, the odd numbered lines had partial rhyme of consonants with dissimilar vowels, not necessarily at the beginning of the word; the even lines contained internal rhyme in set syllables (not necessarily at the end of the word). Each half-line had exactly six syllables, and each line ended in a trochee. The arrangement of dróttkvætts followed far less rigid rules than the construction of the individual dróttkvætts (McTurk, 2004).
Visual Presentation
Even before the advent of printing, the visual appearance of poetry often added meaning or depth. Acrostic poems conveyed meanings in the initial letters of lines or in letters at other specific places in a poem (Freedman, 1972). In Arabic, Hebrew and Chinese poetry, the visual presentation of finely calligraphed poems has played an important part in the overall effect of many poems (Kampf, 2010).
With the advent of printing, poets gained greater control over the mass-produced visual presentations of their work (Figure 5.1). Visual elements have become an important part of the poet's toolbox, and many poets have sought to use visual presentation for a wide range of purposes. Some Modernist poets have made the placement of individual lines or groups of lines on the page an integral part of the poem's composition. At times, this complements the poem's rhythm through visual caesuras of various lengths, or creates juxtapositions so as to accentuate meaning, ambiguity or irony, or simply to create an aesthetically pleasing form. In its most extreme form, this can lead to concrete poetry or asemic writing (Bohn, 1993; Sterling, 2009).
Figure 5.1. Visual Poetry
Diction
Poetic diction treats the manner in which language is used and refers not only to the sound but also to the underlying meaning and its interaction with sound and form (Barfield, 1987). Many languages and poetic forms have very specific poetic dictions, to the point where distinct grammars and dialects are used specifically for poetry (Blank, 1996; Sheets, 1981). Registers in poetry can range from strict employment of ordinary speech patterns, as favored in much late-20th-century prosody through to highly ornate uses of language, as in medieval and Renaissance poetry (Paden, 2000; Perloff, 2002).
Poetic diction can include rhetorical devices such as simile and metaphor, as well as tones of voice, such as irony. Aristotle wrote in the Poetics that "the greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor" (Aristotle, n.d. p. 22). Since the rise of Modernism, some poets have opted for a poetic diction that deemphasizes rhetorical devices, attempting instead the direct presentation of things and experiences and the exploration of tone (Davis & Jenkins, 2007). On the other hand, Surrealists have pushed rhetorical devices to their limits, making frequent use of catachresis (San Juan, 2004).
Allegorical stories are central to the poetic diction of many cultures, and were prominent in the West during classical times, the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Aesop's Fables, repeatedly rendered in both verse and prose since first being recorded about 500 B.C., are perhaps the richest single source of allegorical poetry through the ages (Treip, 1994). Other notable examples include the Roman de la Rose, a 13th-century French poem, William Langland's Piers Ploughman in the 14th century, and Jean de la Fontaine's Fables (influenced by Aesop's) in the 17th century. Rather than being fully allegorical, however, a poem may contain symbols or allusions that deepen the meaning or effect of its words without constructing a full allegory (Crisp, 2005).
Another element of poetic diction can be the use of vivid imagery for effect. The juxtaposition of unexpected or impossible images is, for example, a particularly strong element in surrealist poetry and haiku (Gilbert, 2004). Vivid images are often endowed with symbolism or metaphor. Many poetic dictions use repetitive phrases for effect, either a short phrase (such as Homer's "rosy-fingered dawn" or "the wine-dark sea") or a longer refrain. Such repetition can add a sombre tone to a poem or can be laced with irony as the context of the words changes (Hollander, 1981).
Poetic Forms
Sonnet
Among the most common forms of poetry, popular from the Late Middle Ages on, is the sonnet, which by the 13th century had become standardized as fourteen lines following a set rhyme scheme and logical structure. By the 14th century and the Italian Renaissance, the form had further crystallized under the pen of Petrarch, whose sonnets were translated in the 16th century by Sir Thomas Wyatt, who is credited with introducing the sonnet form into English literature (Corn, 1997). A traditional Italian or Petrarchan sonnet follows the rhyme scheme abba, abba, cdecde, though some variation, especially within the final six lines (or sestet), is common (Minta, 1980). The English (or Shakespearean) sonnet follows the rhyme scheme abab, cdcd, efef, gg, introducing a third quatrain (grouping of four lines), a final couplet, and a greater amount of variety with regard to rhyme than is usually found in its Italian predecessors. By convention, sonnets in English typically use iambic pentameter, while in the Romance languages, the hendecasyllable and Alexandrine are the most widely used meters.
Sonnets of all types often make use of a volta, or "turn," a point in the poem at which an idea is turned on its head, a question is answered (or introduced), or the subject matter is further complicated. This volta can often take the form of a "but" statement contradicting or complicating the content of the earlier lines. In the Petrarchan sonnet, the turn tends to fall around the division between the first two quatrains and the sestet, while English sonnets usually place it at or near the beginning of the closing couplet.
Sonnets are particularly associated with high poetic diction, vivid imagery, and romantic love, largely due to the influence of Petrarch as well as of early English practitioners such as Edmund Spenser (who gave his name to the Spenserian sonnet), Michael Drayton, and Shakespeare, whose sonnets are among the most famous in English poetry, with twenty being included in the Oxford Book of English Verse (Quiller-Couch, 1900). However, the twists and turns associated with the volta allow for a logical flexibility applicable to many subjects (Fussell, 1965). Poets from the earliest centuries of the sonnet to the present have utilized the form to address topics related to politics (John Milton, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Claude McKay), theology (John Donne, Gerard Manley Hopkins), war (Wilfred Owen, e. e. cummings), and gender and sexuality (Carol Ann Duffy). Further, postmodern authors such as Ted Berrigan and John Berryman have challenged the traditional definitions of the sonnet form, rendering entire sequences of "sonnets" that often lack rhyme, a clear logical progression, or even a consistent count of fourteen lines.
Shi
Shi (simplified Chinese: 诗; traditional Chinese: 詩; pinyin: shī; Wade-Giles: shih) Is the main type of Classical Chinese poetry (Watson, 1971). Within this form of poetry the most important variations are "folk song" styled verse (yuefu), "old style" verse (gushi), "modern style" verse (jintishi) (Figure 5.2). In all cases, rhyming is obligatory. The Yuefu is a folk ballad or a poem written in the folk ballad style, and the number of lines and the length of the lines could be irregular. For the other variations of shi poetry, generally either a four line (quatrain, or jueju) or else an eight line poem is normal; either way with the even numbered lines rhyming. The line length is scanned by according number of characters (according to the convention that one character equals one syllable), and are predominantly either five or seven characters long, with a caesura before the final three syllables. The lines are generally end-stopped, considered as a series of couplets, and exhibit verbal parallelism as a key poetic device (Watson, 1971). The "old style" verse (gushi) is less formally strict than the jintishi, or regulated verse, which, despite the name "new style" verse actually had its theoretical basis laid as far back as Shen Yue (441-513 CE), although not considered to have reached its full development until the time of Chen Zi'ang (661-702 CE) (Watson, 1971). A good example of a poet known for his gushi poems is Li Bai (701-762 CE). Among its other rules, the jintishi rules regulate the tonal variations within a poem, including the use of set patterns of the four tones of Middle Chinese. The basic form of jintishi (lushi) has eight lines in four couplets, with parallelism between the lines in the second and third couplets. The couplets with parallel lines contain contrasting content but an identical grammatical relationship between words. Jintishi often have a rich poetic diction, full of allusion, and can have a wide range of subject, including history and politics (Faurot, 1998; Wang, 2004). One of the masters of the form was Du Fu (712-770 CE), who wrote during the Tang Dynasty (8th century) (Schirokauer, 1989).
Villanelle
The villanelle is a nineteen-line poem made up of five triplets with a closing quatrain; the poem is characterized by having two refrains, initially used in the first and third lines of the first stanza, and then alternately used at the close of each subsequent stanza until the final quatrain, which is concluded by the two refrains. The remaining lines of the poem have an a-b alternating rhyme (Kumin, 2002). The villanelle has been used regularly in the English language since the late 19th century by such poets as Dylan Thomas (1952), W. H. Auden (1945), and Elizabeth Bishop (1976).
Limerick
A limerick is a poem that consists of five lines and is often humorous. Rhythm is very important in limericks for the first, second and fifth lines must have seven to ten syllables. However, the third and fourth lines only need five to seven. All of the lines must rhyme and have the same rhythm.
Tanka
Tanka is a form of unrhymed Japanese poetry, with five sections totalling 31 onji (phonological units identical to morae), structured in a 5-7-5-7-7 pattern (Alim, Ibrahim, & Pennycook, 2008). There is generally a shift in tone and subject matter between the upper 5-7-5 phrase and the lower 7-7 phrase. Tanka were written as early as the Asuka period by such poets as Kakinomoto no Hitomaro (fl. late 7th century), at a time when Japan was emerging from a period where much of its poetry followed Chinese form (Brower & Miner, 1988). Tanka was originally the shorter form of Japanese formal poetry (which was generally referred to as "waka") and was used more heavily to explore personal rather than public themes. By the tenth century, tanka had become the dominant form of Japanese poetry, to the point where the originally general term waka ("Japanese poetry") came to be used exclusively for tanka. Tanka are still widely written today (McCllintock, Ness, & Kacian, 2003).
Ode
Odes were first developed by poets writing in ancient Greek, such as Pindar, and Latin, such as Horace. Forms of odes appear in many of the cultures that were influenced by the Greeks and Latins (Gray, 2000). The ode generally has three parts: a strophe, an antistrophe, and an epode. The antistrophes of the ode possess similar metrical structures and, depending on the tradition, similar rhyme structures. In contrast, the epode is written with a different scheme and structure. Odes have a formal poetic diction, and generally deal with a serious subject. The strophe and antistrophe look at the subject from different, often conflicting, perspectives, with the epode moving to a higher level to either view or resolve the underlying issues. Odes are often intended to be recited or sung by two choruses (or individuals), with the first reciting the strophe, the second the antistrophe, and both together the epode (Gayley & Young, 2005). Over time, differing forms for odes have developed with considerable variations in form and structure, but generally showing the original influence of the Pindaric or Horatian ode. One non-Western form which resembles the ode is the qasida in Persian poetry (Kuiper, 2011).
Ghazal
The ghazal (also ghazel, gazel, gazal, or gozol) is a form of poetry common in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Azerbaijani, Urdu and Bengali poetry. In classic form, the ghazal has from five to fifteen rhyming couplets that share a refrain at the end of the second line. This refrain may be of one or several syllables and is preceded by a rhyme. Each line has an identical meter. The ghazal often reflects on a theme of unattainable love or divinity (Campo, 2009). As with other forms with a long history in many languages, many variations have been developed, including forms with a quasi-musical poetic diction in Urdu (Qureshi, 1990). Ghazals have a classical affinity with Sufism, and a number of major Sufi religious works are written in ghazal form. The relatively steady meter and the use of the refrain produce an incantatory effect, which complements Sufi mystical themes well (Sequeira, 1981). Among the masters of the form is Rumi, a 13th-century Persian poet (Schimmel, 1988). One of the most famous poet in this type of poetry is Hafez. Themes of his Ghazal is exposing hypocrisy. His life and poems have been the subject of much analysis, commentary and interpretation, influencing post-fourteenth century Persian writing more than any other author (Khan, 1936). West-östlicher Diwan of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe that is a collection of lyrical poems, has been inspired by the Persian poet Hafez (Akhundi, n.d.; Shamel, 2013).
Haiku
Haiku is a type of Japanese poetry. Previously called hokku, haiku was given its current name by the Japanese writer Masaoka Shiki at the end of the 19th century.
The traditional hokku usually was written in six verses or more or less 5, 7, 5 syllables (on-ji). The Japanese word cow, meaning "sound", corresponds to a mora, a phonetic unit similar but not identical to the syllable of a language such as English. A haiku has a special season word (the kigo) to represent the season in which the poem is set, or a reference to the natural world (Figure 5.1.4).
Haiku usually breaks in three parts, called kireji, normally placed at the end of the first five or second seven morae. In Japanese, there are actual kireji words. In English, kireji is often replaced with commas, hyphens, elipses, or breaks in the haiku. Japanese haiku are normally written in one line, while English language haiku are traditionally separated into three lines.
In Japanese, nouns do not have different singular and plural forms, so "haiku" is used as both a singular and plural noun in English as well. Japanese hokku and haiku are traditionally printed in one vertical line.
An Example of Haiku by Bashō:
初しぐれ猿も小蓑をほしげ也
(Hatsu shigure saru mo komino wo hoshige nari)
The first cold shower (5 syllables)
Even the monkey seems to want (7 syllables)
A little coat of straw (5 syllables)
(Coats and straw hats were normally used in Japan to protect from rain at the time)
A Haiku Example: Lotus Blossom by a Fifth-Grade Student (Figure 5.3)
Figure 5.1.5 Lotus Blossom
Lotus Blossom
Lotus blossoms bloom,
Morning dew glimmers on them,
How pretty they look
A Haiku Example: Nature (Figure 5.4)
Figure 5.1.6 Nature
Nature
Nature’s here with us
She is all we need and want
She’ll forever be
Cinquain
Cinquain /ˈsɪŋkeɪn/ is a class of poetic forms that employ a 5-line pattern. Earlier used to describe any fiveline form, it now refers to one of several forms that are defined by specific rules and guidelines. The modern form, known as American Cinquain (Alakalay-Gut,1985; Garison, 2002), was inspired by Japanese haiku and tanka (Drury, 2006, p. 61; Toleos, n.d. a) akin in spirit to that of the Imagists (Stillman, 1972). In her 1915 collection titled Verse, published one year after her death, Adelaide Crapsey (1878-1914) included 28 cinquains (Toleos, n.d. b). Crapsey's American Cinquain form developed in two stages. The first, fundamental form is a stanza of five lines of accentual verse, in which the lines comprise, in order, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 1 stresses. Then Crapsey decided to make the criterion a stanza of five lines of accentual-syllabic verse, in which the lines comprise, in order, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 1 stresses and 2, 4, 6, 8, and 2 syllables. Iambic feet were meant to be the standard for the cinquain, which made the dual criteria match perfectly. Some resource materials define classic cinquains as solely iambic, but that is not necessarily so (Garison, 2002). In contrast to the Eastern forms upon which she based them, Crapsey always titled her cinquains, effectively utilizing the title as a sixth line. Crapsey's cinquain depends on strict structure and intense physical imagery to communicate a mood or feeling (Post, 2002). The Scottish poet William Soutar also wrote over one hundred American Cinquains (he labelled them Epigrams) between 1933 and 1940 (Strand, 2005). The form of American Cinquain is illustrated by Crapsey's poem "November Night":
November Night
Listen...
With faint dry sound,
Like steps of passing ghosts,
The leaves, frost-crisp'd, break from the trees
And fall.
(Craspey, 1922, p. 31; as cited in Toleos, n.d.b)
The Crapsey cinquain has subsequently seen a number of variations by modern poets. Detailed descriptions are summarized in Table 5.2:
The didactic cinquain is closely related to the Crapsey cinquain. It is an informal cinquain widely taught in elementary schools and has been featured in, and popularized by, children's media resources, including Junie B. Jones and PBS Kids. This form is also embraced by young adults and older poets for its expressive simplicity. The prescriptions of this type of cinquain refer to word count, not syllables and stresses. Ordinarily, the first line is a one-word title, the subject of the poem; the second line is a pair of adjectives describing that title; the third line is a three-word phrase that gives more information about the subject (often a list of three gerunds); the fourth line consists of four words describing feelings related to that subject; and the fifth line is a single word synonym or other reference for the subject from line one (see Table 5.3).
Table 5.3.
An example of Didactic Cinquain “Snow” (Figure 5.5):
Snow
Silent, White
Dancing, Falling, Drifting
Covers Everything It Touches
Blanket
Figure 5.1.9 Snow
More Cinquain Examples:
Graduation
Bitter, Sweet
Fulfilling, Exciting, Gratifying
We Are Finally Done!
Commencement
EdTPA
Repetitive, Redundant
Reflecting, Crying, Terrifying
This Is So Stupid!!
Death
Integrating Poetry in the Curriculum
Poetry is a great tool for students to express authentic learning creatively and can be integrated into all content areas. In the classroom, building a poetry club or forming a poetry circle can encourage poetry reading, practice, and creation. The teacher could also create a poetry billboard for students to share their poems. Students’ poetic expression is limited to the classroom. Their observations from authentic learning environment, such as field trips and zoo, provide many wonderful opportunities for them to express their learning poetically and creatively (Shubitz, 2017). Lived experiences from visiting museums, holiday breaks, vacation, or other excursions, can also become the platform for poetry integration to stimulate students’ imagination and creativity.
In integrating poetry in the classroom, Schoch (n.d.) suggested using poetry with the following strategies in mind:
• Activate prior knowledge
• Establish theme
• Explore language
• Focus on facts
• Set a scene
• Inspire writing
• See new perspectives
• Ignite curiosity
• Provide pleasure
• Capture character
Poetry is powerful in multiple aspects of learning. Poetry can be used to improve literacy, language arts reading fluency and comprehension, and to promote mathematical reasoning among students, especially those who learn linguistically (Martin, 2008; Stange (2008)). Poetry is effective in classroom management, character building, socialization, and learning community (Martin, 2008; Stange, 2008). Poetry plays a pivotal role in the whole-child approach in education.
Poetry let students to see the beauty and power of language; integrating poetry in all content areas engage students in new perspectives, mathematical reasoning, language analytical thinking, and scientific inquiry. Poetry can be integrated as a central thematic element in the classroom to reinforce student learning in virtually every content area and to create a positive learning environment where students work cooperatively to express their learning, thoughts, and feelings creatively (Martin, 2008).
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SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES
Creative writing prompts: Ideas, lists, and teaching resources. (2018). Retrieved from http://www.uniqueteachingresources.c...g-prompts.html
Degnan, F. J. (2018). Poetry for the elementary classroom. Retrieved from http://teachersinstitute.yale.edu/cu...1.04.06.x.html
Fries-Gaither, J. (2008). The aurora: Inspiration for art and poetry integration. Retrieved from http://www.oercommons.org/courses/th...tegration/view
How dance can teach literature: Five ways to use dance in your English class. (2017). Retrieved from https://artsedge.kennedy-center.org/...ach-literature
How to teach creative writing. (2016). Retrieved from http://www.creativewriting-bg.com/as...VE-WRITING.pdf
Jazz music, dance, and poetry: Exploring basic movements, melodies and poetic methods. (2017). Retrieved from https://artsedge.kennedy-center.org/...ssons/grade-3- 4/Jazz_Music_Dance_And_Poetry.aspx
Lesson plans for elementary grades. (2017). Retrieved from https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/lesson-plans
Lesson plans for elementary grades. (2016). Retrieved from https://www.poetryarchive.org/lesson-plans/age-7-11
Literature and poetry site for teachers. (2018). Retrieved from http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroo...es/literature/
Poems to play with in class. (2010). Retrieved from http://schools.nyc.gov/documents/tea...lass_final.pdf
Poetry lesson plans for elementary grades. (2017, March 6). Retrieved from http://www.ncte.org/lessons/poetry
Writing folktales: Identifying and using elements of folktales and tall tales. (2014). Retrieved from https://artsedge.kennedy-center.org/...ting_Folktales
You too can Haiku. (2015). Retrieved from http://artsedge.kennedy-center.org/e...can_haiku.aspx
5.03: Technologies
TECHNOLOGY
Clean writer. (2016). Retrieved from https://itunes.apple.com/au/app/clea...383001862?mt=8
Language arts frenzy K-8 reading games. (2018). Retrieved from https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/lang...624475772?mt=8
Literacy apps. (2017). Retrieved from http://www.readingrockets.org/literacyapps
My writing spot. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.mywritingspot.com/
Seven fabulous apps for language arts. (2016). Retrieved from https://www.scholastic.com/teachers/...language-arts/
Storykit. (2017). Retrieved from https://solutions.softonic.com/apps/storykit
StorySkeleton (2015). Retrieved from https://www.storyskeleton.com/
Thinkamingo (2018). Retrieved from http://thinkamingo.com/lists-for-writers/
Toontastik. (2018). Retrieved from https://toontastic.withgoogle.com/
Writing prompts. (2017). Retrieved from https://www.reddit.com/r/WritingPrompts/
5.04: Additional Sources
ADDITIONAL SOURCES
WEBSITES
Bringing poetry to the classroom, grades K-5. (2018). Retrieved from http://www.nea.org/tools/lessons/bri...rades-K-5.html
Cinquain resources. (2009). Retrieved from http://cinquain.org/links.html
Drama and the literary arts. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.ket.org/education/resour...ary-arts-video
Free creative writing worksheets. (2017). Retrieved from http://www.tlsbooks.com/languagearts...ivewriting.htm
Fries-Gaither, J. (2008). Writing science-themed poetry in the elementary grades. Retrieved from http://www.oercommons.org/courses/wr...ry-grades/view 87
Haiku: Another kind of poetry. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.anotherkindofpoetry.org.uk/anotherkind/
Haiku how-to: Articles on haiku writing. (2008). Retrieved from https://www.ahapoetry.com/h_info.html
Haiku websites & resources. (2017). Retrieved from https://poetrysociety.org.nz/affilia...tes-resources/
Indrisano, R., Bryson, J., & Jones, M. (2015). Writing poetry in the elementary grades. Retrieved from http://www.bu.edu/sed/files/2010/11/...d-Paratore.pdf
Open content for English language arts (#OER). (2018). Retrieved from http://classroom-aid.com/2013/09/16/...uage-arts-oer/
Opp-Beckman, L. (2010). Cinquain poem activities. Retrieved from http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~leslieob/cinquain.html
Reading and writing poetry. (2005). Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/001...95/139551e.pdf
Write stories/making books. (2018). Retrieved from http://www.kidzone.ws/creative-writing/book.htm
BOOKS AVAILABLE AT THE DALTON STATE COLLEGE LIBRARY
Bowkett, S. (2010). Developing literacy and creative writing through story making: Story strands for 7- 12 year olds. Maidenhead, UK: McGraw-Hill Education.
Cox, C. (2012). Literature-based teaching in the content areas: 40 strategies for K-8 classrooms. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Cremin, T., Goouch, K., & Lambirth, A. (2005). Creativity and writing: Developing voice and verve in the classroom. London, UK: Routledge.
Gates, P. S., & Mark, D. H. (2010). Cultural journeys: Multicultural literature for elementary and middle school students. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Markus, P., & Blackhawk, T. (2015). To light a fire: 20 Years with the inside out literary arts project. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press.
McEwan-Adkins, E. K. (2011). Literacy lookfors: An observation protocol to guide K-6 classroom walkthroughs. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com
Popp, M. S. (2005). Teaching language and literature in elementary classrooms: A resource book for professional development. Mahwah, NJ: Routledge.
Sedgwick, F. (1997). Read my mind: Young children, poetry and learning. London, UK: Routledge.
Sedgwick, F. (2000). Writing to learn: Poetry and literacy across the primary curriculum. London, UK: Routledge.
VIDEOS
Basic literary terms, volume 6: Understanding poetry-rhythm and meter, rhyme [Video file]. (2017). Retrieved from Films on Demand database.
Literary arts and drama [Video file]. (2006). Retrieved from https://www.ket.org/education/resour...ary-arts-video
Literary arts making words matter [Video file]. (2016).
Meganathan, R. (2014). English language classroom: Teaching of poetry [Video file].
Neibling, A. (2015). Introduction to poetry: The 3Rs [Video file].
Patterson, C., & Denis, D. (2011). Literacy through creative dance [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.teachingchannel.org/vide...creative-dance
Richardson, K. (2015). Teaching strategies for introducing literature circles to a 4th grade class [Video file].
SCHOLARLY JOURNAL ARTICLES
Hume, A. (1999). Cinquain. Cedarville Review, 2, 21. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu...w/vol2/iss1/11
Maxim, G. (1998). Writing poetry in the elementary social studies classroom. Social Education, 62(4), 207-211.
Sorensen, M. K. (2010). Integrating art and literacy in the elementary classroom. Retrieved from http://scholarworks.uni.edu/hpt/30
Tucker, S. D. (2017). The effects of arts integration on literacy comprehension achievement [Doctoral dissertation]. Retrieved from http://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd/4205
Weinstein, I. (2010). Igniting a passion for poetry in elementary school [Undergraduate thesis]. Retrieved from http://library.wcsu.edu/dspace/bitst...is+Project.pdf | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Arts_Integration_in_Elementary_Curriculum_2e_(Zhou_and_Brown)/05%3A_LITERARY_ARTS_POETRY/5.02%3A_Suggested_Activities.txt |
SELECTED READING
Performing arts are a form of art in which artists use their voices or bodies, often in relation to other objects, to convey artistic expression. Performing arts can help explain our emotions, expressions, and feelings (Oliver, 2010). It is different from visual arts, which is when artists use paint, canvas or various materials to create physical or static art objects. Performing arts include several disciplines, each performed in front of a live audience. Live performances before an audience are a form of entertainment. The development of audio and video recording has allowed for private consumption of the performing arts. Artists who participate in performing arts in front of an audience are called performers. Examples of these include actors, comedians, dancers, magicians, circus artists, musicians, and singers. Performing arts are also supported by workers in related fields, such as songwriting, choreography and stagecraft. Performers often adapt their appearance, such as with costumes and stage makeup, stage lighting, and sound. Theatre, music, dance, and other types of performances are present in all human cultures. The history of music and dance date to pre-historic times. More refined versions, such as ballet, opera performed professionally.
Types of Performing Arts
Theater/Children's Theater
Theater is the branch of performing arts that is concerned with acting out stories in front of an audience, using a combination of speech, gesture, music, dance, sound and spectacle (Figure 6.1). In addition to the standard narrative dialogue style of plays. Theatre takes such forms as plays, musicals, opera, ballet, illusion, mime, improvisational theatre, comedy, magic, pantomime, etc.
Theater is a collaborative form of fine art that uses live performers, typically actors or actresses, to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place, often a stage. The performers may communicate this experience to the audience through combinations of gesture, speech, song, music, and dance. Elements of art, such as painted scenery and stagecraft such as lighting are used to enhance the physicality, presence and immediacy of the experience (Carlson, 1986). The specific place of the performance is also named by the word "theater" as derived from the Ancient Greek θέατρον (théatron, "a place for viewing") itself from θεάομαι (theáomai, "to see", "to watch", "to observe").
Children's theater is formal children’s performances. It includes organizations that are dedicated to children and theater. Children’s theater focuses on performing arts types such as plays, puppet shows, etc., that are intended for a young audience. Children’s theater also includes the audiences and buildings that are dedicated to children's theater.
Dance
In the context of performing arts, dance generally refers to human movement, typically rhythmic and to music, used as a form of audience entertainment in a performance setting (Figure 6.2). Definitions of what constitutes dance are dependent on social, cultural, aesthetic artistic and moral constraints and range from functional movement (such as folk dance) to codified, virtuoso techniques such as ballet (Mackrell, n.d.; Figure 6.3).
There is one another modern form of dance that emerged in 19th-20th century with the name of Free-Dance style. This form of dance was structured to create a harmonious personality which included features such as physical and spiritual freedom. Isadora Duncan was the first female dancer who argued about “woman of future” and developed novel vector of choreography using Nietzsche’s idea of “supreme mind in free mind” (Nana, 2015, p. 65). Dance is a powerful impulse, but the art of dance is that impulse channeled by skillful performers into something that becomes intensely expressive and that may delight spectators who feel no wish to dance themselves. These two concepts of the art of dance-dance as a powerful impulse and dance as a skillfully choreographed art (choreography is the art of making dances, and the person who practices this art is called a choreographer) practiced largely by a professional few-are the two most important connecting ideas running through any consideration of the subject. In dance, the connection between the two concepts is stronger than in some other arts, and neither can exist without the other (Mackrell, n.d.).
Music
Music is an art form which combines pitch, rhythm, and dynamic in order to create sound. It can be performed using a variety of instruments and styles and is divided into genres such as classical music, art music, music for religious ceremonies, folk, jazz, hip hop, pop, and rock, etc. As an art form, music can occur in live or recorded formats, and can be planned or improvised. As music is a protean art, it easily coordinates with words for songs as physical movements do in dance. Moreover, it has a capability of shaping human behaviors as it impacts our emotions (Epperson, n.d.). However, the creation, performance, significance of music can vary according to culture and social context. Music creation and performance can range from strictly organized compositions-such as classical music symphonies from the 1700s and 1800s, through to spontaneously played improvisational music such as jazz, and contemporary music from the 20th and 21st centuries.
Acrobatics
Acrobatics is the performance of extraordinary human feats of balance, agility, and motor coordination (Figure 6.4). It can be found in many of the performing arts, sports (sporting) events, and martial arts. Acrobatics is most often associated with activities that make extensive use of gymnastic elements, such as acro dance, circus, and gymnastics, but many other athletic activities-such as ballet and diving-may also employ acrobatics. Although acrobatics is most commonly associated with human body performance, it may also apply to other types of performance, such as aerobatics.
Figure 6.1.4 The picture shows the acrobat performers in the middle of air after being propelled off a springboard, China, 1987.
Ballet
Ballet is a type of performance dance (Figure 6.5) that originated during the Italian Renaissance in the 15th century and later developed into a concert dance form in France and Russia. It has since become a widespread, highly technical form of dance with its own vocabulary based on French terminology. It has been globally influential and has defined the foundational techniques used in many other dance genres and cultures. Ballet has been taught in various schools around the world, which have historically incorporated their own cultures to evolve the art.
Figure 6.1.5: Ballerina
Because ballet became formalized in France, a significant part of ballet terminology is in the French language (Glossary of Ballet, n.d.). Ballet vocabulary words examples are below:
Allegro. Brisk, lively motion. 1. An attribute of many movements, including those in which a dancer is airborne (e.g., assemblé, changement, entrechat, sauté, sissonne, soubresaut). 2. Used in ballet to refer to all jumps, regardless of tempo. 3. A category of exercises found in a traditional ballet class, e.g. petit allegro (small, generally fast jumps) and grand allegro (large, generally slower jumps).
Assemblé. A jump that lands on two feet. When initiated from two feet, the working leg performs a battement glissé/dégagé, brushing out. The dancer launches into a jump, with the second foot then meeting the first foot before landing. A petit assemblé is when a dancer is standing on one foot with the other extended. The dancer then does a small jump to meet the first foot.
Attitude. A position in which a dancer stands on one leg (the supporting leg) while the other leg (working leg) is raised and turned out with knee bent to form an angle of approximately 90° between the thigh and the lower leg. The height of the knee versus the foot and the angle of the knee flexion will vary depending on the techniques. The working leg can be held behind (derrière), in front (devant), or to the side (à la seconde) of the body. The alignment of the thigh compared to the midline in Attitude derrière will vary depending on the techniques. The foot of the supporting leg may be flat on the floor, en demi-pointe (ball of the foot), or en pointe (tips of the toes). The standing leg can be straight or bend ("fondu") (Figure 6.6).
Balancé. A rocking sequence of three steps-fondu, relevé, fondu (down, up, down)-executed in three counts. Before the first count, one foot extends in a dégagé to second position (balancé de côté) or to the front (balancé en avant) or rear (balancé en arrière). The second foot in the sequence (in any direction) assembles behind the first to relevé in fifth or fourth position (Figure 6.7).
A ballet, a work, consists of the choreography and music for a ballet production. A well-known example of this is The Nutcracker, a two-act ballet originally choreographed by Marius Petipa and Lev Ivanov with a music score by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky. Ballets are choreographed and performed by trained ballet dancers. Traditional classical ballets are usually performed with classical music accompaniment and use elaborate costumes and staging, whereas modern ballets, such as the neoclassical works of American choreographer George Balanchine, often are performed in simple costumes (e.g., leotards and tights) and without the use of elaborate sets or scenery.
Circus and Clown
A circus is a company of performers who put on diverse entertainment shows that include clowns, acrobats, trained animals, trapeze acts, musicians, dancers, hoopers, tightrope walkers, jugglers, magicians, unicyclists, as well as other object manipulation and stunt-oriented artists. Circus skills are performed as entertainment in circus, sideshow, busking, or variety, vaudeville or music hall shows. Most circus skills are still being performed today. Many are also practiced by non-performers as a hobby.
In the circus, a clown (Figure 6.8) may perform a circus role:
• Walk a tightrope, a highwire, a slack rope or a piece of rope on the ground.
• Ride a horse, a zebra, a donkey, an elephant or even an ostrich.
• Substitute himself in the role of "lion tamer."
• Act as "emcee", from M.C. or Master of Ceremonies, the preferred term for a clown taking on the role of "Ringmaster."
• "Sit in" with the orchestra, perhaps in a "pin spot" in the center ring, or from a seat in the audience.
• Anything any other circus performer might do. It is not uncommon for an acrobat, a horse-back rider or a lion tamer to secretly stand in for the clown, the "switch" taking place in a brief moment offstage.
Special terms are used in reference a clown’ role in the performance:
Gags, Bits and Business. Business-the individual motions the clown uses, often used to express the clown's character. Gag-very short piece of clown comedy that, when repeated within a "bit" or "routine," may become a running gag. Gags are, loosely, the jokes clowns play on each other. A gag may have a beginning, a middle, and an end-or may not. Gags can also refer to the prop stunts/tricks or the stunts that clowns use, such as a squirting flower. Bit-the clown's sketch or routine, made up of one or more "gags" either worked out and timed before going on stage, or impromptu bits composed of familiar improvisational material.
Menu. Entrée-clowning acts lasting 5-10 minutes. Typically made up of various gags and bits, usually within a clowning framework. Entrées almost always end with a "blow-off"-the comedic ending of a show segment, "bit," "gag," "stunt," or "routine." Side dish-shorter feature act. Side dishes are essentially shorter versions of the "entrée," typically lasting 1-3 minutes. Typically made up of various "gags" and "bits," side dishes are usually within a clowning framework. Side dishes almost always end with a "blow-off."
Interludes. "Clown Stops" or "interludes" are the brief appearances of clowns in a circus while the props and rigging are changed. These are typically made up of a few gags or several bits. Clown stops will always have a beginning, a middle, and an end to them, invariably culminating in a blowoff. These are also called "reprises" or "run-ins" by many, and in today's circus they are an art form in themselves. Originally, they were bits of "business" usually parodying the act that had preceded it. If for instance there had been a tightrope walker the reprise would involve two chairs with a piece of rope between and the clown trying to imitate the artiste by trying to walk between them, with the resulting falls and cascades bringing laughter from the audience. Today, interludes are far more complex, and in many modern shows the clowning is a thread that links the whole show together.
Prop stunts. Among the more well-known clown stunts are: squirting flower; the "too-manyclowns-coming-out-of-a-tiny-car" stunt; doing just about anything with a rubber chicken, tripping over one's own feet (or an air pocket or imaginary blemish in the floor) or riding any number of ridiculous vehicles or "clown bikes." Individual prop stunts are generally considered individual bits.
Magic
Magic, along with its subgenres of, and sometimes referred to as illusion, stage magic or street magic is a performing art in which audiences are entertained by staged tricks or illusions of seemingly impossible feats using natural means (Foley, 2016; Gibson, 2016; Figure 6.9; Figure 6.10). It is to be distinguished from paranormal magic which, it is claimed, are effects created through supernatural means. It is one of the oldest performing arts in the world.
Opinions vary among magicians as to how to categorize a given effect in a magic performance. Some commonly used descriptions are below:
Production: The magician produces something from nothing-a rabbit from an empty hat, a fan of cards from thin air, a shower of coins from an empty bucket, a dove from a pan, or the magician himself or herself, appearing in a puff of smoke on an empty stage-all of these effects are productions.
Vanish: The magician makes something disappear-a coin, a cage of doves, milk from a newspaper, an assistant from a cabinet, or even the Statue of Liberty. A vanish, being the reverse of a production, may use a similar technique in reverse.
Transformation: The magician transforms something from one state into another-a silk handkerchief changes color, a lady turns into a tiger, an indifferent card changes to the spectator's chosen card.
Restoration: The magician destroys an object-a rope is cut, a newspaper is torn, a woman is cut in half, a borrowed watch is smashed to pieces-then restores it to its original state.
Transposition: This is whereby two or more objects are used in play. The magician will cause these objects to change places, as many times as he pleases, and in some cases, ends with a kicker by transforming the objects into something else.
Transportation: The magician causes something to move from one place to another-a borrowed ring is found inside a ball of wool, a canary inside a light bulb, an assistant from a cabinet to the back of the theatre, or a coin from one hand to the other. When two objects exchange places, it is called a transposition: a simultaneous, double transportation. A transportation can be seen as a combination of a vanish and a production. When performed by a mentalist it might be called teleportation.
Escape: The magician (or less often, an assistant) is placed in a restraining device (i.e., handcuffs or a straitjacket) or a death trap, and escapes to safety. Examples include being put in a straitjacket and into an overflowing tank of water and being tied up and placed in a car being sent through a car crusher.
Levitation: The magician defies gravity, either by making something float in the air, or with the aid of another object (suspension)-a silver ball floats around a cloth, an assistant floats in mid-air, another is suspended from a broom, a scarf dances in a sealed bottle, and the magician hovers a few inches off the floor. There are many popular ways to create this illusion, including Asrah levitation, Balducci levitation, and King levitation.
Penetration: The magician makes a solid object pass through another-a set of steel rings link and unlink, a candle penetrates an arm, swords pass through an assistant in a basket, a salt shaker penetrates a tabletop, or a man walks through a mirror. Sometimes referred to as "solid-throughsolid."
Prediction: The magician accurately predicts the choice of a spectator or the outcome of an eventa newspaper headline, the total amount of loose change in the spectator's pocket, a picture drawn on a slate-under seemingly impossible circumstances.
Figure 6.1.9 Notice how the man in the back row steals another man's purse while applying misdirection by looking at the sky. The artist even misdirects the viewer from the thief by drawing the viewer to the magician.
Mime Show
A mime or mime artist is a person who uses mime as a theatrical medium or as a performance art. Miming involves acting out a story through body motions, without use of speech. In earlier times, in English, such a performer would typically be referred to as a mummer. Miming is distinguished from silent comedy, in which the artist is a seamless character in a film or sketch.
Jacques Copeau, strongly influenced by Commedia dell'arte and Japanese Noh theatre, used masks in the training of his actors. Étienne Decroux, a pupil of his, was highly influenced by this and started exploring and developing the possibilities of mime and developed corporeal mime into a highly sculptural form, taking it outside the realms of naturalism. Jacques Lecoq contributed significantly to the development of mime and physical theatre with his training methods (Callery, 2001).
Opera
Opera is a form of theatre in which music has a leading role and the parts are taken by singers. Such a 'work' (the literal translation of 'opera') is typically a collaboration between a composer and a librettist and incorporates a number of the performing arts, such as acting, scenery, costumes and sometimes dance or ballet. The performance is typically given in an opera house, accompanied by an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble, which since the early 19th century has been led by a conductor (Figure 6.11; Figure 6.12; Figure 6.13).
Opera is a key part of the Western classical music tradition. Originally understood as an entirely sung piece, in contrast to a play with songs, opera has come to include numerous genres, including some that include spoken dialogue such as musical theater, Singspiel and Opéra comique. In traditional number opera, singers employ two styles of singing: recitative, a speech-inflected style (Apel, 1969, p. 718) and self-contained arias. The 19th century saw the rise of the continuous music drama.
Figure 6.1.11 Performers from the Atlanta Opera sing the finale of Lucia di Lammermoor. The opera orchestra is visible in the lowered area in front of the stage.
Puppetry
Puppetry is a form of theatre or performance that involves the manipulation of puppets-inanimate objects, often resembling some type of human or animal figure, that are animated or manipulated by a human called a puppeteer (Figure 6.14; Figure 6.15). Such a performance is also known as a puppet play/puppet show. The puppeteer uses movements of her hands, arms, or control devices such as rods or strings to move the body, head, limbs, and in some cases the mouth and eyes of the puppet. The puppeteer often speaks in the voice of the character of the puppet, and then synchronizes the movements of the puppet's mouth with this spoken part. The actions, gestures and spoken parts acted out by the puppets are typically used in storytelling.
There are many different varieties of puppets, and they are made of a wide range of materials, depending on their form and intended use. They can be extremely complex or very simple in their construction. The simplest puppets are finger puppets, which are tiny puppets that fit onto a single finger, and sock puppets, which are formed from a sock and operated by inserting one's hand inside the sock, with the opening and closing of the hand simulating the movement of the puppet's "mouth". A hand puppet is controlled by one hand which occupies the interior of the puppet and moves the puppet around (Punch and Judy puppets are familiar examples of hand puppets). A "live-hand puppet" is similar to a hand puppet but is larger and requires two puppeteers for each puppet. Marionettes are suspended and controlled by a number of strings, plus sometimes a central rod attached to a control bar held from above by the puppeteer.
Puppetry is a very ancient form of theatre which was first recorded in the 5th century B.C. in Ancient Greece. Some forms of puppetry may have originated as long ago as 3000 years B.C. (Blumenthal, 2005). Puppetry takes many forms, but they all share the process of animating inanimate performing objects to tell a story. Puppetry is used in almost all human societies both as entertainment-in performance-and ceremonially in rituals and celebrations such as carnivals (Bell, 2002).
Speech
Speech (also called oratory or oration) is the process or act of performing a talk to a live audience (Figure 6.16). Public speech is deliberately structured with three general purposes: to inform, to persuade and to entertain (Beall, n.d.). Speech is commonly understood as formal, face-to-face speaking of a single person to a group of listeners (Beall, n.d.). Public speech can be governed by different rules and structures. For example, speeches about concepts do not necessarily have to be structured in any special way. However, there is a method behind giving it effectively. For this type of speech, it would be good to describe that concept with examples that can relate to the audience’s life (Valenzano III & Braden, 2015).
Performing a speech can serve the purpose of transmitting information, telling a story, motivating people to act or some combination of those. Speech can also take the form of a discourse community, in which the audience and speaker use discourse to achieve a common goal. In short, the speaker should be answering the question "who says what in which channel to whom with what effect?" (Public Speaking, n.d.).
Figure 6.1.16 The Roman orator Cicero speaks to the Roman Senate.
Ventriloquism
Ventriloquism, or ventriloquy, is an act of stagecraft in which a person (a ventriloquist) changes his or her voice so that it appears that the voice is coming from elsewhere, usually a puppeteered "dummy" (Figure 6.17; Figure 6.18). The act of ventriloquism is ventriloquizing, and the ability to do so is commonly called in English the ability to "throw" one's voice.
One challenge ventriloquists face is that all the sounds that they make must be made with lips slightly separated. For the labial sounds f, v, b, p, and m, the only choice is to replace them with others. A widely parodied example of this difficulty is the "gottle o' gear", from the reputed inability of less skilled practitioners to pronounce "bottle of beer" (Burton, Davey, Lewis, Ritchie, & Brooks, 2008, p. 10). If variations of the sounds th, d, t, and n are spoken quickly, it can be difficult for listeners to notice a difference.
Modern ventriloquists use a variety of different types of puppets in their presentations, ranging from soft cloth or foam puppets (Verna Finly's work is a pioneering example), flexible latex puppets (such as Steve Axtell's creations) and the traditional and familiar hard-headed knee figure (Tim Selberg's mechanized carvings) (Figure 6.17; Figure 6.18). The classic dummies used by ventriloquists (the technical name for which is ventriloquial figure) vary in size anywhere from twelve inches tall to human-size and larger, with the height usually falling between thirty-four and forty-two inches. Traditionally, this type of puppet has been made from paper or wood. In modern times, other materials are often employed, including fiberglassreinforced resins, urethanes, filled (rigid) latex, and neoprene (Look Inside a Dummy's Head, 1954, pp. 154-157).
Integrating Performing Arts in the Classroom
Integrating performing arts in the classroom have been found to be successful and accessible to learners in the learning process across all subject areas of math, social studies, science, and language arts (Bradley, Bonbright, & Dooling, 2013; Brock, 2011; Burstein & Knotts, 2011; Cravath, 2011; Moore, 2004; Rajan, 2012). Performing arts integrated in content areas promotes creativity in problem solving, creative expression, social skills, and learner development (Brock, 2011; Gidcumb, 2014; Moore, 2004).
Academically, performing arts integration improves students’ learning. For example, students’ performance has improved with theater arts integrated in their studies in math and other subject areas (Balingit, 2016; Brock, 2011). Students showed deeper learning and longer retention of knowledge as well. Performing arts integrated learning is active and multi-sensory (Burstein & Knotts, 2011). Unlike the traditional methods, which focus primarily on verbal and auditory learners, performing arts integrated methods engage a variety of learners such as music and kinesthetic inclined learners. In addition to academic effects, performing arts integration helps develop non-cognitive factors such as attitude to school, moral for learning, engagement, self-confidence, self-expression, and collaboration. Studies have shown integrating performing arts in the classroom had resulted in positive attitude toward school, increased moral for learning, higher level of confidence, and more collaboration with others (Moore, 2004; Rajan, 2012).
In elementary classrooms, performing arts could be implemented creatively through a variety of activities. Gidcumb (2014) suggested five ideas of activities for any classroom to get started: 1. Actor’s Toolbox; 2. Tableau; 3. Tapping In; 4. Stepping Into the Painting; and 5 Biography Drama. Activities based on performing arts such as drama are fund to learn and conducive to knowledge retention and learner development. Dramatic activities activate three domains of learner development, cognitive domain, affective domain, and psychomotor domain (Moore, 2004). By participating in performing activities, students learn the text by actively involving their body, mind, and emotions in the learning process. In language arts, performing arts allow students to see multiple perspectives by role playing characters and scenes and reflecting on behaviors, situations, and personalities in the context; through performing the text and story line, performing arts allows students opportunities to demonstrate a deep understanding of pieces of literature (Gidcumb, 2014; Moore, 2004).
In Social Studies, the curriculum lends itself for performing arts integration. Performing arts allow for multiple views of culture and historical events. Using performing arts in the learning process also provides students a multi-sensory approach to learning social studies content (Burstein & Knotts, 2011). The performing arts integration includes the use of music and provides an alternative communication system for students to express what they know and feel (Burstein & Knotts, 2011). When children learn difficult concepts in social studies, music can provide one pathway to communicate their understanding besides the more traditional forms of speaking and writing (Burstein & Knotts, 2011). Moor (2004) illustrated an example of learning Oregon Trail with drama integrated. In the example, students took on their role’s emotions as well. They became excited when they were able to accomplish or solve one of their problems. They showed disappointment and anger when they failed at finding food or other difficult situations. Not only did the students learn about the Oregon Trail, but they also learned how the pioneers lived and felt. In the example, the drama activity involves speech, sense, emotions, motor skills which are essential to learner development. Learning comes to live through performing.
Performing arts such as dance provides an alternative way of communication and relate to students’ daily life as well. In social studies, culture is the core of the subject. Performance allows of the multicultural aspects of culture to come to live through performing arts activities. When dance is integrated into the social study classroom, Burstein and Knotts (2011) conclude students gain a concrete understanding of what life was like in an alternate time period and make real and relevant connections to their daily lives…Just as in music, dance employs an alternative communication system by using the non-verbal forms; the human body and facial expressions to make sense of content (p. 241). Dance allows students to express emotions through use of their body while placing themselves in the context of a character, historical figure or everyday person…Dance is multicultural. Every culture has movement or dance that represents a history or ideals about that culture (p. 242).
Other performing arts forms such as Ballet could be used in the classroom to learn social content as well. Burstein and Knotts (2011) gave the example of Westward Expansion with Ballet integrated. In the example, dance and movement could be used to enact the Westward Expansion; students can create dance movements to show the common daily activities of cowboys, families in wagon trains, and Native Americans; they can compile all the pieces into a ballet to demonstrate the events of people moving West in the 1800's (p. 242). By performing the historical event, students have the opportunity to immerse themselves in content and context in an alternative time period, which could be otherwise abstract and intangible to them.
REFERENCES
Apel, W. (Ed.). (1969). Harvard dictionary of music (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Balingit, M. (2016, February 22). Teachers are using theater and dance to teach math and it’s working. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/local...68b-11e5-b195- 2e29a4e13425_story.html?utm_term=.ba5f2a960a88
Beall, J. (n.d.). General purpose of speaking. Retrieved from http://open.lib.umn.edu/publicspeaki...s-of-speaking/
Bell, J. (2002). Strings, hands, shadows: A modern puppet history. Detroit, MI: Detroit Institute of Art.
Blumenthal, E. (2005). Puppetry and puppets, London, UK: Thames & Hudson.
Bradley, K., Bonbright, J., & Dooling, S. (2013). Evidence: A report on the impact of dance in K-12 setting. Retrieved from https://www.arts.gov/sites/default/f...Works-NDEO.pdf
Brock, J. (2011). Integrating theater arts into the classroom: The new responsibilities of the elementary school teacher [Master’s thesis]. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED519810.pdf
Burstein, J., & Knotts, G. (2011). Integrating the visual-performing arts in the social studies curriculum=engagement and access. Retrieved from http://scholarworks.csun.edu/bitstre...pdf;sequence=1
Burton, M., Davey, J., Lewis, M., Ritchie, L., & Brooks, G. (2008, November). Improving reading: Phonics and fluency. London, UK: National Research and Development Centre for Adult Literacy and Numeracy. Retrieved from http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/21964/1/doc_4338.pdf
Callery, D. (2001). Through the body: A practical guide to physical theatre. London, UK: Nick Hern Books.
Carlson, M. (1986). Psychic polyphon. Journal of Dramatic Theory and Criticism, 35-47. Retrieved from https://journals.ku.edu/index.php/jd...view/1642/1606
Cravath, E. (2011). Creative dance integration lesson plans. Retrieved from https://education.byu.edu/sites/defa...l_movement.pdf
Epperson, G. (n.d.). Music. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/art/music
Foley, E. (2016, March 15). Do you believe in magic? Congress does. The Huffington Post. Retrieved from https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry...b0b25c91837454
Gibson, B. (2016, March 18). David Copperfield is the magic force behind a must-read congressional resolution. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifes...eb0dde44-ec42- 11e5-a6f3-21ccdbc5f74e_story.html?noredirect=on&utm_term=.88191a9a09e8
Gidcumb, B. (2014, August 1). Integrating drama in the elementary classroom: Where do we begin? Retrieved from https://educationcloset.com/2014/08/...re-do-i-start/
Look inside a dummy's head. (1954, December). Popular Mechanics Magazine. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?id=yt...page&q&f=false
Mackrell, J. (n.d.). Dance. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/art/dance
Moore, M. (2004). Using drama as an effective method for teaching elementary students. Retrieved from http://commons.emich.edu/cgi/viewcon...context=honors
Nana, L. (2015). Philosophical context of contemporary choreographic space. Musicology & Cultural Science, 11(1), 64-67.
Oliver, S. A. (2010). Trauma, bodies, and performance art: Towards an embodied ethics of seeing. Continuum, 24(1), 119-129. doi:10.1080/10304310903362775
Rajan, R. S. (2012). Integrating the performing arts in Grades K-5. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Valenzano III, J. M., & Braden, S. W. (2015). The speaker: The tradition and practice of public speaking (3rd ed.) Southlake, TX: Fountainhead Press. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Arts_Integration_in_Elementary_Curriculum_2e_(Zhou_and_Brown)/06%3A_PERFORMING_ARTS/6.01%3A_Selected_Reading.txt |
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES
Arts education teacher handbook: Dance. (2002). Retrieved from http://www.ncpublicschools.org/docs/.../dance-hbk.pdf
Blueprint for teaching and learning in the arts in dance: Grades preK-12. (2005). Retrieved from http://schools.nyc.gov/offices/teach...blueprint.html
Dance resources. (2015). Retrieved from https://artsedge.kennedy-center.org/...esources-dance
Dance toolkit (2017). Retrieved from https://www.ket.org/education/collec...dance-toolkit/
Gidcumb, B. (2014). Integrating drama in the elementary classroom: Where do we begin? Retrieved from https://educationcloset.com/2014/08/...re-do-i-start/
Jazz music, dance, and poetry: Exploring basic movements, melodies and poetic methods. (2014). Retrieved from https://artsedge.kennedy-center.org/...ssons/grade-3- 4/Jazz_Music_Dance_And_Poetry.aspx
Lesson plans for K-12 classroom and arts teachers. (2017). Retrieved from https://educationcloset.com/arts-integration-lessons/
K-6 visual and performing arts curriculum guide: Examples of integrated lessons. (2008). Retrieved from http://ccsesaarts.org/wp-content/upl...ulum-Guide.pdf
Using drama in the English classroom. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/...rking_drama_pa rt%201.pdf
6.03: Technologies
TECHNOLOGIES
Ballet lite. (2017). Retrieved from https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/ball...328294889?mt=8
Buddy dance companion. (2018). Retrieved from http://www.buddyonline.com.au/
Dance school stories-Dance dreams come true. (2018). Retrieved from https://play.google.com/store/apps/d...s.dance.school
Drama prop box. (2015). Retrieved from https://dramaresource.com/prop-box/ iTheatre. (2015). Retrieved from https://dramaresource.com/itheatre/
Play book dance. (2016). Retrieved from https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/play...572038933?mt=8
SongMark choreography. (2018). Retrieved from http://www.songmark.co/
6.04: Additional Sources
ADDITIONAL SOURCES
WEBSITES
Balingit, M. (2016). Teachers are using theater and dance to teach math-and it’s working. Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/local...68b-11e5-b195- 2e29a4e13425_story.html?utm_term=.566fa866e83b
Cooper, J. (2016). Integrating Music, drama, and dance helps children explore and learn. National Association for the Education of Young Children. Retrieved from https://www.naeyc.org/resources/pubs...helps-children
Primary source set: Performing arts. (2011). Retrieved from http://library.mtsu.edu/tps/sets/Pri..._and_Dance.pdf
Robinson K., Aronicahttps L. (2018, March 21). Why dance is just as important as math in school. TED Ideas. Retrieved from http://ideas.ted.com/why-dance-is-ju...ath-in-school/
Tennessee standards for dance and theatre. (2017). Retrieved from https://www.tn.gov/education/instruc...education.html
The importance of fine arts education. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.katyisd.org/dept/finearts...ducation-.aspx
Visual and performing arts framework. (2012). Retrieved from https://www.cde.ca.gov/ci/cr/cf/docu...paframewrk.pdf
BOOKS AVAILABLE AT DALTON STATE COLLEGE LIBRARY
Ashley, L. (Ed.). (2012). Dancing with difference: Culturally diverse dances in education. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com
Brady, M., & Gleason, P. T. (1994). Artstarts: Drama, music, movement, puppetry, and storytelling activities. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.
Carleton, J. P. (2012). Story drama in the special needs classroom: Step-by-step lesson plans for teaching through dramatic play. Philadelphia, PA: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Donbavand, T. (2009). Making a drama out of a crisis: Improving classroom behavior through drama techniques and exercises. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com
McFarlane, P. (2012). Creative drama for emotional support: Activities and exercises for use in the classroom. London, UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Taylor, P. (2000). The drama classroom: Action, reflection, transformation (1st ed.). Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
Wallis, C. (2004). Drama to go book 1: Teacher answer book. Retrieved from http://fliphtml5.com/vprx/hspi/basic/51-78
VIDEOS
Arts integration: The elements of dance [Video file]. (2014). Retrieved from https://www.teachingchannel.org/vide...e-into-lessons
Education through drama and theater [Video file]. (2015).
First graders learn math concepts through dance [Video file]. (2012).
How I teach math & dance at the same time [Video file]. (2014).
Integrating drama across curriculum [Video file]. (2013).
Music and dance drive academic achievement [Video file]. (2010).
Step dance, chorus and other ensembles-the power of music: P-5 teaching inspired by El Sistema [Video file]. (2014). Retrieved from https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlayl...90&xtid=113516
Teaching science through dance [Video file]. (2012).
The arts in action: Dance and drama improving student achievement [Video file]. (2014).
SCHOLARLY JOURNAL ARTICLES
Dunkin, A. (2004). Gliding glissade not grand jete: Elementary classroom teachers teaching dance. Arts Education Policy Review, 105(3), 23-29.
Friedmann, D. (2012). Acting up: Five elementary teachers explore classroom management through dramatic play (Order No. 3493854). Retrieved from ProQuest Database.
Kaaland-Wells, C. (1993). Classroom teachers' perception and use of creative drama (Order No. 9418311). Retrieved from ProQuest Database.
Kalyn, B. (2014). Pedagogical considerations: Sharing supportive ideas for dance education. Physical & Health Education Journal, 80(2), 30-32.
Kiley, J. (2010). Dance: A risk worth taking. Physical & Health Education Journal, 76(2), 16-18.
