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Recess and Physical Education: Recess is a time for free play and Physical Education (PE) is a structured program that teaches skills, rules, and games. They’re a big part of physical fitness for school-age children. For many children, PE and recess are the key components in introducing children to sports. After years of schools cutting back on recess and PE programs, there has been a turnaround, prompted by concerns over childhood obesity and the related health issues. Despite these changes, currently, only the state of Oregon and the District of Columbia meet PE guidelines of a minimum of 150 minutes per week of physical activity in elementary school and 225 minutes in middle school (SPARC, 2016).
Organized Sports: Pros and Cons
Middle childhood seems to be a great time to introduce children to organized sports, and in fact, many parents do. Nearly 3 million children play soccer in the United States (United States Youth Soccer, 2012). This activity promises to help children build social skills, improve athletically and learn a sense of competition. However, the emphasis on competition and athletic skill can be counterproductive and lead children to grow tired of the game and want to quit. In many respects, it appears that children's activities are no longer children's activities once adults become involved and approach the games as adults rather than children. The U. S. Soccer Federation recently advised coaches to reduce the amount of drilling engaged in during practice and to allow children to play more freely and to choose their own positions. The hope is that this will build on their love of the game and foster their natural talents.
Sports are important for children. Children’s participation in sports has been linked to:
• Higher levels of satisfaction with family and overall quality of life in children
• Improved physical and emotional development
• Better academic performance
Yet, a study on children’s sports in the United States (Sabo & Veliz, 2008) has found that gender, poverty, location, ethnicity, and disability can limit opportunities to engage in sports. Girls were more likely to have never participated in any type of sport.
This study also found that fathers may not be providing their daughters as much support as they do their sons. While boys rated their fathers as their biggest mentor who taught them the most about sports, girls rated coaches and physical education teachers as their key mentors. Sabo and Veliz also found that children in suburban neighborhoods had a much higher participation in sports than boys and girls living in rural or urban centers. In addition, Caucasian girls and boys participated in organized sports at higher rates than minority children. With a renewed focus, males and females can benefit from all sports and physical activity.27
Welcome to the World of E-Sports
The recent Sport Policy and Research Collaborative (2016) report on the “State of Play” in the United States highlights a disturbing trend. One in four children between the ages of 5 and 16 rate playing computer games with their friends as a form of exercise. In addition, e-sports, which as SPARC writes is about as much a sport as poker, involves children watching other children play video games. Over half of males, and about 20% of females, aged 12-19, say they are fans of e-sports. Play is an important part of childhood and physical activity has been proven to help children develop and grow. Adults and caregivers should look at what children are doing within their day to prioritize the activities that should be focused on.29
Contributors and Attributions
27. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (modified by Dawn Rymond)
29. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (modified by Dawn Rymond) | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/10%3A_Middle_Childhood_-_Physical__Development/10.04%3A_Exercise_Physical_Fitness_and_Sports.txt |
Vision and Hearing
The most common vision problem in middle childhood is being nearsighted, otherwise known as myopia. 25% of children will be diagnosed by the end of middle childhood. Being nearsighted can be corrected by wearing glasses with corrective lenses.
Children may have many ear infections in early childhood, but it’s not as common within the 6- 12 year age range. Numerous ear infections during middle childhood may lead to headaches and migraines, which may result in hearing loss.32
Dental Health
Children in middle childhood will start or continue to lose teeth. They experience the loss of deciduous, or “baby,” teeth and the arrival of permanent teeth, which typically begins at age six or seven. It is important for children to continue seeing a dentist twice a year to be sure that these teeth are healthy.
The foods and nutrients that children consume are also important for dental health. Offer healthy foods and snacks to children and when children do eat sugary or sticky foods, they should brush their teeth afterward.
Children should floss daily and brush their teeth at least twice daily: in the morning, at bedtime, and preferably after meals. Younger children need help brushing their teeth properly. Try brushing their teeth first and letting them finish. You might try using a timer or a favorite song so that your child learns to brush for 2 minutes. Parents or caregivers are encouraged to supervise brushing until your child is 7 or 8 years old to avoid tooth decay.
The best defense against tooth decay is flossing, brushing and adding fluoride; a mineral found in most tap water. If your water doesn’t have fluoride, ask a dentist about fluoride drops, gel or varnish. Also ask your child’s dentist about sealants—a simple, pain-free way to prevent tooth decay. These thin plastic coatings are painted on the chewing surfaces of permanent back teeth. They quickly harden to form a protective shield against germs and food. If a small cavity is accidentally covered by a sealant, the decay won’t spread because germs trapped inside are sealed off from their food supply.
Children’s dental health needs continuous monitoring as children loose teeth and new teeth come in. Many children have some malocclusion (when the way upper teeth aren’t correctly positioned slightly over the lower teeth, including under- and overbites) or malposition of their teeth, which can affect their ability to chew food, floss, and brush properly. Dentists may recommend that it’s time to see an orthodontist to maintain proper dental health. Dental health is exceedingly important as children grow more independent by making food choices and as they start to take over flossing and brushing. Parents can ease this transition by promoting healthy eating and proper dental hygiene.34
Diabetes in Childhood
Until recently diabetes in children and adolescents was thought of almost exclusively as type 1, but that thinking has evolved. Type 1 diabetes is the most common form of diabetes in children and is the result of a lack or production of insulin due to an overactive immune system. Type 2 diabetes is the most common form of diabetes in the U.S. It used to be referred to as adult-onset diabetes as it was not common during childhood. But with increasing rates of overweight and obesity in children and adolescents, more diagnoses are happening before adulthood. It is also important to note that Type 2 disproportionately affects minority youth. 35
Asthma
Childhood asthma that is unmanaged may make it difficult for children to develop to their fullest potential. Asthma is a chronic lung disease that inflames and narrows the airways. Asthma causes recurring periods of wheezing (a whistling sound when you breathe), chest tightness, shortness of breath, and coughing. The coughing often occurs at night or early in the morning. Asthma affects people of all ages, but it most often starts during childhood. In the United States, more than 25 million people are known to have asthma. About 7 million of these people are children.
To understand asthma, it helps to know how the airways work. The airways are tubes that carry air into and out of your lungs. People who have asthma have inflamed airways. The inflammation makes the airways swollen and very sensitive. The airways tend to react strongly to certain inhaled substances. When the airways react, the muscles around them tighten. This narrows the airways, causing less air to flow into the lungs. The swelling also can worsen, making the airways even narrower. Cells in the airways might make more mucus than usual. Mucus is a sticky, thick liquid that can further narrow the airways. This chain reaction can result in asthma symptoms. Symptoms can happen each time the airways are inflamed.
Sometimes asthma symptoms are mild and go away on their own or after minimal treatment with asthma medicine. Other times, symptoms continue to get worse. When symptoms get more intense and/or more symptoms occur, you're having an asthma attack. Asthma attacks also are called flare-ups or exacerbations (eg-zas-er-BA-shuns).
Treating symptoms when you first notice them is important. This will help prevent the symptoms from worsening and causing a severe asthma attack. Severe asthma attacks may require emergency care, and they can be fatal. Asthma has no cure. Even when you feel fine, you still have the disease and it can flare up at any time.
However, with today's knowledge and treatments, most people who have asthma are able to manage the disease. They have few, if any, symptoms. They can live normal, active lives and sleep through the night without interruption from asthma. If you have asthma, you can take an active role in managing the disease. For successful, thorough, and ongoing treatment, build strong partnerships with your doctor and other health care providers.39
Childhood Stress
Take a moment to think about how you deal with and how stress affects you. Now think about what the impact of stress may have on a child and their development?
Of course children experience stress and different types of stressors differently. Not all stress is bad. Normal, everyday stress can provide an opportunity for young children to build coping skills and poses little risk to development. Even more long-lasting stressful events such as changing schools or losing a loved one can be managed fairly well. But children who experience toxic stress or who live in extremely stressful situations of abuse over long periods of time can suffer long-lasting effects. The structures in the midbrain or limbic system such as the hippocampus and amygdala can be vulnerable to prolonged stress during early childhood (Middlebrooks and Audage, 2008). High levels of the stress hormone cortisol can reduce the size of the hippocampus and effect the child’s memory abilities. Stress hormones can also reduce immunity to disease. If the brain is exposed to long periods of severe stress it can develop a low threshold making the child hypersensitive to stress in the future. Whatever the effects of stress, it can be minimized if a child learns to deal with stressors and develop coping strategies with the support of caring adults. It’s easy to know when your child has a fever or other physical symptoms. However, a child’s mental health problems may be harder to identify. In the next section, we’ll look at childhood Mental Health Disorders.40
Contributors and Attributions
32. Rathus, Spencer A. (2011). Childhood & adolescence voyages in development. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
34. Chew on This - Healthy Teeth for Baby and Beyond by the National Institutes of Health is in the public domain (modified by Dawn Rymond)
Childhood by University of Hawai’i at Mānoa Food Science and Human Nutrition Program is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 (modified by Dawn Rymond)
35. Diabetes by the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases is in the public domain
Preventing Type 2 Diabetes - Steps Toward a Healthier Life by the National Institutes of Health is in the public domain
39. Asthma by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute is in the public domain
40. Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0 (modified by Dawn Rymond) | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/10%3A_Middle_Childhood_-_Physical__Development/10.05%3A_Physical_Health.txt |
Mental health problems can disrupt daily life at home, at school or in the community. Without help, mental health problems can lead to school failure, alcohol or other drug abuse, family discord, violence or even suicide. However, help is available. Talk to your health care provider if you have concerns about your child’s behavior.
Mental health disorders are diagnosed by a qualified professional using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). This is a manual that is used as a standard across the profession for diagnosing and treating mental disorders.42
When You Have a Concern About a Child. What’s in a Label? 43
Children are continually evaluated as they enter and progress through school. If a child is showing a need, they should be assessed by a qualified professional who would make a recommendation or diagnosis of the child and give the type of instruction, resources, accommodations, and support that they should receive.
Ideally, a proper diagnosis or label is extremely beneficial for children who have educational, social, emotional, or developmental needs. Once their difficulty, disorder, or disability is labeled then the child will receive the help they need from parents, educators and any other professionals who will work as a team to meet the student’s individual goals and needs.
However, it’s important to consider that children that are labeled without proper support and accommodations or worse they may be misdiagnosed will have negative consequences. A label can also influence the child’s self-concept, for example, if a child is misdiagnosed as having a learning disability; the child, teachers, and family member interpret their actions through the lens of that label. Labels are powerful and can be good for the child or they can go detrimental for their development all depending on the accuracy of the label and if they are accurately applied.
A team of people who include parents, teachers, and any other support staff will look at the child’s evaluation assessment in a process called an Individual Education Plan (IEP). The team will discuss the diagnosis, recommendations, and the accommodations or help and a decisions will be made regarding what is the best for the child. This is time when parents or caregivers decide if they would like to follow this plan or they can dispute any part of the process. During an IEP, the team is able to voice concerns and questions. Most parents feel empowered when they leave these meetings. They feel as if they are a part of the team and that they know what, when, why, and how their child will be helped.
Childhood Mental Health Disorders
Social and Emotional Disorders
• Phobias
• Anxiety
• Post-Traumatic Stress Syndrome - PTSD
• Obsessive Compulsive Disorder –OCD
• Depression
Developmental Disorders
• Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
• Attention Deficit Disorder (ADHD)
• Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD)44
Phobias
When a child who has a phobia (an extreme or irrational fear of or aversion to something) is exposed to the phobic stimulus (the stimuli varies), it almost invariably provokes an immediate anxiety response, which may take the form of a situational bound or situational predisposed panic attack. Children can show effects and characteristics when it comes to specific phobias. The effects of anxiety show up by crying, throwing tantrums, experiencing freezing, or clinging to the parent that they have the most connection with. Related Conditions include anxiety.
Anxiety
Many children have fears and worries, and will feel sad and hopeless from time to time. Strong fears will appear at different times during development. For example, toddlers are often very distressed about being away from their parents, even if they are safe and cared for. Although fears and worries are typical in children, persistent or extreme forms of fear and sadness feelings could be due to anxiety or depression. Because the symptoms primarily involve thoughts and feelings, they are called internalizing disorders.
When children do not outgrow the fears and worries that are typical in young children, or when there are so many fears and worries that interfere with school, home, or play activities, the child may be diagnosed with an anxiety disorder. Examples of different types of anxiety disorders include:
• Being very afraid when away from parents (separation anxiety)
• Having extreme fear about a specific thing or situation, such as dogs, insects, or going to the doctor (phobias)
• Being very afraid of school and other places where there are people (social anxiety)
• Being very worried about the future and about bad things happening (general anxiety)
• Having repeated episodes of sudden, unexpected, intense fear that come with symptoms like heart pounding, having trouble breathing, or feeling dizzy, shaky, or sweaty (panic disorder)
Anxiety may present as fear or worry, but can also make children irritable and angry. Anxiety symptoms can also include trouble sleeping, as well as physical symptoms like fatigue, headaches, or stomachaches. Some anxious children keep their worries to themselves and, thus, the symptoms can be missed.
Related conditions include Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.
Post-Traumatic Stress Syndrome (PTSD)
Exposure to traumatic events can have major developmental influences on children. While the majority of children will not develop PTSD after a trauma, best estimates from the literature are that around a third of them will, higher than adult estimates. Some reasons for this could include more limited knowledge about the world, differential coping mechanisms employed, and the fact that children’s reactions to trauma are often highly influenced by how their parents and caregivers react.
The impact of PTSD on children weeks after a trauma, show that up to 90% of children may experience heightened physiological arousal, diffuse anxiety, survivor guilt, and emotional liability. These are all normal reactions and should be understood as such (similar things are seen in adults. Those children still having these symptoms three or four months after a disaster, however, may be in need of further assessment, particularly if they show the following symptoms as well. For older children, warning signs of problematic adjustment include: repetitious play reenacting a part of the disaster; preoccupation with danger or expressed concerns about safety; sleep disturbances and irritability; anger outbursts or aggressiveness; excessive worry about family or friends; school avoidance, particularly involving somatic complaints; behaviors characteristic of younger children; and changes in personality, withdrawal, and loss of interest in activities.46
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Although a diagnosis of OCD requires only that a person either has obsessions or compulsions, not both, approximately 96% of people experience both. For almost all people with OCD, being exposed to a certain stimuli (internal or external) will then trigger an upsetting or anxiety-causing obsession, which can only be relieved by doing a compulsion. For example, a person touches a doorknob in a public building, which causes an obsessive thought that they will get sick from the germs, which can only be relieved by compulsively washing their hands to an excessive degree. Some of the most common obsessions include unwanted thoughts of harming loved ones, persistent doubts that one has not locked doors or switched off electrical appliances, intrusive thoughts of being contaminated, and morally or sexually repugnant. 47
Depression
Occasionally being sad or feeling hopeless is a part of every child’s life. However, some children feel sad or uninterested in things that they used to enjoy, or feel helpless or hopeless in situations where they could do something to address the situations. When children feel persistent sadness and hopelessness, they may be diagnosed with depression.
Symptoms
We now know that youth who have depression may show signs that are slightly different from the typical adult symptoms of depression. Children who are depressed may complain of feeling sick, refuse to go to school, cling to a parent or caregiver, feel unloved, hopelessness about the future, or worry excessively that a parent may die. Older children and teens may sulk, get into trouble at school, be negative or grouchy, are irritable, indecisive, have trouble concentrating, or feel misunderstood. Because normal behaviors vary from one childhood stage to another, it can be difficult to tell whether a child who shows changes in behavior is just going through a temporary “phase” or is suffering from depression.
Treatment
With medication, psychotherapy, or combined treatment, most youth with depression can be effectively treated. Youth are more likely to respond to treatment if they receive it early in the course of their illness.49
Autism Spectrum Disorder
As introduced in chapter 8, autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder that affects communication and behavior. Although autism can be diagnosed at any age, it is said to be a “developmental disorder” because symptoms generally appear in the first two years of life.
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), a guide created by the American Psychiatric Association used to diagnose mental disorders, people with ASD have:
• Difficulty with communication and interaction with other people
• Restricted interests and repetitive behaviors
• Symptoms that hurt the person’s ability to function properly in school, work, and other areas of life
Autism is known as a “spectrum” disorder because there is wide variation in the type and severity of symptoms people experience. ASD occurs in all ethnic, racial, and economic groups. Although ASD can be a lifelong disorder, treatments and services can improve a person’s symptoms and ability to function. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that all children be screened for autism.
Changes to the diagnosis of ASD
In 2013, a revised version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) was released. This revision changed the way autism is classified and diagnosed. Using the previous version of the DSM, people could be diagnosed with one of several separate conditions:
• Autistic disorder
• Asperger’s’ syndrome
• Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS)
In the current revised version of the DSM (the DSM-5), these separate conditions have been combined into one diagnosis called “autism spectrum disorder.” Using the DSM-5, for example, people who were previously diagnosed as having Asperger’s syndrome would now be diagnosed as having autism spectrum disorder. Although the “official” diagnosis of ASD has changed, there is nothing wrong with continuing to use terms such as Asperger’s syndrome to describe oneself or to identify with a peer group.
Signs and Symptoms of ASD
People with ASD have difficulty with social communication and interaction, restricted interests, and repetitive behaviors. The list below gives some examples of the types of behaviors that are seen in people diagnosed with ASD. Not all people with ASD will show all behaviors, but most will show several.
Social communication / interaction behaviors may include:
• Making little or inconsistent eye contact
• Tending not to look at or listen to people
• Rarely sharing enjoyment of objects or activities by pointing or showing things to others
• Failing to, or being slow to, respond to someone calling their name or to other verbal attempts to gain attention
• Having difficulties with the back and forth of conversation
• Often talking at length about a favorite subject without noticing that others are not interested or without giving others a chance to respond
• Having facial expressions, movements, and gestures that do not match what is being said
• Having an unusual tone of voice that may sound sing-song or flat and robot-like
• Having trouble understanding another person’s point of view or being unable to predict or understand other people’s actions
Restrictive / repetitive behaviors may include:
• Repeating certain behaviors or having unusual behaviors. For example, repeating words or phrases, a behavior called echolalia
• Having a lasting intense interest in certain topics, such as numbers, details, or facts
• Having overly focused interests, such as with moving objects or parts of objects
• Getting upset by slight changes in a routine
• Being more or less sensitive than other people to sensory input, such as light, noise, clothing, or temperature
People with ASD may also experience sleep problems and irritability. Although people with ASD experience many challenges, they may also have many strengths, including:
• Being able to learn things in detail and remember information for long periods of time
• Being strong visual and auditory learners
• Excelling in math, science, music, or art
Causes and Risk Factors
While scientists don’t know the exact causes of ASD, research suggests that genes can act together with influences from the environment to affect development in ways that lead to ASD. Although scientists are still trying to understand why some people develop ASD and others don’t, some risk factors include:
• Having a sibling with ASD
• Having older parents
• Having certain genetic conditions—people with conditions such as Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, and Rett syndrome are more likely than others to have ASD
• Very low birth weight
Treatments and Therapies
Treatment for ASD should begin as soon as possible after diagnosis. Early treatment for ASD is important as proper care can reduce individuals’ difficulties while helping them learn new skills and make the most of their strengths.
The wide range of issues facing people with ASD means that there is no single best treatment for ASD. Working closely with a doctor or health care professional is an important part of finding the right treatment program.
A doctor may use medication to treat some symptoms that are common with ASD. With medication, a person with ASD may have fewer problems with:
• Irritability
• Aggression
• Repetitive behavior
• Hyperactivity
• Attention problems
• Anxiety and depression
People with ASD may be referred to doctors who specialize in providing behavioral, psychological, educational, or skill-building interventions. These programs are typically highly structured and intensive and may involve parents, siblings, and other family members. Programs may help people with ASD:
• Learn life-skills necessary to live independently
• Reduce challenging behaviors
• Increase or build upon strengths
• Learn social, communication, and language skills 50
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD)
The exact causes of AD/HD are unknown; however, research has demonstrated that factors that many people associate with the development of AD/HD do not cause the disorder including, minor head injuries, damage to the brain from complications during birth, food allergies, excess sugar intake, too much television, poor schools, or poor parenting. Research has found a number of significant risk factors affecting neurodevelopment and behavior expression. Events such as maternal alcohol and tobacco use that affect the development of the fetal brain can increase the risk for AD/HD. Injuries to the brain from environmental toxins such as lack of iron have also been implicated.
Symptoms
People with AD/HD show a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity–impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development:
1. Inattention: Six or more symptoms of inattention for children up to age 16, or five or more for adolescents 17 and older and adults; symptoms of inattention have been present for at least 6 months, and they are inappropriate for developmental level:
• Often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, at work, or with other activities.
• Often has trouble holding attention on tasks or play activities.
• Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly.
• Often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace (e.g., loses focus, side-tracked).
• Often has trouble organizing tasks and activities.
• Often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to do tasks that require mental effort over a long period of time (such as schoolwork or homework).
• Often loses things necessary for tasks and activities (e.g. school materials, pencils, books, tools, wallets, keys, paperwork, eyeglasses, mobile telephones).
• Is often easily distracted
• Is often forgetful in daily activities.
2. Hyperactivity and Impulsivity: Six or more symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity for children up to age 16, or five or more for adolescents 17 and older and adults; symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity have been present for at least 6 months to an extent that is disruptive and inappropriate for the person’s developmental level:
• Often fidgets with or taps hands or feet, or squirms in seat.
• Often leaves seat in situations when remaining seated is expected.
• Often runs about or climbs in situations where it is not appropriate (adolescents or adults may be limited to feeling restless).
• Often unable to play or take part in leisure activities quietly.
• Is often “on the go” acting as if “driven by a motor”.
• Often talks excessively.
• Often blurts out an answer before a question has been completed.
• Often has trouble waiting his/her turn.
• Often interrupts or intrudes on others (e.g., butts into conversations or games)
In addition, the following conditions must be met:
• Several inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms were present before age 12 years.
• Several symptoms are present in two or more settings, (such as at home, school or work; with friends or relatives; in other activities).
• There is clear evidence that the symptoms interfere with, or reduce the quality of, social, school, or work functioning.
• The symptoms are not better explained by another mental disorder (such as a mood disorder, anxiety disorder, dissociative disorder, or a personality disorder). The symptoms do not happen only during the course of schizophrenia or another psychotic disorder.
Based on the types of symptoms, three kinds (presentations) of AD/HD can occur:
• Combined Presentation: if enough symptoms of both criteria inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity were present for the past 6 months
• Predominantly Inattentive Presentation: if enough symptoms of inattention, but not hyperactivity-impulsivity, were present for the past six months
• Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Presentation: if enough symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity, but not inattention, were present for the past six months.
Because symptoms can change over time, the presentation may change over time as well.54 The diagnosis of AD/HD can be made reliably using well-tested diagnostic interview methods. However, as of yet, there is no independent valid test for ADHD.
Among children, AD/HD frequently occurs along with other learning, behavior, or mood problems such as learning disabilities, oppositional defiant disorder, anxiety disorders, and depression.
Treatment
A variety of medications and behavioral interventions are used to treat AD/HD. The most widely used medications are methylphenidate (Ritalin), D-amphetamine, and other amphetamines. These drugs are stimulants that affect the level of the neurotransmitter dopamine at the synapse. Nine out of 10 children improve while taking one of these drugs.
In addition to the well-established treatments described above, some parents and therapists have tried a variety of nutritional interventions to treat AD/HD. A few studies have found that some children benefit from such treatments. Nevertheless, no well-established nutritional interventions have consistently been shown to be effective for treating AD/HD.56
Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD) or PPD (NOS) Not Otherwise Specified PDD –NOS
Pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) is a term used to refer to difficulties in socialization and delays in developing communicative skills. This is usually recognized before 3 years of age. A child with PDD may interact in unusual ways with toys, people, or situations, and may engage in repetitive movement. PDD is diagnosed and treatment is similar to ADHA and ASD. In 2013 the DSM- 5 discontinued using this as a diagnosis, however it is still used informally.57
Contributors and Attributions
42. Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles by Judy Baker, Ph.D. is licensed under CC BY-SA (modified by Dawn Rymond)
43. Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles by Judy Baker, Ph.D. is licensed under CC BY-SA (modified by Dawn Rymond)
44. Content by Dawn Rymond is licensed under CC BY 4.0
46. Abnormal Psychology by Lumen Learning references Abnormal Psychology: An e-text! by Dr. Caleb Lack, licensed under CC BY-NC-SA
47. Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles by Judy Baker, Ph.D. is licensed under CC BY-SA
49. Educational Psychology by Kelvin Seifert is licensed under CC BY 3.0
Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles by Judy Baker, Ph.D. is licensed under CC BY-SA
50. Autism Spectrum Disorder by the NIH is in the public domain
54. Symptoms and Diagnosis of ADHD by the CDC is in the public domain
56. Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles by Judy Baker, Ph.D. is licensed under CC BY-SA
57. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
10.07: Managing Symptoms- Staying Healthy
Being healthy is important for all children and can be especially important for children with mental health disorders. In addition to getting the right treatment, leading a healthy lifestyle can play a role in managing symptoms. Here are some healthy behaviors that may help:
• Eating a healthful diet centered on fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes (for example, beans, peas, and lentils), lean protein sources, and nuts and seeds
• Participating in physical activity for at least 60 minutes each day
• Getting the recommended amount of sleep each night based on age
• Practicing mindfulness or relaxation techniques 58
Contributors and Attributions
58. Anxiety and Depression in Children by the CDC is in the public domain
10.S: Summary
In this chapter we looked at:
• Patterns of growth in the brain and body
• Health and nutrition
• Causes and results of obesity
• Exercise, fitness, and organized sports
• Physical health concerns
• Mental health disorders
In the next chapter we will be examining cognitive development theories and theorists. We will learn about information processing; attention, memory, and planning in middle childhood. We will also see how school age children learn language and how intelligence is measured. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/10%3A_Middle_Childhood_-_Physical__Development/10.06%3A_Childhood_Mental_Health.txt |
Learning Objectives
After this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe what cognitive theorists share about children and their thinking
2. Explain how intelligence is measured, the tests used to assess intelligence, the extremes in intelligence, and the concern of bias
3. Describe the Information Processing Theory
4. Explain several theories of language development
5. Compare typical language development with language difficulties
Cognitive skills continue to expand in middle and late childhood. Children in middle childhood have thought processes that become more logical and organized when dealing with concrete information. Children at this age understand concepts such as past, present, and future, giving them the ability to plan and work toward goals. Additionally, they can process complex ideas such as addition and subtraction and cause-and-effect relationships.1
• 11.1: Cognitive Theories of Intelligence
Theorists are able to give different perspectives to the cognitive development of children and psychologists have long debated how to best conceptualize and measure intelligence (Sternberg, 2003). In the next section, we’ll look at Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, Sternberg’s alternative view to intelligence, and Gardener’s theory of multiple intelligence. Lastly, you’ll learn about the Information Processing Theory that looks at the cognitive function of children in middle childhood.
• 11.2: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
As children continue into elementary school, they develop the ability to represent ideas and events more flexibly and logically. Their rules of thinking still seem very basic by adult standards and usually operate unconsciously, but they allow children to solve problems more systematically than before, and therefore to be successful with many academic tasks.
• 11.3: Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Another champion of the idea of specific types of intelligences rather than one overall intelligence is the psychologist Howard Gardner (1983, 1999). Gardner argued that it would be evolutionarily functional for different people to have different talents and skills, and proposed that there are nine intelligences that can be differentiated from each other.
• 11.4: Information Processing- Learning, Memory, and Problem Solving
During middle and late childhood children make strides in several areas of cognitive function including the capacity of working memory, their ability to pay attention, and their use of memory strategies. Both changes in the brain and experience foster these abilities.
• 11.5: Cognitive Processes
As children enter school and learn more about the world, they develop more categories for concepts and learn more efficient strategies for storing and retrieving information. One significant reason is that they continue to have more experiences on which to tie new information. In other words, their knowledge base, knowledge in particular areas that makes learning new information easier, expands (Berger, 2014).
• 11.6: Intelligence Testing - The What, the Why, and the Who
The goal of most intelligence tests is to measure “g”, the general intelligence factor. Good intelligence tests are reliable, meaning that they are consistent over time, and also demonstrate validity, meaning that they actually measure intelligence rather than something else.
• 11.7: Language Development in the School-Age Child
Human language is the most complex behavior on the planet and, at least as far as we know, in the universe. Language involves both the ability to comprehend (receptive) spoken and written (expressive) words and to create communication in real-time when we speak or write.
• 11.8: Introduction to Linguistics
Language is such a special topic that there is an entire field, linguistics, devoted to its study. Linguistics views language in an objective way, using the scientific method and rigorous research to form theories about how humans acquire, use, and sometimes abuse language. There are a few major branches of linguistics, which is useful to understand in order to learn about language from a psychological perspective.
• 11.9: Bilingualism - also known as Dual Language Learners or English Language Learners
Although monolingual speakers (those that only speak one language) often do not realize it, the majority of children around the world are bilingual, (they understand and use two languages). (Meyers- Sutton, 2005). Even in the United States, which is a relatively monolingual society, more than 47 million people speak a language other than English at home, and about 10 million of these people are children or youth in public schools (United States Department of Commerce, 2003).
• 11.10: Theories of Language Development
Humans, especially children, have an amazing ability to learn language. Within the first year of life, children will have learned many of the necessary concepts to have functional language, although it will still take years for their capabilities to develop fully. As we just explained, some people learn two or more languages fluently and are bilingual or multilingual. Here is a recap of the theorists and theories that have been proposed to explain the development of language.
• 11.11: Learning to Read
While the foundations of this were laid in infancy and early childhood, formal instruction on this process usually happens during the school-age years. There isn’t always complete agreement on how children are best taught to read. The following approaches to teaching reading are separated by their methodology, but today, models of reading strive for a balance between the two types of reading methods because they are both recognized as essential for learning to read.
• 11.12: Learning Difficulties
When children don’t seem to be developing or learning in the typical pattern one might be assessed for a disorder or disability. What is a learning disorder or disability? In the next section we’ll learn about the spectrum of disorders and how they may impact many areas of the child's life.
• 11.S: Summary
Thumbnail: pixabay.com/photos/little-gi...eauty-3070209/
11: Middle Childhood - Cognitive Development
Theorists are able to give different perspectives to the cognitive development of children and psychologists have long debated how to best conceptualize and measure intelligence (Sternberg, 2003). In the next section, we’ll look at Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, Sternberg’s alternative view to intelligence, and Gardener’s theory of multiple intelligence. Lastly, you’ll learn about the Information Processing Theory that looks at the cognitive function of children in middle childhood. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/11%3A_Middle_Childhood_-_Cognitive__Development/11.01%3A_Cognitive_Theories_of_Intelligence.txt |
Concrete Operational Thought
As children continue into elementary school, they develop the ability to represent ideas and events more flexibly and logically. Their rules of thinking still seem very basic by adult standards and usually operate unconsciously, but they allow children to solve problems more systematically than before, and therefore to be successful with many academic tasks. In the concrete operational stage, for example, a child may unconsciously follow the rule: “If nothing is added or taken away, then the amount of something stays the same.” This simple principle helps children to understand certain arithmetic tasks, such as in adding or subtracting zero from a number, as well as to do certain classroom science experiments, such as ones involving judgments of the amounts of liquids when mixed. Piaget called this period the concrete operational stage because children mentally “operate” on concrete objects and events. 3
The concrete operational stage is defined as the third in Piaget's theory of cognitive development. This stage takes place around 7 years old to 11 years of age, and is characterized by the development of organized and rational thinking. Piaget (1954a) considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child's cognitive development, because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought. The child is now mature enough to use logical thought or operations (i.e. rules) but can only apply logic to physical objects (hence concrete operational). Children gain the abilities of conservation (number, area, volume, orientation) and reversibility.5
Let’s look at the following cognitive skills that children typically master during Piaget’s concrete operational stage.6 :
Seriation: Arranging items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight, in a methodical way is now demonstrated by the concrete operational child. For example, they can methodically arrange a series of different-sized sticks in order by length, while younger children approach a similar task in a haphazard way.8
Classification: As children's experiences and vocabularies grow, they build schema and are able to organize objects in many different ways. They also understand classification hierarchies and can arrange objects into a variety of classes and subclasses.
Reversibility: The child learns that some things that have been changed can be returned to their original state. Water can be frozen and then thawed to become liquid again. But eggs cannot be unscrambled. Arithmetic operations are reversible as well: 2 + 3 = 5 and 5 – 3 = 2. Many of these cognitive skills are incorporated into the school's curriculum through mathematical problems and in worksheets about which situations are reversible or irreversible.
Conservation: An example of the preoperational child’s thinking; if you were to fill a tall beaker with 8 ounces of water this child would think that it was "more" than a short, wide bowl filled with 8 ounces of water? Concrete operational children can understand the concept of conservation, which means that changing one quality (in this example, height or water level) can be compensated for by changes in another quality (width). Consequently, there is the same amount of water in each container, although one is taller and narrower and the other is shorter and wider.
Decentration: Concrete operational children no longer focus on only one dimension of any object (such as the height of the glass) and instead consider the changes in other dimensions too (such as the width of the glass). This allows for conservation to occur.
Identity: One feature of concrete operational thought is the understanding that objects have qualities that do not change even if the object is altered in some way. For instance, mass of an object does not change by rearranging it. A piece of chalk is still chalk even when the piece is broken in two. 14
Transitivity: Being able to understand how objects are related to one another is referred to as transitivity or transitive inference. This means that if one understands that a dog is a mammal and that a boxer is a dog, then a boxer must be a mammal.18
Looking at Piaget’s Theory
Researchers have obtained findings indicating that cognitive development is considerably more continuous than Piaget claimed. Thus, the debate between those who emphasize discontinuous, stage-like changes in cognitive development and those who emphasize gradual continuous changes remains a lively one.20
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
An alternative view of intelligence is presented by Sternberg (1997; 1999). Sternberg offers three types of intelligences. Sternberg provided background information about his view of intelligence in a conference, where he described his frustration as a committee member charged with selecting graduate students for a program in psychology. He was concerned that there was too much emphasis placed on aptitude test scores (we will discuss this later in the chapter) and believed that there were other, less easily measured, qualities necessary for success in a graduate program and in the world of work. Aptitude test scores indicate the first type of intelligence-academic
1. Analytical (componential) sometimes described as academic: includes the ability to solve problems of logic, verbal comprehension, vocabulary, and spatial abilities. 2. Creative (experiential): the ability to apply newly found skills to novel situations 3. Practical (contextual): the ability to use common sense and to know what is called for in a situation. 21
Analytical
Creative
Practical
Contributors and Attributions
3. Educational Psychology by OpenStax CNX is licensed under CC BY 4.0
5. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
6. Concrete Operational Stage Image by Simply Psychology is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 3.0; Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
8. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
14. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
18. Transitivity by Boundless is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
20. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
21. Lifespan Development – Module 6: Middle Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, which is licensed under CC BY 3.0 (modified by Dawn Rymond) | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/11%3A_Middle_Childhood_-_Cognitive__Development/11.02%3A_Piagets_Theory_of_Cognitive_Development.txt |
Another champion of the idea of specific types of intelligences rather than one overall intelligence is the psychologist Howard Gardner (1983, 1999). Gardner argued that it would be evolutionarily functional for different people to have different talents and skills, and proposed that there are nine intelligences that can be differentiated from each other.
Gardner contends that these are also forms of intelligence. A high IQ does not always ensure success in life or necessarily indicate that a person has common sense, good interpersonal skills, or other abilities important for success. Gardner investigated intelligences by focusing on children who were talented in one or more areas. He identified these 9 intelligences based on other criteria including a set developmental history and psychometric findings.26
Howard Gardner (1983, 1998, 1999) suggests that there are not one, but nine domains of intelligence. The first three are skills that are measured by IQ tests:
Table \(1\): Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences ( Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0; Table adapted from Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New York, NY: Basic Books.)
Intelligence Description
Linguistic The ability to speak and write well
Logical- mathematical The ability to use logic and mathematical skills to solve problems
Spatial The ability to think and reason about objects in three dimensions
Musical The ability to perform and enjoy music
Kinesthetic (body) The ability to move the body in sports, dance, or other physical activities
Interpersonal The ability to understand and interact effectively with others
Intrapersonal The ability to have insight into the self
Naturalistic
The ability to recognize, identify, and understand animals, plants, and other living things
Existential The ability to understand and have concern from life’s larger questions, the meaning of life, and other spiritual matters
The concept of multiple intelligences has been influential in the field of education, and teachers have used these ideas to try to teach differently for individual students. For instance, to teach math problems to students who have particularly good kinesthetic intelligence, a teacher might encourage the students to move their bodies or hands according to the numbers. On the other hand, some have argued that these “intelligences” sometimes seem more like “abilities” or “talents” rather than real intelligence. There is no clear conclusion about how many intelligences there are. Are a sense of humor, artistic skills, dramatic skills, and so forth also separate intelligences?28
Contributors and Attributions
26. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
28. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
11.04: Information Processing- Learning Memory and Problem Solving
During middle and late childhood children make strides in several areas of cognitive function including the capacity of working memory, their ability to pay attention, and their use of memory strategies. Both changes in the brain and experience foster these abilities. In this section, we will look at how children process information, think and learn, allowing them to increase their ability to learn and remember due to an improvement in the ways they attend to, store information, and problem solve.29
Working Memory: The capacity of working memory expands during middle and late childhood, research has suggested that both an increase in processing speed and the ability to inhibit irrelevant information from entering memory are contributing to the greater efficiency of working memory during this age (de Ribaupierre, 2002). Changes in myelination and synaptic pruning in the cortex are likely behind the increase in processing speed and ability to filter out irrelevant stimuli (Kail, McBride-Chang, Ferrer, Cho, & Shu, 2013).