Rydeen, F., & Reedy, P. (2008). Creating, performing & communicating through dance. Leadership, 38(2), 22-25, 37. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Arts_Integration_in_Elementary_Curriculum_2e_(Zhou_and_Brown)/06%3A_PERFORMING_ARTS/6.02%3A_Suggested_Activities.txt |
Suggested Reading
Multiple physical and mental health benefits can be attained when children participate in the recommended 60 min per day of moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity (Janssen & LeBlanc, 2010; Okely et al., 2012). Despite these benefits, population based-studies have reported that over 50% of children in Australia and internationally are not meeting recommendations (Active Healthy Kids Canada, 2013; Australian Health Survey, 2012; Griffiths et al., 2013; Troiano et al., 2008). Schools are considered ideal settings for the promotion of children’s physical activity. There are multiple opportunities for children to be physically active over the course of the school week, including during break times, sport, Physical Education class and active travel to and from school. Studies (Ridgers, Stratton, Fairclough, & Twisk, 2007; Sallis et al., 1997) have shown interventions targeting these discrete periods may be effective in increasing children’s physical activity levels with the potential to contribute to up to 50% of the physical activity required to meet physical activity guidelines (Fairclough, Beighle, Erwin, & Ridgers, 2012). However, with limited time available during these discrete periods, additional opportunities may be required in order for children to achieve the recommended levels of physical activity. Classroom-based physical activity provides another way for children to be active at school. This involves classroom teachers incorporating physical activity into class time through either integrating physical activity into lessons (physically active lessons), or adding short bursts of physical activity, either with curriculum content (curriculum focused active breaks) or without (active breaks).
There is increasing interest from researchers and education professionals about the potential for classroombased physical activity to positively impact academic-related outcomes, including classroom behavior, cognitive function and academic achievement. While some teachers express concern that classroom-based physical activity may have an adverse effect on on-task classroom behavior (McMullen, Kulinna, & Cothran, 2014), emerging evidence from systematic reviews and meta-analyses suggest that overall physical activity may have a small positive effect on on-task classroom behavior (Fedewa & Ahn, 2011; Haapala, 2012; Lees & Hopkins, 2013; Sibley & Etnier; 2003; Singh et al., 2012; Taras, 2005; Trudeau & Shephard, 2008). There is less evidence on classroom-based physical activity.
Narrative reviews (Bartholomew & Jowers, 2011; Donnelly & Lambourne, 2011; Mahar, 2011), one systematic review (Norris et al., 2015) and two meta-analyses (Erwin, Fedewa, Beighle, & Ahn, 2012; Owen et al., 2016) have explored the impact of classroom-based physical activity interventions on academic-related outcomes. However, these were narrow in scope, included few studies, and combined findings among primary and secondary school students, which may be problematic due to the difference in education settings.
A systematic review of 11 studies concluded that physically active lessons may have a positive effect, or no effect on academic-related outcomes (Norris et al., 2015). However, that study did not consider other forms of classroom-based physical activity (e.g. active breaks), combined findings among primary and secondary school students, and did not include a meta-analysis (Norris et al., 2015).
A meta-analysis of four intervention studies found that classroom-based physical activity had a positive effect on academic-related outcomes (M = 0.67; 95% CI: 0.26, 1.09) (Erwin, Fedewa, Beighle, & Ahn, 2012). Similar results were reported in a meta-analysis of 24 intervention studies investigating the association between different types of physical activity (e.g., during recess or lunch vs. active breaks vs. physically active lessons) and school engagement (behavior at home and at school, and emotions, e.g. lesson enjoyment) (Owen, et al., 2016). In that meta-analysis, overall results showed physical activity had a significant positive effect on school engagement (d = 0.28;95% CI: 0.12, 0.46) (Owen et al., 2016). When broken down into type of physical activity, active breaks (n = 4 studies) appeared to be the most effective type of intervention for improving school engagement (d = 0.55; 95% CI: 0.02, 1.06), compared with recess or lunch time physical activity (n = 3 studies; d = 0.26; 95% CI: -0.19, 0.73) and physically active lessons (n = 5 studies; d = 0.22; 95% CI: -0.21, 0.66) (Owen, et. al., 2016). However, results from those metaanalyses are limited by the small number of included studies, the narrow range of potential academic-related outcomes assessed, the combination of findings among primary and secondary school students, and their recency (Erwin, Fedewa, Beighle, & Ahn, 2012; Owen et al., 2016).
This chapter aims to expand on findings from these reviews by conducting a systematic review and metaanalyses of the evidence of effect of classroom-based physical activity interventions (active breaks, curriculum-focused active breaks and physically active lessons) on a broad range of academic-related outcomes (classroom behavior, cognitive function and academic achievement), specifically among primary school-aged children. A secondary aim is to examine the effect of these interventions on children’s physical activity levels.
Methods
Definitions
While there are no set definitions for classroom-based physical activity, the following definitions are provided in order to maintain consistency and clarity throughout the remainder of this systematic review.
Classroom-Based Physical Activity: physical activity carried out during regular class time and can occur either inside or outside the classroom (e.g. hallway, playground), and is distinct from school recess/lunch break times. Classroom-based physical activity can take three forms:
• Active breaks: short bouts of physical activity performed as a break from academic instruction (Ma, Le Mare, & Gurd, 2014).
• Curriculum-focused active breaks: short bouts of physical activity that include curriculum content (Mahar et al., 2006; Schmidt, Benzing, & Kamer, 2016).
• Physically active lessons: the integration of physical activity into lessons in key learning areas other than physical education (e.g. mathematics) (Riley, Lubans, Holmes, & Morgan, 2016; Riley, Lubans, Morgan, & Young, 2015).
Academic-Related Outcomes: overarching term to encompass factors associated with academic performance at school. These can be grouped into three main categories:
• Classroom behavior: Observed behaviors that may promote or interfere with learning in the classroom, including on-task behavior (e.g. concentrating on tasks assigned by the teacher), and off-task behavior (e.g. not concentrating on tasks assigned by the teacher) (Rasberry et al., 2011).
• Cognitive function: Mental process (e.g. executive function) that may influence academic performance (Rasberry et al., 2011).
• Academic achievement: A child’s performance on school-related tasks; often reported via classroom grades, national standardized tests or progress monitoring tools (Rasberry et al., 2011), as well as self-reported perceived academic competence (Vazou & Smiley-Oyen, 2014).
Registration and Protocol
This study followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) recommendations for systematic review reporting and was registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) (record #CRD42016027294).
Search Strategy
Studies were identified through a systematic search of four electronic databases (PubMed, ERIC, SPORTDiscus and PsycINFO), first conducted in January 2016, and updated in January 2017 by one author (AW). The search strategy consisted of four elements (see Table 7.1). The search was limited to peerreviewed articles published in English in all available years. ‘Grey’ literature, including the reference lists from the websites of two organizations (“Active Academics” and “Active Living Research”) involved in children’s physical activity research were also searched.
Table 7.1. Article Search Terms and Databases Searched
Inclusion Criteria
A predetermined set of inclusion criteria were used to select papers for this systematic review. Each study had to meet the following criteria:
1. Intervention study design;
2. Investigated associations between classroom-based physical activity and at least one academic related outcome. Interventions involving strategies in addition to classroom-based physical activity were excluded (to enable the effects of classroom-based physical activity to be isolated);
3. Study population included primary school-aged children (5-12 years);
4. Presented original data;
5. Did not focus specifically on special populations (e.g. overweight children).
Figure 7.1. PRISMA Flow Diagram
Study Selection
The search yielded 7729 citations from electronic database records, and 17 from ‘grey’ literature (Figure 7.1). After removing duplicates (n = 500), the titles and/or abstracts of 7246 unique publications were screened by one author (AW). A total of 101 publications were identified as potentially relevant according to the inclusion criteria. Full texts of 98 of these 101 articles were obtained and reviewed independently by two authors to determine eligibility (AW, KB). Two full texts were conference abstracts only, and one fulltext was unable to be retrieved despite extensive librarian-assisted enquiries and emails directly to the contact author. Of the 98 full-text articles, a total of 59 were excluded as not meeting inclusion criteria. Disagreements between the two reviewers were resolved through discussion with all authors. Reference lists of included articles were also examined however no additional studies were identified. Thirty-nine unique citations satisfied the eligibility criteria and were included in this systematic review.
Data Extraction
Paper characteristics including country of study, study design, participant characteristics, intervention characteristics, academic-related outcome measures, physical activity measures, and results were extracted by one author (AW). Interventions were then categorized as active break, curriculum focused active break, or physically active lesson intervention.
Methodological Quality
Two authors (AW, KB) independently assessed the methodological quality of the included studies using the Effective Public Health Practice Project (EPHPP) tool (Quality Assessment Tool for Quantitative Studies, 2008). This six-component rating scale for interventions assesses (1) selection bias; (2) study design; (3) confounders; (4) blinding; (5) data collection methods; and (6) withdrawals and drop outs. Each component was rated on a three-point scale as either strong, moderate or weak using the tool’s defined criteria. Based on these ratings, an overall methodological quality score was given; either strong (no weak component ratings); moderate (one weak component rating); or weak (more than one weak component rating), following the tool’s accompanying instructions. Where disagreements existed, deliberation occurred until a consensus was reached.
Meta-Analyses
Meta-analyses were conducted where there were at least three studies investigating the same broad outcome, i.e. classroom behavior, cognitive function, or academic achievement. Due to heterogeneity across study designs, four inclusion studies were required to have a separate comparison group (i.e. RCT or quasi experimental with control group). Studies that used a within subject or cross over study design were therefore excluded from meta-analysis.
To avoid duplication of studies under a single outcome, where studies reported intervention effects on multiple measures for an outcome (this happened only for cognitive functions) (Beck et al., 2016; De Greeff et al., 2016), a decision was made to include outcomes relating to executive functions, over memory. Executive functions, inhibition in particular, have been shown to be consistently related to academic achievement (Best, Miller, & Naglieri, 2011) and therefore were considered salient to teachers. Thus, where inhibition and memory were reported, only inhibition was included in the meta-analysis; where executive functions and short-term memory were reported, only executive functions were included in the metaanalysis. Typically, higher scores were reflective of better academic-related outcomes and lower scores reflected better academic-related outcomes when these scores were reversed.
As academic achievement tools varied widely in quality, only studies using national standardized tests or progress monitoring tools were included in the meta-analyses. Further, intervention effects on mathematics were used when studies reported multiple subject assessments, as math was the most commonly reported outcome. Of the 39 studies included in this systematic review, 16 were included in meta-analyses. Reasons for exclusion were: insufficient data for calculating effect sizes and authors did not respond to email requests for additional data (n = 6), using a within subject or cross-over study design (n = 9), not including a separate comparison group (n = 2), insufficient studies investigating an outcome (n = 4), or only reporting results separately for subgroups (e.g. BMI categories) (n = 2).
Analysis
Meta-analyses were conducted using Review Manager 5.3. The wide variation in interventions and academic-related outcomes employed in the different studies warranted use of a random effects model. Effect sizes (standardized mean difference) were computed as the difference between treatment and control means.
Results
Of the 39 studies identified, 19 examined the effect of active breaks, seven examined curriculum-focused active breaks, and thirteen examined physically active lessons on academic-related outcomes. The majority of studies (n = 27) were published in or after 2014, and none before 2006. Most (n = 18) were conducted in the USA, seven in the Netherlands, four in Australia, three in Canada, two in Scotland, and one each in South Africa, UK, Greece, Denmark, and Switzerland. Sample sizes ranged from 14 to over 4500 participants, with sample sizes <300 in the majority of studies (n = 28). Intervention periods spanned from single lessons to 3-year duration, with most lasting no longer than nine weeks (n = 23).
Intervention Content
There was considerable variation across studies in intervention content. While most (12 out of 19) active break interventions featured basic aerobic movements that students could be performed in their classroom (e.g. jumping jacks), and required no set-up or equipment, others were performed outside the classroom (e.g. sports field), and/or required additional equipment (e.g. markers, skipping ropes, balls, exercise bands, dance videos, or specialized stacking cups). One study utilized both cognitively engaging active breaks (i.e. physical activity combined with cognitive demand) and active breaks to explore separate and combined effects of physical activity and cognitive engagement on cognitive function. The target frequency, duration and physical activity intensity of the breaks varied, ranging from 4 min of vigorous-intensity physical activity weekly to 20 min of moderate intensity physical activity done twice per day.
There was more consistency in content across curriculum-focused active breaks, compared with the active breaks without curriculum content. All curriculum-focused active breaks featured physical activity integrated into a combination of key learning areas, including mathematics, language, science and/or social studies, and aimed to reinforce previously taught lesson content. Further, most (5 out of 7) required daily participation in 10 to 20 min of physical activity. When specified, participation was required at a moderate or moderate-to vigorous-physical activity intensity, but intensity was not specified in the majority (5 out of 7) of these studies.
While curriculum-focused active breaks aimed to reinforce previously taught lesson content, physically active lessons were used to teach new lesson content. These lessons predominately incorporated physical activity into mathematics and/or language lessons, but some also incorporated science and/or social studies. Lessons ranged in duration from 30 to 60 min with most (8 out of 13) requiring participation three times per week. Other physically active lessons were described as single lessons as part of pilot interventions or stipulated physical activity time per week, rather than number of lessons per week.
Intervention Fidelity
Intervention fidelity was reported in twelve studies. For the three active break interventions delivered by teachers, various measures of fidelity were used, however, no study clearly reported compliance with implementing active breaks daily or the number of active break sessions conducted. Active break interventions delivered by research staff reported high fidelity, showing most children achieved the required physical activity intensity, or at least 50% of each intervention session was spent at the required intensity.
For physically active lesson interventions, teacher reports showed they delivered lessons either as intended or for at least 50% of the required minutes per week. Similar to active break studies, when delivered by research staff, at least 60% of intervention lessons were spent at the required physical activity intensity. No curriculum focused active break study reported fidelity.
Methodological Quality
Of the 39 identified studies, most (36 out of 39) received a moderate, or weak quality rating score. Three received a strong quality rating score. Low to moderate quality score ratings were mostly attributable to not reporting or controlling for relevant demographic confounders, not reporting blinding of participants and researchers, and not reporting participant attrition. Further, for many studies, authors did not report the rate of participant or school participation.
Academic-Related Outcomes: Classroom Behavior
Studies assessed the effect of participation in these programs on academic-related outcomes both immediately following participation in a session (acute) and after a longer exposure (chronic; e.g. pre- and post- intervention periods spanning up to 8 months). Regardless of type of classroom-based physical activity, the majority of studies (10 out of 12) showed participation in these programs had an acute effect on improving on-task classroom behavior and reducing off-task behavior. However, evidence in the few studies with longer term follow-up (2 out of 2 studies) suggest that this improvement may dissipate over time, with no difference between groups when chronic intervention effects on reported behavior incidents were assessed. Due to few studies investigating chronic effects of classroom-based physical activity on ontask and off task classroom behavior (<5) it was not possible to separate acute and chronic effects in the meta-analysis. Results from the four included studies show classroom-based physical activity had a positive effect on improving on-task behavior and reducing off-task behavior (standardized mean difference = 0.60 (95% CI: 0.20,1.00)). (See Figure7.2.)
Figure 7.2. Forrest Plot of the Effect of Classroom-based Physical Activity on Classroom Behavior
Academic-Related Outcomes: Cognitive Function
Studies also assessed acute and chronic effects of classroom-based physical activity on a range of cognitive functions. Results showed active breaks had an acute positive effect on selective attention (3 out of 4 studies). No acute effect was reported for sustained attention, information processing or focused attention, processing speed and accuracy, and no chronic effect was reported for planning, attention, simultaneous or successive cognitive processes or executive function. Acute intervention effects on executive function were inconsistent, with no difference between groups reported in one study, while another reported improvement in executive function but only for those receiving the intervention in the second week of delivery. Results were also inconsistent for chronic intervention effects on fluid intelligence, with one study reporting a significant improvement after 3 months, while another reported no difference between groups after one year. Due to few studies reporting chronic effects of participation (<5) results for acute and chronic studies were combined in the meta-analysis (5 studies). Results from the meta-analysis indicate classroom-based physical activity had no effect on cognitive function (standardized mean difference = 0.33 (95% CI: - 0.11,0.77). (See Figure 7.3.)
Figure 7.3. Forrest Plot of the Effect of Classroom Based Physical Activity on Cognitive Function
Academic-Related Outcomes: Academic Achievement
Studies assessed intervention effects on academic achievement using a range of academic assessment tools, including standardized tests, progress monitoring tools, grades and content recall quizzes. Report effects on academic achievement varied by intervention duration and the type of assessment tool used. Interventions of shorter duration tended to show improvement in academic achievement if a progress monitoring tool was used, but not if a national standardized test was used. Seven out of 8 studies using a progress monitoring tool reported significant improvement in academic achievement following intervention periods ranging from 4 weeks to 1-year. In contrast, most (4 out of 7) studies indicated no difference between groups following intervention periods less than 1-year when national standardized tests were used as the outcome measure. However, standardized test scores significantly improved following a 1-year and 3-year physically active lesson intervention. These results were confirmed in the meta-analysis. When progress monitoring tools were used (4 studies) as the outcome measure, academic-related outcomes generally showed improvement (standardized mean difference = 1.03 (95% CI: -0.22,1.84)). However, when measured using a national standardized test (6 studies), academic-related outcomes generally showed no improvement (standardized mean difference = - 1.13(95% CI: -0.72,0.46)). (See Figure 7.4.)
In addition to standardized tests and progress monitoring tools, a small number of studies (not included in the meta-analysis) measured academic achievement via grades, content recall quizzes and self-reported academic competence. Results were inconsistent. One study reported no difference between groups for grades across eight subjects (total score) following a 20-week active break program. Another reported a greater proportion of students in the control group showed improvement in grades for math and reading, compared with an active break intervention group. Other studies assessed academic achievement via content recall quizzes and perceptions of academic competence, with no difference between groups in math and social studies scores following participation in single lessons lasting between 10 and 30 min. Another study reported self-reported perceptions of academic competence improved during physically active lessons.
Figure 7.4. Forrest Plot of the Effect of Classroom Based Physical Activity on Academic Achievement
Dose Response Relationship
Four studies aimed to explore the optimal dose of active break (i.e. amount of physical activity required to confer academic benefits) required to provide maximum effects on academic-related outcomes, by manipulating intensity, duration, and frequency of active break sessions. Howie and colleagues (Howie, Beets, & Pate, 2014; Howie, Schatz, & Pate, 2015) compared 5-, 10- and 20-min active breaks with a 10- min no break condition. Results showed on-task classroom behavior significantly improved after the 10- min active break condition (Howie, Beets, & Pate, 2014) and math scores were highest after the 10-min (ES = 0.24) and 20-min (ES = 0.27) active break conditions (Howie, Schatz, & Pate, 2015). Janssen et al. (2014) compared selective attention scores across 15 min of each of the following four conditions: no break (continued with school work), passive break (teacher read story), moderate-intensity active break (jogging, passing, dribbling), and vigorous-intensity active break (running, jumping, skipping). Results showed that selective attention scores improved most after the moderate-intensity active break (Janssen et al., 2014). Altenburg and colleagues (2016) compared acute effects of different frequencies (one per day vs. twice per day) of 20 min moderate-intensity active breaks. Results showed significantly better selective attention scores for children who received the twice per day frequency (Altenburg, Chinapaw, & Singh, 2016).
Physical Activity Outcomes
Eleven studies examined the effect of classroom-based physical activity interventions on children’s physical activity levels using a range of measures, including questionnaire direct observation, pedometer, and accelerometer. Across most (10 out of 11) classroom-based physical activity interventions, small increases in physical activity were reported. Across studies there was a 2% to 16% increase in moderateto vigorous- intensity physical activity during intervention lessons, and 2% to 12% increase in school day moderate- to vigorous- intensity physical activity. However, results from 3 studies included in metaanalysis indicate classroom-based physical activity did not affect physical activity (standardized mean difference = 0.40 (95% CI: -0.15,0.95).
Discussion
A systematic search of the literature found 39 studies assessing the effect of classroom-based physical activity on academic-related outcomes, including classroom behavior, cognitive function and academic achievement. In the majority of studies, academic-related outcomes improved following participation in classroom-based physical activity programs. These findings are generally consistent with earlier reviews finding that overall physical activity level was either positively associated or was not associated with academic-related outcomes. In addition, the interventions included in the current review generally resulted in more physical activity.
The finding that classroom-based physical activity improves on-task or reduces off-task classroom behavior immediately following participation in intervention sessions is consistent with previous reviews of schoolbased physical activity. For example, systematic reviews of the effect of physical activity during the school break time on academic-related outcomes showed positive associations between participation in physical activity before class (e.g. during recess/snack time) and on-task classroom behavior in subsequent lessons (Trudeau & Shephard, 2008; Rasberry et al., 2011). Therefore, breaking up lesson time with physical activity offers a promising strategy to improve on-task behavior. Further, physically active lessons may provide a strategy to engage students in lesson content, which may lead to improved on-task classroom behavior. However, this assumption is purely speculative and further research is needed to confirm this. One study reported a non-significant increase in on-task classroom behavior after intervention sessions, compared with control (Grieco, Jowers, & Bartholomew, 2009). A possible reason for this finding may be that the sample size in that study (n = 97) may not have been large enough to detect a significant improvement. Few studies (n = 3) reported that classroom-based physical activity had no effect on classroom behavior. The majority of these studies (2 out of 3) reported that, while behavior incidents and off-task behavior increased in both the intervention and control groups, the increase was greater in the control group, compared with the intervention group (Hunter et al., 2014; Wilson et al., 2016;). These findings may encourage teachers to consider implementing classroom-based physical activity programs by alleviating concerns about reducing on-task behavior due to the disruption to the classroom routine.
While classroom-based physical activity showed relatively consistent positive associations with classroom behavior, effects on cognitive function were inconsistent. A possible explanation for this finding may relate to the variability in the quality of measures used. Overall results showed studies that reported improvements in cognitive function used measures with moderate to high levels of reliability and validity. In contrast, studies reporting no improvement in cognitive function mainly used measures with lower levels of reliability and validity. It may be important for future studies to use tests of cognitive function with established validity and reliability.
A further possible explanation for inconsistent effects on cognitive function may relate to the level of cognitive engagement inherent in each type of classroom-based physical activity. It has been suggested that cognitively engaging physical activity (i.e. physical activity combined with cognitive demands) may enhance cognitive function to a greater degree than non-cognitively engaging physical activity (e.g. repetitive exercise). As curriculum-focused active breaks and physically active lessons can be considered cognitively engaging physical activity, it could be hypothesized that these types of classroom-based physical activity would lead to greater improvements in cognitive function, compared with active breaks that involve no cognitive content. While the majority of physically active lesson and curriculum focused active break interventions (2 out of 3 studies) and only half of active break interventions (5 out of 10 studies) led to improvements in cognitive function, there were too few cognitively engaging interventions included in the review to draw a definitive conclusion. The one study that compared cognitively engaging and noncognitively engaging active breaks, showed an impact on cognitive outcomes for the cognitively engaging breaks group only, lending support to this hypothesis.
Although not explicitly stated, many studies which do not purport to involve cognitively engaging physical activity involve some activities which are likely to confer cognitive engagement e.g. hopping sequences to music, and coordinative exercises. Some of these studies report positive and some null findings, yet it is difficult to ascertain the proportion of physical activity children were exposed to that was cognitively engaging. Future studies are encouraged to separate the effects of cognitively engaging and non-cognitively engaging physical activity on cognitive functions.
In addition to the cognitive test used, results may be dependent on the type of cognitive function assessed. For example, classroom-based physical activity appeared to have a particularly beneficial effect on selective attention, compared with other components of cognitive function, including sustained attention, fluid intelligence, information processing speed, and executive function. However, a recent systematic review concluded that there is insufficient evidence to conclude what specific cognitive functions are most affected by physical activity. Exercise-induced arousal may provide a further explanation for inconsistency in findings. This theory suggests that the heightened level of arousal during physical activity facilitates cognitive function and that this effect may be moderated by physical activity intensity.
However, while the majority of included studies reported a target physical activity intensity, few measured physical activity intensity during interventions precluding conclusions regarding the role of physical activity intensity on cognitive function. Thus, the favorable effect of physical activity on selective attention indicated in this review requires further research for confirmation. Nonetheless, should improvements in selective attention occur, such as the ability to ignore distractions this may be of particular interest to teachers and may provide motivation to incorporate physical activity into their classroom routine.
In addition to classroom behavior and cognitive function, classroom-based physical activity may also have a positive effect on academic achievement. However, effects on academic achievement may be dependent on intervention duration and the type of assessment tool used to measure academic achievement. In the current review it appeared that interventions of shorter duration were more likely to show an improvement in academic achievement if a progress monitoring tool was used, rather than a national standardized test. This may be because curriculum-based measures are sensitive to small changes in academic achievement, and can be administered frequently (e.g. weekly), while standardized tests are usually designed to be administered less frequently (e.g. yearly) and are not sensitive to short-term progress. Therefore, progress monitoring tools may be a more suitable choice to determine intervention effects on academic achievement in the short-term. This finding has important implications for future research, indicating it may be important to consider intervention duration when selecting the measure of academic achievement. Therefore, future intervention studies may consider using a progress monitoring tool for intervention periods less than 1 year, and standardized tests for intervention periods longer than 1 year if academic achievement is the outcome of interest.
Other studies investigated the impact of different doses of classroom-based physical activity on academicrelated outcomes. However, results are based on few (n = 4) heterogeneous studies which considered a limited range of potential physical activity doses. Thus, further research is needed to be able to draw conclusions regarding the minimal dose of active break required to impact academic-related outcomes. Several studies aimed to explore the effect of classroom-based physical activity on children’s physical activity levels. Results from the meta-analysis showed classroom-based physical activity did not affect physical activity levels. However, as only three of the 11 identified studies could be included in the metaanalysis these results should be interpreted with caution, and further research is warranted. Findings from the systematic review consistently revealed small increases in physical activity in children participating in the intervention, compared with students in the comparison group.
These findings are in line with results from another review reporting positive associations between classroom-based physical activity interventions and children’s physical activity levels. While promising, it is possible compensation for this activity occurs outside of school. However, with limited information available, it is difficult to make strong conclusions on this. Further, it can be difficult to implement physical activity interventions in schools, often due to a lack of time associated with competing curriculum demands. However, classroom-based physical activity is unique from other forms of school-based physical activity (e.g. Physical Education class and school sport) in that it does not compete for instructional time (physically active lessons and curriculum-focused active breaks) or requires only minimal time commitment (active breaks). Thus, classroom-based physical activity may be a potentially appealing option for schools as it offers a time-efficient strategy to promote physical activity.
Limitations
The considerable variation between studies in study designs, intervention content and outcome assessment tools make it difficult to draw definitive conclusions, as evidenced by the small proportion of studies that could be included in meta-analyses. For studies that assessed intervention effects on physical activity, the majority compared physical activity levels during the classroom-based physical activity session, with a traditional seated lesson, or assessed intervention effects on school day physical activity levels only. Therefore, it is unclear if the increase in physical activity during these sessions is compensated for by a reduction in physical activity at other times of the day. However, as intervention effects on improving ontask, reducing off-task classroom behavior and cognitive function appear to be primarily acute, this may not be a problem for these outcomes. In addition, few studies used an objective measure of physical activity intensity. Thus, future studies using objective measures of physical activity are required to determine intervention effects on overall moderate- to- vigorous-intensity physical activity, and to determine intervention fidelity (i.e. if the required physical activity intensity is met) within the sessions. Lastly, given that the majority of included studies reported significant improvements in academic-related outcomes, it is possible publication bias may have impacted the lack of published null associations.
Conclusion
Classroom-based physical activity interventions may provide a practical, low-cost, and effective strategy to increase academic-related outcomes, particularly acute positive effects on improving on-task and reducing off-task classroom behavior and selective attention. Classroom-based physical activity could also have the potential to increase children’s physical activity levels, however further research is needed to confirm this. Findings from this systematic review should be interpreted with caution given the high number of included studies of low methodological quality, suggesting there is room for improvement in classroombased physical activity intervention study designs and reporting. This review has identified a number of areas for further research in order to increase understanding of the effect of classroom-based physical activity on academic and physical activity outcomes. These include the need for future studies to use objective measures of physical activity, and to consider intervention duration when selecting a measure of academic achievement. In addition, future studies should explore the effect of classroom-based physical activity interventions on specific cognitive outcomes, as well as the impact of different types of physical activity (aerobic versus anaerobic versus resistance training and cognitively engaging vs. non-cognitively engaging physical activity) on academic-related outcomes. Further, it is not clear if improvements in academic-related outcomes are a result of the physical activity or a result of the break from academic instruction, therefore future research is encouraged to add an attention control group. Lastly, it is recommended future studies use a standardized measure of cognitive function with established reliability and validity to be able to make comparisons across studies.
REFERENCES
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Bartholomew, J. B., & Jowers, E. M. (2011). Physically active academic lessons in elementary children. Preventive Medicine, 52(Suppl), S51-S54. Retrieved from http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.01.017
Beck, M. M., Lind, R. R., Geertsen, S. S., Ritz, C., Lundbye-Jensen, J., & Wienecke, J. (2016). Motorenriched learning activities can improve mathematical performance in preadolescent children. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 10, 645. Retrieved from http://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00645
Best, J. R., Miller, P. H., & Naglieri, J. A. (2011). Relations between executive function and academic achievement from ages 5 to 17 in a large, representative national sample. Learning and Individual Differences, 21(4), 327-336. Retrieved from http://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.01.007
De Greeff, J. W., Hartman, E., Mullender-Wijnsma, M. J., Bosker, R. J., Doolaard, S., & Visscher, C. (2016). Long-term effects of physically active academic lessons on physical fitness and executive functions in primary school children. Health Education Research, 31(2), 185-194.
Donnelly, J. E., & Lambourne, K. (2011). Classroom-based physical activity, cognition, and academic achievement. Preventive Medicine, 52, S36-S42.
Erwin, H., Fedewa, A., & Ahn, S. (2013). Student academic performance outcomes of a classroom physical activity intervention: A pilot study. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 4(3), 473.
Erwin, H., Fedewa, A., Beighle, A., & Ahn, S. (2012). A quantitative review of physical activity, health, and learning outcomes associated with classroom-based physical activity interventions. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 28(1), 14-36.
Fairclough, S. J., Beighle, A., Erwin, H., & Ridgers, N. D. (2012). School day segmented physical activity patterns of high and low active children. BMC Public Health, 12(1), 406.
Fedewa, A. L., Ahn, S., Erwin, H., & Davis, M. C. (2015). A randomized controlled design investigating the effects of classroom-based physical activity on children’s fluid intelligence and achievement. School Psychology International, 36(2), 135-153.
Grieco, L. A., Jowers, E. M., Errisuriz, V. L., & Bartholomew, J. B. (2016). Physically active vs sedentary academic lessons: A dose response study for elementary student time on task. Preventive Medicine, 89, 98-103. Retrieved from http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.05.021
Griffiths, L. J., Cortina-Borja, M., Sera, F., Pouliou, T., Geraci, M., Rich, C., ... & Jebb, S. A. (2013). How active are our children? Findings from the millennium cohort study. BMJ open, 3(8), e002893.
Haapala, E. (2012). Physical activity, academic performance and cognition in children and adolescents. A systematic review. Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity, 4(1), 53.
Howie, E. K., Beets, M. W., & Pate, R. R. (2014). Acute classroom exercise breaks improve on-task behavior in 4th and 5th grade students: a dose response. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 7(2), 65-71.
Howie, E. K., Schatz, J., & Pate, R. R. (2015). Acute effects of classroom exercise breaks on executive function and math performance: A dose response study. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 86(3), 217-224.
Hunter, L., Abbott, R., Macdonald, D., Ziviani, J., & Cuskelly, M. (2014). Active kids active minds: A physical activity intervention to promote learning? Asia-Pacific Journal of Health, Sport and Physical Education, 5(2), 117-131.
Janssen, M., Chinapaw, M. J. M., Rauh, S. P., Toussaint, H. M., Van Mechelen, W., & Verhagen, E. A. L. M. (2014). A short physical activity break from cognitive tasks increases selective attention in primary school children aged 10-11. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 7(3), 129-134.
Lees, C., & Hopkins, J. (2013). Effect of aerobic exercise on cognition, academic achievement, and psychosocial function in children: A systematic review of randomized control trials. Preventing Chronic Disease, 10.
Ma, J. K., Le Mare, L., & Gurd, B. J. (2014). Four minutes of in-class high-intensity interval activity improves selective attention in 9-to 11-year olds. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 40(3), 238-244.
Ma, J. K., Le Mare, L., & Gurd, B. J. (2014). Four minutes of in-class high-intensity interval activity improves selective attention in 9-to 11-year olds. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 40(3), 238-244.
Mahar, M. T., Murphy, S. K., Rowe, D. A., Golden, J., Shields, A. T., & Raedeke, T. D. (2006). Effects of a classroom-based program on physical activity and on-task behavior. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 38(12), 2086.
McCrady-Spitzer, S. K., Manohar, C. U., Koepp, G. A., & Levine, J. A. (2015). Low-cost and scalable classroom equipment to promote physical activity and improve education. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 12(9), 1259-1263.
McMullen, J., Kulinna, P., & Cothran, D. (2014). Physical activity opportunities during the school day: Classroom teachers’ perceptions of using activity breaks in the classroom. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 33(4), 511-527.
Mead, T., Scibora, L., Gardner, J., & Dunn, S. (2016). The impact of stability balls, activity breaks, and a sedentary classroom on standardized math scores. Physical Educator, 73(3), 433.
Mullender-Wijnsma, M. J., Hartman, E., de Greeff, J. W., Bosker, R. J., Doolaard, S., & Visscher, C. (2016). Moderate-to-vigorous physically active academic lessons and academic engagement in children with and without a social disadvantage: A within subject experimental design. BMC Public Health, 15, 404. Retrieved from http://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-015-1745-y
Norris, E., Shelton, N., Dunsmuir, S., Duke-Williams, O., & Stamatakis, E. (2015). Physically active lessons as physical activity and educational interventions: A systematic review of methods and results. Preventive Medicine, 72, 116-125.
Okely, T., Salmon, J., Vella, S., Cliff, D., Timperio, A., Tremblay, M., … Marino, N. (2012). A systematic review to update the Australian physical activity guidelines for children and young people. Report prepared for the Australian Government Department of Health. Canberra, AU: Commonwealth of Australia.
Owen, K. B., Parker, P. D., Van Zanden, B., MacMillan, F., Astell-Burt, T., & Lonsdale, C. (2016). Physical activity and school engagement in youth: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Educational Psychologist, 51(2), 129-145.
Quality assessment tool for quantitative studies. (2008). Retrieved from http://www.nccmt.ca/resources/search/14.
Rasberry, C. N., Lee, S. M., Robin, L., Laris, B. A., Russell, L. A., Coyle, K. K., & Nihiser, A. J. (2011). The association between school-based physical activity, including physical education, and academic performance: A systematic review of the literature. Preventive Medicine, 52, S10-S20.
Reed, J. A., Einstein, G., Hahn, E., Hooker, S. P., Gross, V. P., & Kravitz, J. (2010). Examining the impact of integrating physical activity on fluid intelligence and academic performance in an elementary school setting: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 7(3), 343-351.
Ridgers, N. D., Stratton, G., Fairclough, S. J., & Twisk, J. W. (2007). Long-term effects of a playground markings and physical structures on children's recess physical activity levels. Preventive Medicine, 44(5), 393-397.
Riley, N., Lubans, D. R., Holmes, K., & Morgan, P. J. (2016). Findings from the EASY minds cluster randomized controlled trial: Evaluation of a physical activity integration program for mathematics in primary schools. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 13(2), 198-206.
Riley, N., Lubans, D. R., Morgan, P. J., & Young, M. (2015). Outcomes and process evaluation of a programme integrating physical activity into the primary school mathematics curriculum: The EASY Minds pilot randomized controlled trial. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 18(6), 656-661.
Sallis, J. F., McKenzie, T. L., Alcaraz, J. E., Kolody, B., Faucette, N., & Hovell, M. F. (1997). The effects of a 2-year physical education program (SPARK) on physical activity and fitness in elementary school students: Sports, play and active recreation for kids. American Journal of Public Health, 87(8), 1328- 1334.
Schmidt, M., Benzing, V., & Kamer, M. (2016). Classroom-based physical activity breaks and children's attention: Cognitive engagement works! Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1474.
Sibley, B. A., & Etnier, J. L. (2003). The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: A meta-analysis. Pediatric Exercise Science, 15(3), 243-256.
Singh, A., Uijtdewilligen, L., Twisk, J. W., Van Mechelen, W., & Chinapaw, M. J. (2012). Physical activity and performance at school: A systematic review of the literature including a methodological quality assessment. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 166(1), 49-55.
Taras, H. (2005). Physical activity and student performance at school. Journal of School Health, 75(6), 214-218
Troiano, R. P., Berrigan, D., Dodd, K. W., Masse, L. C., Tilert, T., & McDowell, M. (2008). Physical activity in the United States measured by accelerometer. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 40(1), 181.
Trudeau, F., & Shephard, R. J. (2008). Physical education, school physical activity, school sports and academic performance. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 5, 10. Retrieved from http://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-5-10
Vazou, S., & Smiley-Oyen, A. (2014). Moving and academic learning are not antagonists: Acute effects on executive function and enjoyment. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 36(5), 474-485.
Wilson, A. N., Olds, T., Lushington, K., Petkov, J., & Dollman, J. (2016). The impact of 10-minute activity breaks outside the classroom on male students’ on-task behavior and sustained attention: A randomized crossover design. Acta Paediatrica, 105(4). | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Arts_Integration_in_Elementary_Curriculum_2e_(Zhou_and_Brown)/07%3A_P.E._Movement/7.01%3A_Suggested_Reading.txt |
Suggested Activities
Active classrooms. (2004). Retrieved from https://dpi.wi.gov/sites/default/fil...classrooms.pdf
Active lesson plans. (2018). Retrieved from http://grfit4kids.org/resources/active-lesson-plans/
Eddy, M. (2012). Movement in the classroom: Rationales, guidelines and resources to get schools moving. Retrieved from http://www.wellnesscke.net/downloada...tintheClassroo m.pdf
Hopkins, G. (2008). Let's get physical! Retrieved from http://www.educationworld.com/a_less...esson063.shtml
Learning on the move. (2018). Retrieved from http://www.activeacademics.org/
MacPherson, E. (2016). 21 awesome ways to get your students moving during learning center time. Retrieved from https://www.weareteachers.com/21-awe...g-center-time/
Movement and development lesson plans. (2017). Retrieved from https://www.onecommunityglobal.org/m...t-lesson-plan/
Smith, D. (2016). Classroom integration ideas. Retrieved from http://www.pecentral.org/lessonideas.../classroom.asp
7.03: Technologies
Technology
Go noodle: Press play on movement and mindfulness. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.gonoodle.com/
Kidfit. (2018). Retrieved from https://play.google.com/store/apps/d....xdoria.kidfit
Kids exercise-animal workout. (2016). Retrieved from https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/kids...107468119?mt=8
Kids yoga journey presents: I am energy. (2018). Retrieved from https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/kids...475863897?mt=8
Sworkit kids-fitness meets fun. (2017). Retrieved from https://play.google.com/store/apps/d...m.sworkit.kids
Zamzee kick starts a lifetime of physical activity for kids through play. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.zamzee.com/
Zombies run. (2018). Retrieved from https://zombiesrungame.com/
7.04: Additional Sources
Additional Sources
Websites
De Le Cruz, D. (2017). Why kids shouldn’t sit still in class. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/21/w...-in-class.html
Educating the student body: Taking physical activity and physical education to school. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.nationalacademies.org/hmd...to-School.aspx
Bauernfeind, N. M. (2016). The impact of physical movement on academic learning. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.hamline.edu/c...ontext=hse_all
Griss, S. (2013). The power of movement in teaching and learning. Retrieved from https://www.edweek.org/tm/articles/2.../fp_griss.html
Lamprechth, A. (2016). The benefits of movement in the Classroom. Retrieved from http://literacyandlanguagecenter.com...the-classroom/
Lindberg, S. (2016). How movement in the classroom helps kids focus. Retrieved from https://www.parent.com/how-movement-...ps-kids-focus/
Teachers find creative ways to integrate movement into the classroom. (2016). Retrieved from https://healthyschoolscampaign.org/c...the-classroom/
Whitmer, R. (2014). Instruction in motion brings PE into classroom: Giving students a much-needed brain break-and academic boost-with exercises in class. Retrieved from https://www.districtadministration.c...s-pe-classroom
Wilson, D. (2014). Move your body, grow your brain. Retrieved from https://www.edutopia.org/blog/move-b...n-donna-wilson
Books Available at Dalton State College Library
Galloway, J. (2007). Fit kids-Smarter kids. Oxford, UK: Meyer & Meyer Sport. Retrieved from http://dsc.idm.oclc.org/login?url=ht...db=nlebk&AN=39 4342&site=ehost-live
Hardy, C. A., & Mawer, M. (1999). Learning and teaching in physical education. London, UK: Routledge.
Kohl, H. W., & Cook, H. D. (2013). Educating the student body: Taking physical activity and physical education to school. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Retrieved from http://dsc.idm.oclc.org/login?url=ht...db=nlebk&AN=86 7848&site=ehost-live
Melville, S., & Walmsley, H. (1998). Elementary health and physical education: A classroom teacher's guide. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.
Pangrazi, R. (2004). Lesson plans for dynamic physical education for elementary school children (14th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pearson/Benjamin Cummings.
Videos
Action words, Part 1 (classroom physical activity breaks) [Video file]. (2014). Retrieved from https://youtu.be/fF9qrV7P8tk
Beaux sterling pro [Video file]. (2011). Classroom movement opener. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/XrLiB0OSqOg
Brain breaks-action songs for children-move and freeze-kids songs [Video file]. (2015). Retrieved from https://youtu.be/388Q44ReOWE
Fit lit: How movement impacts learning [Video file]. (2015). Retrieved from https://youtu.be/BlSYEiycot8
Gombash, L. (2013). ABC's of movement activity cards [Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/- ky6eNJwDKk
I get loose-Koo Koo Roo. (2015). Retrieved from https://youtu.be/if8qfVjVFc8?list=PL...ANj1iPPaUktfRo
Konntz, S. (2011). Math and movement [Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/9HdDRh0Ohvk
Kutchey, P. (2016). Incorporating movement into the Classroom [Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/iyQN9zhx_ec
Trees and squirrels (classroom physical activity breaks) [Video file]. (2012). Retrieved from https://youtu.be/i32a5T-JsEc
Scholarly Journal Articles
Kayes, J. E. (2014). Teachers’ perceptions of the effects of physical activity and movement on student learning and in the classroom [Master’s thesis]. Retrieved from https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/b...06_MT_MTRP.pdf
Lepine, N. (2013). Learning through movement: Integrating physical education with the classroom curriculum. Retrieved from https://sophia.stkate.edu/maed/35/
Lynch, T., & Soukup, G. J. (2017). Primary physical education (PE): School leader perceptions about classroom teacher quality implementation. Retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full...X.2017.1348925
Nalder, M., & Northcote, M. (2015). The impact of integrated movement-based activities on primary school aged students in the classroom. Retrieved from http://research.avondale.edu.au/teac...on/vol1/iss1/1
Snyder, K., Dinkel, D. M., Schaffer, C., Hiveley, S., & Colpitts, A. (2017). Purposeful movement: The integration of physical activity into a mathematics unit. International Journal of Research in Education and Science, 3(1), 75-87.
Van, M. (2012). Movement in learning: Revitalizing the classroom [Master’s thesis]. Retrieved from http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/ipp_collection/541/
Wiebelhaus, S., & Fryer Hanson, M. (2016). Effects of classroom-based physical activities on off-task behaviors and attention: Kindergarten case study. The Qualitative Report, 21(8), 1380-1393. Retrieved from http://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol21/iss8/2 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Arts_Integration_in_Elementary_Curriculum_2e_(Zhou_and_Brown)/07%3A_P.E._Movement/7.02%3A_Suggested_Activities.txt |
Learning Objectives
After this chapter, you should be able to:
• Describe the principles that underlie development.
• Differentiate periods of human development.
• Evaluate issues in development.
• Distinguish the different methods of research.
• Explain what a theory is.
• Compare and contrast different theories of child development.
Welcome to Child Growth and Development. This text is a presentation of how and why children grow, develop, and learn. We will look at how we change physically over time from conception through adolescence. We examine cognitive change, or how our ability to think and remember changes over the first 20 years or so of life. And we will look at how our emotions, psychological state, and social relationships change throughout childhood and adolescence.1
01: Introduction to Child Development
There are several underlying principles of development to keep in mind:
• Development is lifelong and change is apparent across the lifespan (although this text ends with adolescence). And early experiences affect later development.
• Development is multidirectional. We show gains in some areas of development while showing loss in other areas.
• Development is multidimensional. We change across three general domains/dimensions; physical, cognitive, and social and emotional.
• The physical domain includes changes in height and weight, changes in gross and fine motor skills, sensory capabilities, the nervous system, as well as the propensity for disease and illness.
• The cognitive domain encompasses the changes in intelligence, wisdom, perception, problem-solving, memory, and language.
• The social and emotional domain (also referred to as psychosocial) focuses on changes in emotion, self-perception, and interpersonal relationships with families, peers, and friends.
All three domains influence each other. It is also important to note that a change in one domain may cascade and prompt changes in the other domains.
• Development is characterized by plasticity, which is our ability to change and that many of our characteristics are malleable. Early experiences are important, but children are remarkably resilient (able to overcome adversity).
• Development is multicontextual.2 We are influenced by both nature (genetics) and nurture (the environment) - when and where we live and our actions, beliefs, and values are a response to circumstances surrounding us. The key here is to understand that behaviors, motivations, emotions, and choices are all part of a bigger picture.3
Now let’s look at a framework for examining development.
Contributors and Attributions
1. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (modified by Jennifer Paris)
2. Introduction to Lifespan, Growth and Development by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0
1.02: Periods of Development
Think about what periods of development that you think a course on Child Development would address. How many stages are on your list? Perhaps you have three: infancy, childhood, and teenagers. Developmentalists (those that study development) break this part of the life span into these five stages as follows:
• Prenatal Development (conception through birth)
• Infancy and Toddlerhood (birth through two years)
• Early Childhood (3 to 5 years)
• Middle Childhood (6 to 11 years)
• Adolescence (12 years to adulthood)
This list reflects unique aspects of the various stages of childhood and adolescence that will be explored in this book. So while both an 8-month-old and an 8-year-old are considered children, they have very different motor abilities, social relationships, and cognitive skills. Their nutritional needs are different and their primary psychological concerns are also distinctive.
Prenatal Development
Conception occurs and development begins. All of the major structures of the body are forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern. Understanding nutrition, teratogens (or environmental factors that can lead to birth defects), and labor and delivery are primary concerns.
Infancy and Toddlerhood
The two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very poor vision, is transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers are also transformed from someone who manages feeding and sleep schedules to a constantly moving guide and safety inspector for a mobile, energetic child.
Early Childhood
Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years and consists of the years which follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling. As a three to five-year-old, the child is busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world. This knowledge does not come quickly, however, and preschoolers may initially have interesting conceptions of size, time, space and distance such as fearing that they may go down the drain if they sit at the front of the bathtub or by demonstrating how long something will take by holding out their two index fingers several inches apart. A toddler’s fierce determination to do something may give way to a four-year-old’s sense of guilt for action that brings the disapproval of others.
Middle Childhood
The ages of six through eleven comprise middle childhood and much of what children experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school. Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and by assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self and others. Schools compare students and make these comparisons public through team sports, test scores, and other forms of recognition. Growth rates slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life. And children begin to learn about social relationships beyond the family through interaction with friends and fellow students.
Adolescence
Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense of invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually transmitted infections that can have lifelong consequences.8
There are some aspects of development that have been hotly debated. Let’s explore these.
Contributors and Attributions
1. Periods of Development by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0
1.03: Issues in Development
Nature and Nurture
Why are people the way they are? Are features such as height, weight, personality, being diabetic, etc. the result of heredity or environmental factors-or both? For decades, scholars have carried on the "nature/nurture" debate. For any particular feature, those on the side of Nature would argue that heredity plays the most important role in bringing about that feature. Those on the side of Nurture would argue that one's environment is most significant in shaping the way we are. This debate continues in all aspects of human development, and most scholars agree that there is a constant interplay between the two forces. It is difficult to isolate the root of any single behavior as a result solely of nature or nurture.
Continuity versus Discontinuity
Is human development best characterized as a slow, gradual process, or is it best viewed as one of the more abrupt changes? The answer to that question often depends on which developmental theorist you ask and what topic is being studied. The theories of Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and Kohlberg are called stage theories. Stage theories or discontinuous development assume that developmental change often occurs in distinct stages that are qualitatively different from each other, and in a set, universal sequence. At each stage of development, children and adults have different qualities and characteristics. Thus, stage theorists assume development is more discontinuous. Others, such as the behaviorists, Vygotsky, and information processing theorists, assume development is a more slow and gradual process known as continuous development. For instance, they would see the adult as not possessing new skills, but more advanced skills that were already present in some form in the child. Brain development and environmental experiences contribute to the acquisition of more developed skills.
Active versus Passive
How much do you play a role in your own developmental path? Are you at the whim of your genetic inheritance or the environment that surrounds you? Some theorists see humans as playing a much more active role in their own development. Piaget, for instance, believed that children actively explore their world and construct new ways of thinking to explain the things they experience. In contrast, many behaviorists view humans as being more passive in the developmental process.11
How do we know so much about how we grow, develop, and learn? Let’s look at how that data is gathered through research
Contributors and Attributions
1. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Child_Development/1.01%3A_Principles_of_Development.txt |
An important part of learning any science is having a basic knowledge of the techniques used in gathering information. The hallmark of scientific investigation is that of following a set of procedures designed to keep questioning or skepticism alive while describing, explaining, or testing any phenomenon. Some people are hesitant to trust academicians or researchers because they always seem to change their story. That, however, is exactly what science is all about; it involves continuously renewing our understanding of the subjects in question and an ongoing investigation of how and why events occur. Science is a vehicle for going on a never-ending journey. In the area of development, we have seen changes in recommendations for nutrition, in explanations of psychological states as people age, and in parenting advice. So think of learning about human development as a lifelong endeavor.
Take a moment to write down two things that you know about childhood. Now, how do you know? Chances are you know these things based on your own history (experiential reality) or based on what others have told you or cultural ideas (agreement reality) (Seccombe and Warner, 2004). There are several problems with personal inquiry. Read the following sentence aloud:
Paris in the the spring
Are you sure that is what it said? Read it again:
Paris in the the spring
If you read it differently the second time (adding the second “the”) you just experienced one of the problems with personal inquiry; that is, the tendency to see what we believe. Our assumptions very often guide our perceptions, consequently, when we believe something, we tend to see it even if it is not there. This problem may just be a result of cognitive ‘blinders’ or it may be part of a more conscious attempt to support our own views. Confirmation bias is the tendency to look for evidence that we are right and in so doing, we ignore contradictory evidence. Popper suggests that the distinction between that which is scientific and that which is unscientific is that science is falsifiable; scientific inquiry involves attempts to reject or refute a theory or set of assumptions (Thornton, 2005). Theory that cannot be falsified is not scientific. And much of what we do in personal inquiry involves drawing conclusions based on what we have personally experienced or validating our own experience by discussing what we think is true with others who share the same views.
Science offers a more systematic way to make comparisons guard against bias.
Scientific Methods
One method of scientific investigation involves the following steps: 1. Determining a research question 2. Reviewing previous studies addressing the topic in question (known as a literature review) 3. Determining a method of gathering information 4. Conducting the study
5. Interpreting results 6. Drawing conclusions; stating limitations of the study and suggestions for future research 7. Making your findings available to others (both to share information and to have your work scrutinized by others)
Your findings can then be used by others as they explore the area of interest and through this process a literature or knowledge base is established. This model of scientific investigation presents research as a linear process guided by a specific research question. And it typically involves quantifying or using statistics to understand and report what has been studied. Many academic journals publish reports on studies conducted in this manner.
Another model of research referred to as qualitative research may involve steps such as these: 1. Begin with a broad area of interest 2. Gain entrance into a group to be researched 3. Gather field notes about the setting, the people, the structure, the activities or other areas of interest 4. Ask open ended, broad “grand tour” types of questions when interviewing subjects 5. Modify research questions as study continues 6. Note patterns or consistencies 7. Explore new areas deemed important by the people being observed 8. Report findings
In this type of research, theoretical ideas are “grounded” in the experiences of the participants. The researcher is the student and the people in the setting are the teachers as they inform the researcher of their world (Glazer & Strauss, 1967). Researchers are to be aware of their own biases and assumptions, acknowledge them and bracket them in efforts to keep them from limiting accuracy in reporting. Sometimes qualitative studies are used initially to explore a topic and more quantitative studies are used to test or explain what was first described.
Research Methods
Let’s look more closely at some techniques, or research methods, used to describe, explain, or evaluate. Each of these designs has strengths and weaknesses and is sometimes used in combination with other designs within a single study.
Observational Studies
Observational studies involve watching and recording the actions of participants. This may take place in the natural setting, such as observing children at play at a park, or behind a one-way glass while children are at play in a laboratory playroom. The researcher may follow a checklist and record the frequency and duration of events (perhaps how many conflicts occur among 2-year-olds) or may observe and record as much as possible about an event (such as observing children in a classroom and capturing the details about the room design and what the children and teachers are doing and saying). In general, observational studies have the strength of allowing the researcher to see how people behave rather than relying on self-report. What people do and what they say they do are often very different. A major weakness of observational studies is that they do not allow the researcher to explain causal relationships. Yet, observational studies are useful and widely used when studying children. Children tend to change their behavior when they know they are being watched (known as the Hawthorne effect) and may not survey well.
Experiments
Experiments are designed to test hypotheses (or specific statements about the relationship between variables) in a controlled setting in efforts to explain how certain factors or events produce outcomes. A variable is anything that changes in value. Concepts are operationalized or transformed into variables in research, which means that the researcher must specify exactly what is going to be measured in the study.
Three conditions must be met in order to establish cause and effect. Experimental designs are useful in meeting these conditions. 1. The independent and dependent variables must be related. In other words, when one is altered, the other changes in response. (The independent variable is something altered or introduced by the researcher. The dependent variable is the outcome or the factor affected by the introduction of the independent variable. For example, if we are looking at the impact of exercise on stress levels, the independent variable would be exercise; the dependent variable would be stress.) 2. The cause must come before the effect. Experiments involve measuring subjects on the dependent variable before exposing them to the independent variable (establishing a baseline). So we would measure the subjects’ level of stress before introducing exercise and then again after the exercise to see if there has been a change in stress levels. (Observational and survey research does not always allow us to look at the timing of these events, which makes understanding causality problematic with these designs.) 3. The cause must be isolated. The researcher must ensure that no outside, perhaps unknown variables are actually causing the effect we see. The experimental design helps make this possible. In an experiment, we would make sure that our subjects’ diets were held constant throughout the exercise program. Otherwise, the diet might really be creating a change in stress level rather than exercise.
A basic experimental design involves beginning with a sample (or subset of a population) and randomly assigning subjects to one of two groups: the experimental group or the control group. The experimental group is the group that is going to be exposed to an independent variable or condition the researcher is introducing as a potential cause of an event. The control group is going to be used for comparison and is going to have the same experience as the experimental group but will not be exposed to the independent variable. After exposing the experimental group to the independent variable, the two groups are measured again to see if a change has occurred. If so, we are in a better position to suggest that the independent variable caused the change in the dependent variable.
The major advantage of the experimental design is that of helping to establish cause and effect relationships. A disadvantage of this design is the difficulty of translating much of what happens in a laboratory setting into real life.
Case Studies
Case studies involve exploring a single case or situation in great detail. Information may be gathered with the use of observation, interviews, testing, or other methods to uncover as much as possible about a person or situation. Case studies are helpful when investigating unusual situations such as brain trauma or children reared in isolation. And they are often used by clinicians who conduct case studies as part of their normal practice when gathering information about a client or patient coming in for treatment. Case studies can be used to explore areas about which little is known and can provide rich detail about situations or conditions. However, the findings from case studies cannot be generalized or applied to larger populations; this is because cases are not randomly selected and no control group is used for comparison.
Surveys
Surveys are familiar to most people because they are so widely used. Surveys enhance accessibility to subjects because they can be conducted in person, over the phone, through the mail, or online. A survey involves asking a standard set of questions to a group of subjects. In a highly structured survey, subjects are forced to choose from a response set such as “strongly disagree, disagree, undecided, agree, strongly agree”; or “0, 1-5, 6-10, etc.” This is known as the Likert Scale. Surveys are commonly used by sociologists, marketing researchers, political scientists, therapists, and others to gather information on many independent and dependent variables in a relatively short period of time. Surveys typically yield surface information on a wide variety of factors, but may not allow for in-depth understanding of human behavior.
Of course, surveys can be designed in a number of ways. They may include forced choice questions and semi-structured questions in which the researcher allows the respondent to describe or give details about certain events. One of the most difficult aspects of designing a good survey is wording questions in an unbiased way and asking the right questions so that respondents can give a clear response rather than choosing “undecided” each time. Knowing that 30% of respondents are undecided is of little use! So a lot of time and effort should be placed on the construction of survey items. One of the benefits of having forced choice items is that each response is coded so that the results can be quickly entered and analyzed using statistical software. Analysis takes much longer when respondents give lengthy responses that must be analyzed in a different way. Surveys are useful in examining stated values, attitudes, opinions, and reporting on practices. However, they are based on self-report or what people say they do rather than on observation and this can limit accuracy.
Developmental Designs
Developmental designs are techniques used in developmental research (and other areas as well). These techniques try to examine how age, cohort, gender, and social class impact development.
Longitudinal Research
Longitudinal research involves beginning with a group of people who may be of the same age and background and measuring them repeatedly over a long period of time. One of the benefits of this type of research is that people can be followed through time and be compared with them when they were younger.
A problem with this type of research is that it is very expensive and subjects may drop out over time. The Perry Preschool Project which began in 1962 is an example of a longitudinal study that continues to provide data on children’s development.
Cross-sectional Research
Cross-sectional research involves beginning with a sample that represents a cross-section of the population. Respondents who vary in age, gender, ethnicity, and social class might be asked to complete a survey about television program preferences or attitudes toward the use of the Internet. The attitudes of males and females could then be compared, as could attitudes based on age. In cross-sectional research, respondents are measured only once.
This method is much less expensive than longitudinal research but does not allow the researcher to distinguish between the impact of age and the cohort effect. Different attitudes about the use of technology, for example, might not be altered by a person’s biological age as much as their life experiences as members of a cohort.
Sequential Research
Sequential research involves combining aspects of the previous two techniques; beginning with a cross-sectional sample and measuring them through time.
This is the perfect model for looking at age, gender, social class, and ethnicity. But the drawbacks of high costs and attrition are here as well.16
Type of Research Design Advantages Disadvantages
Longitudinal
• Examines changes within individuals over time
• Provides a developmental analysis
• Expensive
• Takes a long time
• Participant attrition
• Possibility of practice effects
• Cannot examine cohort effects
Cross-sectional
• Examines changes between participants of different ages at the same point in time
• Provides information on age-related change
• Cannot examine change over time
• Cannot examine cohort effects
Sequential
• Examines changes within individuals over time
• Examines changes between participants of different ages at the same point in time
• Can be used to examine cohort effects
• May be expensive
• Possibility of practice effects
Table \(1\): Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Research Designs (Research Methods in Developmental Psychology by Angela Lukowski and Helen Milojevich is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)
Consent and Ethics in Research
Research should, as much as possible, be based on participants' freely volunteered informed consent. For minors, this also requires consent from their legal guardians. This implies a responsibility to explain fully and meaningfully to both the child and their guardians what the research is about and how it will be disseminated. Participants and their legal guardians should be aware of the research purpose and procedures, their right to refuse to participate; the extent to which confidentiality will be maintained; the potential uses to which the data might be put; the foreseeable risks and expected benefits; and that participants have the right to discontinue at any time.
But consent alone does not absolve the responsibility of researchers to anticipate and guard against potentially harmful consequences for participants.18 It is critical that researchers protect all rights of the participants including confidentiality.
Child development is a fascinating field of study – but care must be taken to ensure that researchers use appropriate methods to examine infant and child behavior, use the correct experimental design to answer their questions, and be aware of the special challenges that are part-and-parcel of developmental research. Hopefully, this information helped you develop an understanding of these various issues and to be ready to think more critically about research questions that interest you. There are so many interesting questions that remain to be examined by future generations of developmental scientists – maybe you will make one of the next big discoveries!19
Another really important framework to use when trying to understand children’s development are theories of development. Let’s explore what theories are and introduce you to some major theories in child development.
Contributors and Attributions
1. Research Methods by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0
1. Confidentiality and Informed Consent: Issues for Consideration in the Preservation of and Provision of Access to Qualitative Data Archives by Louise Corti, Annette Day & Gill BackhouseSource is licensed under CC BY 4.0 (modified by Jennifer Paris); "No thank you, not today": Supporting Ethical and Professional Relationships in Large Qualitative Studies by Lisa J. Blodgett, Wanda Boyer & Emily TurkSource is licensed under CC BY 4.0 (modified by Jennifer Paris)
2. Research Methods in Developmental Psychology by Angela Lukowski and Helen Milojevich is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Child_Development/1.04%3A_Research_Methods.txt |
What is a Theory?
Students sometimes feel intimidated by theory; even the phrase, “Now we are going to look at some theories...” is met with blank stares and other indications that the audience is now lost. But theories are valuable tools for understanding human behavior; in fact, they are proposed explanations for the “how” and “whys” of development. Have you ever wondered, “Why is my three year old so inquisitive?” or “Why are some fifth graders rejected by their classmates?” Theories can help explain these and other occurrences. Developmental theories offer explanations about how we develop, why we change over time and the kinds of influences that impact development.
A theory guides and helps us interpret research findings as well. It provides the researcher with a blueprint or model to be used to help piece together various studies. Think of theories as guidelines much like directions that come with an appliance or other object that requires assembly. The instructions can help one piece together smaller parts more easily than if trial and error are used.
Theories can be developed using induction in which a number of single cases are observed and after patterns or similarities are noted, the theorist develops ideas based on these examples. Established theories are then tested through research; however, not all theories are equally suited to scientific investigation. Some theories are difficult to test but are still useful in stimulating debate or providing concepts that have practical application. Keep in mind that theories are not facts; they are guidelines for investigation and practice, and they gain credibility through research that fails to disprove them.20
Let’s take a look at some key theories in Child Development.
Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
We begin with the often controversial figure, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud has been a very influential figure in the area of development; his view of development and psychopathology dominated the field of psychiatry until the growth of behaviorism in the 1950s. His assumptions that personality forms during the first few years of life and that the ways in which parents or other caregivers interact with children have a long-lasting impact on children’s emotional states have guided parents, educators, clinicians, and policy-makers for many years. We have only recently begun to recognize that early childhood experiences do not always result in certain personality traits or emotional states. There is a growing body of literature addressing resilience in children who come from harsh backgrounds and yet develop without damaging emotional scars (O’Grady and Metz, 1987). Freud has stimulated an enormous amount of research and generated many ideas. Agreeing with Freud’s theory in its entirety is hardly necessary for appreciating the contribution he has made to the field of development.
Freud’s theory of self suggests that there are three parts of the self.
• The id is the part of the self that is inborn. It responds to biological urges without pause and is guided by the principle of pleasure: if it feels good, it is the thing to do. A newborn is all id. The newborn cries when hungry, defecates when the urge strikes.
• The ego develops through interaction with others and is guided by logic or the reality principle. It has the ability to delay gratification. It knows that urges have to be managed. It mediates between the id and superego using logic and reality to calm the other parts of the self.
• The superego represents society’s demands for its members. It is guided by a sense of guilt. Values, morals, and the conscience are all part of the superego.
The personality is thought to develop in response to the child’s ability to learn to manage biological urges. Parenting is important here. If the parent is either overly punitive or lax, the child may not progress to the next stage. Here is a brief introduction to Freud’s stages.
Table \(1\): Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
Name of Stage Descriptions of Stage
Oral Stage The oral stage lasts from birth until around age 2. The infant is all id. At this stage, all stimulation and comfort is focused on the mouth and is based on the reflex of sucking. Too much indulgence or too little stimulation may lead to fixation.
Anal Stage The anal stage coincides with potty training or learning to manage biological urges. The ego is beginning to develop in this stage. Anal fixation may result in a person who is compulsively clean and organized or one who is sloppy and lacks self-control.
Phallic Stage The phallic stage occurs in early childhood and marks the development of the superego and a sense of masculinity or femininity as culture dictates.
Latency Latency occurs during middle childhood when a child’s urges quiet down and friendships become the focus. The ego and superego can be refined as the child learns how to cooperate and negotiate with others.
Genital Stage
The genital stage begins with puberty and continues through adulthood. Now the preoccupation is that of sex and reproduction.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory
Freud’s theory has been heavily criticized for several reasons. One is that it is very difficult to test scientifically. How can parenting in infancy be traced to personality in adulthood? Are there other variables that might better explain development? The theory is also considered to be sexist in suggesting that women who do not accept an inferior position in society are somehow psychologically flawed. Freud focuses on the darker side of human nature and suggests that much of what determines our actions is unknown to us. So why do we study Freud? As mentioned above, despite the criticisms, Freud’s assumptions about the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our psychological selves have found their way into child development, education, and parenting practices. Freud’s theory has heuristic value in providing a framework from which to elaborate and modify subsequent theories of development. Many later theories, particularly behaviorism and humanism, were challenges to Freud’s views.22
Main Points to Note About Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
Freud believed that:
• Development in the early years has a lasting impact.
• There are three parts of the self: the id, the ego, and the superego
• People go through five stages of psychosexual development: the oral stage, the anal stage, the phallic stage, latency, and the genital stage
We study Freud because his assumptions the importance of early childhood experience provide a framework for later theories (the both elaborated and contradicted/challenged his work).
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Now, let’s turn to a less controversial theorist, Erik Erikson. Erikson (1902-1994) suggested that our relationships and society’s expectations motivate much of our behavior in his theory of psychosocial development. Erikson was a student of Freud’s but emphasized the importance of the ego, or conscious thought, in determining our actions. In other words, he believed that we are not driven by unconscious urges. We know what motivates us and we consciously think about how to achieve our goals. He is considered the father of developmental psychology because his model gives us a guideline for the entire life span and suggests certain primary psychological and social concerns throughout life.
Erikson expanded on his Freud’s by emphasizing the importance of culture in parenting practices and motivations and adding three stages of adult development (Erikson, 1950; 1968).
He believed that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and the ego has greater importance in guiding our actions than does the id. We make conscious choices in life and these choices focus on meeting certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological ones. Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life. These are all psychosocial problems.
Erikson divided the lifespan into eight stages. In each stage, we have a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome. Erikson believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our lifespan as we face these challenges in living. Here is a brief overview of the eight stages:
Table \(2\): Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Name of Stage Description of Stage
Trust vs. mistrust (0-1)
The infant must have basic needs met in a consistent way in order to feel that the world is a trustworthy place.
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-2) Mobile toddlers have newfound freedom they like to exercise and by being allowed to do so, they learn some basic independence.
Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5)
Preschoolers like to initiate activities and emphasize doing things “all by myself.”
Industry vs. inferiority (6- 11) School aged children focus on accomplishments and begin making comparisons between themselves and their classmates
Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence) Teenagers are trying to gain a sense of identity as they experiment with various roles, beliefs, and ideas.
Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood) In our 20s and 30s we are making some of our first long-term commitments in intimate relationships.
Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood) The 40s through the early 60s we focus on being productive at work and home and are motivated by wanting to feel that we’ve made a contribution to society.
Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood) We look back on our lives and hope to like what we see-that we have lived well and have a sense of integrity because we lived according to our beliefs.
These eight stages form a foundation for discussions on emotional and social development during the life span. Keep in mind, however, that these stages or crises can occur more than once. For instance, a person may struggle with a lack of trust beyond infancy under certain circumstances. Erikson’s theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is a prerequisite for the next crisis of development. His theory also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all. For instance, the idea that adolescence is a time of searching for identity might translate well in the middle-class culture of the United States, but not as well in cultures where the transition into adulthood coincides with puberty through rites of passage and where adult roles offer fewer choices.24
Main Points to Note About Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Erikson was a student of Freud but focused on conscious thought.
• His stages of psychosocial development address the entire lifespan and suggest primary psychosocial crisis in some cultures that adults can use to understand how to support children’s social and emotional development.
• The stages include: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair.
Behaviorism
While Freud and Erikson looked at what was going on in the mind, behaviorism rejected any reference to mind and viewed overt and observable behavior as the proper subject matter of psychology. Through the scientific study of behavior, it was hoped that laws of learning could be derived that would promote the prediction and control of behavior.25
Ivan Pavlov
Ivan Pavlov (1880-1937) was a Russian physiologist interested in studying digestion. As he recorded the amount of salivation his laboratory dogs produced as they ate, he noticed that they actually began to salivate before the food arrived as the researcher walked down the hall and toward the cage. “This,” he thought, “is not natural!” One would expect a dog to automatically salivate when food hit their palate, but BEFORE the food comes? Of course, what had happened was . . . you tell me. That’s right! The dogs knew that the food was coming because they had learned to associate the footsteps with the food. The key word here is “learned”. A learned response is called a “conditioned” response.
Pavlov began to experiment with this concept of classical conditioning. He began to ring a bell, for instance, prior to introducing the food. Sure enough, after making this connection several times, the dogs could be made to salivate to the sound of a bell. Once the bell had become an event to which the dogs had learned to salivate, it was called a conditioned stimulus. The act of salivating to a bell was a response that had also been learned, now termed in Pavlov’s jargon, a conditioned response. Notice that the response, salivation, is the same whether it is conditioned or unconditioned (unlearned or natural). What changed is the stimulus to which the dog salivates. One is natural (unconditioned) and one is learned (conditioned).
Let’s think about how classical conditioning is used on us. One of the most widespread applications of classical conditioning principles was brought to us by the psychologist, John B. Watson.
John B. Watson
John B. Watson (1878-1958) believed that most of our fears and other emotional responses are classically conditioned. He had gained a good deal of popularity in the 1920s with his expert advice on parenting offered to the public.
He tried to demonstrate the power of classical conditioning with his famous experiment with an 18-month-old boy named “Little Albert”. Watson sat Albert down and introduced a variety of seemingly scary objects to him: a burning piece of newspaper, a white rat, etc. But Albert remained curious and reached for all of these things. Watson knew that one of our only inborn fears is the fear of loud noises so he proceeded to make a loud noise each time he introduced one of Albert’s favorites, a white rat. After hearing the loud noise several times paired with the rat, Albert soon came to fear the rat and began to cry when it was introduced. Watson filmed this experiment for posterity and used it to demonstrate that he could help parents achieve any outcomes they desired, if they would only follow his advice. Watson wrote columns in newspapers and in magazines and gained a lot of popularity among parents eager to apply science to household order.
Operant conditioning, on the other hand, looks at the way the consequences of a behavior increase or decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. So let’s look at this a bit more.
B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning
B. F. Skinner (1904-1990), who brought us the principles of operant conditioning, suggested that reinforcement is a more effective means of encouraging a behavior than is criticism or punishment. By focusing on strengthening desirable behavior, we have a greater impact than if we emphasize what is undesirable. Reinforcement is anything that an organism desires and is motivated to obtain.
A reinforcer is something that encourages or promotes a behavior. Some things are natural rewards. They are considered intrinsic or primary because their value is easily understood. Think of what kinds of things babies or animals such as puppies find rewarding.
Extrinsic or secondary reinforcers are things that have a value not immediately understood. Their value is indirect. They can be traded in for what is ultimately desired.
The use of positive reinforcement involves adding something to a situation in order to encourage a behavior. For example, if I give a child a cookie for cleaning a room, the addition of the cookie makes cleaning more likely in the future. Think of ways in which you positively reinforce others.
Negative reinforcement occurs when taking something unpleasant away from a situation encourages behavior. For example, I have an alarm clock that makes a very unpleasant, loud sound when it goes off in the morning. As a result, I get up and turn it off. By removing the noise, I am reinforced for getting up. How do you negatively reinforce others?
Punishment is an effort to stop a behavior. It means to follow an action with something unpleasant or painful. Punishment is often less effective than reinforcement for several reasons. It doesn’t indicate the desired behavior, it may result in suppressing rather than stopping a behavior, (in other words, the person may not do what is being punished when you’re around, but may do it often when you leave), and a focus on punishment can result in not noticing when the person does well. Not all behaviors are learned through association or reinforcement. Many of the things we do are learned by watching others. This is addressed in social learning theory.
Social Learning Theory
Albert Bandura (1925-) is a leading contributor to social learning theory. He calls our attention to the ways in which many of our actions are not learned through conditioning; rather, they are learned by watching others (1977). Young children frequently learn behaviors through imitation
Sometimes, particularly when we do not know what else to do, we learn by modeling or copying the behavior of others. A kindergartner on his or her first day of school might eagerly look at how others are acting and try to act the same way to fit in more quickly. Adolescents struggling with their identity rely heavily on their peers to act as role-models. Sometimes we do things because we’ve seen it pay off for someone else. They were operantly conditioned, but we engage in the behavior because we hope it will pay off for us as well. This is referred to as vicarious reinforcement (Bandura, Ross and Ross, 1963).
Bandura (1986) suggests that there is interplay between the environment and the individual. We are not just the product of our surroundings, rather we influence our surroundings. Parents not only influence their child’s environment, perhaps intentionally through the use of reinforcement, etc., but children influence parents as well. Parents may respond differently with their first child than with their fourth. Perhaps they try to be the perfect parents with their firstborn, but by the time their last child comes along they have very different expectations both of themselves and their child. Our environment creates us and we create our environment.30
Bandura and the Bobo Doll Experiment & Today’s Children and the Media
Other social influences: TV or not TV? Bandura (et als. 1963) began a series of studies to look at the impact of television, particularly commercials, on the behavior of children. Are children more likely to act out aggressively when they see this behavior modeled? What if they see it being reinforced? Bandura began by conducting an experiment in which he showed children a film of a woman hitting an inflatable clown or “bobo” doll. Then the children were allowed in the room where they found the doll and immediately began to hit it. This was without any reinforcement whatsoever. Not only that, but they found new ways to behave aggressively. It’s as if they learned an aggressive role.
Children view far more television today than in the 1960s; so much, in fact, that they have been referred to as Generation M (media). The amount of screen time varies by age. As of 2017, children 0-8 spend an average of 2 hours and 19 minutes. Children 8-12 years of age spend almost 6 hours a day on screen media. And 13- to 18-year-olds spend an average of just under 9 hours a day in entertainment media use.
The prevalence of violence, sexual content, and messages promoting foods high in fat and sugar in the media are certainly cause for concern and the subjects of ongoing research and policy review. Many children spend even more time on the computer viewing content from the internet. The amount of time spent connected to the internet continues to increase with the use of smartphones that essentially serve as mini-computers. And the ways children and adolescents interact with the media continues to change. The popularity of YouTube and the various social media platforms are examples of this. What might be the implications of this?31
Main Points to Note About Behaviorism
Behaviorists look at observable behavior and how it can be predicted and controlled.
• Pavlov experimented with classical conditioning, the process of conditioning a response to stimulus (the dog’s salivating to the bell).
• Watson offered advice to parents to show them how classical conditioning can be used. His most famous experiment was conditioning Little Albert to fear a white rate.
• Skinner believed that reinforcing behavior is the most effective way of increasing desirable behavior. This is done through operant conditioning.
• Bandura noted that many behaviors are not learned through any type of conditioning, but rather through imitation. And he believed that people are not only influenced by their surroundings, but that they also have an impact on their surroundings.
Theories also explore cognitive development and how mental processes change over time.
Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is one of the most influential cognitive theorists. Piaget was inspired to explore children’s ability to think and reason by watching his own children’s development. He was one of the first to recognize and map out the ways in which children’s thought differs from that of adults. His interest in this area began when he was asked to test the IQ of children and began to notice that there was a pattern in their wrong answers. He believed that children’s intellectual skills change over time through maturation. Children of differing ages interpret the world differently.
Piaget believed our desire to understand the world comes from a need for cognitive equilibrium. This is an agreement or balance between what we sense in the outside world and what we know in our minds. If we experience something that we cannot understand, we try to restore the balance by either changing our thoughts or by altering the experience to fit into what we do understand. Perhaps you meet someone who is very different from anyone you know. How do you make sense of this person? You might use them to establish a new category of people in your mind or you might think about how they are similar to someone else.
A schema or schemes are categories of knowledge. They are like mental boxes of concepts. A child has to learn many concepts. They may have a scheme for “under” and “soft” or “running” and “sour”. All of these are schema. Our efforts to understand the world around us lead us to develop new schema and to modify old ones.
One way to make sense of new experiences is to focus on how they are similar to what we already know. This is assimilation. So the person we meet who is very different may be understood as being “sort of like my brother” or “his voice sounds a lot like yours.” Or a new food may be assimilated when we determine that it tastes like chicken!
Another way to make sense of the world is to change our mind. We can make a cognitive accommodation to this new experience by adding new schema. This food is unlike anything I’ve tasted before. I now have a new category of foods that are bitter-sweet in flavor, for instance. This is accommodation. Do you accommodate or assimilate more frequently? Children accommodate more frequently as they build new schema. Adults tend to look for similarity in their experience and assimilate. They may be less inclined to think “outside the box.” Piaget suggested different ways of understanding that are associated with maturation. He divided this into four stages:
Table \(3\): Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Name of Stage Description of Stage
Sensorimotor Stage During the sensorimotor stage children rely on use of the senses and motor skills. From birth until about age 2, the infant knows by tasting, smelling, touching, hearing, and moving objects around. This is a real hands on type of knowledge.
Preoperational Stage In the preoperational stage, children from ages 2 to 7, become able to think about the world using symbols. A symbol is something that stands for something else. The use of language, whether it is in the form of words or gestures, facilitates knowing and communicating about the world. This is the hallmark of preoperational intelligence and occurs in early childhood. However, these children are preoperational or pre-logical. They still do not understand how the physical world operates. They may, for instance, fear that they will go down the drain if they sit at the front of the bathtub, even though they are too big.
Concrete Operational Children in the concrete operational stage, ages 7 to 11, develop the ability to think logically about the physical world. Middle childhood is a time of understanding concepts such as size, distance, and constancy of matter, and cause and effect relationships. A child knows that a scrambled egg is still an egg and that 8 ounces of water is still 8 ounces no matter what shape of glass contains it.
Formal Operational During the formal operational stage children, at about age 12, acquire the ability to think logically about concrete and abstract events. The teenager who has reached this stage is able to consider possibilities and to contemplate ideas about situations that have never been directly encountered. More abstract understanding of religious ideas or morals or ethics and abstract principles such as freedom and dignity can be considered.
Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory
Piaget has been criticized for overemphasizing the role that physical maturation plays in cognitive development and in underestimating the role that culture and interaction (or experience) plays in cognitive development. Looking across cultures reveals considerable variation in what children are able to do at various ages. Piaget may have underestimated what children are capable of given the right circumstances.33
Main Points To Note About Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Piaget, one of the most influential cognitive theorists, believed that
• Understanding is motivated by trying to balance what we sense in the world and what we know in our minds.
• Understanding is organized through creating categories of knowledge. When presented with new knowledge we may add new schema or modify existing ones.
Children’s understanding of the world of the world changes are their cognitive skills mature through four stages: sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concreate operational stage, and formal operational stage.
Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who wrote in the early 1900s but whose work was discovered in the United States in the 1960s but became more widely known in the 1980s. Vygotsky differed with Piaget in that he believed that a person not only has a set of abilities, but also a set of potential abilities that can be realized if given the proper guidance from others. His sociocultural theory emphasizes the importance of culture and interaction in the development of cognitive abilities. He believed that through guided participation known as scaffolding, with a teacher or capable peer, a child can learn cognitive skills within a certain range known as the zone of proximal development.34 His belief was that development occurred first through children’s immediate social interactions, and then moved to the individual level as they began to internalize their learning.35
Have you ever taught a child to perform a task? Maybe it was brushing their teeth or preparing food. Chances are you spoke to them and described what you were doing while you demonstrated the skill and let them work along with you all through the process. You gave them assistance when they seemed to need it, but once they knew what to do-you stood back and let them go. This is scaffolding and can be seen demonstrated throughout the world. This approach to teaching has also been adopted by educators. Rather than assessing students on what they are doing, they should be understood in terms of what they are capable of doing with the proper guidance. You can see how Vygotsky would be very popular with modern day educators.37
Main Points to Note About Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Vygotsky concentrated on the child’s interactions with peers and adults. He believed that the child was an apprentice, learning through sensitive social interactions with more skilled peers and adults.
Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky
Vygotsky concentrated more on the child’s immediate social and cultural environment and his or her interactions with adults and peers. While Piaget saw the child as actively discovering the world through individual interactions with it, Vygotsky saw the child as more of an apprentice, learning through a social environment of others who had more experience and were sensitive to the child’s needs and abilities.38
Like Vygotsky’s, Bronfenbrenner looked at the social influences on learning and development.
Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) offers us one of the most comprehensive theories of human development. Bronfenbrenner studied Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and learning theorists and believed that all of those theories could be enhanced by adding the dimension of context. What is being taught and how society interprets situations depends on who is involved in the life of a child and on when and where a child lives.
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model explains the direct and indirect influences on an individual’s development.
Table \(4\): Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model
Name of System Description of System
Microsystems Microsystems impact a child directly. These are the people with whom the child interacts such as parents, peers, and teachers. The relationship between individuals and those around them need to be considered. For example, to appreciate what is going on with a student in math, the relationship between the student and teacher should be known.
Mesosystems Mesosystems are interactions between those surrounding the individual. The relationship between parents and schools, for example will indirectly affect the child.
Exosystem Larger institutions such as the mass media or the healthcare system are referred to as the exosystem. These have an impact on families and peers and schools who operate under policies and regulations found in these institutions.
Macrosystems We find cultural values and beliefs at the level of macrosystems. These larger ideals and expectations inform institutions that will ultimately impact the individual.
Chronosystem All of this happens in an historical context referred to as the chronosystem. Cultural values change over time, as do policies of educational institutions or governments in certain political climates. Development occurs at a point in time.
For example, in order to understand a student in math, we can’t simply look at that individual and what challenges they face directly with the subject. We have to look at the interactions that occur between teacher and child. Perhaps the teacher needs to make modifications as well. The teacher may be responding to regulations made by the school, such as new expectations for students in math or constraints on time that interfere with the teacher’s ability to instruct. These new demands may be a response to national efforts to promote math and science deemed important by political leaders in response to relations with other countries at a particular time in history.
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model challenges us to go beyond the individual if we want to understand human development and promote improvements.41
Main Points to Note About Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model
After studying all of the prior theories, Bronfenbrenner added an important element of context to the discussion of influences on human development.
• He believed that the people involved in children’s lives and when and where they live are important considerations.
• He created a model of nested systems that influence the child (and are influenced by the child) that include: microsystems, mesosystems, the exosystem, macrosystems, and chronosystems.
Contributors and Attributions
20. Introduction to Developmental Theories by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0
22. Psychodynamic Theory by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0; Lecture Transcript: Developmental Theories by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0
24. Psychosocial Theory by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0
25. History of Psychology by David B. Baker and Heather Sperry is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
30. Exploring Behavior by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0; Lecture Transcript: Developmental Theories by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0
31. Exploring Behavior by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0
Rasmussen, Eric (2017, Oct 19). Screen Time and Kids: Insights from a New Report. Retrieved from https://www.pbs.org/parents/thrive/screen-time-and-kids-insights-from-a-new-report
33. Lecture Transcript: Developmental Theories by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0 (modified by Jennifer Paris)
Exploring Cognition by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0
34. Exploring Cognition by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0
35. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
37. Exploring Cognition by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0
38. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
41. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
1.S: Summary
In this chapter we looked at:
• underlying principles of development
• the five periods of development
• three issues in development
• Various methods of research
• important theories that help us understand development
Next, we are going to be examining where we all started with conception, heredity, and prenatal development. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Child_Development/1.05%3A_Developmental_Theories.txt |
Learning Objectives
After this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Evaluate roles of nature and nurture in development.
2. Define genes and chromosomes.
3. Differentiate mitosis and meiosis.
4. Explain dominant and recessive patterns on inheritance.
5. List common genetic disorders and chromosomal abnormalities.
6. Describe changes that occur within each of the three periods of prenatal development.
7. Recognize the risks to prenatal development posed by exposure to teratogens.
8. Evaluate different types of prenatal assessment.
In this chapter, we will begin by examining some of the ways in which heredity helps to shape the way we are. We will look at what happens genetically during conception, and describe some known genetic and chromosomal disorders. Next we will consider what happens during prenatal development, including the impact of teratogens. We will also discuss the impact that both the mother and father have on the developing fetus.
• 2.1: Heredity
Most scholars agree that there is a constant interplay between nature (heredity) and nurture (the environment). It is difficult to isolate the root of any single characteristic as a result solely of nature or nurture, and most scholars believe that even determining the extent to which nature or nurture impacts a human feature is difficult to answer. In fact, almost all human features are polygenic (result of many genes) and multifactorial (result of many factors, both genetic and environmental).
• 2.2: Prenatal Development
Now we turn our attention to prenatal development which is divided into three periods: The germinal period, the embryonic period, and the fetal period. The following is an overview of some of the changes that take place during each period.
• 2.S: Summary
02: Conception Heredity and Prenatal Development
Nature and Nurture
Most scholars agree that there is a constant interplay between nature (heredity) and nurture (the environment). It is difficult to isolate the root of any single characteristic as a result solely of nature or nurture, and most scholars believe that even determining the extent to which nature or nurture impacts a human feature is difficult to answer. In fact, almost all human features are polygenic (a result of many genes) and multifactorial (a result of many factors, both genetic and environmental). It’s as if one’s genetic make-up sets up a range of possibilities, which may or may not be realized depending upon one’s environmental experiences. For instance, a person might be genetically predisposed to develop diabetes, but the person’s lifestyle may determine whether or not they actually develop the disease.
This bidirectional interplay between nature and nurture is the epigenetic framework, which suggests that the environment can affect the expression of genes just as genetic predispositions can impact a person’s potentials. And environmental circumstances can trigger symptoms of a genetic disorder.2
Environment Correlations
Environment Correlations refer to the processes by which genetic factors contribute to variations in the environment (Plomin, DeFries, Knopik, & Neiderhiser, 2013). There are three types of genotype-environment correlations:
Passive genotype-environment correlation occurs when children passively inherit the genes and the environments their family provides. Certain behavioral characteristics, such as being athletically inclined, may run in families. The children have inherited both the genes that would enable success at these activities, and given the environmental encouragement to engage in these actions.
Evocative genotype-environment correlation refers to how the social environment reacts to individuals based on their inherited characteristics. For example, whether one has a more outgoing or shy temperament will affect how he or she is treated by others.
Active genotype-environment correlation occurs when individuals seek out environments that support their genetic tendencies. This is also referred to as niche picking. For example, children who are musically inclined seek out music instruction and opportunities that facilitate their natural musical ability.
Conversely, Genotype-Environment Interactions involve genetic susceptibility to the environment. Adoption studies provide evidence for genotype-environment interactions. For example, the Early Growth and Development Study (Leve, Neiderhiser, Scaramella, & Reiss, 2010) followed 360 adopted children and their adopted and biological parents in a longitudinal study. Results have shown that children whose biological parents exhibited psychopathology, exhibited significantly fewer behavior problems when their adoptive parents used more structured parenting than unstructured. Additionally, elevated psychopathology in adoptive parents increased the risk for the children’s development of behavior problems, but only when the biological parents’ psychopathology was high. Consequently, the results show how environmental effects on behavior differ based on the genotype, especially stressful environments on genetically at-risk children. 4
Genes and Chromosomes
Now, let’s look more closely at just nature. Nature refers to the contribution of genetics to one’s development. The basic building block of the nature perspective is the gene. Genes are recipes for making proteins, while proteins influence the structure and functions of cells. Genes are located on the chromosomes and there are an estimated 20,500 genes for humans, according to the Human Genome Project (NIH, 2015).
Normal human cells contain 46 chromosomes (or 23 pairs; one from each parent) in the nucleus of the cells. After conception, most cells of the body are created by a process called mitosis. Mitosis is defined as the cell’s nucleus making an exact copy of all the chromosomes and splitting into two new cells.
However, the cells used in sexual reproduction, called the gametes (sperm or ova), are formed in a process called meiosis. In meiosis, the gamete’s chromosomes duplicate, and then divide twice resulting in four cells containing only half the genetic material of the original gamete. Thus, each sperm and egg possesses only 23 chromosomes and combine to produce the normal 46.
Table 2.1 - Mitosis & Meiosis 6
Type of Cell Division Explanation Steps
Mitosis All cells, except those used in sexual reproduction, are created by mitosis Step 1. Chromosomes make a duplicate copy
Step 2. Two identical cells are created
Meiosis Cells used in sexual reproduction are created by
meiosis
Step 1. Exchange of gene between the
chromosomes (crossing over)
Step 2. Chromosomes make a duplicate
Step 3. First cell division
Step 4. Second cell division
Given the amount of genes present and the unpredictability of the meiosis process, the likelihood of having offspring that are genetically identical (and not twins) is one in trillions (Gould & Keeton, 1997).
Of the 23 pairs of chromosomes created at conception, 22 pairs are similar in length. These are called autosomes. The remaining pair, or sex chromosomes, may differ in length. If a child receives the combination of XY, the child will be genetically male. If the child receives the combination XX, the child will be genetically female.8
Here is an image (called a karyogram) of what the 23 pairs of chromosomes look like. Notice the differences between the sex chromosomes in female (XX) and male (XY).
Genotypes and Phenotypes & Patterns on Inheritance
The word genotype refers to the sum total of all the genes a person inherits. The word phenotype refers to the features that are actually expressed. Look in the mirror. What do you see, your genotype or your phenotype? What determines whether or not genes are expressed? Because genes are inherited in pairs on the chromosomes, we may receive either the same version of a gene from our mother and father, that is, be homozygous for that characteristic the gene influences. If we receive a different version of the gene from each parent, that is referred to as heterozygous.
In the homozygous situation we will display that characteristic. It is in the heterozygous condition that it becomes clear that not all genes are created equal. Some genes are dominant, meaning they express themselves in the phenotype even when paired with a different version of the gene, while their silent partner is called recessive. Recessive genes express themselves only when paired with a similar version gene. Geneticists refer to different versions of a gene as alleles. Some dominant traits include having facial dimples, curly hair, normal vision, and dark hair. Some recessive traits include red hair, being nearsighted, and straight hair.
Most characteristics are not the result of a single gene; they are polygenic, meaning they are the result of several genes. In addition, the dominant and recessive patterns described above are usually not that simple either. Sometimes the dominant gene does not completely suppress the recessive gene; this is called incomplete dominance. 10
Genetic Disorders
Most of the known genetic disorders are dominant gene-linked; however, the vast majority of dominant gene linked disorders are not serious or debilitating. For example, the majority of those with Tourette's Syndrome suffer only minor tics from time to time and can easily control their symptoms. When dominant-gene linked diseases are serious, they do not tend to become symptomatic until later in life. Huntington's Disease is a dominant gene linked disorder that affects the nervous system and is fatal, but does not appear until midlife.
Recessive gene disorders, such as cystic fibrosis and sickle-cell anemia, are less common but may actually claim more lives because they are less likely to be detected as people are unaware that they are carriers of the disease.
Some genetic disorders are sex-linked; the defective gene is found on the X-chromosome. Males have only one X chromosome so are at greater risk for sex-linked disorders due to a recessive gene such as hemophilia, color-blindness, and baldness. For females to be affected by recessive genetic defects, they need to inherit the recessive gene on both X-chromosomes. But if the defective gene is dominant, females are equally at risk.
Here are tables of some genetic disorders:
Recessive Disorders (Homozygous): The individual inherits a gene change from both parents. If the gene is inherited from just one parent, the person is a carrier and does not have the condition.
Table 2.2 - Recessive Disorders (Homozygous)11
Disorder Description Cases per Birth
Sickle Cell Disease (SCD) A condition in which the red blood cells in the
body are shaped like a sickle (like the letter C)
and affect the ability of the blood to transport
oxygen.
1 in 500 Black births
1 in 36,000 Hispanic
births
Cystic Fibrosis (CF) A condition that affects breathing and
digestion due to thick mucus building up in the
body, especially the lungs and digestive
system. In CF, the mucus is thicker than normal
and sticky.
1 in 3500
Phenylketonuria (PKU) A metabolic disorder in which the individual
cannot metabolize phenylalanine, an amino
acid. Left untreated, intellectual deficits occur.
PKU is easily detected and is treated with a
special diet.
1 in 10,000
Tay Sachs Disease Caused by an enzyme deficiency resulting in
the accumulation of lipids in the nerves cells of
the brain. This accumulation results in
progressive damage to the cells and a decrease
in cognitive and physical development. Death
typically occurs by age five.
1 in 4000
1 in 30 American
Jews is a carrier
1 in 20 French
Canadians is a
carrier
Albinism When the individual lacks melanin and
processes little to no pigment in the skin, hair,
and eyes. Vision problems can also occur.
Fewer than 20,000
US cases per year
Autosomal Dominant Disorders (Heterozygous): In order to have the disorder, the individual only needs to inherit the gene change from one parent.
Table 2.3 - Autosomal Dominant Disorders (Heterozygous)12
Disorder Description Cases per Birth
Huntington’s Disease A condition that affects the individual’s
nervous system. Nerve cells become damaged,
causing various parts of the brain to
deteriorate. The disease affects movement,
behavior and cognition. It is fatal, and occurs at
midlife.
1 in 10,000
Tourette Syndrome
A tic disorder which results in uncontrollable motor and vocal tics as well as body jerking
1 in 250
Achondroplasia The most common form of disproportionate
short stature. The individual has abnormal
bone growth resulting in short stature,
disproportionately short arms and legs, short
fingers, a large head, and specific facial
features.
1 in 15,000-40,000
Sex-Linked Disorders: When the X chromosome carries the mutated gene, the disorder is referred to as an X-linked disorder. Males are more affected than females because they possess only one X chromosome without an additional X chromosome to counter the harmful gene.
Table 2.4 - Sex-Linked Disorders13
Disorder Description Cases per Birth
Fragile X Syndrome Occurs when the body cannot make enough of
a protein it needs for the brain to grow and
problems with learning and behavior can
occur. Fragile X syndrome is caused from an
abnormality in the X chromosome, which then
breaks. If a female has a fragile X, her second X
chromosome usually is healthy, but males with
fragile X don’t have a second healthy X
chromosome. This is why symptoms of Fragile
X usually are more serious in males.
1 in 4000 males
1 in 8000 females
Hemophilia Occurs when there are problems in blood
clotting causing both internal and external
bleeding.
1 in 10,000 males
Duchenne Muscular
Dystrophy
A weakening of the muscles resulting in an
inability to move, wasting away, and possible
death.
1 in 3500 males
Chromosomal Abnormalities: A chromosomal abnormality occurs when a child inherits too many or two few chromosomes. The most common cause of chromosomal abnormalities is the age of the mother. As the mother ages, the ovum is more likely to suffer abnormalities due to longer term exposure to environmental factors. Consequently, some gametes do not divide evenly when they are forming. Therefore, some cells have more than 46 chromosomes. In fact, it is believed that close to half of all zygotes have an odd number of chromosomes. Most of these zygotes fail to develop and are spontaneously aborted by the mother’s body. 14
Here is a table of some autosomal chromosomal disorders:
Autosomal Chromosome Disorders: The individual inherits too many or two few chromosomes.
Table 2.5 - Autosomal Chromosomal Disorders15
Disorder Description
Down Syndrome/Trisomy 21 Caused by an extra chromosome 21 and includes a combination of
birth defects. Affected individuals have some degree of intellectual
disability, characteristic facial features, often heart defects, and other
health problems. The severity varies greatly among affected
individuals.
Trisomy 9
Mosaicism
Caused by having an extra chromosome 9 in some cells. The severity
of effects relates to the proportion of cells with extra chromosomes.
The effects include fetal growth restriction resulting in low birth
weight and multiple anomalies, including facial, cardiac,
musculoskeletal, genital, kidney, and respiratory abnormalities.
Trisomy 13 Caused by an extra chromosome 13. Affected individuals have
multiple birth defects and generally die in the first weeks or months of
life.
Trisomy 18
Caused by an extra chromosome 18 and the affected individual also has multiple birth defects and early death.
When the abnormality is on 23rd pair, the result is a sex-linked chromosomal abnormality. This happens when a person has less than or more than two sex chromosomes. 18
Here is a table of some sex-linked chromosomal disorders:
Table 2.6 - Sex-Linked Chromosomal Disorders19
Disorder Description
Turner Syndrome
(XO)
Caused when all or part of one of the X chromosomes is lost before or
soon after conception due to a random event. The resulting zygote
has an XO composition. Turner Syndrome affects cognitive functioning
and sexual maturation in girls. Infertility and a short stature may be
noted.
Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY) Caused when an extra X chromosome is present in the cells of a male
due to a random event. The Y chromosome stimulates the growth of
male genitalia, but the additional X chromosome inhibits this
development. The male can have some breast development,
infertility, and low levels of testosterone.
XYY Syndrome Caused when an extra Y chromosome is present in the cells of a male.
There are few symptoms. They may include being taller than average,
acne, and an increased risk of learning problems. The person is
generally otherwise normal, including normal fertility.
Triple X Syndrome
(XXX)
Caused when an extra X chromosome is present in the cells of a
female. It may result in being taller than average, learning difficulties,
decreased muscle tone, seizures, and kidney problems.
Contributors and Attributions
2. Lifespan Development - Module 3: Prenatal Development by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
4. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (page 40) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
6. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (page 34) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (content modified: image made into table)
8. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (page 34-35) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
10. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (page 35) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
14. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (page 38) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
18. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (page 38) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/02%3A_Conception_Heredity_and_Prenatal_Development/2.01%3A_Heredity.txt |
Now we turn our attention to prenatal development which is divided into three periods: The germinal period, the embryonic period, and the fetal period. The following is an overview of some of the changes that take place during each period.
The Germinal Period
The germinal period (about 14 days in length) lasts from conception to implantation of the fertilized egg in the lining of the uterus. At ejaculation, millions of sperm are released into the vagina, but only a few reach the egg and typically only one fertilizes the egg. Once a single sperm has entered the wall of the egg, the wall becomes hard and prevents other sperm from entering. After the sperm has entered the egg, the tail of the sperm breaks off and the head of the sperm, containing the genetic information from the father, unites with the nucleus of the egg. It is typically fertilized in the top section of the fallopian tube and continues its journey to the uterus. As a result, a new cell is formed. This cell, containing the combined genetic information from both parents, is referred to as a zygote.
During this time, the organism begins cell division through mitosis. After five days of mitosis, there are 100 cells, which is now called a blastocyst. The blastocyst consists of both an inner and an outer group of cells. The inner group of cells, or embryonic disk will become the embryo, while the outer group of cells, or trophoblast, becomes the support system that nourishes the developing organism. This stage ends when the blastocyst fully implants into the uterine wall (U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2015).
Mitosis is a fragile process and fewer than one half of all zygotes survive beyond the first two weeks (Hall, 2004). Some of the reasons for this include: the egg and sperm do not join properly, thus their genetic material does not combine, there is too little or damaged genetic material, the zygote does not replicate, or the blastocyst does not implant into the uterine wall. The failure rate is higher for in vitro conceptions. The figure below illustrates the journey of the ova from its release to its fertilization, cell duplication, and implantation into the uterine lining. 22
The Embryonic Period
Starting the third week, the blastocyst has implanted in the uterine wall. Upon implantation this multi-cellular organism is called an embryo. Now blood vessels grow forming the placenta. The placenta is a structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord.
During this period, cells continue to differentiate. Growth during prenatal development occurs in two major directions: from head to tail called cephalocaudal development and from the midline outward referred to as proximodistal development. This means that those structures nearest the head develop before those nearest the feet and those structures nearest the torso develop before those away from the center of the body (such as hands and fingers). You will see that this pattern continues after birth.
The head develops in the fourth week and the precursor to the heart begins to pulse. In the early stages of the embryonic period, gills and a tail are apparent. However, by the end of this stage they disappear and the organism takes on a more human appearance.
About 20 percent of organisms fail during the embryonic period, usually due to gross chromosomal abnormalities, often before the mother even knows that she is pregnant. It is during this stage that the major structures of the body are taking form, making the embryonic period the time when the organism is most vulnerable to the greatest amount of damage if exposed to harmful substances. Prospective mothers are not often aware of the risks they introduce to the developing embryo during this time. The embryo is approximately 1 inch in length and weighs about 4 grams at the end of eight weeks. The embryo can move and respond to touch at this time. 24
The Fetal Period
From the ninth week until birth (which is forty weeks for a full-term pregnancy), the organism is referred to as a fetus. During this stage, the major structures are continuing to develop. By the third month, the fetus has all its body parts including external genitalia. The fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs about 28 grams. In the following weeks, the fetus will develop hair, nails, teeth and the excretory and digestive systems will continue to develop.
During the 4th - 6th months, the eyes become more sensitive to light and hearing develops. The respiratory system continues to develop, and reflexes such as sucking, swallowing and hiccupping, develop during the 5th month. Cycles of sleep and wakefulness are present at this time as well. The first chance of survival outside the womb, known as the age of viability is reached at about 24 weeks (Morgan, Goldenberg, & Schulkin, 2008). Many practitioners hesitate to resuscitate before 24 weeks. The majority of the neurons in the brain have developed by 24 weeks, although they are still rudimentary, and the glial or nurse cells that support neurons continue to grow. At 24 weeks the fetus can feel pain (Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 1997).
Between the 7th - 9th months, the fetus is primarily preparing for birth. It is exercising its muscles and its lungs begin to expand and contract. The fetus gains about 5 pounds and 7 inches during this last trimester of pregnancy, and during the 8th month, a layer of fat develops under the skin. This layer of fat serves as insulation and helps the baby regulate body temperature after birth.
At around 36 weeks the fetus is almost ready for birth. It weighs about 6 pounds and is about 18.5 inches long. By week 37 all of the fetus’s organ systems are developed enough that it could survive outside the mother’s uterus without many of the risks associated with premature birth. The fetus continues to gain weight and grow in length until approximately 40 weeks. By then the fetus has very little room to move around and birth becomes imminent. The progression through the stages is shown in the following figure. 26
Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins
Monozygotic or identical twins occur when a fertilized egg splits apart in the first two weeks of development. The result is the creation of two separate, but genetically identical offspring. That is, they possess the same genotype and often the same phenotype. About one-third of twins are monozygotic twins.
Sometimes, however, two eggs or ova are released and fertilized by two separate sperm. The result is dizygotic or fraternal twins. These two individuals share the same amount of genetic material as would any two children from the same mother and father. In other words, they possess a different genotype and phenotype.
Older mothers are more likely to have dizygotic twins than are younger mothers, and couples who use fertility drugs are also more likely to give birth to dizygotic twins. 28
Teratogens
Good prenatal care is essential to protect against maternal and fetal/infant mortality and birth complications. The embryo and fetus is most at risk for some of the most severe problems during the first three months of development. Unfortunately, this is a time at which many mothers are unaware that they are pregnant. Today, we know many of the factors that can jeopardize the health of the developing child. The study of factors that contribute to birth defects is called teratology. Teratogens are environmental factors that can contribute to birth defects, and include some maternal diseases, pollutants, drugs and alcohol.
Factors influencing prenatal risks: There are several considerations in determining the type and amount of damage that might result from exposure to a particular teratogen (Berger, 2005). These include:
• The timing of the exposure: Structures in the body are vulnerable to the most severe damage when they are forming. If a substance is introduced during a particular structure's critical period (time of development), the damage to that structure may be greater. For example, the ears and arms reach their critical periods at about 6 weeks after conception. If a mother exposes the embryo to certain substances during this period, the arms and ears may be malformed. (see figure below)
• The amount of exposure: Some substances are not harmful unless the amounts reach a certain level. The critical level depends in part on the size and metabolism of the mother.
• The number of teratogens: Fetuses exposed to multiple teratogens typically have more problems than those exposed to only one.
• Genetics: Genetic makeup also plays a role on the impact a particular teratogen might have on the child. This is suggested by fraternal twins exposed to the same prenatal environment, but they do not experience the same teratogenic effects. The genetic makeup of the mother can also have an effect; some mothers may be more resistant to teratogenic effects than others.
• Being male or female: Males are more likely to experience damage due to teratogens than are females. It is believed that the Y chromosome, which contains fewer genes than the X, may have an impact. 31
There are four categories of teratogens:
1. Physical teratogens: These could be saunas, hot tubs, or infections that raise a pregnant woman's body temperature to 102 degrees Fahrenheit or higher. This is associated with neural tube defects, spontaneous abortions, and various cardiovascular abnormalities.
2. Metabolic conditions affecting pregnant females: Metabolic conditions are abnormalities in the chemical process of producing energy from food, and thereby affect the development and function of the body. If a pregnant woman is malnourished, then her fetus likely lacks the nutrients essential for its development. These include: malnutrition, diabetes, and thyroid disorders.
3. Infections: Different maternal infections, including rubella virus, herpes simplex virus, and syphilis can cause congenital abnormalities in fetuses.
4. Drugs and chemicals: When pregnant females ingest or absorb these, they may cause a variety of different effects based on specific agent, amount of exposure, and timing. This category includes: radiation, heavy metals (including lead), insecticides and herbicides, prescription and over the counter drugs, illicit and recreational drugs, alcohol, cigarettes, nicotine, caffeine, and even some vitamins. 33
While there are many, many potential teratogens, the following tables look at the effects of some different types of teratogens. The risks of exposure vary based on lifestyle and health. The effects may vary greatly depending on the factors mentioned previously. Protection and prevention will vary based on the method of exposure.
Table \(1\): Drugs as Teratogens
Teratogen Potential Effects
Caffeine Moderate amounts of caffeine (200 mg or around 12 ounces of coffee) appear to be safe during pregnancy. Some studies have shown a link between higher amounts of caffeine and miscarriage and preterm birth.34
Tobacco Tobacco use has been associated with low birth weight, placenta previa, preterm delivery, fetal growth restriction, sudden infant death syndrome, cleft lip or palate, and later health problems (such as high blood pressure and diabetes). 35
Alcohol There is no safe amount of alcohol a woman can drink while pregnant. Alcohol can slow down the baby's growth, affect the baby's brain, and cause birth defects, and may results in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD). The effects can be mild to severe. Children born with a severe form of FASD can have abnormal facial features, severe learning disabilities, behavioral problems, and other problems.36
Cocaine Cocaine use has connected with low birth weight, stillbirths, spontaneous abortion, placental abruption, premature birth, miscarriage, and neonatal abstinence syndrome (fetal addiction leads the newborn to experiences withdrawal).37
Marijuana No amount of marijuana has been proven safe to use during pregnancy. Heavy use has been associated with brain damage, premature birth, and stillbirth.38
Heroin Using heroin during pregnancy can cause birth defects, placental abruption, premature birth, low birthweight, neonatal abstinence syndrome, still birth, and sudden infant death syndrome.39
Over-the-Counter (OTC) medication
Some OTC medications are safe to use during pregnancy and others may cause health problems during pregnancy. Pregnant women should consult their health care provider before using OTC medications.40
Prescription drugs Some prescription drugs can cause birth defects that change the shape or function of one or more parts of the body that can affect overall health. Pregnant women should consult their health care provider before discontinuing or starting new medications.41
Herbal or dietary supplements Except for some vitamins, little is known about using herbal or dietary supplements while pregnant. Most often there are no good studies to show if the herb can cause harm to you or your baby. Also, some herbs that are safe when used in small amounts as food might be harmful when used in large amounts as medicines.42
Table \(2\): Environmental Teratogens
Teratogen Potential Effects
Lead Exposure to high levels of lead before and during pregnancy can lead to high blood pressure, problems with fetal brain and nervous system development, premature birth, low birthweight, and miscarriage.43
Mercury
Exposure to mercury in the womb can cause brain damage and hearing and vision problems.44
Radiation Exposure to radiation during pregnancy (especially between 2 and 18 weeks of pregnancy) can slow growth, cause birth defects, affect brain development, cause cancer, and cause miscarriage.45
Solvents These chemicals include degreasers, paint thinners, stain and varnish removers, paints, and more Maternal inhalation of solvents can cause fetal exposure than may cause miscarriage, slow fetal growth, premature birth, and birth defects.46
Table \(3\): Maternal Infections as Teratogens
Teratogen Potential Effects
Rubella Congenital infection (becoming infected while in the womb) can damage the development of the eyes, ears, heart, and brain and result in deafness.47
Zika
Congenital infection can cause microcephaly and other severe brain abnormalities. 48
Varicella (chicken pox) Congenital infection can cause a severe form of the infection affecting the eyes, limbs, skin, and central nervous system.49
Sexually transmitted infections Infections such as HIV, gonorrhea, syphilis, and chlamydia can be passed from the mother during pregnancy and/or delivery.50
Listeria Pregnant women are more susceptible to this food-borne illness. Congenital infection can cause miscarriage, stillbirth, premature labor, and neonatal sepsis. 51
Table \(4\): Teratogens from Animals/Pets
Teratogen Potential Effects
Toxoplamosis This parasite can be passed through cat feces and undercooked meat (especially pork, lamb, or deer meet). If the fetus is infected it can cause miscarriage, stillbirth, hydrocephalus, macro or microcephalus, vision issues, and damage to the nervous system.52
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis This virus carried by rodents including mice, hamsters, and guinea pigs. If an infected mother passes it to her fetus it can cause issues with brain development, long-term neurological and/or visual impairment, and higher mortality rates after birth.53
Maternal Factors
There are additional factors that affect the outcome of pregnancy for both mother and child. Let’s look at these next.
Mothers over 35
Most women over 35 who become pregnant are in good health and have healthy pregnancies. However, according to the March of Dimes (2016d), women over age 35 are more likely to have an increased risk of:
• Fertility problems
• High blood pressure
• Diabetes
• Miscarriages
• Placenta Previa
• Cesarean section
• Premature birth
• Stillbirth
• A baby with a genetic disorder or other birth defects
Because a woman is born with all her eggs, environmental teratogens can affect the quality of the eggs as women get older. Also, a woman’s reproductive system ages which can adversely affect the pregnancy. Some women over 35 choose special prenatal screening tests, such as a maternal blood screening, to determine if there are any health risks for the baby.
Although there are medical concerns associated with having a child later in life, there are also many positive consequences to being a more mature parent. Older parents are more confident, less stressed, and typically married, providing family stability. Their children perform better on math and reading tests, and they are less prone to injuries or emotional troubles (Albert, 2013). Women who choose to wait are often well educated and lead healthy lives. According to Gregory (2007), older women are more stable, demonstrate a stronger family focus, possess greater self-confidence, and have more money. Having a child later in one’s career equals overall higher wages. In fact, for every year a woman delays motherhood, she makes 9% more in lifetime earnings. Lastly, women who delay having children actually live longer.
Teenage Pregnancy
A teenage mother is at a greater risk for having pregnancy complications including anemia, and high blood pressure. These risks are even greater for those under age 15. Infants born to teenage mothers have a higher risk for being premature and having low birthweight or other serious health problems. Premature and low birthweight babies may have organs that are not fully developed which can result in breathing problems, bleeding in the brain, vision loss, serious intestinal problems, and higher likelihood of dying. Reasons for these health issues include that teenagers are the least likely of all age groups to get early and regular prenatal care and they may engage in negative behaviors including eating unhealthy food, smoking, drinking alcohol, and taking drugs.
Gestational Diabetes
Seven percent of pregnant women develop gestational diabetes (March of Dimes, 2015b). Diabetes is a condition where the body has too much glucose in the bloodstream.
Most pregnant women have their glucose level tested between 24 to 28 weeks of pregnancy. Gestational diabetes usually goes away after the mother gives birth, but it might indicate a risk for developing diabetes later in life. If untreated, gestational diabetes can cause premature birth, stillbirth, the baby having breathing problems at birth, jaundice, or low blood sugar. Babies born to mothers with gestational diabetes can also be considerably heavier (more than 9 pounds) making the labor and birth process more difficult. For expectant mothers, untreated gestational diabetes can cause preeclampsia (high blood pressure and signs that the liver and kidneys may not be working properly) discussed later in the chapter.
Risk factors for gestational diabetes include age (being over age 25), being overweight or gaining too much weight during pregnancy, family history of diabetes, having had gestational diabetes with a prior pregnancy, and race and ethnicity (African-American, Native American, Hispanic, Asian, or Pacific Islander have a higher risk). Eating healthy and maintaining a healthy weight during pregnancy can reduce the chance of gestational diabetes. Women who already have diabetes and become pregnant need to attend all their prenatal care visits, and follow the same advice as those for women with gestational diabetes as the risk of preeclampsia, premature birth, birth defects, and stillbirth are the same.