Attention: As noted above, the ability to inhibit irrelevant information improves during this age group, with there being a sharp improvement in selective attention from age six into adolescence (Vakil, Blachstein, Sheinman, & Greenstein, 2009). Children also improve in their ability to shift their attention between tasks or different features of a task (Carlson, Zelazo, & Faja, 2013). A younger child who is asked to sort objects into piles based on the type of object, car versus animal, or color of the object, red versus blue, would likely have no trouble doing so. But if you ask them to switch from sorting based on type to now having them sort based on color, they would struggle because this requires them to suppress the prior sorting rule. An older child has less difficulty making the switch, meaning there is greater flexibility in their intentional skills. These changes in attention and working memory contribute to children having more strategic approaches to challenging tasks.
Memory Strategies: Bjorklund (2005) describes a developmental progression in the acquisition and use of memory strategies. Such strategies are often lacking in younger children, but increase in frequency as children progress through elementary school. Examples of memory strategies include rehearsing information you wish to recall, visualizing and organizing information, creating rhymes, such as “i” before “e” except after “c”, or inventing acronyms, such as “roygbiv” to remember the colors of the rainbow. Schneider, Kron-Sperl, and Hünnerkopf (2009) reported a steady increase in the use of memory strategies from ages six to ten in their longitudinal study. Moreover, by age ten many children were using two or more memory strategies to help them recall information. Schneider and colleagues found that there were considerable individual differences at each age in the use of strategies and that children who utilized more strategies had better memory performance than their same-aged peers.
Contributors and Attributions
29. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
11.05: Cognitive Processes
As children enter school and learn more about the world, they develop more categories for concepts and learn more efficient strategies for storing and retrieving information. One significant reason is that they continue to have more experiences on which to tie new information. In other words, their knowledge base, knowledge in particular areas that makes learning new information easier, expands (Berger, 2014).
Metacognition: refers to the knowledge we have about our own thinking and our ability to use this awareness to regulate our own cognitive processes (Bruning, Schraw, Norby, & Ronning, 2004). Children in this developmental stage also have a better understanding of how well they are performing a task and the level of difficulty of a task. As they become more realistic about their abilities, they can adapt studying strategies to meet those needs. Young children spend as much time on an unimportant aspect of a problem as they do on the main point, while older children start to learn to prioritize and gauge what is significant and what is not. As a result, they develop metacognition.
Critical thinking, or a detailed examination of beliefs, courses of action, and evidence, involves teaching children how to think. The purpose of critical thinking is to evaluate information in ways that help us make informed decisions. Critical thinking involves better understanding a problem through gathering, evaluating, and selecting information, and also by considering many possible solutions. Ennis (1987) identified several skills useful in critical thinking. These include: Analyzing arguments, clarifying information, judging the credibility of a source, making value judgments, and deciding on an action. Metacognition is essential to critical thinking because it allows us to reflect on the information as we make decisions.
Children differ in their cognitive process and these differences predict both their readiness for school, academic performance, and testing in school. (Prebler, Krajewski, & Hasselhorn, 2013).32
Contributors and Attributions
32. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/11%3A_Middle_Childhood_-_Cognitive__Development/11.03%3A_Howard_Gardners_Theory_of_Multiple_Intelligences.txt |
Measuring Intelligence: Standardization and the Intelligence Quotient
The goal of most intelligence tests is to measure “g”, the general intelligence factor. Good intelligence tests are reliable, meaning that they are consistent over time, and also demonstrate validity, meaning that they actually measure intelligence rather than something else. Because intelligence is such an important part of individual differences, psychologists have invested substantial effort in creating and improving measures of intelligence, and these tests are now considered the most accurate of all psychological tests.
Intelligence changes with age. A 3-year-old who could accurately multiply 183 by 39 would certainly be intelligent, but a 25-year-old who could not do so would be seen as unintelligent. Thus understanding intelligence requires that we know the norms or standards in a given population of people at a given age. The standardization of a test involves giving it to a large number of people at different ages and computing the average score on the test at each age level.
Once the standardization has been accomplished, we have a picture of the average abilities of people at different ages and can calculate a person’s mental age, which is the age at which a person is performing intellectually. If we compare the mental age of a person to the person’s chronological age, the result is the Intelligence Quotient (IQ), a measure of intelligence that is adjusted for age. A simple way to calculate IQ is by using the following formula:
IQ = mental age ÷ chronological age × 100.
Thus a 10-year-old child who does as well as the average 10-year-old child has an IQ of 100 (10 ÷ 10 × 100), whereas an 8-year-old child who does as well as the average 10-year-old child would have an IQ of 125 (10 ÷ 8 × 100). Most modern intelligence tests are based on the relative position of a person’s score among people of the same age, rather than on the basis of this formula, but the idea of intelligence “ratio” or “quotient” provides a good description of the score’s meaning.
The Flynn Effect
It is important that intelligence tests be standardized on a regular basis, because the overall level of intelligence in a population may change over time. The Flynn effect refers to the observation that scores on intelligence tests worldwide have increased substantially over the past decades (Flynn, 1999). Although the increase varies somewhat from country to country, the average increase is about 3 IQ points every 10 years. There are many explanations for the Flynn effect, including better nutrition, increased access to information, and more familiarity with multiple-choice tests (Neisser, 1998). But whether people are actually getting smarter is debatable (Neisser,1997). 33
The Value of IQ Testing
The value of IQ testing is most evident in educational or clinical settings. Children who seem to be experiencing learning difficulties or severe behavioral problems can be tested to ascertain whether the child’s difficulties can be partly attributed to an IQ score that is significantly different from the mean for her age group. Without IQ testing—or another measure of intelligence—children and adults needing extra support might not be identified effectively. People also use IQ testing results to seek disability benefits from the Social Security Administration.
While IQ tests have sometimes been used as arguments in support of insidious purposes, such as the eugenics movement, which was the science of improving a human population by controlled breeding to increase desirable heritable characteristics. However, the value of this test is important to help those in need.34
Alfred Binet & Théodore Simon - Stanford- Binet Intelligence Test
From 1904- 1905 the French psychologist Alfred Binet (1857–1914) and his colleague Théodore Simon (1872–1961) began working on behalf of the French government to develop a measure that would identify children who would not be successful with the regular school curriculum. The goal was to help teachers better educate these students (Aiken, 1994).
Binet and Simon developed what most psychologists today regard as the first intelligence test, which consisted of a wide variety of questions that included the ability to name objects, define words, draw pictures, complete sentences, compare items, and construct sentences. Binet and Simon (Binet, Simon, & Town, 1915; Siegler, 1992) believed that the questions they asked the children all assessed the basic abilities to understand, reason, and make judgments.
Soon after Binet and Simon introduced their test, the American psychologist Lewis Terman at Stanford University (1877–1956) developed an American version of Binet’s test that became known as the Stanford- Binet Intelligence Test. The Stanford-Binet is a measure of general intelligence made up of a wide variety of tasks including vocabulary, memory for pictures, naming of familiar objects, repeating sentences, and following commands.36
David Wechsler- Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale
In 1939, David Wechsler, a psychologist who spent part of his career working with World War I veterans, developed a new IQ test in the United States. Wechsler combined several subtests from other intelligence tests used between 1880 and World War I. These subtests tapped into a variety of verbal and nonverbal skills, because Wechsler believed that intelligence encompassed “the global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment” (Wechsler, 1958, p. 7). He named the test the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (Wechsler, 1981). This combination of subtests became one of the most extensively used intelligence tests in the history of psychology.
Today, there are three intelligence tests credited to Wechsler, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-fourth edition (WAIS-IV), the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V), and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence—Revised (WPPSI-III) (Wechsler, 2002). These tests are used widely in schools and communities throughout the United States, and they are periodically normed and standardized as a means of recalibration.
Bias of IQ Testing
Intelligence tests and psychological definitions of intelligence have been heavily criticized since the 1970s for being biased in favor of Anglo-American, middle-class respondents and for being inadequate tools for measuring non-academic types of intelligence or talent. Intelligence changes with experience, and intelligence quotients or scores do not reflect that ability to change. What is considered smart varies culturally as well, and most intelligence tests do not take this variation into account. For example, in the West, being smart is associated with being quick. A person who answers a question the fastest is seen as the smartest, but in some cultures being smart is associated with considering an idea thoroughly before giving an answer. A well- thought out, contemplative answer is the best answer.38
A Spectrum of Intellectual Development
The results of studies assessing the measurement of intelligence show that IQ is distributed in the population in the form of a Normal Distribution (or bell curve), which is the pattern of scores usually observed in a variable that clusters around its average. In a normal distribution, the bulk of the scores fall toward the middle, with many fewer scores falling at the extremes. The normal distribution of intelligence shows that on IQ tests, as well as on most other measures, the majority of people cluster around the average (in this case, where IQ = 100), and fewer are either very smart or very dull (see below).
Distribution of IQ Scores in the General Population
This means that about 2% of people score above an IQ of 130, often considered the threshold for giftedness, and about the same percentage score below an IQ of 70, often being considered the threshold for an intellectual disability.
Intellectual Disabilities
One end of the distribution of intelligence scores is defined by people with very low IQ. Intellectual disability (or intellectual developmental disorder) is assessed based on cognitive capacity (IQ) and adaptive functioning. The severity of the disability is based on adaptive functioning, or how well the person handles everyday life tasks. About 1% of the United States population, most of them males, fulfill the criteria for intellectual developmental disorder, but some children who are given this diagnosis lose the classification as they get older and better learn to function in society. A particular vulnerability of people with low IQ is that they may be taken advantage of by others, and this is an important aspect of the definition of intellectual developmental disorder (Greenspan, Loughlin, & Black, 2001).
One example of an intellectual developmental disorder is Down syndrome, a chromosomal disorder caused by the presence of all or part of an extra 21st chromosome. The incidence of Down syndrome is estimated at approximately 1 per 700 births, and the prevalence increases as the mother’s age increases (CDC, 2014a). People with Down syndrome typically exhibit a distinctive pattern of physical features, including a flat nose, upwardly slanted eye, a protruding tongue, and a short neck.
Fortunately, societal attitudes toward individuals with intellectual disabilities have changed over the past decades. We no longer use terms such as “retarded,” “moron,” “idiot,” or “imbecile” to describe people with intellectual differences, although these were the official psychological terms used to describe degrees of what was referred to as mental retardation in the past. Laws such as the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) have made it illegal to discriminate on the basis of mental and physical disability.
The normal distribution of IQ scores in the general population shows that most people have about average intelligence, while very few have extremely high or extremely low intelligence.41
Giftedness
Being gifted refers to children who have an IQ of 130 or higher (Lally & Valentine-French, 2015). Having an extremely high IQ is clearly less of a problem than having an extremely low IQ but there may also be challenges to being particularly smart. It is often assumed that school children who are labeled as “gifted” may have adjustment problems that make it more difficult for them to create and maintain social relationships.
As you might expect based on our discussion of intelligence, there are also different types and areas of intelligence and giftedness. Some children are particularly good at math or science, some at automobile repair or carpentry, some at music or art, some at sports or leadership, and so on. There is a lively debate among scholars about whether it is appropriate or beneficial to label some children as “gifted and talented” in school and to provide them with accelerated special classes and other programs that are not available to everyone. Although doing so may help the gifted kids (Colangelo & Assouline, 2009), it also may isolate them from their peers and make such provisions unavailable to those who are not classified as “gifted.” Testing for high IQ or for disabilities needs to be critically looked at so that the good that these tests were created for are not used for undesirable purposes.43
How do we know so much about what children learn in schools? In the next section we’ll look at the different types of tests and what the schools are testing.
Testing in Schools
Children's academic performance is often measured with the use of standardized tests. Those tests include, but are not limited to Achievement and Aptitude tests.
Achievement tests are used to measure what a child has already learned. Achievement tests are often used as measures of teaching effectiveness within a school setting and as a method to make schools that receive tax dollars (such as public schools, charter schools, and private schools that receive vouchers) accountable to the government for their performance.
Aptitude tests are designed to measure a student’s ability to learn or to determine if a person has potential in a particular program. These are often used at the beginning of a course of study or as part of college entrance requirements. The Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test (PSAT) are perhaps the most familiar aptitude tests to students in grades 6 and above. Learning test taking skills and preparing for SATs has become part of the training that some students in these grades receive as part of their pre-college preparation. Other aptitude tests include the MCAT (Medical College Admission Test), the LSAT (Law School Admission Test), and the GRE (Graduate Record Examination). Intelligence tests are also a form of aptitude test, which designed to measure a person’s ability to learn.45
What Happened to No Child Left Behind?
In 2001, President Bush signed into effect Public Law 107-110, better known as the No Child Left Behind Act mandating that schools administer achievement tests to students and publish those results so that parents have an idea of their children's performance. Additionally, the government would have information on the gaps in educational achievement between children from various social class, racial, and ethnic groups.
Schools that showed significant gaps in these levels of performance were mandated to work toward narrowing these gaps. Educators criticized the policy for focusing too much on testing as the only indication of student performance. Target goals were considered unrealistic and set by the federal government rather than individual states. Because these requirements became increasingly unworkable for schools, changes to the law were requested.
On December 12, 2015 President Obama signed into law the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). This law is state-driven and focuses on expanding educational opportunities and improving student outcomes, including in the areas of high school graduation, drop-out rates, and college attendance.48
Contributors and Attributions
33. Introduction to Psychology - Measures of Intelligence references Psychology by OpenStax CNX, licensed under CC BY 4.0 (modified by Dawn Rymond)
34. Introduction to Psychology - Measures of Intelligence references Psychology by OpenStax CNX, licensed under CC BY 4.0 (modified by Dawn Rymond)
36. Introduction to Psychology - Measures of Intelligence references Psychology by OpenStax CNX, licensed under CC BY 4.0
38. Sociology: Brief Edition – Agents of Socialization by Steven E. Barkan is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
Introduction to Psychology - Measures of Intelligence references Psychology by OpenStax CNX, licensed under CC BY 4.0
41. Introduction to Psychology - Measures of Intelligence references Psychology by OpenStax CNX, licensed under CC BY 4.0
43. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
45. Sociology: Brief Edition – Agents of Socialization by Steven E. Barkan is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
48. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/11%3A_Middle_Childhood_-_Cognitive__Development/11.06%3A_Intelligence_Testing_-_The_What_the_Why_and_the_Who.txt |
Human language is the most complex behavior on the planet and, at least as far as we know, in the universe. Language involves both the ability to comprehend (receptive) spoken and written (expressive) words and to create communication in real-time when we speak or write. Most languages are oral, generated through speaking. Speaking involves a variety of complex cognitive, social, and biological processes including operation of the vocal cords, and the coordination of breath with movements of the throat and mouth, and tongue. Other languages are sign languages, in which the communication is expressed by movements of the hands. The most common sign language is American Sign Language (ASL), currently spoken by more than 500,000 people in the United States alone.
Although language is often used for the transmission of information (“turn right at the next light and then go straight,” “Place tab A into slot B”), this is only its most mundane function. Language also allows us to access existing knowledge, to draw conclusions, to set and accomplish goals, and to understand and communicate complex social relationships. Language is fundamental to our ability to think, and without it, we would be nowhere near as intelligent as we are.
Language can be conceptualized in terms of sounds, meaning, and the environmental factors that help us understand it. Phonemes are the elementary sounds of our language, morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language, syntax is the set of grammatical rules that control how words are put together, and contextual information is the elements of communication that are not part of the content of language but that help us understand its meaning. Understanding how language works means reaching across many branches of psychology—everything from basic neurological functioning to high-level cognitive processing. Language shapes our social interactions and brings order to our lives. Complex language is one of the defining factors that make us human.49
Contributors and Attributions
49. Beginning Psychology – Intelligence and Language by Charles Stangor is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
11.08: Introduction to Linguistics
Language is such a special topic that there is an entire field, linguistics, devoted to its study. Linguistics views language in an objective way, using the scientific method and rigorous research to form theories about how humans acquire, use, and sometimes abuse language. There are a few major branches of linguistics, which it is useful to understand in order to learn about language from a psychological perspective.
Major Branches of Linguistics
This diagram outlines the various subfields of linguistics, the study of language. These include phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.
Phonetics and Phonology
A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that makes a meaningful difference in a language. The word “bit” has three phonemes, /b/, /i/, and /t/ (in transcription, phonemes are placed between slashes), and the word “pit” also has three: /p/, /i/, and /t/. In spoken languages, phonemes are produced by the positions and movements of the vocal tract, including our lips, teeth, tongue, vocal cords, and throat, whereas in sign languages phonemes are defined by the shapes and movement of the hands. English contains about 45 phonemes.
Whereas phonemes are the smallest units of sound in language, phonetics is the study of individual speech sounds; phonology is the study of phonemes, which are the speech sounds of an individual language. These two heavily overlapping subfields cover all the sounds that humans can make, as well as which sounds make up different languages.
Morpheme and Morphology
A morpheme is a string of one or more phonemes that makes up the smallest units of meaning in a language. Some morphemes, such as one-letter words like “I” and “a,” are also phonemes, but most morphemes are made up of combinations of phonemes. Some morphemes are prefixes and suffixes used to modify other words. For example, the syllable “re-” as in “rewrite” or “repay” means “to do again,” and the suffix “-est” as in “happiest” or “coolest” means “to the maximum.”
Morphology is the study of words and other meaningful units of language like suffixes and prefixes. A morphologist would be interested in the relationship between words like “dog” and “dogs” or “walk” and “walking,” and how people figure out the differences between those words.
Syntax
Syntax is the set of rules of a language by which we construct sentences. Each language has a different syntax. The syntax of the English language requires that each sentence have a noun and a verb, each of which may be modified by adjectives and adverbs. Some syntaxes make use of the order in which words appear, while others do not.
Syntax is the study of sentences and phrases, or how people put words into the right order so that they can communicate meaningfully. All languages have underlying rules of syntax, which, along with morphological rules, make up every language’s grammar. An example of syntax coming into play in language is “Eugene walked the dog” versus “The dog walked Eugene.” The order of words is not arbitrary—in order for the sentence to convey the intended meaning, the words must be in a certain order.51
Semantics and Pragmatics
Semantics, generally, is about the meaning of sentences. Someone who studies semantics is interested in words and what real-world object or concept those words denote, or point to.
Pragmatics is an even broader field that studies how the context of a sentence contributes to meaning. For example, someone shouting “Fire!” has a very different meaning if they are in charge of a seven-gun salute than it does if they are sitting in a crowded movie theater. Every language is different. In English, an adjective comes before a noun (“red house”), whereas in Spanish, the adjective comes after (“casa [house] roja [red].”) In German, you can put noun after noun together to form giant compound words; in Chinese, the pitch of your voice determines the meaning of your words. in American Sign Language, you can convey full, grammatical sentences with tense and aspect by moving your hands and face. But all languages have structural underpinnings that make them logical for the people who speak and understand them.52
Cognitive Language and Communication
When learning one or more languages in middle childhood, children are able to understand that there are many complex parts including comprehension, fluency, and meaning when communicating. The following are areas of cognitive language and communication.
Lexicon
Every language has its rules, which act as a framework for meaningful communication. But what do people fill that framework up with? The answer is, of course, words. Every human language has a lexicon—the sum total of all of the words in that language. By using grammatical rules to combine words into logical sentences, humans can convey an infinite number of concepts.
Grammar
Because all language obeys a set of combinatory rules, we can communicate an infinite number of concepts. While every language has a different set of rules, all languages do obey rules. These rules are known as grammar. Speakers of a language have internalized the rules and exceptions for that language’s grammar. There are rules for every level of language—word formation (for example, native speakers of English have internalized the general rule that -ed is the ending for past-tense verbs, so even when they encounter a brand-new verb, they automatically know how to put it into past tense); phrase formation (for example, knowing that when you use the verb “buy,” it needs a subject and an object; “She buys” is wrong, but “She buys a gift” is okay); and sentence formation.
Older children are also able to learn new rules of grammar with more flexibility. While younger children are likely to be reluctant to give up saying "I goed there", older children will learn this rather quickly along with other rules of grammar.
Vocabulary
One of the reasons that children can classify objects in so many ways is that they have acquired a vocabulary to do so. By fifth grade, a child's vocabulary has grown to 40,000 words. It grows at a rate that exceeds that of those in early childhood. This language explosion, however, differs from that of younger children because it is facilitated by being able to associate new words with those already known, and because it is accompanied by a more sophisticated understanding of the meanings of a word.
Context
Words do not possess fixed meanings but change their interpretation as a function of the context in which they are spoken. We use contextual information—the information surrounding language—to help us interpret it. Context is how everything within language works together to convey a particular meaning. Context includes tone of voice, body language, and the words being used. Depending on how a person says something, holds his or her body, or emphasizes certain points of a sentence, a variety of different messages can be conveyed. For example, the word “awesome,” when said with a big smile, means the person is excited about a situation. “Awesome,” said with crossed arms, rolled eyes, and a sarcastic tone, means the person is not thrilled with the situation.54
New Understanding
Those in middle and late childhood are also able to think of objects in less literal ways. For example, if asked for the first word that comes to mind when one hears the word "pizza", the younger child is likely to say "eat" or some word that describes what is done with a pizza. However, the older child is more likely to place pizza in the appropriate category and say "food". This sophistication of vocabulary is also evidenced by the fact that older children tell jokes and delight in doing so. They may use jokes that involve plays on words such as "knock-knock" jokes or jokes with punch lines. Young children do not understand play on words and tell "jokes" that are literal or slapstick, such as "A man fell down in the mud! Isn't that funny?"56
Contributors and Attributions
51. Beginning Psychology – Intelligence and Language by Charles Stangor is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
52. Child Development – Unit 6: Language Development references Psychology.by Boundless, licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
54. Beginning Psychology – Intelligence and Language by Charles Stangor is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
56. Lifespan Development - Module 6: Middle Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
Beginning Psychology – Intelligence and Language by Charles Stangor is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/11%3A_Middle_Childhood_-_Cognitive__Development/11.07%3A_Language_Development_in_the_School-Age_Child.txt |
Although monolingual speakers (those that only speak one language) often do not realize it, the majority of children around the world are bilingual, (they understand and use two languages). (Meyers- Sutton, 2005). Even in the United States, which is a relatively monolingual society, more than 47 million people speak a language other than English at home, and about 10 million of these people are children or youth in public schools (United States Department of Commerce, 2003). The large majority of bilingual students (75%) are Hispanic, but the rest represent more than a hundred different language groups from around the world. In larger communities throughout the United States, it is therefore common for a single classroom to contain students from several language backgrounds at once. In classrooms, as in other social settings, bilingualism exists in different forms and degrees.
The student who speaks both languages fluently has a definite cognitive advantage. As you might suspect and research confirmed, a fully fluent bilingual student is in a better position to express concepts or ideas in more than one way, and to be aware of doing so (Jimenez, Garcia, & Pearson, 1995; Francis, 2006). Having a large vocabulary in a first language has been shown to save time in learning vocabulary in a second language (Hansen, Umeda & McKinney, 2002).58
Contributors and Attributions
58. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
11.10: Theories of Language Development
Humans, especially children, have an amazing ability to learn language. Within the first year of life, children will have learned many of the necessary concepts to have functional language, although it will still take years for their capabilities to develop fully. As we just explained, some people learn two or more languages fluently and are bilingual or multilingual. Here is a recap of the theorists and theories that have been proposed to explain the development of language, and related brain structures, in children.
Skinner: Operant Conditioning
B. F. Skinner believed that children learn language through operant conditioning; in other words, children receive “rewards” for using language in a functional manner. For example, a child learns to say the word “drink” when she is thirsty; she receives something to drink, which reinforces her use of the word for getting a drink, and thus she will continue to do so. This follows the four-term contingency that Skinner believed was the basis of language development—motivating operations, discriminative stimuli, response, and reinforcing stimuli. Skinner also suggested that children learn language through imitation of others, prompting, and shaping.
Chomsky: Language Acquisition Device
Noam Chomsky’s work discusses the biological basis for language and claims that children have innate abilities to learn language. Chomsky terms this innate ability the “language acquisition device.” He believes children instinctively learn language without any formal instruction. He also believes children have a natural need to use language, and that in the absence of formal language children will develop a system of communication to meet their needs. He has observed that all children make the same type of language errors, regardless of the language they are taught. Chomsky also believes in the existence of a “universal grammar,” which posits that there are certain grammatical rules all human languages share. However, his research does not identify areas of the brain or a genetic basis that enables humans’ innate ability for language.
Piaget: Assimilation and Accommodation
Jean Piaget’s theory of language development suggests that children use both assimilation and accommodation to learn language. Assimilation is the process of changing one’s environment to place information into an already-existing schema (or idea). Accommodation is the process of changing one’s schema to adapt to the new environment. Piaget believed children need to first develop mentally before language acquisition can occur. According to him, children first create mental structures within the mind (schemas) and from these schemas, language development happens.
Vygotsky: Zone of Proximal Development
Lev Vygotsky’s theory of language development focused on social learning and the zone of proximal development (ZPD). The ZPD is a level of development obtained when children engage in social interactions with others; it is the distance between a child’s potential to learn and the actual learning that takes place. Vygotsky’s theory also demonstrated that Piaget underestimated the importance of social interactions in the development of language. Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories are often compared with each other, and both have been used successfully in the field of education.
11.11: Learning to Read
A huge milestone in middle childhood is learning to read and write. While the foundations of this were laid in infancy and early childhood, formal instruction on this process usually happens during the school-age years. There isn’t always complete agreement on how children are best taught to read. The following approaches to teaching reading are separated by their methodology, but today, models of reading strive for a balance between the two types of reading methods because they are both recognized as essential for learning to read.
• A phonics-based approach teaches reading by making sure children can understand letter-sound correspondences (how letters sound), automatically recognize familiar words, and decode unfamiliar words. This ability to break the code of reading allows children to read words they have never heard spoken before.
• The whole-language approach attempts to teach reading as naturally as possible. As the sounds of words don’t have meaning, the focus is on reading words and sentences in context (such as real books), rather than learning the sounds and phonemes that makeup words.60
Contributors and Attributions
60. Cognition and Instruction/Learning to Read by Wikibooks is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/11%3A_Middle_Childhood_-_Cognitive__Development/11.09%3A_Bilingualism_-_also_known_as_Dual_Language_Learners_or_English.txt |
When children don’t seem to be developing or learning in the typical pattern one might be assessed for a disorder or disability. What is a learning disorder or disability? In the next section we’ll learn about the spectrum of disorders and how they may impact many areas of the child's life.
• A learning disorder is a classification of disorders in which a person has difficulty learning in a typical manner within one of several domains. Types of learning disorders include difficulties in reading (dyslexia), mathematics (dyscalculia), and writing (dysgraphia). These disorders are diagnosed with certain criteria.
• A learning disability has problems in a specific area or with a specific task or type of activity related to education.
Children with learning challenges are usually identified in school because this is when their academic abilities are being tested, compared, and measured. In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders -DSM-5, a qualified person will make a diagnosis, identified causes, and will make a treatment plan for disorders and disabilities. The diagnosis of specific learning disorder was added to the DSM-5 in 2013.
The DSM does not require that a single domain of difficulty (such as reading, mathematics, or written expression) be identified—instead, it is a single diagnosis that describes a collection of potential difficulties with general academic skills, simply including detailed specifies for the areas of reading, mathematics, and writing. Academic performance must be below average in at least one of these fields, and the symptoms may also interfere with daily life or work. In addition, the learning difficulties cannot be attributed to other sensory, motor, developmental, or neurological disorders.61
The following is an example of the DSM-5 - learning disorders.
Learning Disorders:
• Dyslexia - Reading
• Dyscalculia – Mathematics
• Dyspraxia - Motor Coordination
• Dysgraphia - Writing
• Auditory Processing Disorder - Hearing
• Visual Processing Disorder - Visual
Speech and Language Disorders:
• Aphasia - Loss of language - expressive and receptive
• Articulation Disorder - An articulation disorder
• Fluency Disorders - Fluency disorders
• Voice Disorders - Disorders of the voice 62
Learning Disorders or Disabilities
Dyslexia
Dyslexia, sometimes called “reading disorder,” is the most common learning disability; of all students with specific learning disabilities, 70%–80% have deficits in reading. The term "developmental dyslexia" is often used as a catchall term, but researchers assert that dyslexia is just one of several types of reading disabilities. A reading disability can affect any part of the reading process, including word recognition, word decoding, reading speed, prosody (oral reading with expression), and reading comprehension.
Dyscalculia
Dyscalculia is a form of math-related disability that involves difficulties with learning math-related concepts (such as quantity, place value, and time), memorizing math-related facts, organizing numbers, and understanding how problems are organized on the page. Dyscalculics are often referred to as having poor "number sense."
Dyspraxia
Children who have motor skills substantially below what is expected for their age are diagnosed with dyspraxia – or developmental coordination disorder (DCD) as it is more formally known. They are not lazy, clumsy or unintelligent – in fact, their intellectual ability is in line with the general population – but they do struggle with everyday tasks that require coordination.
Dysgraphia
The term dysgraphia is often used as an overarching term for all disorders of written expression. Individuals with dysgraphia typically show multiple writing-related deficiencies, such as grammatical and punctuation errors within sentences, poor paragraph organization, multiple spelling errors, and excessively poor penmanship. 64
Auditory Processing Disorder
A processing deficit in the auditory modality that spans multiple processes is auditory processing disorder (APD). To date, APD diagnosis is mostly based on the utilization of speech material. Unfortunately, acceptable non-speech tests that allow differentiation between an actual central hearing disorder and related disorders such as specific language impairments are still not adequately available.
Visual Processing Disorder
Difficulty processing or interpreting visual information is referred to as visual processing disorder (VPD). Kids with visual processing issues may have difficulty telling the difference between two shapes or finding a specific piece of information on a page.65
Table \(1\): Summary of Learning Disabilities (Dyspraxi by The Conversation is licensed under CC BY-ND 4.0)
Disability Difficulties Effects
Dyslexia Difficulty with reading
Problems reading, writing, spelling
Dyscalculia Difficulty with math Problems doing math problems, understanding time, using money
Dyspraxia (Sensory Integration Disorder) Difficulty with fine motor skills Problems with hand-eye coordination, balance manual dexterity
Dysgraphia Difficulty with writing Problems with handwriting, spelling, organizing ideas
Auditory Processing Disorder
Difficulty hearing difference between sounds
Problems with reading, comprehension, language
Visual Processing Disorder Difficulty interpreting visual information Problems with reading, math, maps, charts, symbols, pictures
Speech and Language Disorders
Aphasia
A loss of the ability to produce or understand language is referred to as aphasia. Without the brain, there would be no language. The human brain has a few areas that are specific to language processing and production. When these areas are damaged or injured, capabilities for speaking or understanding can be lost, a disorder known as aphasia. These areas must function together in order for a person to develop, use, and understand language.
Articulation Disorder
An articulation disorder refers to the inability to correctly produce speech sounds (phonemes) because of imprecise placement, timing, pressure, speed, or flow of movement of the lips, tongue, or throat (NIDCD, 2016). Sounds can be substituted, left off, added or changed. These errors may make it hard for people to understand the speaker. They can range from problems with specific sounds, such as lisping to severe impairment in the phonological system. Most children have problems pronouncing words early on while their speech is developing. However, by age three, at least half of what a child says should be understood by a stranger. By age five, a child's speech should be mostly intelligible. Parents should seek help if by age six the child is still having trouble producing certain sounds. It should be noted that accents are not articulation disorders (Medline Plus, 2016a).
Fluency disorders
Fluency disorders affect the rate of speech. Speech may be labored and slow, or too fast for listeners to follow. The most common fluency disorder is stuttering.
Stuttering is a speech disorder in which sounds, syllables, or words are repeated or last longer than normal. These problems cause a break in the flow of speech, which is called dysfluency (Medline Plus, 2016b). About 5% of young children, aged two-five, will develop some stuttering that may last from several weeks to several years (Medline Plus, 2016c). Approximately 75% of children recover from stuttering. For the remaining 25%, stuttering can persist as a lifelong communication disorder (National Institute on Deafness and other Communication Disorders, NIDCD, 2016). This is called developmental stuttering and is the most common form of stuttering.
Brain injury, and in very rare instances, emotional trauma may be other triggers for developing problems with stuttering. In most cases of developmental stuttering, other family members share the same communication disorder. Researchers have recently identified variants in four genes that are more commonly found in those who stutter (NIDCD, 2016).
Voice disorders
Disorders of the voice involve problems with pitch, loudness, and quality of the voice (American Speech-Language and Hearing Association, 2016). It only becomes a disorder when problems with the voice make the child unintelligible. In children, voice disorders are significantly more prevalent in males than in females. Between 1.4% and 6% of children experience problems with the quality of their voice. Causes can be due to structural abnormalities in the vocal cords and/or larynx, functional factors, such as vocal fatigue from overuse, and in rarer cases psychological factors, such as chronic stress and anxiety.67
Children with Disabilities: Legislation
Since the 1970s political and social attitudes have moved increasingly toward including people with disabilities into a wide variety of “regular” activities. In the United States, the shift is illustrated clearly in the Federal legislation that was enacted during this time. Three major laws were passed that guaranteed the rights of persons with disabilities, and of children and students with disabilities in particular. The third law has had the biggest impact on education.
The Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Section 504
This law, the first of its kind, required that individuals with disabilities be accommodated in any program or activity that receives Federal funding (PL93-112, 1973). Although this law was not intended specifically for education, in practice it has protected students' rights in some extra-curricular activities (for older students) and in some childcare or after-school care programs (for younger students). If those programs receive Federal funding of any kind, the programs are not allowed to exclude children or youths with disabilities, and they have to find reasonable ways to accommodate the individuals' disabilities.
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (or ADA)
This legislation also prohibited discrimination on the basis of disability, just as Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act had done (PL 101-336, 1990). Although the ADA also applies to all people (not just to students), its provisions are more specific and “stronger” than those of Section 504. In particular, ADA extends to all employment and jobs, not just those receiving Federal funding.
It also specifically requires accommodations to be made in public facilities such as with buses, restrooms, and telephones. ADA legislation is therefore responsible for some of the “minor” renovations in schools that you may have noticed in recent years, like wheelchair-accessible doors, ramps, and restrooms, and public telephones with volume controls.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (or IDEA)
As its name implied this legislation was more focused on education than either Section 504 or ADA. It was first passed in 1975 and has been amended several times since, including most recently in 2004 (PL 108-446, 2004). In its current form, the law guarantees the following rights related to education for anyone with a disability from birth to age 21.
The first two rights influence schooling in general, but the last three affect the work of classroom teachers rather directly:
• Free, appropriate education: An individual or an individual's family should not have to pay for education simply because the individual has a disability, and the educational program should be truly educational; i.e., not merely caretaking or babysitting.
• Due process: In case of disagreements between an individual with a disability and the schools or other professionals, there must be procedures for resolving the disagreements that are fair and accessible to all parties, including the person himself or herself or the person's representative.
• Fair evaluation of performance in spite of disability: Tests or other evaluations should not assume test taking skills that a person with a disability cannot reasonably be expected to have, such as holding a pencil, hearing or seeing questions, working quickly, or understanding and speaking orally. Evaluation procedures should be modified to allow for these differences. This provision of the law applies both to evaluations made by teachers and to school-wide or “high-stakes” testing programs.
• Education in the “least restrictive environment”: Education for someone with a disability should provide as many educational opportunities and options for the person as possible, both in the short term and in the long term. In practice, this requirement has meant including students in regular classrooms and school activities as much as possible.
• An Individualized Educational Plan (IEP): Given that every disability is unique, instructional planning for a person with a disability should be unique or individualized as well. In practice, this provision has led to classroom teachers planning individualized programs jointly with other professionals (like reading specialists, psychologists, or medical personnel) as part of a team.70
Contributors and Attributions
61. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
62. Content by Dawn Rymond is licensed under CC BY 4.0
64. Dyspraxi by The Conversation is licensed under CC BY-ND 4.0
65. Ludwig, A. A., Fuchs, M., Kruse, E., Uhlig, B., Kotz, S. A., & Rübsamen, R. (2014). Auditory processing disorders with and without central auditory discrimination deficits. Journal of the Association for Research in Otolaryngology: JARO, 15(3), 441-64.
Child Development – Unit 6: Language Development references Psychology.by Boundless, licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
67. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
70. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
11.S: Summary
In this chapter we looked at:
• Piaget’s concrete operational stage of cognitive development.
• Theories of intelligence.
• How children process information.
• Intelligence testing.
• The spectrum of intellectual abilities.
• Language and communication development.
• Learning difficulties.
In the next chapter, we will be examining school-aged children’s developing understanding of themselves and the world around them and the widening influences on their social and emotional development. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/11%3A_Middle_Childhood_-_Cognitive__Development/11.12%3A_Learning_Difficulties.txt |
Learning Objectives
After this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Describe the social emotional theories of development 2. Examine the importance of positive friendships and peer relationships 3. Describe self-understanding in childhood 4. Identify the types of families children are part of 5. Explain aggression, antisocial behavior, and bullying
As children get older, their experiences allow them to develop a more realistic understanding of themselves, including both their strengths and weaknesses. This developing self-concept is influenced by messages they receive from their peers, their family, and the media.
• 12.1: Social Emotional Theories of Development
Erik Erikson proposed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives. As we’ve learned in previous chapters, Erikson’s psychosocial theory has eight stages of development over the lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage, there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality.
• 12.2: Self-Understanding
Children in middle childhood have a more realistic sense of self than do those in early childhood. That exaggerated sense of self as “biggest” or “smartest” or “tallest” gives way to an understanding of one’s strengths and weaknesses. This can be attributed to greater experience in comparing one’s own performance with that of others and to greater cognitive flexibility.
• 12.3: Motivation as Self-Efficacy
In addition to being influenced by their goals, interests, and attributions, students’ motives are affected by specific beliefs about the student’s personal capacities. In self-efficacy theory the beliefs become a primary, explicit explanation for motivation (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997).
• 12.4: Gender Identity
The development of gender and gender identity is likewise an interaction among social, biological, and representational influences (Ruble, Martin, & Berenbaum, 2006). Young children learn about gender from parents, peers, and others in society, and develop their own conceptions of the attributes associated with maleness or femaleness (called gender schemas).
• 12.5: Child and the Family
The reason we turn out much like our parents, for better or worse, is that our families are such an important part of our socialization process. When we are born, our primary caregivers are almost always one or both of our parents. For several years we have more contact with them than with any other adults.