High Blood Pressure (Hypertension)
Hypertension is a condition in which the pressure against the wall of the arteries becomes too high. There are two types of high blood pressure during pregnancy, gestational and chronic. Gestational hypertension only occurs during pregnancy and goes away after birth. Chronic high blood pressure refers to women who already had hypertension before the pregnancy or to those who developed it during pregnancy and it did not go away after birth.
According to the March of Dimes (2015c), about 8 in every 100 pregnant women have high blood pressure. High blood pressure during pregnancy can cause premature birth and low birth weight (under five and a half pounds), placental abruption, and mothers can develop preeclampsia.
Rh Disease
Rh is a protein found in the blood. Most people are Rh positive, meaning they have this protein. Some people are Rh negative, meaning this protein is absent. Mothers who are Rh negative are at risk of having a baby with a form of anemia called Rh disease (March of Dimes, 2009). A father who is Rh-positive and mother who is Rh-negative can conceive a baby who is Rh-positive. Some of the fetus’s blood cells may get into the mother’s bloodstream and her immune system is unable to recognize the Rh factor.
The immune system starts to produce antibodies to fight off what it thinks is a foreign invader. Once her body produces immunity, the antibodies can cross the placenta and start to destroy the red blood cells of the developing fetus. As this process takes time, often the first Rh positive baby is not harmed, but as the mother’s body will continue to produce antibodies to the Rh factor across her lifetime, subsequent pregnancies can pose greater risk for an Rh positive baby. In the newborn, Rh disease can lead to jaundice, anemia, heart failure, brain damage and death.
Weight Gain during Pregnancy
According to March of Dimes (2016f), during pregnancy most women need only an additional 300 calories per day to aid in the growth of the fetus. Gaining too little or too much weight during pregnancy can be harmful. Women who gain too little may have a baby who is low-birth weight, while those who gain too much are likely to have a premature or large baby. There is also a greater risk for the mother developing preeclampsia and diabetes, which can cause further problems during the pregnancy.
The table below shows the healthy weight gain during pregnancy. Putting on the weight slowly is best. Mothers who are concerned about their weight gain should talk to their health care provider.
Table \(5\): Weight Gain during Pregnancy
If you were a healthy weight before pregnancy: If you were underweight before pregnancy: If you were overweight before pregnancy: If you were obese before pregnancy:
• Gain 25-35 pounds
• 1-41⁄2 pounds in the 1st trimester
• 1 pound per week in the 2nd and 3rd trimesters
• Gain 28-30 pounds
• 1-41⁄2 pounds in the 1st trimester
• A little more than 1 pound per week thereafter
• Gain 12-25 pounds
• 1-41⁄2 pounds in the 1st trimester
• A little more than 1⁄2 pound per week in 2nd and 3rd trimesters
• 11-20 pounds
• 1-41⁄2 pounds in the 1st trimester
• A little more than 1⁄2 pound per week in 2nd and 3rd trimesters
Mothers of twins or higher order multiples need to gain more in each category.
Stress
Feeling stressed is common during pregnancy, but high levels of stress can cause complications including having a premature baby or a low-birthweight baby. Babies born early or too small are at an increased risk for health problems. Stress-related hormones may cause these complications by affecting a woman’s immune systems resulting in an infection and premature birth. Additionally, some women deal with stress by smoking, drinking alcohol, or taking drugs, which can lead to problems in the pregnancy. High levels of stress in pregnancy have also been correlated with problems in the baby’s brain development and immune system functioning, as well as childhood problems such as trouble paying attention and being afraid (March of Dimes, 2012b).
Depression
Depression is a significant medical condition in which feelings of sadness, worthlessness, guilt, and fatigue interfere with one’s daily functioning. Depression can occur before, during, or after pregnancy, and 1 in 7 women are treated for depression sometime between the year before pregnancy and year after pregnancy (March of Dimes, 2015a). Women who have experienced depression previously are more likely to have depression during pregnancy. Consequences of depression include the baby being born premature, having a low birthweight, being more irritable, less active, less attentive, and having fewer facial expressions.
About 13% of pregnant women take an antidepressant during pregnancy. It is important that women taking antidepressants during pregnancy discuss the medication with a health care provider as some medications can cause harm to the developing organism.
Paternal Impact
The age of fathers at the time of conception is also an important factor in health risks for children. According to Nippoldt (2015), offspring of men over 40 faces an increased risk of miscarriages, autism, birth defects, achondroplasia (bone growth disorder) and schizophrenia. These increased health risks are thought to be due to accumulated chromosomal aberrations and mutations during the maturation of sperm cells in older men (Bray, Gunnell, & Smith, 2006). However, like older women, the overall risks are small.
In addition, men are more likely than women to work in occupations where hazardous chemicals, many of which have teratogenic effects or may cause genetic mutations, are used (Cordier, 2008). These may include petrochemicals, lead, and pesticides that can cause normal sperm and lead to miscarriages or diseases. Men are also more likely to be a source of second hand smoke for their developing offspring. As noted earlier, smoking by either the mother or around the mother can hinder prenatal development. 57
Prenatal Assessment
A number of assessments are suggested to women as part of their routine prenatal care to find conditions that may increase the risk of complications for the mother and fetus (Eisenberg, Murkoff, & Hathaway, 1996). These can include blood and urine analyses and screening and diagnostic tests for birth defects.
Ultrasound is one of the main screening tests done in combination with blood tests. The ultrasound is a test in which sound waves are used to examine the fetus. There are two general types. Transvaginal ultrasounds are used in early pregnancy, while transabdominal ultrasounds are more common and used after 10 weeks of pregnancy (typically, 16 to 20 weeks).
Ultrasounds are used to check the fetus for defects or problems. It can also find out the age of the fetus, location of the placenta, fetal position, movement, breathing and heart rate, amount of amniotic fluid in the uterus, and number of fetuses. Most women have at least one ultrasound during pregnancy, but if problems are noted, additional ultrasounds may be recommended.
When diagnosis of a birth defect is necessary, ultrasounds help guide the more invasive diagnostic tests of amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling. Amniocentesis is a procedure in which a needle is used to withdraw a small amount of amniotic fluid and cells from the sac surrounding the fetus and later tested.
Chorionic Villus Sampling is a procedure in which a small sample of cells is taken from the placenta and tested. Both amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling have a risk of miscarriage, and consequently, they are not done routinely. 61
Complications of Pregnancy
There are a number of common side effects of pregnancy. Not everyone experiences all of these, nor to the same degree. And although they are considered "minor", this is not to say that these problems are not potentially very uncomfortable. These side effects include nausea (particularly during the first 3-4 months of pregnancy as a result of higher levels of estrogen in the system), heartburn, gas, hemorrhoids, backache, leg cramps, insomnia, constipation, shortness of breath or varicose veins (as a result of carrying a heavy load on the abdomen). These are minor issues.
But there are also serious complications of pregnancy which can pose health risks to mother and child and that often require hospitalization.
Hyperemesis gravidarum is characterized by severe nausea, vomiting, weight loss, and possibly dehydration. Signs and symptoms may also include vomiting many times a day and feeling faint. The exact causes of hyperemesis gravidarum are unknown. Risk factors include the first pregnancy, multiple pregnancy, obesity, prior or family history of HG, trophoblastic disorder, and a history of eating disorders. Treatment includes drinking fluids and a bland diet. Medication, intravenous fluids, and hospitalization may be required. Hyperemesis gravidarum is estimated to affect 0.3–2.0% of pregnant women. Those affected have a low risk of miscarriage but a higher risk of premature birth.
Ectopic Pregnancy occurs when the zygote becomes attached to the fallopian tube before reaching the uterus. About 1 in 50 pregnancies in the United States are tubal pregnancies and this number has been increasing because of the higher rates of pelvic inflammatory disease and Chlamydia (Carroll, 2007). Abdominal pain, vaginal bleeding, nausea and fainting are symptoms of ectopic pregnancy.
Spontaneous abortion is experienced in an estimated 20-40 percent of undiagnosed pregnancies and in another 10 percent of diagnosed pregnancies. Usually the body aborts due to chromosomal abnormalities, and this typically happens before the 12th week of pregnancy. Cramping and bleeding result and normal periods return after several months. Some women are more likely to have repeated miscarriages due to chromosomal, amniotic, or hormonal problems, but miscarriage can also be a result of defective sperm (Carrell et. al., 2003).
Preeclampsia, also known as Toxemia, is characterized by a sharp rise in blood pressure, a leakage of protein into the urine as a result of kidney problems, and swelling of the hands, feet, and face during the third trimester of pregnancy. Preeclampsia is the most common complication of pregnancy. When preeclampsia causes seizures, the condition is known as eclampsia, which is the second leading cause of maternal death in the United States. Preeclampsia is also a leading cause of fetal complications, which include low birth weight, premature birth, and stillbirth. Treatment is typically bed rest and sometimes medication. If this treatment is ineffective, labor may be induced.
Maternal Mortality: Approximately 1000 women die in childbirth around the world each day (World Health Organization, 2010). Rates are highest in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, although there has been a substantial decrease in these rates. The campaign to make childbirth safe for everyone has led to the development of clinics accessible to those living in more isolated areas and training more midwives to assist in childbirth.63
Infertility and Building Families
Infertility
When a couple has failed to conceive a child in a year, they receive the diagnosis of infertility. Infertility affects about 10 to 15 percent of couples in the United States (Mayo Clinic, 2015). Male factors create infertility in about a third of the cases. For men, the most common cause is a lack of sperm production or low sperm production.
Female factors cause infertility in another third of cases. For women, one of the most common causes of infertility is the failure to ovulate. Another cause of infertility in women is Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID), which is an infection of a woman’s reproductive organs (Carroll, 2007).
Both male and female factors contribute to the remainder of cases of infertility. 64
Options for Building Families
There are numerous options to pursue parenthood and building families. Let’s briefly explore some of these.
Assisted Reproductive Technology Assisted reproductive technology (ART) is the technology used to achieve pregnancy in procedures such as fertility medication (to stimulate ovulation), surgical procedures, artificial insemination IUI), in vitro fertilization (IVF) and surrogacy. These options are available for people who are experiencing infertility or cannot conceive children naturally (which also includes single parents, and gay/lesbian couples). 65
Intrauterine insemination: (IUI) as a type of artificial insemination involves the placement of sperm directly into the uterus at the time of ovulation, either in a natural menstrual cycle or following ovarian stimulation. 66
In vitro fertilization (IVF): IVF generally starts with stimulating the ovaries to increase egg production. Most fertility medications are agents that stimulate the development of follicles in the ovary. Examples are gonadotropins and gonadotropin releasing hormone. After stimulation, the physician surgically extracts one or more eggs from the ovary, and unites them with sperm in a laboratory setting, with the intent of producing one or more embryos. Fertilization takes place outside the body, and the fertilized egg is reinserted into the woman's reproductive tract, in a procedure called embryo transfer. 67
Donor Gametes & Embryos: People can also use sperm, ova (eggs), and embryos from donors in conjunction with ART. These donations take place through agencies and donor banks or between private individuals. In the U.S., donors can be compensated for their donations.
Surrogacy: In surrogacy, one woman (surrogate mother) carries a child for another person/s (commissioning person/couple), based on a legal agreement before conception requiring the child to be relinquished to the commissioning person/couple following birth. There are different types of surrogacy which relate to whether or not the ova used to conceive the child are her own (traditional surrogacy) or not (gestational surrogacy). 69
Adoption: People can also choose to pursue adoption to build their families (with or without experiencing infertility). Adoption can take place through the foster care system, privately, or through agencies. Adoptions can be domestic (within the U.S.) or international. And they can be open (with differing amounts of contact between biological/birth families and adoptive families) or closed.
Family Built with Surrogacy
Family Built through Adoption
Contributors and Attributions
22. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (pages 42-43) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
24. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (page 43) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
26. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (pages 44-45) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
28. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (page 36) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
31. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (pages 46-47) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
33. The Embryo Project Encyclopedia by Chanapa Tantibanchachai is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
34. Staying healthy and safe by OWH is in the public domain
35. Chapter 3: Prenatal Development – Environmental Risks references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, which is licensed under CC BY 4.0;
Staying healthy and safe by OWH is in the public domain
36. Staying healthy and safe by OWH is in the public domain
37. Chapter 3: Prenatal Development – Environmental Risks references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, which is licensed under CC BY 4.0;
Prescription drugs, over-the-counter drugs, supplements and herbal products (n.d.). Retrieved from: https://www.marchofdimes.org/pregnancy/prescription-drugs-over-the-counter-drugs-supplements-and-herbal-products.aspx
38. Chapter 3: Prenatal Development – Environmental Risks references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, which is licensed under CC BY 4.0;
Prescription drugs, over-the-counter drugs, supplements and herbal products (n.d.). Retrieved from: https://www.marchofdimes.org/pregnancy/prescription-drugs-over-the-counter-drugs-supplements-and-herbal-products.aspx
39. Prescription drugs, over-the-counter drugs, supplements and herbal products (n.d.). Retrieved from: https://www.marchofdimes.org/pregnancy/prescription-drugs-over-the-counter-drugs-supplements-and-herbal-products.aspx
40. Prescription drugs, over-the-counter drugs, supplements and herbal products (n.d.). Retrieved from: https://www.marchofdimes.org/pregnancy/prescription-drugs-over-the-counter-drugs-supplements-and-herbal-products.aspx
41. Prescription drugs, over-the-counter drugs, supplements and herbal products (n.d.). Retrieved from: https://www.marchofdimes.org/pregnancy/prescription-drugs-over-the-counter-drugs-supplements-and-herbal-products.aspx
42. Chapter 3: Prenatal Development – Environmental Risks references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, which is licensed under CC BY 4.0
43. Prescription drugs, over-the-counter drugs, supplements and herbal products (n.d.). Retrieved from: https://www.marchofdimes.org/pregnancy/prescription-drugs-over-the-counter-drugs-supplements-and-herbal-products.aspx
44. Prescription drugs, over-the-counter drugs, supplements and herbal products (n.d.). Retrieved from: https://www.marchofdimes.org/pregnancy/prescription-drugs-over-the-counter-drugs-supplements-and-herbal-products.aspx
45. Prescription drugs, over-the-counter drugs, supplements and herbal products (n.d.). Retrieved from: https://www.marchofdimes.org/pregnancy/prescription-drugs-over-the-counter-drugs-supplements-and-herbal-products.aspx
46. Prescription drugs, over-the-counter drugs, supplements and herbal products (n.d.). Retrieved from: https://www.marchofdimes.org/pregnancy/prescription-drugs-over-the-counter-drugs-supplements-and-herbal-products.aspx
47. Chapter 3: Prenatal Development – Environmental Risks references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, which is licensed under CC BY 4.0
48. Protocols on prenatal care for pregnant women with Zika infection and children with microcephaly: nutritional approach by Rachel de Sá Barreto Luna Callou Cruz, Malaquias Batista Filho, Maria de Fátima Costa Caminha, and Edvaldo da Silva Souza is licensed under CC BY 4.0
49. Congenital Varicella syndrome by WikiDoc is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
50. Chapter 3: Prenatal Development – Environmental Risks references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, which is licensed under CC BY 4.0
52. Prescription drugs, over-the-counter drugs, supplements and herbal products (n.d.). Retrieved from: https://www.marchofdimes.org/pregnancy/prescription-drugs-over-the-counter-drugs-supplements-and-herbal-products.aspx
53. Prescription drugs, over-the-counter drugs, supplements and herbal products (n.d.). Retrieved from: https://www.marchofdimes.org/pregnancy/prescription-drugs-over-the-counter-drugs-supplements-and-herbal-products.aspx
57. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (pages 52-55) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
61. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
63. Hyperemesis Gravidarum by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (page 58) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
64. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (page 57) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
65. Assisted Reproductive Technology by Fertilitypedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
66. Intrauterine Insemination by Fertilitypedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
67. Assisted Reproductive Technology by Fertilitypedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
69. Surrogacy by Fertilitypedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
2.S: Summary
In this chapter we looked at:
• Heredity, including genetic disorders and chromosomal abnormalities
• Conception
• The germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages of prenatal development
• Influences on prenatal development including teratogens and maternal and paternal factors
• Complications of pregnancy
• Infertility and options for building families
Now let’s explore birth and the newborn baby. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/02%3A_Conception_Heredity_and_Prenatal_Development/2.02%3A_Prenatal_Development.txt |
Learning Objectives
After this chapter, you should be able to:
• Compare and contrast different methods of childbirth preparation.
• Describe the stages of vaginal delivery.
• Explain why induction or Caesarean section may be necessary.
• Differentiate the common procedures for assessing the condition of the newborn.
• Examine problems newborns experience before, during, and after birth.
After around 266 days of developing inside the womb (for a full-term pregnancy), comes the arduous process of childbirth. After birth, newborns have to regulate their own body temperature, breathe for themselves, and take in all of their nutrition through feeding. Let’s look at both the process of birth and some attributes of the newborn.
• 3.1: Preparing for Childbirth
Prepared childbirth refers to being not only in good physical condition to help provide a healthy environment for the baby to develop, but also helping individuals to prepare to accept their new roles as parents. Additionally, parents can receive information and training that will assist them for delivery and life with the baby. The more future parents can learn about childbirth and the newborn, the better prepared they will be for the adjustment they must make to a new life.
• 3.2: Childbirth
Childbirth typically occurs within a week of a woman’s due date, unless the woman is pregnant with more than one fetus, which usually causes her to go into labor early. As a pregnancy progresses into its final weeks, several physiological changes occur in response to hormones that trigger labor.
• 3.3: The Newborn
• 3.S: Summary
Thumbnail: pixabay.com/photos/baby-slee...y-girl-784608/
03: Birth and the Newborn
Prepared childbirth refers to being not only in good physical condition to help provide a healthy environment for the baby to develop, but also helping individuals to prepare to accept their new roles as parents. Additionally, parents can receive information and training that will assist them for delivery and life with the baby. The more future parents can learn about childbirth and the newborn, the better prepared they will be for the adjustment they must make to a new life.
Approaches to Childbirth
There are many different approaches to childbirth that influence how expectant parents prepare. The following table describes a few of these:
Table \(1\): Approaches to Childbirth (Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (page 59) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0; Lifespan Development - Module 3: Prenatal Development by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0)
Method Description
The Lamaze Method The emphasis of this method is on teaching the woman to be in control in the process of delivery. It includes learning muscle relaxation, breathing through contractions, having a focal point (usually a picture to look at) during contractions and having a support person who goes through the training process with the mother and serves as a coach during delivery.
The Leboyer Method This method involves giving birth in a quiet, dimly lit room and allowing the newborn to lie on the mother’s stomach with the umbilical cord intact for several minutes while being given a warm bath.
Dick-Read Method / Mongan Method / Hypnobirthing This method comes from the suggestion that the fear of childbirth increases tension and makes the process of childbearing more painful. It emphasizes the use of relaxation and proper breathing with contractions as well as family support and education.
Bradley Method “The Bradley Method focuses on preparing the mother for a natural childbirth coached by her partner. They learn techniques to reduce the perception of pain and stay relaxed. The emphasis is on being prepared for an unassisted vaginal birth without medication.” 2
Alexander Technique This is a technique that can be used during childbirth that involves training to stop habitual reactions to pain, such as tensing muscles and increase conscious awareness and control over posture and movement. This involves being able to move freely and stay upright during labor and using body positioning that is beneficial to the labor process.3
Waterbirth Involves immersion in warm water. Proponents believe this method is safe and provides many benefits for both mother and infant, including pain relief and a less traumatic birth experience for the baby. However, critics argue that the procedure introduces unnecessary risks to the infant such as infection and water inhalation.4
Lotus Birth Or umbilical cord nonseverance – UCNS, is the practice of leaving the umbilical cord uncut after childbirth so that the baby is left attached to the placenta until the cord naturally separates at the umbilicus. This usually occurs within 3–10 days after birth. The practice is performed mainly for spiritual purposes of the parents, including for the perceived spiritual connection between placenta and newborn.5
Silent Birth Sometimes known as quiet birth, is a birthing procedure advised by L. Ron Hubbard and advocated by Scientologists in which "everyone attending the birth should refrain from spoken words as much as possible." 6
Medicated Childbirth Health care providers can provide pain relief during labor with different types of medication, including epidurals, spinal blocks, combined spinal-epidurals, and systemic and local analgesia. There are benefits and side effects of each.7
Choosing Location of Childbirth & Who Will Deliver
The vast majority of births occur in a hospital setting. However, one percent of women choose to deliver at home (Martin, Hamilton, Osterman, Curtin, & Mathews, 2015). Women who are at low risk for birth complications can successfully deliver at home. More than half (67%) of home deliveries are by certified nurse midwives. Midwives are trained and licensed to assist in delivery and are far less expensive than the cost of a hospital delivery. However, because of the potential for a complication during the birth process, most medical professionals recommend that delivery take place in a hospital. In addition to home births, one-third of out-of-hospital births occur in freestanding clinics, birthing centers, in physician’s offices, or other locations.
Contributors and Attributions
2. Oberg, Erica (n.d.). Childbirth Delivery Methods and Types. Retrieved from https://www.medicinenet.com/7_childbirth_and_delivery_methods/article.htm#childbirth_and_delivery_methods_and_types_facts.
3. Machover, Ilana. (n.d.). The Alexander Technique in Natural Childbirth. Retrieved from https://www.alexandertechnique.com/articles/childbirth/.
4. Water Birth by Wikidoc is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
5. Lotus Birth by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
6. Silent Birth by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
7. Epidural and Spinal Anesthesia Use During Labor: 27-state Reporting Area, 2008 by Michelle J.K. Osterman and Joyce A. Martin is in the public domain
9. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (page 59) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0; Lifespan Development - Module 3: Prenatal Development by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/03%3A_Birth_and_the_Newborn/3.01%3A_Preparing_for_Childbirth.txt |
Onset of Labor
Childbirth typically occurs within a week of a woman’s due date, unless the woman is pregnant with more than one fetus, which usually causes her to go into labor early. As a pregnancy progresses into its final weeks, several physiological changes occur in response to hormones that trigger labor.
A common sign that labor is beginning is the so-called “bloody show.” During pregnancy, a plug of mucus accumulates in the cervical canal, blocking the entrance to the uterus. Approximately 1–2 days prior to the onset of true labor, this plug loosens and is expelled, along with a small amount of blood.
As labor nears, the mothers’ pituitary gland produces oxytocin. This begins to stimulate stronger, more painful uterine contractions, which—in a positive feedback loop—stimulate the secretion of prostaglandins from fetal membranes. Like oxytocin, prostaglandins also enhance uterine contractile strength. The fetal pituitary gland also secretes oxytocin, which increases prostaglandins even further.
And the stretching of the cervix by a full-term fetus in the head-down position is regarded as a stimulant to uterine contractions. Combined, these stimulate true labor. 10
The First Stage
Uterine contractions signify that the first stage of labor has begun. These contractions may initially last about 30 seconds and be spaced 15 to 20 minutes apart. These increase in duration and frequency to more than a minute in length and about 3 to 4 minutes apart. Typically, doctors advise that they be called when contractions are coming about every 5 minutes. Some women experience false labor or Braxton-Hicks Contractions, especially with the first child. These may come and go. They tend to diminish when the mother begins walking around. Real labor pains tend to increase with walking. In one out of 8 pregnancies, the amniotic sac or water in which the fetus is suspended may break before labor begins. In such cases, the physician may induce labor with the use of medication if it does not begin on its own in order to reduce the risk of infection. Normally this sac does not rupture until the later stages of labor.
The first stage of labor is typically the longest. During this stage the cervix or opening to the uterus dilates to 10 centimeters or just under 4 inches. This may take around 12-16 hours for first children or about 6-9 hours for women who have previously given birth. Labor may also begin with a discharge of blood or amniotic fluid.
The Second Stage
The passage of the baby through the birth canal is the second stage of labor. This stage takes about 10-40 minutes. Contractions usually come about every 2-3 minutes. The mother pushes and relaxes as directed by the medical staff. Normally the head is delivered first. The baby is then rotated so that one shoulder can come through and then the other shoulder. The rest of the baby quickly passes through. At this stage, an episiotomy, or incision made in the tissue between the vaginal opening and anus, may be performed to avoid tearing the tissue of the back of the vaginal opening (Mayo Clinic, 2016). The baby's mouth and nose are suctioned out. The umbilical cord is clamped and cut. 12
The Third Stage
The third and final stage of labor is relatively painless. During this stage, the placenta or afterbirth is delivered. This is typically within 20 minutes after delivery. If an episiotomy was performed it is stitched up during this stage. 14
Additional Considerations
More than 50% of women giving birth at hospitals use an epidural anesthesia during delivery (American Pregnancy Association, 2015). An epidural block is a regional analgesic that can be used during labor and alleviates most pain in the lower body without slowing labor. The epidural block can be used throughout labor and has little to no effect on the baby. Medication is injected into a small space outside the spinal cord in the lower back. It takes 10 to 20 minutes for the medication to take effect. An epidural block with stronger medications, such as anesthetics, can be used shortly before a Cesarean Section or if a vaginal birth requires the use of forceps or vacuum extraction. 16
Women giving birth can also receive other pain medications (although medications given through injection can have negative side effects on the baby). In emergency situations (such as the need for a C-section), women may be given general anesthesia. They can also choose not to utilize any pain medications. That is often referred to as natural childbirth.
Women can also use alternate positions (including standing, squatting, being on hands and knees, and using a birthing stool) and laboring, and even delivering in tubs of warm water to help relieve the pain of childbirth.
Medical Interventions in Childbirth
Sometimes women cannot go into labor on their own and/or deliver vaginally. Let’s look at induction of labor and Cesarean Sections.
Sometimes a baby’s arrival may need to be induced before labor begins naturally. Induction of labor may be recommended for a variety of reasons when there is concern for the health of the mother or baby. For example:
• The mother is approaching two weeks beyond her due date and labor has not started naturally
• The mother’s water has broken, but contractions have not begun
• There is an infection in the mother’s uterus
• The baby has stopped growing at the expected pace
• There is not enough amniotic fluid surrounding the baby
• The placenta peels away, either partially or completely, from the inner wall of the uterus before delivery
• The mother has a medical condition that might put her or her baby at risk, such as high blood pressure or diabetes (Mayo Clinic, 2014).
A Cesarean Section (C-section) is surgery to deliver the baby by being removed through the mother's abdomen. In the United States, about one in three women have their babies delivered this way (Martin et al., 2015). Most C-sections are done when problems occur during delivery unexpectedly. These can include:
• Health problems in the mother
• Signs of distress in the baby
• Not enough room for the baby to go through the vagina
• The position of the baby, such as a breech presentation where the head is not in the downward position.
C-sections are also more common among women carrying more than one baby. Although the surgery is relatively safe for mother and baby, it is considered major surgery and carries health risks. Additionally, it also takes longer to recover from a C-section than from vaginal birth. After healing, the incision may leave a weak spot in the wall of the uterus. This could cause problems with an attempted vaginal birth later. In the past, doctors were hesitant to allow a vaginal birth after a C-section. However, now more than half of women who have a C-section go on to have a vaginal birth later. 20 This is referred to as a Vaginal Birth After Cesarean (VBAC).
Contributors and Attributions
10. 28.4 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth by Lindsay M. Biga, Sierra Dawson, Amy Harwell, Robin Hopkins, Joel Kaufmann, Mike LeMaster, Philip Matern, Katie Morrison-Graham, Devon Quick, and Jon Runyeon is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
12. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (page 60) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
14. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (page 60) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
16. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (page 60) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
20. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (page 61) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/03%3A_Birth_and_the_Newborn/3.02%3A_Childbirth.txt |
Assessing the Newborn
The Apgar assessment is conducted one minute and five minutes after birth. This is a very quick way to assess the newborn's overall condition. Five measures are assessed: Heart rate, respiration, muscle tone (assessed by touching the baby's palm), reflex response (the Babinski reflex is tested), and color. A score of 0 to 2 is given on each feature examined. An Apgar of 5 or less is cause for concern. The second Apgar should indicate improvement with a higher score. 22
Another way to assess the condition of the newborn is the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS). The baby's motor development, muscle tone, and stress response are assessed. This tool has been used around the world to further assess the newborn, especially those with low Apgar scores, and to make comparisons of infants in different cultures (Brazelton & Nugent, 1995).
Newborns are also routinely screened for different conditions. Within the first 24 to 48 hours after birth, babies born in hospitals undergo a simple heel stick and a few drops of blood are collected on a special paper card. Providers test those dried blood spots for a variety of different congenital disorders, or conditions that are present when the baby is born. In California, newborns are now screened for 80 different genetic and congenital disorders.
Newborns are also screened for hearing disorders and certain serious heart problems using methods other than dried blood spots. 25
Problems of the Newborn
Anoxia
Anoxia is a temporary lack of oxygen to the brain. Difficulty during delivery may lead to anoxia which can result in brain damage or in severe cases, death. Babies who suffer both low birth weight and anoxia are more likely to suffer learning disabilities later in life as well.
Low Birth Weight
A child is considered low birth weight if he or she weighs less than 5 pounds 8 ounces (2500 grams). About 8.2 percent of babies born in the United States are of low birth weight (Center for Disease Control, 2015a). Sixty-seven percent of these babies are also preterm.
A low birth weight baby has difficulty maintaining adequate body temperature because it lacks the fat that would otherwise provide insulation. Such a baby is also at more risk for infection. Very low birth weight babies (2 pounds or less) have an increased risk of developing cerebral palsy. Many causes of low birth weight are preventable with proper prenatal care.
Preterm
A newborn might also have a low birth weight if it is born at less than 37 weeks gestation, which qualifies it as a preterm baby (CDC, 2015c). Early birth can be triggered by anything that disrupts the mother's system. For instance, vaginal infections can lead to premature birth because such infection causes the mother to release anti-inflammatory chemicals which, in turn, can trigger contractions. Smoking and the use of other teratogens can lead to preterm birth. A significant consequence of preterm birth includes respiratory distress syndrome, which is characterized by weak and irregular breathing (see the image below). Premature babies often cannot yet regulate their own temperature or feed by nursing or bottle. They may struggle to regulate their heart rate effectively and may experience jaundice. They often require care in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) until they are as healthy as a full-term baby.
Small-for-Date Infants
Infants that have birth weights that are below expectation based on their gestational age are referred to as small-for-date. These infants may be full term or preterm (see image below), but still weigh less than 90% of all babies of the same gestational age. This is a very serious situation for newborns as their growth was adversely affected. Regev et al. (2003) found that small-for-date infants died at rates more than four times higher than other infants.
Postmature
When babies are not born by 42 weeks gestation, or two weeks after their due date, they are considered overdue or postmature. There are some concerns about how long the placenta can function and most doctors will consider induction for overdue babies.
Stillborn
When a fetus (unborn baby) dies while still inside the mother (after 20-24 weeks gestation) or dies during delivery (childbirth). It is said that the delivered baby is stillborn. The causes of many stillbirths are unknown, even when special tests are done to learn the cause. Possible causes include: nicotine, alcohol, or drugs taken by the mother during pregnancy, physical trauma, radiation poisoning, Rh disease, and umbilical cord problems. The number of stillbirths in the United States is about 1 in 115 births, which is about 26,000 a year, or one every 20 minutes. 28
Characteristics of Newborns
Size
The average newborn in the United States weighs about 7.5 pounds and is about 20 inches in length. For the first few days of life, infants typically lose about 5 percent of their body weight as they eliminate waste and get used to feeding. This often goes unnoticed by most parents, but can be cause for concern for those who have a smaller infant. This weight loss is temporary, however, and is followed by a rapid period of growth.
Body Proportions
The head initially makes up about 50 percent of our entire length when we are developing in the womb. At birth, the head makes up about 25 percent of our length (think about how much of your length would be head if the proportions were still the same!).
Brain Development
Some of the most dramatic physical change that occurs during this period is in the brain. At birth, the brain is about 25 percent its adult weight and this is not true for any other part of the body. While most of the brain’s 100 to 200 billion neurons are present at birth, they are not fully mature. During the next several years dendrites or connections between neurons will undergo a period of transient exuberance or temporary dramatic growth. 31
Appearance at Birth
During labor and birth, the infant's skull changes shape to fit through the birth canal, sometimes causing the child to be born with a misshapen or elongated head. It will usually return to normal on its own within a few days or weeks.
Some newborns have a fine, downy body hair called lanugo. It may be particularly noticeable on the back, shoulders, forehead, ears and face of premature infants. Lanugo disappears within a few weeks. Likewise, not all infants are born with lush heads of hair. Some may be nearly bald while others may have very fine, almost invisible hair. Some babies are even born with a full head of hair. Amongst fair-skinned parents, this fine hair may be blond, even if the parents are not. The picture on the left shows lanugo on the shoulders of newborn twins.
Immediately after birth, a newborn's skin is often grayish to dusky blue in color. As soon as the newborn begins to breathe, usually within a minute or two, the skin's color returns to its normal tone. Newborns are wet, covered in streaks of blood, and coated with a white substance known as vernix, which is thought to act as an antibacterial barrier, seen in the picture on the right.
The scalp may also be temporarily bruised or swollen, especially in hairless newborns, and the area around the eyes may be puffy.
The newborn may also have Mongolian spots (blue or blue black birthmark on the lower back), various other birthmarks, or peeling skin, particularly on the wrists, hands, ankles, and feet. 34
A newborn's genitals are enlarged and reddened, with male infants having an unusually large scrotum. The breasts may also be enlarged, even in male infants. This is caused by naturally-occurring maternal hormones and is a temporary condition.
The umbilical cord of a newborn is bluish-white in color. After birth, the umbilical cord is normally cut, leaving a 1–2 inch stub. The umbilical stub will dry out, shrivel, darken, and spontaneously fall off within about 3 weeks. Occasionally, hospitals may apply triple dye to the umbilical stub to prevent infection, which may temporarily color the stub and surrounding skin purple.
Newborns lose many of the above physical characteristics quickly. Thus older babies look very different. While older babies are considered "cute," newborns can be "unattractive" by the same criteria and first time parents may need to be educated in this regard. 36
Sleep
A newborn typically sleeps approximately 16.5 hours per 24-hour period. The infant sleeps in several periods throughout the day and night, which means they wake often throughout the day and night. (Salkind, 2005). 37
Reflexes
Newborns are equipped with a number of reflexes, which are involuntary movements in response to stimulation. Some of the more common reflexes, such as the sucking reflex and rooting reflex, are important to feeding. The grasping and stepping reflexes are eventually replaced by more voluntary behaviors. Within the first few months of life these reflexes disappear, while other reflexes, such as the eye-blink, swallowing, sneezing, gagging, and withdrawal reflex stay with us as they continue to serve important functions. 39
Sensory Capacities
Throughout much of history, the newborn was considered a passive, disorganized being who possessed minimal abilities. However, current research techniques have demonstrated just how developed the newborn is with especially organized sensory and perceptual abilities.
Vision
The womb is a dark environment void of visual stimulation. Consequently, vision is the most poorly developed sense at birth and time is needed to build those neural pathways between the eye and the brain. Newborns typically cannot see further than 8 to 16 inches away from their faces, and their visual acuity is about 20/400, which means that an infant can see something at 20 feet that an adult with normal vision could see at 400 feet. Thus, the world probably looks blurry to young infants.
Hearing
The infant’s sense of hearing is very keen at birth, and the ability to hear is evidenced as soon as the 7th month of prenatal development. In fact, an infant can distinguish between very similar sounds as early as one month after birth and can distinguish between a familiar and unfamiliar voice even earlier. Infants are especially sensitive to the frequencies of sounds in human speech and prefer the exaggeration of infant-directed speech, which will be discussed later. Newborns also prefer their mother’s voices over another female when speaking the same material (DeCasper & Fifer, 1980). Additionally, they will register in utero specific information heard from their mother’s voice. 41
Early Hearing
DeCasper and Spence (1986) tested 16 infants whose mothers had previously read to them prenatally. The mothers read several passages to their fetuses, including the first 28 paragraphs of The Cat in the Hat, beginning when they were 7 months pregnant. The fetuses had been exposed to the stories on average of 67 times or 3.5 hours.
During the testing, the infants were able to choose between recordings of two stories, one of which was a story their mothers read to them while in the womb, based on how fast they sucked on their pacifiers. They showed a preference for the stories that their mothers read to them while in the womb. 42
Touch and Pain
Immediately after birth, a newborn is sensitive to touch and temperature, and is also highly sensitive to pain, responding with crying and cardiovascular responses (Balaban & Reisenauer, 2013). Newborns who are circumcised, which is the surgical removal of the foreskin of the penis, without anesthesia experience pain as demonstrated by increased blood pressure, increased heart rate, decreased oxygen in the blood, and a surge of stress hormones (United States National Library of Medicine, 2016). Research has demonstrated that infants who were circumcised without anesthesia experienced more pain and fear during routine childhood vaccines. Fortunately, many circumcisions are now done with the use of local anesthetics.
Taste and Smell
Studies of taste and smell demonstrate that babies respond with different facial expressions, suggesting that certain preferences are innate. Newborns can distinguish between sour, bitter, sweet, and salty flavors and show a preference for sweet flavors. Newborns also prefer the smell of their mothers. An infant only 6 days old is significantly more likely to turn toward its own mother’s breast pad than to the breast pad of another baby’s mother (Porter, Makin, Davis, & Christensen, 1992), and within hours of birth an infant also shows a preference for the face of its own mother (Bushnell, 2001; Bushnell, Sai, & Mullin, 1989).
Infants seem to be born with the ability to perceive the world in an intermodal way; that is, through stimulation from more than one sensory modality. For example, infants who sucked on a pacifier with a smooth surface preferred looking at visual models of a pacifier with a smooth surface. But those that were given a pacifier with a textured surface preferred to look at a visual model of a pacifier with a textured surface. 44
Contributors and Attributions
22. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (page 63) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
25. Newborn Screening is in the public domain ; Newborn Screening Program (NBS) by the California Department of Public Health is in the public domain
28. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (pages 62-63) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0; Stillbirth by Wikipedia by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
31. Lifespan Development - Chapter 4: Infancy - Physical Development by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
34. Mongolian Spot by Wiktionary is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
36. Infant by WikiDoc is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
37. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (page 71) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
39. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (page 73) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
41. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (pages 76-77) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
42. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (page 76) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
44. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (pages 76-77) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
3.S: Summary
In this chapter we looked at:
• methods of childbirth preparation
• the process of childbirth (for both vaginal and Cesarean deliveries)
• assessing newborn health
• problems for the newborn
• characteristics of newborns (including appearance, reflexes, and perceptual abilities)
In the next three chapters we will explore the first three years of life more. Many rapid changes occur during these foundational years. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/03%3A_Birth_and_the_Newborn/3.03%3A_The_Newborn.txt |
Learning Objectives
After this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe the physical changes that occur during the first two years of life.
2. Identify common infant reflexes.
3. Discuss the sleep needs during the first two years of life.
4. Summarize the sequence of both fine and gross motor skills.
5. Recognize the developing sensory capacities of infants and toddlers.
6. Explain how to meet the evolving nutritional needs of infants and toddlers.
Welcome to the story of development from infancy through toddlerhood; from birth until about two years of age. Researchers have given this part of the life span more attention than any other period, perhaps because changes during this time are so dramatic and so noticeable and perhaps because we have assumed that what happens during these years provides a foundation for one’s life to come. However, it has been argued that the significance of development during these years has been overstated (Bruer, 1999). Nevertheless, this is the period of life that contemporary educators, healthcare providers, and parents have focused on most heavily. We will examine growth and nutrition during infancy, as well as other prominent physical changes that take place during this time.1
• 4.1: Rapid Physical Changes
The average newborn in the United States weighs about 7.5 pounds and is about 20 inches in length. After about a 5% weight loss in the first few days, there is a period of rapid growth. By the time an infant is 4 months old, it usually doubles in weight and by one year has tripled its birth weight. By age 2, the weight has quadrupled. The average length at one year is about 26-32 inches.
• 4.2: Proportions of the Body
Another dramatic physical change that takes place in the first several years of life is the change in body proportions. The head initially makes up about 50 percent of our entire length when we are developing in the womb. At birth, the head makes up about 25 percent of our length (think about how much of your length would be head if the proportions were still the same!). By age 25 it comprises about 20 percent our length.
• 4.3: Reflexes
Infants are equipped with a number of reflexes which are involuntary movements in response to stimulation. These include the sucking reflex (infants suck on objects that touch their lips automatically), the rooting reflex (which involves turning toward any object that touches the cheek), the palmar grasp (infants will tightly grasp any object placed in its palm), and the dancing reflex (when the infant is held in a standing position and moves its feet up and down alternately as if dancing).
• 4.4: Gross Motor Skills
Voluntary movements involve the use of large muscle groups and are typically large movements of the arms, legs, head, and torso. They are referred to as gross motor skills (or large motor skills).
• 4.5: Fine Motor Skills
More exact movements of the feet, toes, hands, and fingers are fine motor skills (or small motor skills). These include the ability to reach and grasp an object in coordination with vision. Newborns cannot grasp objects voluntarily but do wave their arms toward objects of interest. At about 4 months of age, the infant is able to reach for an object, first with both arms and within a few weeks, with only one arm. Grasping an object involves the use of the fingers and palm, but no thumbs.
• 4.6: Sensory Capacities
Throughout much of history, the newborn was considered a passive, disorganized being who possessed minimal abilities. William James, an early psychologist, had described the newborn’s world as “a blooming, buzzing confusion,” (Shaffer, 1985). However, current research techniques have demonstrated just how developed the newborn is with especially organized sensory and perceptual abilities.
• 4.7: Nutrition
Nutritional needs change with age. This modules examine how caregivers should nourish children during the first years of life and some risks to nutrition that they should be aware of.
• 4.8: Health
Infants depend on the adults that care for them to promote and protect their health. The following section addresses common physical conditions that can affect infants, the danger of shaking babies, and the importance of immunizations.
• 4.9: Sleep
A newborn typically sleeps approximately 16.5 hours per 24-hour period. This is usually polyphasic sleep in that the infant is accumulating the 16.5 hours over several sleep periods throughout the day (Salkind, 2005). The infant is averaging 15 hours per 24-hour period by one month, and 14 hours by 6 months. By the time children turn two, they are averaging closer to 10 hours per 24 hours.
• 4.S: Summary
Contributors and Attribtions
1. Lifespan Development - Module 4: Infancy by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
Thumbnail: www.pexels.com/photo/child-i...n-road-786220/
04: Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
As mentioned in the previous chapter, the average newborn in the United States weighs about 7.5 pounds and is about 20 inches in length. After about a 5% weight loss in the first few days, there is a period of rapid growth. By the time an infant is 4 months old, it usually doubles in weight and by one year has tripled its birth weight. By age 2, the weight has quadrupled. The average length at one year is about 26-32 inches.3
Two hormones are very important to this growth process. The first is Human Growth Hormone (HGH) which influences all growth except that in the Central Nervous System (CNS). The hormone influencing growth in the CNS is called Thyroid Stimulating Hormone. Together these hormones influence the growth in early childhood.
Sleep is very important to the growth process as these hormones are released as children sleep each night. As a result, children need 11 to 14 hours of sleep from 2 to 6 years old. Parents may establish rituals, such as reading a story, taking a bath, brushing teeth, etc. to help children wind down and get the sleep they so desperately need.4
Contributors and Attributions
1. Lifespan Development - Module 4: Infancy by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
2. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/04%3A_Physical_Development_in_Infancy_and_Toddlerhood/4.01%3A_Rapid_Physical_Changes.txt |
Another dramatic physical change that takes place in the first several years of life is the change in body proportions. The head initially makes up about 50 percent of our entire length when we are developing in the womb. At birth, the head makes up about 25 percent of our length (think about how much of your length would be head if the proportions were still the same!). By age 25 it comprises about 20 percent our length. Imagine now how difficult it must be to raise one’s head during the first year of life! And indeed, if you have ever seen a 2 to 4 month old infant lying on the stomach trying to raise the head, you know how much of a challenge this is. The comparison in this graphic was originally introduced in the last chapter.
Some of the most dramatic physical change that occurs during this period is in the brain. At birth, the brain is about 25 percent its adult weight and this is not true for any other part of the body. By age 2, it is at 75 percent its adult weight, at 95 percent by age 6 and at 100 percent by age 7 years.
While most of the brain’s 100 to 200 billion neurons are present at birth, they are not fully mature and during the next several years dendrites or connections between neurons will undergo a period of transient exuberance or temporary dramatic growth.
There is a proliferation of these dendrites during the first two years so that by age 2, a single neuron might have thousands of dendrites. After this dramatic increase, the neural pathways that are not used will be eliminated thereby making those that are used much stronger.8 Because of this proliferation of dendrites, by age two a single neuron might have thousands of dendrites.
Synaptogenesis, or the formation of connections between neurons, continues from the prenatal period forming thousands of new connections during infancy and toddlerhood. This period of rapid neural growth is referred to as Synaptic Blooming.9 This activity is occurring primarily in the cortex or the thin outer covering of the brain involved in voluntary activity and thinking.
The prefrontal cortex that is located behind our forehead continues to grow and mature throughout childhood and experiences an additional growth spurt during adolescence. It is the last part of the brain to mature and will eventually comprise 85 percent of the brain’s weight. Experience will shape which of these connections are maintained and which of these are lost. Ultimately, about 40 percent of these connections will be lost (Webb, Monk, and Nelson, 2001). As the prefrontal cortex matures, the child is increasingly able to regulate or control emotions, to plan activity, strategize, and have better judgment. Of course, this is not fully accomplished in infancy and toddlerhood but continues throughout childhood and adolescence.
Another major change occurring in the central nervous system is the development of myelin, a coating of fatty tissues around the axon of the neuron. Myelin helps insulate the nerve cell and speed the rate of transmission of impulses from one cell to another. This enhances the building of neural pathways and improves coordination and control of movement and thought processes. The development of myelin continues into adolescence but is most dramatic during the first several years of life.10
Contributors and Attributions
1. Lifespan Development - Module 4: Infancy by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
2. Lifespan Development - Module 4: Infancy by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
3. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/04%3A_Physical_Development_in_Infancy_and_Toddlerhood/4.02%3A_Proportions_of_the_Body.txt |
Infants are equipped with a number of reflexes which are involuntary movements in response to stimulation. These include the sucking reflex (infants suck on objects that touch their lips automatically), the rooting reflex (which involves turning toward any object that touches the cheek), the palmar grasp (the infant will tightly grasp any object placed in its palm), and the dancing reflex (evident when the infant is held in a standing position and moves its feet up and down alternately as if dancing). These movements occur automatically and are signals that the infant is functioning well neurologically. Within the first several weeks of life these reflexes are replaced with voluntary movements or motor skills. 12
Infants and children grow and develop at a rapid pace during the first few years of life. The development of both gross and fine motor skills helps a child go from a completely dependent newborn to an independently functioning toddler in about a 3-year span. 13
Table \(1\): Some Common Infant Reflexes (Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (page 74) by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (modified by Antoinette Ricardo))
Reflex Description Image Reflex Description Image
Sucking Suck on anything that touches the lips Moro A sudden noise or loss of support to the head and neck will cause infants to spread out their arms and legs then quickly contract the limbs inward
Rooting Turning the head when the cheek is touched Tonic Neck When lying on the back with the head to one side infants will extend the arm and leg on that side while flexing the limbs on the opposite side (looks like a fencer pose).
Grasp Fingers automatically grip anything that touches the palm of the hand Stepping Legs move in stepping like motion when feet touch a smooth surface
Babinski The toes will fan out and curl when the sole of the foot is stroked from heel to toe
Contributors and Attributions
12. Lifespan Development - Module 4: Infancy by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
13. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
4.04: Gross Motor Skills
Voluntary movements involve the use of large muscle groups and are typically large movements of the arms, legs, head, and torso. They are referred to as gross motor skills (or large motor skills). These skills begin to develop first. Examples include moving to bring the chin up when lying on the stomach, moving the chest up, rocking back and forth on hands and knees, and then crawling. But it also includes exploring an object with one’s feet as many babies do as early as 8 weeks of age if seated in a carrier or other device that frees the hips. This may be easier than reaching for an object with the hands, which requires much more practice (Berk, 2007). And sometimes an infant will try to move toward an object while crawling and surprisingly move backward because of the greater amount of strength in the arms than in the legs! This also tends to lead infants to pull up on furniture, usually with the goal of reaching a desired object. Usually, this will also lead to taking steps and eventually walking. 22
Physical Gross Motor Milestones
As stated above, children grow very quickly and meet physical milestones rapidly in the first few years of life. The following is a table of the major milestones (behaviors or physical skills seen in infants and children as they grow and develop that typically occur within normal range) that occur in children during those first formative years. 23
Table \(1\): Gross Motor Milestones (Developmental Milestones by the CDC is in the public domain)
Typical Age What Most Children Do by This Age
2 months
• Can hold head up and begins to push up when lying on tummy
• Makes smoother movements with arms and legs
4 months
• Holds head steady, unsupported
• Pushes down on legs when feet are on a hard surface
• May be able to roll over from tummy to back
• Brings hands to mouth
• When lying on stomach, pushes up to elbows
6 months
• Rolls over in both directions (front to back, back to front)
• Begins to sit without support
• When standing, supports weight on legs and might bounce
• Rocks back and forth, sometimes crawling backward before moving forward
9 months
• Stands, holding on
• Can get into sitting position
• Sits without support
• Pulls to stand
• Crawls
1 year
• Gets to a sitting position without help
• Pulls up to stand, walks holding on to furniture (“cruising”)
• May take a few steps without holding on
• May stand alone
18 months
• Walks alone
• May walk up steps and run
• Pulls toys while walking
• Can help undress self
2 years
• Stands on tiptoe
• Kicks a ball
• Begins to run
• Climbs onto and down from furniture without help
• Walks up and down stairs holding on
• Throws ball overhand
Contributors and Attributions
22. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
23. Developmental milestones record by the U.S. National Library of Medicine is in the public domain | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/04%3A_Physical_Development_in_Infancy_and_Toddlerhood/4.03%3A_Reflexes.txt |
More exact movements of the feet, toes, hands, and fingers are referred to as fine motor skills (or small motor skills). These include the ability to reach and grasp an object in coordination with vision. Newborns cannot grasp objects voluntarily but do wave their arms toward objects of interest. At about 4 months of age, the infant is able to reach for an object, first with both arms and within a few weeks, with only one arm. Grasping an object involves the use of the fingers and palm, but no thumbs.
Use of the thumb comes at about 9 months of age when the infant is able to grasp an object using the forefinger and thumb. This is known as the pincer grip. This ability greatly enhances the ability to control and manipulate an object and infants take great delight in this newfound ability. They may spend hours picking up small objects from the floor and placing them in containers. And as those objects will often next go into the mouth, caregivers must be vigilant about keeping items small enough to be choking hazards out of reach of little fingers. By 9 months, an infant can also watch a moving object, reach for it as it approaches and grabs it. This is quite a complicated set of actions if we remember how difficult this would have been just a few months earlier. 26
Physical Fine Motor Milestones
While fine motor skills are slower to develop (in accordance with proximodistal development), pretty remarkable progress is made in fine motor development during the first two years. As stated above, in the first few years of life children go from having no intentional fine motor control to being able to manipulate objects to play and learn, as well as beginning to care of themselves. The following is a table of the major milestones in fine motor development.
Table \(1\): Fine Motor Milestones (Developmental Milestones by the CDC is in the public domain)
Typical Age What Most Children Do by This Age
2 months
• Grasps reflexively
• Does not reach for objects
• Holds hands in fist
4 months
• Brings hands to mouth
• Uses hands and eyes together, such as seeing a toy and reaching for it
• Follows moving things with eyes from side to side
• Can hold a toy with whole hand (palmar grasp) and shake it and swing at dangling toys
6 months
• Reaches with both arms
• Brings things to mouth
• Begins to pass things from one hand to the other
9 months
• Puts things in mouth
• Moves things smoothly from one hand to the other
• Picks up things between thumb and index finger (pincer grip)
1 year
• Reaches with one hand
• Bangs two things together
• Puts things in a container, takes things out of a container
• Lets things go without help
• Pokes with index (pointer) finger
18 months
• Scribbles on own
• Can help undress herself
• Drinks from a cup
• Eats with a spoon with some accuracy
• Stacks 2-4 objects
2 years
• Builds towers of 4 or more blocks
• Might use one hand more than the other
• Makes copies of straight lines and circles
• Enjoys pouring and filling
• Unbuttons large buttons
• Unzips large zippers
• Drinks and feeds self with more accuracy
Contributors and Attributions
26. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/04%3A_Physical_Development_in_Infancy_and_Toddlerhood/4.05%3A_Fine_Motor_Skills.txt |
Throughout much of history, the newborn was considered a passive, disorganized being who possessed minimal abilities. William James, an early psychologist, had described the newborn’s world as “a blooming, buzzing confusion,” (Shaffer, 1985). However, current research techniques have demonstrated just how developed the newborn is with especially organized sensory and perceptual abilities.
Vision
The womb is a dark environment void of visual stimulation. Consequently, vision is the most poorly developed sense at birth and time is needed to build those neural pathways between the eye and the brain. Newborns typically cannot see further than 8 to 16 inches away from their faces (which is about the distance from the newborn's face to the mother/caregiver when an infant is breastfeeding/bottle-feeding). Their visual acuity is about 20/400, which means that an infant can see something at 20 feet that an adult with normal vision could see at 400 feet. Thus, the world probably looks blurry to young infants. Because of their poor visual acuity, they look longer at checkerboards with fewer large squares than with many small squares. Infants' thresholds for seeing a visual pattern are higher than adults'. Thus, toys for infants are sometimes manufactured with black and white patterns rather than pastel colors because the higher contrast between black and white makes the pattern more visible to the immature visual system. By about 6 months, infants' visual acuity improves and approximates adult 20/25 acuity.
When viewing a person’s face, newborns do not look at the eyes the way adults do; rather, they tend to look at the chin - a less detailed part of the face. However, by 2 or 3 months, they will seek more detail when exploring an object visually and begin showing preferences for unusual images over familiar ones, for patterns over solids, for faces over patterns, and for three-dimensional objects over flat images. Newborns have difficulty distinguishing between colors, but within a few months, they are able to discriminate between colors as well as adults do. Sensitivity to binocular depth cues, which require inputs from both eyes, is evident by about 3 months and continues to develop during the first 6 months. By 6 months, the infant can perceive depth perception in pictures as well (Sen, Yonas, & Knill, 2001). Infants who have experience crawling and exploring will pay greater attention to visual cues of depth and modify their actions accordingly (Berk, 2007).
Hearing
The infant’s sense of hearing is very keen at birth, and the ability to hear is evident as soon as the 7th month of prenatal development. In fact, an infant can distinguish between very similar sounds as early as one month after birth and can distinguish between a familiar and unfamiliar voice even earlier. Infants are especially sensitive to the frequencies of sounds in human speech and prefer the exaggeration of infant-directed speech, which will be discussed later. Additionally, infants are innately ready to respond to the sounds of any language, but some of this ability will be lost by 7 or 8 months as the infant becomes familiar with the sounds of a particular language and less sensitive to sounds that are part of an unfamiliar language.
Newborns also prefer their mother’s voices over another female when speaking the same material (DeCasper & Fifer, 1980). Additionally, they will register in utero specific information heard from their mother’s voice. You may remember the Cat in the Hat study featured in the last chapter that illustrates this.
Touch and Pain
Immediately after birth, a newborn is sensitive to touch and temperature, and is also highly sensitive to pain, responding with crying and cardiovascular responses (Balaban & Reisenauer, 2013). Newborns who are circumcised, which is the surgical removal of the foreskin of the penis, without anesthesia experience pain as demonstrated by increased blood pressure, increased heart rate, decreased oxygen in the blood, and a surge of stress hormones (United States National Library of Medicine, 2016). Research has demonstrated that infants who were circumcised without anesthesia experienced more pain and fear during routine childhood vaccines. Fortunately, local painkillers are now used during many circumcision.
Taste and Smell
Studies of taste and smell demonstrate that babies respond with different facial expressions, suggesting that certain preferences are innate. Newborns can distinguish between sour, bitter, sweet, and salty flavors and show a preference for sweet flavors. Newborns also prefer the smell of their mothers. An infant only 6 days old is significantly more likely to turn toward its own mother’s breast pad than to the breast pad of another baby’s mother (Porter, Makin, Davis, & Christensen, 1992), and within hours of birth, an infant also shows a preference for the face of its own mother (Bushnell, 2001; Bushnell, Sai, & Mullin, 1989).