• 12.6: Friendships, Peers, and Peer groups
Parent-child relationships are not the only significant relationships in a child’s life. Friendships take on new importance as judges of one’s worth, competence, and attractiveness. Friendships provide the opportunity for learning social skills such as how to communicate with others and how to negotiate differences.
• 12.7: Peer Relationships
Most children want to be liked and accepted by their friends. Some popular children are nice and have good social skills. These popular-prosocial children tend to do well in school and are cooperative and friendly. Popular-antisocial children may gain popularity by acting tough or spreading rumors about others (Cillessen & Mayeux, 2004).
• 12.8: Aggression, Antisocial Behavior, Bullies, and Victims
Aggression may be physical or verbal/emotional. Aggression is activated in large part by the amygdala and regulated by the prefrontal cortex.
• 12.S: Summary
Thumbnail: pixabay.com/photos/children-...-bath-1822704/
12: Middle Childhood - Social Emotional Development
Erik Erikson- Industry vs. Inferiority
Erik Erikson proposed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives. As we’ve learned in previous chapters, Erikson’s psychosocial theory has eight stages of development over the lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage, there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.
During the elementary school stage (ages 6-12), children face the task of Industry versus Inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves to their peers to see how they measure up.
They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate when they don’t measure up.2
According to Erikson, children in middle childhood are very busy or industrious. They are constantly doing, planning, playing, getting together with friends, achieving. This is a very active time and a time when they are gaining a sense of how they measure up when compared with friends. Erikson believed that if these industrious children can be successful in their endeavors, they will get a sense of confidence for future challenges. If not, a sense of inferiority can be particularly haunting during middle childhood.3
Sigmund Freud - Psychoanalytic Theory
The great psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) focused on unconscious, biological forces that he felt shape individual personality. Freud (1933) thought that the personality consists of three parts: the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is the selfish part of the personality and consists of biological instincts that all babies have, including the need for food and, more generally, the demand for immediate gratification. As babies get older, they learn that not all their needs can be immediately satisfied and thus develop the ego, or the rational part of the personality. As children get older still, they internalize society’s norms and values and thus begin to develop their superego, which represents society’s conscience. If a child does not develop normally and the superego does not become strong enough, the individual is more at risk for being driven by the id to commit antisocial behavior.4
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Kohlberg (1963) built on the work of Piaget and was interested in finding out how our moral reasoning changes as we get older. He wanted to find out how people decide what is right and what is wrong. Just as Piaget believed that children’s cognitive development follows specific patterns, Kohlberg (1984) argued that we learn our moral values through active thinking and reasoning, and that moral development follows a series of stages. Kohlberg's six stages are generally organized into three levels of moral reasons. To study moral development, Kohlberg looked at how children (and adults) respond to moral dilemmas. One of Kohlberg’s best knownmoral dilemmas is the Heinz dilemma:
In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid \$200 for the radium and charged \$2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money but he could only get together about \$1,000, about half of what the drug cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: “No, I discovered the drug and I’m going to make money from it.” Heinz got desperate and broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife. Should the husband have done that? (Kohlberg, 1969, p. 379) 6
Level One - Preconventional Morality
In stage one, moral reasoning is based on concepts of punishment. The child believes that if the consequence for an action is punishment, then the action was wrong. In the second stage, the child bases his or her thinking on self-interest and reward ("You scratch my back, I'll scratch yours"). The youngest subjects seemed to answer based on what would happen to the man as a result of the act. For example, they might say the man should not break into the pharmacy because the pharmacist might find him and beat him. Or they might say that the man should break in and steal the drug and his wife will give him a big kiss. Right or wrong, both decisions were based on what would physically happen to the man as a result of the act. This is a self-centered approach to moral decision-making. He called this most superficial understanding of right and wrong preconventional morality. Preconventional morality focuses on self-interest. Punishment is avoided and rewards are sought. Adults can also fall into these stages,particularly when they are under pressure.
Level Two - Conventional Morality
Those tested who based their answers on what other people would think of the man as a result of his act were placed in Level Two. For instance, they might say he should break into the store, then everyone would think he was a good husband, or he should not because it is against the law. In either case, right and wrong is determined by what other people think. In stage three, the person wants to please others. At stage four, the person acknowledges the importance of social norms or laws and wants to be a good member of the group or society. A good decision is one that gains the approval of others or one that complies with the law. This he called conventional morality, people care about the effect of their actions on others. Some older children, adolescents, and adults use this reasoning.
Level Three, post-conventional morality, is not included because it focuses on adolescence and adulthood. However, it is in the table below if you’d like an overview of Level Three - Stages 5 and 6.
Preconventional Morality (young children)
Table \(1\): Lawrence Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Reasoning
Stage Description
Stage 1
Focus is on self-interest and punishment is avoided. The man shouldn’t steal the drug, as he may get caught and go to jail.
Stage 2 Rewards are sought. A person at this level will argue that the man should steal the drug because he does not want to lose his wife who takes care of him.
Conventional Morality (older children, adolescents, most adults)
Stage Description
Stage 3 Focus is on how situational outcomes impact others and wanting to please and be accepted. The man should steal the drug because that is what good husbands do.
Stage 4
People make decisions based on laws or formalized rules. The man should obey the law because stealing is a crime.
Post Conventional Morality (rare in adolescents, a few adults)
Stage Description
Stage 5 Individuals employ abstract reasoning to justify behaviors. The man should steal the drug because laws can be unjust and you have to consider the whole situation.
Stage 6 Moral behavior is based on self-chosen ethical principles. The man should steal the drug because life is more important than property.
Although research has supported Kohlberg’s idea that moral reasoning changes from an early emphasis on punishment and social rules and regulations to an emphasis on more general ethical principles, as with Piaget’s approach, Kohlberg’s stage model is probably too simple. For one, people may use higher levels of reasoning for some types of problems but revert to lower levels in situations where doing so is more consistent with their goals or beliefs (Rest, 1979). Second, it has been argued that the stage model is particularly appropriate for Western, rather than non-Western, samples in which allegiance to social norms, such as respect for authority, may be particularly important (Haidt, 2001). In addition, there is frequently little correlation between how we score on the moral stages and how we behave in real life. Perhaps the most important critique of Kohlberg’s theory is that it may describe the moral development of males better than it describes that of females (Jaffee & Hyde, 2000). 7
Contributors and Attributions
2. Psychology - 9.2: Lifespan Theories by CNX Psychology is licensed under CC BY 4.0
3. Sociology: Brief Edition – Explaining Socialization by Steven E. Barkan is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
4. Sociology: Brief Edition – Explaining Socialization by Steven E. Barkan is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
6. Psychology - 9.2: Lifespan Theories by CNX Psychology is licensed under CC BY 4.0
7. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/12%3A_Middle_Childhood_-_Social_Emotional_Development/12.01%3A_Social_Emotional_Theories_of_Development.txt |
Children in middle childhood have a more realistic sense of self than do those in early childhood. That exaggerated sense of self as “biggest” or “smartest” or “tallest” gives way to an understanding of one’s strengths and weaknesses. This can be attributed to greater experience in comparing one’s own performance with that of others and to greater cognitive flexibility. A child’s self-concept can be influenced by peers and family and the messages they send about a child’s worth. Contemporary children also receive messages from the media about how they should look and act. Movies, music videos, the internet, and advertisers can all create cultural images of what is desirable or undesirable and this too can influence a child’s self-concept.
Remarkably, young children begin developing social understanding very early in life and are also able to include other peoples’ appraisals of them into their self-concept, including parents, teachers, peers, culture, and media. Internalizing others’ appraisals and creating social comparison affect children’s self-esteem, which is defined as an evaluation of one’s identity. Children can have individual assessments of how well they perform a variety of activities and also develop an overall, global self-assessment. If there is a discrepancy between how children view themselves and what they consider to be their ideal selves, their self-esteem can be negatively affected.9
Self-concept refers to beliefs about general personal identity (Seiffert, 2011). These beliefs include personal attributes, such as one’s age, physical characteristics, behaviors, and competencies. Children in middle and late childhood have a more realistic sense of self than do those in early childhood, and they better understand their strengths and weaknesses. This can be attributed to greater experience in comparing their own performance with that of others, and to greater cognitive flexibility. Children in middle and late childhood are also able to include other peoples’ appraisals of them into their self-concept, including parents, teachers, peers, culture, and media.
Another important development in self-understanding is self-efficacy, which is the belief that you are capable of carrying out a specific task or of reaching a specific goal (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997). Large discrepancies between self-efficacy and ability can create motivational problems for the individual (Seifert, 2011). If a student believes that he or she can solve mathematical problems, then the student is more likely to attempt the mathematics homework that the teacher assigns.
Unfortunately, the converse is also true. If a student believes that he or she is incapable of math, then the student is less likely to attempt the math homework regardless of the student's actual ability in math. Since self-efficacy is self-constructed, it is possible for students to miscalculate or misperceive their true skill, and these misperceptions can have complex effects on students' motivations. It is possible to have either too much or too little self-efficacy, and according to Bandura (1997) the optimal level seems to be either at, or slightly above, true ability.10
As we have seen, children’s experience of relationships at home and the peer group contributes to an expanding repertoire of social and emotional skills and also to broadened social understanding. In these relationships, children develop expectations for specific people (leading, for example, to secure or insecure attachments to parents), understanding of how to interact with adults and peers, and self-concept based on how others respond to them. These relationships are also significant forums for emotional development.12
Contributors and Attributions
9. Lifespan Development - Module 6: Middle Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
10. Lifespan Development - Module 6: Middle Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
12. Social and Personality Development in Childhood by NOBA is licensed under CC BY 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/12%3A_Middle_Childhood_-_Social_Emotional_Development/12.02%3A_Self-Understanding.txt |
In addition to being influenced by their goals, interests, and attributions, students’ motives are affected by specific beliefs about the student’s personal capacities. In self-efficacy theory the beliefs become a primary, explicit explanation for motivation (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997). Self-efficacy is the belief that you are capable of carrying out a specific task or of reaching a specific goal. As mentioned previously, the optimal level seems to be either at or slightly above true capacity (Bandura, 1997). As we indicate below, large discrepancies between self-efficacy and ability can create motivational problems for the individual.13
Motivation
Motivation refers to a desire, need, or drive that contributes to and explains behavioral changes. In general, motivators provide some sort of incentive for completing a task. One definition of a motivator explains it as a force “acting either on or within a person to initiate behavior.” In addition to biological motives, motivations can be either intrinsic (arising from internal factors) or extrinsic (arising from external factors).
Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsically motivated behaviors are performed because of the sense of personal satisfaction that they bring. According to Deci (1971), these behaviors are defined as ones for which the reward is the satisfaction of performing the activity itself. Intrinsic motivation thus represents engagement in an activity for its own sake. For example, if comforting a friend makes a child feel good, they are intrinsically motivated to respond to their friend’s distress.
Extrinsically motivated behaviors, on the other hand, are performed in order to receive something from others or avoid certain negative outcomes. The extrinsic motivator is outside of, and acts on, the individual. Rewards—such as a sticker, or candy—are good examples of extrinsic motivators. Social and emotional incentives like praise and attention are also extrinsic motivators since they are bestowed on the individual by another person.
Learned Helplessness and Self-Efficacy
If a person’s sense of self-efficacy is very low, he or she can develop learned helplessness, a perception of complete lack of control in mastering a task. The attitude is similar to depression, a pervasive feeling of apathy and a belief that effort makes no difference and does not lead to success. Learned helplessness was originally studied from the behaviorist perspective of classical and operant conditioning by the psychologist Martin Seligman (1995). In people, learned helplessness leads to characteristic ways of dealing with problems. They tend to attribute the source of a problem to themselves, to generalize the problem to many aspects of life, and to see the problem as lasting or permanent. More optimistic individuals, in contrast, are more likely to attribute a problem to outside sources, to see it as specific to a particular situation or activity, and to see it as temporary or time-limited. Consider, for example, two students who each fail a test. The one with a lot of learned helplessness is more likely to explain the failure by saying something like: “I’m stupid; I never perform well on any schoolwork, and I never will perform well at it.” The other, more optimistic student is more likely to say something like: “The teacher made the test too hard this time, so the test doesn’t prove anything about how I will do next time or in other subjects.”
What is noteworthy about these differences in perception is how much the more optimistic of these perspectives resembles high self-efficacy and how much learned helplessness seems to contradict or differ from it. As already noted, high self-efficacy is a strong belief in one’s capacity to carry out a specific task successfully. By definition, therefore, self-efficacy focuses attention on a temporary or time-limited activity (the task), even though the cause of successful completion (oneself) is “internal.”16
Contributors and Attributions
13. Child Development – Unit 5: Theories (Part II) by Lumen Learning references Educational Psychology by Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton, licensed under CC BY 4.0
16. Child Development – Unit 5: Theories (Part II) by Lumen Learning references Educational Psychology by Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton, licensed under CC BY 4.0
12.04: Gender Identity
The development of gender and gender identity is likewise an interaction among social, biological, and representational influences (Ruble, Martin, & Berenbaum, 2006). Young children learn about gender from parents, peers, and others in society, and develop their own conceptions of the attributes associated with maleness or femaleness (called gender schemas). They also negotiate biological transitions (such as puberty) that cause their sense of themselves and their sexual identity to mature.
Each of these examples of the growth of social and emotional competence illustrates not only the interaction of social, biological, and representational influences but also how their development unfolds over an extended period. Early influences are important, but not determinative because the capabilities required for mature moral conduct, gender identity, and other outcomes continue to develop throughout childhood, adolescence, and even the adult years.
As the preceding sentence suggests, social and personality development continues through adolescence and the adult years, and it is influenced by the same constellation of social, biological, and representational influences discussed for childhood. Changing social relationships and roles, biological maturation and (much later) decline, and how the individual represents both experience and the self continue to form the bases for development throughout life. In this respect, when an adult looks forward rather than retrospectively to ask, “What kind of person am I becoming?”—A similarly fascinating, complex, multifaceted interaction of developmental processes lies ahead.18
Contributors and Attributions
18. Social and Personality Development in Childhood by NOBA is licensed under CC BY 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/12%3A_Middle_Childhood_-_Social_Emotional_Development/12.03%3A_Motivation_as_Self-Efficacy.txt |
The reason we turn out much like our parents, for better or worse, is that our families are such an important part of our socialization process. When we are born, our primary caregivers are almost always one or both of our parents. For several years we have more contact with them than with any other adults. Because this contact occurs in our most formative years, our parents’ interaction with us and the messages they teach us can have a profound impact throughout our lives. During middle childhood, children spend less time with parents and more time with peers. Parents may have to modify their approach to parenting to accommodate the child’s growing independence. Using reason and engaging in joint decision-making whenever possible may be the most effective approach (Berk, 2007).19
Family Atmosphere
One of the ways to assess the quality of family life is to consider the tasks of families. Berger (2005) lists five family functions: 1. Providing food, clothing and shelter 2. Encouraging learning 3. Developing self-esteem 4. Nurturing friendships with peers 5. Providing harmony and stability
Notice that in addition to providing food, shelter, and clothing, families are responsible for helping the child learn, relate to others, and have a confident sense of self. The family provides a harmonious and stable environment for living. A good home environment is one in which the child’s physical, cognitive, emotional, and social needs are adequately met. Sometimes families emphasize physical needs but ignore cognitive or emotional needs. Other times, families pay close attention to physical needs and academic requirement, but may fail to nurture the child’s friendships with peers or guide the child toward developing healthy relationships. Parents might want to consider how it feels to live in the household. Is it stressful and conflict-ridden? Is it a place where family members enjoy being? 21
The Family Stress Model
Family relationships are significantly affected by conditions outside the home. For instance, the Family Stress Model describes how financial difficulties are associated with parents’ depressed moods, which in turn lead to marital problems and poor parenting that contributes to poorer child adjustment (Conger, Conger, & Martin, 2010). Within the home, parental marital difficulty or divorce affects more than half the children growing up today in the United States. Divorce is typically associated with economic stresses for children and parents, the renegotiation of parent-child relationships (with one parent typically as primary custodian and the other assuming a visiting relationship), and many other significant adjustments for children. Divorce is often regarded by children as a sad turning point in their lives, although for most it is not associated with long-term problems of adjustment (Emery, 1999).
Family Forms
As discussed previously in chapter 9, the sociology of the family examines the family as an institution and a unit of socialization. Sociological studies of the family look at demographic characteristics of the family members: family size, age, ethnicity and gender of its members, social class of the family, the economic level and mobility of the family, professions of its members, and the education levels of the family members.
Currently, one of the biggest issues that sociologists study are the changing roles of family members. Often, each member is restricted by the gender roles of the traditional family. These roles, such as the father as the breadwinner and the mother as the homemaker, are declining. Now, the mother is often the supplementary provider while retaining the responsibilities of child rearing. In this scenario, females' role in the labor force is "compatible with the demands of the traditional family.” Sociology studies have examined the adaptation of males' role to caregiver as well as provider. The gender roles are becoming increasingly interwoven and various other family forms are becoming more common.
What Families Look Like
Throughout this textbook and in the preceding images, you can see a variety of types of families. A few of these family types (the ones that are not bolded) were introduced in Chapter 9. Here is a list of some of the diverse types of families:
Families Without Children
Singlehood family contains a person who is not married or in a common-law relationship. He or she may share a relationship with a partner but lead a single lifestyle.
Couples that are childless are often overlooked in the discussion of families.
Families with One Parent
A single-parent family usually refers to a parent who has most of the day-to-day responsibilities in the raising of the child or children, who are not living with a spouse or partner, or who is not married. The dominant caregiver is the parent with whom the children reside for the majority of the time; if the parents are separated or divorced, children live with their custodial parent and have visitation with their noncustodial parent. In western society in general, following a separation a child will end up with the primary caregiver, usually the mother, and a secondary caregiver, usually the father.
Single parent by choice families refer to a family that a single person builds by choice. These families can be built with the use of assisted reproductive technology and donor gametes (sperm and/or egg) or embryos, surrogacy, foster or kinship care, and adoption.
Two Parent Families
The nuclear family is often referred to as the traditional family structure. It includes two married parents and children. While common in industrialized cultures (such as the U.S.), it is not actually the most common type of family worldwide. 29
Cohabitation is an arrangement where two people who are not married live together in an intimate relationship, particularly an emotionally and/or sexually intimate one, on a long-term or permanent basis. Today, cohabitation is a common pattern among people in the Western world. More than two-thirds of married couples in the U.S. say that they lived together before getting married.
Gay and lesbian couples with children have same-sex families. While now recognized legally in the United States, discrimination against same-sex families is not uncommon. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, there is “ample evidence to show that children raised by same-gender parents fare as well as those raised by heterosexual parents. More than 25 years of research have documented that there is no relationship between parents' sexual orientation and any measure of a child's emotional, psychosocial, and behavioral adjustment. Conscientious and nurturing adults, whether they are men or women, heterosexual or homosexual, can be excellent parents. The rights, benefits, and protections of civil marriage can further strengthen these families.” 30
Blended families describe families with mixed parents: one or both parents remarried, bringing children of the former family into the new family 31. Blended families are complex in a number of ways that can pose unique challenges to those who seek to form successful stepfamily relationships (Visher & Visher, 1985). These families are also referred to as stepfamilies.
Families That Include Additional Adults
Extended families include three generations, grandparents, parents, and children. This is the most common type of family worldwide.32
Families by choice are relatively newly recognized. Popularized by the LGBTQ community to describe a family not recognized by the legal system. It may include adopted children, live-in partners, kin of each member of the household, and close friends. Increasingly family by choice is being practiced by those who see benefit to including people beyond blood relatives in their families.33
While most families in the U.S. are monogamous, some families have more than two married parents. These families are polygamous. 34 Polygamy is illegal in all 50 states, but it is legal in other parts of the world.35
Additional Forms of Families
Kinship families are those in which the full-time care, nurturing, and protection of a child is provided by relatives, members of their Tribe or clan, godparents, stepparents, or other adults who have a family relationship to a child. When children cannot be cared for by their parents, research finds benefits to kinship care.36
When a person assumes the parenting of another, usually a child, from that person's biological or legal parent or parents this creates adoptive families. Legal adoption permanently transfers all rights and responsibilities and is intended to affect a permanent change in status and as such requires societal recognition, either through legal or religious sanction. As introduced in Chapter 3, adoption can be done privately, through an agency, or through foster care and in the U.S. or from abroad. Adoptions can be closed (no contact with birth/biological families or open, with different degrees of contact with birth/biological families). Couples, both opposite and same-sex, and single parents can adopt (although not all agencies and foreign countries will work with unmarried, single, or same-sex intended parents).37
When parents are not of the same ethnicity, they build interracial families. Until the decision in Loving v Virginia in 1969, this was not legal in the U.S. There are other parts of the world where marrying someone outside of your race (or social class) has legal and social ramifications.38 These families may experience issues unique to each individual family’s culture.
Changes in Families - Divorce
The tasks of families listed above are functions that can be fulfilled in a variety of family types—not just intact, two-parent households. Harmony and stability can be achieved in many family forms and when it is disrupted, either through divorce, or efforts to blend families, or any other circumstances, the child suffers (Hetherington & Kelly, 2002). Changes continue to happen, but for children they are especially vulnerable. Divorce and how it impacts children depends on how the caregivers handle the divorce as well as how they support the emotional needs of the child.
Divorce
A lot of attention has been given to the impact of divorce on the life of children. The assumption has been that divorce has a strong, negative impact on the child and that single-parent families are deficient in some way. However, 75-80 percent of children and adults who experience divorce suffer no long-term effects (Hetherington & Kelly, 2002). An objective view of divorce, repartnering, and remarriage indicates that divorce, remarriage and life in stepfamilies can have a variety of effects.40
Factors Affecting the Impact of Divorce
As you look at the consequences (both pro and con) of divorce and remarriage on children, keep these family functions in mind. Some negative consequences are a result of financial hardship rather than divorce per se (Drexler, 2005). Some positive consequences reflect improvements in meeting these functions. For instance, we have learned that a positive self-esteem comes in part from a belief in the self and one’s abilities rather than merely being complimented by others. In single-parent homes, children may be given more opportunity to discover their own abilities and gain independence that fosters self-esteem. If divorce leads to fighting between the parents and the child is included in these arguments, their self-esteem may suffer.
The impact of divorce on children depends on a number of factors. The degree of conflict prior to the divorce plays a role. If the divorce means a reduction in tensions, the child may feel relief. If the parents have kept their conflicts hidden, the announcement of a divorce can come as a shock and be met with enormous resentment. Another factor that has a great impact on the child concerns financial hardships they may suffer, especially if financial support is inadequate. Another difficult situation for children of divorce is the position they are put into if the parents continue to argue and fight—especially if they bring the children into those arguments.
Short-term consequences: In roughly the first year following divorce, children may exhibit some of these short-term effects:
1. Grief over losses suffered. The child will grieve the loss of the parent they no longer see as frequently. The child may also grieve about other family members that are no longer available. Grief sometimes comes in the form of sadness but it can also be experienced as anger or withdrawal. Older children may feel depressed. 2. Reduced Standard of Living. Very often, divorce means a change in the amount of money coming into the household. Children experience new constraints on spending or entertainment. School-aged children, especially, may notice that they can no longer have toys, clothing or other items to which they’ve grown accustomed. Or it may mean that there is less eating out or being able to afford cable television, and so on. The custodial parent may experience stress at not being able to rely on child support payments or having the same level of income as before. This can affect decisions regarding healthcare, vacations, rents, mortgages and other expenditures. And the stress can result in less happiness and relaxation in the home. The parent who has to take on more work may also be less available to the children. 3. Adjusting to Transitions. Children may also have to adjust to other changes accompanying a divorce. The divorce might mean moving to a new home and changing schools or friends. It might mean leaving a neighborhood that has meant a lot to them as well.
Long-Term consequences: Here are some effects that go beyond just the first year following divorce.
1. Economic/Occupational Status. One of the most commonly cited long-term effects of divorce is that children of divorce may have lower levels of education or occupational status. This may be a consequence of lower income and resources for funding education rather than to divorce per se. In those households where economic hardship does not occur, there may be no impact on economic status (Drexler, 2005). 2. Improved Relationships with the Custodial Parent (usually the mother): Most children of divorce lead happy, well-adjusted lives and develop stronger, positive relationships with their custodial parent (Seccombe and Warner, 2004). Others have also found that relationships between mothers and children become closer and stronger (Guttman, 1993) and suggest that greater equality and less rigid parenting is beneficial after divorce (Steward, Copeland, Chester, Malley, and Barenbaum, 1997). 3. Greater emotional independence in sons. Drexler (2005) notes that sons who are raised by mothers only develop an emotional sensitivity to others that is beneficial in relationships. 4. Feeling more anxious in their own love relationships. Children of divorce may feel more anxious about their own relationships as adults. This may reflect a fear of divorce if things go wrong, or it may be a result of setting higher expectations for their own relationships. 5. Adjustment of the custodial parent. Furstenberg and Cherlin (1991) believe that the primary factor influencing the way that children adjust to divorce is the way the custodial parent adjusts to the divorce. If that parent is adjusting well, the children will benefit. This may explain a good deal of the variation we find in children of divorce.41
Families are the most important part of the 6 to 11-year-old life. However, peers and friendships become more and more important to the child in middle childhood.
Contributors and Attributions
19. Sociology: Brief Edition is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
21. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
29. Types of Families by Lumen references Cultural Anthropology/Social Institutions/Family by WikiEducator, which is licensed under CC0
30. Same-sex marriage by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
31. Family by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY SA 3.0
32. Types of Families by Lumen references Cultural Anthropology/Social Institutions/Family by WikiEducator, which is licensed under CC BY-SA
33. Types of Families by Lumen references Cultural Anthropology/Social Institutions/Family by WikiEducator, which is licensed under CC BY-SA
34. Family by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY SA 3.0
35. Legality of polygamy by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
36. About Kinship Care by the Child Welfare Information Gateway is in the public domain
37. Adoption by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
38. Interracial marriage by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
40. Lifespan Development - Module 6: Middle Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
41. Lifespan Development - Module 6: Middle Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/12%3A_Middle_Childhood_-_Social_Emotional_Development/12.05%3A_Child_and_the_Family.txt |
Parent-child relationships are not the only significant relationships in a child’s life. Friendships take on new importance as judges of one’s worth, competence, and attractiveness. Friendships provide the opportunity for learning social skills such as how to communicate with others and how to negotiate differences. Children get ideas from one another about how to perform certain tasks, how to gain popularity, what to wear, say, and listen to, and how to act. This society of children marks a transition from a life focused on the family to a life concerned with peers. Peers play a key role in a child’s self-esteem at this age as any parent who has tried to console a rejected child will tell you. No matter how complimentary and encouraging the parent may be, being rejected by friends can only be remedied by renewed acceptance. 43
Children’s conceptualization of what makes someone a “friend” changes from a more egocentric understanding to one based on mutual trust and commitment. Both Bigelow (1977) and Selman (1980) believe that these changes are linked to advances in cognitive development. Bigelow and La Gaipa (1975) outline three stages to children’s conceptualization of friendship 45
Table \(1\): Three Stages to Children’s Conceptualization of Friendship (Lifespan Development - Module 6: Middle Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0)
Stage Descriptions
Stage One In stage one, reward-cost, friendship focuses on mutual activities. Children in early, middle, and late childhood all emphasize similar interests as the main characteristics of a good friend.
Stage Two In stage two, normative expectation, focuses on conventional morality; that is, the emphasis is on a friend as someone who is kind and shares with you. Clark and Bittle (1992) found that fifth graders emphasized this in a friend more than third or eighth graders.
Stage Three In stage three, empathy and understanding, friends are people who are loyal, committed to the relationship, and share intimate information. Clark and Bittle (1992) reported eighth graders emphasized this more in a friend. They also found that as early as fifth grade, girls were starting to include the sharing of secrets and not betraying confidences as crucial to someone who is a friend.
Friendships are very important for children. The social interaction with another child who is similar in age, skills, and knowledge provokes the development of many social skills that are valuable for the rest of life (Bukowski, Buhrmester, & Underwood, 2011). In these relationships, children learn how to initiate and maintain social interactions with other children. They learn skills for managing conflict, such as turn-taking, compromise, and bargaining. Play also involves the mutual, sometimes complex, coordination of goals, actions, and understanding. Through these experiences, children develop friendships that provide additional sources of security and support to those provided by their parents.47
Five Stages of Friendship from Early Childhood through Adulthood 48
Selman (1980) outlines five stages of friendship from early childhood through to adulthood.
• In stage 0, momentary physical interaction, a friend is someone who you are playing with at this point in time. Selman notes that this is typical of children between the ages of three and six. These early friendships are based more on circumstances (e.g., a neighbor) than on genuine similarities.
• In stage 1, one-way assistance, a friend is someone who does nice things for you, such as saving you a seat on the school bus or sharing a toy. However, children in this stage, do not always think about what they are contributing to the relationships. Nonetheless, having a friend is important and children will sometimes put up with a not so nice friend, just to have a friend. Children as young as five and as old as nine may be in this stage.
• In stage 2, fair-weather cooperation, children are very concerned with fairness and reciprocity, and thus, a friend is someone who returns a favor. In this stage, if a child does something nice for a friend there is an expectation that the friend will do something nice for them at the first available opportunity. When this fails to happen, a child may break off the friendship. Selman found that some children as young as seven and as old as twelve are in this stage.
• In stage 3, intimate and mutual sharing, typically between the ages of eight and fifteen, a friend is someone who you can tell them things you would tell no one else. Children and teens in this stage no longer “keep score,” and do things for a friend because they genuinely care for the person. If a friendship dissolves in this stage it is usually due to a violation of trust. However, children in this stage do expect their friend to share similar interests and viewpoints and may take it as a betrayal if a friend likes someone that they do not.
• In stage 4, autonomous interdependence, a friend is someone who accepts you and that you accept as they are. In this stage children, teens, and adults accept and even appreciate differences between themselves and their friends. They are also not as possessive, so they are less likely to feel threatened if their friends have other relationships or interests. Children are typically twelve or older in this stage.
Peer Groups
However, peer relationships can be challenging as well as supportive (Rubin, Coplan, Chen, Bowker, & McDonald, 2011). Being accepted by other children is an important source of affirmation and self-esteem, but peer rejection can foreshadow later behavior problems (especially when children are rejected due to aggressive behavior). With increasing age, children confront the challenges of bullying, peer victimization, and managing conformity pressures. Social comparison with peers is an important means by which children evaluate their skills, knowledge, and personal qualities, but it may cause them to feel that they do not measure up well against others. For example, a boy who is not athletic may feel unworthy of his football-playing peers and revert to shy behavior, isolating himself and avoiding conversation. Conversely, an athlete who doesn’t “get” Shakespeare may feel embarrassed and avoid reading altogether.
Also, with the approach of adolescence, peer relationships become focused on psychological intimacy, involving personal disclosure, vulnerability, and loyalty (or its betrayal)—which significantly affect a child’s outlook on the world. Each of these aspects of peer relationships require developing very different social and emotional skills than those that emerge in parent-child relationships. They also illustrate the many ways that peer relationships influence the growth of personality and self-concept.50
Contributors and Attributions
43. Lifespan Development - Module 6: Middle Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
45. Lifespan Development - Module 6: Middle Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0
47. Content by Dawn Rymond is licensed under CC BY 4.0
Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
48. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
50. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/12%3A_Middle_Childhood_-_Social_Emotional_Development/12.06%3A_Friendships_Peers_and_Peer_groups.txt |
Most children want to be liked and accepted by their friends. Some popular children are nice and have good social skills. These popular-prosocial children tend to do well in school and are cooperative and friendly. Popular-antisocial children may gain popularity by acting tough or spreading rumors about others (Cillessen & Mayeux, 2004). Rejected children are sometimes excluded because they are shy and withdrawn. The withdrawn-rejected children are easy targets for bullies because they are unlikely to retaliate when belittled (Boulton, 1999). Other rejected children are ostracized because they are aggressive, loud, and confrontational. The aggressive-rejected children may be acting out of a feeling of insecurity. Unfortunately, their fear of rejection only leads to behavior that brings further rejection from other children. Children who are not accepted are more likely to experience conflict, lack confidence, and have trouble adjusting.
Peer Relationships are studied using sociometric assessment (which measures attraction between members of a group). Children are asked to mention the three children they like to play with the most, and those they do not like to play with. The number of times a child is nominated for each of the two categories (like and do not like) is tabulated. Based on those tabulations, children are categorized into the following:
Table \(1\): Categories in Peer Relationships (Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)
Category Description
Popular Children Receive many votes in the “like” category, and very few in the “do not like” category.
Rejected children Receive more unfavorable votes, and few favorable ones.
Controversial children Mentioned frequently in each category, with several children liking them and several children placing them in the do not like category.
Neglected children Rarely mentioned in either category.
Average children Have a few positive votes with very few negative ones.
Popular-prosocial children
Are nice and have good social skills; tend to do well in school and are cooperative and friendly.
Popular-antisocial children
May gain popularity by acting tough or spreading rumors about others.
Rejected-withdrawn children
Are shy and withdrawn and are easy targets for bullies because they are unlikely to retaliate when belittled.
Rejected-aggressive children
Are ostracized because they are aggressive, loud, and confrontational. They may be acting out of a feeling of insecurity.
Unfortunately for rejected children, their fear of rejection only leads to behavior that brings further rejection from other children. Children who are not accepted are more likely to experience conflict, lack confidence, and have trouble adjusting. (Klima & Repetti, 2008; Schwartz, Lansford, Dodge, Pettit, & Bates, 2014). 53
Contributors and Attributions
53. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
12.08: Aggression Antisocial Behavior Bullies and Victims
Aggression and Antisocial Behavior
Aggression may be physical or verbal/emotional. Aggression is activated in large part by the amygdala and regulated by the prefrontal cortex.
Testosterone is associated with increased aggression in both males and females. Aggression is also caused by negative experiences and emotions, including frustration, pain, and heat. As predicted by principles of observational learning, research evidence makes it very clear that, on average, people who watch violent behavior become more aggressive. Early, antisocial behavior leads to befriending others who also engage in antisocial behavior, which only perpetuates the downward cycle of aggression and wrongful acts. 55
Bullying and Victims
According to Stopbullying.gov (2016), a federal government website managed by the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, bullying is defined as unwanted, aggressive behavior among school aged children that involves a real or perceived power imbalance. Further, the aggressive behavior happens more than once or has the potential to be repeated. There are different types of bullying, including verbal bullying, which is saying or writing mean things, teasing, name-calling, taunting, threatening, or making inappropriate sexual comments. Social bullying, also referred to as relational bullying, involves spreading rumors, purposefully excluding someone from a group, or embarrassing someone on purpose. Physical bullying involves hurting a person’s body or possessions.
A more recent form of bullying is cyberbullying, which involves electronic technology. Examples of cyberbullying include sending mean text messages or emails, creating fake profiles, and posting embarrassing pictures, videos or rumors on social networking sites. Children who experience cyberbullying have a harder time getting away from the behavior because it can occur any time of day and without being in the presence of others (Stopbullying.gov, 2016). 56
Those at Risk for Bullying
Bullying can happen to anyone but some students are at an increased risk for being bullied, including lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered (LGBT) youth, those with disabilities, and those who are socially isolated. Additionally, those who are perceived as different, weak, less popular, overweight, or having low self-esteem, have a higher likelihood of being bullied.
Those Who are More Likely to Bully
Bullies are often thought of as having low self-esteem, and then bully others to feel better about themselves. Although this can occur, many bullies in fact have high levels of self-esteem. They possess considerable popularity and social power and have well-connected peer relationships. They do not lack self-esteem, and instead lack empathy for others. They like to dominate or be in charge of others.
Bullied Children
Unfortunately, most children do not let adults know that they are being bullied. Some fear retaliation from the bully, while others are too embarrassed to ask for help. Those who are socially isolated may not know who to ask for help or believe that no one would care or assist them if they did ask for assistance. Consequently, it is important for parents and teachers to know the warning signs that may indicate a child is being bullied. These include: unexplainable injuries, lost or destroyed possessions, changes in eating or sleeping patterns, declining school grades, not wanting to go to school, loss of friends, decreased self-esteem and/or self-destructive behaviors.
Contributors and Attributions
55. Sociology: Brief Edition is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
56. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
12.S: Summary
In this chapter we looked at:
• Erikson’s fourth stage of industry vs. inferiority
• Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
• How school-age children continue to develop their self-understanding
• The role of the family and different forms of families
• Divorce and how it changes the family
• The importance of peers and friendships
• Children in peer groups and types of friendships
• Consequences of peer acceptance or rejection
In the next chapter we will be moving on to our last period of development and examining physical development in adolescence. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/12%3A_Middle_Childhood_-_Social_Emotional_Development/12.07%3A_Peer_Relationships.txt |
learning objectives
After this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Explain the changes in physical growth and brain growth
2. Compare and contrast different male and female changes that occur during puberty
3. Discuss teenage pregnancy, birth control, and sexual health
4. Summarize adolescent health: sleep, diet, and exercise
5. Discuss drug and substance abuse
6. Explain the prevalence, risk factors, and consequences of adolescent pregnancy and sexual health
7. Describe several mental health issues for teens
Adolescence is often defined as the period that begins with puberty and ends with the transition to adulthood. The commonly accepted beginning age for this period of development is age 12. When adolescence ends is harder to pin down. When does adulthood truly begin? Are we an adult at 18 years of age? Or 20? Or even older? Adolescence physical development has evolved historically, with evidence indicating that this stage is lengthening as individuals start puberty earlier and transition to adulthood later than in the past. Puberty today begins, on average, at age 10–11 years for girls and 11–12 years for boys. This average age of onset has decreased gradually over time since the 19th century by 3–4 months per decade, which has been attributed to a range of factors including better nutrition, obesity, increased father absence, and other environmental factors (Steinberg, 2013). Completion of formal education, financial independence from parents, marriage, and parenthood have all been markers of the end of adolescence and beginning of adulthood, and all of these transitions happen, on average, later now than in the past.
• 13.1: Physical Growth
The adolescent growth spurt is a rapid increase in an individual’s height and weight during puberty resulting from the simultaneous release of growth hormones, thyroid hormones, and androgens. Males experience their growth spurt about two years later than females. The accelerated growth in various body parts happens at different times, but for all adolescents it has a fairly regular sequence: the extremities grow first, followed by the arms and legs, and later the torso and shoulders.
• 13.2: Brain Growth
Brain Growth continues into the early 20s. The development of the frontal lobe, in particular, is important during this stage. Adolescents often engage in increased risk-taking behaviors and experience heightened emotions during puberty; this may be due to the fact that the frontal lobes of their brains—which are responsible for judgment, impulse control, and planning—are still maturing until early adulthood.
• 13.3: Physical Changes in Adolescence
Adolescence begins with the onset of puberty, a developmental period in which hormonal changes cause rapid physical alterations in the body, culminating in sexual maturity. Although the timing varies to some degree across cultures, the average age range for reaching puberty is between 9 and 14 years for girls and between 10 and 17 years for boys (Marshall & Tanner, 1986). This period of physical development of the adolescent age 9-13 is divided into two phases.
• 13.4: Adolescent Health- Sleep, Diet, and Exercise
According to the National Sleep Foundation (NSF) (2016), adolescents need about 8 to 10 hours of sleep each night to function best. The most recent Sleep in America poll in 2006 indicated that adolescents between sixth and twelfth grade were not getting the recommended amount of sleep.
• 13.5: Maintaining Emotional Health
Emotional regulation is the ability to successfully control our emotions, which takes effort, but the ability to do so can have important positive health outcomes. Emotional responses such as the stress reaction are useful in warning us about potential danger and in mobilizing our response to it, so it is a good thing that we have them.
• 13.6: Disorders and Syndromes
A psychological disorder is an unusual, distressing, and dysfunctional pattern of thought, emotion, or behavior. Psychological disorders are often co-occurring or comorbid, meaning that a given person suffers from more than one disorder. Psychologists diagnose a disorder using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM).
• 13.S: Summary
Thumbnail: www.pexels.com/photo/woman-putting-on-makeup-3059392/
13: Adolescence - Physical Development
The adolescent growth spurt is a rapid increase in an individual’s height and weight during puberty resulting from the simultaneous release of growth hormones, thyroid hormones, and androgens. Males experience their growth spurt about two years later than females. The accelerated growth in various body parts happens at different times, but for all adolescents it has a fairly regular sequence. The first places to grow are the extremities (head, hands, and feet), followed by the arms and legs, and later the torso and shoulders. This non-uniform growth is one reason why an adolescent body may seem out of proportion. During puberty, bones become harder and more brittle.
Before puberty, there are nearly no differences between males and females in the distribution of fat and muscle. During puberty, males grow muscle much faster than females, and females experience a higher increase in body fat. An adolescent’s heart and lungs increase in both size and capacity during puberty; these changes contribute to increased strength and tolerance for exercise. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/13%3A_Adolescence_-_Physical_Development/13.01%3A_Physical_Growth.txt |
Brain Growth continues into the early 20s. The development of the frontal lobe, in particular, is important during this stage. Adolescents often engage in increased risk-taking behaviors and experience heightened emotions during puberty; this may be due to the fact that the frontal lobes of their brains—which are responsible for judgment, impulse control, and planning—are still maturing until early adulthood (Casey, Tottenham, Liston, & Durston, 2005)
The brain undergoes dramatic changes during adolescence. Although it does not get larger, it matures by becoming more interconnected and specialized (Giedd, 2015). The myelination and development of connections between neurons continues. This results in an increase in the white matter of the brain, and allows the adolescent to make significant improvements in their thinking and processing skills. Different brain areas become myelinated at different times. For example, the brain’s language areas undergo myelination during the first 13 years. Completed insulation of the axons consolidates these language skills but makes it more difficult to learn a second language. With greater myelination, however, comes diminished plasticity as a myelin coating inhibits the growth of new connections (Dobbs, 2012).
Even as the connections between neurons are strengthened, synaptic pruning occurs more than during childhood as the brain adapts to changes in the environment. This synaptic pruning causes the gray matter of the brain, or the cortex, to become thinner but more efficient (Dobbs, 2012). The corpus callosum, which connects the two hemispheres, continues to thicken, allowing for stronger connections between brain areas. Additionally, the hippocampus becomes more strongly connected to the frontal lobes, allowing for greater integration of memory and experiences into our decision-making. 4
The limbic system, which regulates emotion and reward, is linked to the hormonal changes that occur at puberty. The limbic system is also related to novelty seeking and a shift toward interacting with peers. In contrast, the prefrontal cortex, which is involved in the control of impulses, organization, planning, and making good decisions, does not fully develop until the mid-20s. According to Giedd (2015) the significant aspect of the later developing prefrontal cortex and early development of the limbic system is the “mismatch” in timing between the two. The approximately ten years that separates the development of these two brain areas can result in risky behavior, poor decision-making, and weak emotional control for the adolescent. When puberty begins earlier, this mismatch extends even further.
Teens often take more risks than adults and, according to research, it is because they weigh risks and rewards differently than adults do (Dobbs, 2012). For adolescents, the brain’s sensitivity to the neurotransmitter dopamine peaks, and dopamine is involved in reward circuits so the possible rewards outweigh the risks. Adolescents respond especially strongly to social rewards during activities, and they prefer the company of others their same age. In addition to dopamine, the adolescent brain is affected by oxytocin, which facilitates bonding and makes social connections more rewarding. With both dopamine and oxytocin engaged, it is no wonder that adolescents seek peers and excitement in their lives that could end up actually harming them.
Because of all the changes that occur in the adolescent brain, the chances for abnormal development can occur, including mental illness. In fact, 50% of mental illness occurs by the age 14 and 75% occurs by age 24 (Giedd, 2015). Additionally, during this period of development the adolescent brain is especially vulnerable to damage from drug exposure. For example, repeated exposure to marijuana can affect cellular activity in the endocannabinoid system. Consequently, adolescents are more sensitive to the effects of repeated marijuana exposure (Weir, 2015).
However, researchers have also focused on the highly adaptive qualities of the adolescent brain, which allow the adolescent to move away from the family towards the outside world (Dobbs, 2012; Giedd, 2015). Novelty seeking and risk taking can generate positive outcomes including meeting new people and seeking out new situations. Separating from the family and moving into new relationships and different experiences are actually quite adaptive for society. 6
The physical growth and the changes of puberty mark the onset of adolescence (Lerner & Steinberg, 2009). For both boys and girls, these changes include a growth spurt in height, growth of pubic and underarm hair, and skin changes (e.g., pimples). Hormones drive these pubescent changes, particularly the increase in testosterone for boys and estrogen for girls. 8
Contributors and Attributions
4. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
8. Adolescent Development by Jennifer Lansford is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/13%3A_Adolescence_-_Physical_Development/13.02%3A_Brain_Growth.txt |
Adolescence begins with the onset of puberty, a developmental period in which hormonal changes cause rapid physical alterations in the body, culminating in sexual maturity. Although the timing varies to some degree across cultures, the average age range for reaching puberty is between 9 and 14 years for girls and between 10 and 17 years for boys (Marshall & Tanner, 1986). This period of physical development of the adolescent age 9-13 is divided into two phases. 9
The first phase of puberty begins when the pituitary gland begins to stimulate the production of the male sex hormone testosterone in boys and the female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone in girls. The release of these sex hormones triggers the development of the primary sex characteristics, the sex organs concerned with reproduction. It also involves height increases from 20 to 25 percent. Puberty is second to the prenatal period in terms of rapid growth as the long bones stretch to their final, adult size. Girls grow 2–8 inches (5–20 centimeters) taller, while boys grow 4–12 inches (10–30 centimeters) taller.
Secondary sexual characteristics are visible physical changes not directly linked to reproduction but signal sexual maturity. The growth spurt for girls usually occurs earlier than that for boys, with some boys continuing to grow into their 20s. For males this includes broader shoulders, an enlarged Adam’s apple, and a lower voice as the larynx grows. Boys typically begin to grow facial hair between ages 14 and 16, which becomes coarser and darker, and hair growth occurs in the pubic area, under the arms, and on the face.
For females the enlargement of breasts is usually the first sign of puberty and, on average, occurs between ages 10 and 12 (Marshall & Tanner, 1986). Girl’s hips broaden and pubic and underarm hair develops and becomes darker and coarser. Both boys and girls experience a rapid growth spurt during this stage. Males and females may begin shaving during this time period as well as showing signs of acne on their faces and bodies.
Acne is an unpleasant consequence of the hormonal changes in puberty. Acne is defined as pimples on the skin due to overactive sebaceous (oil-producing) glands (Dolgin, 2011). These glands develop at a greater speed than the skin ducts that discharge the oil. Consequently, the ducts can become blocked with dead skin and acne will develop. According to the University of California at Los Angeles Medical Center (2000), approximately 85% of adolescents develop acne, and boys develop acne more than girls because of greater levels of testosterone in their systems (Dolgin, 2011). Hormones that are also responsible for sexual development can also wreak havoc on the teenage skin.12
A major milestone in puberty for girls is menarche, the first menstrual period, typically experienced at around 12 or 13 years of age (Anderson, Dannal, & Must, 2003). The age of menarche varies substantially and is determined by genetics, as well as by diet and lifestyle, since a certain amount of body fat is needed to attain menarche. Girls who are very slim, who engage in strenuous athletic activities, or who are malnourished may begin to menstruate later. Even after menstruation begins, girls whose level of body fat drops below the critical level may stop having their periods. The sequence of events for puberty is more predictable than the age at which they occur. Some girls may begin to grow pubic hair at age 10 but not attain menarche until age 15.13
Male Anatomy
Males have both internal and external genitalia that are responsible for procreation and sexual intercourse. Males produce their sperm on a cycle, and unlike the female's ovulation cycle, the male sperm production cycle is constantly producing millions of sperm daily. The male sex organs are the penis and the testicles, the latter of which produce semen and sperm. The semen and sperm, as a result of sexual intercourse, can fertilize an ovum in the female's body; the fertilized ovum (zygote) develops into a fetus, which is later born as a child.
Female Anatomy
Female external genitalia is collectively known as the vulva, which includes the mons veneris, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, vaginal opening, and urethral opening. Female internal reproductive organs consist of the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. The uterus hosts the developing fetus, produces vaginal and uterine secretions, and passes the male's sperm through to the fallopian tubes while the ovaries release the eggs. A female is born with all her eggs already produced. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the uterus is attached to the ovaries via the fallopian tubes. Females have a monthly reproductive cycle; at certain intervals the ovaries release an egg, which passes through the fallopian tube into the uterus. If, in this transit, it meets with sperm, the sperm might penetrate and merge with the egg, fertilizing it. If not fertilized, the egg and the tissue that was lining the uterus is flushed out of the system through menstruation (around every 28 days).
Effects of Puberty on Development
The age of puberty is getting younger for children throughout the world. A century ago the average age of a girl’s first period in the United States and Europe was 16, while today it is around 13. Because there is no clear marker of puberty for boys, it is harder to determine if boys are maturing earlier, too. In addition to better nutrition, less positive reasons associated with early puberty for girls include increased stress, obesity, and endocrine disrupting.
Because rates of physical development vary so widely among teenagers, puberty can be a source of pride or embarrassment. Girls and boys who develop more slowly than their peers may feel self-conscious about their lack of physical development; some research has found that negative feelings are particularly a problem for late maturing boys, who are at a higher risk for depression and conflict with parents (Graber et al., 1997) and more likely to be bullied (Pollack & Shuster, 2000). Additionally, problems are more likely to occur when the child is among the first in his or her peer group to develop. Because the preadolescent time is one of not wanting to appear different, early developing children stand out among their peer group and gravitate toward those who are older (Weir, 2016).
Early maturing boys tend to be physically stronger, taller, and more athletic than their later maturing peers; this can contribute to differences in popularity among peers, which can in turn influence the teenager’s confidence. Some studies show that boys who mature earlier tend to be more popular and independent but are also at a greater risk for substance abuse and early sexual activity (Flannery, Rowe, & Gulley, 1993; Kaltiala-Heino, Rimpela, Rissanen, & Rantanen, 2001).
Early maturing girls may face increased teasing and sexual harassment related to their developing bodies, which can contribute to self-consciousness and place them at a higher risk for anxiety, depression, substance abuse, and eating disorders (Ge, Conger, & Elder, 2001; Graber, Lewinsohn, Seeley, & Brooks-Gunn, 1997; Striegel-Moore & Cachelin, 1999).16
The Brain and Sex
The brain is the structure that translates the nerve impulses from the skin into pleasurable sensations. It controls nerves and muscles used during sexual behavior. The brain regulates the release of hormones, which are believed to be the physiological origin of sexual desire. The cerebral cortex, which is the outer layer of the brain that allows for thinking and reasoning, is believed to be the origin of sexual thoughts and fantasies. Beneath the cortex is the limbic system, which consists of the amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, and septal area. These structures are where emotions and feelings are believed to originate, and are important for sexual behavior.
The hypothalamus is the most important part of the brain for sexual functioning. This is the small area at the base of the brain consisting of several groups of nerve-cell bodies that receives input from the limbic system. Studies with lab animals have shown that destruction of certain areas of the hypothalamus causes complete elimination of sexual behavior. One of the reasons for the importance of the hypothalamus is that it controls the pituitary gland, which secretes hormones that control the other glands of the body.
Hormones
Several important sexual hormones are secreted by the pituitary gland. Oxytocin, also known as the hormone of love, is released during sexual intercourse when an orgasm is achieved. Oxytocin is also released in females when they give birth or are breast-feeding; it is believed that oxytocin is involved with maintaining close relationships. Both prolactin and oxytocin stimulate milk production in females. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is responsible for ovulation in females by triggering egg maturity; it also stimulates sperm production in males. Luteinizing hormone (LH) triggers the release of a mature egg in females during the process of ovulation.
In males, testosterone appears to be a major contributing factor to sexual motivation. Vasopressin is involved in the male arousal phase, and the increase of vasopressin during erectile response may be directly associated with increased motivation to engage in sexual behavior.
The relationship between hormones and female sexual motivation is not as well understood, largely due to the overemphasis on male sexuality in Western research. Estrogen and progesterone typically regulate motivation to engage in sexual behavior for females, with estrogen increasing motivation and progesterone decreasing it. The levels of these hormones rise and fall throughout a woman's menstrual cycle. Research suggests that testosterone, oxytocin, and vasopressin are also implicated in female sexual motivation in similar ways as they are in males, but more research is needed to understand these relationships.
Sexuality will be discussed in Chapter 15, Adolescence Social Emotional Development. The following section will look at the reasons and the consequences of teenage pregnancy, forms of birth control, and sexually transmitted diseases.
Adolescent Pregnancy, Birth Control Methods, and Sexually Transmitted Infections
By the end of high school, more than half of boys and girls report having experienced sexual intercourse at least once, though it is hard to be certain of the proportion because of the sensitivity and privacy of the information. (Center for Disease Control, 2004; Rosenbaum, 2006).
Teen Pregnancy
Although adolescent pregnancy rates have declined since 1991, teenage birth rates in the United States are higher than most industrialized countries. In 2014, females aged 15–19 years experienced a birth rate of 24.2 per 1,000 women. This is a drop of 9% from 2013. Birth rates fell 11% for those aged 15–17 years and 7% for 18–19 year-olds. It appears that adolescents seem to be less sexually active than in previous years, and those who are sexually active seem to be using birth control (CDC, 2016).
Risk Factors for Adolescent Pregnancy
Miller, Benson, and Galbraith (2001) found that parent/child closeness, parental supervision, and parents' values against teen intercourse (or unprotected intercourse) decreased the risk of adolescent pregnancy. In contrast, residing in disorganized/dangerous neighborhoods, living in a lower SES family, living with a single parent, having older sexually active siblings or pregnant/parenting teenage sisters, early puberty, and being a victim of sexual abuse place adolescents at an increased risk of adolescent pregnancy.
Consequences of Adolescent Pregnancy
After a child is born life can be difficult for a teenage mother. Only 40% of teenagers who have children before age 18 graduate from high school. Without a high school degree, her job prospects are limited and economic independence is difficult. Teen mothers are more likely to live in poverty and more than 75% of all unmarried teen mothers receive public assistance within 5 years of the birth of their first child. Approximately, 64% of children born to an unmarried teenage high-school dropout live in poverty. Further, a child born to a teenage mother is 50% more likely to repeat a grade in school and is more likely to perform poorly on standardized tests and drop out before finishing high school (March of Dimes, 2012).21
Sexually Transmitted Infections
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), also referred to as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) or venereal diseases (VDs), are illnesses that have a significant probability of transmission by means of sexual behavior, including vaginal intercourse, anal sex, and oral sex. It’s important to mention that some STIs can also be contracted by sharing intravenous drug needles with an infected person, through childbirth, or breastfeeding. Common STIs include:
• chlamydia;
• herpes (HSV-1 and HSV-2);
• human papillomavirus (HPV);
• gonorrhea;
• syphilis;
• trichomoniasis;
• HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) and AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome).
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2014), there was an increase in the three most common types of STDs in 2014. Those most affected by STDS include younger, gay/bisexual males, and females. The most effective way to prevent transmission of STIs is to practice abstinence, (not participating in sexual intercourse), safe sex, and to avoid direct contact of skin or fluids which can lead to transfer with an infected partner. Proper use of safe-sex supplies (such as male condoms, female condoms, gloves, or dental dams) reduces contact and risk and can be effective in limiting exposure; however, some disease transmission may occur even with these barriers.23
Practicing safe sex is important to one’s physical health. In the following section we’ll look at elements of adolescent health, including sleep, diet, and exercise.
Contraceptive Methods and Protection from Sexually Transmitted Infection
There are many methods of contraception that sexually active adolescents can use to reduce the chances of pregnancy.
Table \(1\): Reversible Methods of Birth Control (Contraception by the CDC is in the public domain)
Method Description Failure Rate
Intrauterine Contraception (IUD) An IUD is a small device that is shaped in the form of a “T” placed inside the uterus 0.1-0.8%
Implant
A single, thin rod that is inserted under the skin of a woman’s upper arm.
0.01%
Injection
Injections or shots of hormones to prevent pregnancy are given in the buttocks or arm every three months.
4%
Oral contraceptives Also called “the pill,” contain the hormones to prevent pregnancy. A pill is taken at the same time each day. 7%
Patch This skin patch is worn on the lower abdomen, buttocks, or upper body and releases hormones to prevent pregnancy into the bloodstream. A new patch once a week for three weeks and then left off for a week. 7%
Hormonal vaginal contraceptive ring The ring is placed in the vagina and releases the hormones to prevent pregnancy. It is worn for three weeks. A week after it is removed a new ring is placed. 7%
Spermicide These kill sperm and come in several forms—foam, gel, cream, film, suppository, or tablet. They are placed in the vagina before intercourse. 21%
Diaphragm or cervical cap A cup that is placed inside the vagina to cover the cervix to block sperm. It is inserted with spermicide before sexual intercourse. 17%
Sponge
This contains spermicide and is placed in the vagina where it fits over the cervix.
14-27%
Male condom Worn (single use) by the man over the penis to keep sperm from getting into a woman’s body. 13%
Female condom
Worn (single use) by the woman inside the vagina to keep sperm from getting into a woman’s body.
21%
Natural Family Planning During a regular menstrual cycle, fertile days can be predicted. Sexual intercourse can be avoided on those days. 2-23%
Copper IUD Can be inserted up to 5 days after sexual intercourse <1%25
Emergency contraceptive pills Can be taken up to 5 days after sexual intercourse and may be available over-the-counter. 1-10%26
In choosing a birth control method, dual protection from the simultaneous risk for HIV and other STIs also should be considered. Although hormonal contraceptives and IUDs are highly effective at preventing pregnancy, they do not protect against STIs, including HIV. Consistent and correct use of the male latex condom reduces the risk for HIV infection and other STIs, including chlamydial infection, gonococcal infection, and trichomoniasis.
Contributors and Attributions
9. Adolescence: Developing Independence and Identity by Charles Stangor is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
12. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
13. Beginning Psychology - Growing and Developing by Charles Stangor is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
16. Adolescence Physical Growth by Boundless.com is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0; Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
21. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
23. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
25. How effective is emergency contraception? (2016). Retrieved from https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/contraception/how-effective-emergency-contraception/
26. David G. Weismiller M.D., Sc.M (2004). Emergency Contraception. Retrieved from www.aafp.org/afp/2004/0815/p707.html | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/13%3A_Adolescence_-_Physical_Development/13.03%3A_Physical_Changes_in_Adolescence.txt |
Sleep Health
According to the National Sleep Foundation (NSF) (2016), adolescents need about 8 to 10 hours of sleep each night to function best. The most recent Sleep in America poll in 2006 indicated that adolescents between sixth and twelfth grade were not getting the recommended amount of sleep. For the older adolescents, only about one in ten (9%) get an optimal amount of sleep, and they are more likely to experience negative consequences the following day. These include feeling too tired or sleepy, being cranky or irritable, falling asleep in school, having a depressed mood, and drinking caffeinated beverages (NSF, 2016). Additionally, they are at risk for substance abuse, car crashes, poor academic performance, obesity, and a weakened immune system (Weintraub, 2016).
Why don’t adolescents get adequate sleep? In addition to known environmental and social factors, including work, homework, media, technology, and socializing, the adolescent brain is also a factor. As adolescents go through puberty, their circadian rhythms change and push back their sleep time until later in the evening (Weintraub, 2016). This biological change not only keeps adolescents awake at night, it makes it difficult for them to get up in the morning. When they are awake too early, their brains do not function optimally. Impairments are noted in attention, behavior, and academic achievement, while increases in tardiness and absenteeism are also demonstrated. Psychologists and other professionals have been advocating for later school times, and they have produced research demonstrating better student outcomes for later start times. More middle and high schools have changed their start times to better reflect the sleep research. 29
Eating: Healthy Habits = Healthy Lives
The Dietary Guidelines define late adolescence, as the period from ages fourteen to eighteen. After puberty, the rate of physical growth slows down. Girls stop growing taller around age sixteen, while boys continue to grow taller until ages eighteen to twenty. One of the psychological and emotional changes that take place during this life stage includes the desire for independence as adolescents develop individual identities apart from their families. As teenagers make more of their dietary decisions, parents, caregivers, and authority figures should guide them toward appropriate, nutritious choices.
Some adolescents don’t have all the food necessary for proper development and may be food insecure. Most people have access to fresh water in all except the most extreme situations; the need for food is the most fundamental and important human need. More than 1 in 10 U.S. households contain people who live without enough nourishing food and this lack of proper nourishment has profound effects on their abilities to lead lives that will allow them to develop to their fullest potential. (Hunger Notes, n.d.).
When people are extremely hungry, their motivation to attain food completely changes their behavior. Hungry people become listless and apathetic to save energy and then become completely obsessed with food. Ancel Keys and his colleagues (Keys, Brožek, Henschel, Mickelsen, & Taylor, 1950) found that volunteers who were placed on severely reduced-calorie diets lost all interest in sex and social activities, becoming preoccupied with food. According to Maslow, meeting one’s basic needs is vital for proper growth and development. 32
Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s theory is based on a simple premise: human beings have needs that are hierarchically ranked. There are some needs that are basic to all human beings, and in their absence, nothing else matters. We are ruled by these needs until they are satisfied. After we satisfy our basic needs, they no longer serve as motivators and we can begin to satisfy higher-order needs.
Maslow organized human needs into a pyramid that includes (from lowest-level to highest-level) physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization needs. According to Maslow, one must satisfy lower-level needs before addressing needs that occur higher in the pyramid. For example, if someone is starving, it is quite unlikely that he will spend a lot of time, or any time at all, wondering whether other people think he is a good person. Instead, all of his energies are geared toward finding something to eat. 34
Weight Management
Forming good eating habits and engaging in fitness or exercise programs will help maintain a healthy weight and develop lifelong habits. Research says that the best way to control weight is: eat less (consume fewer calories) and exercise (burn more calories). To maintain a healthy weight, restricting your diet alone is difficult and can be substantially improved when it is accompanied by increased physical activity.
The energy (calorie) requirements for preteens differ according to gender, growth, and activity level. For ages nine to thirteen, girls should consume about 1,400 to 2,200 calories per day and boys should consume 1,600 to 2,600 calories per day. Physically active preteens who regularly participate in sports or exercise need to eat a greater number of calories to account for increased energy expenditures. 35
People who exercise regularly, and in particular those who combine exercise with dieting, are less likely to be obese (Borer, 2008).Borer, K. T. (2008). Exercise not only improves our waistline, but also improves our overall mental health by lowering stress and improving feelings of well-being. Exercise also increases cardiovascular capacity, lowers blood pressure, and helps improve diabetes, joint flexibility, and muscle strength (American Heart Association, 1998).
For long lasting change, it’s important to plan healthy meals, limit snacking, and to schedule exercise into our daily lives. 36
Diet Extremes - Obesity to Starvation
In this section, we’ll learn about the two ends of the spectrum (or extremes) of nutritional outcomes.
Obesity
Children need adequate caloric intake for growth, and it is important not to impose highly restrictive diets. However, exceeding caloric requirements on a regular basis can lead to childhood obesity, which has become a major problem in North America. Nearly one of three US children and adolescents are overweight or obese. (Let’s Move. “Learn the Facts.” Accessed March 5, 2012. www.letsmove.gov/learn-facts/...dhood-obesity.)
There are a number of reasons behind the problem of obesity, including:
• larger portion sizes
• limited access to nutrient-rich foods
• increased access to fast foods and vending machines
• lack of breastfeeding support
• declining physical education programs in schools
• insufficient physical activity and a sedentary lifestyle
• media messages encouraging the consumption of unhealthy foods
Obesity has a profound effect on self-esteem, energy, and activity level. Even more importantly, it is a major risk factor for a number of diseases later in life, including cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes, stroke, hypertension, and certain cancers.
A percentile for body mass index (BMI) specific to age and sex is used to determine if a child is overweight or obese. If a child gains weight inappropriate to growth, parents and caregivers should limit energy-dense, nutrient-poor snack foods. In addition, it is extremely beneficial to increase a child’s physical activity and limit sedentary activities, such as watching television, playing video games, or surfing the Internet. Programs to address childhood obesity can include behavior modification, exercise counseling, psychological support or therapy, family counseling, and family meal-planning advice. 38
Eating Disorders
Although eating disorders can occur in children and adults, they frequently appear during the teen years or young adulthood (National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), 2016). Eating disorders affect both genders, although rates among women are 2 1⁄2 times greater than among men. Similar to women who have eating disorders, men also have a distorted sense of body image, including body dysmorphia or an extreme concern with becoming more muscular. (Hudson, Hiripi, Pope, & Kessler, 2007; Wade, Keski-Rahkonen, & Hudson, 2011).
Risk Factors for Eating Disorders
Researchers are finding that eating disorders are caused by a complex interaction of genetic, biological, behavioral, psychological, and social factors (NIMH, 2016). Eating disorders appear to run in families, and researchers are working to identify DNA variations that are linked to the increased risk of developing eating disorders. Researchers have also found differences in patterns of brain activity in women with eating disorders in comparison with healthy women.
The main criteria for the most common eating disorders: Anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder are described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fifth Edition (DSM-5)(American Psychiatric Association, 2013) and listed in Table \(1\). 40
Table \(1\): DSM-5 Eating Disorders
Eating Disorder Description
Anorexia Nervosa
• Restriction of energy intake leading to a significantly low body weight
• Intense fear of gaining weight
• Disturbance in one’s self-evaluation regarding body weight
Bulimia Nervosa
• Recurrent episodes of binge eating
• Recurrent inappropriate compensatory behaviors to prevent weight gain, including purging, laxatives, fasting or excessive exercise
• Self-evaluation is unduly affected by body shape and weight
Binge-Eating Disorder
• Recurrent episodes of binge eating
• Marked distress regarding binge eating
• The binge eating is not associated with the recurrent use of inappropriate compensatory behavior
Health Consequences of Eating Disorders
For those suffering from anorexia, health consequences include an abnormally slow heart rate and low blood pressure, which increases the risk for heart failure. Additionally, there is a reduction in bone density (osteoporosis), muscle loss and weakness, severe dehydration, fainting, fatigue, and overall weakness. Individuals with this disorder may die from complications associated with Anorexia nervosa, which has the highest mortality rate of any psychiatric disorder.
The binge and purging cycle of bulimia can affect the digestives system and lead to electrolyte and chemical imbalances that can affect the heart and other major organs. Frequent vomiting can cause inflammation and possible rupture of the esophagus, as well as tooth decay and staining from stomach acids. Lastly, binge eating disorder results in similar health risks to obesity, including high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, heart disease, Type II diabetes, and gall bladder disease (National Eating Disorders Association, 2016).
Eating Disorders Treatment
The foundations of treatment for eating disorders include adequate nutrition and discontinuing destructive behaviors, such as purging. Treatment plans are tailored to individual needs and include medical care, nutritional counseling, medications (such as antidepressants), and individual, group, and/or family psychotherapy (NIMH, 2016). 41
Drug and Substance Abuse
Drug use and the possibility of abuse and addiction primarily manifest as physical problems. However, the effects of these substances are not only physical, but also have long lasting consequences on cognitive development as well as effect social emotional development in a variety of ways. In the next section we’ll learn about what drugs are, the different kinds of drugs, and what the effects are of each.
Drug Experimentation
Drug use is, in part, the result of socialization. Adolescents may try drugs when their friends convince them to, and these decisions are based on social norms about the risks and benefits of various drugs. Despite the fact that young people have experimented with cigarettes, alcohol, and other dangerous drugs for many generations, it would be better if they did not. All recreational drug use is associated with at least some risks, and those who begin using drugs earlier are also more likely to use more dangerous drugs. They may develop an addiction or substance abuse problem later on. 43
What Are Drugs?
A psychoactive drug is a chemical that changes our states of consciousness, and particularly our perceptions and moods. These drugs are commonly found in everyday foods and beverages, including chocolate, coffee, and soft drinks, as well as in alcohol and in over-the-counter drugs, such as aspirin, Tylenol, and cold and cough medication. Psychoactive drugs are also frequently prescribed as sleeping pills, tranquilizers, and antianxiety medications, and they may be taken, illegally, for recreational purposes. The four primary classes of psychoactive drugs are stimulants, depressants, opioids, and hallucinogens.
Stimulants
A stimulant is a psychoactive drug that operates by blocking the reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin in the synapses of the central nervous system (CNS). Because more of these neurotransmitters remain active in the brain, the result is an increase in the activity of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). Effects of stimulants include increased heart and breathing rates, pupil dilation, and increases in blood sugar accompanied by decreases in appetite. For these reasons, stimulants are frequently used to help people stay awake and to control weight.
Used in moderation, some stimulants may increase alertness, but used in an irresponsible fashion they can quickly create dependency. A major problem is the “crash” that results when the drug loses its effectiveness and the activity of the neurotransmitters returns to normal. The withdrawal from stimulants can create profound depression and lead to an intense desire to repeat the high.
Table \(2\): Stimulants
Drug Dangers and Side Effects Psychological Dependence Physical Dependence Addiction Potential
Caffeine May create dependence Low Low Low
Nicotine Has major negative health effects if smoked or chewed High High High
Cocaine
Decreased appetite, headache
Low Low Moderate
Amphetamines Possible dependence, accompanied by severe “crash” with depression as drug effects wear off, particularly if smoked or injected Moderate Low Moderate to High
A Closer Look at the Danger of Adolescence Use of Nicotine
Nicotine is a psychoactive drug found in the nightshade family of plants, where it acts as a natural pesticide. Nicotine is the main cause for the dependence-forming properties of tobacco use, and tobacco use is a major health threat. Nicotine creates both psychological and physical addiction and it is one of the hardest addictions to break. Nicotine content in cigarettes has slowly increased over the years, making quitting smoking more and more difficult. Nicotine is also found in smokeless (chewing) tobacco and electronic cigarettes (vaping).
Nicotine exposure can harm adolescent brain development by changing the way synapses form, which continues into the early to mid-20s. Using nicotine in adolescence may also increase risk for future addictions to other drugs. E-cigarette aerosol and cigarettes contain chemicals that are harmful to the lungs and chewing tobacco.
In many cases, people are able to get past the physical dependence, allowing them to quit using nicotine containing products at least temporarily. In the long run, however, the psychological enjoyment of smoking may lead to relapse. 46
Depressants
In contrast to stimulants, which work to increase neural activity, a depressant slows down consciousness. A depressant is a psychoactive drug that reduces the activity of the CNS. Depressants are widely used as prescription medicines to relieve pain, to lower heart rate and respiration, and as anticonvulsants. The outcome of depressant use (similar to the effects of sleep) is a reduction in the transmission of impulses from the lower brain to the cortex (Csaky & Barnes, 1984).
Table \(3\): Depressants
Drug Dangers and Side Effects Psychological Dependence Physical Dependence Addiction Potential
Alcohol Impaired judgment, loss of coordination, dizziness, nausea, and eventually a loss of consciousness Moderate Moderate Moderate
Barbiturates and benzo- diazepines
Sluggishness, slowed speech, drowsiness, in severe cases, coma or death Moderate Moderate Moderate
Toxic inhalants Brain damage and death High High High
A Closer Look at the Danger of Adolescent Alcohol Use
Alcohol is the most commonly used of the depressants and is a colorless liquid, produced by the fermentation of sugar or starch that is the intoxicating agent in fermented drinks. Alcohol is the oldest and most widely used drug of abuse in the world. In low to moderate doses, alcohol first acts to remove social inhibitions by slowing activity in the sympathetic nervous system. In higher doses, alcohol acts on the cerebellum to interfere with coordination and balance, producing the staggering gait of drunkenness. At high blood levels, further CNS depression leads to dizziness, nausea, and eventually a loss of consciousness. High enough blood levels such as those produced by “guzzling” large amounts of hard liquor at parties can be fatal. Alcohol is not a “safe” drug by any means. 47
Short-Term Health Risks Excessive alcohol use has immediate effects that increase the risk of many harmful health conditions. These are most often the result of binge drinking (drinking 4-5 drinks during a single occasion) and include the following:
• Injuries, such as motor vehicle crashes (1 in 5 teen drivers involved in fatal crashes had some alcohol in their system in 2010), falls, drownings, and burns.
• Violence, including homicide, suicide, sexual assault, and intimate partner violence.
• Alcohol poisoning, a medical emergency that results from high blood alcohol levels.
• Risky sexual behaviors, including unprotected sex or sex with multiple partners. These behaviors can result in unintended pregnancy or sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV.
• Miscarriage and stillbirth or fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs) among pregnant women.
Long-Term Health Risks
Over time, excessive alcohol use can lead to the development of chronic diseases and other serious problems including:
• High blood pressure, heart disease, stroke, liver disease, and digestive problems.
• Cancer of the breast, mouth, throat, esophagus, liver, and colon.
• Learning and memory problems, including dementia and poor school performance.
• Mental health problems, including depression and anxiety.
• Social problems, including lost productivity, family problems, and unemployment.
• Alcohol dependence, or alcoholism. 48
Opioids
Opioids are chemicals that increase activity in opioid receptor neurons in the brain and in the digestive system, producing euphoria, analgesia, slower breathing, and constipation. Their chemical makeup is similar to the endorphins, the neurotransmitters that serve as the body’s “natural pain reducers.” Natural opioids are derived from the opium poppy, which is widespread in Eurasia, but they can also be created synthetically.
Table \(4\): Opioids
Drug Dangers and Side Effects Psychological Dependence Physical Dependence Addiction Potential
Opium Side effects include nausea, vomiting, tolerance, and addiction. Moderate Moderate Moderate
Morphine
Restlessness,irritability, headache and body aches, tremors, nausea, vomiting, and severe abdominal pain
High Moderate Moderate
Heroin All side effects of morphine but about twice as addictive as morphine High Moderate High
Hallucinogens
The drugs that produce the most extreme alteration of consciousness are the hallucinogens, psychoactive drugs that alter sensation and perception and that may create hallucinations. The hallucinogens are frequently known as “psychedelics.” Drugs in this class include lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD, or “Acid”), mescaline, and phencyclidine (PCP), as well as a number of natural plants including cannabis (marijuana), peyote, and psilocybin. The hallucinogens may produce striking changes in perception through one or more of the senses. The precise effects a user experiences are a function not only of the drug itself but also of the user’s preexisting mental state and expectations of the drug experience. In large part, the user tends to get out of the experience what he or she brings to it. The hallucinations that may be experienced when taking these drugs are strikingly different from everyday experience and frequently are more similar to dreams than to everyday consciousness.
Table \(5\): Hallucinogens
Drug Dangers and Side Effects Psychological Dependence Physical Dependence Addiction Potential
Marijuana
Mild intoxication;
enhanced perception
Low Low Low
LSD, mescaline, PCP, and peyote Hallucinations; enhanced perception Low Low Low
A Closer Look at the Danger of Adolescent Marijuana Use 50
Marijuana (cannabis) is the most widely used hallucinogen. Until it was banned in the United States under the Marijuana Tax Act of 1938, it was widely used for medical purposes. While medical and recreational marijuana is now legal in several American states, it is still banned under federal law, putting those states in conflict with the federal government. Marijuana also acts as a stimulant, producing giggling, laughing, and mild intoxication. It acts to enhance perception of sights, sounds, and smells, and may produce a sensation of time slowing down, and is much less likely to lead to antisocial acts than that other popular intoxicant, alcohol.
Using marijuana—can have harmful and long-lasting effects on an adolescent’s health and well-being.
Marijuana and the teen brain
Unlike adults, the teen brain is actively developing and often will not be fully developed until the mid 20s. Marijuana use during this period may harm the developing teen brain. Negative effects include:
• Difficulty thinking and problem solving.
• Problems with memory and learning.
• Impaired coordination.
• Difficulty maintaining attention.
Negative effects on school and social life
Marijuana use in adolescence or early adulthood can have a serious impact on an adolescent’s life.
• Decline in school performance. Students who smoke marijuana may get lower grades and may be more likely to drop out of high school than their peers who do not use.