Infants seem to be born with the ability to perceive the world in an intermodal way; that is, through stimulation from more than one sensory modality. For example, infants who sucked on a pacifier with either a smooth or textured surface preferred to look at a corresponding (smooth or textured) visual model of the pacifier. By 4 months, infants can match lip movements with speech sounds and can match other audiovisual events. Although sensory development emphasizes the afferent processes used to take in information from the environment, these sensory processes can be affected by the infant's developing motor abilities. Reaching, crawling, and other actions allow the infant to see, touch, and organize his or her experiences in new ways. 30
Contributors and Attributions
30. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/04%3A_Physical_Development_in_Infancy_and_Toddlerhood/4.06%3A_Sensory_Capacities.txt |
Nutritional needs change with age. Let’s examine how caregivers should nourish children during the first years of life and some risks to nutrition that they should be aware of.
Breastfeeding
Breast milk is considered the ideal diet for newborns. Colostrum, the first breast milk produced during pregnancy and just after birth has been described as “liquid gold” (United States Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS), 2011). It is very rich in nutrients and antibodies. Breast milk changes by the third to fifth day after birth, becoming much thinner, but containing just the right amount of fat, sugar, water, and proteins to support overall physical and neurological development. For most babies, breast milk is also easier to digest than formula. Formula fed infants experience more diarrhea and upset stomachs. The absence of antibodies in formula often results in a higher rate of ear infections and respiratory infections. Children who are breastfed have lower rates of childhood leukemia, asthma, obesity, type 1 and 2 diabetes, and a lower risk of SIDS. The USDHHS recommends that mothers breastfeed their infants until at least 6 months of age and that breast milk be used in the diet throughout the first year or two.
Maternal Benefits of Breastfeeding
Several recent studies have reported that it is not just babies that benefit from breastfeeding. Breastfeeding stimulates contractions in the mother’s uterus to help it regain its normal size, and women who breastfeed are more likely to space their pregnancies further apart. Mothers who breastfeed are at lower risk of developing breast cancer (Islami et al., 2015), especially among higher risk racial and ethnic groups (Islami et al., 2015; Redondo et al., 2012). Women who breastfeed have lower rates of ovarian cancer (Titus-Ernstoff, Rees, Terry, & Cramer, 2010), reduced risk for developing Type 2 diabetes (Schwarz et al., 2010; Gunderson, et al., 2015), and rheumatoid arthritis (Karlson, Mandl, Hankinson, & Grodstein, 2004). In most studies these benefits have been seen in women who breastfeed longer than 6 months.
Challenges to Breastfeeding
However, most mothers who breastfeed in the United States stop breastfeeding at about 6-8 weeks, often in order to return to work outside the home (USDHHS, 2011). Mothers can certainly continue to provide breast milk to their babies by expressing and freezing the milk to be bottle-fed at a later time or by being available to their infants at feeding time. However, some mothers find that after the initial encouragement they receive in the hospital to breastfeed, the outside world is less supportive of such efforts. Some workplaces support breastfeeding mothers by providing flexible schedules and welcoming infants, but many do not. In addition, not all women may be able to breastfeed. Women with HIV are routinely discouraged from breastfeeding as the infection may pass to the infant. Similarly, women who are taking certain medications or undergoing radiation treatment may be told not to breastfeed (USDHHS, 2011).
Cost of Breastfeeding
In addition to the nutritional benefits of breastfeeding, breast milk does not have to be purchased. Anyone who has priced formula recently can appreciate this added incentive to breastfeeding. Prices for a year’s worth of formula and feeding supplies can cost well over \$1,500 (USDHHS, 2011).
But there are also those who challenge the belief that breast milk is free. For breastmilk to be completely beneficial for infants the mother's life choices will ultimately affect the quality of the nutrition an infant will receive. Let's consider the nutritional intake of the mother. Breastfeeding will both limit some food and drink choices as well as necessitate an increased intake of healthier options. A simple trip down the supermarket aisles will show you that nutritious and healthier options can be more expensive than some of the cheaper more processed options. A large variety of vegetable and fruits must be consumed, accompanied by the right proportions and amounts of the whole grains, dairy products, and fat food groups. Additionally, it is also encouraged for breastfeeding mothers to take vitamins regularly. That raises the question of how free breastfeeding truly is.
A Historic Look at Breastfeeding
The use of wet nurses, or lactating women hired to nurse others' infants, during the middle ages eventually declined and mothers increasingly breastfed their own infants in the late 1800s. In the early part of the 20th century, breastfeeding began to go through another decline. By the 1950s, it was practiced less frequently as formula began to be viewed as superior to breast milk.
In the late 1960s and 1970s, greater emphasis began to be placed on natural childbirth and breastfeeding and the benefits of breastfeeding were more widely publicized. Gradually rates of breastfeeding began to climb, particularly among middle-class educated mothers who received the strongest messages to breastfeed.
Today, women receive consultation from lactation specialists before being discharged from the hospital to ensure that they are informed of the benefits of breastfeeding and given support and encouragement to get their infants to get used to taking the breast. This does not always happen immediately and first time mothers, especially, can become upset or discouraged. In this case, lactation specialists and nursing staff can encourage the mother to keep trying until baby and mother are comfortable with the feeding. 33
Alternatives to Breastfeeding
There are many reasons that mothers struggle to breastfeed or should not breastfeed, including: low milk supply, previous breast surgeries, illicit drug use, medications, infectious disease, and inverted nipples. Other mothers choose not to breastfeed. Some reasons for this include: lack of personal comfort with nursing, the time commitment of nursing, inadequate or unhealthy diet, and wanting more convenience and flexibility with who and when an infant can be fed. For these mothers and infants, formula is available. Besides breast milk, infant formula is the only other milk product that the medical community considers nutritionally acceptable for infants under the age of one year (as opposed to cow's milk, goat's milk, or follow-on formula). It can be used in addition to breastfeeding (supplementing) or as an alternative to breastmilk.
The most commonly used infant formulas contain purified cow's milk whey and casein as a protein source, a blend of vegetable oils as a fat source, lactose as a carbohydrate source, a vitamin-mineral mix, and other ingredients depending on the manufacturer. In addition, there are infant formulas which use soybeans as a protein source in place of cow's milk (mostly in the United States and Great Britain) and formulas which use protein hydrolysed into its component amino acids for infants who are allergic to other proteins34.
One early argument given to promote the practice of breastfeeding was that it promoted bonding and healthy emotional development for infants. However, this does not seem to be the case. Breastfed and bottle-fed infants adjust equally well emotionally (Ferguson & Woodward, 1999). This is good news for mothers who may be unable to breastfeed for a variety of reasons and for fathers who might feel left out.
When, What, and How to Introduce Solid Foods
The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends children be introduced to foods other than breast milk or infant formula when they are about 6 months old. Every child is different. Here are some signs that show that an infant is ready for foods other than breast milk or infant formula:
• Child can sit with little or no support.
• Child has good head control.
• Child opens his or her mouth and leans forward when food is offered.
How Should Foods Be Introduced?
The American Academy of Pediatrics says that for most children, foods do not need to be given in a certain order. Children can begin eating solid foods at about 6 months old. By the time they are 7 or 8 months old, children can eat a variety of foods from different food groups. These foods include infant cereals, meat or other proteins, fruits, vegetables, grains, yogurts and cheeses, and more.
If feeding infant cereals, it is important to offer a variety of fortified infant cereals such as oat, barley, and multi-grain instead of only rice cereal. The Food and Drug Administration does not recommend only providing infant rice cereal because there is a risk for children to be exposed to arsenic.
Children should be allowed to try one food at a time at first and there should be 3 to 5 days before another food is introduced. This helps caregivers see if the child has any problems with that food, such as food allergies.
The eight most common allergenic foods are milk, eggs, fish, shellfish, tree nuts, peanuts, wheat, and soybeans. It is no longer recommended that caregivers delay introducing these foods to all children, but if there is a family history of food allergies, the child’s doctor or nurse should be consulted. 37
It may take numerous attempts before a child gains a taste for it. So caregivers should not give up if a food is refused on the first offering.
USDA Infant Meal Patterns
The United States Department of Agriculture Food and Nutrition Service provides the following guidance for the day time feeding of infants and toddlers.
Table \(1\): Infant Meal Patterns (Infant Meals by the USDA is in the public domain)
Meal 0-5 months 6-11 months
Breakfast 4-6 fluid ounces breastmilk or formula 6-8 fluid ounces breastmilk or formula 0-4 tablespoons infant cereal, meat, fish, poultry, whole eggs, cooked dry beans or peas; or 0-2 ounces cheese; or 0-4 ounces (volume) cottage cheese; or 0-4 ounces yogurt; or a combination* 0-2 tablespoons vegetable, fruit, or both*
Lunch or Supper 4-6 fluid ounces breastmilk or formula 6-8 fluid ounces breastmilk or formula 0-4 tablespoons infant cereal, meat, fish, poultry, whole eggs, cooked dry beans or peas; or 0-2 ounces cheese; or 0-4 ounces (volume) cottage cheese; or 0-4 ounces yogurt; or a combination* 0-2 tablespoons vegetable, fruit, or both*
Snack 4-6 fluid ounces breastmilk or formula 2-4 fluid ounces breastmilk or formula 0-1⁄2 bread slice; or 0-2 crackers; or 0-4 tablespoons infant cereal or ready-to-eat cereal* 0-2 tablespoons vegetable, fruit, or both*
*Required when infant is developmentally ready. All serving sizes are minimum quantities of the food components that are required to be served.
Table \(2\): Meal Patterns for Children (1-2 years) (Child and Adult Meals by the USDA is in the public domain)
Meal Ages 1-2
Breakfast 1⁄2 cup milk 1⁄4 cup vegetables, fruit, or both 1⁄2 ounce equivalent grains
Lunch or Supper 1⁄2 cup milk 1-ounce meat or meat alternative 1/8 cup vegetables 1/8 cup fruits 1⁄2 ounce equivalent of grains
Snack Select two of the following: 1⁄2 cup of milk 1⁄2 ounce meat or meat alternative 1⁄2 cup vegetables 1⁄2 cup fruit 1⁄2 ounce equivalent of grains
Note: All serving sizes are minimum quantities of the food components that are required to be served.
Child Malnutrition
There can be serious effects for children when there are deficiencies in their nutrition. Let’s explore a few types of nutritional concerns.
Wasting
Children in developing countries and countries experiencing the harsh conditions of war are at risk for two major types of malnutrition, also referred to as wasting. Infantile marasmus refers to starvation due to a lack of calories and protein. Children who do not receive adequate nutrition lose fat and muscle until their bodies can no longer function. Babies who are breastfed are much less at risk of malnutrition than those who are bottle-fed.
After weaning, children who have diets deficient in protein may experience kwashiorkor or the “disease of the displaced child,” often occurring after another child has been born and taken over breastfeeding. This results in a loss of appetite and swelling of the abdomen as the body begins to break down the vital organs as a source of protein.
Around the world the rates of wasting have been dropping. However, according to the World Health Organization and UNICEF, in 2014 there were 50 million children under the age of five that experienced these forms of wasting, and 16 million were severely wasted (UNICEF, 2015). Worldwide, these figures indicate that nearly 1 child in every 13 suffers from some form of wasting. The majority of these children live in Asia (34.3 million) and Africa (13.9 million). Wasting can occur as a result of severe food shortages, regional diets that lack certain proteins and vitamins, or infectious diseases that inhibit appetite (Latham, 1997).
The consequences of wasting depend on how late in the progression of the disease parents and guardians seek medical treatment for their children. Unfortunately, in some cultures families do not seek treatment early, and as a result by the time a child is hospitalized the child often dies within the first three days after admission (Latham, 1997). Several studies have reported long-term cognitive effects of early malnutrition (Galler & Ramsey, 1989; Galler, Ramsey, Salt & Archer, 1987; Richardson, 1980), even when home environments were controlled (Galler, Ramsey, Morley, Archer & Salt, 1990). Lower IQ scores (Galler et al., 1987), poor attention (Galler & Ramsey, 1989), and behavioral issues in the classroom (Galler et al., 1990) have been reported in children with a history of serious malnutrition in the first few years of life. 41
Milk Anemia
Milk Anemia in the United States: About 9 million children in the United States are malnourished (Children’s Welfare, 1998). More still suffer from milk anemia, a condition in which milk consumption leads to a lack of iron in the diet. This can be due to the practice of giving toddlers milk as a pacifier-when resting, when riding, when waking, and so on. Appetite declines somewhat during toddlerhood and a small amount of milk (especially with added chocolate syrup) can easily satisfy a child’s appetite for many hours. The calcium in milk interferes with the absorption of iron in the diet as well. Many preschools and daycare centers give toddlers a drink after they have finished their meal in order to prevent spoiling their appetites. 42
Failure to Thrive
Failure to thrive (FTT) occurs in children whose nutritional intake is insufficient for supporting normal growth and weight gain. FTT typically presents before two years of age, when growth rates are highest. Parents may express concern about picky eating habits, poor weight gain, or smaller size compared relative to peers of similar age. Physicians often identify FTT during routine office visits, when a child's growth parameters are not tracking appropriately on growth curves.
FTT can be caused by physical or mental issues within the child (such as errors of metabolism, acid reflux, anemia, diarrhea, Cystic fibrosis, Crohn’s disease, celiac disease, cleft palate, tongue tie, milk allergies, hyperthyroidism, congenital heart disease, etc.) It can also be caused by caregiver’s actions (environmental), including inability to produce enough breastmilk, inadequate food supply, providing an insufficient number of feedings, and neglect. These causes may also co-exist. For instance, a child who is not getting sufficient nutrition may act content so that caregivers do not offer feedings of sufficient frequency or volume, and a child with severe acid reflux who appears to be in pain while eating may make a caregiver hesitant to offer sufficient feedings.43
Contributors and Attributions
33. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
34. Infant Formula by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
37. When, What, and How to Introduce Solid Foods by the CDC is in the public domain
41. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
42. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
43. Failure to Thrive by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/04%3A_Physical_Development_in_Infancy_and_Toddlerhood/4.07%3A_Nutrition.txt |
Infants depend on the adults that care for them to promote and protect their health. The following section addresses common physical conditions that can affect infants, the danger of shaking babies, and the importance of immunizations.
Common Physical Conditions and Issues during Infancy
Some physical conditions and issues are very common during infancy. Many are normal, and the infant's caregivers can deal with them if they occur. Mostly, it is a matter of the caregivers learning about what is normal for their infant and getting comfortable with the new routine in the household. New parents and caregivers often have questions about the following:
• Bowel Movements
• Colic
• Diaper Rash
• Spitting Up/Vomiting
• Teething
• Urination
• Jaundice
Bowel Movements
Infants' bowel movements go through many changes in color and consistency, even within the first few days after birth. While the color, consistency, and frequency of stool will vary, hard or dry stools may indicate dehydration and increased frequency of watery stools may indicate diarrhea.
Colic
Many infants are fussy in the evenings, but if the crying does not stop and gets worse throughout the day or night, it may be caused by colic. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, about one-fifth of all infants develop colic, usually starting between 2 and 4 weeks of age. They may cry inconsolably or scream, extend or pull up their legs, and pass gas. Their stomachs may be enlarged. The crying spells can occur anytime, although they often get worse in the early evening.
The colic will likely improve or disappear by the age of 3 or 4 months. There is no definite explanation for why some infants get colic. Health care providers can help ensure there is no medical reason behind the crying.
Some infants seem to be soothed by being held, rocked, or wrapped snugly in a blanket. Some like a pacifier.
Shaken Baby Syndrome
Here is a PSA from the Center for Disease Control (CDC) The crying. The late-night feedings. The diaper changes. The exhaustion. If you’ve ever been around a baby who won’t stop crying, you know there’s potential to get frustrated. Focus on calming yourself and understand that you may not be able to calm your baby. It’s not your fault or your baby’s.46
It’s normal for healthy babies to cry and some babies cry much more than others. And they cannot always be consoled and caregivers can feel pushed to the limit. When caregivers lose control and shake a baby it can have devastating effects.
Shaken Baby Syndrome (SBS) is a severe form of physical child abuse. SBS may be caused from vigorously shaking an infant by the shoulders, arms, or legs. The “whiplash” effect can cause intracranial (within the brain) or intraocular (within the eyes) bleeding. Often there is no obvious external head trauma. Still, children with SBS may display some outward signs:
• Change in sleeping pattern or inability to be awakened
• Confused, restless, or agitated state
• Convulsions or seizures
• Loss of energy or motivation
• Slurred speech
• Uncontrollable crying
• Inability to be consoled
• Inability to nurse or eat
SBS can result in death, mental retardation or developmental delays, paralysis, severe motor dysfunction, spasticity, blindness, and seizures.
Who’s at Risk? Small children are especially vulnerable to this type of abuse. Their heads are large in comparison to their bodies, and their neck muscles are weak. Children under one year of age are at highest risk, but SBS has been reported in children up to five years of age. Shaking often occurs in response to a baby crying or having a toilet-training accident. The perpetrator tends to be male and is primarily the biological father or the mother’s boyfriend or partner. Caregivers are responsible for about 9%-21% of cases. The explanation typically provided by the caregiver—”I was playing with the baby”—does not begin to account for the severity of trauma. Many times there is also a history of child abuse.
Can It Be Prevented? SBS is completely preventable. However, it is not known whether educational efforts will effectively prevent this type of abuse. Home visitation programs are shown to prevent child abuse in general. Because the child’s father or the mother’s partner often causes SBS, they should be included in home visitation programs. Home visits bring community resources to families in their homes. Health professionals provide information, healthcare, psychological support, and other services that can help people to be more effective parents and care-givers.
The Bottom Line
• Shaking a baby can cause death or permanent brain damage. It can result in life-long disability.
• Healthy strategies for dealing with a crying baby include:
• finding the reason for the crying
• checking for signs of illness or discomfort, such as diaper rash, teething, tight clothing;
• feeding or burping;
• soothing the baby by rubbing its back; gently rocking; offering a pacifier;
• singing or talking;
• taking a walk using a stroller or a drive in a properly-secured car seat;
• or calling the doctor if sickness is suspected
• All babies cry. Caregivers often feel overwhelmed by a crying baby. Calling a friend, relative, or neighbor for support or assistance lets the caregiver take a break from the situation. If immediate support is not available, the caregiver could place the baby in a crib (making sure the baby is safe), close the door, and check on the baby every five minutes.47
Abusive Head Trauma Shaken baby syndrome is part abusive head trauma (AHT), severe form of physical child abuse that results in an injury to the brain of a child. This is important to note because:
• Abusive head trauma is a leading cause of physical child abuse deaths in children under 5 in the United States.
• Abusive head trauma accounts for approximately one third of all child maltreatment deaths.
• The most common trigger for abusive head trauma is inconsolable crying.
• Babies less than one year old are at greatest risk of injury from abusive head trauma.49
Teething
Although newborns usually have no visible teeth, baby teeth begin to appear generally about 6 months after birth. During the first few years, all 20 baby teeth will push through the gums, and most children will have their full set of these teeth in place by age 3.
An infant's front four teeth usually appear first, at about 6 months of age, although some children don't get their first tooth until 12-14 months. As their teeth break through the gums, some infants become fussy, and irritable; lose their appetite; or drool more than usual.
The FDA does not recommend gum-numbing medications with an ingredient called benzocaine because they can cause a potentially fatal condition in young children. Safe forms of relief include a chilled teething ring or gently rubbing the child's gums with a clean finger.
Spitting Up/Vomiting
Spitting up is a common occurrence for young infants and is usually not a sign of a more serious problem. But if an infant is not gaining weight or shows other signs of illness, a health care provider should be consulted.
Urination
Infants urinate as often as every 1 to 3 hours or as infrequently as every 4 to 6 hours. In case of sickness or if the weather is very hot, urine output might drop by half and still be normal. If an infant shows any signs of distress while urinating or if any blood is found in a wet diaper medical care should be sought.
Diaper Rash
A rash on the skin covered by a diaper is quite common. It is usually caused by irritation of the skin from being in contact with stool and urine. It can get worse during bouts of diarrhea. Diaper rash usually can be prevented by frequent diaper changes.
Jaundice
Jaundice can cause an infant's skin, eyes, and mouth to turn a yellowish color. The yellow color is caused by a buildup of bilirubin, a substance that is produced in the body during the normal process of breaking down old red blood cells and forming new ones.
Normally the liver removes bilirubin from the body. But, for many infants, in the first few days after birth, the liver is not yet working at its full power. As a result, the level of bilirubin in the blood gets too high, causing the infant's color to become slightly yellow—this is jaundice. Although jaundice is common and usually not serious, in some cases, high levels of bilirubin could cause brain injury. All infants with jaundice need to be seen by a health care provider. Many infants need no treatment. Their livers start to catch up quickly and begin to remove bilirubin normally, usually within a few days after birth. For some infants, health care providers prescribe phototherapy—a treatment using a special lamp—to help break down the bilirubin in their bodies.
Protecting Health through Immunization
One way we can protect a child’s health (and those around them) is through immunization. The vaccines (given through injection) may hurt a little...but the diseases they can prevent can hurt a lot more! Immunization shots, or vaccinations, are essential. They protect against things like measles, mumps, rubella, hepatitis B, polio, diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis (whooping cough). Immunizations are important for adults as well as for children. Here’s why.
The immune system helps the human body fight germs by producing substances to combat them. Once it does, the immune system “remembers” the germ and can fight it again. Vaccines contain germs that have been killed or weakened. When given to a healthy person, the vaccine triggers the immune system to respond and thus build immunity.
Before vaccines, people became immune only by actually getting a disease and surviving it. Immunizations are an easier and less risky way to become immune.
Vaccines are the best defense we have against serious, preventable, and sometimes deadly contagious diseases. Vaccines are some of the safest medical products available, but like any other medical product, there may be risks. Accurate information about the value of vaccines as well as their possible side effects helps people to make informed decisions about vaccination.
Potential Side Effects
Vaccines, like all medical products, may cause side effects in some people. Most of these side effects are minor, such as redness or swelling at the injection site. Read further to learn about possible side effects from vaccines.
Any vaccine can cause side effects. For the most part these are minor (for example, a sore arm or low-grade fever) and go away within a few days.53 Serious side effects after vaccination, such as severe allergic reaction, are very rare.54
Remember, vaccines are continually monitored for safety, and like any medication, vaccines can cause side effects. However, a decision not to immunize a child also involves risk and could put the child and others who come into contact with him or her at risk of contracting a potentially deadly disease.
How Well Do Vaccines Work?
Vaccines work really well. No medicine is perfect, of course, but most childhood vaccines produce immunity about 90–100% of the time.
What about the argument made by some people that vaccines don’t work that well . . . that diseases would be going away on their own because of better hygiene or sanitation, even if there were no vaccines?
That simply isn’t true. Certainly better hygiene and sanitation can help prevent the spread of disease, but the germs that cause disease will still be around, and as long as they are they will continue to make people sick.
All vaccines must be licensed (approved) by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) before being used in the United States, and a vaccine must go through extensive testing to show that it works and that it is safe before the FDA will approve it. Among these tests are clinical trials, which compare groups of people who get a vaccine with groups of people who get a control. A vaccine is approved only if FDA makes the determination that it is safe and effective for its intended use.
If you look at the history of any vaccine-preventable disease, you will virtually always see that the number of cases of disease starts to drop when a vaccine is licensed. Vaccines are the most effective tool we have to prevent infectious diseases.
Opposition to Vaccines
In 2010, a pertussis (whooping cough) outbreak in California sickened 9,143 people and resulted in 10 infant deaths: the worst outbreak in 63 years (Centers for Disease Control 2011b). Researchers, suspecting that the primary cause of the outbreak was the waning strength of pertussis vaccines in older children, recommended a booster vaccination for 11–12-year-olds and also for pregnant women (Zacharyczuk 2011). Pertussis most serious for babies; one in five needs to be hospitalized, and since they are too young for the vaccine themselves, it is crucial that people around them be immunized (Centers for Disease Control 2011b). Several states, including California, have been requiring the pertussis booster for older children in recent years with the hope of staving off another outbreak.
But what about people who do not want their children to have this vaccine, or any other? That question is at the heart of a debate that has been simmering for years. Vaccines are biological preparations that improve immunity against a certain disease. Vaccines have contributed to the eradication and weakening of numerous infectious diseases, including smallpox, polio, mumps, chicken pox, and meningitis.
However, many people express concern about potential negative side effects from vaccines. These concerns range from fears about overloading the child’s immune system to controversial reports about devastating side effects of the vaccines.56
Although children continue to get several vaccines up to their second birthday, these vaccines do not overload the immune system. Every day, an infant’s healthy immune system successfully fights off thousands of antigens – the parts of germs that cause their immune system to respond. Even if your child receives several vaccines in one day, vaccines contain only a tiny amount of antigens compared to the antigens your baby encounters every day.
This is the case even if your child receives combination vaccines. Combination vaccines take two or more vaccines that could be given individually and put them into one shot. Children get the same protection as they do from individual vaccines given separately—but with fewer shots.57
One misapprehension is that the vaccine itself might cause the disease it is supposed to be immunizing against.58 Vaccines help develop immunity by imitating an infection, but this “imitation” infection does not cause illness. Instead it causes the immune system to develop the same response as it does to a real infection so the body can recognize and fight the vaccine-preventable disease in the future. Sometimes, after getting a vaccine, the imitation infection can cause minor symptoms, such as fever. Such minor symptoms are normal and should be expected as the body builds immunity.59
Another commonly circulated concern is that vaccinations, specifically the MMR vaccine (MMR stands for measles, mumps, and rubella), are linked to autism. The autism connection has been particularly controversial. In 1998, a British physician named Andrew Wakefield published a study in Great Britain’s Lancet magazine that linked the MMR vaccine to autism. The report received a lot of media attention, resulting in British immunization rates decreasing from 91 percent in 1997 to almost 80 percent by 2003, accompanied by a subsequent rise in measles cases (Devlin 2008). A prolonged investigation by the British Medical Journal proved that not only was the link in the study nonexistent, but that Dr. Wakefield had falsified data in order to support his claims (CNN 2011). Dr. Wakefield was discredited and stripped of his license, but the doubt still lingers in many parents’ minds.
In the United States, many parents still believe in the now discredited MMR-autism link and refuse to vaccinate their children. Other parents choose not to vaccinate for various reasons like religious or health beliefs. In one instance, a boy whose parents opted not to vaccinate returned home to the U.S. after a trip abroad; no one yet knew he was infected with measles.
The boy exposed 839 people to the disease and caused 11 additional cases of measles, all in other unvaccinated children, including one infant who had to be hospitalized.
According to a study published in Pediatrics (2010), the outbreak cost the public sector \$10,376 per diagnosed case. The study further showed that the intentional non-vaccination of those infected occurred in students from private schools, public charter schools, and public schools in upper-socioeconomic areas (Sugerman et al. 2010).61
The Immunization Schedule
On-time vaccination throughout childhood is essential because it helps provide immunity before children are exposed to potentially life-threatening diseases. Vaccines are tested to ensure that they are safe and effective for children to receive at the recommended ages.62 Fully vaccinated children in the U.S. are protected against sixteen potentially harmful diseases. Vaccine-preventable diseases can be very serious, may require hospitalization, or even be deadly — especially in infants and young children.63
Here is the schedule from the CDC to ensure a child is fully vaccinated:
Safety
There are different risks to infant safety. According to the CDC, nonfatal injury rates varied by age group.
• Nonfatal suffocation rates were highest for those less than 1 year of age.
• Rates for fires or burns, and drowning were highest for children 4 years and younger.
• Children 1 to 4 years of age had the highest rates of nonfatal falls and poisoning.
And the leading causes of injury death also differed by age group.
• For children less than 1 year of age, two–thirds of injury deaths were due to suffocation.
• Drowning was the leading cause of injury or death for those 1 to 4 years of age.66
car seat safety
Motor vehicle injuries are a leading cause of death among children in the United States. But many of these deaths can be prevented.
• In the United States, 723 children ages 12 years and younger died as occupants in motor vehicle crashes during 2016, and more than 128,000 were injured in 2016.
• One CDC study found that, in one year, more than 618,000 children ages 0-12 rode in vehicles without the use of a child safety seat or booster seat or a seat belt at least some of the time.
• Of the children ages 12 years and younger who died in a crash in 2016 (for which restraint use was known), 35% were not buckled up.67
Buckling children in age- and size-appropriate car seats, booster seats, and seat belts reduces the risk of serious and fatal injuries:
• Car seat use reduces the risk of injury in a crash by 71-82% for children when compared to seat belt use alone.
• Booster seat use reduces the risk for serious injury by 45% for children aged 4–8 years when compared with seat belt use alone.
• For older children and adults, seat belt use reduces the risk of death and serious injury by approximately half.68
Contributors and Attributions
46. Coping with Crying 3 PSA by the CDC is in the public domain
47. Shaken Baby Syndrome by the CDC is in the public domain
49. Preventing Abusive Head Trauma in Children by the CDC is in the public domain
53. Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles references Contemporary Health Issues by Judy Baker, Ph.D., licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
54. Making the Vaccine Decision by the CDC is in the public domain
56. Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles references Contemporary Health Issues by Judy Baker, Ph.D., licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
57. Making the Vaccine Decision by the CDC is in the public domain
58. Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles references Contemporary Health Issues by Judy Baker, Ph.D., licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
59. Making the Vaccine Decision by the CDC is in the public domain
61. Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles references Contemporary Health Issues by Judy Baker, Ph.D., licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
62. For Parents: Vaccines for Your Children by the CDC is in the public domain
63. Vaccines for Your Children: Protect Your Child at Every Age by the CDC is in the public domain
66. Protect the Ones You Love: Child Injuries are Preventable by the CDC is in the public domain
67. Child Passenger Safety: Get the Facts by the CDC is in the public domain
68. Child Passenger Safety: Get the Facts by the CDC is in the public domain | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/04%3A_Physical_Development_in_Infancy_and_Toddlerhood/4.08%3A_Health.txt |
A newborn typically sleeps approximately 16.5 hours per 24-hour period. This is usually polyphasic sleep in that the infant is accumulating the 16.5 hours over several sleep periods throughout the day (Salkind, 2005). The infant is averaging 15 hours per 24-hour period by one month, and 14 hours by 6 months. By the time children turn two, they are averaging closer to 10 hours per 24 hours. Additionally, the average newborn will spend close to 50% of the sleep time in the Rapid Eye Movement (REM) phase, which decreases to 25% to 30% in childhood.70
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome and Safe Sleep
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) is identified when the death of a healthy infant occurs suddenly and unexpectedly, and medical and forensic investigation findings (including an autopsy) are inconclusive. SIDS is the leading cause of death in infants 1 to 12 months old, and approximately 1,500 infants died of SIDS in 2013 (CDC, 2015). Because SIDS is diagnosed when no other cause of death can be determined, possible causes of SIDS are regularly researched. One leading hypothesis suggests that infants who die from SIDS have abnormalities in the area of the brainstem responsible for regulating breathing (Weekes-Shackelford & Shackelford, 2005).71
Risk Factors Babies are at higher risk for SIDS if they:
• Sleep on their stomachs
• Sleep on soft surfaces, such as an adult mattress, couch, or chair or under soft coverings
• Sleep on or under soft or loose bedding
• Get too hot during sleep.
• Are exposed to cigarette smoke in the womb or in their environment, such as at home, in the car, in the bedroom, or other areas
• Sleep in an adult bed with parents, other children, or pets; this situation is especially dangerous if:
• The adult smokes, has recently had alcohol, or is tired.
• The baby is covered by a blanket or quilt.
• The baby sleeps with more than one bed-sharer.
• The baby is younger than 11 to 14 weeks of age.
Reducing the Risks There have been dramatic improvements in reducing baby deaths during sleep since the 1990s, when recommendations were introduced to place babies on their back for sleep. However, since the late 1990s, declines have slowed.
In 2012, the Back to Sleep campaign became the Safe to Sleep campaign. Safe to Sleep aims to educate all caregivers about SIDS and safe sleep practices. Current recommendations to reduce the risk of SIDS and other sleep-related causes of infant death:
• Always place baby on his or her back to sleep (for naps and at night).
• Use a firm and flat surface.
• Use only a tight fitting sheet on the sleep surface; no other bedding or soft items in the sleep area.
• Breastfeed.
• Share your room with a baby, but on a separate surface designed for infants (not your bed).
• Do not put soft objects, toys, crib bumpers, or loose bedding under, over, or anywhere near baby’s sleep area.
• Do no smoke during pregnancy or allow smoking around baby.
• Consider giving baby a pacifier.
• Do not let baby get too hot during sleep.
• Get regular health care (including vaccines).
• Avoid products that go against safe sleep recommendations, especially those that claim to prevent or reduce the risk of SIDS.
• Do not use heart or breathing monitors to reduce the risk of SIDS. 74
Contributors and Attributions
70. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
71. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
74. Ways to Reduce the Risk of SIDS and Other Sleep-Related Causes of Infant Death by the CDC is in the public domain
4.S: Summary
In this chapter we looked at:
• Physical changes during the first two years
• Some common infant reflexes
• How fine and gross motor skills develop
• Sensory capacities during the first two years
• Health and safety for infants and toddlers
• The sleep needs during the first two years and ways to reduce the risk of SIDS
In the next chapter we are going to be taking a closer look at theories that help us explain the cognitive and language development during infancy and toddlerhood. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/04%3A_Physical_Development_in_Infancy_and_Toddlerhood/4.09%3A_Sleep.txt |
Learning Objectives
After this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe the substages of the Piaget’s sensorimotor stage.
2. Explain how the social environment affects cognitive development according to Vygotsky’s theory.
3. Discuss the progression of language development during the first two years.
4. Compare the theories of language development.
5. Define classical and operant conditioning.
6. Summarize the different types of memory
In an effort to better understand the large spectrum of cognition that infants and toddlers go through, it is important to analyze and comprehend various theories that relate to their growth and development. This chapter will take a look at the following theorists: Piaget, Vygotsky, Chomsky, Skinner, Pavlov, Watson, Bandura, and Bronfenbrenner.
• 5.1: Piaget
Jean Piaget is the most noted theorist when it comes to children's cognitive development. He believed that children's cognition develops in stages. He explained this growth in the following stages: Sensory Motor Stage (Birth through 2 years old), Preoperational Stage (2-7 years old), Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years old), and Formal Operational Stage (12 years old- adulthood).
• 5.2: Vygotsky
Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) had come to similar conclusions as Piaget about children’s development, in thinking that children learned about the world through physical interaction with it. However, where Piaget felt that children moved naturally through different stages of development, based on biological predispositions and their own individual interactions with the world, Vygotsky claimed that adult or peer intervention was a much more important part of the developmental process.
• 5.3: Cognitive Milestones
Children are actively learning about the world as they perceive it from the time they are in the womb. Here is a table of some of the cognitive milestones infants and toddlers typically develop.
• 5.4: Language Development
Do newborns communicate? Absolutely! However, they do not communicate with the use of language. Instead, they communicate their thoughts and needs with body posture (being relaxed or still), gestures, cries, and facial expressions. A person who spends adequate time with an infant can learn which cries indicate pain and which ones indicate hunger, discomfort, or frustration as well as translate their vocalizations, movements, gestures and facial expressions.
• 5.5: Theories of Cognitive Development, Learning, and Memory
Three cognitive Development theories: Classical conditioning is a form of learning whereby a conditioned stimulus becomes associated with an unrelated unconditioned stimulus, in order to produce a behavioral response known as a conditioned response. In operant conditioning theory, new or continued behaviors are impacted by new or continued consequences. Social learning theory argues that many of our actions are not learned through conditioning; rather, they are learned by watching others.
• 5.6: Memory and Attention
Long-term memory is the final, semi-permanent stage of memory. Unlike sensory and short-term memory, long-term memory has a theoretically infinite capacity, and information can remain there indefinitely. Long-term memory has also been called reference memory, because an individual must refer to the information in long-term memory when performing almost any task. Long-term memory can be broken down into two categories: explicit and implicit memory.
• 5.S: Summary
Thumbnail: pixabay.com/photos/music-kid...ophone-818459/
05: Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
Jean Piaget is the most noted theorist when it comes to children's cognitive development. He believed that children's cognition develops in stages. He explained this growth in the following stages:
1. Sensory Motor Stage (Birth through 2 years old)
2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years old)
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years old)
4. Formal Operational Stage (12 years old- adulthood)
In this cognitive chapter we will focus on his first stage which occurs in infancy.1
Piaget and Sensorimotor Intelligence
Piaget describes intelligence in infancy as sensorimotor or based on direct, physical contact. Infants taste, feel, pound, push, hear, and move in order to experience the world. Let’s explore the transition infants make from responding to the external world reflexively as newborns to solving problems using mental strategies as two years old.
Table \(1\): Substages of Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage2
Substage Age Description
Substage One: Simple Reflexes Birth to 1 month This active learning begins with automatic movements or reflexes. A ball comes into contact with an infant’s cheek and is automatically sucked on and licked.
Substage Two: Primary Circular Reactions 1 to 4 months The infant begins to discriminate between objects and adjust responses accordingly as reflexes are replaced with voluntary movements. An infant may accidentally engage in a behavior and find it interesting such as making a vocalization. This interest motivates trying to do it again and helps the infant learn a new behavior that originally occurred by chance. At first, most actions have to do with the body, but in months to come, will be directed more toward objects.
Substage Three: Secondary Circular Reactions 4 to 8 months The infant becomes more and more actively engaged in the outside world and takes delight in being able to make things happen. Repeated motion brings particular interest as the infant is able to bang two lids together from the cupboard when seated on the kitchen floor.
Substage Four: Coordination of circular reactions 8 to 12 months The infant can engage in behaviors that others perform and anticipate upcoming events. Perhaps because of continued maturation of the prefrontal cortex, the infant becomes capable of having a thought and carrying out a planned, goal-directed activity such as seeking a toy that has rolled under the couch. The object continues to exist in the infant’s mind even when out of sight and the infant now is capable of making attempts to retrieve it.
Substage Five: Tertiary Circular Reactions 12 to 18 months The infant more actively engages in experimentation to learn about the physical world. Gravity is learned by pouring water from a cup or pushing bowls from high chairs. The caregiver tries to help the child by picking it up again and placing it on the tray. And what happens? Another experiment! The child pushes it off the tray again causing it to fall and the caregiver to pick it up again!
Substage Six: Internalization of Schemes and Early Representational thought 18 months to 2 years
The child is now able to solve problems using mental strategies, to remember something heard days before and repeat it, to engage in pretend play, and to find objects that have been moved even when out of sight. Take for instance, the child who is upstairs in a room with the door closed, supposedly taking a nap. The doorknob has a safety device on it that makes it impossible for the child to turn the knob. After trying several times in vain to push the door or turn the doorknob, the child carries out a mental strategy learned from prior experience to get the door opened-he knocks on the door! The child is now better equipped with mental strategies for problem- solving.
Evaluating Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
Piaget opened up a new way of looking at infants with his view that their main task is to coordinate their sensory impressions with their motor activity. However, the infant’s cognitive world is not as neatly packaged as Piaget portrayed it, and some of Piaget’s explanations for the cause of change are debated. In the past several decades, sophisticated experimental techniques have been devised to study infants, and there have been a large number of research studies on infant development. Much of the new research suggests that Piaget’s view of sensorimotor development needs to be modified (Baillargeon, 2014; Brooks & Meltzoff, 2014; Johnson & Hannon, 2015).
Object Permanence
One necessary modification would be to when children develop object permanence. Infants seem to be able to recognize that objects have permanence at much younger ages than Piaget proposed (even as young as 3.5 months of age).
The A-not-B Error
The data does not always support Piaget’s claim that certain processes are crucial in transitions from one stage to the next. For example, in Piaget’s theory, an important feature in the progression into substage 4, coordination of secondary circular reactions, is an infant’s inclination to search for a hidden object in a familiar location rather than to look for the object in a new location. Thus, if a toy is hidden twice, initially at location A and subsequently at location B, 8- to 12-month-old infants search correctly at location A initially. But when the toy is subsequently hidden at location B, they make the mistake of continuing to search for it at location A. A-not-B error is the term used to describe this common mistake. Older infants are less likely to make the A-not-B error because their concept of object permanence is more complete.
Researchers have found, however, that the A-not-B error does not show up consistently (Sophian, 1985). The evidence indicates that A-not-B errors are sensitive to the delay between hiding the object at B and the infant’s attempt to find it (Diamond, 1985). Thus, the A-not-B error might be due to a failure in memory. Another explanation is that infants tend to repeat a previous motor behavior (Clearfield & others, 2006; Smith, 1999). | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/05%3A_Cognitive_Development_in_Infancy_and_Toddlerhood/5.01%3A_Piaget.txt |
Development is Determined By Environmental Factors
Piaget set the tone for much of current-day research but his theory has also received a great deal of criticism. Many believe that Piaget ignored the huge influence that society and culture have in shaping a child’s development. At a similar time, another researcher named Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) had come to similar conclusions as Piaget about children’s development, in thinking that children learned about the world through physical interaction with it. However, where Piaget felt that children moved naturally through different stages of development, based on biological predispositions and their own individual interactions with the world, Vygotsky claimed that adult or peer intervention was a much more important part of the developmental process.
Vygotsky concentrated more on the child’s immediate social and cultural environment and his or her interactions with adults and peers. He argued that development occurred first through children’s immediate social interactions, and then moved to the individual level as they began to internalize their learning. While Piaget saw the child as actively discovering the world through individual interactions with it, Vygotsky saw the child as more of an apprentice, learning through a social environment of others who had more experience and were sensitive to the child’s needs and abilities. 4
5.03: Cognitive Milestones
Children are actively learning about the world as they perceive it from the time they are in the womb. Here is a table of some of the cognitive milestones infants and toddlers typically develop.
Table \(1\): Cognitive Milestones (Developmental Milestones by the CDC is in the public domain)
Typical Age What Most Children Do by This Age
2 months
• Pays attention to faces
• Begins to follow things with eyes and recognize people at a distance
• Begins to act bored (cries, fussy) if activity doesn’t change
4 months
• Lets you know if she is happy or sad
• Responds to affection
• Reaches for toy with one hand
• Uses hands and eyes together, such as seeing a toy and reaching for it
• Follows moving things with eyes from side to side
• Watches faces closely
• Recognizes familiar people and things at a distance
6 months
• Looks around at things nearby
• Brings things to mouth
• Shows curiosity about things and tries to get things that are out of reach
• Begins to pass things from one hand to the other
9 months
• Watches the path of something as it falls
• Looks for things he sees you hide
• Plays peek-a-boo
• Puts things in mouth
• Moves things smoothly from one hand to the other
• Picks up things like cereal o’s between thumb and index finger
1 year
• Explores things in different ways, like shaking, banging, throwing
• Finds hidden things easily
• Looks at the right picture or thing when it’s named
• Copies gestures
• Starts to use things correctly; for example, drinks from a cup, brushes hair
• Bangs two things together
• Puts things in a container, takes things out of a container
• Lets things go without help
• Pokes with index (pointer) finger
• Follows simple directions like “pick up the toy”
18 months
• Knows what ordinary things are for; for example, telephone, brush, spoon
• Points to get the attention of others
• Shows interest in a doll or stuffed animal by pretending to feed
• Points to one body part
• Scribbles on own
• Can follow 1-step verbal commands without any gestures; for example, sits when you say “sit down”
2 years
• Finds things even when hidden under two or three covers
• Begins to sort shapes and colors
• Completes sentences and rhymes in familiar books
• Plays simple make-believe games
• Builds towers of 4 or more blocks
• Might use one hand more than the other
• Follows two-step instructions such as “Pick up your shoes and put them in the closet.”
• Names items in a picture book such as a cat, bird, or dog | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/05%3A_Cognitive_Development_in_Infancy_and_Toddlerhood/5.02%3A_Vygotsky.txt |
Do newborns communicate? Absolutely! However, they do not communicate with the use of language. Instead, they communicate their thoughts and needs with body posture (being relaxed or still), gestures, cries, and facial expressions. A person who spends adequate time with an infant can learn which cries indicate pain and which ones indicate hunger, discomfort, or frustration as well as translate their vocalizations, movements, gestures and facial expressions.
Stages of Language Development
1. Intentional Vocalizations: Cooing and taking turns: Infants begin to vocalize and repeat vocalizations within the first couple of months of life. That gurgling, musical vocalization called cooing can serve as a source of entertainment to an infant who has been laid down for a nap or seated in a carrier on a car ride. Cooing serves as practice for vocalization as well as the infant hears the sound of his or her own voice and tries to repeat sounds that are entertaining. Infants also begin to learn the pace and pause of conversation as they alternate their vocalization with that of someone else and then take their turn again when the other person’s vocalization has stopped. Cooing initially involves making vowel sounds like “oooo”. Later, consonants are added to vocalizations such as “nananananana”.
2. Babbling and gesturing: At about four to six months of age, infants begin making even more elaborate vocalizations that include the sounds required for any language. Guttural sounds, clicks, consonants, and vowel sounds stand ready to equip the child with the ability to repeat whatever sounds are characteristic of the language heard. Eventually, these sounds will no longer be used as the infant grows more accustomed to a particular language. Deaf babies also use gestures to communicate wants, reactions, and feelings. Because gesturing seems to be easier than vocalization for some toddlers, sign language is sometimes taught to enhance one’s ability to communicate by making use of the ease of gesturing. The rhythm and pattern of language is used when deaf babies sign just as it is when hearing babies babble.
3. Understanding: At around ten months of age, the infant can understand more than he or she can say. You may have experienced this phenomenon as well if you have ever tried to learn a second language. You may have been able to follow a conversation more easily than to contribute to it.
4. Holophrastic speech: Children begin using their first words at about 12 or 13 months of age and may use partial words to convey thoughts at even younger ages. These one word expressions are referred to as holophrastic speech. For example, the child may say “ju” for the word “juice” and use this sound when referring to a bottle. The listener must interpret the meaning of the holophrase and when this is someone who has spent time with the child, interpretation is not too difficult. They know that “ju” means “juice” which means the baby wants some milk! But, someone who has not been around the child will have trouble knowing what is meant. Imagine the parent who to a friend exclaims, “Ezra’s talking all the time now!” The friend hears only “ju da ga” which, the parent explains, means “I want some milk when I go with Daddy.”
5. Underextension: A child who learns that a word stands for an object may initially think that the word can be used for only that particular object. Only the family’s Irish Setter is a “doggie”. This is referred to as underextension. More often, however, a child may think that a label applies to all objects that are similar to the original object. In overextension all animals become “doggies”, for example.
6. First words and cultural influences: First words if the child is using English tend to be nouns. The child labels objects such as cup or ball. In a verb-friendly language such as Chinese, however, children may learn more verbs. This may also be due to the different emphasis given to objects based on culture. Chinese children may be taught to notice action and relationship between objects while children from the United States may be taught to name an object and its qualities (color, texture, size, etc.). These differences can be seen when comparing interpretations of art by older students from China and the United States.
7. Vocabulary growth spurt: One year olds typically have a vocabulary of about 50 words. But by the time they become toddlers, they have a vocabulary of about 200 words and begin putting those words together in telegraphic speech (I think of it now as 'text message' speech because texting is more common and is similar in that text messages typically only include the minimal amount of words to convey the message).
8. Two word sentences and telegraphic speech: Words are soon combined and 18 month old toddlers can express themselves further by using expressions such as “baby bye- bye” or “doggie pretty”. Words needed to convey messages are used, but the articles and other parts of speech necessary for grammatical correctness are not yet used. These expressions sound like a telegraph (or perhaps a better analogy today would be that they read like a text message) where unnecessary words are not used. “Give baby ball” is used rather than “Give the baby the ball.” Or a text message of “Send money now!” rather than “Dear Mother. I really need some money to take care of my expenses.”9
Language Milestones
In the first two years of life, children go from communicating by crying to being able to express themselves with words. Here is a table of common language milestones for infants and toddlers.
Table \(1\): Language Milestones (Developmental Milestones by the CDC is in the public domain)
Typical Age What Most Children Do By This Age
2 months
• Coos, makes gurgling sounds
• Turns head toward sounds
4 months
• Begins to babble
• Babbles with expression and copies sounds he hears
• Cries in different ways to show hunger, pain, or being tired
6 months
• Responds to sounds by making sounds
• Strings vowels together when babbling (“ah,” “eh,” “oh”) and likes taking turns with parent while making sounds
• Responds to own name
• Makes sounds to show joy and displeasure
• Begins to say consonant sounds (jabbering with “m,” “b”)
9 months
• Understands “no”
• Makes a lot of different sounds like “mamamama” and “bababababa”
• Copies sounds and gestures of others
• Uses fingers to point at things
1 year
• Responds to simple spoken requests
• Uses simple gestures, like shaking head “no” or waving “bye-bye”
• Makes sounds with changes in tone (sounds more like speech)
• Says “mama” and “dada” and exclamations like “uh-oh!”
• Tries to say words you say
18 months
• Says several single words
• Says and shakes head now
• Points to show others what is wanted
2 years
• Points to things or pictures when they are named
• Knows names of familiar people and body parts
• Says sentences with 2 to 4 words
• Follows simple instructions
• Repeats words overheard in conversation
• Points to things in a book
Child-Directed Speech
Why is a horse a “horsie”? Have you ever wondered why adults tend to use “baby talk” or that sing-song type of intonation and exaggeration used when talking to children? This represents a universal tendency and is known as child-directed speech or parentheses (historically referred to as motherese). It involves exaggerating the vowel and consonant sounds, using a high-pitched voice, and delivering the phrase with great facial expression. Why is this done? It may be in order to clearly articulate the sounds of a word so that the child can hear the sounds involved. Or it may be because when this type of speech is used, the infant pays more attention to the speaker and this sets up a pattern of interaction in which the speaker and listener are in tuned with one another. 12
Theories of Language Development
The following two theories of language development represent two extremes in the level of interaction required for language to occur (Berk, 2007).
Chomsky and the Language Acquisition Device
The view known as nativism advocated by Noam Chomsky suggests that infants are equipped with a neurological construct referred to as the language acquisition device or LAD that makes infants ready for language. Language develops as long as the infant is exposed to it. No teaching, training, or reinforcement is required for language to develop.
Social Pragmatics
Another view emphasizes the child’s active engagement in learning language out of a need to communicate. The child seeks information, memorizes terms, imitates the speech heard from others and learns to conceptualize using words as language is acquired. Many would argue that all three of these dynamics foster the acquisition of language (Berger, 2004)13
Contributors and Attributions
9. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
12. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
13. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/05%3A_Cognitive_Development_in_Infancy_and_Toddlerhood/5.04%3A_Language_Development.txt |
Pavlov
Ivan Pavlov (1880-1937) was a Russian physiologist interested in studying digestion. As he recorded the amount of salivation his laboratory dogs produced as they ate, he noticed that they actually began to salivate before the food arrived as the researcher walked down the hall and toward the cage. The dogs knew that the food was coming because they had learned to associate the footsteps with the food. The keyword here is “learned”. A learned response is called a “conditioned” response.
Pavlov began to experiment with this “psychic” reflex. He began to ring a bell, for instance, prior to introducing the food. Sure enough, after making this connection several times, the dogs could be made to salivate to the sound of a bell. Once the bell had become an event to which the dogs had learned to salivate, it was called a conditioned stimulus. The act of salivating to a bell was a response that had also been learned, now termed in Pavlov’s jargon, a conditioned response.
Notice that the response, salivation, is the same whether it is conditioned or unconditioned (unlearned or natural). What changed is the stimulus to which the dog salivates. One is natural (unconditioned) and one is learned (conditioned).
Let’s think about how classical conditioning is used on us. One of the most widespread applications of classical conditioning principles was brought to us by the psychologist, John B. Watson.15
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a form of learning whereby a conditioned stimulus (CS) becomes associated with an unrelated unconditioned stimulus (US), in order to produce a behavioral response known as a conditioned response (CR). The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus is usually a biologically significant stimulus such as food or pain that elicits an unconditioned response (UR) from the start. The conditioned stimulus is usually neutral and produces no particular response at first, but after conditioning, it elicits the conditioned response.
If we look at Pavlov's experiment, we can identify these four factors at work:
• The unconditioned response was the salivation of dogs in response to seeing or smelling their food.
• The unconditioned stimulus was the sight or smell of the food itself.
• The conditioned stimulus was the ringing of the bell. During conditioning, every time the animal was given food, the bell was rung. This was repeated during several trials. After some time, the dog learned to associate the ringing of the bell with food and to respond by salivating. After the conditioning period was finished, the dog would respond by salivating when the bell was rung, even when the unconditioned stimulus (the food) was absent.
• The conditioned response, therefore, was the salivation of the dogs in response to the conditioned stimulus (the ringing of the bell).16
Neurological Response to Conditioning
Consider how the conditioned response occurs in the brain. When a dog sees food, the visual and olfactory stimuli send information to the brain through their respective neural pathways, ultimately activating the salivary glands to secrete saliva. This reaction is a natural biological process as saliva aids in the digestion of food. When a dog hears a buzzer and at the same time sees food, the auditory stimuli activates the associated neural pathways. However, since these pathways are being activated at the same time as the other neural pathways, there are weak synapse reactions that occur between the auditory stimuli and the behavioral response. Over time, these synapses are strengthened so that it only takes the sound of a buzzer to activate the pathway leading to salivation.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a theory of behaviorism, a learning perspective that focuses on changes in an individual's observable behaviors. In operant conditioning theory, new or continued behaviors are impacted by new or continued consequences. Research regarding this principle of learning was first studied by Edward L. Thorndike in the late 1800's, then brought to popularity by B.F. Skinner in the mid-1900's. Much of this research informs current practices in human behavior and interaction.
Skinner's Research
Thorndike's initial research was highly influential on another psychologist, B.F. Skinner. Almost half a century after Thorndike's first publication of the principles of operant conditioning, Skinner attempted to prove an extension to this theory—that all behaviors were in some way a result of operant conditioning. Skinner theorized that if a behavior is followed by reinforcement, that behavior is more likely to be repeated, but if it is followed by punishment, it is less likely to be repeated. He also believed that this learned association could end, or become extinct if the reinforcement or punishment was removed.
To prove this, he placed rats in a box with a lever that when tapped would release a pellet of food. Over time, the amount of time it took for the rat to find the lever and press it became shorter and shorter until finally, the rat would spend most of its time near the lever eating. This behavior became less consistent when the relationship between the lever and the food was compromised. This basic theory of operant conditioning is still used by psychologists, scientists, and educators today.
Shaping, Reinforcement Principles, and Schedules of Reinforcement
Operant conditioning can be viewed as a process of action and consequence. Skinner used this basic principle to study the possible scope and scale of the influence of operant conditioning on animal behavior. His experiments used shaping, reinforcement, and reinforcement schedules in order to prove the importance of the relationship that animals form between behaviors and results.
All of these practices concern the setup of an experiment. Shaping is the conditioning paradigm of an experiment. The form of the experiment in successive trials is gradually changed to elicit a desired target behavior. This is accomplished through reinforcement, or reward, of the segments of the target behavior, and can be tested using a large variety of actions and rewards. The experiments were taken a step further to include different schedules of reinforcement that become more complicated as the trials continued. By testing different reinforcement schedules, Skinner learned valuable information about the best ways to encourage a specific behavior, or the most effective ways to create a long-lasting behavior. Much of this research has been replicated on humans, and now informs practices in various environments of human behavior.17
Positive and Negative Reinforcement
Sometimes, adding something to the situation is reinforcing as in the cases we described above with cookies, praise and money. Positive reinforcement involves adding something to the situation in order to encourage a behavior. Other times, taking something away from a situation can be reinforcing. For example, the loud, annoying buzzer on your alarm clock encourages you to get up so that you can turn it off and get rid of the noise. Children whine in order to get their parents to do something and often, parents give in just to stop the whining. In these instances, negative reinforcement has been used.
Operant conditioning tends to work best if you focus on trying to encourage a behavior or move a person into the direction you want them to go rather than telling them what not to do. Reinforcers are used to encourage a behavior; punishers are used to stop behavior. A punisher is anything that follows an act and decreases the chance it will reoccur. But often a punished behavior doesn’t really go away. It is just suppressed and may reoccur whenever the threat of punishment is removed. For example, a child may not cuss around you because you’ve washed his mouth out with soap, but he may cuss around his friends. Or a motorist may only slow down when the trooper is on the side of the freeway. Another problem with punishment is that when a person focuses on punishment, they may find it hard to see what the other does right or well. And punishment is stigmatizing; when punished, some start to see themselves as bad and give up trying to change.
Reinforcement can occur in a predictable way, such as after every desired action is performed, or intermittently, after the behavior is performed a number of times or the first time it is performed after a certain amount of time. The schedule of reinforcement has an impact on how long a behavior continues after reinforcement is discontinued. So a parent who has rewarded a child’s actions each time may find that the child gives up very quickly if a reward is not immediately forthcoming. Think about the kinds of behaviors that may be learned through classical and operant conditioning. But sometimes very complex behaviors are learned quickly and without direct reinforcement. Bandura’s Social Learning covered later in the chapter explains how.19
Watson and Behaviorism
Another theorist who added to the spectrum of the behavioral movement was John B. Watson. Watson believed that most of our fears and other emotional responses are classically conditioned. He had gained a good deal of popularity in the 1920s with his expert advice on parenting offered to the public. He believed that parents could be taught to help shape their children’s behavior and tried to demonstrate the power of classical conditioning with his famous experiment with an 18 month old boy named “Little Albert”. Watson sat Albert down and introduced a variety of seemingly scary objects to him: a burning piece of newspaper, a white rat, etc. But Albert remained curious and reached for all of these things. Watson knew that one of our only inborn fears is the fear of loud noises so he proceeded to make a loud noise each time he introduced one of Albert’s favorites, a white rat. After hearing the loud noise several times paired with the rat, Albert soon came to fear the rat and began to cry when it was introduced.
Watson filmed this experiment for posterity and used it to demonstrate that he could help parents achieve any outcomes they desired, if they would only follow his advice. Watson wrote columns in newspapers and in magazines and gained a lot of popularity among parents eager to apply science to household order. Parenting advice was not the legacy Watson left us, however. Where he really made his impact was in advertising. After Watson left academia, he went into the world of business and showed companies how to tie something that brings about a natural positive feeling to their products to enhance sales. Thus the union of sex and advertising!20 Sometimes we do things because we’ve seen it pay off for someone else. They were operantly conditioned, but we engage in the behavior because we hope it will pay off for us as well. This is referred to as vicarious reinforcement (Bandura, Ross and Ross, 1963).
Do parents socialize children or do children socialize parents?
Bandura (1986) suggests that there is interplay between the environment and the individual. We are not just the product of our surroundings, rather we influence our surroundings. There is interplay between our personality and the way we interpret events and how they influence us. This concept is called reciprocal determinism. An example of this might be the interplay between parents and children. Parents not only influence their child’s environment, perhaps intentionally through the use of reinforcement, etc., but children influence parents as well. Parents may respond differently with their first child than with their fourth. Perhaps they try to be the perfect parents with their firstborn, but by the time their last child comes along they have very different expectations both of themselves and their child. Our environment creates us and we create our environment.
Social Learning Theory
Albert Bandura is a leading contributor to social learning theory. He calls our attention to the ways in which many of our actions are not learned through conditioning; rather, they are learned by watching others (1977). Young children frequently learn behaviors through imitation. Sometimes, particularly when we do not know what else to do, we learn by modeling or copying the behavior of others. A new employee, on his or her first day of a new job might eagerly look at how others are acting and try to act the same way to fit in more quickly. Adolescents struggling with their identity rely heavily on their peers to act as role-models. Newly married couples often rely on roles they may have learned from their parents and begin to act in ways they did not while dating and then wonder why their relationship has changed.
Contributors and Attributions
15. Lifespan Development - Module 4: Infancy by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
16. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
17. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
19. Lifespan Development - Module 4: Infancy by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
20. Lifespan Development - Module 4: Infancy by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/05%3A_Cognitive_Development_in_Infancy_and_Toddlerhood/5.05%3A_Theories_of_Cognitive_Development_Learning_and_Memory.txt |
If we want to remember something tomorrow, we have to consolidate it into long-term memory today. Long-term memory is the final, semi-permanent stage of memory. Unlike sensory and short-term memory, long-term memory has a theoretically infinite capacity, and information can remain there indefinitely. Long-term memory has also been called reference memory, because an individual must refer to the information in long-term memory when performing almost any task. Long-term memory can be broken down into two categories: explicit and implicit memory.
Explicit Memory
Explicit memory, also known as conscious or declarative memory, involves memory of facts, concepts, and events that require conscious recall of the information. In other words, the individual must actively think about retrieving the information from memory. This type of information is explicitly stored and retrieved—hence its name. Explicit memory can be further subdivided into semantic memory, which concerns facts, and episodic memory, which concerns primarily personal or autobiographical information.
Episodic Memory
Episodic memory is used for more contextualized memories. They are generally memories of specific moments, or episodes, in one's life. As such, they include sensations and emotions associated with the event, in addition to the who, what, where, and when of what happened. An example of an episodic memory would be recalling your family's trip to the beach. Autobiographical memory (memory for particular events in one's own life) is generally viewed as either equivalent to, or a subset of, episodic memory. One specific type of autobiographical memory is a flashbulb memory, which is a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid "snapshot" of the moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising and consequential (or emotionally arousing) news was heard. For example, many people remember exactly where they were and what they were doing when they heard of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. This is because it is a flashbulb memory.
Semantic and episodic memory are closely related; memory for facts can be enhanced with episodic memories associated with the fact, and vice versa. For example, the answer to the factual question "Are all apples red?" might be recalled by remembering the time you saw someone eating a green apple. Likewise, semantic memories about certain topics, such as football, can contribute to more detailed episodic memories of a particular personal event, like watching a football game. A person that barely knows the rules of football will remember the various plays and outcomes of the game in much less detail than a football expert.
Implicit Memory
In contrast to explicit (conscious) memory, implicit (also called "unconscious" or "procedural") memory involves procedures for completing actions. These actions develop with practice over time. Athletic skills are one example of implicit memory. You learn the fundamentals of a sport, practice them over and over, and then they flow naturally during a game. Rehearsing for a dance or musical performance is another example of implicit memory. Everyday examples include remembering how to tie your shoes, drive a car, or ride a bicycle. These memories are accessed without conscious awareness—they are automatically translated into actions without us even realizing it. As such, they can often be difficult to teach or explain to other people. Implicit memories differ from the semantic scripts described above in that they are usually actions that involve movement and motor coordination, whereas scripts tend to emphasize social norms or behaviors.
Short-Term Memory Storage
Short-term memory is the ability to hold information for a short duration of time (on the order of seconds). In the process of encoding, information enters the brain and can be quickly forgotten if it is not stored further in the short-term memory. George A. Miller suggested that the capacity of short-term memory storage is approximately seven items plus or minus two, but modern researchers are showing that this can vary depending on variables like the stored items' phonological properties. When several elements (such as digits, words, or pictures) are held in short-term memory simultaneously, their representations compete with each other for recall, or degrade each other. Thereby, new content gradually pushes out older content, unless the older content is actively protected against interference by rehearsal or by directing attention to it.
Information in the short-term memory is readily accessible, but for only a short time. It continuously decays, so in the absence of rehearsal (keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it) it can be forgotten.
Long-Term Memory Storage
In contrast to short-term memory, long-term memory is the ability to hold semantic information for a prolonged period of time. Items stored in short-term memory move to long-term memory through rehearsal, processing, and use. The capacity of long-term memory storage is much greater than that of short-term memory, and perhaps unlimited. However, the duration of long-term memories is not permanent; unless a memory is occasionally recalled, it may fail to be recalled on later occasions. This is known as forgetting.
Long-term memory storage can be affected by traumatic brain injury or lesions. Amnesia, a deficit in memory, can be caused by brain damage. Anterograde amnesia is the inability to store new memories; retrograde amnesia is the inability to retrieve old memories. These types of amnesia indicate that memory does have a storage process.25
Contributors and Attributions
1. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
5.S: Summary
In this chapter we looked at:
• Piaget’s sensorimotor stage.
• The impact of the social environment on children’s learning.
• The progression and theories of language development.
• Classical and operant conditioning and systems of reinforcement.
• The types of memory and how they work together.
In the following chapter, we will finish looking at the first two years of life by examining social and emotional development, including temperament and attachment. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/05%3A_Cognitive_Development_in_Infancy_and_Toddlerhood/5.06%3A_Memory_and_Attention.txt |
Learning Objectives
After this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Classify types of temperament.
2. Discuss the roles of culture and gender in socialization.
3. Describe the sequence of emotional development during the first two years.
4. Compare different theories of attachment and attachment styles.
5. Explain Erikson’s stage of trust versus mistrust.
6. Contrast child care options for families.
While temperament is determined by genetics and emotions develop through maturation, the early interactions we have with the adults that care for us as infants and toddlers are very important for healthy emotional development. Let’s examine some of the important interactions and milestones in social and emotional development during the first two years of life.
• 6.1: Temperament
You may have noticed that some infants seemed to be in a better mood than others and that some were more sensitive to noise or more easily distracted than others. These differences may be attributed to temperament. Temperament is the innate characteristics of the infant, including mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity, noticeable soon after birth.
• 6.2: Personality
Temperament does not change dramatically as we grow up, but we may learn how to work around and manage our temperamental qualities. Temperament may be one of the things about us that stays the same throughout development. In contrast, personality, defined as an individual’s consistent pattern of feeling, thinking, and behaving, is the result of the continuous interplay between biological disposition and experience.
• 6.3: Infant Emotions
At birth, infants exhibit two emotional responses: attraction and withdrawal. They show attraction to pleasant situations that bring comfort, stimulation, and pleasure, and they withdraw from unpleasant stimulation such as bitter flavors or physical discomfort. At around two months, infants exhibit social engagement in the form of social smiling as they respond with smiles to those who engage their positive attention (Lavelli & Fogel, 2005).
• 6.4: Social Emotional Milestones
As infants and toddlers interact with other people, their social and emotional skills develop. Here is a table of social and emotional milestones that they typically experience during the first two years.
• 6.5: Forming Attachments
Attachment is the close bond with a caregiver from which the infant derives a sense of security. The formation of attachments in infancy has been the subject of considerable research as attachments have been viewed as foundations for future relationships. Additionally, attachments form the basis for confidence and curiosity as toddlers, and as important influences on self-concept.
• 6.6: Child Care
Child care involves supervising a child or children, usually from infancy to age thirteen, and typically refers to work done by somebody outside the child's immediate family. Child care is a broad topic covering a wide spectrum of contexts, activities, social and cultural conventions, and institutions. The majority of child care institutions that are available require that child care providers have extensive training in first aid and are CPR certified.
• 6.S: Summary
Thumbnail: www.pexels.com/photo/baby-touching-woman-s-face-1257110/
06: Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
Perhaps you have spent time with a number of infants. How were they alike? How did they differ? How do you compare with your siblings or other children you have known well? You may have noticed that some seemed to be in a better mood than others and that some were more sensitive to noise or more easily distracted than others. These differences may be attributed to temperament. Temperament is the innate characteristics of the infant, including mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity, noticeable soon after birth.
In a 1956 landmark study, Chess and Thomas (1996) evaluated 141 children’s temperament based on parental interviews. Referred to as the New York Longitudinal Study, infants were assessed on 10 dimensions of temperament including:
• activity level
• rhythmicity (regularity of biological functions)
• approach/withdrawal (how children deal with new things)
• adaptability to situations
• intensity of reactions
• threshold of responsiveness (how intense a stimulus has to be for the child to react)
• quality of mood
• distractibility
• attention span
• persistence
Based on the infants’ behavioral profiles, they were categorized into three general types of temperament:
Table \(1\): Types of Temperament
Type Percentage Description
Easy 40%
• Able to quickly adapt to routine and new situations
• Remains calm
• Easy to soothe
• Usually in positive mood
Difficult 10%
• Reacts negatively to new situations
• Has trouble adapting to routine
• Usually negative in mood
• Cries frequently
Slow-to-warm- up 15%
• Low activity level
• Adjusts slowly to new situations
• Often negative in mood
As can be seen the percentages do not equal 100% as some children were not able to be placed neatly into one of the categories. Think about how each type of child should be approached to improve interactions with them. An easy child requires less intervention, but still has needs that must not be overlooked. A slow-to-warm-up child may need to be given advance warning if new people or situations are going to be introduced. A child with a difficult temperament may need to be given extra time to burn off their energy.
A caregiver's ability to work well and accurately read the child will enjoy a goodness-of-fit, meaning their styles match and communication and interaction can flow. Parents who recognize each child’s temperament and accept it, will nurture more effective interactions with the child and encourage more adaptive functioning.1
Parenting is Bidirectional
Not only do parents affect their children, children influence their parents. A child’s characteristics, such as temperament, affect parenting behaviors and roles. For example, an infant with an easy temperament may enable parents to feel more effective, as they are easily able to soothe the child and elicit smiling and cooing. On the other hand, a cranky or fussy infant elicits fewer positive reactions from his or her parents and may result in parents feeling less effective in the parenting role (Eisenberg et al., 2008). Over time, parents of more difficult children may become more punitive and less patient with their children (Clark, Kochanska, & Ready, 2000; Eisenberg et al., 1999; Kiff, Lengua, & Zalewski, 2011). Parents who have a fussy, difficult child are less satisfied with their marriages and have greater challenges in balancing work and family roles (Hyde, Else-Quest, & Goldsmith, 2004). Thus, child temperament is one of the child characteristics that influences how parents behave with their children.
Contributors and Attributions
1. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/06%3A_Social_and_Emotional_Development_in_Infancy_and_Toddlerhood/6.01%3A_Temperament.txt |
Temperament does not change dramatically as we grow up, but we may learn how to work around and manage our temperamental qualities. Temperament may be one of the things about us that stays the same throughout development. In contrast, personality, defined as an individual’s consistent pattern of feeling, thinking, and behaving, is the result of the continuous interplay between biological disposition and experience.
Personality also develops from temperament in other ways (Thompson, Winer, & Goodvin, 2010). As children mature biologically, temperamental characteristics emerge and change over time. A newborn is not capable of much self-control, but as brain-based capacities for self-control advance, temperamental changes in self-regulation become more apparent. For example, a newborn who cries frequently doesn’t necessarily have a grumpy personality; over time, with sufficient parental support and increased sense of security, the child might be less likely to cry.
In addition, personality is made up of many other features besides temperament. Children’s developing self-concept, their motivations to achieve or to socialize, their values and goals, their coping styles, their sense of responsibility and conscientiousness, as well as many other qualities are encompassed into personality. These qualities are influenced by biological dispositions, but even more by the child’s experiences with others, particularly in close relationships, that guide the growth of individual characteristics. Indeed, personality development begins with the biological foundations of temperament but becomes increasingly elaborated, extended, and refined over time. The newborn that parents gazed upon thus becomes an adult with a personality of depth and nuance. 3
Culture and Personality
The term culture refers to all of the beliefs, customs, ideas, behaviors, and traditions of a particular society that are passed through generations. Culture is transmitted to people through language as well as through the modeling of behavior, and it defines which traits and behaviors are considered important, desirable, or undesirable.
Within a culture there are norms and behavioral expectations. These cultural norms can dictate which personality traits are considered important. The researcher Gordon Allport considered culture to be an important influence on traits and defined common traits as those that are recognized within a culture. These traits may vary from culture to culture based on differing values, needs, and beliefs. Positive and negative traits can be determined by cultural expectations: what is considered a positive trait in one culture may be considered negative in another, thus resulting in different expressions of personality across cultures.
Considering cultural influences on personality is important because Western ideas and theories are not necessarily applicable to other cultures (Benet-Martinez & Oishi, 2008). There is a great deal of evidence that the strength of personality traits varies across cultures, and this is especially true when comparing individualist cultures (such as European, North American, and Australian cultures) and collectivist cultures (such as Asian, African, and South American cultures). People who live in individualist cultures tend to believe that independence, competition, and personal achievement are important. In contrast, people who live in collectivist cultures tend to value social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs. These values influence personality in different but substantial ways; for example, Yang (2006) found that people in individualist cultures displayed more personally-oriented personality traits, whereas people in collectivist cultures displayed more socially-oriented personality traits. 5
Gender and Personality
In much the same manner that cultural norms can influence personality and behavior, gender norms (the behaviors that males and females are expected to conform to in a given society) can also influence personality by emphasizing different traits between different genders.
Ideas of appropriate behavior for each gender (masculine and feminine) vary among cultures and tend to change over time. For example, aggression and assertiveness have historically been emphasized as positive masculine personality traits in the United States. Meanwhile, submissiveness and caretaking have historically been held as ideal feminine traits. While many gender roles remain the same, others change over time. In 1938, for example, only 1 out of 5 Americans agreed that a married woman should earn money in industry and business. By 1996, however, 4 out of 5 Americans approved of women working in these fields. This type of attitude change has been accompanied by behavioral shifts that coincide with changes in trait expectations and shifts in personal identity for men and women. 8
Contributors and Attributions
3. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
5. Lifespan Development - Module 4: Infancy by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
8. Lifespan Development - Module 4: Infancy by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/06%3A_Social_and_Emotional_Development_in_Infancy_and_Toddlerhood/6.02%3A_Personality.txt |
At birth, infants exhibit two emotional responses: attraction and withdrawal. They show attraction to pleasant situations that bring comfort, stimulation, and pleasure, and they withdraw from unpleasant stimulation such as bitter flavors or physical discomfort. At around two months, infants exhibit social engagement in the form of social smiling as they respond with smiles to those who engage their positive attention (Lavelli & Fogel, 2005).
Social smiling becomes more stable and organized as infants learn to use their smiles to engage their parents in interactions. Pleasure is expressed as laughter at 3 to 5 months of age, and displeasure becomes more specific as fear, sadness, or anger between ages 6 and 8 months.
Anger is often the reaction to being prevented from obtaining a goal, such as a toy being removed (Braungart-Rieker, Hill-Soderlund, & Karrass, 2010). In contrast, sadness is typically the response when infants are deprived of a caregiver (Papousek, 2007). Fear is often associated with the presence of a stranger, known as stranger wariness, or the departure of significant others known as separation anxiety. Both appear sometime between 6 and 15 months after object permanence has been acquired. Further, there is some indication that infants may experience jealousy as young as 6 months of age (Hart & Carrington, 2002).
Emotions are often divided into two general categories: Basic emotions (primary emotions), such as interest, happiness, anger, fear, surprise, sadness and disgust, which appear first, and self-conscious emotions (secondary emotions), such as envy, pride, shame, guilt, doubt, and embarrassment. Unlike primary emotions, secondary emotions appear as children start to develop a self-concept, and require social instruction on when to feel such emotions. The situations in which children learn self-conscious emotions varies from culture to culture. Individualistic cultures teach us to feel pride in personal accomplishments, while in more collective cultures children are taught to not call attention to themselves, unless you wish to feel embarrassed for doing so (Akimoto & Sanbinmatsu, 1999).
Facial expressions of emotion are important regulators of social interaction. In the developmental literature, this concept has been investigated under the concept of social referencing; that is, the process whereby infants seek out information from others to clarify a situation and then use that information to act (Klinnert, Campos, & Sorce, 1983). To date, the strongest demonstration of social referencing comes from work on the visual cliff. In the first study to investigate this concept, Campos and colleagues (Sorce, Emde, Campos, & Klinnert, 1985) placed mothers on the far end of the “cliff” from the infant. Mothers first smiled to the infants and placed a toy on top of the safety glass to attract them; infants invariably began crawling to their mothers. When the infants were in the center of the table, however, the mother then posed an expression of fear, sadness, anger, interest, or joy. The results were clearly different for the different faces; no infant crossed the table when the mother showed fear; only 6% did when the mother posed anger, 33% crossed when the mother posed sadness, and approximately 75% of the infants crossed when the mother posed joy or interest.
Other studies provide similar support for facial expressions as regulators of social interaction. Researchers posed facial expressions of neutral, anger, or disgust toward babies as they moved toward an object and measured the amount of inhibition the babies showed in touching the object (Bradshaw, 1986). The results for 10- and 15-month olds were the same: Anger produced the greatest inhibition, followed by disgust, with neutral the least. This study was later replicated using joy and disgust expressions, altering the method so that the infants were not allowed to touch the toy (compared with a distractor object) until one hour after exposure to the expression (Hertenstein & Campos, 2004). At 14 months of age, significantly more infants touched the toy when they saw joyful expressions, but fewer touched the toy when the infants saw disgust.
A final emotional change is in self-regulation. Emotional self-regulation refers to strategies we use to control our emotional states so that we can attain goals (Thompson & Goodvin, 2007). This requires effortful control of emotions and initially requires assistance from caregivers (Rothbart, Posner, & Kieras, 2006). Young infants have very limited capacity to adjust their emotional states and depend on their caregivers to help soothe themselves. Caregivers can offer distractions to redirect the infant’s attention and comfort to reduce the emotional distress. As areas of the infant’s prefrontal cortex continue to develop, infants can tolerate more stimulation. By 4 to 6 months, babies can begin to shift their attention away from upsetting stimuli (Rothbart et al, 2006). Older infants and toddlers can more effectively communicate their need for help and can crawl or walk toward or away from various situations (Cole, Armstrong, & Pemberton, 2010). This aids in their ability to self-regulate. Temperament also plays a role in children’s ability to control their emotional states, and individual differences have been noted in the emotional self-regulation of infants and toddlers (Rothbart & Bates, 2006). 11
Development of sense of self: During the second year of life, children begin to recognize themselves as they gain a sense of self as separate from their primary caregiver. In a classic experiment by Lewis and Brooks (1978) children 9 to 24 months of age were placed in front of a mirror after a spot of rouge was placed on their nose as their mothers pretended to wipe something off the child’s face. If the child reacted by touching his or her own nose rather than that of the “baby” in the mirror, it was taken to suggest that the child recognized the reflection as him or herself. Lewis and Brooks found that somewhere between 15 and 24 months most infants developed a sense of self-awareness. Self-awareness is the realization that you are separate from others (Kopp, 2011). Once a child has achieved self-awareness, the child is moving toward understanding social emotions such as guilt, shame or embarrassment, as well as, sympathy or empathy. 13
Contributors and Attributions
11. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
13. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
6.04: Social Emotional Milestones
As infants and toddlers interact with other people, their social and emotional skills develop. Here is a table of social and emotional milestones that they typically experience during the first two years.
Table \(1\): Social and Emotional Milestones (Developmental Milestones by the CDC is in the public domain)
Typical Age What Most Children Do By This Age
2 months
• Begins to smile at people
• Can briefly calm self (may bring hands to mouth and suck on hand)
• Tries to look at parent
4 months
• Smiles spontaneously, especially at people
• Likes to play with people and might cry when playing stops
• Copies some movements and facial expressions, like smiling or frowning
6 months
• Knows familiar faces and begins to know if someone is a stranger
• Likes to play with others, especially parents
• Responds to other people’s emotions and often seems happy
• Likes to look at self in a mirror
9 months
• May be afraid of strangers
• May be clingy with familiar adults
• Has favorite toys
1 year
• Is shy or nervous with strangers
• Cries when mom or dad leaves
• Has favorite things and people
• Shows fear in some situations
• Hands you a book when wants to hear a story
• Repeats sounds or actions to get attention
• Puts out arm or leg to help with dressing
• Plays games such as “peek-a-boo” and “pat-a-cake”
18 months
• Likes to hand things to others as play
• May have temper tantrums
• May be afraid of strangers
• Shows affection to familiar people
• Plays simple pretend, such as feeding a doll
• May cling to caregivers in new situations
• Points to show others something interesting
• Explores alone but with parent close by
2 years
• Copies others, especially adults and older children
• Gets excited when with other children
• Shows more and more independence
• Shows defiant behavior (doing what he has been told not to)
• Plays mainly beside other children, but is beginning to include other children, such as in chase games | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/06%3A_Social_and_Emotional_Development_in_Infancy_and_Toddlerhood/6.03%3A_Infant_Emotions.txt |
Attachment is the close bond with a caregiver from which the infant derives a sense of security. The formation of attachments in infancy has been the subject of considerable research as attachments have been viewed as foundations for future relationships. Additionally, attachments form the basis for confidence and curiosity as toddlers, and as important influences on self- concept.
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
According to Freud (1938) infants are oral creatures who obtain pleasure from sucking and mouthing objects. Freud believed the infant will become attached to a person or object that provides this pleasure. Consequently, infants were believed to become attached to their mother because she was the one who satisfied their oral needs and provided pleasure. Freud further believed that the infants will become attached to their mothers “if the mother is relaxed and generous in her feeding practices, thereby allowing the child a lot of oral pleasure,” (Shaffer, 1985, p. 435).
Harlow’s Research
In one classic study, Wisconsin University psychologists Harry and Margaret Harlow investigated the responses of young rhesus monkeys to explore if breastfeeding was the most important factor to attachment.
The infant monkeys were separated from their biological mothers, and two surrogate mothers were introduced to their cages. The first mother (the wire mother) consisted of a round wooden head, a mesh of cold metal wires, and a bottle of milk from which the baby monkey could drink. The second mother was a foam-rubber form wrapped in a heated terry-cloth blanket. The infant monkeys went to the wire mother for food, but they overwhelmingly preferred and spent significantly more time with the warm terry-cloth mother. The warm terry-cloth mother provided no food but did provide comfort (Harlow, 1958). The infant's need for physical closeness and touching is referred to as contact comfort. Contact comfort is believed to be the foundation for attachment. The Harlows’ studies confirmed that babies have social as well as physical needs. Both monkeys and human babies need a secure base that allows them to feel safe. From this base, they can gain the confidence they need to venture out and explore their worlds.
Bowlby’s Theory
Building on the work of Harlow and others, John Bowlby developed the concept of attachment theory. He defined attachment as the affectional bond or tie that an infant forms with the mother (Bowlby, 1969). An infant must form this bond with a primary caregiver in order to have normal social and emotional development. In addition, Bowlby proposed that this attachment bond is very powerful and continues throughout life. He used the concept of a secure base to define a healthy attachment between parent and child (Bowlby, 1982). A secure base is a parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as the child explores the surroundings.
Bowlby said that two things are needed for a healthy attachment: The caregiver must be responsive to the child’s physical, social, and emotional needs; and the caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions (Bowlby, 1969). Additionally, Bowlby observed that infants would go to extraordinary lengths to prevent separation from their parents, such as crying, refusing to be comforted, and waiting for the caregiver to return.
Bowlby also observed that these same expressions were common to many other mammals, and consequently argued that these negative responses to separation serve an evolutionary function. Because mammalian infants cannot feed or protect themselves, they are dependent upon the care and protection of adults for survival. Thus, those infants who were able to maintain proximity to an attachment figure were more likely to survive and reproduce.
Erikson: Trust vs. Mistrust
As previously discussed in chapter 1, Erikson formulated an eight-stage theory of psychosocial development. Erikson was in agreement on the importance of a secure base, arguing that the most important goal of infancy was the development of a basic sense of trust in one’s caregivers. Consequently, the first stage, trust vs. mistrust, highlights the importance of attachment. Erikson maintained that the first year to year and a half of life involves the establishment of a sense of trust (Erikson, 1982). Infants are dependent and must rely on others to meet their basic physical needs as well as their needs for stimulation and comfort. A caregiver who consistently meets these needs instills a sense of trust or the belief that the world is a trustworthy place. The caregiver should not worry about overly indulging a child’s need for comfort, contact or stimulation.
Problems Establishing Trust
Erikson (1982) believed that mistrust could contaminate all aspects of one’s life and deprive the individual of love and fellowship with others. Consider the implications for establishing trust if a caregiver is unavailable or is upset and ill-prepared to care for a child. Or if a child is born prematurely, is unwanted, or has physical problems that make him or her more challenging to parent. Under these circumstances, we cannot assume that the parent is going to provide the child with a feeling of trust.
Mary Ainsworth and the Strange Situation
Developmental psychologist Mary Ainsworth, a student of John Bowlby, continued studying the development of attachment in infants. Ainsworth and her colleagues created a laboratory test that measured an infant’s attachment to his or her parent. The test is called The Strange Situation because it is conducted in a context that is unfamiliar to the child and therefore likely to heighten the child’s need for his or her parent (Ainsworth, 1979).
During the procedure, which lasts about 20 minutes, the parent and the infant are first left alone, while the infant explores the room full of toys. Then a strange adult enters the room and talks for a minute to the parent, after which the parent leaves the room. The stranger stays with the infant for a few minutes, and then the parent again enters and the stranger leaves the room. During the entire session, a video camera records the child’s behaviors, which are later coded by the research team. The investigators were especially interested in how the child responded to the caregiver leaving and returning to the room, referred to as the “reunion.” On the basis of their behaviors, the children are categorized into one of four groups where each group reflects a different kind of attachment relationship with the caregiver. One style is secure and the other three styles are referred to as insecure.
• A child with a secure attachment style usually explores freely while the caregiver is present and may engage with the stranger. The child will typically play with the toys and bring one to the caregiver to show and describe from time to time. The child may be upset when the caregiver departs, but is also happy to see the caregiver return.
• A child with an ambivalent (sometimes called resistant) attachment style is wary about the situation in general, particularly the stranger, and stays close or even clings to the caregiver rather than exploring the toys. When the caregiver leaves, the child is extremely distressed and is ambivalent when the caregiver returns. The child may rush to the caregiver, but then fails to be comforted when picked up. The child may still be angry and even resist attempts to be soothed.
• A child with an avoidant attachment style will avoid or ignore the mother, showing little emotion when the mother departs or returns. The child may run away from the mother when she approaches. The child will not explore very much, regardless of who is there, and the stranger will not be treated much differently from the mother.
• A child with a disorganized/disoriented attachment style seems to have an inconsistent way of coping with the stress of the strange situation. The child may cry during the separation, but avoid the mother when she returns, or the child may approach the mother but then freeze or fall to the floor.
How common are the attachment styles among children in the United States? It is estimated that about 65 percent of children in the United States are securely attached. Twenty percent exhibit avoidant styles and 10 to 15 percent are ambivalent. Another 5 to 10 percent may be characterized as disorganized.
Some cultural differences in attachment styles have been found (Rothbaum, Weisz, Pott, Miyake, & Morelli, 2010). For example, German parents value independence and Japanese mothers are typically by their children’s sides. As a result, the rate of insecure-avoidant attachments is higher in Germany and insecure-resistant attachments are higher in Japan. These differences reflect cultural variation rather than true insecurity, however (van Ijzendoorn and Sagi, 1999).
Keep in mind that methods for measuring attachment styles have been based on a model that reflects middle-class, U. S. values and interpretation. Newer methods for assessment attachment styles involve using a Q-sort technique in which a large number of behaviors are recorded on cards and the observer sorts the cards in a way that reflects the type of behavior that occurs within the situation (Waters, 1987). There are 90 items in the third version of the Q-sort technique, and examples of the behaviors assessed include:
• When child returns to mother after playing, the child is sometimes fussy for no clear reason.
• When the child is upset or injured, the child will accept comforting from adults other than mother.
• Child often hugs or cuddles against mother, without her asking or inviting the child to do so.
• When the child is upset by mother’s leaving, the child continues to cry or even gets angry after she is gone.
At least two researchers observe the child and parent in the home for 1.5-2 hours per visit. Usually two visits are sufficient to gather adequate information. The parent is asked if the behaviors observed are typical for the child. This information is used to test the validity of the Strange Situation classifications across age, cultures, and with clinical populations.
Caregiver Consistency
Having a consistent caregiver may be jeopardized if the infant is cared for in a child care setting with a high turnover of staff or if institutionalized and given little more than basic physical care.
Infants who, perhaps because of being in orphanages with inadequate care, have not had the opportunity to attach in infancy may still form initial secure attachments several years later. However, they may have more emotional problems of depression, anger, or be overly friendly as they interact with others (O’Connor et. al., 2003).
Social Deprivation
Severe deprivation of parental attachment can lead to serious problems. According to studies of children who have not been given warm, nurturing care, they may show developmental delays, failure to thrive, and attachment disorders (Bowlby, 1982). Non-organic failure to thrive is the diagnosis for an infant who does not grow, develop, or gain weight on schedule. In addition, postpartum depression can cause even a well-intentioned mother to neglect her infant.
Reactive Attachment Disorder
Children who experience social neglect or deprivation, repeatedly change primary caregivers that limit opportunities to form stable attachments, or are reared in unusual settings (such as institutions) that limit opportunities to form stable attachments can certainly have difficulty forming attachments. According to the Diagnostic and Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (American Psychiatric Association, 2013), those children experiencing neglectful situations and also displaying markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate attachment behavior, such as being inhibited and withdrawn, minimal social and emotional responsiveness to others, and limited positive affect, may be diagnosed with Reactive Attachment Disorder. This disorder often occurs with developmental delays, especially in cognitive and language areas. Fortunately, the majority of severely neglected children do not develop Reactive Attachment Disorder, which occurs in less than 10% of such children. The quality of the caregiving environment after serious neglect affects the development of this disorder.
Resiliency
Being able to overcome challenges and successfully adapt is resiliency. Even young children can exhibit strong resilience to harsh circumstances. Resiliency can be attributed to certain personality factors, such as an easy-going temperament. Some children are warm, friendly, and responsive, whereas others tend to be more irritable, less manageable, and difficult to console, and these differences play a role in attachment (Gillath, Shaver, Baek, & Chun, 2008; Seifer, Schiller, Sameroff, Resnick, & Riordan, 1996). It seems safe to say that attachment, like most other developmental processes, is affected by an inter play of genetic and socialization influences.
Receiving support from others also leads to resiliency. A positive and strong support group can help a parent and child build a strong foundation by offering assistance and positive attitudes toward the newborn and parent. In a direct test of this idea, Dutch researcher van den Boom (1994) randomly assigned some babies’ mothers to a training session in which they learned to better respond to their children’s needs. The research found that these mothers’ babies were more likely to show a secure attachment style in comparison to the mothers in a control group that did not receive training. 22
Contributors and Attributions
22. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/06%3A_Social_and_Emotional_Development_in_Infancy_and_Toddlerhood/6.05%3A_Forming_Attachments.txt |
According to the U.S. Census Bureau in 2011, over sixty percent of families with children under five relied on regular child care arrangements. Around a quarter of those families used organized child care facilities as their primary arrangement.24
Child care involves supervising a child or children, usually from infancy to age thirteen, and typically refers to work done by somebody outside the child's immediate family. Child care is a broad topic covering a wide spectrum of contexts, activities, social and cultural conventions, and institutions. The majority of child care institutions that are available require that child care providers have extensive training in first aid and are CPR certified. In addition, background checks, drug testing, and reference verification are normally required.
It is traditional in Western society for children to be cared for by their parents or their legal guardians. In families where children live with one or both of their parents, the child care role may also be taken on by the child's extended family. If a parent or extended family is unable to care for the children, orphanages and foster homes are a way of providing for children's care, housing, and schooling.
Child Care in the United States
Formal child care options include center-based care and family child care homes. Each state has different regulations for licensing child care centers, including teacher requirements. In some states, teaching in a child care center requires an associate’s degree in child development. States with quality standards built into their licensing programs may have higher requirements for support staff, such as teacher assistants. Head Start (a federally funded child care program for income qualified families) lead teachers must have a bachelor’s degree in Early Childhood Education. States vary in other standards set for daycare providers, such as teacher to child ratios.
State legislation may regulate the number and ages of children allowed before the home is considered an official family child care program and subject to licensing regulations. Often the nationally recognized Child Development Associate credential is the minimum standard for the individual leading this home care program.
In addition to these licensed options, parents may also choose to find their own caregiver or arrange childcare exchanges/swaps with another family. This care is typically provided by nannies, au pairs, or friends and family. The child is watched inside their own home or the caregiver's home, reducing exposure to outside children and illnesses. Depending on the number of children in the home, the children utilizing in-home care can enjoy the greatest amount of interaction with their caregiver and form a close bond.
There are no required licensing or background checks for this type of in-home care, making parental vigilance essential in choosing an appropriate caregiver. The cost of in-home care is the highest of childcare options per child, though a household with many children may find this the most convenient and affordable option. 27
Contributors and Attributions
24. Who's Minding the Kids by the U.S. Census Bureau is in the public domain
27. Lifespan Development - Module 4: Infancy by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
6.S: Summary
In this chapter, we looked at:
• Temperament and goodness-of-fit.
• Cultural and gender influences.
• The development of emotions.
• Theories and styles of attachment.
• Erikson’s stage of trust versus distrust.
• Importance of attachment and things that can impede it.
• The types of child care available to families. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/06%3A_Social_and_Emotional_Development_in_Infancy_and_Toddlerhood/6.06%3A_Child_Care.txt |
Learning Objectives
After this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe the physical changes that occur in early childhood.
2. Explain how to provide health nutrition for 3- to 5-year-olds.
3. Summarize how to support the progression of motor skills with age appropriate activities.
4. Discuss the sleep needs during early childhood and sleep disorders that may affect children.
5. Explain the development behind toilet training and some elimination disorders that children may experience.
6. Recognize the importance of awareness of sexual development in early childhood.
7. Discuss risks to and a variety of ways to promote and protect children’s health and safety.
During the early childhood years of three to five we see significant changes in the way children look, think, communicate, regulate their emotions, and interact with others. Children are often referred to as preschoolers during this time period. We’ll examine the physical changes of the preschooler in this chapter.
• 7.1: Growth in Early Childhood
Children between the ages of 2 and 6 years tend to grow about 3 inches in height each year and gain about 4 to 5 pounds in weight each year. The 3-year-old is very similar to a toddler with a large head, large stomach, short arms, and legs. But by the time the child reaches age 6, the torso has lengthened and body proportions have become more like those of adults. The average 6-year-old weighs approximately 46 pounds and is about 46 inches in height.
• 7.2: Nutritional Concerns
Caregivers who have established a feeding routine with their child can find the reduction in appetite a bit frustrating and become concerned that the child is going to starve. Caregivers need to keep in mind that they are setting up taste preferences at this age. Young children who grow accustomed to high fat, very sweet and salty flavors may have trouble eating foods that have more subtle flavors such as fruits and vegetables.
• 7.3: Tips for Establishing Healthy Eating Habits
Tips for establishing healthy eating habits
• 7.4: Brain Maturation
The brain is about 75 percent its adult weight by two years of age. By age 6, it is approximately 95 percent its adult weight. Myelination and the development of dendrites continues to occur in the cortex and as it does, we see a corresponding change in the child’s abilities.
• 7.5: Motor Skill Development
Early childhood is a time when children are especially attracted to motion and song. Days are filled with jumping, running, swinging and clapping and every place becomes a playground. Even the booth at a restaurant affords the opportunity to slide around in the seat or disappear underneath and imagine being a sea creature in a cave! Of course, this can be frustrating to a caregiver, but it’s the business of early childhood.
• 7.6: Sleep and Early Childhood
Along with food and water, sleep is one of the human body's most important physiological needs—we cannot live without it. Extended sleeplessness (i.e., lack of sleep for longer than a few days) has severe psychological and physical effects. Research on rats has found that a week of no sleep leads to loss of immune function, and two weeks of no sleep leads to death. Recently, neuroscientists have learned that at least one vital function of sleep is related to learning and memory.
• 7.7: Toilet Training
Toilet training typically occurs after the second birthday. Some children show interest by age 2, but others may not be ready until months later. The average age for girls to be toilet trained is 29 months and for boys it is 31 months, and 98% of children are trained by 36 months (Boyse & Fitzgerald, 2010). The child’s age is not as important as his/her physical and emotional readiness. If started too early, it might take longer to train a child.
• 7.8: Sexual Development in Early Childhood
As children grow, they are more likely to show their genitals to siblings or peers, and to take off their clothes and touch each other (Okami et al., 1997). Masturbation is common for both boys and girls. Boys are often shown by other boys how to masturbate. But girls tend to find out accidentally. And boys masturbate more often and touch themselves more openly than do girls (Schwartz, 1999).
• 7.9: Health in Early Childhood
While preschoolers are becoming more and more independent, they depend on their caregivers to keep protecting and promoting their health.
• 7.10: Safety
Child injuries are preventable, yet more than 9,000 children (from 0-19 years) died from injuries in the US in 2009. Car crashes, suffocation, drowning, poisoning, fires, and falls are some of the most common ways children are hurt or killed. The number of children dying from injury dropped nearly 30% over the last decade. However, injury is still the number 1 cause of death among children.
• 7.S: Summary
Thumbnail: www.pexels.com/photo/action-...ls-day-296302/
07: Physical Development in Early Childhood
Children between the ages of 2 and 6 years tend to grow about 3 inches in height each year and gain about 4 to 5 pounds in weight each year. The 3 year old is very similar to a toddler with a large head, large stomach, short arms and legs. But by the time the child reaches age 6, the torso has lengthened and body proportions have become more like those of adults. The average 6 year old weighs approximately 46 pounds and is about 46 inches in height. This growth rate is slower than that of infancy.
7.02: Nutritional Concerns
That slower rate of growth is accompanied by a reduced appetite between the ages of 2 and 6. This change can sometimes be surprising to parents and lead to the development of poor eating habits. However, children between the ages of 2 and 3 need 1,000 to 1,400 calories, while children between the ages of 4 and 8 need 1,200 to 2,000 calories (Mayo Clinic, 2016a). 2
Caregivers who have established a feeding routine with their child can find the reduction in appetite a bit frustrating and become concerned that the child is going to starve. However, by providing adequate, sound nutrition, and limiting sugary snacks and drinks, the caregiver can be assured that 1) the child will not starve; and 2) the child will receive adequate nutrition. Preschoolers can experience iron deficiencies if not given well-balanced nutrition or if they are given too much milk as calcium interferes with the absorption of iron in the diet as well.
Caregivers need to keep in mind that they are setting up taste preferences at this age. Young children who grow accustomed to high fat, very sweet and salty flavors may have trouble eating foods that have more subtle flavors such as fruits and vegetables. Consider the following advice about establishing eating patterns for years to come (Rice, F.P., 1997). Notice that keeping mealtime pleasant, providing sound nutrition and not engaging in power struggles over food are the main goals.3
Contributors and Attributions
2. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
3. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/07%3A_Physical_Development_in_Early_Childhood/7.01%3A_Growth_in_Early_Childhood.txt |
1. Don’t try to force your child to eat or fight over food. Of course, it is impossible to force someone to eat. But the real advice here is to avoid turning food into a power struggle so that food doesn’t become a way to gain favor with or express anger toward someone else.
2. Recognize that appetite varies. Children may eat well at one meal and have no appetite at another. Rather than seeing this as a problem, it may help to realize that appetites do vary. Continue to provide good nutrition at each mealtime (even if children don’t choose to eat the occasional meal).
3. Keep it pleasant. This tip is designed to help caregivers create a positive atmosphere during mealtime. Mealtimes should not be the time for arguments or expressing tensions. You do not want the child to have painful memories of mealtimes together or have nervous stomachs and problems eating and digesting food due to stress.
4. No short order chefs. While it is fine to prepare foods that children enjoy, preparing a different meal for each child or family member sets up an unrealistic expectation from others. Children probably do best when they are hungry and a meal is ready. Limiting snacks rather than allowing children to “graze” continuously can help create an appetite for whatever is being served.
5. Limit choices. If you give your preschool aged child choices, make sure that you give them one or two specific choices rather than asking “What would you like for lunch?” If given an open choice, children may change their minds or choose whatever their sibling does not choose!
6. Serve balanced meals. Meals prepared at home tend to have better nutritional value than fast food or frozen dinners. Prepared foods tend to be higher in fat and sugar content as these ingredients enhance taste and profit margin because fresh food is often more costly and less profitable. However, preparing fresh food at home is not costly. It does, however, require more activity. Including children in meal preparation can provide a fun and memorable experience.
7. Don’t bribe. Bribing a child to eat vegetables by promising dessert is not a good idea. First, the child will likely find a way to get the dessert without eating the vegetables (by whining or fidgeting, perhaps, until the caregiver gives in). Secondly, it teaches the child that some foods are better than others. Children tend to naturally enjoy a variety of foods until they are taught that some are considered less desirable than others. A child, for example, may learn the broccoli they have enjoyed is seen as yucky by others unless it’s smothered in cheese sauce! 4
USDA Meal Patterns for Young Children
The United States Department of Agriculture Food and Nutrition Service provides the following guidance for the daytime feeding of children age 3 to 5.
Meal Patterns 6
Table \(1\)
Meal Ages 3-5
Breakfast 3/4 cup milk 1/2 cup vegetables, fruit, or both 1⁄2 ounce equivalent grains
Lunch or Supper 3/4 cup milk 11⁄2 ounces meat or meat alternative 1/4 cup vegetables 1/4 cup fruits 1⁄2 ounce equivalent of grains
Snack Select two of the following: 1⁄2 cup of milk 1⁄2 ounce meat or meat alternative 1⁄2 cup vegetables 1⁄2 cup fruit 1⁄2 ounce equivalent of grains
Contributors and Attributions
4. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
7.04: Brain Maturation
Brain Weight
The brain is about 75 percent its adult weight by two years of age. By age 6, it is approximately 95 percent its adult weight. Myelination and the development of dendrites continues to occur in the cortex and as it does, we see a corresponding change in the child’s abilities. Significant development in the prefrontal cortex (the area of the brain behind the forehead that helps us to think, strategize, and control emotion) makes it increasingly possible to control emotional outbursts and to understand how to play games. Consider 4- or 5-year-old children and how they might approach a game of soccer. Chances are, every move would be a response to the commands of a coach standing nearby calling out, “Run this way! Now, stop. Look at the ball. Kick the ball!” And when the child is not being told what to do, he or she is likely to be looking at the clover on the ground or a dog on the other side of the fence! Understanding the game, thinking ahead, coordinating movement, and handling losing improve with practice and myelination.7
Visual Pathways
Children’s drawings are representative of the development of visual pathways; as children’s brains mature the images in their drawings change. Early scribbles and dots illustrate the use of simple motor skills. No real connection is made between an image being visualized and what is created on paper.
At age 3, the child begins to draw wispy creatures with heads and not much other detail. Gradually pictures begin to have more detail and incorporate more parts of the body. Arm buds become arms and faces take on noses, lips and eventually eyelashes.
Growth in the Hemispheres and Corpus Callosum
Between ages 3 and 6, the left hemisphere of the brain grows dramatically. This side of the brain or hemisphere is typically involved in language skills. The right hemisphere continues to grow throughout early childhood and is involved in tasks that require spatial skills such as recognizing shapes and patterns. The corpus callosum which connects the two hemispheres of the brain undergoes a growth spurt between ages 3 and 6 and results in improved coordination between right and left hemisphere tasks.
Contributors and Attributions
7. Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/07%3A_Physical_Development_in_Early_Childhood/7.03%3A_Tips_for_Establishing_Healthy_Eating_Habits.txt |
Early childhood is a time when children are especially attracted to motion and song. Days are filled with jumping, running, swinging and clapping and every place becomes a playground. Even the booth at a restaurant affords the opportunity to slide around in the seat or disappear underneath and imagine being a sea creature in a cave! Of course, this can be frustrating to a caregiver, but it’s the business of early childhood.
Gross Motor Skills
Children continue to improve their gross motor skills as they run and jump. They frequently ask their caregivers to “look at me” while they hop or roll down a hill. Children’s songs are often accompanied by arm and leg movements or cues to turn around or move from left to right.
Gross Motor Milestones
Here is a table showing the progression of gross motor skills that children will typically develop during early childhood:
Table \(1\): Gross Motor Milestones (Developmental Milestones by the CDC is in the public domain)
Typical Age What Most Children Do by This Age
3 years
• Climbs well
• Runs easily
• Pedals a tricycle (3-wheel bike)
• Walks up and down stairs, one foot on each step
4 years
• Hops and stands on one foot up to 2 seconds
• Catches a bounced ball most of the time
5 years
• Stands on one foot for 10 seconds or longer
• Hops; may be able to skip
• Can do a somersault
• Can use the toilet on own
• Swings and climbs
Activities to Support Gross Motor Skills
Here are some activities focused on play that young children enjoy and that support their gross motor skill development.
• Tricycle
• Slides
• Swings
• Sit-n-Spin
• Mini trampoline
• Bowling pins (can use plastic soda bottles also)
• Tent (try throwing blankets over chairs and other furniture to make a fort)
• Playground ladders
• Suspension bridge on playground
• Tunnels (try throwing a bean bag chair underneath for greater challenge)
• Ball play (kick, throw, catch)
• Simon Says
• Target games with bean bags, ball, etc.
• Dancing/moving to music
• Pushing self on scooter or skateboard while on stomach
Fine Motor Skills
Fine motor skills are also being refined as they continue to develop more dexterity, strength, and endurance. Fine motor skills are very important as they are foundational to self-help skills and later academic abilities (such as writing).
Fine Motor Milestones
Here is a table showing how fine motor skills progress during early childhood for children that are typically developing.
Table \(2\): Fine Motor Milestones (Developmental Milestones by the CDC is in the public domain)
Typical Age What Most Children Do by This Age
3 years
• Copies a circle with pencil or crayon
• Turns book pages one at a time
• Builds towers of more than 6 blocks
• Screws and unscrews jar lids or turns door handle
4 years
• Pours, cuts with supervision, and mashes own food
• Draws a person with 2 to 4 body parts
• Uses scissors
• Starts to copy some capital letters
5 years
• Can draw a person with at least 6 body parts
• Can print some letters or numbers
• Copies a triangle and other geometric shapes
• Uses a fork and spoon and sometimes a table knife
Activities to Support Fine Motor Skills
Here are some fun activities that will help children continue to refine their fine motor abilities. Fine motor skills are slower to develop than gross motor skills, so it is important to have age appropriate expectations and play-based activities for children.
• Pouring water into a container
• Drawing and coloring
• Using scissors
• Finger painting
• Fingerplays and songs (such as the Itsy, Bitsy Spider)
• Play dough
• Lacing and beading
• Practicing with large tweezers, tongs, and eye droppers | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/07%3A_Physical_Development_in_Early_Childhood/7.05%3A_Motor_Skill_Development.txt |
Along with food and water, sleep is one of the human body's most important physiological needs—we cannot live without it. Extended sleeplessness (i.e., lack of sleep for longer than a few days) has severe psychological and physical effects. Research on rats has found that a week of no sleep leads to loss of immune function, and two weeks of no sleep leads to death. Recently, neuroscientists have learned that at least one vital function of sleep is related to learning and memory. New findings suggest that sleep plays a critical role in flagging and storing important memories, both intellectual and physical, and perhaps in making subtle connections that were invisible during waking hours. 15
How Much Sleep Do We Need?
The amount of sleep an individual needs varies depending on multiple factors including age, physical condition, psychological condition, and energy exertion. Just like any other human characteristic, the amount of sleep people need to function best differs among individuals, even those of the same age and gender.
Though there is no magic sleep number, there are general rules for how much sleep certain age groups need. For instance, children need more sleep per day in order to develop and function properly: up to 18 hours for newborn babies, with a declining rate as a child ages. A newborn baby spends almost 9 hours a day in REM sleep. By the age of five, only slightly over two hours is spent in REM. Studies show that young children need about 10 to 11 hours of sleep, adolescents need between 8.5 and 9.25, and adults generally need between 7 and 9 hours.
Sleepwalking (Somnambulism)
Sleepwalking (sometimes called sleepwalking disorder, somnambulism, or noctambulation) causes a person to get up and walk during the early hours of sleep. The person may sit up and look awake (though they're actually asleep), get up and walk around, move items, or dress or undress themselves. They will have a blank stare and still be able to perform complex tasks. Some individuals also talk while in their sleep, saying meaningless words and even having arguments with people who are not there. A person who sleepwalks will be confused upon waking up and may also experience anxiety and fatigue.
Sleepwalking can be dangerous—people have been known to seriously hurt themselves during sleepwalking episodes. It is most common in children, but it also occurs occasionally in adults. For adults, alcohol, sedatives, medications, medical conditions and mental disorders are all associated with sleepwalking.
Sleep Terrors and Nightmare Disorder
Sleep terrors are characterized by a sudden arousal from deep sleep with a scream or cry, accompanied by some behavioral manifestations of intense fear. Sleep terrors typically occur in the first few hours of sleep, during stage 3 NREM sleep. Night terrors tend to happen during periods of arousal from delta sleep (i.e., slow-wave sleep). They are worse than nightmares, causing significant disorientation, panic, and anxiety. They can last up to 10 minutes, and the person may be screaming and difficult to wake. In some cases, sleep terrors continue into adulthood.
Distinct from sleep terrors is nightmare disorder. Also known as "dream anxiety disorder," nightmare disorder is characterized by frequent nightmares. The nightmares, which often portray the individual in a situation that jeopardizes their life or personal safety, usually occur during the second half of the sleeping process, called the REM stage. Though many people experience nightmares, those with nightmare disorder experience them more frequently. 17
Contributors and Attributions
15. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
17. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/07%3A_Physical_Development_in_Early_Childhood/7.06%3A_Sleep_and_Early_Childhood.txt |
Toilet training typically occurs after the second birthday. Some children show interest by age 2, but others may not be ready until months later. The average age for girls to be toilet trained is 29 months and for boys it is 31 months, and 98% of children are trained by 36 months (Boyse & Fitzgerald, 2010). The child’s age is not as important as his/her physical and emotional readiness. If started too early, it might take longer to train a child.
According to The Mayo Clinic (2016b) the following questions can help parents determine if a child is ready for toilet training:
• Does your child seem interested in the potty chair or toilet, or in wearing underwear?
• Can your child understand and follow basic directions?
• Does your child tell you through words, facial expressions or posture when he or she needs to go?
• Does your child stay dry for periods of two hours or longer during the day?
• Does your child complain about wet or dirty diapers?
• Can your child pull down his or her pants and pull them up again?
• Can your child sit on and rise from a potty chair?
If a child resists being trained or it is not successful after a few weeks, it is best to take a break and try again when they show more significant interest in the process. Most children master daytime bladder control first, typically within two to three months of consistent toilet training. However, nap and nighttime training might take months or even years.
Elimination Disorders
Some children experience elimination disorders including:
• enuresis - the repeated voiding of urine into bed or clothes (involuntary or intentional) after age 5
• encopresis - the repeated passage of feces into inappropriate places (involuntary or intentional).
The prevalence of enuresis is 5%-10% for 5 year-olds, 3%-5% for 10 year-olds and approximately 1% for those 15 years of age or older. Around 1% of 5 year- olds have encopresis, and it is more common in males than females. These are diagnosed by a medical professional and may require treatment. 19
Contributors and Attributions
19. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
7.08: Sexual Development in Early Childhood
Self-stimulation is common in early childhood for both boys and girls. Curiosity about the body and about others’ bodies is a natural part of early childhood as well. Consider this example. A girl asks her mother: “So it’s okay to see a boy’s privates as long as it’s the boy’s mother or a doctor?” The mother hesitates a bit and then responds, “Yes. I think that’s alright.” “Hmmm,” the girl begins, “When I grow up, I want to be a doctor!” While this subject can feel uncomfortable to deal with, caregivers can teach children to be safe and know what is appropriate without frightening them or causing shame.
As children grow, they are more likely to show their genitals to siblings or peers, and to take off their clothes and touch each other (Okami et al., 1997). Masturbation is common for both boys and girls. Boys are often shown by other boys how to masturbate. But girls tend to find out accidentally. And boys masturbate more often and touch themselves more openly than do girls (Schwartz, 1999).
Caregivers should respond to this without undue alarm and without making the child feel guilty about their bodies. Instead, messages about what is going on and the appropriate time and place for such activities help the child learn what is appropriate. 20
Contributors and Attributions
20. Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/07%3A_Physical_Development_in_Early_Childhood/7.07%3A_Toilet_Training.txt |
While preschoolers are becoming more and more independent, they depend on their caregivers to keep protecting and promoting their health. 21
Childhood Obesity
Childhood obesity is a complex health issue. It occurs when a child is well above the normal or healthy weight for his or her age and height. Childhood obesity is a serious problem in the United States putting children at risk for poor health. In 2015-2016, 13.9% of 2- to 5-year-olds were obese.
Where people live can affect their ability to make healthy choices. Obesity disproportionally affects children from low-income families.
Causes of Obesity
The causes of excess weight gain in young people are similar to those in adults, including factors such as a person’s behavior and genetics. Behaviors that influence excess weight gain include:
• eating high calorie, low-nutrient foods
• not getting enough physical exercise
• sedentary activities (such as watching television or other screen devices)
• medication use
• sleep routines
Consequences of Obesity
The consequences of childhood obesity are both immediate and long term. It can affect physical as well as social and emotional well-being.
• More Immediate Health Risks
• High blood pressure and high cholesterol, which are risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD).
• Increased risk of impaired glucose tolerance, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes.
• Breathing problems, such as asthma and sleep apnea.
• Joint problems and musculoskeletal discomfort.
• Fatty liver disease, gallstones, and gastro-esophageal reflux (i.e., heartburn).
• Childhood obesity is also related to
• Psychological problems such as anxiety and depression.
• Low self-esteem and lower self-reported quality of life.
• Social problems such as bullying and stigma.
• Future Health Risks
• Children who have obesity are more likely to become adults with obesity.11 Adult obesity is associated with increased risk of a number of serious health conditions including heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and cancer.
• If children have obesity, their obesity and disease risk factors in adulthood are likely to be more severe.23
Food Allergies
A food allergy occurs when the body has a specific and reproducible immune response to certain foods. The body’s immune response can be severe and life-threatening, such as anaphylaxis. Although the immune system normally protects people from germs, in people with food allergies, the immune system mistakenly responds to food as if it were harmful.