• Increased risk of mental health issues. Marijuana use has been linked to a range of mental health problems in teens such as depression or anxiety. Psychosis has also been seen in teens at higher risk like those with a family history.
• Impaired driving. Driving while impaired by any substance, including marijuana, is dangerous. Marijuana negatively affects a number of skills required for safe driving, such as reaction time, coordination, and concentration.
• Potential for addiction. Research shows that about 1 in 6 teens who repeatedly use marijuana can become addicted, which means that they may make unsuccessful efforts to quit using marijuana or may give up important activities with friends and family in favor of using marijuana.
In some cases, the effects of psychoactive drugs mimic other naturally occurring states of consciousness. For instance, sleeping pills are prescribed to create drowsiness, and benzodiazepines are prescribed to create a state of relaxation. In other cases psychoactive drugs are taken for recreational purposes with the goal of creating states of consciousness that are pleasurable or that help us escape our normal consciousness.
The use of psychoactive drugs, and especially those that are used illegally, has the potential to create very negative side effects. This does not mean that all drugs are dangerous, but rather that all drugs can be dangerous, particularly if they are used regularly over long periods of time. Psychoactive drugs create negative effects not so much through their initial use but through the continued use, accompanied by increasing doses, that ultimately may lead to drug abuse.
Substance Abuse
Many drugs create tolerance: an increase in the dose required to produce the same effect, which makes it necessary for the user to increase the dosage or the number of times per day that the drug is taken. As the use of the drug increases, the user may develop a dependence, defined as a need to use a drug or other substance regularly. Dependence can be psychological, in which the drug is desired and has become part of the everyday life of the user, but no serious physical effects result if the drug is not obtained; or physical, in which serious physical and mental effects appear when the drug is withdrawn. Cigarette smokers who try to quit, for example, experience physical withdrawal symptoms, such as becoming tired and irritable, as well as extreme psychological cravings to enjoy a cigarette in particular situations, such as after a meal or when they are with friends. Users may wish to stop using the drug, but when they reduce their dosage they experience withdrawal—negative experiences that accompany reducing or stopping drug use, including physical pain and other symptoms. When the user powerfully craves the drug and is driven to seek it out, over and over again, no matter what the physical, social, financial, and legal cost, we say that he or she has developed an addiction to the drug.
It is a common belief that addiction is an overwhelming, irresistibly powerful force, and that withdrawal from drugs is always an unbearably painful experience. But the reality is more complicated and in many cases less extreme. For one, even drugs that we do not generally think of as being addictive, such as caffeine, nicotine, and alcohol, can be very difficult to quit using, at least for some people. On the other hand, drugs that are normally associated with addiction, including amphetamines, cocaine, and heroin, do not immediately create addiction in their users. Even for a highly addictive drug like cocaine, only about 15% of users become addicted (Robinson & Berridge, 2003; Wagner & Anthony, 2002). Furthermore, the rate of addiction is lower for those who are taking drugs for medical reasons than for those who are using drugs recreationally. Patients who have become physically dependent on morphine administered during the course of medical treatment for a painful injury or disease are able to be rapidly weaned off the drug afterward, without becoming addicts.52 People have used, and often abused, psychoactive drugs for thousands of years. Perhaps this should not be surprising, because many people find using drugs to be enjoyable. Even when we know the potential costs of using drugs, we may engage in them anyway because the pleasures of using the drugs are occurring right now, whereas the potential costs are abstract and occur in the future. 53
In the next section we will be looking at various psychological disorders. Learning about and supporting others seeking help when they have a substance abuse problem is just as important as seeking help when one is experiencing negative physical and mental health problems.
Contributors and Attributions
29. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
32. Nutrition through the Life Cycle: From Pregnancy to the Toddler Years by Maureen Zimmerman and Beth Snow is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (modified by Dawn Rymond)
34. Education, Society, & the K-12 Learner by Lumen Learning references Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs by Boundless, which is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
36. Beginning Psychology - Two Fundamental Human Motivations: Eating and Mating by Charles Stangor is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (modified by Dawn Rymond)
40. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
41. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
About Electronic Cigarettes (E-Cigarettes) by the CDC is in the public domain
Quick Facts on the Risks of E-cigarettes for Kids, Teens, and Young Adults by the CDC is in the public domain
48. Teen Drinking and Driving by the CDC is in the public domain
Fact Sheets - Alcohol Use and Your Health by the CDC is in the public domain
What You Need to Know About Marijuana Use in Teens by the CDC is in the public domain | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/13%3A_Adolescence_-_Physical_Development/13.04%3A_Adolescent_Health-_Sleep_Diet_and_Exercise.txt |
Emotional regulation is the ability to successfully control our emotions, which takes effort, but the ability to do so can have important positive health outcomes. Emotional responses such as the stress reaction are useful in warning us about potential danger and in mobilizing our response to it, so it is a good thing that we have them. However, we also need to learn how to control and regulate our emotions, to prevent them from letting our behavior get out of control. 54
Stress may not be a disorder, but if it continues and becomes more intense and debilitating, it may lead to a disorder. We experience stress in our everyday lives, including daily hassles. People who experience strong negative emotions as a result of these hassles, exhibit negative stress responses. Stress can be managed by using coping strategies and by becoming better at emotional regulation. The best antidote for stress is to think positively, have fun, and enjoy the company of others. People who express optimism, self-efficacy, and grit tend to cope better with stress and experience better health overall. 55
Contributors and Attributions
54. Beginning Psychology - Stress: The Unseen Killer by Charles Stangor is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
55. Beginning Psychology - Chapter Summary by Charles Stangor is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
13.06: Disorders and Syndromes
A psychological disorder is an unusual, distressing, and dysfunctional pattern of thought, emotion, or behavior. Psychological disorders are often co-occurring or comorbid, meaning that a given person suffers from more than one disorder. Psychologists diagnose a disorder using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). When diagnosed, people feel that a mental disorder is a stigma, but mental illness is not a “fault,” and it is important to work to help overcome the stigma associated with disorder. The following are various disorders that may affect children, adolescence, and adults.
Table \(1\): Disorders and Syndromes (Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles – Mental Illness in Children and Adolescents by Lumen Learning references Contemporary Health Issues by: Judy Baker, Ph.D., which is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0) and their Descriptions
Disorder/Syndrome Description
Anxiety Disorders Psychological disturbances marked by irrational fears, often of everyday objects and situations. They include generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder, phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Anxiety disorders affect about 57 million Americans every year.
Dissociative Disorders Conditions that involve disruptions or breakdowns of memory, awareness, and identity. They include dissociative amnesia, dissociative fugue, and dissociative identity disorder.
Mood Disorders Psychological disorders in which the person’s mood negatively influences his or her physical, perceptual, social, and cognitive processes. They include dysthymia, major depressive disorder, and bipolar disorder. Mood disorders affect about 30 million Americans every year.
Schizophrenia A serious psychological disorder marked by delusions, hallucinations, loss of contact with reality, inappropriate affect, disorganized speech, social withdrawal, and deterioration of adaptive behavior. About 3 million Americans have schizophrenia.
Personality Disorder A long-lasting but frequently less severe disorder characterized by inflexible patterns of thinking, feeling, or relating to others that causes problems in personal, social, and work situations. They are characterized by odd or eccentric behavior, by dramatic or erratic behavior, or by anxious or inhibited behavior. Two of the most important personality disorders are borderline personality disorder (BPD) and antisocial personality disorder (APD).
Somatization Disorder
A psychological disorder in which a person experiences numerous long- lasting but seemingly unrelated physical ailments that have no identifiable physical cause. Somatization disorders include conversion disorder, body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), and hypochondriasis.
Factitious Disorder When patients fake physical symptoms in large part because they enjoy the attention and treatment that they receive in the hospital.
Sexual Disorders A variety of problems revolving around performing or enjoying sex. Sexual dysfunctions include problems relating to loss of sexual desire, sexual response or orgasm, and pain during sex.
Paraphilia A sexual deviation where sexual arousal is obtained from a consistent pattern of inappropriate responses to objects or people, and in which the behaviors associated with the feelings are distressing and dysfunctional.
Depression When symptoms cause serious distress and negatively influence physical, perceptual, social, and cognitive processes. Teens with depression were often dismissed as being moody or difficult. About 11 percent of adolescents have a depressive disorder by age 18 according to the National Comorbidity Survey-Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Depressed teens with coexisting (comorbid) disorders such as substance abuse problems are less likely to respond to treatment for depression. Studies focusing on conditions that frequently co-occur and how they affect one another may lead to more targeted screening tools and interventions. With medication, psychotherapy, or combined treatment, most youth with depression can be effectively treated. Youth are more likely to respond to treatment if they receive it early in the course of their illness.
The Importance of Maintaining Mental Health and Wellness
Most people don’t think twice before going to a doctor if they have an illness such as bronchitis, asthma, diabetes, or heart disease. However, many people who have a mental illness don’t get the treatment that would alleviate their suffering. Studies estimate that two-thirds of all young people with mental health problems are not receiving the help they need and that less than one-third of the children under age 18 who have a serious mental health problem receive any mental health services. Mental illness in adults often goes untreated, too.
Consequences of Mental Illness
Consequences of Mental Illness The consequences of mental illness in children and adolescents can be substantial. Many mental health professionals speak of accrued deficits that occur when mental illness in children is not treated. To begin with, mental illness can impair a student’s ability to learn. Adolescents whose mental illness is not treated rapidly and aggressively tend to fall further and further behind in school. They are more likely to drop out of school and are less likely to be fully functional members of society when they reach adulthood.
We also now know that depressive disorders in young people confer a higher risk for illness and interpersonal and psychosocial difficulties that persist after the depressive episode is over. Furthermore, many adults who suffer from mental disorders have problems that originated in childhood. Depression in youth may predict more severe illness in adult life. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, once thought to affect children and adolescents only, may persist into adulthood and may be associated with social, legal, and occupational problems. Mental illness impairs a student’s ability to learn.
Self-Harm or Self-Injury
Adolescents struggling with their mental health may engage in self-harm or thinking about harming themselves. They may be distressed and have difficult feelings as well as the urge to hurt themselves. Some unhealthy ways people may try to relieve emotional pain include cutting, burning, or hitting themselves. These self-harm behaviors can be difficult to detect and are usually kept a secret by covering the wounds with clothing or jewelry. Self-injury is a sign that someone is struggling. People who are anxious, depressed, or have an eating disorder are also more likely to turn to self-injuring behaviors.
Indicators of self-harm include:
• frequent unexplained injuries
• clues like bandages in trash cans.
• clothing inappropriate for the weather (long pants or sleeves when it’s hot)
It’s important when someone confides in self-harm to try to be as nonreactive and nonjudgmental as possible. At this time there are no medications for treating self-injuring behaviors. But some medications can help treat mental disorders that the person may be dealing with, like depression or anxiety. Mental health counseling or therapy can also help.58
Suicidal Behavior
Adolescence who feel like there is no possible resolution to their mental health struggles may consider, attempt, or commit suicide. Suicidal behavior causes immeasurable pain, suffering, and loss to individuals, families, and communities nationwide. On average, 112 Americans die by suicide each day. Suicide is the second leading cause of death among 15-24-year-olds and more than 9.4 million adults in the United States had serious thoughts of suicide within the past 12 months. But suicide is preventable.
Warning Signs of Suicide
If someone is showing one or more of the following behaviors, he or she may be thinking about suicide. The following warning signs should not be ignored. Help should be sought immediately.
• Talking about wanting to die or to kill oneself
• Looking for a way to kill oneself
• Talking about feeling hopeless or having no reason to live
• Talking about feeling trapped or in unbearable pain
• Talking about being a burden to others
• Increasing the use of alcohol or drugs
• Acting anxious or agitated
• Behaving recklessly
• Sleeping too little or too much
• Withdrawing or feeling isolated
• Showing rage or talking about seeking revenge
• Displaying extreme mood swings 60
GET HELP
If you or someone you know needs help, call the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at 1-800-273-TALK (8255). Trained crisis workers are available to talk 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.
Contributors and Attributions
58. Hurtful Emotions by the NIH is in the public domain
60. Suicidal Behavior by MentalHealth.gov is in the public domain
Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles – Mental Illness in Children and Adolescents by Lumen Learning references Contemporary Health Issues by: Judy Baker, Ph.D., which is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
13.S: Summary
In this chapter we looked at:
• Physical growth and the changes in the body during puberty
• Weight management, obesity, and eating disorders
• Risk factors, and consequences of adolescent pregnancy and sexual health
• Substance and drug abuse
• Mental health issues for teens
In the next chapter we will look at adolescent cognitive development. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/13%3A_Adolescence_-_Physical_Development/13.05%3A_Maintaining_Emotional_Health.txt |
learning objectives
After this chapter, you should be able to:
• Describe Piaget’s formal operational stage and the characteristics of formal operational thought
• Compare Theories - Lawrence’s Kohlberg’s Moral Development and Carol Gilligan’s Morality of Care
• Explain the Information Processing Theory
• Describe the strategies for memory storage
• Explain the areas of transition for adolescence
During adolescence more complex thinking abilities emerge. Researchers suggest this is due to increases in processing speed and efficiency rather than as the result of an increase in mental capacity—in other words, due to improvements in existing skills rather than development of new ones (Bjorkland, 1987; Case, 1985). Let’s explore these improvements.
• 14.1: Cognitive Development in Adolescence
During adolescence, teenagers move beyond concrete thinking and become capable of abstract thought. Teen thinking is also characterized by the ability to consider multiple points of view, imagine hypothetical situations, debate ideas and opinions (e.g., politics, religion, and justice), and form new ideas. In addition, it’s not uncommon for adolescents to question authority or challenge established societal norms.
• 14.2: Cognitive Changes in the Brain
Early in adolescence, changes in Dopamine, a chemical in the brain that is a neurotransmitter and produces feelings of pleasure, can contribute to increases in adolescents’ sensation-seeking and reward motivation. During adolescence, people tend to do whatever activities produce the most dopamine without fully considering the consequences of such actions.
• 14.3: Cognitive Theorists- Piaget, Elkind, Kohlberg, and Gilligan
Cognition refers to thinking and memory processes, and cognitive development refers to long-term changes in these processes.
• 14.4: Information Processing Theory- Memory, Encoding, and Storage
Memory is an information processing system that we often compare to a computer. Memory is the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time. Encoding involves the input of information into the memory system. Storage is the retention of the encoded information. Retrieval, or getting the information out of memory and back into awareness, is the third function.
• 14.5: Adolescence (A Time of Transitions)
Cognitive growth and a new found sense of freedom and independence makes it both easier and more difficult for teens when making choices and coping with upcoming transitions and life decisions.
• 14.6: Wisdom and Risk-Taking
Whether it is a sense heightened of ability (we’ve learned a lot about the egocentrism, personal fable, imaginary audience, or the lack of development of prefrontal cortex), or just poor decision making, many teens tend to take unnecessary risks. Wisdom, or the capacity for insight and judgment that is developed through experience, increases between the ages of 14 and 25, and increases with maturity, life experiences, and cognitive development.
• 14.S: Summary
Thumbnail: pixabay.com/photos/read-book...n-sofa-515531/
14: Adolescence - Cognitive Development
During adolescence, teenagers move beyond concrete thinking and become capable of abstract thought. Teen thinking is also characterized by the ability to consider multiple points of view, imagine hypothetical situations, debate ideas and opinions (e.g., politics, religion, and justice), and form new ideas. In addition, it’s not uncommon for adolescents to question authority or challenge established societal norms.
Cognitive empathy, also known as theory-of-mind, which relates to the ability to take the perspective of others and feel concern for others (Shamay-Tsoory, Tomer, & Aharon-Peretz, 2005). Cognitive empathy begins to increase in adolescence and is an important component of social problem solving and conflict avoidance. According to one longitudinal study, levels of cognitive empathy begin rising in girls around 13 years old, and around 15 years old in boys (Van der Graaff et al., 2013). 1
Contributors and Attributions
1. Psychology – 9.3 Stages of Development by CNX Psychology is licensed under CC BY 4.0
14.02: Cognitive Changes in the Brain
Early in adolescence, changes in Dopamine, a chemical in the brain that is a neurotransmitter and produces feelings of pleasure, can contribute to increases in adolescents’ sensation-seeking and reward motivation. During adolescence, people tend to do whatever activities produce the most dopamine without fully considering the consequences of such actions. Later in adolescence, the prefrontal cortex, the area of the brain responsible for outcomes, forming judgments, controlling impulses and emotions, also continues to develop (Goldberg, 2001). The difference in timing of the development of these different regions of the brain contributes to more risk taking during middle adolescence because adolescents are motivated to seek thrills (Steinberg, 2008). One of the world’s leading experts on adolescent development, Laurence Steinberg, likens this to engaging a powerful engine before the braking system is in place. The result is that adolescents are prone to risky behaviors more often than children or adults.
Although the most rapid cognitive changes occur during childhood, the brain continues to develop throughout adolescence, and even into the 20s (Weinberger, Elvevåg, & Giedd, 2005). The brain continues to form new neural connections and becomes faster and more efficient because it prunes, or casts off unused neurons and connections (Blakemore, 2008), and produces myelin, the fatty tissue that forms around axons and neurons, which helps speed transmissions between different regions of the brain (Rapoport et al., 1999). This time of rapid cognitive growth for teens, making them more aware of their potential and capabilities, causes a great amount of disequilibrium for them. Theorists have researched cognitive changes and functions and have formed theories based on this developmental period. 3
Contributors and Attributions
3. Content by Dawn Rymond is licensed under CC BY 4.0
Adolescent Development by Jennifer Lansford is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/14%3A_Adolescence_-_Cognitive_Development/14.01%3A_Cognitive_Development_in_Adolescence.txt |
Jean Piaget: Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development
Cognition refers to thinking and memory processes, and cognitive development refers to long-term changes in these processes. One of the most widely known perspectives about cognitive development is the cognitive stage theory of a Swiss psychologist named Jean Piaget. Piaget created and studied an account of how children and youth gradually become able to think logically and scientifically. Because his theory is especially popular among educators, we focus on it in this chapter.
Piaget was a psychological constructivist: in his view, learning was proceeded by the interplay of assimilation (adjusting new experiences to fit prior concepts) and accommodation (adjusting concepts to fit new experiences). The to-and-fro of these two processes leads not only to short-term learning, but also to long-term developmental change. The long-term developments are really the main focus of Piaget’s cognitive theory.
As you might remember, Piaget proposed that cognition developed through distinct stages from birth through the end of adolescence. By stages he meant a sequence of thinking patterns with four key features:
1. They always happen in the same order.
2. No stage is ever skipped.
3. Each stage is a significant transformation of the stage before it.
4. Each later stage incorporated the earlier stages into itself.
Basically this is the “staircase” model of development. Piaget proposed four major stages of cognitive development, and called them (1) sensorimotor intelligence, (2) preoperational thinking, (3) concrete operational thinking, and (4) formal operational thinking. Each stage is correlated with an age period of childhood, but only approximately. Formal operational thinking appears in adolescence. 4
During the formal operational stage, adolescents are able to understand abstract principles. They are no longer limited by what can be directly seen or heard, and are able to contemplate such constructs as beauty, love, freedom, and morality. Additionally, while younger children solve problems through trial and error, adolescents demonstrate hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which is developing hypotheses based on what might logically occur. They are able to think about all the possibilities in a situation beforehand, and then test them systematically, (Crain, 2005) because they are able to engage in true scientific thinking.
Does everyone reach formal operations?
According to Piaget, most people attain some degree of formal operational thinking, but use formal operations primarily in the areas of their strongest interest (Crain, 2005). In fact, most adults do not regularly demonstrate formal operational thought. A possible explanation is that an individual’s thinking has not been sufficiently challenged to demonstrate formal operational thought in all areas.
Adolescent Egocentrism
Once adolescents can understand abstract thoughts, they enter a world of hypothetical possibilities and demonstrate egocentrism, a heightened self-focus. The egocentricity comes from attributing unlimited power to their own thoughts (Crain, 2005). Piaget believed it was not until adolescents took on adult roles that they would be able to learn the limits to their own thoughts.
David Elkind: On Piaget’s Theory
David Elkind (1967) expanded on the concept of Piaget’s adolescent egocentricity. Elkind theorized that the physiological changes that occur during adolescence result in adolescents being primarily concerned with themselves. Additionally, since adolescents fail to differentiate between what others are thinking and their own thoughts, they believe that others are just as fascinated with their behavior and appearance. This belief results in the adolescent anticipating the reactions of others, and consequently constructing an imaginary audience. The imaginary audience is the adolescent’s belief that those around them are as concerned and focused on their appearance as they themselves are (Schwartz, Maynard, & Uzelac, 2008, p. 441). Elkind thought that the imaginary audience contributed to the self-consciousness that occurs during early adolescence. The desire for privacy and the reluctance to share personal information may be a further reaction to feeling under constant observation by others.
Another important consequence of adolescent egocentrism is the personal fable or belief that one is unique, special, and invulnerable to harm. Elkind (1967) explains that because adolescents feel so important to others (imaginary audience) they regard themselves and their feelings as being special and unique. Adolescents believe that only they have experienced strong and diverse emotions, and therefore others could never understand how they feel. This uniqueness in one’s emotional experiences reinforces the adolescent’s belief of invulnerability, especially to death. Adolescents will engage in risky behaviors, such as drinking and driving or unprotected sex, and feel they will not suffer any negative consequences. Elkind believed that adolescent egocentricity emerged in early adolescence and declined in middle adolescence, however, recent research has also identified egocentricity in late adolescence (Schwartz, et al., 2008).
Consequences of Formal Operational Thought
As adolescents are now able to think abstractly and hypothetically, they exhibit many new ways of reflecting on information (Dolgin, 2011). For example, they demonstrate greater introspection or thinking about one’s thoughts and feelings. They begin to imagine how the world could be, which leads them to become idealistic or insisting upon high standards of behavior. Because of their idealism, they may become critical of others, especially adults in their life. Additionally, adolescents can demonstrate hypocrisy, or pretend to be what they are not. Since they are able to recognize what others expect of them, they will conform to those expectations for their emotions and behavior seemingly hypocritical to themselves. Lastly, adolescents can exhibit pseudostupidity, which is when they approach problems at a level that is too complex and they fail because the tasks are too simple. Their new ability to consider alternatives is not completely under control and they appear “stupid” when they are in fact bright, just inexperienced. 8
Lawrence Kohlberg: Moral Development
Kohlberg (1963) built on the work of Piaget and was interested in finding out how our moral reasoning changes as we get older. He wanted to find out how people decide what is right and what is wrong (moral justice). Just as Piaget believed that children’s cognitive development follows specific patterns, Kohlberg argued that we learn our moral values through active thinking and reasoning, and that moral development follows a series of stages. Kohlberg's six stages are generally organized into three levels of moral reasons. To study moral development, Kohlberg posed moral dilemmas to children, teenagers, and adults. You may remember one such dilemma, the Heinz dilemma, that was introduced in Chapter 12: 9
A woman was on her deathbed. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to produce. He paid \$200 for the radium and charged \$2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about \$1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: “No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it.” So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's laboratory to steal the drug for his wife. Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory to steal the drug for his wife? Why or why not? 10
Based on their reasoning behind their responses (not whether they thought Heinz made the right choice or not), Kohlberg placed each person in one of the stages as described in the image on the following page:
Although research has supported Kohlberg’s idea that moral reasoning changes from an early emphasis on punishment and social rules and regulations to an emphasis on more general ethical principles, as with Piaget’s approach, Kohlberg’s stage model is probably too simple. For one, children may use higher levels of reasoning for some types of problems, but revert to lower levels in situations where doing so is more consistent with their goals or beliefs (Rest, 1979). Second, it has been argued that this stage model is particularly appropriate for Western countries, rather than non-Western, samples in which allegiance to social norms (such as respect for authority) may be particularly important (Haidt, 2001). In addition, there is little correlation between how children score on the moral stages and how they behave in real life.
Perhaps the most important critique of Kohlberg’s theory is that it may describe the moral development of boys better than it describes that of girls. Carol Gilligan has argued that, because of differences in their socialization, males tend to value principles of justice and rights, whereas females value caring for and helping others. Although there is little evidence that boys and girls score differently on Kohlberg’s stages of moral development (Turiel, 1998), it is true that girls and women tend to focus more on issues of caring, helping, and connecting with others than do boys and men (Jaffee & Hyde, 2000). 12
Carol Gilligan: Morality of Care
Carol Gilligan, whose ideas center on a morality of care, or system of beliefs about human responsibilities, care, and consideration for others, proposed three moral positions that represent different extents or breadth of ethical care. Unlike Kohlberg, or Piaget, she does not claim that the positions form a strictly developmental sequence, but only that they can be ranked hierarchically according to their depth or subtlety. In this respect her theory is “semi-developmental” in a way similar to Maslow’s theory of motivation (Brown & Gilligan, 1992; Taylor, Gilligan, & Sullivan, 1995). The following table summarizes the three moral positions from Gilligan’s theory:
Table \(1\): Positions of Moral Development According to Gilligan
Moral Positions Definition of What is Morally Good
Position 1: Survival Orientation Action that considers one’s personal needs only
Position 2: Conventional Care
Action that considers others’ needs or preferences but no one’s own
Position 3: Integrated Care
Action that attempts to coordinate one’s own personal needs with those of others
Position 1: Caring as Survival
The most basic kind of caring is a survival orientation, in which a person is concerned primarily with his or her own welfare. As a moral position, a survival orientation is obviously not satisfactory for classrooms on a widespread scale. If every student only looked out for himself or herself alone, classroom life might become rather unpleasant. Nonetheless, there are situations in which caring primarily about yourself is both a sign of good mental health and also relevant to teachers. For a child who has been bullied at school or sexually abused at home, for example, it is both healthy and morally desirable to speak out about the bullying or abuse—essentially looking out for the victim’s own needs at the expense of others’, including the bully’s or abuser’s. Speaking out requires a survival orientation and is healthy because in this case, the child is at least caring about herself.
Position 2: Conventional Caring
A more subtle moral position is caring for others, in which a person is concerned about others’ happiness and welfare, and about reconciling or integrating others’ needs where they conflict with each other. In classrooms, students who operate from Position 2 can be very desirable in some ways; they can be kind, considerate, and good at fitting in and at working cooperatively with others. Because these qualities are very welcome in a busy classroom, it can be tempting for teachers to reward students for developing and using them for much of their school careers. The problem with rewarding Position 2 ethics, however, is that doing so neglects the student’s identity—his or her own academic and personal goals or values. Sooner or later, personal goals, values and identity need attention, and educators have a responsibility for assisting students to discover and clarify them. Unfortunately for teachers, students who know what they want may sometimes be more assertive and less automatically compliant than those who do not.
Position 3: Integrated Caring
The most developed form of moral caring in Gilligan’s model is integrated caring, the coordination of personal needs and values with those of others. Now the morally good choice takes account of everyone including yourself, not everyone except yourself.
In classrooms, integrated caring is most likely to surface whenever teachers give students wide, sustained freedom to make choices. If students have little flexibility about their actions, there is little room for considering anyone’s needs or values, whether their own or others’. If the teacher says simply, “Do the homework on page 50 and turn it in tomorrow morning,” then compliance becomes the main issue, not moral choice. But suppose instead that she says something like this: “Over the next two months, figure out an inquiry project about the use of water resources in our town. Organize it any way you want—talk to people, read widely about it, and share it with the class in a way that all of us, including yourself, will find meaningful.” Although an assignment this general or abstract may not suit some teachers or students, it does pose moral challenges for those who do use it. Why? For one thing, students cannot simply carry out specific instructions, but must decide what aspect of the topic really matters to them. The choice is partly a matter of personal values. For another thing, students have to consider how the topic might be meaningful or important to others in the class. Third, because the time line for completion is relatively far in the future, students may have to weigh personal priorities (like spending time with family on the weekend) against educational priorities (working on the assignment a bit more on the weekend). Some students might have trouble making good choices when given this sort of freedom—and their teachers might therefore be cautious about giving such an assignment. But in a way these hesitations are part of Gilligan’s point: integrated caring is indeed more demanding than the caring based on survival or orientation to others, and not all students may be ready for it. 13
We’ve learned that major changes in the structure and functioning of the brain occur during adolescence and result in the theories about cognitive and behavioral developments (Steinberg, 2008). These cognitive changes include how information is processed, and are fostered by improvements in cognitive function during early adolescence such as in memory, encoding, and storage as well as ability to think about thinking, therefore becoming better at information processing functions. 14
Contributors and Attributions
4. Educational Psychology – Cognitive Development: The Theory of Jean Piaget by Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton is licensed under CC BY
8. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
9. Lifespan Development – Module 6: Middle Childhood references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, which is licensed under CC BY
Beginning Psychology – Chapter 6: Growing and Developing by Charles Stangor is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
10. Heinz Dilemma by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY 3.0
12. Beginning Psychology – Chapter 6: Growing and Developing by Charles Stangor is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
Contemporary Educational Psychology/Chapter 3: Student Development/Moral Development by Wikibooks is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
14. Content by Dawn Rymond is licensed under CC BY 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/14%3A_Adolescence_-_Cognitive_Development/14.03%3A_Cognitive_Theorists-_Piaget_Elkind_Kohlberg_and_Gilligan.txt |
Memory
Memory is an information processing system that we often compare to a computer. Memory is the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time.
Encoding involves the input of information into the memory system. Storage is the retention of the encoded information. Retrieval, or getting the information out of memory and back into awareness, is the third function.
Encoding (Input of Information to Memory)
We get information into our brains through a process called encoding, which is the input of information into the memory system. Once we receive sensory information from the environment, our brains label or code it. We organize the information with other similar information and connect new concepts to existing concepts. Encoding information occurs through both automatic processing and effortful processing. For example, if someone asks you what you ate for lunch today, more than likely you could recall this information quite easily. This is known as automatic processing, or the encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words. Automatic processing is usually done without any conscious awareness.
Recalling the last time you studied for a test is another example of automatic processing. But what about the actual test material you studied? It probably required a lot of work and attention on your part to encode that information; this is known as effortful processing. When you first learn new skills such as driving a car, you have to put forth effort and attention to encode information about how to start a car, how to brake, how to handle a turn, and so on. Once you know how to drive, you can encode additional information about this skill automatically.
Storage (Retaining Information in Memory)
Once the information has been encoded, we have to retain it. Our brains take the encoded information and place it in storage. Storage is the creation of a permanent record of information. In order for a memory to go into storage (i.e., long-term memory), it has to pass through three distinct stages: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, and finally Long-Term Memory. These stages were first proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968). Their model of human memory, called Atkinson-Shiffrin (A-S), is based on the belief that we process memories in the same way that a computer processes information.
Sensory Memory (First Stage of Storage)
In the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, stimuli from the environment are processed first in sensory memory, storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. It is very brief storage—up to a couple of seconds. We are constantly bombarded with sensory information. We cannot absorb all of it, or even most of it. And most of it has no impact on our lives. For example, what was your professor wearing the last class period? As long as the professor was dressed appropriately, it does not really matter what they were wearing. Sensory information about sights, sounds, smells, and even textures, which we do not view as valuable information, we discard. If we view something as valuable, the information will move into our short-term memory system.
One study of sensory memory researched the significance of valuable information on short-term memory storage. J. R. Stroop discovered a memory phenomenon in the 1930s: you will name a color more easily if it appears printed in that color, which is called the Stroop effect.
The Stroop Effect describes why it is difficult for us to name a color when the word and the color of the word are different. To test this out a person is instructed not to read the words below, but to say the color the word is printed in. For example, upon seeing the word “yellow” in green print, they should say “green,” not “yellow.” This experiment is fun, but it’s not as easy as it seems.
Short-Term Memory or Working Memory (Second Stage of Storage)
Short-term memory is a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory; sometimes it is called working memory. Short-term memory takes information from sensory memory and sometimes connects that memory to something already in long-term memory. Short-term memory storage lasts about 20 seconds. Think of short-term memory as the information you have displayed on your computer screen—a document, a spreadsheet, or a web page. Information in short-term memory either goes to long-term memory (when you save it to your hard drive) or it is discarded (when you delete a document or close a web browser).
George Miller (1956), in his research on the capacity of memory, found that most people can retain about seven items in short-term memory. Some remember five, some nine, so he called the capacity of short-term memory the range of seven items plus or minus two.
To explore the capacity and duration of short-term memory, two people can try this activity. One person reads the strings of random numbers below out loud to the other, beginning each string by saying, “Ready?” and ending each by saying, “Recall.” Then the second person should try to write down the string of numbers from memory.
This can be used to determine the longest string of digits that you can store. For most people, this will be close to seven, Miller’s famous seven plus or minus two. Recall is somewhat better for random numbers than for random letters (Jacobs, 1887) and is also often slightly better for information we hear (acoustic encoding, which is the encoding of sounds) rather than what we see (visual encoding, which is the encoding of images and words in particular) (Anderson, 1969).
Long-Term Memory (Third and Final Stage of Storage)
Long-term memory is the continuous storage of information. Unlike short-term memory, the storage capacity of long-term memory has no limits. It encompasses all the things you can remember that happened more than just a few minutes ago to all of the things that you can remember that happened days, weeks, and years ago. In keeping with the computer analogy, the information in your long-term memory would be like the information you have saved on the hard drive. It isn’t there on your desktop (your short-term memory), but you can pull up this information when you want it, at least most of the time. Not all long-term memories are strong memories. Some memories can only be recalled through prompts. For example, you might easily recall a fact— “What is the capital of the United States?”—or a procedure—“How do you ride a bike?”—but you might struggle to recall the name of the restaurant you had dinner at when you were on vacation in France last summer. A prompt, such as that the restaurant was named after its owner, who spoke to you about your shared interest in soccer, may help you recall (retrieve) the name of the restaurant.
Retrieval (Finding Memories)
So you have worked hard to encode via effortful processing (a lot of work and attention on your part in order to encode that information) and store some important information for your upcoming final exam. How do you get that information back out of storage when you need it? The act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness is known as retrieval. This would be similar to finding and opening a paper you had previously saved on your computer’s hard drive. Now it’s back on your desktop, and you can work with it again. Our ability to retrieve information from long-term memory is vital to our everyday functioning. You must be able to retrieve information from memory in order to do everything from knowing how to brush your hair and teeth, to driving to work, to knowing how to perform your job once you get there.
Long-Term Memory Retrieval (Storage System): Recall, Recognition, Relearning, and Forgetting
There are three ways you can retrieve information out of your long-term memory storage system: recall, recognition, and relearning. Recall is what we most often think about when we talk about memory retrieval: it means you can access information without cues. For example, you would use recall for an essay test. Recognition happens when you identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again. It involves a process of comparison. When you take a multiple-choice test, you are relying on recognition to help you choose the correct answer. The third form of retrieval is relearning, and it’s just what it sounds like, it involves learning information that you previously learned. Whitney took Spanish in high school, but after high school she did not have the opportunity to speak Spanish. Whitney is now 31, and her company has offered her an opportunity to work in their Mexico City office. In order to prepare herself, she enrolls in a Spanish course at the local community college. She’s surprised at how quickly she’s able to pick up the language after not speaking it for 13 years; this is an example of relearning.
Forgetting (It Wasn’t Locked In)
As we just learned, your brain must do some work (effortful processing) to encode information and move it into short-term, and ultimately long-term memory. This has strong implications for a student, as it can impact their learning – if one doesn’t work to encode and store information, it will likely be forgotten. Research indicates that people forget 80 percent of what they learn only a day later. This statistic may not sound very encouraging, given all that you’re expected to learn and remember as a college student. Really, though, it points to the importance of a study strategy other than waiting until the night before a final exam to review a semester’s worth of readings and notes. When you learn something new, the goal is to “lock it in” sooner rather than later, and move it from short-term memory to long-term memory, where it can be accessed when you need it (like at the end of the semester for your final exam or maybe years from now). The next section will explore a variety of strategies that can be used to process information more deeply and help improve retrieval. 18
Memory Strategies 19
Knowing What to Know How can you decide what to study and what you need to know? The answer is to prioritize what you’re trying to learn and memorize, rather than trying to tackle all of it. Below are some strategies to help you do this:
• Think about concepts rather than facts: Most of the time instructors are concerned about you learning about the key concepts in a subject or course rather than specific facts.
• Take cues from your instructor: Pay attention to what your instructor writes on the board, mentions repeatedly in class, or includes in study guides and handouts, they are likely core concepts that you’ll want to focus on.
• Look for key terms: Textbooks will often put key terms in bold or italics.
• Use summaries: Read end of chapter summaries, or write your own, to check your understanding of the main elements of the reading.
Transferring Information from Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory In the previous discussion of how memory works, the importance of making intentional efforts to transfer information from short-term to long-term memory was noted. Below are some strategies to facilitate this process:
• Start reviewing new material immediately: Remember that people typically forget a significant amount of new information within 24 hours of learning it.
• Study frequently for shorter periods of time: If you want to improve the odds of recalling course material by the time of an exam or in future class, try reviewing it a little bit every day.
Strengthening your Memory How can you work to strengthen your overall memory? Some people have stronger memories than others but memorizing new information takes work for anyone. Below are some strategies that can aid memory:
• Rehearsal: One strategy is rehearsal, or the conscious repetition of information to be remembered (Craik & Watkins, 1973). Academic learning comes with time and practice, and at some point the skills become second nature.
• Incorporate visuals: Visual aids like note cards, concept maps, and highlighted text are ways of making information stand out. These aids make the information to be memorized seem more manageable and less daunting.
• Create mnemonics: Memory devices known as mnemonics can help you retain information while only needing to remember a unique phrase or letter pattern that stands out. They are especially useful when we want to recall larger bits of information such as steps, stages, phases, and parts of a system (Bellezza, 1981). There are different types of mnemonic devices:
• Acronym: An acronym is a word formed by the first letter of each of the words you want to remember. Such as HOMES for the Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, and Superior)
• Acrostic: In an acrostic, you make a phrase of all the first letters of the words. For example, if you need to remember the order of mathematical operations, recalling the sentence “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally” will help you, because the order of mathematical operations is Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication, Division, Addition, Subtraction.