Eight foods or food groups account for 90% of serious allergic reactions in the United States: milk, eggs, fish, crustacean shellfish, wheat, soy, peanuts, and tree nuts.
The symptoms and severity of allergic reactions to food can be different between individuals, and can also be different for one person over time. Anaphylaxis is a sudden and severe allergic reaction that may cause death.4Not all allergic reactions will develop into anaphylaxis.
• Children with food allergies are two to four times more likely to have asthma or other allergic conditions than those without food allergies.
• The prevalence of food allergies among children increased by 18% during 1997-2007, and allergic reactions to foods have become the most common cause of anaphylaxis in community health settings.
• Although difficult to measure, research suggests that approximately 4% of children and adolescents are affected by food allergies.
The CDC recommends that as part of maintaining a healthy and safe environment for children, caregivers should:
• Be aware of any food allergies.
• Educate other children and all adults that care for a child with food allergies.
• Ensure the daily management of food allergies.
• Prepare for food allergy emergencies.24
Oral Health
Tooth decay (cavities) is one of the most common chronic conditions of childhood in the United States. Untreated tooth decay can cause pain and infections that may lead to problems with eating, speaking, playing, and learning. The good news is that tooth decay is preventable. Fluoride varnish, a high concentration fluoride coating that is painted on teeth, can prevent about one-third (33%) of decay in the primary (baby) teeth. Children living in communities with fluoridated tap water have fewer decayed teeth than children who live in areas where their tap water is not fluoridated. Similarly, children who brush daily with fluoride toothpaste will have less tooth decay.
Applying dental sealants to the chewing surfaces of the back teeth is another way to prevent tooth decay. Studies in children show that sealants reduce decay in the permanent molars by 81% for 2 years after they are placed on the tooth and continue to be effective for 4 years after placement.25
The first visit to the dentist should happen after the first tooth erupts. After that, children should be seeing the dentist every six months.26
Protection from Illness
Two important ways to help protect children from illness are immunization and handwashing.
Immunizations
While vaccines begin in infancy, it is important for children to receive additional doses of vaccines to keep them protected. These boosters, given between ages 4 and 6, are doses of the vaccines they received earlier in life to help them maintain the best protection against vaccine-preventable diseases.
Many states require children to be fully vaccinated (unless they have a medical reason to be exempt) before they can enroll in licensed child care or public school. If vaccinations were missed, a health care provider can help the child’s caregivers to create a catch-up schedule to ensure the child correctly “catches up” with the recommended childhood vaccination schedule.29
Handwashing
Handwashing is one of the best ways to prevent the spread of illness. It’s important for children (and adults) to wash their hands often, especially when they are likely to get and spread germs, including:
• Before, during, and after preparing food.
• Before eating food.
• After blowing nose, coughing, or sneezing.
• After using the toilet.
• After touching an animal, animal feed, or animal waste.
• After touching garbage.
It’s important for children to learn how to properly wash their hands. When washing hands children (and adults) should follow these five steps every time.
1. Wet your hands with clean, running water (warm or cold), turn off the tap, and apply soap. 2. Lather your hands by rubbing them together with the soap. Lather the backs of your hands, between your fingers, and under your nails. 3. Scrub your hands for at least 20 seconds. Need a timer? Hum or sing the Happy Birthday song or ABCs from beginning to end twice. 4. Rinse your hands well under clean, running water. 5. Dry your hands using a clean towel or air dry them.30
Caregivers can help keep children healthy by:
• Teaching them good handwashing techniques.
• Reminding their kids to wash their hands.
• Washing their own hands with the children.32
Contributors and Attributions
21. Prevalence of Childhood Obesity in the United States by the CDC is in the public domain
24. Food Allergies in Schools by the CDC is in the public domain
25. Children’s Oral Health by the CDC is in the public domain
26. Content by Jennifer Paris is licensed under CC BY 4.0
29. Vaccines for Your Children: Protect Your Child at Every Age by the CDC is in the public domain
30. Wash Your Hands by the CDC is in the public domain
32. Handwashing: A Family Activity by the CDC is in the public domain | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/07%3A_Physical_Development_in_Early_Childhood/7.09%3A_Health_in_Early_Childhood.txt |
Child injuries are preventable, yet more than 9,000 children (from 0-19 years) died from injuries in the US in 2009. Car crashes, suffocation, drowning, poisoning, fires, and falls are some of the most common ways children are hurt or killed. The number of children dying from injury dropped nearly 30% over the last decade. However, injury is still the number 1 cause of death among children.33
Children during early childhood are more at risk for certain injuries. Using data from 2000-2006, the CDC determined that:
• Drowning was the leading cause of injury death between 1 and 4 years of age.
• Falls were the leading cause of nonfatal injury for all age groups less than 15.
• For children ages 0 to 9, the next two leading causes were being struck by or against an object and animal bites or insect stings.
• Rates for fires or burns, and drowning were highest for children 4 years and younger.34
Table 7.4 summarizes some tips from the CDC to protect children from these injuries:
Table \(1\): Preventing Injuries
Type of Injury Prevention Tips
Burns
• Have smoke alarms on every floor and in all rooms people sleep in
• Involve children in creating and practicing an escape plan
• Never leave food cooking on the stove unattended; supervise any use of microwave
• Make sure the water heater is set to 120 degrees or lower35
Drowning
• Make sure caregivers are trained in CPR
• Fence off pools; gates should be self-closing and self-latching
• Have children wear life jackets in and around natural bodies of water
• Supervise children in or near water (including the bathtub)36
Falls
• Make sure playground surfaces are safe, soft, and made of impact absorbing material (such as wood chips or sand) at an appropriate depth and are well maintained
• Use safety devices (such as window guards)
• Make sure children are wearing protective gear during sports and recreation (such as bicycle helmets)
• Supervise children around fall hazards at all times37
Poisoning
• Lock up all medications and toxic products (such as cleaning solutions and detergents) in original packaging out of sight and reach of children
• Know the number to poison control (1-800-222-1222)
• Read and follow labels of all medications
• Safely dispose of unused, unneeded, or expired prescription drugs and over the counter drugs, vitamins, and supplements 38
Motor-accident, in vehicle
• Children should still be safely restrained in a five point harnessed car seat
• Children should be in back seat
• Children should not be seated in front of an airbag
Motor-accident, pedestrian
• Teach children about safety including:
• Walking on the sidewalk
• Not assuming vehicles see you or will stop
• Crossing only in crosswalks
• Looking both ways before crossing
• Never playing in the road
• Not crossing a road without an adult
• Supervise children near all roadways and model safe behavior 39
Contributors and Attributions
33. Child Injury by the CDC is in the public domain
34. CDC Childhood Injury Report by the CDC is in the public domain
35. Burn Prevention by the CDC is in the public domain
36. Drowning Prevention by the CDC is in the public domain
37. Poisoning Prevention by the CDC is in the public domain
38. Road Traffic Safety by the CDC is in the public domain
39. Safety Tips for Pedestrians by the Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center is in the public domain
7.S: Summary
In this chapter we looked at:
• The physical characteristics of preschoolers.
• Healthy nutrition.
• The changes in the brain.
• The progression of motor skills and developmentally appropriate ways to support that development.
• Sleep and sleep disorders.
• Toilet training and elimination disorders
• Sexual development in early childhood.
• And ways to keep children healthy and safe.
In the next chapter we’ll investigate how children understand the world and their communication abilities. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/07%3A_Physical_Development_in_Early_Childhood/7.10%3A_Safety.txt |
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Compare and contrast Piaget and Vygotsky’s beliefs about cognitive development.
2. Explain the role of information processing in cognitive development.
3. Discuss how preschool-aged children understand their worlds.
4. Put cognitive and language milestones into the order in which they appear in typically developing children.
5. Discuss how early child education supports development and how our understanding of development influence education.
6. Describe autism spectrum disorder, including characteristics and possible interventions.
Early childhood is a time of pretending, blending fact and fiction, and learning to think of the world using language. As young children move away from needing to touch, feel, and hear about the world toward learning some basic principles about how the world works, they hold some pretty interesting initial ideas. For example, while adults have no concerns with taking a bath, a child of three might genuinely worry about being sucked down the drain. 1
A child might protest if told that something will happen “tomorrow” but be willing to accept an explanation that an event will occur “today after we sleep.” Or the young child may ask, “How long are we staying? From here to here?” while pointing to two points on a table. Concepts such as tomorrow, time, size and distance are not easy to grasp at this young age. Understanding size, time, distance, fact and fiction are all tasks that are part of cognitive development in the preschool years. 3
• 8.1: Piaget’s Preoperational Intelligence
Piaget’s stage that coincides with early childhood is the preoperational stage. The word operational means logical, so these children were thought to be illogical. However, they were learning to use language or to think of the world symbolically. Let’s examine some of Piaget’s assertions about children’s cognitive abilities at this age.
• 8.2: Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development
Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who argued that culture has a major impact on a child’s cognitive development. He believed that the social interactions with adults and more knowledgeable peers can facilitate a child’s potential for learning. Without this interpersonal instruction, he believed children’s minds would not advance very far as their knowledge would be based only on their own discoveries. Let’s review some of Vygotsky’s key concepts.
• 8.3: Information Processing
Information processing researchers have focused on several issues in cognitive development for this age group, including improvements in attention skills, changes in the capacity, and the emergence of executive functions in working memory. Additionally, in early childhood memory strategies, memory accuracy, and autobiographical memory emerge. Early childhood is seen by many researchers as a crucial time period in memory development.
• 8.4: Children’s Understanding of the World
Both Piaget and Vygotsky believed that children actively try to understand the world around them. More recently developmentalists have added to this understanding by examining how children organize information and develop their own theories about the world.
• 8.5: Milestones of Cognitive Development
The many theories of cognitive development and the different research that has been done about how children understand the world, has allowed researchers to study the milestones that children who are typically developing experience in early childhood. Here is a table that summarizes those.
• 8.6: Language Development
A child’s vocabulary expands between the ages of 2 to 6 from about 200 words to over 10,000 words through a process called fast-mapping. Words are easily learned by making connections between new words and concepts already known. The parts of speech that are learned depend on the language and what is emphasized. Children speaking verb-friendly languages such as Chinese and Japanese, tend to learn nouns more readily.
• 8.7: Early Childhood Education
Universal preschool covering all four-year-olds in the country would require significant funding. Further, how effective preschools are in preparing children for elementary school, and what constitutes high quality early childhood education have been debated. To set criteria for designation as a high quality preschool, the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) identifies 10 standards (NAEYC, 2016).
• 8.8: Applications to Early Education
Understanding how children think and learn has proven useful for improving education. Activities like playing games that involve working with numbers and spatial relationships can give young children a developmental advantage over peers who have less exposure to the same concepts.
• 8.9: Cognitive Differences
Sometimes children’s brains work differently. One form of this neurodiversity is Autism spectrum disorder.
• 8.S: Summary
Thumbnail: pixabay.com/photos/kids-girl...ebook-1093758/
08: Cognitive Development in Early Childhood
Piaget’s stage that coincides with early childhood is the preoperational stage. The word operational means logical, so these children were thought to be illogical. However, they were learning to use language or to think of the world symbolically. Let’s examine some of Piaget’s assertions about children’s cognitive abilities at this age.
Pretend Play
Pretending is a favorite activity at this time. A toy has qualities beyond the way it was designed to function and can now be used to stand for a character or object unlike anything originally intended. A teddy bear, for example, can be a baby or the queen of a faraway land!
According to Piaget, children’s pretend play helps them solidify new schemes they were developing cognitively. This play, then, reflects changes in their conceptions or thoughts. However, children also learn as they pretend and experiment. Their play does not simply represent what they have learned (Berk, 2007).
Egocentrism
Egocentrism in early childhood refers to the tendency of young children to think that everyone sees things in the same way as the child. Piaget’s classic experiment on egocentrism involved showing children a 3-dimensional model of a mountain and asking them to describe what a doll that is looking at the mountain from a different angle might see. Children tend to choose a picture that represents their own view, rather than that of the doll. However, children tend to use different sentence structures and vocabulary when addressing a younger child or an older adult. This indicates some awareness of the views of others.
Syncretism
Syncretism refers to a tendency to think that if two events occur simultaneously, one caused the other. An example of this is a child putting on their bathing suit to turn it to summertime.
Animism
Attributing lifelike qualities to objects is referred to as animism. The cup is alive, the chair that falls down and hits the child’s ankle is mean, and the toys need to stay home because they are tired. Cartoons frequently show objects that appear alive and take on lifelike qualities. Young children do seem to think that objects that move may be alive but after age 3, they seldom refer to objects as being alive (Berk, 2007).
Classification Errors
Preoperational children have difficulty understanding that an object can be classified in more than one way. For example, if shown three white buttons and four black buttons and asked whether there are more black buttons or buttons, the child is likely to respond that there are more black buttons. As the child’s vocabulary improves and more schemes are developed, the ability to classify objects improves. 6
Conservation Errors
Conservation refers to the ability to recognize that moving or rearranging matter does not change the quantity. Let’s look at an example. A father gave a slice of pizza to 10-year-old Keiko and another slice to 3-year-old Kenny. Kenny’s pizza slice was cut into five pieces, so Kenny told his sister that he got more pizza than she did. Kenny did not understand that cutting the pizza into smaller pieces did not increase the overall amount. This was because Kenny exhibited Centration, or focused on only one characteristic of an object to the exclusion of others.
Kenny focused on the five pieces of pizza to his sister’s one piece even though the total amount was the same. Keiko was able to consider several characteristics of an object than just one. Because children have not developed this understanding of conservation, they cannot perform mental operations.
The classic Piagetian experiment associated with conservation involves liquid (Crain, 2005). As seen below, the child is shown two glasses (as shown in a) which are filled to the same level and asked if they have the same amount. Usually the child agrees they have the same amount. The researcher then pours the liquid from one glass to a taller and thinner glass (as shown in b). The child is again asked if the two glasses have the same amount of liquid. The preoperational child will typically say the taller glass now has more liquid because it is taller. The child has concentrated on the height of the glass and fails to conserve. 7
Cognitive Schemas
As introduced in the first chapter, Piaget believed that in a quest for cognitive equilibrium, we use schemas (categories of knowledge) to make sense of the world. And when new experiences fit into existing schemas, we use assimilation to add that new knowledge to the schema. But when new experiences do not match an existing schema, we use accommodation to add a new schema. During early childhood, children use accommodation often as they build their understanding of the world around them.
Contributors and Attributions
6. Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
7. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/08%3A_Cognitive_Development_in_Early_Childhood/8.01%3A_Piagets_Preoperational_Intelligence.txt |
As introduced in Chapter 1, Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who argued that culture has a major impact on a child’s cognitive development. He believed that the social interactions with adults and more knowledgeable peers can facilitate a child’s potential for learning. Without this interpersonal instruction, he believed children’s minds would not advance very far as their knowledge would be based only on their own discoveries. Let’s review some of Vygotsky’s key concepts.
Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding
Vygotsky’s best known concept is the zone of proximal development (ZPD). Vygotsky stated that children should be taught in the ZPD, which occurs when they can perform a task with assistance, but not quite yet on their own. With the right kind of teaching, however, they can accomplish it successfully. A good teacher identifies a child’s ZPD and helps the child stretch beyond it. Then the adult (teacher) gradually withdraws support until the child can then perform the task unaided. Researchers have applied the metaphor of scaffolds (the temporary platforms on which construction workers stand) to this way of teaching. Scaffolding is the temporary support that parents or teachers give a child to do a task.
Private Speech
Do you ever talk to yourself? Why? Chances are, this occurs when you are struggling with a problem, trying to remember something, or feel very emotional about a situation. Children talk to themselves too. Piaget interpreted this as egocentric speech or a practice engaged in because of a child’s inability to see things from another’s point of view. Vygotsky, however, believed that children talk to themselves in order to solve problems or clarify thoughts. As children learn to think in words, they do so aloud before eventually closing their lips and engaging in private speech or inner speech.
Thinking out loud eventually becomes thought accompanied by internal speech, and talking to oneself becomes a practice only engaged in when we are trying to learn something or remember something. This inner speech is not as elaborate as the speech we use when communicating with others (Vygotsky, 1962). 10
Contrast with Piaget
Piaget was highly critical of teacher-directed instruction, believing that teachers who take control of the child’s learning place the child into a passive role (Crain, 2005). Further, teachers may present abstract ideas without the child’s true understanding, and instead they just repeat back what they heard. Piaget believed children must be given opportunities to discover concepts on their own. As previously stated, Vygotsky did not believe children could reach a higher cognitive level without instruction from more learned individuals. Who is correct? Both theories certainly contribute to our understanding of how children learn.
Contributors and Attributions
10. Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
8.03: Information Processing
Information processing researchers have focused on several issues in cognitive development for this age group, including improvements in attention skills, changes in the capacity, and the emergence of executive functions in working memory. Additionally, in early childhood memory strategies, memory accuracy, and autobiographical memory emerge. Early childhood is seen by many researchers as a crucial time period in memory development (Posner & Rothbart, 2007).
Attention
Changes in attention have been described by many as the key to changes in human memory (Nelson & Fivush, 2004; Posner & Rothbart, 2007). However, attention is not a unified function; it is comprised of sub-processes. The ability to switch our focus between tasks or external stimuli is called divided attention or multitasking. This is separate from our ability to focus on a single task or stimulus, while ignoring distracting information, called selective attention. Different from these is sustained attention, or the ability to stay on task for long periods of time. Moreover, we also have attention processes that influence our behavior and enable us to inhibit a habitual or dominant response, and others that enable us to distract ourselves when upset or frustrated.
Divided Attention
Young children (age 3-4) have considerable difficulties in dividing their attention between two tasks, and often perform at levels equivalent to our closest relative, the chimpanzee, but by age five they have surpassed the chimp (Hermann, Misch, Hernandez-Lloreda & Tomasello, 2015; Hermann & Tomasello, 2015). Despite these improvements, 5-year-olds continue to perform below the level of school-age children, adolescents, and adults.
Selective Attention
Children’s ability with selective attention tasks improve as they age. However, this ability is also greatly influenced by the child’s temperament (Rothbart & Rueda, 2005), the complexity of the stimulus or task (Porporino, Shore, Iarocci & Burack, 2004), and along with whether the stimuli are visual or auditory (Guy, Rogers & Cornish, 2013). Guy et al. (2013) found that children’s ability to selectively attend to visual information outpaced that of auditory stimuli. This may explain why young children are not able to hear the voice of the teacher over the cacophony of sounds in the typical preschool classroom (Jones, Moore & Amitay, 2015). Jones and his colleagues found that 4 to 7 year-olds could not filter out background noise, especially when its frequencies were close in sound to the target sound. In comparison, 8- to 11-year-old children often performed similar to adults.
Sustained Attention
Most measures of sustained attention typically ask children to spend several minutes focusing on one task, while waiting for an infrequent event, while there are multiple distractors for several minutes. Berwid, Curko-Kera, Marks & Halperin (2005) asked children between the ages of 3 and 7 to push a button whenever a “target” image was displayed, but they had to refrain from pushing the button when a non-target image was shown. The younger the child, the more difficulty he or she had maintaining their attention.
Memory
Based on studies of adults, people with amnesia, and neurological research on memory, researchers have proposed several “types” of memory (see Figure 4.14). Sensory memory (also called the sensory register) is the first stage of the memory system, and it stores sensory input in its raw form for a very brief duration; essentially long enough for the brain to register and start processing the information. Studies of auditory sensory memory show that it lasts about one second in 2 year-olds, two seconds in 3-year-olds, more than two seconds in 4-year-olds, and three to five seconds in 6-year-olds (Glass, Sachse, & von Suchodoletz, 2008). Other researchers have also found that young children hold sounds for a shorter duration than do older children and adults, and that this deficit is not due to attentional differences between these age groups, but reflects differences in the performance of the sensory memory system (Gomes et al., 1999). The second stage of the memory system is called short-term or working memory. Working memory is the component of memory in which current conscious mental activity occurs.
Working memory often requires conscious effort and adequate use of attention to function effectively. As you read earlier, children in this age group struggle with many aspects of attention and this greatly diminishes their ability to consciously juggle several pieces of information in memory. The capacity of working memory, that is the amount of information someone can hold in consciousness, is smaller in young children than in older children and adults. The typical adult and teenager can hold a 7 digit number active in their short-term memory. The typical 5-year-old can hold only a 4 digit number active. This means that the more complex a mental task is, the less efficient a younger child will be in paying attention to, and actively processing, information in order to complete the task.
Changes in attention and the working memory system also involve changes in executive function. Executive function (EF) refers to self-regulatory processes, such as the ability to inhibit a behavior or cognitive flexibility, that enable adaptive responses to new situations or to reach a specific goal. Executive function skills gradually emerge during early childhood and continue to develop throughout childhood and adolescence. Like many cognitive changes, brain maturation, especially the prefrontal cortex, along with experience influence the development of executive function skills.
A child shows higher executive functioning skills when the parents are more warm and responsive, use scaffolding when the child is trying to solve a problem, and provide cognitively stimulating environments for the child (Fay-Stammbach, Hawes & Meredith, 2014). For instance, scaffolding was positively correlated with greater cognitive flexibility at age two and inhibitory control at age four (Bibok, Carpendale & Müller, 2009). In Schneider, Kron-Sperl and Hunnerkopf’s (2009) longitudinal study of 102 kindergarten children, the majority of children used no strategy to remember information, a finding that was consistent with previous research. As a result, their memory performance was poor when compared to their abilities as they aged and started to use more effective memory strategies.
The third component in memory is long-term memory, which is also known as permanent memory. A basic division of long-term memory is between declarative and non-declarative memory.
• Declarative memories, sometimes referred to as explicit memories, are memories for facts or events that we can consciously recollect. Declarative memory is further divided into semantic and episodic memory.
• Semantic memories are memories for facts and knowledge that are not tied to a timeline,
• Episodic memories are tied to specific events in time.
• Non- declarative memories, sometimes referred to as implicit memories, are typically automated skills that do not require conscious recollection.
Autobiographical memory is our personal narrative. Adults rarely remember events from the first few years of life. In other words, we lack autobiographical memories from our experiences as an infant, toddler and very young preschooler. Several factors contribute to the emergence of autobiographical memory including brain maturation, improvements in language, opportunities to talk about experiences with parents and others, the development of theory of mind, and a representation of “self” (Nelson & Fivush, 2004). Two-year-olds do remember fragments of personal experiences, but these are rarely coherent accounts of past events (Nelson & Ross, 1980). Between 2 and 2 1⁄2 years of age children can provide more information about past experiences. However, these recollections require considerable prodding by adults (Nelson & Fivush, 2004). Over the next few years children will form more detailed autobiographical memories and engage in more reflection of the past.
Neo-Piagetians
As previously discussed, Piaget’s theory has been criticized on many fronts, and updates to reflect more current research have been provided by the Neo-Piagetians, or those theorists who provide “new” interpretations of Piaget’s theory. Morra, Gobbo, Marini and Sheese (2008) reviewed Neo-Piagetian theories, which were first presented in the 1970s, and identified how these “new” theories combined Piagetian concepts with those found in Information Processing. Similar to Piaget’s theory, Neo-Piagetian theories believe in constructivism, assume cognitive development can be separated into different stages with qualitatively different characteristics, and advocate that children’s thinking becomes more complex in advanced stages. Unlike Piaget, Neo-Piagetians believe that aspects of information processing change the complexity of each stage, not logic as determined by Piaget.
Neo-Piagetians propose that working memory capacity is affected by biological maturation, and therefore restricts young children’s ability to acquire complex thinking and reasoning skills. Increases in working memory performance and cognitive skills development coincide with the timing of several neurodevelopmental processes. These include myelination, axonal and synaptic pruning, changes in cerebral metabolism, and changes in brain activity (Morra et al., 2008).
Myelination especially occurs in waves between birth and adolescence, and the degree of myelination in particular areas explains the increasing efficiency of certain skills. Therefore, brain maturation, which occurs in spurts, affects how and when cognitive skills develop.
Additionally, all Neo-Piagetian theories support that experience and learning interact with biological maturation in shaping cognitive development. 15
Contributors and Attributions
15. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/08%3A_Cognitive_Development_in_Early_Childhood/8.02%3A_Vygotskys_Sociocultural_Theory_of_Cognitive_Development.txt |
Both Piaget and Vygotsky believed that children actively try to understand the world around them. More recently developmentalists have added to this understanding by examining how children organize information and develop their own theories about the world.
Theory-Theory
The tendency of children to generate theories to explain everything they encounter is called theory-theory. This concept implies that humans are naturally inclined to find reasons and generate explanations for why things occur. Children frequently ask question about what they see or hear around them. When the answers provided do not satisfy their curiosity or are too complicated for them to understand, they generate their own theories. In much the same way that scientists construct and revise their theories, children do the same with their intuitions about the world as they encounter new experiences (Gopnik & Wellman, 2012). One of the theories they start to generate in early childhood centers on the mental states; both their own and those of others.
Theory of Mind
Theory of mind refers to the ability to think about other people’s thoughts. This mental mind reading helps humans to understand and predict the reactions of others, thus playing a crucial role in social development. One common method for determining if a child has reached this mental milestone is the false belief task, described below.
The research began with a clever experiment by Wimmer and Perner (1983), who tested whether children can pass a false-belief test (see Figure 4.17). The child is shown a picture story of Sally, who puts her ball in a basket and leaves the room. While Sally is out of the room, Anne comes along and takes the ball from the basket and puts it inside a box. The child is then asked where Sally thinks the ball is located when she comes back to the room. Is she going to look first in the box or in the basket? The right answer is that she will look in the basket, because that’s where she put it and thinks it is; but we have to infer this false belief against our own better knowledge that the ball is in the box.
This is very difficult for children before the age of four because of the cognitive effort it takes. Three-year-olds have difficulty distinguishing between what they once thought was true and what they now know to be true. They feel confident that what they know now is what they have always known (Birch & Bloom, 2003). Even adults need to think through this task (Epley, Morewedge, & Keysar, 2004).
To be successful at solving this type of task the child must separate what he or she “knows” to be true from what someone else might “think” is true. In Piagetian terms, they must give up a tendency toward egocentrism. The child must also understand that what guides people’s actions and responses are what they “believe” rather than what is reality. In other words, people can mistakenly believe things that are false and will act based on this false knowledge. Consequently, prior to age four children are rarely successful at solving such a task (Wellman, Cross & Watson, 2001).
Researchers examining the development of theory of mind have been concerned by the overemphasis on the mastery of false belief as the primary measure of whether a child has attained theory of mind. Wellman and his colleagues (Wellman, Fang, Liu, Zhu & Liu, 2006) suggest that theory of mind is comprised of a number of components, each with its own developmental timeline (see Table 4.2).
Two-year-olds understand the diversity of desires, yet as noted earlier it is not until age four or five that children grasp false belief, and often not until middle childhood do they understand that people may hide how they really feel. In part, because children in early childhood have difficulty hiding how they really feel.
Cultural Differences in Theory of Mind
Those in early childhood in the US, Australia, and Germany develop theory of mind in the sequence outlined above. Yet, Chinese and Iranian preschoolers acquire knowledge access before diverse beliefs (Shahaeian, Peterson, Slaughter & Wellman, 2011). Shahaeian and colleagues suggested that cultural differences in childrearing may account for this reversal. Parents in collectivistic cultures, such as China and Iran, emphasize conformity to the family and cultural values, greater respect for elders, and the acquisition of knowledge and academic skills more than they do autonomy and social skills (Frank, Plunkett & Otten, 2010). This could reduce the degree of familial conflict of opinions expressed in the family. In contrast, individualistic cultures encourage children to think for themselves and assert their own opinion, and this could increase the risk of conflict in beliefs being expressed by family members.
As a result, children in individualistic cultures would acquire insight into the question of diversity of belief earlier, while children in collectivistic cultures would acquire knowledge access earlier in the sequence. The role of conflict in aiding the development of theory of mind may account for the earlier age of onset of an understanding of false belief in children with siblings, especially older siblings (McAlister & Petersen, 2007; Perner, Ruffman & Leekman, 1994).
This awareness of the existence of theory of mind is part of social intelligence, such as recognizing that others can think differently about situations. It helps us to be self-conscious or aware that others can think of us in different ways and it helps us to be able to be understanding or be empathetic toward others. Moreover, this mind-reading ability helps us to anticipate and predict people’s actions. The awareness of the mental states of others is important for communication and social skills. 21
Contributors and Attributions
21. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/08%3A_Cognitive_Development_in_Early_Childhood/8.04%3A_Childrens_Understanding_of_the_World.txt |
The many theories of cognitive development and the different research that has been done about how children understand the world has allowed researchers to study the milestones that children who are typically developing experience in early childhood. Here is a table that summarizes those.
Table \(1\): Cognitive Milestones (Developmental Milestones by the CDC is in the public domain)
Typical Age What Most Children Do by This Age
3 years
• Can work toys with buttons, levers, and moving parts
• Plays make-believe with dolls, animals, and people
• Does puzzles with 3 or 4 pieces
• Understands what “two” means
4 years
• Names some colors and some numbers
• Understands the idea of counting
• Starts to understand time
• Remembers parts of a story
• Understands the idea of “same” and “different”
• Plays board or card games
• Tells you what he thinks is going to happen next in a book
5 years
• Counts 10 or more things
• Knows about things used every day, like money and food
8.06: Language Development
Vocabulary Growth
A child’s vocabulary expands between the ages of 2 to 6 from about 200 words to over 10,000 words through a process called fast-mapping. Words are easily learned by making connections between new words and concepts already known. The parts of speech that are learned depend on the language and what is emphasized. Children speaking verb-friendly languages such as Chinese and Japanese, tend to learn nouns more readily. But, those learning less verb-friendly languages such as English, seem to need assistance in grammar to master the use of verbs (Imai, et al, 2008).
Literal Meanings
Children can repeat words and phrases after having heard them only once or twice. But they do not always understand the meaning of the words or phrases. This is especially true of expressions or figures of speech that are taken literally. For example, two preschool-aged girls began to laugh loudly while listening to a tape-recording of Disney’s “Sleeping Beauty” when the narrator reports, “Prince Phillip lost his head!” They imagine his head popping off and rolling down the hill as he runs and searches for it. Or a classroom full of preschoolers hears the teacher say, “Wow! That was a piece of cake!” The children began asking “Cake? Where is my cake? I want cake!”
Overregularization
Children learn rules of grammar as they learn a language but may apply these rules inappropriately at first. For instance, a child learns to add “ed” to the end of a word to indicate past tense. Then form a sentence such as “I goed there. I doed that.” This is typical at ages 2 and 3. They will soon learn new words such as “went” and “did” to be used in those situations.
The Impact of Training
Remember Vygotsky and the zone of proximal development? Children can be assisted in learning language by others who listen attentively, model more accurate pronunciations and encourage elaboration. The child exclaims, “I goed there!” and the adult responds, “You went there? Say, ‘I went there.’ Where did you go?” Children may be ripe for language as Chomsky suggests, but active participation in helping them learn is important for language development as well. The process of scaffolding is one in which the adult (or more skilled peer) provides needed assistance to the child as a new skill is learned.
Language Milestones
The prior aspects of language development in early childhood can also be summarized into the progression of milestones children typically experience from ages 3 to 5. Here is a table of those.
Table \(1\): Language Milestones (Developmental Milestones by the CDC is in the public domain)
Typical Age What Most Children Do By This Age
3 years
• Follows instructions with 2 or 3 steps
• Can name most familiar things
• Understands words like “in,” “on,” and “under”
• Says first name, age, and sex
• Names a friend
• Says words like “I,” “me,” “we,” and “you” and some plurals (cars, dogs, cats)
• Talks well enough for strangers to understand most of the time
• Carries on a conversation using 2 to 3 sentences
4 years
• Knows some basic rules of grammar, such as correctly using “he” and “she”
• Sings a song or says a poem from memory such as the “Itsy Bitsy Spider” or the “Wheels on the Bus”
• Tells stories
• Can say first and last name
5 years
• Speaks very clearly
• Tells a simple story using full sentences
• Uses future tense; for example, “Grandma will be here.”
• Says name and address
Now that we have addressed some of the cognitive areas of growth in early childhood, let’s take a look at the topic of school and its various applications. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/08%3A_Cognitive_Development_in_Early_Childhood/8.05%3A_Milestones_of_Cognitive_Development.txt |
Providing universal preschool has become an important lobbying point for federal, state, and local leaders throughout our country. In his 2013 State of the Union address, President Obama called upon congress to provide high quality preschool for all children. He continued to support universal preschool in his legislative agenda, and in December 2014 the President convened state and local policymakers for the White House Summit on Early Education (White House Press Secretary, 2014).
However, universal preschool covering all four-year olds in the country would require significant funding. Further, how effective preschools are in preparing children for elementary school, and what constitutes high quality early childhood education have been debated. To set criteria for designation as a high quality preschool, the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) identifies 10 standards (NAEYC, 2016). These include:
• Positive relationships among all children and adults are promoted.
• A curriculum that supports learning and development in social, emotional, physical, language, and cognitive areas.
• Teaching approaches that are developmentally, culturally and linguistically appropriate.
• Assessment of children’s progress to provide information on learning and development.
• The health and nutrition of children are promoted, while they are protected from illness and injury.
• Teachers possess the educational qualifications, knowledge, and commitment to promote children’s learning.
• Collaborative relationships with families are established and maintained.
• Relationships with agencies and institutions in the children’s communities are established to support the program’s goals.
• The indoor and outdoor physical environments are safe and well-maintained.
• Leadership and management personnel are well qualified, effective, and maintain licensure status with the applicable state agency.
Parents should review preschool programs using the NAEYC criteria as a guide and template for asking questions that will assist them in choosing the best program for their child.
Selecting the right preschool is also difficult because there are so many types of preschools available. Zachry (2013) identified Montessori, Waldorf, Reggio Emilia, High Scope, Creative Curriculum and Bank Street as types of early childhood education programs that focus on children learning through discovery. Teachers act as facilitators of children’s learning and development and create activities based on the child’s developmental level. Here is a table summarizes characteristics of each type of program.
Table \(1\): Types of Early Childhood Education Programs (Gordon, A. M., & Browne, K. W. (2016). Beginning essentials in early childhood education. (3rd ed.). Cengage: Boston.)
Program Founder Characteristics
Montessori Dr. Maria Montessori
• Refers to children’s activity as work (not play); children are given long periods of time to work
• Focus on individual learning
• Features child-sized furniture and defined work areas
• Materials are carefully chosen and introduced to children by teacher
• Features mixed-aged grouping
• Teachers should be certified
Waldorf Rudolf Steiner
• Focus on whole child
• Features connections to nature, sensory learning, and imagination
• Provides large blocks of time for play
• Delay formal academic instruction
• Environment protects children from negative influences
• Relationships are important so groupings last for several years (looping)
• Teachers should be certified
Reggio Emilia Loris Malaguzzi
• Teachers and children co-construct the curriculum
• Teachers are researchers
• Environment is the third teacher and features beauty and order
• Children’s learning is documented through the multiple methods (100 languages of children)
• Have atelier (art studio) with an atelierista (artist) to instruct children
• Believe children are competent and capable
• Children stay together for 3 years
• Parents partner with teachers
• Community is extension of school
High Scope David Weikart
• Features defined learning areas
• Has 8 content areas with 58 key developmental indicators
• Consistency of daily routine is important
• Uses plan-do-review sequence in which they make a plan, act on it, and then reflect on the results
• Teachers are partners and use the Child Observation Record (COR) to help assess children and plan curriculum
• Utilizes 6 step process to teach children conflict resolution
Bank Street Lucy Sprague Mitchell
• Also referred to as the Developmental- Interactionist Approach
• Environment is arranged into learning centers
• Focus on hands-on experience with long periods of time given
• Teacher uses questions to further children’s exploration
• Blocks are primary material in the classroom
• Field trips are frequently used
Creative Curriculum Diane Trister Dodge
• Focus on children’s play and self-selected activities
• Environment is arranged into learning areas
• Large blocks of time are given for self-selected play
• Uses projects as basis for curriculum
• Is researched based and includes assessment system
Head Start
For children who live in poverty, Head Start has been providing preschool education since 1965 when it was begun by President Lyndon Johnson as part of his war on poverty. It currently serves nearly one million children and annually costs approximately 7.5 billion dollars (United States Department of Health and Human Services, 2015). However, concerns about the effectiveness of Head Start have been ongoing since the program began. Armor (2015) reviewed existing research on Head Start and found there were no lasting gains, and the average child in Head Start had not learned more than children who did not receive preschool education.
A recent report dated July 2015 evaluating the effectiveness of Head Start comes from the What Works Clearinghouse. The What Works Clearinghouse identifies research that provides reliable evidence of the effectiveness of programs and practices in education, and is managed by the Institute of Education Services for the United States Department of Education. After reviewing 90 studies on the effectiveness of Head Start, only one study was deemed scientifically acceptable and this study showed disappointing results (Barshay, 2015). This study showed that 3- and 4-year-old children in Head Start received “potentially positive effects” on general reading achievement, but no noticeable effects on math achievement and social-emotional development.
Nonexperimental designs are a significant problem in determining the effectiveness of Head Start programs because a control group is needed to show group differences that would demonstrate educational benefits. Because of ethical reasons, low income children are usually provided with some type of pre-school programming in an alternative setting. Additionally, Head Start programs are different depending on the location, and these differences include the length of the day or qualification of the teachers. Lastly, testing young children is difficult and strongly dependent on their language skills and comfort level with an evaluator (Barshay, 2015). 28
Contributors and Attributions
28. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/08%3A_Cognitive_Development_in_Early_Childhood/8.07%3A_Early_Childhood_Education.txt |
Understanding how children think and learn has proven useful for improving education. Activities like playing games that involve working with numbers and spatial relationships can give young children a developmental advantage over peers who have less exposure to the same concepts.
Mathematics
Even before they enter kindergarten, the mathematical knowledge of children from low-income backgrounds lags far behind that of children from more affluent backgrounds. Ramani and Siegler (2008) hypothesized that this difference is due to the children in middle- and upper-income families engaging more frequently in numerical activities, for example playing numerical board games such as Chutes and Ladders. Chutes and Ladders is a game with a number in each square; children start at the number one and spin a spinner or throw a dice to determine how far to move their token. Playing this game seemed likely to teach children about numbers, because in it, larger numbers are associated with greater values on a variety of dimensions. In particular, the higher the number that a child’s token reaches, the greater the distance the token will have traveled from the starting point, the greater the number of physical movements the child will have made in moving the token from one square to another, the greater the number of number-words the child will have said and heard, and the more time will have passed since the beginning of the game. These spatial, kinesthetic, verbal, and time- based cues provide a broad-based, multisensory foundation for knowledge of numerical magnitudes (the sizes of numbers), a type of knowledge that is closely related to mathematics achievement test scores (Booth & Siegler, 2006).
Playing this numerical board game for roughly 1 hour, distributed over a 2-week period, improved low-income children’s knowledge of numerical magnitudes, ability to read printed numbers, and skill at learning novel arithmetic problems. The gains lasted for months after the game-playing experience (Ramani & Siegler, 2008; Siegler & Ramani, 2009). An advantage of this type of educational intervention is that it has minimal if any cost—a parent could just draw a game on a piece of paper.
Reading
Cognitive developmental research has shown that phonemic awareness—that is, awareness of the component sounds within words—is a crucial skill in learning to read. To measure awareness of the component sounds within words, researchers ask children to decide whether two words rhyme, to decide whether the words start with the same sound, to identify the component sounds within words, and to indicate what would be left if a given sound were removed from a word. Kindergartners’ performance on these tasks is the strongest predictor of reading achievement in third and fourth grade, even stronger than IQ or social class background (Nation, 2008). Moreover, teaching these skills to randomly chosen 4- and 5-year-olds results in their being better readers years later (National Reading Panel, 2000).
Continuing Brain Maturation
Understanding of cognitive development is advancing on many different fronts. One exciting area is linking changes in brain activity to changes in children’s thinking (Nelson et al., 2006). Although many people believe that brain maturation is something that occurs before birth, the brain actually continues to change in large ways for many years thereafter. For example, a part of the brain called the prefrontal cortex, which is located at the front of the brain and is particularly involved with planning and flexible problem solving, continues to develop throughout adolescence (Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006). Such new research domains, as well as enduring issues such as nature and nurture, continuity and discontinuity, and how to apply cognitive development research to education, insure that cognitive development will continue to be an exciting area of research in the coming years. 29
Contributors and Attributions
29. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/08%3A_Cognitive_Development_in_Early_Childhood/8.08%3A_Applications_to_Early_Education.txt |
Sometimes children’s brains work differently. One form of this neurodiversity is Autism spectrum disorder.
Autism: Defining Spectrum Disorder
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) describes a range of conditions classified as neuro-developmental disorders in the fifth revision of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). The DSM-5, published in 2013, redefined the autism spectrum to encompass the previous (DSM-IV-TR) diagnoses of autism, Asperger syndrome, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), and childhood disintegrative disorder. These disorders are characterized by social deficits and communication difficulties, repetitive behaviors and interests, sensory issues, and in some cases, cognitive delays.
Asperger syndrome was distinguished from autism in the earlier DSM-IV by the lack of delay or deviance in early language development. Additionally, individuals diagnosed with Asperger syndrome did not have significant cognitive delays. PDD-NOS was considered "subthreshold autism" and "atypical autism" because it was often characterized by milder symptoms of autism or symptoms in only one domain (such as social difficulties). In the DSM-5, both of these diagnoses have been subsumed into autism spectrum disorder.
Autism spectrum disorders are considered to be on a spectrum because each individual with ASD expresses the disorder uniquely and has varying degrees of functionality. Many have above-average intellectual abilities and excel in visual skills, music, math, and the arts, while others have significant disabilities and are unable to live independently. About 25 percent of individuals with ASD are nonverbal; however, they may learn to communicate using other means.
Social Communication Symptoms
Social impairments in children with autism can be characterized by a distinctive lack of intuition about others. Unusual social development becomes apparent early in childhood. Infants with ASD show less attention to social stimuli, smile and look at others less often, and respond less to their own name. Toddlers with ASD differ more strikingly from social norms; for example, they may show less eye contact and turn-taking and may not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves. Individuals with severe forms of ASD do not develop enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs.
Restricted and Repetitive Behaviors
Children with ASD may exhibit repetitive or restricted behavior, including:
• Stereotypy—repetitive movement, such as hand flapping, head rolling, or body rocking.
• Compulsive behavior—exhibiting intention to follow rules, such as arranging objects in stacks or lines.
• Sameness—resistance to change; for example, insisting that the furniture not be moved or sticking to an unvarying pattern of daily activities.
• Restricted behavior—limits in focus, interest, or activity, such as preoccupation with a single television program, toy, or game.
• Self-injury—movements that injure or can injure the person, such as eye poking, skin picking, hand biting, and head banging.
Etiology
While specific causes of ASD have yet to be found, many risk factors have been identified in the research literature that may contribute to its development. These risk factors include genetics, prenatal and perinatal factors, neuroanatomical abnormalities, and environmental factors. It is possible to identify general risk factors, but much more difficult to pinpoint specific factors.
Genetics
ASD affects information processing in the brain by altering how nerve cells and their synapses connect and organize; thus, it is categorized as a neuro-developmental disorder. The results of family and twin studies suggest that genetic factors play a role in the etiology of ASD and other pervasive developmental disorders. Studies have consistently found that the prevalence of ASD in siblings of children with ASD is approximately 15 to 30 times greater than the rate in the general population. In addition, research suggests that there is a much higher concordance rate among monozygotic (identical) twins compared to dizygotic (fraternal) twins. It appears that there is no single gene that can account for ASD; instead, there seem to be multiple genes involved, each of which is a risk factor for part of the autism syndrome through various groups. It is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare mutations or by combinations of common genetic variants.
The Diversity of the Autism Spectrum
The rainbow-colored infinity symbol represents the diversity of the autism spectrum as well as the greater neurodiversity movement. The neurodiversity movement suggests that diverse neurological conditions appear as a result of normal variations in the human genome. It challenges the idea that such neurological differences are inherently pathological, instead asserting that differences should be recognized and respected as a social category on a par with gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or disability status.
Prenatal and Perinatal Factors
A number of prenatal and perinatal complications have been reported as possible risk factors for ASD. These risk factors include maternal gestational diabetes, maternal and paternal age over 30, bleeding after first trimester, use of prescription medication (such as valproate) during pregnancy, and meconium (the earliest stool of an infant) in the amniotic fluid. While research is not conclusive on the relation of these factors to ASD, each of these factors has been identified more frequently in children with ASD than in developing youth without ASD.
Environmental Factors
Evidence for environmental causes is anecdotal and has not been confirmed by reliable studies. In the last few decades, controversy surrounded the idea that vaccinations may be the cause for many cases of autism; however, these theories lack scientific evidence and are biologically implausible. Even still, parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism has led to lower rates of childhood immunizations, outbreaks of previously controlled childhood diseases in some countries, and the preventable deaths of several children.
Treatment
There is no known cure for ASD, and treatment tends to focus on management of symptoms. The main goals when treating children with ASD are to lessen associated deficits and family distress and to increase quality of life and functional independence. 32 Treatment for ASD should begin as soon as possible after diagnosis. Early treatment for ASD is important as proper care can reduce individuals’ difficulties while helping them learn new skills and make the most of their strengths.
The wide range of issues facing people with ASD means that there is no single best treatment for ASD.33 So treatment is typically tailored to the individual person's needs. Intensive, sustained special-education programs and behavior therapy yearly in life can help children acquire self-care, social, and job skills. The most widely used therapy is applied behavior analysis (ABA); other available approaches include developmental models, structured teaching, speech and language therapy, social skills therapy, and occupational therapy. 34
There has been increasing attention to the development of evidenced-based interventions for young children with ASD. Although evidence-based interventions for children with ASD vary in their methods, many adopt a psychoeducational approach to enhancing cognitive, communication, and social skills while minimizing behaviors that are thought to be problematic. 36
Contributors and Attributions
32. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
33. Autism Spectrum Disorder by the National Institute of Mental Health is in the public domain
34. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
36. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
8.S: Summary
In this chapter we covered,
• Piaget’s preoperational stage.
• Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory.
• Information processing.
• How young children understand the world.
• Typical progression of cognitive and language development (milestones).
• Early childhood education.
• Autism spectrum disorder.
In the next chapter, we will finish covering early childhood education by looking at how children understand themselves and interact with the world. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/08%3A_Cognitive_Development_in_Early_Childhood/8.09%3A_Cognitive_Differences.txt |
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe how preschoolers view themselves.
2. Summarize Erikson’s stage of initiative versus guilt.
3. Discuss the progression of social emotional development during early childhood.
4. Explain how children develop their understanding of gender.
5. Compare and contrast different styles of parenting.
6. Define characteristics of high quality child care.
7. Discuss the role of siblings and peers.
8. Describe the types of play.
9. Summarize the influence on social and emotional competence.
10. Identify the effects of stress on three- to five-year olds.
In early childhood, children’s understanding of themselves and their role in the world expands greatly.
• 9.1: Social and Emotional Milestones
Here is a table of social and emotional milestones that children typically experience during early childhood.
• 9.2: Interactionism and Views of Self
Early childhood is a time of forming an initial sense of self. A self-concept or idea of who we are, what we are capable of doing, and how we think and feel is a social process that involves taking into consideration how others view us. So, in order to develop a sense of self, you must have interaction with others. Interactionist theorists, Cooley and Mead offer two interesting explanations of how a sense of self develops.
• 9.3: Erikson- Initiative vs. Guilt
Psychologist Erik Erikson argues that children in early childhood go through a stage of “initiative vs. guilt”. If the child is placed in an environment where he/she can explore, make decisions, and initiate activities, they have achieved initiative. On the other hand, if the child is put in an environment where initiation is repressed through criticism and control, he/she will develop a sense of guilt.
• 9.4: Gender Identity, Gender Constancy, and Gender Roles
Another important dimension of the self is the sense of self as male or female. Preschool-aged children become increasingly interested in finding out the differences between boys and girls both physically and in terms of what activities are acceptable for each. While 2-year-olds can identify some differences and learn whether they are boys or girls, preschoolers become more interested in what it means to be male or female.
• 9.5: Family Life
Relationships between parents and children continue to play a significant role in children’s development during early childhood. We will explore two models of parenting styles. Keep in mind that most parents do not follow any model completely. Real people tend to fall somewhere in between these styles. And sometimes parenting styles change from one child to the next or in times when the parent has more or less time and energy for parenting.
• 9.6: Peers
Relationships within the family (parent-child and siblings) are not the only significant relationships in a child’s life. Peer relationships are also important. Social interaction with another child who is similar in age, skills, and knowledge provokes the development of many social skills that are valuable for the rest of life (Bukowski, Buhrmester, & Underwood, 2011).
• 9.7: Play
Freud saw play as a means for children to release pent-up emotions and to deal with emotionally distressing situations in a more secure environment. Vygotsky and Piaget saw play as a way of children developing their intellectual abilities (Dyer & Moneta, 2006). Piaget created stages of play that correspond with his stages of cognitive development.
• 9.8: Social Understanding
As we have seen, children’s experience of relationships at home and the peer group contributes to an expanding repertoire of social and emotional skills and also to broadened social understanding. In these relationships, children develop expectations for specific people (leading, for example, to secure or insecure attachments to parents), understanding of how to interact with adults and peers, and developing self-concept based on how others respond to them.
• 9.9: Personality
Parents often scrutinize their child’s preferences, characteristics, and responses for clues of a developing personality. They are quite right to do so because temperament is a foundation for personality growth. But temperament (defined as early-emerging differences in reactivity and self-regulation) is not the whole story.
• 9.10: Social and Emotional Competence
Social and personality development is built from the social, biological, and representational influences discussed above. These influences result in important developmental outcomes that matter to children, parents, and society: a young adult’s capacity to engage in socially constructive actions (helping, caring, sharing with others), to curb hostile or aggressive impulses, to live according to meaningful moral values.
• 9.11: Childhood Stress and Development
Children experience different types of stressors. Normal, everyday stress can provide an opportunity for young children to build coping skills and poses little risk to development. Even more long-lasting stressful events such as changing schools or losing a loved one can be managed fairly well. But children who experience toxic stress or who live in extremely stressful situations of abuse over long periods of time can suffer long-lasting effects.
• 9.S: Summary
Thumbnail: www.pexels.com/photo/tilt-sh...short-1027931/
09: Social Emotional Development in Early Childhood
That expanding understanding of themselves and others develops with age. Here is a table of social and emotional milestones that children typically experience during early childhood.
Table \(1\): Social and Emotional Milestones (Developmental Milestones by the CDC is in the public domain)
Typical Age What Most Children Do by This Age
3 years
• Copies adults and friends
• Shows affection for friends without prompting
• Takes turns in games
• Shows concern for a crying friend
• Dresses and undresses self
• Understands the idea of “mine” and “his” or “hers”
• Shows a wide range of emotions
• Separates easily from mom and dad
• May get upset with major changes in routine
4 years
• Enjoys doing new things
• Is more and more creative with make-believe play
• Would rather play with other children than by self
• Cooperates with other children
• Plays “mom” or “dad”
• Often can’t tell what’s real and what’s make-believe
• Talks about what she likes and what she is interested in
5 years
• Wants to please friends
• Wants to be like friends
• More likely to agree with rules
• Likes to sing, dance, and act
• Is aware of gender
• Can tell what’s real and what’s make-believe
• Shows more independence
• Is sometimes demanding and sometimes very cooperative
Many things influence how children develop those milestones as how they view themselves and how they interact with those around them changes. Let’s look more at these. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/09%3A_Social_Emotional_Development_in_Early_Childhood/9.01%3A_Social_and_Emotional_Milestones.txt |
Early childhood is a time of forming an initial sense of self. A self-concept or idea of who we are, what we are capable of doing, and how we think and feel is a social process that involves taking into consideration how others view us. So, in order to develop a sense of self, you must have interaction with others. Interactionist theorists, Cooley and Mead offer two interesting explanations of how a sense of self develops.
Cooley
Charles Horton Cooley (1964) suggests that our self-concept comes from looking at how others respond to us. This process, known as the looking-glass self involves looking at how others seem to view us and interpreting this as we make judgments about whether we are good or bad, strong or weak, beautiful or ugly, and so on. Of course, we do not always interpret their responses accurately so our self-concept is not simply a mirror reflection of the views of others. After forming an initial self-concept, we may use it as a mental filter screening out those responses that do not seem to fit our ideas of who we are. Some compliments may be negated, for example. The process of the looking-glass self is pronounced when we are preschoolers, or perhaps when we are in a new school or job or are taking on a new role in our personal lives and are trying to gauge our own performances. When we feel more sure of who we are, we focus less on how we appear to others. 2
Mead
Herbert Mead (1967) offers an explanation of how we develop a social sense of self by being able to see ourselves through the eyes of others. There are two parts of the self: the “I” which is the part of the self that is spontaneous, creative, innate, and is not concerned with how others view us and the “me” or the social definition of who we are.
When we are born, we are all “I” and act without concern about how others view us. But the socialized self begins when we are able to consider how one important person views us. This initial stage is called “taking the role of the significant other”. For example, a child may pull a cat’s tail and be told by his mother, “No! Don’t do that, that’s bad” while receiving a slight slap on the hand. Later, the child may mimic the same behavior toward the self and say aloud, “No, that’s bad” while patting his own hand. What has happened? The child is able to see himself through the eyes of the mother. As the child grows and is exposed to many situations and rules of culture, he begins to view the self in the eyes of many others through these cultural norms or rules. This is referred to as “taking the role of the generalized other” and results in a sense of self with many dimensions. The child comes to have a sense of self as student, as friend, as son, and so on.
Exaggerated Sense of Self
One of the ways to gain a clearer sense of self is to exaggerate those qualities that are to be incorporated into the self. Preschoolers often like to exaggerate their own qualities or to seek validation as the biggest, smartest, or child who can jump the highest. This exaggeration tends to be replaced by a more realistic sense of self in middle childhood.
Self-Esteem
Early childhood is a time of forming an initial sense of self. Self-concept is our self-description according to various categories, such as our external and internal qualities. In contrast, self-esteem is an evaluative judgment about who we are. The emergence of cognitive skills in this age group results in improved perceptions of the self, but they tend to focus on external qualities, which are referred to as the categorical self. When researchers ask young children to describe themselves, their descriptions tend to include physical descriptors, preferred activities, and favorite possessions. Thus, the self-description of a 3-year-old might be a 3-year-old girl with red hair, who likes to play with blocks. However, even children as young as three know there is more to themselves than these external characteristics.
Harter and Pike (1984) challenged the method of measuring personality with an open-ended question as they felt that language limitations were hindering the ability of young children to express their self-knowledge. They suggested a change to the method of measuring self-concept in young children, whereby researchers provide statements that ask whether something is true of the child (e.g., “I like to boss people around”, “I am grumpy most of the time”). They discovered that in early childhood, children answer these statements in an internally consistent manner, especially after the age of four (Goodvin, Meyer, Thompson & Hayes, 2008) and often give similar responses to what others (parents and teachers) say about the child (Brown, Mangelsdorf, Agathen, & Ho, 2008; Colwell & Lindsey, 2003).
Young children tend to have a generally positive self-image. This optimism is often the result of a lack of social comparison when making self-evaluations (Ruble, Boggiano, Feldman, & Loeble, 1980), and with comparison between what the child once could do to what they can do now (Kemple, 1995). However, this does not mean that preschool children are exempt from negative self-evaluations. Preschool children with insecure attachments to their caregivers tend to have lower self-esteem at age four (Goodvin et al., 2008). Maternal negative affect (emotional state) was also found by Goodwin and her colleagues to produce more negative self-evaluations in preschool children.
Self-Control
Self-control is not a single phenomenon, but is multi-facetted. It includes response initiation, the ability to not initiate a behavior before you have evaluated all of the information, response inhibition, the ability to stop a behavior that has already begun, and delayed gratification, the ability to hold out for a larger reward by forgoing a smaller immediate reward (Dougherty, Marsh, Mathias, & Swann, 2005). It is in early childhood that we see the start of self-control, a process that takes many years to fully develop. In the now classic “Marshmallow Test” (Mischel, Ebbesen, & Zeiss, 1972) children are confronted with the choice of a small immediate reward (a marshmallow) and a larger delayed reward (more marshmallows). Walter Mischel and his colleagues over the years have found that the ability to delay gratification at the age of four predicted better academic performance and health later in life (Mischel, et al., 2011). Self-control is related to executive function, discussed earlier in the chapter. As executive function improves, children become less impulsive (Traverso, Viterbori, & Usai, 2015). 5
Self-Control and Play
Thanks to the new Centre for Research on Play in Education, Development and Learning (PEDaL), Whitebread, Baker, Gibson and a team of researchers hope to provide evidence on the role played by play in how a child develops.