• Jingles: Rhyming tunes that contain key words related to the concept, such as “i before e, except after c” are jingles.
• Visual: Using a visual to help you remember is also useful. Such as the knuckle mnemonic shown in the image below to help you remember the number of days in each month. Months with 31 days are represented by the protruding knuckles and shorter months fall in the spots between knuckles.
• Chunking: Another strategy is chunking, where you organize information into manageable bits or chunks, such as turning a phone number you remember into chunks.
• Connect new information to old information: It’s easier to remember new information if you can connect it to old information, a familiar frame of reference, or a personal experience.
• Get quality sleep: Although some people require more or less sleep than the recommended amount, most people should aim for six to eight hours every night.
Contributors and Attributions
18. Memory and Information Processing by Laura Lucas is licensed under CC BY 4.0
19. Memory and Information Processing by Laura Lucas is licensed under CC BY 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/14%3A_Adolescence_-_Cognitive_Development/14.04%3A_Information_Processing_Theory-_Memory_Encoding_and_Storage.txt |
Cognitive growth and a new found sense of freedom and independence makes it both easier and more difficult for teens when making choices and coping with upcoming transitions and life decisions.
Academic Achievement, High School Dropouts, and Gap Years
As Adolescents grow older, they encounter age-related transition points that require them to progress into a new role, such as go to college, take a year off or Gap Year, or start to work towards a career. Educational expectations vary not only from culture to culture but also from class to class. While middle- or upper-class families may expect their daughter or son to attend a four-year university after graduating from high school, other families may expect their child to immediately begin working full-time, as many within their families have done before. 21
Academic Achievement
Adolescents spend more waking time in school than in any other context (Eccles & Roeser, 2011). Academic achievement during adolescence is predicted by interpersonal (e.g., parental engagement in adolescents’ education), intrapersonal (e.g., intrinsic motivation), and institutional (e.g., school quality) factors. Academic achievement is important in its own right as a marker of positive adjustment during adolescence but also because academic achievement sets the stage for future educational and occupational opportunities. The most serious consequence of school failure, particularly dropping out of school, is the high risk of unemployment or underemployment in adulthood that follows. High achievement can set the stage for college or future vocational training and opportunities. 22
High School Dropouts
The status dropout rate refers to the percentage of 16 to 24 year-olds who are not enrolled in school and do not have high school credentials (either a diploma or an equivalency credential such as a General Educational Development [GED] certificate). The dropout rate is based on sample surveys of the civilian, non- institutionalized population, which excludes persons in prisons, persons in the military, and other persons not living in households. 23 The dropout rate among high school students has declined from a rate of 9.7% in 2006 to 5.4% in 2017. 24
Gap Year: How: different Societies Socialize Young Adults
Age transition points require socialization into new roles that can vary widely between societies. For example, in the United Kingdom, when teens finish their secondary schooling (aka high school in the United States), they often take a year “off” before entering college. Frequently, they might take a job, travel, or find other ways to experience another culture. Prince William, the Duke of Cambridge, spent his gap year practicing survival skills in Belize, teaching English in Chile, and working on a dairy farm in the United Kingdom (Prince of Wales 2012a). His brother, Prince Harry, advocated for AIDS orphans in Africa and worked as a jackeroo (a novice ranch hand) in Australia (Prince of Wales 2012b).
In the United States, this life transition point is socialized quite differently, and taking a year off is generally frowned upon. Instead, U.S. youth are encouraged to pick career paths by their mid-teens, to select a college and a major by their late teens, and to have completed all collegiate schooling or technical training for their career by their early twenties.
In other nations, this phase of the life course is tied into conscription, a term that describes compulsory military service. Egypt, Switzerland, Turkey, and Singapore all have this system in place. Youth in these nations (often only the males) are expected to undergo a number of months or years of military training and service. 27
Adolescents in the Workforce
Many adolescents work either summer jobs, or during the school year, or may work in lieu of college. Holding a job may offer teenagers extra funds, provide the opportunity to learn new skills, foster ideas about future careers, and perhaps shed light on the true value of money. However, there are numerous concerns about teenagers working, especially during the school year. Several studies have found that working more than 20 hours per week can lead to declines in grades, a general disengagement from school (Staff, Schulenberg, & Bachman, 2010; Lee & Staff, 2007; Marsh & Kleitman, 2005), an increase in substance abuse (Longest & Shanahan, 2007), engaging in earlier sexual behavior, and pregnancy (Staff et al., 2011). Like many employee groups, teens have seen a drop in the number of jobs. The summer jobs of previous generations have been on a steady decline, according to the United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (2016).
The Working Poor
A major concern in the United States is the rising number of young people who choose to work rather than continue their education and are growing up or continuing to grow up in poverty. Growing up poor or entering the workforce too soon, can cut off access to the education and services people need to move out of poverty and into stable employment. Research states that education was often a key to stability, and those raised in poverty are the ones least able to find well-paying work, perpetuating a cycle. Those who work only part-time, may it be teens or whomever, are more likely to be classified as working poor than are those with full-time employment; higher levels of education lead to less likelihood of being among the working poor. 29 In 2017, the working poor included 6.9 million Americans, down from 7.6 million in 2011 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2019). 30
Teenage Drivers
Driving gives teens a sense of freedom and independence from their parents. It can also free up time for parents as they are not shuttling teens to and from school, activities, or work. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) reports that in 2014 young drivers (15 to 20 year-olds) accounted for 5.5% (11.7 million) of the total number of drivers (214 million) in the US (National Center for Statistics and Analysis (NCSA), 2016). However, almost 9% of all drivers involved in fatal crashes that year were young drivers (NCSA, 2016), and according to the National Center for Health Statistics (2014), motor vehicle accidents are the leading cause of death for 15 to 20 year-olds. “In all motorized jurisdictions around the world, young, inexperienced drivers have much higher crash rates than older, more experienced drivers” (NCSA, 2016, p. 1).
The rate of fatal crashes is higher for young males than for young females, although for both genders the rate was highest for the 15-20-year-old age group. For young males, the rate for fatal crashes was approximately 46 per 100,000 drivers, compared to 20 per 100,000 drivers for young females. The NHTSA (NCSA, 2016) reported that of the young drivers who were killed and who had alcohol in their system, 81% had a blood alcohol count past what was considered the legal limit. Fatal crashes involving alcohol use were higher among young men than young women. The NHTSA also found that teens were less likely to use seat belt restraints if they were driving under the influence of alcohol, and that restraint use decreased as the level of alcohol intoxication increased.
AAA completed a study in 2014 that showed that the following are risk factors for accidents for teen drivers:
• Following cars too closely
• Driving too fast for weather and road conditions
• Distraction from fellow passengers
• Distraction from cell phones
According to the NHTSA, 10% of drivers aged 15 to 19 years involved in fatal crashes were reported to be distracted at the time of the crash; the highest figure for any age group (NCSA, 2016). Distraction coupled with inexperience has been found to greatly increase the risk of an accident (Klauer et al., 2014).
The NHTSA did find that the number of accidents has been on a decline since 2005. They attribute this to greater driver training, more social awareness to the challenges of driving for teenagers, and to changes in laws restricting the drinking age. The NHTSA estimates that the raising of the legal drinking age to 21 in all 50 states and the District of Columbia has saved 30,323 lives since 1975. 31
Contributors and Attributions
21. Content by Dawn Rymond is licensed under CC BY 4.0
22. Adolescent Development by Jennifer Lansford is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
23. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2015). The Condition of Education 2015 (NCES 2015-144), Status Dropout Rates.; Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
24. The Condition of Education by the National Center for Education Statistics is in the public domain
29. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
Work in the United States by OpenStax is licensed under CC BY 4.0
30. A profile of the working poor, 2017 by the BLS is in the public domain
31. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
14.06: Wisdom and Risk-Taking
Whether it is a sense heightened of ability (we’ve learned a lot about the egocentrism, personal fable, imaginary audience, or the lack of development of prefrontal cortex), or just poor decision making, many teens tend to take unnecessary risks. Wisdom, or the capacity for insight and judgment that is developed through experience, increases between the ages of 14 and 25 and increases with maturity, life experiences, and cognitive development. Wisdom increases gradually and is not the same as intelligence, and adolescents do not improve substantially on IQ tests since their scores are relative to others in their age group, as everyone matures at approximately the same rate. Adolescents must be monitored because they are more likely to take risks than adults. The behavioral decision-making theory proposes that adolescents and adults both weigh the potential rewards and consequences of an action. However, adolescents seem to give more weight to rewards, particularly social rewards, than do adults. Scaffolding adolescents until they show consistent and appropriate judgment will likely allow for fewer negative consequences. 33
Contributors and Attributions
33. Boundless Psychology – Human Development by Boundless.com is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
14.S: Summary
In this chapter we looked at:
• Piaget’s formal operational stage
• Moral Development and Morality of Care theories
• Memories in the Information Processing Theory
• Adolescent transitions and independence
In the next chapter we will be examining adolescent social emotional development. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/14%3A_Adolescence_-_Cognitive_Development/14.05%3A_Adolescence_%28A_Time_of_Transitions%29.txt |
learning objectives
After this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Compare Erikson and Marcia’s Theories
2. Explain Identity and Self-concept
3. Summarize the Stages of Ethnic Identity Development
4. Explain the Development of Gender Identity
5. Summarize Sexuality Identity and Orientation
6. Describe Antisocial Behaviors
7. Explain the Developmental Stage of Emerging Adulthood
Adolescents continue to refine their sense of self as they relate to others. Adolescent’s main questions are “Who am I?” and “Who do I want to be?” Some adolescents adopt the values and roles that their parents expect of them. Other teens develop identities that align more with the peer groups rather than their parents’ expectations. This is common as adolescents work to form their identities. They pull away from their parents and the peer group becomes very important (Shanahan, McHale, Osgood, & Crouter, 2007). Despite spending less time with their parents, most teens report positive feelings toward them (Moore, Guzman, Hair, Lippman, & Garrett, 2004). Warm and healthy parent-child relationships have been associated with positive outcomes for the adolescent, such as better grades and fewer school behavior problems, in the United States as well as in other countries (Hair et al., 2005). 1
• 15.1: Erik Erikson – Theory of Psychosocial Development
Erikson proposed that each period of life has a unique challenge or crisis that a person must face. This is referred to as a psychosocial development. According to Erikson, successful development involves dealing with and resolving the goals and demands of each of these crises in a positive way. These crises are usually called stages, although that is not the term Erikson used. If a person does not resolve a crisis successfully, it may hinder their ability to deal with later crises.
• 15.2: James Marcia – Theory of Identity Development
One approach to assessing identity development was proposed by James Marcia. In his approach, adolescents are asking questions regarding their exploration of and commitment to issues related to occupation, politics, religion, and sexual behavior. Studies assessing how teens pass through Marcia’s stages show that although most teens eventually succeed in developing a stable identity, the path to it is not always easy and there are many routes that can be taken.
• 15.3: Development of Identity and Self Concept - Who am I?
Developmental psychologists have researched several different areas of identity development for adolescence and some of the main areas include:
• 15.4: Development of Gender Identity
From birth, children are assigned a gender and are socialized to conform to certain gender roles based on their biological sex. “Sex,” refers to physical or physiological differences between males, females, and intersex persons, including both their primary and secondary sex characteristics. “Gender,” on the other hand, refers to social or cultural distinctions associated with a given sex.
• 15.5: Socialization Agents During Adolescence
Adolescence is a crucial period in social development, research shows there are four main types of relationships that influence an adolescent: parents, peers, community, and society.
• 15.6: Community, Society, and Culture
There are certain characteristics of adolescent development that are more rooted in culture than in human biology or cognitive structures. Culture is learned and socially shared, and it affects all aspects of an individual’s life. Social responsibilities, sexual expression, and belief-system development, for instance, are all likely to vary based on culture. Furthermore, many distinguishing characteristics of an individual are all products of culture.
• 15.7: Media- Influences on Teens
Media is another agent of socialization that influences our political views; our tastes in popular culture; our views of women, people of color, and the LGBTQ+ community; and many other beliefs and practices. In an ongoing controversy, the media is often blamed for youth violence and many other of society’s ills. The average child sees thousands of acts of violence on television and in the movies before reaching young adulthood.
• 15.8: Development of Sexual Identity
Adolescence is the developmental period during which romantic relationships typically first emerge. By the end of adolescence, most American teens have dated others and have had at least one romantic relationship. Dating serves many purposes for teens, including having fun, companionship, status, socialization, intimacy, sexual experimentation, and partner selection for those in late adolescence.
• 15.9: Antisocial Behavior in Adolescence
Bullying is defined as unwanted, aggressive behavior among school aged children that involves a real or perceived power imbalance. Further, the aggressive behavior happens more than once or has the potential to be repeated. There are different types of bullying.
• 15.10: Antisocial Behaviors, Violence, and Child Abuse
"Most kids will act up or become disruptive or defiant sometimes. Disruptive and conduct disorders, however, involve much more severe and longer-lasting behaviors than typical, short-lived episodes. Disruptive, impulse-control and conduct disorders refer to a group of disorders that include oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, intermittent explosive disorder, kleptomania and pyromania. These disorders can cause people to behave angrily or aggressively toward people or property."
• 15.11: Violence and Abuse
Violence and abuse are among the most disconcerting of the challenges that today’s families face. Abuse can occur between spouses, between parent and child, as well as between other family members. The frequency of violence among families is difficult to determine because many cases of spousal abuse and child abuse go unreported. In any case, studies have shown that abuse (reported or not) has a major impact on families and society as a whole.
• 15.12: Emerging Adulthood - The Bridge Between Adolescence and Adulthood
The next stage of development is emerging adulthood and is characterized as an in-between time where identity exploration is focused on work and love, which occurs from approximately 18 years of age to the mid to late 20s.
• 15.S: Summary
Thumbnail: pixabay.com/photos/love-coup...young-1716825/
15: Adolescence - Social Emotional Development
Erikson proposed that each period of life has a unique challenge or crisis that a person must face. This is referred to as a psychosocial development. According to Erikson, successful development involves dealing with and resolving the goals and demands of each of these crises in a positive way. These crises are usually called stages, although that is not the term Erikson used. If a person does not resolve a crisis successfully, it may hinder their ability to deal with later crises. For example, an individual who does not develop a clear sense of purpose and identity (Erikson’s fifth crisis - Identity vs. Role Confusion) may become self-absorbed and stagnate rather than working toward the betterment of others (Erikson’s seventh crisis -Generativity vs. Stagnation). However, most individuals are able to successfully complete the eight crises of his theory. 3
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Identity vs. Role Confusion is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. In adolescence, children (ages 12–18) face the task of identity vs. role confusion. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity. Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do with my life?” Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit; they explore various roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their “adult” selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other people’s perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, or are pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the future, they may develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They will be unsure of their identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role will likely struggle to “find” themselves as adults. 4
Erikson saw this as a period of confusion and experimentation regarding identity and how one navigates along life’s path. During adolescence, we experience psychological moratorium, where teens put their current identity on hold while they explore their options for identity. The culmination of this exploration is a more coherent view of oneself. Those who are unsuccessful at resolving this stage may either withdraw further into social isolation or become lost in the crowd. However, more recent research suggests, that few leave this age period with identity achievement and that most identity formation occurs during young adulthood (Côtè, 2006). 5
Contributors and Attributions
3. Introduction to Psychology by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
4. Education, Society, & the K-12 Learner – Part II: Educational Psychology references Modification of Erickson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development by Boundless, which is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
5. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/15%3A_Adolescence_-_Social_Emotional_Development/15.01%3A_Erik_Erikson__Theory_of_Psychosocial_Development.txt |
One approach to assessing identity development was proposed by James Marcia. In his approach, adolescents are asking questions regarding their exploration of and commitment to issues related to occupation, politics, religion, and sexual behavior. Studies assessing how teens pass through Marcia’s stages show that although most teens eventually succeed in developing a stable identity, the path to it is not always easy and there are many routes that can be taken. Some teens may simply adopt the beliefs of their parents or the first role that is offered to them, perhaps at the expense of searching for other more promising possibilities (foreclosure status). Other teens may spend years trying on different possible identities (moratorium status) before finally choosing one. 6
Marcia identified four identity statuses that represent the four possible combinations of the dimension of commitment and exploration. 7
Table \(1\): Identity Status
Identity Status Description 8
Identity-Diffusion status is a status that characterizes those who have neither explored the options, nor made a commitment to an identity. The individual does not have firm commitments regarding the issues in question and is not making progress toward them. Those who persist in this identity may drift aimlessly with little connection to those around them or have little sense of purpose in life.
Identity-Foreclosure status is the status for those who have made a commitment to an identity without having explored the options. The individual has not engaged in any identity experimentation and has established an identity based on the choices or values of others. Some parents may make these decisions for their children and do not grant the teen the opportunity to make choices. In other instances, teens may strongly identify with parents and others in their life and wish to follow in their footsteps.
Identity-Moratorium status is a status that describes those who are exploring in an attempt to establish an identity but have yet to have made any commitment. The individual is exploring various choices but has not yet made a clear commitment to any of them. This can be an anxious and emotionally tense time period as the adolescent experiments with different roles and explores various beliefs. Nothing is certain and there are many questions, but few answers.
Identity-Achievement status refers to the status for those who, after exploration, have made a commitment. The individual has attained a coherent and committed identity based on personal decisions. This is a long process and is not often achieved by the end of adolescence
The least mature status, and one common in many children, is identity diffusion. During high school and the college years, teens and young adults move from identity diffusion and foreclosure toward moratorium and achievement. The biggest gains in the development of identity are in college, as college students are exposed to a greater variety of career choices, lifestyles, and beliefs. This is likely to spur on questions regarding identity. A great deal of the identity work we do in adolescence and young adulthood is about values and goals, as we strive to articulate a personal vision or dream for what we hope to accomplish in the future (McAdams, 2013). 9
To help them work through the process of developing an identity, teenagers may try out different identities in different social situations. They may maintain one identity at home and a different type of persona when they are with their peers. Eventually, most teenagers do integrate the different possibilities into a single self-concept and a comfortable sense of identity (identity-achievement status). For teenagers, the peer group provides valuable information about the self-concept. For instance, in response to the question “What were you like as a teenager? (e.g., cool, nerdy, awkward?),” posed on the website Answerbag, one teenager replied in this way:
I’m still a teenager now, but from 8th -9th grade I didn’t really know what I wanted at all. I was smart, so I hung out with the nerdy kids. I still do; my friends mean the world to me. But in the middle of 8th grade I started hanging out with which you may call the “cool” kids...and I also hung out with some stoners, just for variety. I pierced various parts of my body and kept my grades up. Now, I’m just trying to find who I am. I’m even doing my sophomore year in China so I can get a better view of what I want. (Answerbag, 2007). What were you like as a teenager? (e.g., cool, nerdy, awkward?). (Quoted from dojokills on http://www.answerbag.com/q_view/171753)
A big part of what the adolescent is learning is social identity, the part of the self-concept that is derived from one’s group memberships. Adolescents define their social identities according to how they are similar to and different from others, finding meaning in the sports, religious, school, gender, and ethnic categories they belong to. 10
Contributors and Attributions
6. Introduction to Psychology by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
7. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
8. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
9. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0; Table adapted from Marcia, J. (1980). Identity in adolescence. Handbook of adolescent psychology, 5, 145
10. Introduction to Psychology by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/15%3A_Adolescence_-_Social_Emotional_Development/15.02%3A_James_Marcia__Theory_of_Identity_Development.txt |
Developmental psychologists have researched several different areas of identity development for adolescence and some of the main areas include:
Religious Identity
The religious views of teens are often similar to those of their families (Kim- Spoon, Longo, & McCullough, 2012). Most teens may question specific customs, practices, or ideas in the faith of their parents, but few completely reject the religion of their families.
Political Identity
The political ideology of teens is also influenced by their parents’ political beliefs. A new trend in the 21st century is a decrease in party affiliation among adults. Many adults do not align themselves with either the democratic or republican party, but view themselves as more of an “independent”. Their teenage children are often following suit or becoming more apolitical (Côtè, 2006).
Vocational Identity
While adolescents in earlier generations envisioned themselves as working in a particular job and often worked as an apprentice or part-time, this is rarely the case today. Vocational identity takes longer to develop, as most of today’s occupations require specific skills and knowledge that will require additional education or are acquired on the job itself. In addition, many of the jobs held by teens are not in professions that most teens will seek as adults.
Gender Identity
This is also becoming an increasingly prolonged task as attitudes and norms regarding gender keep changing. The roles appropriate for males and females are evolving. Some teens may foreclose on a gender identity as a way of dealing with this uncertainty, and they may adopt more stereotypic male or female roles (Sinclair & Carlsson, 2013). We will be looking more closely at gender identity later in the chapter. 19
Self-Concept and Self-Esteem
In adolescence, teens continue to develop their self-concept. Their ability to think of the possibilities and to reason more abstractly may explain the further differentiation of the self during adolescence. However, the teen’s understanding of self is often full of contradictions. Young teens may see themselves as outgoing but also withdrawn, happy yet often moody, and both smart and completely clueless (Harter, 2012). These contradictions, along with the teen’s growing recognition that their personality and behavior seem to change depending on who they are with or where they are, can lead the young teen to feel like a fraud. With their parents they may seem angrier and sullen, with their friends they are more outgoing and goofy, and at work they are quiet and cautious. “Which one is really me?” may be the refrain of the young teenager. Harter (2012) found that adolescents emphasize traits such as being friendly and considerate more than do children, highlighting their increasing concern about how others may see them. Harter also found that older teens add values and moral standards to their self-descriptions.
As self-concept develops, so does self-esteem. In addition to the academic, social, appearance, and physical/athletic dimensions of self-esteem in middle and late childhood, teens also add perceptions of their competency in romantic relationships, on the job, and in close friendships (Harter, 2006). Self-esteem often decreases when children transition from one school setting to another, such as shifting from elementary to middle school, or junior high to high school (Ryan, Shim, & Makara, 2013). These decreases are usually temporary, unless there are additional stressors such as parental conflict, or other family disruptions (De Wit, Karioja, Rye, & Shain, 2011). Self-esteem rises from mid to late adolescence for most teenagers, especially if they feel confident in their peer relationships, their appearance, and athletic abilities (Birkeland, Melkivik, Holsen, & Wold, 2012).
Contributors and Attributions
19. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/15%3A_Adolescence_-_Social_Emotional_Development/15.03%3A_Development_of_Identity_and_Self_Concept_-_Who_am_I.txt |
From birth, children are assigned a gender and are socialized to conform to certain gender roles based on their biological sex. “Sex,” refers to physical or physiological differences between males, females, and intersex persons, including both their primary and secondary sex characteristics. “Gender,” on the other hand, refers to social or cultural distinctions associated with a given sex.
When babies are born, they are assigned a gender based on their biological sex—male babies are assigned as boys, female babies are assigned as girls, and intersex babies are born with sex characteristics that do not fit the typical definitions for male or female bodies, and are usually relegated into one gender category or another. Scholars generally regard gender as a social construct, meaning that it doesn’t exist naturally but is instead a concept that is created by cultural and societal norms. From birth, children are socialized to conform to certain gender roles based on their biological sex and the gender to which they are assigned.22
A person’s subjective experience of their own gender and how it develops, or gender identity, is a topic of much debate. It is the extent to which one identifies with a particular gender; it is a person’s individual sense and subjective experience of being a man, a woman, or other gender. It is often shaped early in life and consists primarily of the acceptance (or non-acceptance) of one’s membership into a gender category. In most societies, there is a basic division between gender attributes assigned to males and females. In all societies, however, some individuals do not identify with some (or all) of the aspects of gender that are assigned to their biological sex.
Those that identify with the gender that corresponds to the sex assigned to them at birth (for example, they are assigned female at birth and continue to identify as a girl, and later a woman) are called cisgender. In many Western cultures, individuals who identify with a gender that is different from their biological sex (for example, they are assigned female at birth but feel inwardly that they are a boy or a gender other than a girl) are called transgender. Some transgender individuals, if they have access to resources and medical care, choose to alter their bodies through medical interventions such as surgery and hormonal therapy so that their physical being is better aligned with their gender identity.
Recent terms such as “genderqueer,” “genderfluid,” “gender variant,” “androgynous,” “agender,” and “gender nonconforming” are used by individuals who do not identify within the gender binary as either a man or a woman. Instead they identify as existing somewhere along a spectrum or continuum of genders, or outside of the spectrum altogether, often in a way that is continuously evolving.
The Gender Continuum
Viewing gender as a continuum allows us to perceive the rich diversity of genders, from trans-and cisgender to gender queer and agender. Most Western societies operate on the idea that gender is a binary, that there are essentially only two genders (men and women) based on two sexes (male and female), and that everyone must fit one or the other. This social dichotomy enforces conformance to the ideals of masculinity and femininity in all aspects of gender and sex—gender identity, gender expression, and biological sex.
According to supporters of queer theory, gender identity is not a rigid or static identity but can continue to evolve and change over time. Queer theory developed in response to the perceived limitations of the way in which identities are thought to become consolidated or stabilized (for instance, gay or straight) and theorists constructed queerness in an attempt to resist this. In this way, the theory attempts to maintain a critique rather than define a specific identity. While “queer” defies a simple definition, the term is often used to convey an identity that is not rigidly developed but is instead fluid and changing. 24
The Genderbread Person
In 2012, Sam Killerman created the Genderbread Person as an infographic to break down gender identity, gender expression, biological sex, and sexual orientation. 25 In 2018, he updated it to version 2.0 to be more accurate, and inclusive. 26
Gender Pronouns
Pronouns are a part of language used to refer to someone or something without using proper nouns. In standard English, some singular third-person pronouns are "he" and "she," which are usually seen as gender-specific pronouns, referring to a man and a woman, respectively. A gender-neutral pronoun or gender-inclusive pronoun is one that gives no implications about gender, and could be used for someone of any gender.
Some languages only have gender-neutral pronouns, whereas other languages have difficulty establishing any that aren't gender-specific. People with non-binary gender identities often choose new third-person pronouns for themselves as part of their transition. They often choose gender-neutral pronouns so that others won't see them as female or male. 28
Here is a table based on the Rainbow Coalition of Yellowknife’s Handy Guide to Pronouns:
Table \(1\): Guide to Pronouns (Rainbow Coalition of Yellowknife. (n.d). Handy Guide to Pronouns [PDF files]. Retrieved from http://www.rainbowcoalitionyk.org/resources/)
Pronouns Example
He/His/Him (masculine pronouns) He is going to the store to buy himself a hat. I saw him lose his old hat yesterday.
She/Her/Her (feminine pronouns) She is going to the store to buy herself a hat. I saw her lose her old hat yesterday.
They/Them/Their (gender-neutral pronouns) They are going to the store to buy themselves a hat. I saw them lose their old hat yesterday.
Factors that Influence Gender Identity
Although the formation of gender identity is not completely understood, many factors have been suggested as influencing its development. Biological factors that may influence gender identity include pre- and post-natal hormone levels and genetic makeup. Social factors include ideas regarding gender roles conveyed by family, authority figures, mass media, and other influential people in a child’s life. According to social-learning theory, children develop their gender identity through observing and imitating the gender-linked behaviors of others; they are then “rewarded” for imitating the behaviors of people of the same gender and “punished” for imitating the behaviors of another gender. For example, male children will often be rewarded for imitating their father’s love of baseball but punished or redirected in some way if they imitate their older sister’s love of dolls. Children are shaped and molded by the people surrounding them, who they try to imitate and follow.
Gender Roles
The term “gender role” refers to society’s concept of how men and women are expected to act. As we grow, we learn how to behave from those around us. In this socialization process, children are introduced to certain roles that are typically linked to their biological sex. The term “gender role” refers to society’s concept of how men and women are expected to act and behave. Gender roles are based on norms, or standards, created by society. In American culture, masculine roles have traditionally been associated with strength, aggression, and dominance, while feminine roles have traditionally been associated with passivity, nurturing, and subordination.
Gender Socialization
The socialization process in which children learn these gender roles begins at birth. Today, our society is quick to outfit male infants in blue and girls in pink, even applying these color-coded gender labels while a baby is in the womb. It is interesting to note that these color associations with gender have not always been what they are today. Up until the beginning of the 20th century, pink was actually more associated with boys, while blue was more associated with girls—illustrating how socially constructed these associations really are.
Gender socialization occurs through four major agents: family, education, peer groups, and mass media. Each agent reinforces gender roles by creating and maintaining normative expectations for gender-specific behavior. Exposure also occurs through secondary agents, such as religion and the workplace. Repeated exposure to these agents over time leads people into a false sense that they are acting naturally based on their gender rather than following a socially constructed role.
Gender Stereotypes, Sexism, and Gender-Role Enforcement
The attitudes and expectations surrounding gender roles are not typically based on any inherent or natural gender differences, but on gender stereotypes, or oversimplified notions about the attitudes, traits, and behavior patterns of males and females. We engage in gender stereotyping when we do things like making the assumption that a teenage babysitter is female.
While it is somewhat acceptable for women to take on a narrow range of masculine characteristics without repercussions (such as dressing in traditionally male clothing), men are rarely able to take on more feminine characteristics (such as wearing skirts) without the risk of harassment or violence. This threat of punishment for stepping outside of gender norms is especially true for those who do not identify as male or female.
Gender stereotypes form the basis of sexism or the prejudiced beliefs that value males over females. Common forms of sexism in modern society include gender-role expectations, such as expecting women to be the caretakers of the household. Sexism also includes people’s expectations of how members of a gender group should behave. For example, girls and women are expected to be friendly, passive, and nurturing; when she behaves in an unfriendly or assertive manner, she may be disliked or perceived as aggressive because she has violated a gender role (Rudman, 1998). In contrast, a boy or man behaving in a similarly unfriendly or assertive way might be perceived as strong or even gain respect in some circumstances. 31
Contributors and Attributions
24. Boundless Psychology - Gender and Sexuality references Curation and Revision by Boundless Psychology, which is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
25. The Genderbread Person by Sam Killermann is in the public domain
26. The Genderbread Person v2.0 by Sam Killermann is in the public domain
28. Pronouns by Nonbinary Wiki is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
31. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/15%3A_Adolescence_-_Social_Emotional_Development/15.04%3A_Development_of_Gender_Identity.txt |
Adolescence is a crucial period in social development, research shows there are four main types of relationships that influence an adolescent: parents, peers, community, and society.
Parents and Teens: Autonomy and Attachment
While most adolescents get along with their parents, they do spend less time with them (Smetana, 2011). This decrease in the time spent with families may be a reflection of a teenager’s greater desire for independence or autonomy. It can be difficult for many parents to deal with this desire for autonomy. However, it is normal for teenagers to increasingly distance themselves and establish relationships outside of their families in preparation for adulthood.
Children in middle and late childhood are increasingly given greater freedom regarding basic decision making. This continues in adolescence, as teens demand more and more control over the decisions that affect their daily lives. Teens believe they should manage the areas that parents previously had considerable control over, which can increase tension between parents and their teenagers. Their arguments often center on issues of a power struggle or conflict in areas such as chores, homework, curfew, dating, personal appearance, and the right to privacy.
As teens grow older, more compromise is reached between parents and teenagers (Smetana, 2011). Teens report more conflict with their mothers, as many mothers believe they should still have some control over many of these areas, yet often report their mothers to be more encouraging and supportive (Costigan, Cauce, & Etchison, 2007). Parents are more controlling of daughters, especially early maturing girls, than they are sons (Caspi, Lynam, Moffitt, & Silva, 1993). In addition, culture and ethnicity also play a role in how restrictive parents are with the daily lives of their children (Chen, Vansteenkiste, Beyers, Soensens, & Van Petegem, 2013). 33
Having supportive, less conflict ridden relationships with parents also benefits teenagers. Research on attachment in adolescence finds that teens who are still securely attached to their parents have less emotional problems (Rawatlal, Kliewer & Pillay, 2015), are less likely to engage in drug abuse and other criminal behaviors (Meeus, Branje & Overbeek, 2004), and have more positive peer relationships (Shomaker & Furman, 2009). This means that both parents and teenagers need to strike a balance between autonomy, while still maintaining close and caring familial relationships. 34
The Parent-Child Relationship
The relationship with parents may be a mitigating factor of the negative influence by peers. Communicating family rules and parental style have been inversely associated to substance, alcohol, and tobacco consumption during adolescence. This influence is essential for adolescents’ development up to adulthood. Communication between parents and adolescents emerges as a protective factor for alcohol, tobacco, and substance use (Newman, Harrison & Dashiff, 2008).
Sen (2010) observed that family meals could lead to creating a closer relation between parents and adolescents, by strengthening a positive relationship and avoiding certain risk behaviors, such as substance use amongst girls and alcohol consumption, physical violence, and robberies, amongst boys. These differences between genders may be due to a greater importance that girls attribute to family activities but they do not reveal that boys are indifferent to them, only that the relation between genders may differ. Huebner and Howell (2003) verified that parental monitoring and communication with parents protected adolescents of both genders from being involved in risk behaviors.
Parental monitoring can be defined as parents’ knowledge about their children’s activities, who they hang out with and what they do. It has been associated to protection of various risk behaviors throughout adolescence, such as substance use or sexual behaviors. The greater the parental monitoring, the lower the adolescents’ involvement in risk behavior. It may vary according to age, gender or ethnicity and it generally decreases with age (Westling, Andrews, Hampson & Peterson, 2008). 36
Peer Relationships
In addition, peers also serve as an important source of social support and companionship during adolescence. As children become adolescents, they usually begin spending more time with their peers and less time with their families, and these peer interactions are increasingly unsupervised by adults. The level of influence that peers can have over an adolescent makes these relationships particularly important in their personal development. Adolescents with positive peer relationships are happier and better adjusted than those who are socially isolated or have conflictual peer relationships.
Adolescents’ notions of friendship increasingly focus on intimate exchanges of thoughts and feelings, which are important to forming friendships; these high quality friendships may enhance a child’s development regardless of the particular characteristics of those friends. In addition, peers also serve as an important source of social support and companionship during adolescence.
The peer group may serve as a model and influence behaviors and attitudes and also provide easy access, encouragement and an appropriate social setting for consumption (Glaser, Shelton & Bree, 2010). Social Learning Theory suggests that it is not necessary for adolescents to observe a given behavior and adopt it; it is sufficient to perceive that the peer group accepts it, in order to be able to opt for similar behaviors (Petraitis, Flay & Miller, 1995). 37
Peers can serve both positive and negative functions during adolescence. Relationships with peers are valuable opportunities for adolescents to practice their social and conflict resolution skills. But negative peer pressure can lead adolescents to make riskier decisions or engage in more problematic behavior than they would alone or in the presence of their family. One of the most widely studied aspects of adolescent peer influence is known as deviant peer contagion (Dishion & Tipsord, 2011), which is the process by which peers reinforce problem behavior by laughing or showing other signs of approval that then increase the likelihood of future problem behavior. 38
Peers may strongly determine preference in the way of dressing, speaking, using illicit substances, sexual behavior, adopting and accepting violence, adopting criminal and anti-social behaviors, and in many other areas of the adolescent’s life (Padilla, Walker & Bean, 2009; Tomé, Matos & Diniz, 2008). An example of this is that the main motives for alcohol consumption given by adolescents are related to social events, which usually take place in the company of friends, namely: drinking makes holidays more fun, it facilitates approaching others, it helps relaxing or facilitates sharing experiences and feelings (Kuntsche, Knibbe, Gmel & Engels, 2005). Also, mimicking risk behaviors may be greater when consumption begins in the context of a social event (Larsen, Engels, Souren, Granic & Overbeek, 2010).
On the other hand, having friends allows to share experiences and feelings and to learn how to solve conflicts. Not having friends, on the other hand, leads to social isolation and limited social contacts, as there are fewer opportunities to develop new relations and social interactional skills.
Friendship is also positively associated to psychological well-being (Ueno, 2004), Stronger friendships may provide adolescents with an appropriate environment to development in a healthy way and to achieve good academic results. Adolescents with reciprocal friendships mention high levels of feelings of belonging in school; at the same time, reciprocity and feelings of belonging have positive effects in academic results (Vaquera & Kao, 2008).
School is a setting where interpersonal relations are promoted, which are important for youngsters’ personal and social development (Ruini et al., 2009); it is responsible for the transmission of behavioral norms and standards and it represents an essential role in the adolescent’s socialization process. The school is able to gather different peer communities and to promote self-esteem and a harmonious development between adolescents, which makes it a privileged space for meetings and interactions (Baptista, Tomé, Matos, Gaspar & Cruz, 2008). Adolescents spend a great part of their time at school, which also makes it a privileged context for involvement in or protection from risk behaviors (Piko & Kovács, 2010). Camacho, Tomé, Matos, Gamito and Diniz (2010) confirmed that adolescents who like school were those that more often were part of a peer group without involvement in risk behaviors; while those that mentioned they did not have any friends reported that they liked school less and those in conflict with their peers had more negative health outcomes.
Despite the positive influence of the peer group during adolescence, the higher the adolescent’s autonomy from the peer group, the higher their resilience against its influence. This resilience seems to increase with age, which may mean that it is associated with youngsters’ maturity; and girls emerge in several studies as more resilient than boys (Sumter, Bokhorst, Steinberg & Westenberg, 2009).
Another factor that may be found in the influence of the peer group is the type of friendship, which adolescents maintain with their peer group: if friends are close they have a greater influence on the other’s behaviors (Glaser, Shelton & Bree, 2010). When the friendship is perceived as reciprocal and of quality, exerts greater influence (Mercken, Snijders, Steglich, Vartiainen & Vries, 2010). Another factor, which has been identified as a possible way of decreasing peer influence, is assertive refusal. Adolescents that are able to maintain an assertive refusal are less susceptible to the group’s influence (Glaser, Shelton & Bree, 2010). These are only some variables identified as possible factors decreasing peer influence. 41
Peers in Groups
During adolescence, it is common to have friends of the opposite sex much more than in childhood, peer groups evolve from primarily single-sex to mixed-sex. Teens within a peer group tend to be similar to one another in behavior and attitudes, which has been explained as a function of homophily, that is, adolescents who are similar to one another choose to spend time together in a “birds of a feather flock together” way. Adolescents who spend time together also shape each other’s behavior.