“A strong possibility is that play supports the early development of children’s self-control,” explains Baker. “These are our abilities to develop awareness of our own thinking processes – they influence how effectively we go about undertaking challenging activities.”
In a study carried out by Baker with toddlers and young preschoolers, she found that children with greater self-control solved problems quicker when exploring an unfamiliar set-up requiring scientific reasoning, regardless of their IQ. “This sort of evidence makes us think that giving children the chance to play will make them more successful and creative problem-solvers in the long run.”
If playful experiences do facilitate this aspect of development, say the researchers, it could be extremely significant for educational practices because the ability to self-regulate has been shown to be a key predictor of academic performance.
Gibson adds: “Playful behavior is also an important indicator of healthy social and emotional development. In my previous research, I investigated how observing children at play can give us important clues about their well being and can even be useful in the diagnosis of neurodevelopmental disorders like autism.”6
Contributors and Attributions
2. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
5. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
6. Play’s the Thing by the University of Cambridge is licensed under CC BY 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/09%3A_Social_Emotional_Development_in_Early_Childhood/9.02%3A_Interactionism_and_Views_of_Self.txt |
Psychologist Erik Erikson argues that children in early childhood go through a stage of “initiative vs. guilt”. If the child is placed in an environment where he/she can explore, make decisions, and initiate activities, they have achieved initiative. On the other hand, if the child is put in an environment where initiation is repressed through criticism and control, he/she will develop a sense of guilt.
The trust and autonomy of previous stages develop into a desire to take initiative or to think of ideas and initiative action. Children may want to build a fort with the cushions from the living room couch or open a lemonade stand in the driveway or make a zoo with their stuffed animals and issue tickets to those who want to come. Or they may just want to get themselves ready for bed without any assistance. To reinforce taking initiative, caregivers should offer praise for the child’s efforts and avoid being critical of messes or mistakes. Soggy washrags and toothpaste left in the sink pales in comparison to the smiling face of a five-year-old that emerges from the bathroom with clean teeth and pajamas! 8
Contributors and Attributions
8. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0 (modified by Antoinette Ricardo)
9.04: Gender Identity Gender Constancy and Gender Roles
Another important dimension of the self is the sense of self as male or female. Preschool-aged children become increasingly interested in finding out the differences between boys and girls both physically and in terms of what activities are acceptable for each. While 2-year-olds can identify some differences and learn whether they are boys or girls, preschoolers become more interested in what it means to be male or female. This self-identification or gender identity is followed sometime later with gender constancy or the knowledge that gender does not change. Gender roles or the rights and expectations that are associated with being male or female are learned throughout childhood and into adulthood.
Freud and the Phallic Stage
Freud believed that masculinity and femininity were learned during the phallic stage of psychosexual development. According to Freud, during the phallic stage, the child develops an attraction to the opposite-sex parent but after recognizing that they cannot actually be romantically involved with that parent, the child learns to model their own behavior after the same-sex parent. The child develops his or her own sense of masculinity or femininity from this resolution. And, according to Freud, a person who does not exhibit gender-appropriate behavior, such as a woman who competes with men for jobs or a man who lacks self-assurance and dominance, has not successfully completed this stage of development. Consequently, such a person continues to struggle with his or her own gender identity.
Chodorow and Mothering
Chodorow, a Neo-Freudian, believed that mothering promotes gender stereotypic behavior. Mothers push their sons away too soon and direct their attention toward problem- solving and independence. As a result, sons grow up confident in their own abilities but uncomfortable with intimacy. Girls are kept dependent too long and are given unnecessary and even unwelcome assistance from their mothers. Girls learn to underestimate their abilities and lack assertiveness but feel comfortable with intimacy.
Both of these models assume that early childhood experiences result in lifelong gender self-concepts. However, gender socialization is a process that continues throughout life. Children, teens, and adults refine and can modify their sense of self based on gender.
Learning through Reinforcement and Modeling
Learning theorists suggest that gender role socialization is a result of the ways in which parents, teachers, friends, schools, religious institutions, media and others send messages about what is acceptable or desirable behavior as males or females. This socialization begins early-in fact, it may even begin the moment a parent learns that a child is on the way. Knowing the sex of the child can conjure up images of the child’s behavior, appearance, and potential on the part of a parent. And this stereotyping continues to guide perception through life. Consider parents of newborns, shown a 7 pound, 20 inch baby, wrapped in blue (a color designating males) describe the child as tough, strong, and angry when crying. Shown the same infant in pink (a color used in the United States for baby girls), these parents are likely to describe the baby as pretty, delicate, and frustrated when crying. (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1987). Female infants are held more, talked to more frequently and given direct eye contact, while male infants play is often mediated through a toy or activity.
Sons are given tasks that take them outside the house and that have to be performed only on occasion while girls are more likely to be given chores inside the home such as cleaning or cooking that is performed daily. Sons are encouraged to think for themselves when they encounter problems and daughters are more likely to be given assistance even when they are working on an answer. This impatience is reflected in teachers waiting less time when asking a female student for an answer than when asking for a reply from a male student (Sadker and Sadker, 1994). Girls are given the message from teachers that they must try harder and endure in order to succeed while boys’ successes are attributed to their intelligence. Of course, the stereotypes of advisors can also influence which kinds of courses or vocational choices girls and boys are encouraged to make.
Friends discuss what is acceptable for boys and girls and popularity may be based on modeling what is considered ideal behavior or looks for the sexes. Girls tend to tell one another secrets to validate others as best friends while boys compete for position by emphasizing their knowledge, strength or accomplishments. This focus on accomplishments can even give rise to exaggerating accomplishments in boys, but girls are discouraged from showing off and may learn to minimize their accomplishments as a result.
Gender messages abound in our environment. But does this mean that each of us receives and interprets these messages in the same way? Probably not. In addition to being recipients of these cultural expectations, we are individuals who also modify these roles (Kimmel, 2008). Based on what young children learn about gender from parents, peers, and those who they observe in society, children develop their own conceptions of the attributes associated with maleness or femaleness which is referred to as gender schemas.
How much does gender matter? In the United States, gender differences are found in school experiences (even into college and professional school, girls are less vocal in the classrooms and much more at risk for sexual harassment from teachers, coaches, classmates, and professors), in social interactions and in media messages. The stereotypes that boys should be strong, forceful, active, dominant, and rational and that girls should be pretty, subordinate, unintelligent, emotional, and gabby are portrayed in children’s toys, books, commercials, video games, movies, television shows and music.
In adulthood, these differences are reflected in income gaps between men and women where women working full-time earn about 74 percent the income of men, in higher rates of women suffering rape and domestic violence, higher rates of eating disorders for females, and in higher rates of violent death for men in young adulthood. Each of these differences will be explored further in subsequent chapters. 13
Gender Dysphoria
A growing body of research is now focused on Gender Dysphoria, or the distress accompanying a mismatch between one’s gender identity and biological sex (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Although prevalence rates are low, at approximately 0.3 percent of the United States population (Russo, 2016), children who later identified as transgender, often stated that they were the opposite gender as soon as they began talking. Comments such as stating they prefer the toys, clothing and anatomy of the opposite sex, while rejecting the toys, clothing, and anatomy of their assigned sex are criteria for a diagnosis of Gender Dysphoria in children. Certainly, many young children do not conform to the gender roles modeled by the culture and even push back against assigned roles. However, they do not experience discomfort regarding their gender identity and would not be identified with Gender Dysphoria. A more comprehensive description of Gender Dysphoria, including current treatments, will be discussed in the chapter on adolescence. 14
Contributors and Attributions
13. Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0; Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
14. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/09%3A_Social_Emotional_Development_in_Early_Childhood/9.03%3A_Erikson-_Initiative_vs._Guilt.txt |
Relationships between parents and children continue to play a significant role in children’s development during early childhood. We will explore two models of parenting styles. Keep in mind that most parents do not follow any model completely. Real people tend to fall somewhere in between these styles. And sometimes parenting styles change from one child to the next or in times when the parent has more or less time and energy for parenting. Parenting styles can also be affected by concerns the parent has in other areas of his or her life. For example, parenting styles tend to become more authoritarian when parents are tired and perhaps more authoritative when they are more energetic. Sometimes parents seem to change their parenting approach when others are around, maybe because they become more self-conscious as parents or are concerned with giving others the impression that they are a “tough” parent or an “easy-going” parent. And of course, parenting styles may reflect the type of parenting someone saw modeled while growing up.
Baumrind
Baumrind (1971) offers a model of parenting that includes four styles. The first, authoritarian, is the traditional model of parenting in which parents make the rules and children are expected to be obedient. Baumrind suggests that authoritarian parents tend to place maturity demands on their children that are unreasonably high and tend to be aloof and distant. Consequently, children reared in this way may fear rather than respect their parents and, because their parents do not allow discussion, may take out their frustrations on safer targets-perhaps as bullies toward peers.
Permissive parenting involves holding expectations of children that are below what could be reasonably expected from them. Children are allowed to make their own rules and determine their own activities. Parents are warm and communicative, but provide little structure for their children. Children fail to learn self-discipline and may feel somewhat insecure because they do not know the limits.
Authoritative parenting involves being appropriately strict, reasonable, and affectionate. Parents allow negotiation where appropriate and discipline matches the severity of the offense. A popular parenting program that is offered in many school districts is called “Love and Logic” and reflects the authoritative or democratic style of parenting just described.
Uninvolved parents (also referred to as rejecting/neglecting) are disengaged from their children. They do not make demands on their children and are non-responsive. These children can suffer in school and in their relationships with their peers (Gecas & Self, 1991).
Lemasters and Defrain
Lemasters and Defrain (1989) offer another model of parenting. This model is interesting because it looks more closely at the motivations of the parent and suggests that parenting styles are often designed to meet the psychological needs of the parent rather than the developmental needs of the child.
The martyr is a parent who will do anything for the child; even tasks that the child should do for himself or herself. All of the good deeds performed for the child, in the name of being a “good parent”, may be used later should the parent want to gain compliance from the child. If a child goes against the parent’s wishes, the parent can remind the child of all of the times the parent helped the child and evoke a feeling of guilt so that the child will do what the parent wants. The child learns to be dependent and manipulative as a result.
The pal is like the permissive parent described previously in Baumrind’s model. The pal wants to be the child’s friend. Perhaps the parent is lonely or perhaps the parent is trying to win a popularity contest against an ex-spouse. Pals let children do what they want and focus mostly on being entertaining and fun and set few limitations. Consequently, the child may have little self-discipline and may try to test limits with others.
The police officer/drill sergeant style of parenting is similar to the authoritarian parent described by Baumrind. The parent focuses primarily on making sure that the child is obedient and that the parent has full control of the child. Sometimes this can be taken to extreme by giving the child tasks that are really designed to check on their level of obedience. For example, the parent may require that the child fold the clothes and place items back in the drawer in a particular way. If not, the child might be scolded or punished for not doing things “right”. This type of parent has a very difficult time allowing the child to grow and learn to make decisions independently. And the child may have a lot of resentment toward the parent that is displaced on others.
The teacher-counselor parent is one who pays a lot of attention to expert advice on parenting and who believes that as long as all of the steps are followed, the parent can rear a perfect child. “What’s wrong with that?” you might ask. There are two major problems with this approach. First, the parent is taking all of the responsibility for the child’s behavior-at least indirectly. If the child has difficulty, the parent feels responsible and thinks that the solution lies in reading more advice and trying more diligently to follow that advice.
Parents can certainly influence children, but thinking that the parent is fully responsible for the child’s outcome is misguided. A parent can only do so much and can never have full control over the child. Another problem with this approach is that the child may get an unrealistic sense of the world and what can be expected from others. For example, if a teacher-counselor parent decides to help the child build self-esteem and has read that telling the child how special he or she is or how important it is to compliment the child on a job well done, the parent may convey the message that everything the child does is exceptional or extraordinary. A child may come to expect that all of his efforts warrant praise and in the real world, this is not something one can expect. Perhaps children get more of a sense of pride from assessing their own performance than from having others praise their efforts.
So what is left? Lemasters and Defrain (1989) suggest that the athletic coach style of parenting is best. Before you draw conclusions here, set aside any negative experiences you may have had with coaches in the past. The principles of coaching are what are important to Lemasters and Defrain. A coach helps players form strategies, supports their efforts, gives feedback on what went right and what went wrong, and stands at the sideline while the players perform. Coaches and referees make sure that the rules of the game are followed and that all players adhere to those rules. Similarly, the athletic coach as parent helps the child understand what needs to happen in certain situations whether in friendships, school, or home life, and encourages and advises the child about how to manage these situations. The parent does not intervene or do things for the child. Their role is to provide guidance while the child learns firsthand how to handle these situations. And the rules for behavior are consistent and objective and presented in that way. So, a child who is late for dinner might hear the parent respond in this way, “Dinner was at six o’clock.” Rather than, “You know good and well that we always eat at six. If you expect me to get up and make something for you now, you have got another thing coming! Just who do you think you are showing up late and looking for food? You’re grounded until further notice!”
The most important thing to remember about parenting is that you can be a better, more objective parent when you are directing your actions toward the child’s needs and while considering what they can reasonably be expected to do at their stage of development. Parenting is more difficult when you are tired and have psychological needs that interfere with the relationship. Some of the best advice for parents is to try not to take the child’s actions personally and be as objective as possible.
Cultural Influences on Parenting Styles
The impact of class and culture cannot be ignored when examining parenting styles. The two models of parenting described above assume that authoritative and athletic coaching styles are best because they are designed to help the parent raise a child who is independent, self-reliant and responsible. These are qualities favored in “individualistic” cultures such as the United States, particularly by the white middle class. African-American, Hispanic and Asian parents tend to be more authoritarian than non-Hispanic whites.
In “collectivistic” cultures such as China or Korea, being obedient and compliant are favored behaviors. Authoritarian parenting has been used historically and reflects cultural need for children to do as they are told. In societies where family members’ cooperation is necessary for survival, as in the case of raising crops, rearing children who are independent and who strive to be on their own makes no sense. But in an economy based on being mobile in order to find jobs and where one’s earnings are based on education, raising a child to be independent is very important.
Working class parents are more likely than middle class parents to focus on obedience and honesty when raising their children. In a classic study on social class and parenting styles called Class and Conformity, Kohn (1977) explains that parents tend to emphasize qualities that are needed for their own survival when parenting their children. Working class parents are rewarded for being obedient, reliable, and honest in their jobs. They are not paid to be independent or to question the management; rather, they move up and are considered good employees if they show up on time, do their work as they are told, and can be counted on by their employers. Consequently, these parents reward honesty and obedience in their children.
Middle class parents who work as professionals are rewarded for taking initiative, being self-directed, and assertive in their jobs. They are required to get the job done without being told exactly what to do. They are asked to be innovative and to work independently. These parents encourage their children to have those qualities as well by rewarding independence and self-reliance. Parenting styles can reflect many elements of culture. 18
Spanking
Many adults can remember being spanked as a child. This method of discipline continues to be endorsed by the majority of parents (Smith, 2012). Just how effective is spanking, however, and are there any negative consequences? After reviewing the research, Smith (2012) states “many studies have shown that physical punishment, including spanking, hitting and other means of causing pain, can lead to increased aggression, antisocial behavior, physical injury and mental health problems for children” (p. 60).
Gershoff, (2008) reviewed decades of research and recommended that parents and caregivers make every effort to avoid physical punishment and called for the banning of physical discipline in all U.S. schools. Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016) completed another metanalysis that looked at research over 160,927 children . They found increased risk for negative outcomes for children who are spanked and that effects of spanking were similar to that of physical abuse.
In a longitudinal study that followed more than 1500 families from 20 U.S. cities, parents’ reports of spanking were assessed at ages three and five (MacKenzie, Nicklas, Waldfogel, & Brooks-Gunn, 2013). Measures of externalizing behavior (aggression and rule-breaking) and receptive vocabulary were assessed at age nine.
Overall, 57% of mothers and 40% of fathers engaged in spanking when children were age 3, and 52% of mothers and 33% of fathers engaged in spanking at age 5. Maternal spanking at age 5, even at low levels, was associated with higher levels of aggression at age 9, even after an array of risks and earlier child behavior were controlled for. Father's high-frequency spanking at age 5 was associated with lower child receptive vocabulary scores at age 9. This study revealed the negative cognitive effects of spanking in addition to the increase in aggressive behavior.
Internationally, physical discipline is increasingly being viewed as a violation of children’s human rights. Thirty countries have banned the use of physical punishment, and the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child (2014) called physical punishment “legalized violence against children” and advocated that physical punishment be eliminated in all settings.
Alternatives to spanking are advocated by child development specialists and include:
• Praising and modeling appropriate behavior
• Providing time-outs for inappropriate behavior
• Giving choices
• Helping the child identify emotions and learning to calm down
• Ignoring small annoyances
• Withdrawing privileges
Changing Families in a Changing Society
The sociology of the family examines the family as an institution and a unit of socialization. Sociological studies of the family look at demographic characteristics of the family members: family size, age, ethnicity and gender of its members, social class of the family, the economic level and mobility of the family, professions of its members, and the education levels of the family members.
Currently, one of the biggest issues that sociologists study are the changing roles of family members. Often, each member is restricted by the gender roles of the traditional family. These roles, such as the father as the breadwinner and the mother as the homemaker, are declining. Now, the mother is often the supplementary provider while retaining the responsibilities of child rearing. In this scenario, females' role in the labor force is "compatible with the demands of the traditional family." Sociology studies the adaptation of males' role to caregiver as well as provider. The gender roles are increasingly interwoven.
Diverse Family Forms
A single parent family usually refers to a parent who has most of the day-to-day responsibilities in the raising of the child or children, who is not living with a spouse or partner, or who is not married. The dominant caregiver is the parent with whom the children reside the majority of the time. If the parents are separated or divorced, children live with their custodial parent and have visitation with their noncustodial parent. In western society in general, following separation a child will end up with the primary caregiver, usually the mother, and a secondary caregiver, usually the father. There is a growing community of single parent by choice families in which a family is built by a single adult (through foster care, adoption, donor gametes and embryos, and surrogacy).
Cohabitation is an arrangement where two people who are not married live together in an intimate relationship, particularly an emotionally and/or sexually intimate one, on a long-term or permanent basis. Today, cohabitation is a common pattern among people in the Western world. More than two-thirds of married couples in the U.S. say that they lived together before getting married.
Gay and lesbian couples are categorized as same-sex relationships. 21 After a Supreme Court ruling in 2015, all 50 states in the U.S. must recognize same-sex marriage, there are still some counties in several states that will not issue a marriage license to a same-sex couple.22
Sibling Relationships
Siblings spend a considerable amount of time with each other and offer a unique relationship that is not found with same-age peers or with adults. Siblings play an important role in the development of social skills. Cooperative and pretend play interactions between younger and older siblings can teach empathy, sharing, and cooperation (Pike, Coldwell, & Dunn, 2005) as well as negotiation and conflict resolution (Abuhatoum & Howe, 2013). However, the quality of sibling relationships is often mediated by the quality of the parent-child relationship and the psychological adjustment of the child (Pike et al., 2005). For instance, more negative interactions between siblings have been reported in families where parents had poor patterns of communication with their children (Brody, Stoneman, & McCoy, 1994). Children who have emotional and behavioral problems are also more likely to have negative interactions with their siblings. However, the psychological adjustment of the child can sometimes be a reflection of the parent-child relationship. Thus, when examining the quality of sibling interactions, it is often difficult to tease out the separate effect of adjustment from the effect of the parent-child relationship.
While parents want positive interactions between their children, conflicts are going to arise, and some confrontations can be the impetus for growth in children’s social and cognitive skills. The sources of conflict between siblings often depend on their respective ages. Dunn and Munn (1987) revealed that over half of all sibling conflicts in early childhood were disputes about property rights. By middle childhood this starts shifting toward control over social situations, such as what games to play, disagreements about facts or opinions, or rude behavior (Howe, Rinaldi, Jennings, & Petrakos, 2002). Researchers have also found that the strategies children use to deal with conflict change with age, but that this is also tempered by the nature of the conflict.
Abuhatoum and Howe (2013) found that coercive strategies (e.g., threats) were preferred when the dispute centered on property rights, while reasoning was more likely to be used by older siblings and in disputes regarding control over the social situation. However, younger siblings also use reasoning, frequently bringing up the concern of legitimacy (e.g., “You’re not the boss”) when in conflict with an older sibling. This is a very common strategy used by younger siblings and is possibly an adaptive strategy in order for younger siblings to assert their autonomy (Abuhatoum & Howe, 2013). A number of researchers have found that children who can use non-coercive strategies are more likely to have a successful resolution, whereby a compromise is reached and neither child feels slighted (Ram & Ross, 2008; Abuhatoum & Howe, 2013).
Not surprisingly, friendly relationships with siblings often lead to more positive interactions with peers. The reverse is also true. A child can also learn to get along with a sibling, with, as the song says “a little help from my friends” (Kramer & Gottman, 1992). 24
Child Care Concerns
About 77.3 percent of mothers of school-aged and 64.2 percent of mothers of preschool-aged children in the United States work outside the home (Cohen and Bianchi, 1999; Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010). Seventy-five percent of children under age 5 are in scheduled childcare programs. Others are cared for by family members or friends. Older children are often in after school programs, before school programs, or stay at home alone after school once they are older.
Quality childcare programs can enhance a child’s social skills and can provide rich learning experiences. But long hours in poor quality care can have negative consequences, especially for young children.
Quality of Care
What determines the quality of child care? One consideration is the teacher/child ratio. States specify the maximum number of children that can be supervised by one teacher. In general, the younger the children, the more teachers required for a given number of children. The lower the teacher to child ratio, the more time the teacher has for involvement with the children and the less stressed the teacher may be so that the interactions can be more relaxed, stimulating and positive. Larger group sizes present challenges to quality as well. The program may be more rigid in rules and structure to accommodate the large number of children in the facility.
The physical environment should be engaging, clean, and safe. The philosophy of the organization and the curriculum available should be child-centered, positive, and stimulating. Providers should be trained in early childhood education. A majority of states do not require training for their childcare providers. And while formal education is not required for a person to provide a warm, loving relationship to a child, knowledge of a child’s development is useful for addressing their social, emotional, and cognitive needs in an effective way.
By working toward improving the quality of childcare and increasing family-friendly workplace policies such as more flexible scheduling and perhaps childcare facilities at places of employment, we can accommodate families with smaller children and relieve parents of the stress sometimes associated with managing work and family life. 27
Contributors and Attributions
18. Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
21. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
22. Same-sex marriage by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY SA 3.0
24. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
27. Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/09%3A_Social_Emotional_Development_in_Early_Childhood/9.05%3A_Family_Life.txt |
Relationships within the family (parent-child and siblings) are not the only significant relationships in a child’s life. Peer relationships are also important. Social interaction with another child who is similar in age, skills, and knowledge provokes the development of many social skills that are valuable for the rest of life (Bukowski, Buhrmester, & Underwood, 2011). In peer relationships, children learn how to initiate and maintain social interactions with other children. They learn skills for managing conflict, such as turn-taking, compromise, and bargaining. Play also involves the mutual, sometimes complex, coordination of goals, actions, and understanding. For example, as preschoolers engage in pretend play they create narratives together, choose roles, and collaborate to act out their stories. Through these experiences, children develop friendships that provide additional sources of security and support to those provided by their parents.
However, peer relationships can be challenging as well as supportive (Rubin, Coplan, Chen, Bowker, & McDonald, 2011). Being accepted by other children is an important source of affirmation and self-esteem, but peer rejection can foreshadow later behavior problems (especially when children are rejected due to aggressive behavior).
Peer relationships require developing very different social and emotional skills than those that emerge in parent-child relationships. They also illustrate the many ways that peer relationships influence the growth of personality and self-concept. 29
Contributors and Attributions
29. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
9.07: Play
Freud saw play as a means for children to release pent-up emotions and to deal with emotionally distressing situations in a more secure environment. Vygotsky and Piaget saw play as a way of children developing their intellectual abilities (Dyer & Moneta, 2006). Piaget created stages of play that correspond with his stages of cognitive development. The stages are:
Table \(1\): Piaget’s Stages of Play (Cognitive and Social Types of Play (n.d.). Retrieved from https://groundsforplay.com/cognitive-and-social-forms-play )
Stage Description
Functional Play Exploring, inspecting, and learning through repetitive physical activity.
Symbolic Play
The ability to use objects, actions, or ideas to represent other objects, actions, or ideas and may include taking on roles.31
Constructive Play Involves experimenting with objects to build things 32; learning things that were previously unknown with hands-on manipulations of materials.
Games with Rules Imposes rules that must be followed by everyone that is playing; the logic and order involved forms that the foundations for developing game playing strategy 33
While Freud, Piaget, and Vygostsky looked at play slightly differently, all three theorists saw play as providing positive outcomes for children.
Mildred Parten (1932) observed two to five year-old children and noted six types of play. Three types she labeled as non-social (unoccupied, solitary, and onlooker) and three types were categorized as social play (parallel, associative, and cooperative). The table below describes each type of play. Younger children engage in non-social play more than those who are older; by age five associative and cooperative play are the most common forms of play (Dyer & Moneta, 2006). 34
Table \(2\): Parten’s Classification of Types of Play (Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0)
Category Description
Unoccupied Play
Children’s behavior seems more random and without a specific goal. This is the least common form of play.
Solitary Play
Children play by themselves, do not interact with others, nor are they engaging in similar activities as the children around them.
Onlooker Play Children are observing other children playing. They may comment on the activities and even make suggestions, but will not directly join the play.
Parallel Play
Children play alongside each other, using similar toys, but do not directly act with each other
Associative Play
Children will interact with each other and share toys but are not working toward a common goal.
Cooperative Play Children are interacting to achieve a common goal. Children may take on different tasks to reach that goal.
Contributors and Attributions
31. Symbolic Play (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.pgpedia.com/s/symbolic-play
32. Constructive Play (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.pgpedia.com/c/constructive-play
33. Games with Rules (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.pgpedia.com/g/games-rules
34. Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/09%3A_Social_Emotional_Development_in_Early_Childhood/9.06%3A_Peers.txt |
As we have seen, children’s experience of relationships at home and the peer group contributes to an expanding repertoire of social and emotional skills and also to broadened social understanding. In these relationships, children develop expectations for specific people (leading, for example, to secure or insecure attachments to parents), understanding of how to interact with adults and peers, and developing self-concept based on how others respond to them. These relationships are also significant forums for emotional development.
Remarkably, young children begin developing social understanding very early in life. Before the end of the first year, infants are aware that other people have perceptions, feelings, and other mental states that affect their behavior, and which are different from the child’s own mental states. Carefully designed experimental studies show that by late in the preschool years, young children understand that another’s beliefs can be mistaken rather than correct, that memories can affect how you feel, and that one’s emotions can be hidden from others (Wellman, 2011). Social understanding grows significantly as children’s theory of mind develops.
How do these achievements in social understanding occur? One answer is that young children are remarkably sensitive observers of other people, making connections between their emotional expressions, words, and behavior to derive simple inferences about mental states (e.g., concluding, for example, that what Mommy is looking at is in her mind) (Gopnik, Meltzoff, & Kuhl, 2001). This is especially likely to occur in relationships with people whom the child knows well, consistent with the ideas of attachment theory discussed above.
Growing language skills give young children words with which to represent these mental states (e.g., “mad,” “wants”) and talk about them with others. Thus in conversation with their parents about everyday experiences, children learn much about people’s mental states from how adults talk about them (“Your sister was sad because she thought Daddy was coming home.”) (Thompson, 2006b).
Developing social understanding is based on children’s everyday interactions with others and their careful interpretations of what they see and hear. There are also some scientists who believe that infants are biologically prepared to perceive people in a special way, as organisms with an internal mental life, and this facilitates their interpretation of people’s behavior with reference to those mental states (Leslie, 1994).
9.09: Personality
Parents often scrutinize their child’s preferences, characteristics, and responses for clues of a developing personality. They are quite right to do so, because temperament is a foundation for personality growth. But temperament (defined as early-emerging differences in reactivity and self-regulation) is not the whole story. Although temperament is biologically based, it interacts with the influence of experience from the moment of birth (if not before) to shape personality (Rothbart, 2011). Temperamental dispositions are affected, for example, by the support level of parental care. More generally, personality is shaped by the goodness of fit between the child’s temperamental qualities and characteristics of the environment (Chess & Thomas, 1999). For example, an adventurous child whose parents regularly take her on weekend hiking and fishing trips would be a good “fit” to her lifestyle, supporting personality growth. Personality is the result, therefore, of the continuous interplay between biological disposition and experience, as is true for many other aspects of social and personality development.
Personality develops from temperament in other ways (Thompson, Winer, & Goodvin, 2010). As children mature biologically, temperamental characteristics emerge and change over time. A newborn is not capable of much self-control, but as brain-based capacities for self-control advance, temperamental changes in self-regulation become more apparent. So an infant that cries frequently doesn’t necessarily have a grumpy personality. With sufficient parental support and increased sense of security, the child may develop into a content preschooler that is not likely to cry to get her needs met.
In addition, personality is made up of many other features besides temperament. Children’s developing self-concept, their motivations to achieve or to socialize, their values and goals, their coping styles, their sense of responsibility and conscientiousness, and many other qualities are encompassed into personality. These qualities are influenced by biological dispositions, but even more by the child’s experiences with others, particularly in close relationships, that guide the growth of individual characteristics.
Indeed, personality development begins with the biological foundations of temperament but becomes increasingly elaborated, extended, and refined over time. The newborn that parents observed in wonder upon becomes an adult with a personality of depth and nuance.
9.10: Social and Emotional Competence
Social and personality development is built from the social, biological, and representational influences discussed above. These influences result in important developmental outcomes that matter to children, parents, and society: a young adult’s capacity to engage in socially constructive actions (helping, caring, sharing with others), to curb hostile or aggressive impulses, to live according to meaningful moral values, to develop a healthy identity and sense of self, and to develop talents and achieve success in using them. These are some of the developmental outcomes that denote social and emotional competence.
These achievements of social and personality development derive from the interaction of many social, biological, and representational influences. Consider, for example, the development of conscience, which is an early foundation for moral development.
Conscience consists of the cognitive, emotional, and social influences that cause young children to create and act consistently with internal standards of conduct (Kochanska, 2002). It emerges from young children’s experiences with parents, particularly in the development of a mutually responsive relationship that motivates young children to respond constructively to the parents’ requests and expectations. Biologically based temperament is involved, as some children are temperamentally more capable of motivated self-regulation (a quality called effortful control) than are others, while some children are more prone to the fear and anxiety that parental disapproval can evoke. The development of conscience is influenced by having a good fit between the child’s temperamental qualities and how parents communicate and reinforce behavioral expectations.
Conscience development also expands as young children begin to represent moral values and think of themselves as moral beings. By the end of the preschool years, for example, young children develop a “moral self” by which they think of themselves as people who want to do the right thing, who feel badly after misbehaving, and who feel uncomfortable when others misbehave. In the development of conscience, young children become more socially and emotionally competent in a manner that provides a foundation for later moral conduct (Thompson, 2012). | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/09%3A_Social_Emotional_Development_in_Early_Childhood/9.08%3A_Social_Understanding.txt |
What is the impact of stress on child development? Children experience different types of stressors. Normal, everyday stress can provide an opportunity for young children to build coping skills and poses little risk to development. Even more long-lasting stressful events such as changing schools or losing a loved one can be managed fairly well. But children who experience toxic stress or who live in extremely stressful situations of abuse over long periods of time can suffer long-lasting effects. The structures in the midbrain or limbic system such as the hippocampus and amygdala can be vulnerable to prolonged stress during early childhood (Middlebrooks and Audage, 2008). High levels of the stress hormone cortisol can reduce the size of the hippocampus and effect the child's memory abilities. Stress hormones can also reduce immunity to disease. The brain exposed to long periods of severe stress can develop a low threshold making the child hypersensitive to stress in the future. However, the effects of stress can be minimized if the child has the support of caring adults. Let's take a look at childhood stressors.
Effects of Domestic Abuse
3.3 million children witness domestic violence each year in the US. There has been an increase in acknowledgment that children exposed to domestic abuse during their upbringing will suffer in their developmental and psychological welfare. Because of the awareness of domestic violence that some children have to face, it also generally impacts how the child develops emotionally, socially, behaviorally as well as cognitively. Some emotional and behavioral problems that can result due to domestic violence include increased aggressiveness, anxiety, and changes in how a child socializes with friends, family, and authorities. Bruises, broken bones, head injuries, lacerations, and internal bleeding are some of the acute effects of a domestic violence incident that require medical attention and hospitalization.
Child Maltreatment
Child abuse is the physical, sexual, or emotional mistreatment or neglect of a child or children. Different jurisdictions have developed their own definitions of what constitutes child abuse for the purposes of removing a child from his/her family and/or prosecuting a criminal charge. There are four major categories of child abuse: neglect, physical abuse, psychological/emotional abuse, and sexual abuse. Neglect is the most common type of abuse in the United States and accounts for over 60 percent of child abuse cases.
Physical Abuse
Physical abuse involves physical aggression directed at a child by an adult. Most nations with child-abuse laws consider the deliberate infliction of serious injuries, or actions that place the child at obvious risk of serious injury or death, to be illegal. Beyond this, there is considerable variation. The distinction between child discipline and abuse is often poorly defined. Cultural norms about what constitutes abuse vary widely among professionals as well as the wider public. Some professionals claim that cultural norms that sanction physical punishment are one of the causes of child abuse, and have undertaken campaigns to redefine such norms.
Sexual Abuse
Child sexual abuse is a form of child abuse in which an adult or older adolescent abuses a child for sexual stimulation. Effects of child sexual abuse include guilt and self-blame, flashbacks, nightmares, insomnia, and fear of things associated with the abuse. Approximately 15 percent to 25 percent of women and 5 percent to 15 percent of men were sexually abused when they were children.
Emotional Abuse
Out of all the possible forms of abuse, emotional abuse is the hardest to define. It could include name-calling, ridicule, degradation, destruction of personal belongings, torture or killing of a pet, excessive criticism, inappropriate or excessive demands, withholding communication, and routine labeling or humiliation.
Neglect
Neglect is a passive form of abuse in which a perpetrator is responsible to provide care for a victim who is unable to care for himself or herself, but fails to provide adequate care. Neglect may include the failure to provide sufficient supervision, nourishment, or medical care, or the failure to fulfill other needs for which the victim is helpless to provide for himself or herself. The term is also applied when necessary care is withheld by those responsible for providing it from animals, plants, and even inanimate objects. Neglect can have many long-term side effects, such as physical injuries, low self-esteem, attention disorders, violent behavior, and even death. In the U.S., neglect is defined as the failure to meet the basic needs of children: housing, clothing, food, and access to medical care. Researchers found over 91,000 cases of neglect in one year using information from a database of cases verified by protective services agencies.40
Contributors and Attributions
40. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
9.S: Summary
In this chapter we covered,
• The development of self-concept and self-esteem.
• Erikson’s psychosocial stage of initiative versus guilt.
• Gender identity, gender constancy, gender roles, and gender dysphoria.
• Family life, including parenting styles, diverse forms of families, using child care, and the role of siblings.
• The role of peers.
• The types of play.
• The social understanding of preschoolers.
• Personality development
• Social and emotional competences.
• The effects of stress on children, including maltreatment.
In the next chapter we begin exploring middle childhood and how children from 6 to 11 grow and develop. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/09%3A_Social_Emotional_Development_in_Early_Childhood/9.11%3A_Childhood_Stress_and_Development.txt |
Learning Objectives
After this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe the patterns of physical growth
2. Summarize nutrition needs
3. Explain the causes of obesity and the negative consequences of excessive weight gain
4. Discuss the pros and cons of organized sports
5. Compare and contrast developmental disorders
6. Summarize several different mental health disorders
Children in middle childhood go through tremendous changes in the growth and development of their brain. During this period of development children’s bodies are not only growing, but they are becoming more coordinated and physically capable. These children are more mindful of their greater abilities in school and are becoming more responsible for their health and diet. Some children may be challenged with physical or mental health concerns. It’s important to know what typical development looks like in order to identify and to help those that are struggling with health concerns.
• 10.1: Brain Development
The brain reaches its adult size at about age 7. Then between 10 and 12 years of age, the frontal lobes become more developed and improvements in logic, planning, and memory are evident. The school-aged child is better able to plan and coordinate activity using both the left and right hemispheres of the brain, which control the development of emotions, physical abilities, and intellectual capabilities. The attention span also improves as the prefrontal cortex matures.
• 10.2: Physical Growth
Middle childhood spans the years between early childhood and adolescence, children are approximately 6 to 11 years old. These children come in all shapes and sizes: height, weight, abilities, and disabilities. Physical growth rates are generally slow and steady during these years. However, growth spurts do occur during middle to late childhood.
• 10.3: Nutritional Needs
A number of factors can influence children’s eating habits and attitudes toward food. Family environment, societal trends, taste preferences, and messages in the media all impact the emotions that children develop in relation to their diet. Television commercials can entice children to consume sugary products, fatty fast foods, excess calories, refined ingredients, and sodium. Therefore, it is critical that parents and caregivers direct children toward healthy choices.
• 10.4: Exercise, Physical Fitness, and Sports
Recess is a time for free play and Physical Education (PE) is a structured program that teaches skills, rules, and games. They’re a big part of physical fitness for school age children. For many children, PE and recess are the key component in introducing children to sports.
• 10.5: Physical Health
Childhood health issues
• 10.6: Childhood Mental Health
Mental health problems can disrupt daily life at home, at school or in the community. Without help, mental health problems can lead to school failure, alcohol or other drug abuse, family discord, violence or even suicide. However, help is available. Talk to your health care provider if you have concerns about your child’s behavior.
• 10.7: Managing Symptoms- Staying Healthy
Being healthy is important for all children and can be especially important for children with mental health disorders. In addition to getting the right treatment, leading a healthy lifestyle can play a role in managing symptoms.
• 10.S: Summary
Thumbnail: pixabay.com/photos/children-...-arts-1822701/
10: Middle Childhood - Physical Development
The brain reaches its adult size at about age 7. Then between 10 and 12 years of age, the frontal lobes become more developed and improvements in logic, planning, and memory are evident (van der Molen & Molenaar, 1994). The school-aged child is better able to plan and coordinate activity using both the left and right hemispheres of the brain, which control the development of emotions, physical abilities, and intellectual capabilities. The attention span also improves as the prefrontal cortex matures. The myelin also continues to develop and the child's reaction time improves as well. Myelination improvement is one factor responsible for these growths.
From age 6 to 12, the nerve cells in the association areas of the brain, that is those areas where sensory, motor and intellectual functioning connect, become almost completely myelinated (Johnson, 2005). This myelination contributes to increases in information processing speed and the child’s reaction time. The hippocampus, which is responsible for transferring information from the short-term to long-term memory, also shows increases in myelination resulting in improvements in memory functioning (Rolls, 2000).
Changes in the brain during this age enable not only physical development but also allow children to understand what others think of them and dealing socially with the positive and negative consequences of that. Within this development period, children may struggle with mental health disorders or other health problems. As children are growing and becoming more capable, adults need to remember that children don’t grow physically in isolation. The development of their bodies isn't separate from the changes that are occurring socially, emotionally, and cognitively. Awareness and understanding of their other developmental domains and needs will support the child during these changes.2
Contributors and Attributions
2. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0 (modified by Dawn Rymond); Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (modified by Dawn Rymond)
10.02: Physical Growth
Middle childhood spans the years between early childhood and adolescence, children are approximately 6 to 11 years old. These children come in all shapes and sizes: height, weight, abilities, and disabilities. Physical growth rates are generally slow and steady during these years. However, growth spurts do occur during the middle to late childhood (Spreen, Riser, & Edgell, 1995). Typically, a child will gain about 5-7 pounds a year and grow about 2 inches per year. They also tend to slim down and gain muscle strength. As bones lengthen and broaden and muscles strengthen, many children want to engage in strenuous physical activity and can participate for longer periods of time. In addition, the rate of growth for the extremities is faster than for the trunk, which results in more adult-like proportions. Long-bone growth stretches muscles and ligaments, which results in many children experiencing growing pains, at night, in particular.3
Children between ages 6 and 9, show significant improvement in their abilities to perform motor skills. This development growth allows children to gain greater control over the movement of their bodies, mastering many gross and fine motor skills that were beyond that of the younger child. Riding a bike that is bigger or running longer and further is a big improvement in gross motor skills. Eye-hand coordination and fine motor skills allow children to become better at writing and cutting. Sports and extracurricular activities may become a part of the lives of children during middle childhood due to their physical growth and capabilities.
Contributors and Attributions
3. Polan EU, Taylor DR. Journey Across the LifeSpan: Human Development and Health Promotion. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company; 2003, 150–51 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/10%3A_Middle_Childhood_-_Physical__Development/10.01%3A_Brain_Development.txt |
A number of factors can influence children’s eating habits and attitudes toward food. Family environment, societal trends, taste preferences, and messages in the media all impact the emotions that children develop in relation to their diet. Television commercials can entice children to consume sugary products, fatty fast foods, excess calories, refined ingredients, and sodium. Therefore, it is critical that parents and caregivers direct children toward healthy choices. 5
Parents greatly impact their child’s nutritional choices. This time in a child’s life provides an opportunity for parents and other caregivers to reinforce good eating habits and to introduce new foods into the diet while remaining mindful of a child’s preferences. Parents should also serve as role models for their children, who will often mimic their behavior and eating habits. Parents must continue to help their school-aged child establish healthy eating habits and attitudes toward food. Their primary role is to bring a wide variety of health-promoting foods into the home so that their children can make good choices.6
Let’s think for a moment about what our parents and grandparents used to eat? What are some of the differences that you may have experienced as a child?
One hundred years ago, as families sat down to dinner, they might have eaten boiled potatoes or corn, leafy vegetables such as cabbage or collards, fresh-baked bread, and, if they were fortunate, a small amount of beef or chicken. Young and old alike benefitted from a sound diet that packed a real nutritional punch. Times have changed. Many families today fill their dinner plates with fatty foods, such as French Fries cooked in vegetable oil, a hamburger that contains several ounces of ground beef, and a white-bread bun, with a single piece of lettuce and a slice or two of tomato as the only vegetables served with the meal.
Our diet has changed drastically as processed foods, which did not exist a century ago, and animal-based foods now account for a large percentage of our calories. Not only has what we eat changed, but the amount of it that we consume has greatly increased as well, as plates and portion sizes have grown much larger. All of these choices impact our health, with short- and long-term consequences as we age. Possible effects in the short-term include excess weight gain and constipation. The possible long-term effects, primarily related to obesity, include the risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, hypertension, as well as other health and emotional problems for children. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Overweight and Obesity: Health Consequences.”8
During middle childhood, a healthy diet facilitates physical and mental development and helps to maintain health and wellness. School-aged children experience steady, consistent growth, but at a slower rate than they did in early childhood. This slowed growth rate can have to last a lasting impact if nutritional, caloric, and activity levels aren't adjusted in middle childhood which can lead to excessive weight gain early in life and can lead to obesity into adolescence and adulthood.9
Making sure that children have proper nutrients will allow for optimal growth and development. Look at the figure below to familiarize yourself with food and the place setting for healthy meals.
One way to encourage children to eat healthy foods is to make meal and snack time fun and interesting. Parents should include children in food planning and preparation, for example selecting items while grocery shopping or helping to prepare part of a meal, such as making a salad. At this time, parents can also educate children about kitchen safety. It might be helpful to cut sandwiches, meats, or pancakes into small or interesting shapes. In addition, parents should offer nutritious desserts, such as fresh fruits, instead of calorie-laden cookies, cakes, salty snacks, and ice cream. Studies show that children who eat family meals on a frequent basis consume more nutritious foods.11
Energy
Children’s energy needs vary, depending on their growth and level of physical activity. Energy requirements also vary according to gender. Girls require 1,200 to 1,400 calories a day from age 2 to 8 and 1,400-1,800 for age 9 to 13. Boys also need 1,200 to 1.400 calories daily from ages 4 to 8 but their daily caloric needs go up to 1,600-2,000 from ages 9 to 13. This range represents individual differences, including how active the child is.12
Recommended intakes of macronutrients (protein, carbohydrates, and fats) and most micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) are higher relative to body size, compared with nutrient needs during adulthood. Therefore, children should be provided nutrient-dense food at meal-and snack-time. However, it is important not to overfeed children, as this can lead to childhood obesity, which is discussed in the next section.
Children and Vegetarianism
Another issue that some parents face with school-aged children is the decision to encourage a child to become a vegetarian or a vegan. Some parents and caregivers decide to raise their children as vegetarians for health, cultural, or other reasons. Preteens and teens may make the choice to pursue vegetarianism on their own, due to concerns about animals or the environment. No matter the reason, parents with vegetarian children must take care to ensure vegetarian children get healthy, nutritious foods that provide all the necessary nutrients.
Types of Vegetarian Diets
There are several types of vegetarians, each with certain restrictions in terms of diet:
• Ovo-vegetarians. Ovo-vegetarians eat eggs but do not eat any other animal products.
• acto-ovo-vegetarians. Lacto-ovo-vegetarians eat eggs and dairy products but do not eat any meat.
• Lacto-vegetarians. Lacto-vegetarians eat dairy products but do not eat any other animal products.
• Vegans. Vegans eat food only from plant sources, no animal products at all.
Children who consume some animal products, such as eggs, cheese, or other forms of dairy, can meet their nutritional needs. For a child following a strict vegan diet, planning is needed to ensure adequate intake of protein, iron, calcium, vitamin B12, and vitamin D. Legumes and nuts can be eaten in place of meat, soy or almond milk fortified with calcium and vitamins D and B12 can replace cow’s milk. Parents must be informed and knowledgeable in order to support proper development for children with a vegetarian or vegan diet.14
Children and Malnutrition
Many may not know that malnutrition is a problem that many children face, in both developing nations and the developed world. Even with the wealth of food in North America, many children grow up malnourished, or even hungry. The US Census Bureau characterizes households into the following groups:
• food secure
• food insecure without hunger
• food insecure with moderate hunger
• food insecure with severe hunger
Millions of children grow up in food-insecure households with inadequate diets due to both the amount of available food and the quality of food. In the United States, about 20 percent of households with children are food insecure to some degree. In half of those, only adults experience food insecurity, while in the other half both adults and children are considered to be food insecure, which means that children did not have access to adequate, nutritious meals at times.15
Growing up in a food-insecure household can lead to a number of problems. Deficiencies in iron, zinc, protein, and vitamin A can result in stunted growth, illness, and limited development. Federal programs, such as the National School Lunch Program, the School Breakfast Program, and Summer Feeding Programs, work to address the risk of hunger and malnutrition in school-aged children. They help to fill the gaps and provide children living in food-insecure households with greater access to nutritious meals.16
School Lunch Programs 17
Many school-age children eat breakfast, snacks, and lunch at their schools. Therefore, it is important for schools to provide meals that are nutritionally sound. In the United States, more than thirty-one million children from low-income families are given meals provided by the National School Lunch Program. This federally funded program offers low-cost or free breakfast, snacks, and lunches to school facilities. School districts that take part receive subsidies from the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) for every meal they serve that must meet the 2015 Dietary Guidelines for Americans.
Knowing that many children in the United States buy or receive free lunches in the school cafeteria, it might be worthwhile to look at the nutritional content of school lunches. You can obtain this information through your local school district’s website. An example of a school menu from a school district in north-central Texas is a meal consisting of pasta alfredo, breadstick, peach cup, tomato soup, a brownie, and 2% milk which is in compliance with Federal Nutritional Guidelines. Consider another menu from an elementary school in the state of Washington. This sample meal consists of chicken burger, tater tots, fruit, veggies, and 1% or nonfat milk. This meal is also in compliance with Federal Nutrition Guidelines but has about 300 fewer calories than the menu in Texas. This is a big difference in calories and nutritional value of these prepared lunches that are chosen and approved by officials on behalf of children in these districts.
Healthy School Lunch Campaigns helps to promote children’s health. This is done by educating government officials, school officials, food-service workers, and parents and is sponsored by the Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine. They educate and encourage schools to offer low-fat, cholesterol-free options in school cafeterias and in vending machines and work to improve the food served to children at school. Unfortunately, many school districts in the nation allow students to purchase chips, cookies, and ice cream along with their meals. These districts rely on the sale of these items in the lunchrooms to earn additional revenues. Not only are they making money off of children and families with junk food, but they are also adding additional empty calories to their daily intake. These districts need to look at the menus and determine the rationale for offering additional snacks and desserts for children at their schools. Whether children receive free lunches, buy their own, or bring their lunch from home, quality nutrition is what is best for these growing bodies and minds.
Food Allergies and Food Intolerance
Food intolerance and food allergies are an issue for some school-aged children. Recent studies show that three million children under age eighteen are allergic to at least one type of food. Some of the most common food allergies come from foods that include peanuts, milk, eggs, soy, wheat, and shellfish. An allergy occurs when a protein in food triggers an immune response, which results in the release of antibodies, histamine, and other defenders that attack foreign bodies. Possible symptoms include itchy skin, hives, abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, and nausea. Symptoms usually develop within minutes to hours after consuming a food allergen. Children can outgrow a food allergy, especially allergies to wheat, milk, eggs, or soy.19
Anaphylaxis is a life-threatening reaction that results in difficulty breathing, swelling in the mouth and throat, decreased blood pressure, shock, or even death. Milk, eggs, wheat, soybeans, fish, shellfish, peanuts, and tree nuts are the most likely to trigger this type of response. A dose of the drug epinephrine is often administered via a “pen” to treat a person who goes into anaphylactic shock.20
Some children experience a food intolerance, which does not involve an immune response. A food intolerance is marked by unpleasant symptoms that occur after consuming certain foods. Lactose intolerance, though rare in very young children, is one example. Children who suffer from this condition experience an adverse reaction to the lactose in milk products. It is a result of the small intestine’s inability to produce enough of the enzyme lactase. Symptoms of lactose intolerance usually affect the gastrointestinal tract and can include bloating, abdominal pain, gas, nausea, and diarrhea. An intolerance is best managed by making dietary changes and avoiding any foods that trigger the reaction.22
Being Overweight and Obesity in Children
Excess weight and obesity in children are associated with a variety of medical conditions including high blood pressure, insulin resistance, inflammation, depression, and lower academic achievement (Lu, 2016). Being overweight has also been linked to impaired brain functioning, which includes deficits in executive functioning, working memory, mental flexibility, and decision making (Liang, Matheson, Kaye, & Boutelle, 2014). Children who ate more saturated fats performed worse on relational memory tasks while eating a diet high in omega-3 fatty acids promoted relational memory skills (Davidson, 2014). Using animal studies, Davidson et al. (2013) found that large amounts of processed sugars and saturated fat weakened the blood-brain barrier, especially in the hippocampus. This can make the brain more vulnerable to harmful substances that can impair its functioning. Another important executive functioning skill is controlling impulses and delaying gratification. Children who are overweight show less inhibitory control than normal-weight children, which may make it more difficult for them to avoid unhealthy foods (Lu, 2016). Overall, being overweight as a child increases the risk of cognitive decline as one age.
The current measurement for determining excess weight is the Body Mass Index (BMI) which expresses the relationship of height to weight. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), childrens whose BMI is at or above the 85th percentile for their age are considered overweight, while children who are at or above the 95th percentile are considered obese (Lu, 2016). In 2011-2012 approximately 8.4% of 2-5 year-olds were considered overweight or obese, and 17.7% of 6-11 year-olds were overweight or obese (CDC, 2014b).24
Obesity Rates for Children: About 16 to 33 percent of American children are obese (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2005). This is defined as being at least 20 percent over their ideal weight. The percentage of obesity in school-aged children has increased substantially since the 1960s and has in fact doubled since the 1980s. This is true in part because of the introduction of a steady diet of television and other sedentary activities. In addition, we have come to emphasize high fat, fast foods as a culture. Pizza, hamburgers, chicken nuggets and “lunchables” with soda have replaced more nutritious foods as staples. The decreased participation in school physical education and youth sports is just one of many factors that have led to an increase in children being overweight or obese.
Being Overweight Can Be a Lifelong Struggle
A growing concern is the lack of recognition from parents that children are overweight or obese. Katz (2015) referred to this as “oblivobesity”. Black et al. (2015) found that parents in the United Kingdom (UK) only recognized their children as obese when they were above the 99.7th percentile while the official cut-off for obesity is at the 85th percentile. Oude Luttikhuis, Stolk, and Sauer (2010) surveyed 439 parents and found that 75% of parents of overweight children said the child had a normal weight and 50% of parents of obese children said the child had a normal weight. For these parents, overweight was considered normal and obesity was considered normal or a little heavy. Doolen, Alpert, and Miller (2009) reported on several studies from the United Kingdom, Australia, Italy, and the United States, and in all locations, parents were more likely to misperceive their children’s weight. Black, Park, and Gregson (2015) concluded that as the average weight of children rises, what parents consider normal also rises. If parents cannot identify if their children are overweight they will not be able to intervene and assist their children with proper weight management.
An added concern is that the children themselves are not accurately identifying if they are overweight. In a United States sample of 8-15 year-olds, more than 80% of overweight boys and 70% of overweight girls misperceived their weight as normal (Sarafrazi, Hughes, & Borrud, 2014). Also noted was that as the socioeconomic status of the children rose, the frequency of these misconceptions decreased. It appeared that families with more resources were more conscious of what defines a healthy weight.
Results of Childhood Obesity
Children who are overweight tend to be rejected, ridiculed, teased and bullied by others (Stopbullying.gov, 2016). This can certainly be damaging to their self-image and popularity. In addition, obese children run the risk of suffering orthopedic problems such as knee injuries, and they have an increased risk of heart disease and stroke in adulthood (Lu, 2016). It is hard for a child who is obese to become a non-obese adult. In addition, the number of cases of pediatric diabetes has risen dramatically in recent years.
Behavioral interventions, including training children to overcome impulsive behavior, are being researched to help overweight children (Lu, 2016). Practicing inhibition has been shown to strengthen the ability to resist unhealthy foods. Parents can help their overweight children the best when they are warm and supportive without using shame or guilt. They can also act like the child’s frontal lobe until it is developed by helping them make correct food choices and praising their efforts (Liang, et al., 2014). Research also shows that exercise, especially aerobic exercise, can help improve cognitive functioning in overweight children (Lu, 2016). Parents should take caution against emphasizing diet alone to avoid the development of any obsession about dieting that can lead to eating disorders. Instead, increasing a child's activity level is most helpful.
Dieting is not really the answer. If you diet, your basal metabolic rate tends to decrease thereby making the body burn even fewer calories in order to maintain the weight. Increased activity is much more effective in lowering weight and improving the child’s health and psychological well-being. Exercise reduces stress and being an overweight child, subjected to the ridicule of others can certainly be stressful. Parents should take caution against emphasizing diet alone to avoid the development of any obsession about dieting that can lead to eating disorders as teens. Again, helping children to make healthy food choices and increasing physical activity will help prevent childhood obesity.25
Contributors and Attributions
5. Research on the Benefits of Family Meals. Dakota County, Minnesota. . Updated April 30, 2012. Accessed December 4, 2017.
8. An Introduction to Nutrition by Maureen Zimmerman and Beth Snow is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
9. Childhood by University of Hawai’i at Mānoa Food Science and Human Nutrition Program is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 (modified by Dawn Rymond)
11. Research on the Benefits of Family Meals. Dakota County, Minnesota. . Updated April 30, 2012. Accessed December 4, 2017.
12. Parent Tips – Calories Needed Each Day by the NIH is in the public domain
14. An Introduction to Nutrition by Maureen Zimmerman and Beth Snow is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
15. Coleman-Jensen A, et al. Household Food Security in the United States in 2010. US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Report, no. ERR-125; 2011.
16. Lifespan Development - Module 6: Middle Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0 (modified by Dawn Rymond) Childhood by University of Hawai’i at Mānoa Food Science and Human Nutrition Program is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 (modified by Dawn Rymond)
17. Lifespan Development - Module 6: Middle Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0 (modified by Dawn Rymond) Childhood by University of Hawai’i at Mānoa Food Science and Human Nutrition Program is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 (modified by Dawn Rymond)
20. Food Allergy Quick Facts. National Institutes of Health, US Department of Health and Human Services. Updated March 27, 2017. Accessed December 10, 2017.
22. Lactose Intolerance. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Updated June 2014. Accessed December 4, 2017.; Childhood by University of Hawai’i at Mānoa Food Science and Human Nutrition Program is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
24. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
25. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (modified by Dawn Rymond); Lifespan Development - Module 6: Middle Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0 (modified by Dawn Rymond) | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/10%3A_Middle_Childhood_-_Physical__Development/10.03%3A_Nutritional_Needs.txt |
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