Crowds are an emerging level of peer relationships in adolescence. In contrast to friendships, which are reciprocal dyadic relationships, and cliques, which refer to groups of individuals who interact frequently, crowds are characterized by shared reputations or images (who people think they are). Crowds refer to different collections of people, like the “theater kids” or the “environmentalists.” In a way, they are kind of like clothing brands that label the people associated with that crowd. 42
Contributors and Attributions
33. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
34. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
36. How Can Peer Group Influence the Behavior of Adolescents: Explanatory Model by Gina Tomé, Margarida Matos, Celeste Simões, José Diniz, and Inês Camacho is licensed under CC BY 4.0
37. How Can Peer Group Influence the Behavior of Adolescents: Explanatory Model by Gina Tomé, Margarida Matos, Celeste Simões, José Diniz, and Inês Camacho is licensed under CC BY 4.0
38. Boundless Psychology - Adolescence references Curation and Revision by Boundless Psychology, which is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
41. How Can Peer Group Influence the Behavior of Adolescents: Explanatory Model by Gina Tomé, Margarida Matos, Celeste Simões, José Diniz, and Inês Camacho is licensed under CC BY 4.0
42. Lifespan Development – Module 7: Adolescence by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/15%3A_Adolescence_-_Social_Emotional_Development/15.05%3A_Socialization_Agents_During_Adolescence.txt |
There are certain characteristics of adolescent development that are more rooted in culture than in human biology or cognitive structures. Culture is learned and socially shared, and it affects all aspects of an individual’s life. Social responsibilities, sexual expression, and belief-system development, for instance, are all likely to vary based on culture. Furthermore, many distinguishing characteristics of an individual (such as dress, employment, recreation, and language) are all products of culture.
Many factors that shape adolescent development vary by culture. For instance, the degree to which adolescents are perceived as autonomous, or independent beings varies widely in different cultures, as do the behaviors that represent this emerging autonomy. The lifestyle of an adolescent in a given culture is also profoundly shaped by the roles and responsibilities he or she is expected to assume. The extent to which an adolescent is expected to share family responsibilities, for example, is one large determining factor in normative adolescent behavior. Adolescents in certain cultures are expected to contribute significantly to household chores and responsibilities, while others are given more freedom or come from families with more privilege where responsibilities are fewer. Differences between families in the distribution of financial responsibilities or provision of allowance may reflect various socioeconomic backgrounds, which are further influenced by cultural norms and values.
Adolescents begin to develop unique belief systems through their interaction with social, familial, and cultural environments. These belief systems encompass everything from religion and spirituality to gender, sexuality, work ethics, and politics. The range of attitudes that a culture embraces on a particular topic affects the beliefs, lifestyles, and perceptions of its adolescents, and can have both positive and negative impacts on their development.
Development of Ethnic Identity
Adolescent development does not necessarily follow the same pathway for all individuals. Certain features of adolescence, particularly with respect to biological changes associated with puberty and cognitive changes associated with brain development, are relatively universal. But other features of adolescence depend largely on circumstances that are more environmentally variable. For example, adolescents growing up in one country might have different opportunities for risk-taking than adolescents in a different country, and supports and sanctions for different behaviors in adolescence depend on laws and values that might be specific to where adolescents live.
Different cultural norms regarding family and peer relationships shape adolescents’ experiences in these domains. For example, in some countries, adolescents’ parents are expected to remain in control over major decisions, whereas in other countries, adolescents are expected to begin sharing in or taking control of decision making . Even within the same country, adolescents’ gender, ethnicity, immigrant status, religion, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and personality can shape both how adolescents behave and how others respond to them, creating diverse developmental contexts for different adolescents. 47
Ethnic Identity refers to how people come to terms with who they are based on their ethnic or racial ancestry. “The task of ethnic identity formation involves sorting out and resolving positive and negative feelings and attitudes about one’s own ethnic group and about other groups and identifying one’s place in relation to both” (Phinney, 2006, p. 119). When groups differ in status in a culture—those from the non-dominant group have to be cognizant of the customs and values of those from the dominant culture. The reverse is rarely the case. This makes ethnic identity far less important for members of the dominant culture.
In the United States, those of European ancestry engage in less exploration of ethnic identity, than do those of non-European ancestry (Phinney, 1989). However, according to the U.S. Census (2012) more than 40% of Americans under the age of 18 are from ethnic minorities. For many ethnic minority teens, discovering one’s ethnic identity is an important part of identity formation. Phinney’s model of ethnic identity formation is based on Erikson and Marcia’s model of identity formation (Phinney, 1990; Syed & Juang, 2014). Through the process of exploration and commitment, individual’s come to understand and create an ethnic identity.
Phinney’s Three Stages or Statuses of Ethnic Identity
Phinney’s model of ethnic identity formation is based on Erikson’s and Marcia’s model of identity formation (Phinney, 1990; Syed & Juang, 2014). Through the process of exploration and commitment, individual’s come to understand and create an ethic identity. Phinney suggests three stages or statuses with regard to ethnic identity:
Table \(1\): Phinney’s Three Stages of Ethnic Identity
Stage Descriptions
Stage 1: Unexamined Ethnic Identity Adolescents and adults who have not been exposed to ethnic identity issues may be in the first stage, unexamined ethnic identity. This is often characterized with a preference for the dominant culture, or where the individual has given little thought to the question of their ethnic heritage. This is similar to diffusion in Marcia’s model of identity. Included in this group are also those who have adopted the ethnicity of their parents and other family members with little thought about the issues themselves, similar to Marcia’s foreclosure status (Phinney, 1990).
Stage 2: Ethnic Identity Search Adolescents and adults who are exploring the customs, culture, and history of their ethnic group are in the ethnic identity search stage, similar to Marcia’s moratorium status (Phinney, 1990). Often some event “awakens” a teen or adult to their ethnic group; either a personal experience with prejudice, a highly profiled case in the media, or even a more positive event that recognizes the contribution of someone from the individual’s ethnic group. Teens and adults in this stage will immerse themselves in their ethnic culture. For some, “it may lead to a rejection of the values of the dominant culture” (Phinney, 1990, p. 503).
Stage 3: Achieved Ethnic Identity Those who have actively explored their culture are likely to have a deeper appreciation and understanding of their ethnic heritage, leading to progress toward an achieved ethnic identity (Phinney, 1990). An achieved ethnic identity does not necessarily imply that the individual is highly involved in the customs and values of their ethnic culture. One can be confident in their ethnic identity without wanting to maintain the language or other customs.
The development of ethnic identity takes time, with about 25% of tenth graders from ethnic minority backgrounds having explored and resolved the issues (Phinney, 1989). The more ethnically homogeneous the high school, the less identity exploration and achievement (Umana-Taylor, 2003). Moreover, even in more ethnically diverse high schools, teens tend to spend more time with their own group, reducing exposure to other ethnicities. This may explain why, for many, college becomes the time of ethnic identity exploration. “[The] transition to college may serve as a consciousness-raising experience that triggers exploration” (Syed & Azmitia, 2009, p. 618).
It is also important to note that those who do achieve ethnic identity may periodically reexamine the issues of ethnicity. This cycling between exploration and achievement is common not only for ethnic identity formation, but in other aspects of identity development (Grotevant, 1987) and is referred to (from Marcia’s Theory: Stages of Identity) as MAMA cycling or moving back and forth between moratorium and achievement. 48
Bicultural/Multiracial Identity
Ethnic minorities must wrestle with the question of how, and to what extent, they will identify with the culture of their surroundings, thus society and with the culture of their family. Phinney (2006) suggests that people may handle it in different ways. Some may keep the identities separate, others may combine them in some way, while others may reject some of them.
Bicultural identity means individuals sees themselves as part of both the ethnic minority group and the larger society. Those who are multiracial, that is whose parents come from two or more ethnic or racial groups, have a more challenging task. In some cases their appearance may be ambiguous. This can lead to others constantly asking them to categorize themselves.
Phinney (2006) notes that the process of identity formation may start earlier and take longer to accomplish in those who are not monoracial or a single ethnicity. 49
Contributors and Attributions
47. Adolescent Development by Jennifer Lansford is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
48. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
49. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
15.07: Media- Influences on Teens
Media is another agent of socialization that influences our political views; our tastes in popular culture; our views of women, people of color, and the LGBTQ+ community; and many other beliefs and practices. In an ongoing controversy, the media is often blamed for youth violence and many other of society’s ills. The average child sees thousands of acts of violence on television and in the movies before reaching young adulthood. Rap lyrics often seemingly extol ugly violence, including violence against women. Commercials can greatly influence our choice of soda, shoes, and countless other products. The mass media may also reinforce racial and gender stereotypes, including the belief that women are sex objects and suitable targets of male violence. In the General Social Survey (GSS), about 28% of respondents said that they watch four or more hours of television every day, while another 46% watch 2-3 hours daily (see "Average Number of Hours of Television Watched Daily"). The media certainly are an important source of socialization that was unimaginable a half-century ago.
As the media socializes children, adolescents, and even adults, a key question is the extent to which media violence causes violence in our society. Studies consistently uncover a strong correlation between watching violent television shows and movies and committing violence. However, this does not necessarily mean that watching the violence actually causes violent behavior: perhaps people watch violence because they are already interested in it and perhaps even committing it. Scholars continue to debate the effect of media violence on youth violence. In a free society, this question is especially important, as the belief in this effect has prompted calls for monitoring the media and the banning of certain acts of violence. Civil libertarians argue that such calls smack of censorship that violates the First Amendment to the Constitution, while others argue that they fall within the First Amendment and would make for a safer society. Certainly, the concern and debate over mass media violence will continue for years to come. 52
Contributors and Attributions
52. Sociology: Brief Edition – Agents of Socialization by Steven E. Barkan is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/15%3A_Adolescence_-_Social_Emotional_Development/15.06%3A_Community_Society_and_Culture.txt |
Dating and Romantic Relationships
Adolescence is the developmental period during which romantic relationships typically first emerge. By the end of adolescence, most American teens have dated others and have had at least one romantic relationship (Dolgin, 2011). However, culture does play a role as Asian Americans and Latinas are less likely to date than other ethnic groups (Connolly, Craig, Goldberg, & Pepler, 2004). Dating serves many purposes for teens, including having fun, companionship, status, socialization, intimacy, sexual experimentation, and partner selection for those in late adolescence (Dolgin, 2011). There are several stages in the dating process, beginning with engaging in mixed-sex group activities in early adolescence (Dolgin, 2011).
Table \(1\): Romantic Relationships in Adolescence
Age Relationship
Early Adolescence Romantic relationships often form in the context of these mixed-sex peer groups (Connolly, Furman, & Konarski, 2000). Interacting in mixed-sex groups is easier for teens as they are among a supportive group of friends, can observe others interacting, and are kept safe from becoming intimate too soon.
Middle Adolescence By middle adolescence, teens are engaging in brief, casual dating, or in group dating with other couples (Dolgin, 2011).
Late Adolescence In late adolescence, dating involves exclusive, intense relationships that are short-lived or are long-term committed partnerships, either way their importance should not be minimized. Adolescents spend a great deal of time focused on romantic relationships or lack thereof. Their positive and negative emotions are tied to this intense interest more than they are to friendships, family relationships, or school (Furman & Shaffer, 2003).
Furthermore, romantic relationships are centrally connected to adolescents’ emerging sexuality. Parents, policymakers, and researchers have devoted a great deal of attention to adolescents’ sexuality, in large part because of concerns related to sexual intercourse, contraception, and preventing teen pregnancies. However, sexuality involves more than this narrow focus, for example, adolescence is often when individuals who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender come to understand and define what their sexual identity is (Russell, Clarke, & Clary, 2009). Thus, romantic relationships are a domain in which adolescents experiment with new behaviors and identities. 53
Violence by Someone You Know
Violence can be committed against someone that the victim knows well, referred to as an intimate, in many ways: an intimate can hit with their fists, slap with an open hand, throw an object, push or shove, or use or threaten to use a weapon. While we can never be certain of the exact number of intimates that are attacked, the U.S. Department of Justice estimates from its National Crime Victimization Survey that almost 600,000 acts of violence (2008 data) are committed annually by one intimate against another intimate. 55
According to a fact sheet from the National Coalition Against Domestic Violence that compiled the results of several studies:
• In 2013, 35% of 10th graders reported that they had been physically or verbally abused and 31% reported having perpetrated such abuse
• In 2014, 10% of teenage students in dating relationships reported being coerced into sexual intercourse in the previous year
• In 2015, 20.9% of female and 13.4% of male high school students reported being physically or sexually assaulted by a dating partner
• But only 33% of teenage dating abuse victims reported having ever told anyone about it (according to a 2005 study) 56
A 2010 report by the CDC shows the larger pictures of intimate partner violence
• 1 in 3 women and 1 in 4 women have been victims of some form of physical violence by an intimate partner in their lifetime
• 1 in 7 women and 1 in 18 men have been stalked by an intimate partner to the point that they were fearful for their safety 57
This topic is an important one because “domestic violence is prevalent in every community, and affects all people regardless of age, socio-economic status, sexual orientation, gender, race, religion, or nationality. Physical violence is often accompanied by emotionally abusive and controlling behavior as part of a much larger, systematic pattern of dominance and control. Domestic violence can result in physical injury, psychological trauma, and even death. The devastating consequences of domestic violence can cross generations and last a lifetime.” 59
Sexual Orientation
A person's sexual orientation is their emotional and sexual attraction to a particular sex or gender. A continuing pattern of romantic or sexual attraction (or a combination of these) to persons of a given sex or gender. According to the American Psychological Association (APA) (2016), sexual orientation also refers to a person's sense of identity based on those attractions, related behaviors, and membership in a community of others who share those attractions. Some specific orientation is defined in many ways, including heterosexuality (attraction to the opposite sex/gender), same-sex attraction (previously referred to as homosexuality, which is an outdated term that many people find offensive because it was previously classified as a mental illness), bisexuality, polysexuality, or pansexuality (attraction to two, multiple, or all sexes/genders respectively), and asexuality (no sexual attraction to any sex/gender).
Sexual Orientation on a Continuum
Sexuality researcher Alfred Kinsey was among the first to conceptualize sexuality as a continuum rather than a strict dichotomy of gay or straight. To classify this continuum of heterosexuality and homosexuality, Kinsey et al. (1948) created a seven-point rating scale that ranged from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual. Research done over several decades has supported this idea that sexual orientation ranges along a continuum, from exclusive attraction to the opposite sex/gender to exclusive attraction to the same sex/gender (Carroll, 2016).
A more contemporary look at sexual orientation as infinite variations of attraction. A closer examination of The Genderbread Person v2.0 introduced earlier in the chapter illustrates this:
Development of Sexual Orientation
According to current scientific understanding, individuals are usually aware of their sexual orientation between middle childhood and early adolescence. However, this is not always the case, and some do not become aware of their sexual orientation until much later in life. It is not necessary to participate in sexual activity to be aware of these emotional, romantic, and physical attractions; people can be celibate and still recognize their sexual orientation. Some researchers argue that sexual orientation is not static and inborn, but is instead fluid and changeable throughout the lifespan.
There is no scientific consensus regarding the exact reasons why an individual holds a particular sexual orientation. Research has examined possible biological, developmental, social, and cultural influences on sexual orientation, but there has been no evidence that links sexual orientation to one factor (APA, 2016). Biological explanations, that include genetics, hormones, and birth order, will be explored further. Excess or deficient exposure to hormones during prenatal development has also been theorized as an explanation for sexual orientation. One-third of females exposed to abnormal amounts of prenatal androgens, a condition called congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), identify as bisexual or lesbian (Cohen-Bendahan, van de Beek, & Berenbaum, 2005). In contrast, too little exposure to prenatal androgens may affect male sexual orientation (Carlson, 2011).
Sexual Orientation Discrimination: The United States is heteronormative, meaning that society supports heterosexuality as the norm. Consider, for example, that homosexuals are often asked, "When did you know you were gay?" but heterosexuals are rarely asked, "When did you know you were straight?" (Ryle, 2011). Living in a culture that privileges heterosexuality has a significant impact on the ways in which non-heterosexual people are able to develop and express their sexuality.
Understanding the Acronyms: LGBT, LGBTQ, LGBTQ+
The letters LGBT refer to a group of individuals that identify as Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender. This community includes a diverse group of people from all backgrounds, races, ethnicities, ages, and socioeconomic statuses.
A Little History LGB was used to replace the term, “Gay,” in the mid-1980s, but the acronym LGBT became common in the 1990s. However, recently the term has evolved with the preferred acronym to LGBTQ. The added “Q” means Questioning or Queer. The addition of “Q” as a term of questioning includes people that are in the process of exploring their gender or sexual orientation.
Additionally, the term, “Queer,” can be used as an umbrella term, as the community has accepted this word to represent anything outside of the dominant narrative. Queer is not specific to sexual orientation or gender identity and can be used to refer to the community as a whole. While Queer was used as a derogatory term for decades, it was reclaimed by the LGBTQ community in the 1990s with the rise of an organization called Queer Nation. As an activist group out of New York, Queer Nation opposed discrimination of the LGBTQ community and rejected the heteronormative ideals of society.
What does the plus sign mean? Recently LGBTQ is also used as LGBTQ+. The plus sign, “+” accounts for many additional identifications in the community, including transsexual, two-spirit, intersex, asexual, pansexual, and gender queer. Gender Queer is an umbrella term that can be used for all gender identities not exclusive to masculine or feminine, including gender fluid, agender, bigender, pan gender, gender free, genderless, gender variant, and gender non-conforming. The plus also includes allies or people in support of the LGBTQ community.
While LGBTQ+ or Queer are currently the most common terms, additionally the term, Rainbow Community, may be used. The important takeaway is that the community will continue to evolve, and the terminology will evolve with it. 62
Open identification of one's sexual orientation may be hindered by homophobia, which encompasses a range of negative attitudes and feelings toward homosexuality or people who are identified or perceived as being lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT). It can be expressed as antipathy, contempt, prejudice, aversion, or hatred; it may be based on irrational fear and is sometimes related to religious beliefs (Carroll, 2016). Homophobia is observable in critical and hostile behavior, such as discrimination and violence on the basis of sexual orientations that are non- heterosexual. Recognized types of homophobia include institutionalized homophobia, such as religious and state-sponsored homophobia, and internalized homophobia in which people with same-sex attractions internalize, or believe, society's negative views and/or hatred of themselves.
Gay, lesbian, and bisexual people regularly experience stigma, harassment, discrimination, and violence based on their sexual orientation (Carroll, 2016). Research has shown that gay, lesbian, and bisexual teenagers are at a higher risk of depression and suicide due to exclusion from social groups, rejection from peers and family, and negative media portrayals of homosexuals (Bauermeister et al., 2010). Discrimination can occur in the workplace, in housing, at schools, and in numerous public settings. Much of this discrimination is based on stereotypes and misinformation. Major policies to prevent discrimination based on sexual orientation have only come into effect in the United States in the last few years. 63
Adolescent Sexuality
Human sexuality refers to people's sexual interest in and attraction to others, as well as their capacity to have erotic experiences and responses. Sexuality may be experienced and expressed in a variety of ways, including thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors, practices, roles, and relationships. These may manifest themselves in biological, physical, emotional, social, or spiritual aspects. The biological and physical aspects of sexuality largely concern the human reproductive functions, including the human sexual-response cycle and the basic biological drive that exists in all species. Emotional aspects of sexuality include bonds between individuals that are expressed through profound feelings or physical manifestations of love, trust, and care. Social aspects deal with the effects of human society on one's sexuality, while spirituality concerns an individual's spiritual connection with others through sexuality. Sexuality also impacts, and is impacted by cultural, political, legal, philosophical, moral, ethical, and religious aspects of life.
The Human Sexual Response Cycle: Sexual motivation, often referred to as libido, is a person's overall sexual drive or desire for sexual activity. This motivation is determined by biological, psychological, and social factors. In most mammalian species, sex hormones control the ability to engage in sexual behaviors. However, sex hormones do not directly regulate the ability to have sexual intercourse or to copulate in primates (including humans); rather, they are only one influence on the motivation to engage in sexual behaviors. Social factors, such as work and family also have an impact, as do internal psychological factors like personality and stress. Sex drive may also be affected by hormones, medical conditions, medications, lifestyle stress, pregnancy, and relationship issues.
The human sexual response cycle is a model that describes the physiological responses that take place during sexual activity. According to Kinsey, Pomeroy, and Martin (1948), the cycle consists of four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.
Table \(2\): Human Sexual Response Cycle
Phase Description
Excitement Phase the phase in which the intrinsic (inner) motivation to pursue sex arises
Plateau Phase the period of sexual excitement with increased heart rate and circulation that sets the stage for orgasm
Orgasm Phase the climax
Resolution Phase the un-arousal state before the cycle begins again
Societal Views on Sexuality: Society's views on sexuality are influenced by everything from religion to philosophy, and they have changed throughout history and are continuously evolving. Historically, religion has been the greatest influence on sexual behavior in the United States; however, in more recent years, peers and the media have emerged as two of the strongest influences, particularly among American teens (Potard, Courtois, & Rusch, 2008).
Media Influences on Sexuality: Media in the form of television, magazines, movies, music, online, etc., continues to shape what is deemed appropriate or normal sexuality, targeting everything from body image to products meant to enhance sex appeal. Media serves to perpetuate a number of social scripts about sexual relationships and the sexual roles of men and women, many of which have been shown to have both empowering and problematic effects on people's (especially women's) developing sexual identities and sexual attitudes.
Cultural Differences with Sexuality: In the West, premarital sex is normative by the late teens, more than a decade before most people enter marriage. In the United States and Canada, and in northern and Eastern Europe, cohabitation is also normative; most people have at least one cohabiting partnership before marriage. In southern Europe, cohabiting is still taboo, but premarital sex is tolerated in emerging adulthood. In contrast, both premarital sex and cohabitation remain rare and forbidden throughout Asia. Even dating is discouraged until the late twenties, when it would be a prelude to a serious relationship leading to marriage. In cross-cultural comparisons, about three fourths of emerging adults in the United States and Europe report having had premarital sexual relations by age 20, versus less than one fifth in Japan and South Korea (Hatfield & Rapson, 2006). 65
Contributors and Attributions
53. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0; Lifespan Development – Module 7: Adolescence by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0
55. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
Lifespan Development – Module 7: Adolescence by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0
56. Dating Abuse and Teen Violence (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.speakcdn.com/assets/2497/dating_abuse_and_teen_violence_ncadv.pdf
57. Who is Doing What to Whom? Determining the Core Aggressor in Relationships Where Domestic Violence Exists. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.speakcdn.com/assets/2497/who_is_doing_what_to_whom.pdf
59. National Child Traumatic Stress Network. (n.d.). National Domestic Violence Awareness Month. Retrieved from https://www.nctsn.org/resources/public-awareness/national-domestic-violence-awareness-month
62. Understanding the Acronyms: LGBT, LGBTQ, LGBTQ+. (2019). Retrieved from https://www.horizon-health.org/blog/2019/01/understanding-the-acronym-lgbtq/.
63. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
Boundless Psychology - Gender and Sexuality references Curation and Revision by Boundless Psychology, which is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
65. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/15%3A_Adolescence_-_Social_Emotional_Development/15.08%3A_Development_of_Sexual_Identity.txt |
Bullies, Victims, and the Bystander
Bullying is defined as unwanted, aggressive behavior among school aged children that involves a real or perceived power imbalance. Further, the aggressive behavior happens more than once or has the potential to be repeated. There are different types of bullying. They are detailed in the table below.
Table \(1\): Types of Bullying
Type of Bullying Description
Verbal Bullying Includes saying or writing mean things, teasing, name calling, taunting, threatening, or making inappropriate sexual comments.
Social bullying (also referred to as relational bullying) Includes spreading rumors, purposefully excluding someone from a group, or embarrassing someone on purpose.
Physical Bullying Includes hurting a person’s body or possessions.
Cyberbullying Involves electronic technology. Examples of cyberbullying include sending mean text messages or emails, creating fake profiles, and posting embarrassing pictures, videos or rumors on social networking sites.
The Bystander Effect
The discussion of bullying highlights the problem of witnesses not intervening to help a victim. Researchers Latané and Darley (1968) described a phenomenon called the bystander effect. The bystander effect is a phenomenon in which a witness or bystander does not volunteer to help a victim or person in distress. Instead, they just watch what is happening. Social psychologists hold that we make these decisions based on the social situation, not our own personality variables. Why do you think bystanders don’t get help? What are the benefits to helping? What are the risks? It is very likely you listed more costs than benefits to helping. In many situations, bystanders likely feared for their own lives—if they went to help, the attacker might harm them. However, how difficult would it be to make a phone call to the police? Social psychologists claim that diffusion of responsibility is the likely explanation. Diffusion of responsibility is the tendency for no one in a group to help because the responsibility to help is spread throughout the group (Bandura, 1999). Have you ever passed an accident on the freeway and assumed that a victim or certainly another motorist has already reported the accident? In general, the greater the number of bystanders, the less likely any one person will help. 67
Contributors and Attributions
67. Psychology – 12.6 Aggression by OpenStax is licensed under CC BY 4.0
15.10: Antisocial Behaviors Violence and Child Abuse
Antisocial Behaviors
According to the American Academy of Psychiatry (2018),
Most kids will act up or become disruptive or defiant sometimes. Disruptive and conduct disorders, however, involve much more severe and longer-lasting behaviors than typical, short-lived episodes. Disruptive, impulse-control and conduct disorders refer to a group of disorders that include oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, intermittent explosive disorder, kleptomania and pyromania. These disorders can cause people to behave angrily or aggressively toward people or property. They may have difficulty controlling their emotions and behavior and may break rules or laws. An estimated 6 percent of children are affected by oppositional defiant disorder or conduct disorder. 68
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD): There is a recurrent pattern of negative, defiant, disobedient, and hostile behavior toward authority figures. It is important to remember that this is toward authority figures and not their peers. This occurs outside of normal developmental levels and leads to impairment in functioning (Lack, 2010). 69
Conduct Disorder (CD): Children with Conduct Disorder (CD) show acts of aggression towards others and animals. Children with conduct disorder (CD) usually show little to no compassion or concern for others or their feelings. Also, concern for the well-being of others is at a minimum. Children also perceive the actions and intentions of others as more harmful and threatening than they actually are and respond with what they feel is reasonable and justified aggression. They may lack feelings of guilt or remorse. Since these individuals learn that expressing guilt or remorse may help in avoiding or lessening punishment, it may be difficult to evaluate when their guilt or remorse is genuine. Individuals will also try and place blame on others for the wrong doings that they had committed.
Children with conduct disorders (CD) tend to have lower levels of self-esteem. Children diagnosed with conduct disorders (CD) are typically characterized as being easily irritable and often reckless, as well as having many temper tantrums despite their projected “tough” image portrayed to society. Conduct Disorder (CD) often accompanies early onset of sexual behavior, drinking, smoking, use of illegal drugs, and reckless acts. Illegal drug use may increase the risk of the disorder persisting. The disorder may lead to school suspension or expulsion, problems at work, legal difficulties, STD’s, unplanned pregnancy, and injury from fights or accidents. Suicidal ideation and attempts occur at a higher rate than expected. 71
Contributors and Attributions
68. What Are Disruptive, Impulse-Control and Conduct Disorders? (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/disruptive-impulse-control-and-conduct-disorders/what-are-disruptive-impulse-control-and-conduct-disorders.
69. Abnormal Psychology – Child Psychology references Abnormal Psychology: An e-text! by Caleb Lack, which is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
71. Abnormal Psychology – Child Psychology references Abnormal Psychology: An e-text! by Caleb Lack, which is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/15%3A_Adolescence_-_Social_Emotional_Development/15.09%3A_Antisocial_Behavior_in_Adolescence.txt |
Violence and abuse are among the most disconcerting of the challenges that today’s families face. Abuse can occur between spouses, between parent and child, as well as between other family members. The frequency of violence among families is difficult to determine because many cases of spousal abuse and child abuse go unreported. In any case, studies have shown that abuse (reported or not) has a major impact on families and society as a whole. 72
Adolescent Child Abuse
Children and teens are among the most helpless victims of abuse. In 2010, there were more than 3.3 million reports of child abuse involving an estimated 5.9 million children (Child Help 2011). Three-fifths of child abuse reports are made by professionals, including teachers, law enforcement personnel, and social services staff. The rest are made by anonymous sources, other relatives, parents, friends, and neighbors. Child abuse may come in several forms, the most common is neglect (78.3 %), followed by physical abuse (10.8 %), sexual abuse (7.6 %), psychological maltreatment (7.6 %), and medical neglect (2.4 %) (Child Help 2011). Some children suffer from a combination of these forms of abuse. The majority (81.2 %) of perpetrators are parents; 6.2 percent are other relatives. 73
Does Corporal Punishment Constitute Child Abuse?
Physical abuse in children may come in the form of beating, kicking, throwing, choking, hitting with objects, burning, or other methods. Injury inflicted by such behavior is considered abuse even if the parent or caregiver did not intend to harm the child. Other types of physical contact that are characterized as discipline (spanking, for example) are not considered abuse as long as no injury results (Child Welfare Information Gateway 2008).
This issue is rather controversial among modern-day people in the United States. While some parents feel that physical discipline, or corporal punishment, is an effective way to respond to bad behavior, others feel that it is a form of abuse. According to a poll conducted by ABC News, 65 percent of respondents approve of spanking and 50 percent said that they sometimes spank their child. But in the U.S., the majority of mental health professionals, as well as other professionals such as physicians and child welfare personnel, do not support the use of physical punishment.
Tendency toward physical punishment may be affected by culture and education. Those who live in the South are more likely than those who live in other regions to spank their child. Those who do not have a college education are also more likely to spank their child (Crandall 2011). Currently, 23 states officially allow spanking in the school system; however, many parents may object and school officials must follow a set of clear guidelines when administering this type of punishment (Crandall 2011).
Decades of research have yielded more than 500 studies examining the impact of physical punishment on children (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016). Within the past 15 years, several meta-analyses have attempted to synthesize this body of research. In a highly publicized meta-analysis, Gershoff (2002) concluded that physical punishment is not only ineffective, but also harmful. It may lead to aggression by the victim, particularly in those who are spanked at a young age (Berlin 2009).
Debates about parental use of physical punishment have been ongoing in the USA for decades. Calls to “move beyond” the research, or to “end the debate,” have become commonplace (e.g., Durrant & Ensom, 2017; MacMillan & Mikton, 2017). Three questions, it seems, sit at the center of these debates. Is physical punishment of children a Human Rights Issue? Is physical punishment effective? Is physical punishment harmful? 75
Contributors and Attributions
72. Lifespan Development – Module 7: Adolescence by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0
73. Introduction to Sociology 2e by OpenStax is licensed under CC BY 4.0
75. Challenges Families Face by OpenStax is licensed under CC BY 4.0
Physical punishment of children by US parents: moving beyond debate to promote children’s health and well-being by Cindy Miller Perrin and Robin Perrin is licensed under CC BY 4.0 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Child_Growth_and_Development_(Paris_Ricardo_Rymond_and_Johnson)/15%3A_Adolescence_-_Social_Emotional_Development/15.11%3A_Violence_and_Abuse.txt |
The next stage of development is emerging adulthood and is characterized as an in-between time where identity exploration is focused on work and love, which occurs from approximately 18 years of age to the mid to late 20s.
When does a person become an adult? There are many ways to answer this question. In the United States, you are legally considered an adult at 18 years old, but other definitions of adulthood vary widely; in sociology, for example, a person may be considered an adult when they become self-supporting, choose a career, get married, or start a family. The ages at which we achieve these milestones vary from person to person as well as from culture to culture. For example, 50 years ago, a young adult with a high school diploma could immediately enter the workforce and climb the corporate ladder. That is no longer the case, a Bachelor’s and even graduate degrees are required more and more often—even for entry-level jobs (Arnett, 2000). In addition, many students are taking longer (five or six years) to complete a college degree as a result of working and going to school at the same time. After graduation, many young adults return to the family home because they have difficulty finding a job.
This is a relatively newly defined period of lifespan development, Jeffrey Arnett (2000) explains that emerging adulthood is neither adolescence nor is it young adulthood. Individuals in this age period have left behind the relative dependency of childhood and adolescence, but have not yet taken on the responsibilities of adulthood. “Emerging adulthood is a time of life when many different directions remain possible when little about the future is decided for certain when the scope of independent exploration of life’s possibilities is greater for most people than it will be at any other period of the life course” (Arnett, 2000, p. 469). 77
Contributors and Attributions
77. Psychology – 9.3: Stages of Development by OpenStax is licensed under CC BY 4.0 ; Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
15.S: Summary
In this chapter we finished our exploration of childhood and adolescence having looked at:
• Theories from Erikson and Marcia
• Self -concept and identity
• Gender identity
• Ethnic identity
• Sexuality
• Parent and adolescent relationships
• Peers and peer groups
• Antisocial behaviors
• Emerging adulthood
Videos
Mini-Lecture Videos for Child Growth and Development OER Textbook
These captioned videos were created by Jennifer Paris and are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This list of videos will continue to expand as new videos are created.
Questions: Email me at [email protected]
Chapter 1:
Periods of Development (1:50): https://www.3cmediasolutions.org/privid/126899?key=bea14ea9cfaef0cc9732ed5545cd28695bd97dc7
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Principles of Development (3:11): https://www.3cmediasolutions.org/privid/126900?key=db61c0c07e3eec764087a2dc6cbc02fb8cf46e85
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Chapter 2:
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Prenatal Development (23:12)
https://www.3cmediasolutions.org/privid/128419?key=bc16f1ccd28810ab71a6d1123bcedcd36d7935ed
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Chapter 3:
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Chapter 4:
Physical Development During Infancy and Toddlerhood (8:48): https://www.3cmediasolutions.org/privid/129472?key=9a47e416c29948b3cf64431c17dbd160c4f6126a
Embed Code: <iframe title="Physical Development During Infancy and Toddlerhood Mini-Lecture" src="https://vod.ccctechconnect.org/veo/1...dbd160c4f6126a" width="640" height="360" scrolling="no" allowfullscreen frameborder="0"></iframe>
Nutrition in Infancy and Toddlerhood (8:25): https://www.3cmediasolutions.org/privid/129473?key=5252264eaec2c923018134e9f7e8a1ff099ed6d7
Embed Code: <iframe title="Nutrition in Infancy and Toddlerhood Mini-Lecture" src="https://vod.ccctechconnect.org/veo/1...e8a1ff099ed6d7" width="640" height="360" scrolling="no" allowfullscreen frameborder="0"></iframe>
Safety in Infancy
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Health in Infancy and Toddlerhood (8:06)
https://www.3cmediasolutions.org/privid/129474?key=48ec88e28bfd03af179bbf68f68f1f5b4c37cb51
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Chapter 5:
Theories of Learning and Memory (8:57): https://www.3cmediasolutions.org/privid/129784?key=209522ed332365bc37297dee2fe984d27b90a9a8
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Language Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood (8:17): https://www.3cmediasolutions.org/privid/129783?key=8edb041a68efa70e170829a4836e72d54104d7f4
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Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood (8:16)
https://www.3cmediasolutions.org/privid/129782?key=b251d7cdfd7d5ccc0eae3a86cc67e6b9ceaedb4f
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Chapter 6:
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Chapter 7:
Physical Development in Early Childhood (9:27): https://www.3cmediasolutions.org/privid/151132?key=fc9905dce18f0527a4d920f0e76e4190f6a5646d
Embed Code: <iframe title="Physical Development in Early Childhood" src="https://vod.ccctechconnect.org/veo/1...6e4190f6a5646d" width="640" height="360" scrolling="no" allowfullscreen frameborder="0"></iframe>
Chapter 8:
Piaget’s Preoperational Intelligence (6:52)
https://www.3cmediasolutions.org/privid/268546?key=f341281a96a25c0d2f273aeab605b88f179433b0
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Language Development in Early Childhood (5:38)
https://www.3cmediasolutions.org/privid/268547?key=4718f5bfed62f6ed9607d8f20f2c250f153dba08
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Chapter 9:
Understanding the Self in Early Childhood (7:27)
https://www.3cmediasolutions.org/privid/268548?key=d651d4fe1c360d25d06482204cb684c921cc69dd
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Chapter 10:
Physical Development in Middle Childhood (11:04)
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Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable and measurable aspects of human behavior. In defining behavior, behaviorist learning theories emphasize changes in behavior that result from stimulus-response associations made by the learner. John B. Watson (1878-1958) and B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) are the two principal originators of behaviorist approaches to learning. Watson believed that human behavior resulted from specific stimuli that elicited certain responses. Watson's basic premise was that conclusions about human development should be based on observation of overt behavior rather than speculation about subconscious motives or latent cognitive processes (Shaffer, 2000). Watson's view of learning was based in part on the studies of Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). Pavlov was well known for his research on a learning process called classical conditioning. Classical conditioning refers to learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a behavior. Skinner believed that that seemingly spontaneous action is regulated through rewards and punishment. Skinner believed that people don't shape the world, but instead, the world shapes them. Skinner also believed that human behavior is predictable, just like a chemical reaction. He is also well known for his "Skinner box," a tool to demonstrate his theory that rewarded behavior is repeated.
1.02: Required Reading
What is Behaviorism?
Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable and measurable aspects of human behavior. In defining behavior, behaviorist learning theories emphasize changes in behavior that result from stimulus-response associations made by the learner. Behavior is directed by stimuli. An individual selects one response instead of another because of prior conditioning and psychological drives existing at the moment of the action (Parkay & Hass, 2000).
Behaviorists assert that the only behaviors worthy of study are those that can be directly observed; thus, it is actions, rather than thoughts or emotions, which are the legitimate object of study. Behaviorist theory does not explain abnormal behavior in terms of the brain or its inner workings. Rather, it posits that all behavior is learned habits, and attempts to account for how these habits are formed.
In assuming that human behavior is learned, behaviorists also hold that all behaviors can also be unlearned, and replaced by new behaviors; that is, when a behavior becomes unacceptable, it can be replaced by an acceptable one. A key element to this theory of learning is the rewarded response. The desired response must be rewarded in order for learning to take place (Parkay & Hass, 2000).
In education, advocates of behaviorism have effectively adopted this system of rewards and punishments in their classrooms by rewarding desired behaviors and punishing inappropriate ones. Rewards vary, but must be important to the learner in some way. For example, if a teacher wishes to teach the behavior of remaining seated during the class period, the successful student's reward might be checking the teacher's mailbox, running an errand, or being allowed to go to the library to do homework at the end of the class period. As with all teaching methods, success depends on each student's stimulus and response, and on associations made by each learner.
Behaviorism Advocates
John B. Watson (1878-1958) and B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) are the two principal originators of behaviorist approaches to learning. Watson believed that human behavior resulted from specific stimuli that elicited certain responses. Watson's basic premise was that conclusions about human development should be based on observation of overt behavior rather than speculation about subconscious motives or latent cognitive processes (Shaffer, 2000). Watson's view of learning was based in part on the studies of Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). Pavlov was studying the digestive process and the interaction of salivation and stomach function when he realized that reflexes in the autonomic nervous system closely linked these phenomena. To determine whether external stimuli had an affect on this process, Pavlov rang a bell when he gave food to the experimental dogs. He noticed that the dogs salivated shortly before they were given food. He discovered that when the bell was rung at repeated feedings, the sound of the bell alone (a conditioned stimulus) would cause the dogs to salivate (a conditioned response). Pavlov also found that the conditioned reflex was repressed if the stimulus proved "wrong" too frequently; if the bell rang and no food appeared, the dog eventually ceased to salivate at the sound of the bell (Figure \(1\)).
Expanding on Watson's basic stimulus-response model, Skinner developed a more comprehensive view of conditioning, known as operant conditioning. His model was based on the premise that satisfying responses are conditioned, while unsatisfying ones are not. Operant conditioning is the rewarding of part of a desired behavior or a random act that approaches it (Figure \(2\)). Skinner remarked that "the things we call pleasant have an energizing or strengthening effect on our behavior" (Skinner, 1972, p. 74). Through Skinner's research on animals, he concluded that both animals and humans would repeat acts that led to favorable outcomes, and suppress those that produced unfavorable results (Shaffer, 2000). If a rat presses a bar and receives a food pellet, he will be likely to press it again. Skinner defined the bar-pressing response as operant, and the food pellet as a reinforcer. Punishers, on the other hand, are consequences that suppress a response and decrease the likelihood that it will occur in the future. If the rat had been shocked every time, it pressed the bar that behavior would cease. Skinner believed the habits that each of us develops result from our unique operant learning experiences (Shaffer, 2000).
Behaviorist techniques have long been employed in education to promote behavior that is desirable and discourage that which is not. Among the methods derived from behaviorist theory for practical classroom application are contracts, consequences, reinforcement, extinction, and behavior modification.
Contracts, Consequences, Reinforcement, and Extinction
Simple contracts can be effective in helping children focus on behavior change. The relevant behavior should be identified, and the child and counselor should decide the terms of the contract. Behavioral contracts can be used in school as well as at home. It is helpful if teachers and parents work together with the student to ensure that the contract is being fulfilled. Two examples of behavior contracts are listed below:
• A student is not completing homework assignments. The teacher and the student design a contract providing that the student will stay for extra help, ask parents for help, and complete assigned work on time. The teacher will be available after school, and during free periods for additional assistance.
• A student is misbehaving in class. The teacher and student devise a behavioral contract to minimize distractions. Provisions include that the student will be punctual, will sit in front of the teacher, will raise hand with questions/comments, and will not leave his seat without permission.
Consequences occur immediately after a behavior (Table \(1\)). Consequences may be positive or negative, expected or unexpected, immediate or long-term, extrinsic or intrinsic, material or symbolic (a failing grade), emotional/interpersonal or even unconscious. Consequences occur after the "target" behavior occurs, when either positive or negative reinforcement may be given. Positive reinforcement is presentation of a stimulus that increases the probability of a response. This type of reinforcement occurs frequently in the classroom. Teachers may provide positive reinforcement by:
• Smiling at students after a correct response;
• Commending students for their work;
• Selecting them for a special project; and
• Praising students' ability to parents.
Negative reinforcement increases the probability of a response that removes or prevents an adverse condition. Many classroom teachers mistakenly believe that negative reinforcement is punishment administered to suppress behavior; however, negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior, as does positive reinforcement. Negative implies removing a consequence that a student finds unpleasant. Negative reinforcement might include:
• Obtaining a score of 80% or higher makes the final exam optional;
• Submitting all assignments on time results in the lowest grade being dropped; and
• Perfect attendance is rewarded with a "homework pass."
Punishment involves presenting a strong stimulus that decreases the frequency of a particular response. Punishment is effective in quickly eliminating undesirable behaviors. Examples of punishment include:
• Students who fight are immediately referred to the principal;
• Late assignments are given a grade of "0;"
• Three tardies to class results in a call to the parents; and
• Failure to do homework results in after-school detention (privilege of going home is removed).
REINFORCEMENT
(Behavior Increases)
REINFORCEMENT
(Behavior Increases)
POSITIVE
(Something is added.)
Positive Reinforcement
Something is added to increase desired behavior.
Ex: Smile and compliment student on good performance.
Positive Punishment
Something is added to decrease undesired behavior.
Ex: Give student detention for failing to follow the class rules.
NEGATIVE
(Something is removed.)
Negative Reinforcement
Something is removed to increase desired behavior.
Ex: Give a free homework pass for turning in all assignments.
Negative Punishment
Something is removed to decrease undesired behavior.
Ex: Make student miss their time in recess for not following the class rules.
Table \(1\): Reinforcement and Punishment Comparison
Extinction decreases the probability of a response by contingent withdrawal of a previously reinforced stimulus. Examples of extinction are:
• A student has developed the habit of saying the punctuation marks when reading aloud. Classmates reinforce the behavior by laughing when he does so. The teacher tells the students not to laugh, thus extinguishing the behavior.
• A teacher gives partial credit for late assignments; other teachers think this is unfair; the teacher decides to then give zeros for the late work.
• Students are frequently late for class, and the teacher does not require a late pass, contrary to school policy. The rule is subsequently enforced, and the students arrive on time.
Modeling, Shaping, and Cueing
Modeling is also known as observational learning. Albert Bandura has suggested that modeling is the basis for a variety of child behavior. Children acquire many favorable and unfavorable responses by observing those around them. A child who kicks another child after seeing this on the playground, or a student who is always late for class because his friends are late is displaying the results of observational learning.
Shaping is the process of gradually changing the quality of a response. The desired behavior is broken down into discrete, concrete units, or positive movements, each of which is reinforced as it progresses towards the overall behavioral goal. In the following scenario, the classroom teacher employs shaping to change student behavior: the class enters the room and sits down, but continue to talk after the bell rings. The teacher gives the class one point for improvement, in that all students are seated. Subsequently, the students must be seated and quiet to earn points, which may be accumulated and redeemed for rewards.
Cueing may be as simple as providing a child with a verbal or non-verbal cue as to the appropriateness of a behavior. For example, to teach a child to remember to perform an action at a specific time, the teacher might arrange for him to receive a cue immediately before the action is expected rather than after it has been performed incorrectly. For example, if the teacher is working with a student that habitually answers aloud instead of raising his hand, the teacher should discuss a cue such as hand-raising at the end of a question posed to the class.
Behavior Modification
Behavior modification is a method of eliciting better classroom performance from reluctant students. It has six basic components:
1. Specification of the desired outcome (What must be changed and how it will be evaluated?) One example of a desired outcome is increased student participation in class discussions.
2. Development of a positive, nurturing environment (by removing negative stimuli from the learning environment). In the above example, this would involve a student-teacher conference with a review of the relevant material, and calling on the student when it is evident that she knows the answer to the question posed.
3. Identification and use of appropriate reinforcers (intrinsic and extrinsic rewards). A student receives an intrinsic reinforcer by correctly answering in the presence of peers, thus increasing self-esteem and confidence.
4. Reinforcement of behavior patterns develop until the student has established a pattern of success in engaging in class discussions.
5. Reduction in the frequency of rewards-a gradual decrease the amount of one-on-one review with the student before class discussion.
6. Evaluation and assessment of the effectiveness of the approach based on teacher expectations and student results. Compare the frequency of student responses in class discussions to the amount of support provided, and determine whether the student is independently engaging in class discussions. (Brewer, Campbell, & Petty, 2000)
Further suggestions for modifying behavior can be found at the mentalhealth.net web site. These include changing the environment, using models for learning new behavior, recording behavior, substituting new behavior to break bad habits, developing positive expectations, and increasing intrinsic satisfaction.
Criticisms of Behaviorism
Behaviorism can be critiqued as an overly deterministic view of human behavior by ignoring the internal psychological and mental processes; behaviorism oversimplifies the complexity of human behavior. Some would even argue that the strict nature of radical behaviorism essentially defines human beings as mechanisms without free will. The behaviorist approach has also been criticized for its inability to account for learning or changes in behavior that occur in the absence of environmental input; such occurrences signal the presence of an internal psychological or mental process. Finally, research by ethologists has shown that the principles of conditioning are not universal, countering the behaviorist claim of equipotentiality across conditioning principles. Behaviorism was developed as a counter to the introspective approach that relied primarily, if not entirely, on internal, self-reflection on conscious, mental activity. While radical behaviorism may be quite limited in its explanatory power, it served an important role in allowing psychology to develop a scientific pursuit of knowledge about human nature and behavior. Nevertheless, the link between stimulus and response is not just a simple, direct, cause and effect relationship. Factors beyond the stimulus are involved in determining the response. Actions occur based on purpose, and purpose is determined by the mind of the subject. Thus, a more complete understanding of human behavior would need to include both the external actions of the body and the inner life of the mind.
Educational Implications
Using behaviorist theory in the classroom can be rewarding for both students and teachers. Behavioral change occurs for a reason; students work for things that bring them positive feelings, and for approval from people they admire. They change behaviors to satisfy the desires they have learned to value. They generally avoid behaviors they associate with unpleasantness and develop habitual behaviors from those that are repeated often (Parkay & Hass, 2000). The entire rationale of behavior modification is that most behavior is learned. If behaviors can be learned, then they can also be unlearned or relearned. A behavior that goes unrewarded will be extinguished. Consistently ignoring an undesirable behavior will go far toward eliminating it. When the teacher does not respond angrily, the problem is forced back to its source-the student. Other successful classroom strategies are contracts, consequences, punishment and others that have been described in detail earlier. Behaviorist learning theory is not only important in achieving desired behavior in mainstream education. Special education teachers have classroom behavior modification plans to implement for their students. These plans assure success for these students in and out of school.
1.03: Additional Reading
Credible Articles on the Internet
Classroom management theories and theorists. (2013). Retrieved from http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Classro...ner#References
Cunia, E. (2005). Behavioral learning theory. Principles of Instruction and Learning: A Web Quest. Retrieved from http://erincunia.com/portfolio/MSpor...n/behavior.htm
Graham, G. (2002). Behaviorism. In E. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. Stanford, CA: The Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved from http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/f...s/behaviorism/
Hauser, L. (2006). Behaviorism. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/b/behavior.htm
Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2006). An overview of the behavioral perspective. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/top...or/behovr.html
Huitt, W. (1996). Classroom management: A behavioral approach. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/top...ge/behmgt.html
Huitt, W. (1994). Principles for using behavior modification. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/top...or/behmod.html
Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (1997). An introduction to classical (respondent) conditioning. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/top.../classcnd.html
Wozniak, R. (1997). Behaviorism: The early years. Bryn Mawr, PA: Bryn Mawr College. Retrieved from http://www.brynmawr.edu/Acads/Psych/...haviorism.html
Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles
Bush, G. (2006). Learning about learning: From theories to trends. Teacher Librarian, 34(2), 14-18. Retrieved from http://proxygsu-dal1.galileo.usg.edu...ccountid=10403
Delprato, D. J., & Midgley, B. D. (1992). Some fundamentals of B. F. skinner's behaviorism. The American Psychologist, 47(11), 1507. Retrieved from http://www.galileo.usg.edu.
Ledoux, S. F. (2012). Behaviorism at 100. American Scientist, 100(1), 60-65. Retrieved from proxygsu- dal1.galileo.usg.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/1...ccountid=10403
Moore, J. (2011). Behaviorism. The Psychological Record, 61(3), 449-463. Retrieved from http://www.galileo.usg.edu.
Ruiz, M. R. (1995). B. F. skinner's radical behaviorism. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19(2), 161. Retrieved from proxygsu- dal1.galileo.usg.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.as...514&site=ehost -live
Ulman, J. (1998). Applying behaviorological principles in the classroom: Creating responsive learning environments. The Teacher Education, 34(2), 144-156.
Books in Dalton State College Library
Bjork, D. W. (1997). B.F. Skinner: A life. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Skinner, B. F. (1974). About behaviorism (1st ed.). New York, NY: Random House. Retrieved from http://books.google.com/books?id=Ndx...page&q&f=false
Smith, L. D., & Woodward, W. R. (1996). B.F. Skinner and behaviorism in American culture. Bethlehem, London; Cranbury, NJ: Lehigh University Press.
Todd, J. T., & Morris, E. K. (1995). Modern perspectives on B.F. Skinner and contemporary behaviorism. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Interactive Tutorials
Psychology Department. (2017). Positive reinforcement tutorial. Athabasca, Alberta, Canade: Athabasca University. Retrieved from https://psych.athabascau.ca/open/prtut/index.php
Video(s)
B. F. Skinner: A fresh appraisal. (1999). Retrieved from http://digital.films.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?aid=8691&xtid=44905 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Educational_Learning_Theories_(Zhou_and_Brown)/01%3A_Behaviorism/1.01%3A_Introduction.txt |
Jean Piaget (1896-1980), a Swiss psychologist, is best known for his pioneering work on the development of intelligence in children. His studies have had a major impact on the fields of psychology and education. Piaget was born August 9, 1896, in Neuchâtel. He was educated at the University of Neuchâtel and received his doctorate in biology at age 22. Piaget became interested in psychology and he studied and carried out research first in Zürich, Switzerland, and then at the Sorbonne in Paris, where he began his studies on the development of cognitive abilities. He taught at various European universities while he continued his research and writing. In 1955, he became the director of the International Center for Epistemology at the University of Geneva, and later he was the co-director of the International Bureau of Education. He died in Geneva, on September 17, 1980.
In his work Piaget identified the child’s four stages of mental growth. In the Sensorimotor Stage, occurring from birth to age 2, the child is concerned with gaining motor control and learning about physical objects. In the Preoperational Stage, from ages 2 to 7, the child is preoccupied with verbal skills. At this point the child can name objects and reason intuitively. In the Concrete Operational Stage, from ages 7 to 11, the child begins to deal with abstract concepts such as numbers and relationships. Finally, in the Formal Operational Stage, ages from adolescence to adulthood, the child begins to reason logically and systematically. Among Piaget’s many books are The Language and Thought of the Child (1926), Judgment and Reasoning in the Child (1928), The Origin of Intelligence in Children (1954), The Early Growth of Logic in the Child (1964), and Science of Education and the Psychology of the Child (1970).
2.02: Required Reading
From his observation of children, Piaget understood that children were creating ideas. They were not limited to receiving knowledge from parents or teachers; they actively constructed their own knowledge. Piaget's work provides the foundation on which constructionist theories are based. Constructionists believe that knowledge is constructed and learning occurs when children create products or artifacts. They assert that learners are more likely to be engaged in learning when these artifacts are personally relevant and meaningful (Constructivism, n.d.).
In studying the cognitive development of children and adolescents, Piaget identified four major stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational (Figure \(1\). Piaget believed all children pass through these phases to advance to the next level of cognitive development. In each stage, children demonstrate new intellectual abilities and increasingly complex understanding of the world. Stages cannot be "skipped;" intellectual development always follows this sequence. The ages at which children progress through the stages are averages-they vary with the environment and background of individual children. At any given time, a child may exhibit behaviors characteristic of more than one stage.
The first stage, sensorimotor, begins at birth and lasts until 18 months-2 years of age. This stage involves the use of motor activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge is limited in this stage, because it is based on physical interactions and experiences. Infants cannot predict reaction, and therefore must constantly experiment and learn through trial and error. Such exploration might include shaking a rattle or putting objects in the mouth. As they become more mobile, infants' ability to develop cognitively increases. Early language development begins during this stage. Object permanence occurs at 7-9 months, demonstrating that memory is developing. Infants realize that an object exists after it can no longer be seen.
The inspiration web above illustrates Piaget's four cognitive development stages: sensorimotor (birth-2 years), preoperational (2-7 years), concrete operational (7-11 years), and formal operational (adolescence- adulthood). Illustrated by Tiffany Davis, Meghann Hummel, and Kay Sauers (2006).
The preoperational stage usually occurs during the period between toddlerhood (18-24 months) and early childhood (7 years). During this stage children begin to use language; memory and imagination also develop. In the preoperational stage, children engage in make believe and can understand and express relationships between the past and the future. More complex concepts, such as cause and effect relationships, have not been learned. Intelligence is egocentric and intuitive, not logical.
The concrete operational stage typically develops between the ages of 7-11 years. Intellectual development in this stage is demonstrated through the use of logical and systematic manipulation of symbols, which are related to concrete objects. Thinking becomes less egocentric with increased awareness of external events, and involves concrete references.
The period from adolescence through adulthood is the formal operational stage. Adolescents and adults use symbols related to abstract concepts. Adolescents can think about multiple variables in systematic ways, can formulate hypotheses, and think about abstract relationships and concepts.
Piaget believed that intellectual development was a lifelong process, but that when formal operational thought was attained, no new structures were needed. Intellectual development in adults involves developing more complex schema through the addition of knowledge.
Criticisms of Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory
Researchers during the 1960's and 1970's identified shortcomings in Piaget's theory. First, critics argue that by describing tasks with confusing abstract terms and using overly difficult tasks, Piaget under estimated children's abilities. Researchers have found that young children can succeed on simpler forms of tasks requiring the same skills. Second, Piaget's theory predicts that thinking within a particular stage would be similar across tasks. In other words, preschool children should perform at the preoperational level in all cognitive tasks. Research has shown diversity in children's thinking across cognitive tasks. Third, according to Piaget, efforts to teach children developmentally advanced concepts would be unsuccessful. Researchers have found that in some instances, children often learn more advanced concepts with relatively brief instruction. Researchers now believe that children may be more competent than Piaget originally thought, especially in their practical knowledge. See below the illustration (the animation was created by Daurice Grossniklaus and Bob Rodes, 2002; the images below were created based on the video "Illustration of Schema, Assimilation, & Accommodation" by Department of Educational Psychology and Instructional Technology University of Georgia, 2012), which demonstrates a child developing a schema for a dog Figure \(2\) by assimilating information about the dog Figure \(3\). The child then sees a cat, using accommodation, and compares existing knowledge of a dog to form a schema of a cat Figure \(4\)).
In Figure \(3\) when the parent reads to the child about dogs, the child constructs a schema about dogs. Later, the child sees a dog in the park; through the process of assimilation the child expands his/her understanding of what a dog is. When the dog barks, the child experiences disequilibria because the child's schema did not include barking. Then the child discovers the dog is furry, and it licks the child's hand. Again, the child experiences disequilibria. By adding the newly discovered information to the existing schema the child is actively constructing meaning. At this point the child seeks reinforcement from the parent. The parent affirms and reinforces the new information. Through assimilation of the new information the child returns to a state of equilibrium.
In Figure \(4\). the process of accommodation occurs when the child sees a cat in the park. A new schema must be formed, because the cat has many traits of the dog, but because the cat meows and then climbs a tree the child begins to actively construct new meaning. Again, the parent reinforces that this is a cat to resolve the child's disequilibria. A new schema about cats is then formed and the child returns to a state of equilibrium.
Educational Implications
An important implication of Piaget's theory is adaptation of instruction to the learner's developmental level. The content of instruction needs to be consistent with the developmental level of the learner. The teacher's role is to facilitate learning by providing a variety of experiences. "Discovery Learning" provides opportunities for learners to explore and experiment, thereby encouraging new understandings (Kafia & Resnick, 1996). Opportunities that allow students of differing cognitive levels to work together often encourage less mature students to advance to a more mature understanding. One further implication for instruction is the use of concrete "hands on" experiences to help children learn. Additional suggestions include:
• Provide concrete props and visual aids, such as models and/or time line;
• Use familiar examples to facilitate learning more complex ideas, such as story problems in math;
• Allow opportunities to classify and group information with increasing complexity; use outlines and hierarchies to facilitate assimilating new information with previous knowledge; and
• Present problems that require logical analytic thinking; the use of tools such as "brain teasers" is encouraged.
Huitt and Hummel (1998) asserted that only 35% of high school graduates in industrialized countries obtain formal operations and many people do not think formally during adulthood. This is significant in terms of developing instruction and performance support tools for students who are chronologically adults, but may be limited in their understanding of abstract concepts. For both adolescent and adult learners, it is important to use these instructional strategies:
• Use visual aids and models;
• Provide opportunities to discuss social, political, and cultural issues; and
• Teach broad concepts rather than facts, and to situate these in a context meaningful and relevant to the learner.
REFERENCES
Constructivism. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.edwebproject.org/constructivism.html
Department of Educational Psychology and Instructional Technology University of Georgia. (2012, September 25). Illustration of Schema, Assimilation, & Accommodation [Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/3-A9SgbAK5I
Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (1998). Cognitive development. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/piaget.html
Kafia, Y. B., & Resnick, M. (1996). Introduction. In Y. Kafai & M. Resnick. (Eds.), Construction in practice designing, thinking and learning in a digital world. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associated Publisher.
2.03: Additional Reading
Credible Articles on the Internet
Atherton, J. S. (2013). Learning and teaching: Piaget's developmental theory. Retrieved from www.learningandteaching.info/...ing/piaget.htm
Campbell, R. (2006). Jean Piaget's genetic epistemology: Appreciation and critique. Retrieved from http://campber.people.clemson.edu/piaget.html
Cole, M., & Wertsch, J. (1996). Beyond the individual-social antimony in discussions of Piaget and Vygotsky. Retrieved from http://www.massey.ac.nz/~alock/virtual/colevyg.htm
Huitt, W. (2004). Observational (social) learning: An overview. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/top...og/soclrn.html
Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2003). Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/top...on/piaget.html
McLeod, S. A. (2009). Jean Piaget. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html
Piaget, J. (1964). Part I: Cognitive development in children: Piaget development and learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 2, 176-186. Retrieved from onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/1...3660020306/pdf
Presnell, F. (1999). Muskingum university department of psychology. Retrieved from muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/...ory/piaget.htm
Wood, K. C., Smith, H., & Grossniklaus, D. (2001). Piaget's stages of cognitive development. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from http://epltt.coe.uga.edu/index.php?t...get%27s_Stages
Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles
Asokan, S., Surendran, S., Asokan, S., & Nuvvula, S. (2014). Relevance of Piaget's cognitive principles among 4-7 years old children: A descriptive cross-sectional study. Journal of the Indian Society of Pedodontics and Preventive Dentistry, 32(4), 292-296.
Brizuela, B. M. (1997). The essential Piaget: An interpretive reference and guide. Harvard Educational Review, 67(4), 835-836.
Ewing, J. C., Foster, D. D., & Whittington, M. S. (2011). Explaining student cognition during class sessions in the context: Piaget's theory of cognitive development. NACTA Journal, 55(1), 68-75.
Murray, L. A. (1996). Cognitive development today: Piaget and his critics.
British Journal of Psychology, 87, 166. Piaget, J. (1972). Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adulthood. Human Development, 51(1), 40-47.
Vidal, F. (1997). Towards re-reading Jean Piaget. Human Development, 40(2), 124-126.
Books at Dalton State College Library
Ginsburg, H., & Opper, S. J. A. (1979). Piaget's theory of intellectual development (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Piaget, J., Gruber, H. E., & Vonèche, J. J. (1977). The essential Piaget. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Wadsworth, B. J. (1978). Piaget for the classroom teacher. New York, NY: Longman.
Interactive Tutorials and Videos
Carlsen, M. (2009). Piaget's concrete operational stage. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j4lv...6A9DDD10EA209D
Cognitive development. (1995). Retrieved from Films on Demand Database.
McQuillen, M. (2009). Stages 3 and 4 of Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development. Retrieved from http://www.sophia.org/tutorials/piag...pment-sensorim
Piaget's developmental theory: An overview. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://youtu.be/QX6JxLwMJeQ | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Educational_Learning_Theories_(Zhou_and_Brown)/02%3A_Stages_of_Cognitive_Development/2.01%3A_Introduction.txt |
Albert Bandura (1925- ) was born in Mundare, Alberta in 1925. He was the youngest of six children. Both of his parents were immigrants from Eastern Europe. Bandura’s father worked as a track layer for the Trans-Canada railroad while his mother worked in a general store before they were able to buy some land and become farmers. Though times were often hard growing up, Bandura’s parents placed great emphasis on celebrating life and more importantly family. They were also very keen on their children doing well in school. Mundare had only one school at the time so Bandura did all of his schooling in one place.
After spending a summer working in Alaska after finishing high school, Bandura went to the University of British Columbia. He graduated three years later in 1949 with the Bolocan Award in psychology. Bandura went to the University of Iowa to complete his graduate work. At the time the University of Iowa was central to psychological study, especially in the area of social learning theory. Bandura completed his Master's in 1951 followed by a Ph.D. in clinical psychology in 1952. After completing his doctorate, Bandura went onto a postdoctoral position at the Wichita Guidance Center before accepting a position as a faculty member at Stanford University in 1953. Bandura has studied many different topics over the years, including aggression in adolescents (more specifically he was interested in aggression in boys who came from intact middle- class families), children’s abilities to self-regulate and self-reflect, and of course self-efficacy (a person’s perception and beliefs about their ability to produce effects, or influence events that concern their lives).
Bandura is perhaps most famous for his Bobo Doll experiments in the 1960s. At the time there was a popular belief that learning was a result of reinforcement. In the Bobo Doll experiments, Bandura presented children with social models of novel (new) violent behavior or non-violent behavior towards the inflatable redounding Bobo Doll. Children who viewed the violent behavior were in turn violent towards the doll; the control group was rarely violent towards the doll. That became Bandura’s social learning theory in the 1960s. Social learning theory focuses on what people learn from observing and interacting with other people. It is often called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation. Bandura and his colleagues Dorrie and Sheila Ross continued to show that social modeling is a very effective way of learning. Bandura went on to expand motivational and cognitive processes on social learning theory. In 1986, Bandura published his second book Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory, in which he renamed his original social learning theory to be social cognitive theory. Social cognitive theory claims that learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. Social cognitive theory posits that people are not simply shaped by that environment; they are active participants in their environment. Bandura is highly recognized for his work on social learning theory and social cognitive theory.
3.02: Required Reading
The Origin of Social Cognitive Theory: Social Learning Theory
In 1961 and 1963 along with his students and colleagues, Bandura conducted a series of studies known as the Bobo doll experiments to find out why and when children display aggressive behaviors. These studies demonstrated the value of modeling for acquiring novel behaviors. These studies helped Bandura publish his seminal article and book in 1977 that expanded on the idea of how behavior is acquired (Evans & Bandura, 1989), thus social learning theory. In his article Bandura (1977a) claimed that Social Learning Theory shows a direct correlation between a person's perceived self-efficacy and behavioral change. Self-efficacy comes from four sources: "performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states" (Bandura, 1977a, p. 195).
Social learning is also commonly referred to as observational learning, because it comes about as a result of observing models. Bandura became interested in social aspects of learning at the beginning of his career. Early theories considered behavior to be a function of the person and their environment, or a function of the interaction between the person and their environment. Bandura believed that behavior itself influences both the person and the environment, each of which in turn affects behavior and each other. The result is a complex interplay of factors known as reciprocal determinism. Social learning theory emphasizes that behavior, personal factors, and environmental factors are all equal, interlocking determinants of each other (Bandura, 1973, 1977a; \(Figure1\)).
Reciprocal determinism can be seen in everyday observations, such as those made by Bandura and others during their studies of aggression. For example, approximately 75 percent of the time, hostile behavior results in unfriendly responses, whereas friendly acts seldom result in such consequences. With little effort, it becomes easy to recognize individuals who create negative social climates (Bandura, 1973). Thus, while it may still be true that changing environmental contingencies changes behavior, it is also true that changing behavior alters the environmental contingencies. This results in a unique perspective on freedom vs. determinism. Usually we think of determinism as something that eliminates or restricts our freedom. However, Bandura believed that individuals can intentionally act as agents of change within their environment, thus altering the factors that determine their behavior. In other words, we have the freedom to influence factors that which determine our behavior:
...Given the same environmental constraints, individuals who have many behavioral options and are adept at regulating their own behavior will experience greater freedom than will individuals whose personal resources are limited. (Bandura, 1977a, p. 203)
It is important to note that learning can occur without a change in behavior. According to Ormrod's (2008) general principles of social learning, while a visible change in behavior is the most common proof of learning, it is not absolutely necessary. Social learning theorists say that because people can learn through observation alone, their learning may not necessarily be shown in their performance.
Overview of Social Cognitive Theory
In 1986, Bandura published his second book Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory, which expanded and renamed his original theory. He called the new theory Social Cognitive Theory (SCT). Bandura changed the name social learning theory to social cognitive theory to emphasize the major role cognition plays in encoding and performing behaviors. In this book, Bandura (1986) argued that human behavior is caused by personal, behavioral, and environmental influences. Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) holds that portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences. The theory states that when people observe a model performing a behavior and the consequences of that behavior, they remember the sequence of events and use this information to guide subsequent behaviors. Observing a model can also prompt the viewer to engage in behavior they already learned (Bandura, 1986, 2002). In other words, people do not learn new behaviors solely by trying them and either succeeding or failing, but rather, the survival of humanity is dependent upon the replication of the actions of others. Depending on whether people are rewarded or punished for their behavior and the outcome of the behavior, the observer may choose to replicate behavior modeled. Media provides models for a vast array of people in many different environmental settings.
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) is a learning theory based on the idea that people learn by observing others. These learned behaviors can be central to one's personality. While social psychologists agree that the environment one grows up in contributes to behavior, the individual person (and therefore cognition) is just as important. People learn by observing others, with the environment, behavior, and cognition all as the chief factors in influencing development in a reciprocal triadic relationship. For example, each behavior witnessed can change a person's way of thinking (cognition). Similarly, the environment one is raised in may influence later behaviors, just as a father's mindset (also cognition) determines the environment in which his children are raised. The reciprocal determinism was explained in the schematization of triadic reciprocal causation (Bandura, 2002). The schema shows how the reproduction of an observed behavior is influenced by the interaction of the following three determinants:
1. Personal: Whether the individual has high or low self-efficacy toward the behavior (i.e. Get the learner to believe in his or her personal abilities to correctly complete a behavior).
2. Behavioral: The response an individual receives after they perform a behavior (i.e. Provide chances for the learner to experience successful learning as a result of performing the behavior correctly).
3. Environmental: Aspects of the environment or setting that influence the individual's ability to successfully complete a behavior (i.e. Make environmental conditions conducive for improved self-efficacy by providing appropriate support and materials). (Bandura, 2002)
Human Agency
Social Cognitive Theory is proposed in an agentic perspective (Bandura, 1986), which suggested that, instead of being just shaped by environments or inner forces, individuals are self-developing, self-regulating, self-reflecting and proactive:
...Social cognitive theory rejects a duality of human agency and a disembodied social structure. Social systems are the product of human activity, and social systems, in turn, help to organize, guide, and regulate human affairs. However, in the dynamic interplay within the societal rule structures, there is considerable personal variation in the interpretation of, adoption of, enforcement of, circumvention of, and opposition to societal prescriptions and sanctions...freedom is conceived not just passively as the absence of constraints, but also proactively as the exercise of self-influence...(Bandura, 2006, p. 165).
Specifically, human agency operates within three modes:
• Individual Agency: A person’s own influence on the environment;
• Proxy Agency: Another person’s effort on securing the individual’s interests;
• Collective Agency: A group of people work together to achieve the common benefits. (Pajares, Prestin, Chen, & Nabi, 2009)
Human agency has four core properties:
• Intentionality: Individuals’ active decision on engaging in certain activities;
• Forethought: Individuals’ ability to anticipate the outcome of certain actions;
• Self-reactiveness: Individuals’ ability to construct and regulate appropriate behaviors;
• Self-reflectiveness: Individuals’ ability to reflect and evaluate the soundness of their cognitions and behaviors. (Pajares, Prestin, Chen, & Nabi, 2009)
Human Capability
Evolving over time, human beings are featured with advanced neutral systems, which enable individuals to acquire knowledge and skills by both direct and symbolic terms (Bandura, 2002). Four primary capabilities are addressed as important foundations of social cognitive theory: symbolizing capability, self-regulation capability, self-reflective capability, and vicarious capability:
1. Symbolizing Capability: People are affected not only by direct experience but also indirect events. Instead of merely learning through laborious trial-and-error process, human beings are able to symbolically perceive events conveyed in messages, construct possible solutions, and evaluate the anticipated outcomes.
2. Self-regulation Capability: Individuals can regulate their own intentions and behaviors by themselves. Self- regulation lies on both negative and positive feedback systems, in which discrepancy reduction and discrepancy production are involved. That is, individuals proactively motivate and guide their actions by setting challenging goals and then making effort to fulfill them. In doing so, individuals gain skills, resources, self-efficacy and beyond.
3. Self-reflective Capability: Human beings can evaluate their thoughts and actions by themselves, which is identified as another distinct feature of human beings. By verifying the adequacy and soundness of their thoughts through enactive, various, social, or logical manner, individuals can generate new ideas, adjust their thoughts, and take actions accordingly.
4. Vicarious Capability: One critical ability human beings featured is to adopt skills and knowledge from information communicated through a wide array of mediums. By vicariously observing others’ actions and their consequences, individuals can gain insights into their own activities. Vicarious capability is of great value to human beings’ cognitive development in nowadays, in which most of our information encountered in our lives derives from the mass media than trial-and-error process. (Bandura, 2002)
Core Concepts of Social Cognitive Theory
Modeling/Observational Learning
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) revolves around the process of knowledge acquisition or learning directly correlated to the observation of models. The models can be those of an interpersonal imitation or media sources. Effective modeling teaches general rules and strategies for dealing with different situations (Bandura, 1988). Modeling is the term that best describes and, therefore, is used to characterize the psychological processes that underlie matching behavior (Bandura, 1986):
Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action. (Bandura, 1977b, p. 22)
Individuals differ in the degree to which they can be influenced by models, and not all models are equally effective. According to Bandura, three factors are most influential in terms of the effectiveness of modeling situations: the characteristics of the model, the attributes of the observers, and the consequences of the model’s actions. The most relevant characteristics of an influential model are high status, competence, and power. When observers are unsure about a situation, they rely on cues to indicate what they perceive as evidence of past success by the model. Such cues include general appearance, symbols of socioeconomic success (e.g., a fancy sports car), and signs of expertise (e.g., a doctor’s lab coat). Since those models appear to have been successful themselves, it seems logical that observers might want to imitate their behavior. Individuals who are low in self-esteem, dependent, and who lack confidence are not necessarily more likely to be influenced by models. Bandura proposed that when modeling is used to explicitly develop new competencies, the ones who will benefit most from the situation are those who are more talented and more venturesome (Bandura, 1977b).
Despite the potential influence of models, the entire process of observational learning in a social learning environment would probably not be successful if not for four important component processes: attentional processes, retention processes, production (or reproduction) processes, and motivational processes (Bandura, 1977b, 1986). The fact that an observer must pay attention to a model might seem obvious, but some models are more likely to attract attention. Individuals are more likely to pay attention to models with whom they associate, even if the association is more cognitive than personal. It is also well-known that people who are admired, such as those who are physically attractive or popular athletes, make for attention- getting models. There are also certain types of media that are very good at getting people’s attention, such as television advertisements (Bandura, 1977b, 1986). It is a curious cultural phenomenon that the television advertisements presented during the National Football League’s Super Bowl have become almost as much of the excitement as the game itself (and even more exciting for those who are not football fans)!
The retention processes involve primarily an observer’s memory for the modeled behavior. The most important memory processes, according to Bandura (1977b), are visual imagery and verbal coding, with visual imagery being particularly important early in development when verbal skills are limited. Once modeled behavior has been transformed into visual and/or verbal codes, these memories can serve to guide the performance of the behavior at appropriate times. When the modeled behavior is produced by the observer, the so-called production process, the re-enactment can be broken down into the cognitive organization of the responses, their initiation, subsequent monitoring, and finally the refinement of the behavior based on informative feedback. Producing complex modeled behaviors is not always an easy task:
...A common problem in learning complex skills, such as golf or swimming, is that performers cannot fully observe their responses, and must therefore rely upon vague kinesthetic cues or verbal reports of onlookers. It is difficult to guide actions that are only partially observable or to identify the corrections needed to achieve a close match between representation and performance. (Bandura, 1977b, p. 28)
Finally, motivational processes determine whether the observer is inclined to match the modeled behavior in the first place. Individuals are most likely to model behaviors that result in an outcome they value, and if the behavior seems to be effective for the models who demonstrated the behavior. Given the complexity of the relationships between models, observers, the perceived effectiveness of modeled behavior, and the subjective value of rewards, even using prominent models does not guarantee that they will be able to create similar behavior in observers (Bandura, 1977b, 1986).
In short, for modeling /observational learning to occur, four processes exist:
• Attention: Observers selectively give attention to specific social behavior depending on accessibility, relevance, complexity, functional value of the behavior or some observer's personal attributes such as cognitive capability, value preference, preconceptions.
• Retention: Observe a behavior and subsequent consequences, then convert that observation to a symbol that can be accessed for future reenactments of the behavior. Note: When a positive behavior is shown a positive reinforcement should follow, this parallel is similar for negative behavior.
• Production: refers to the symbolic representation of the original behavior being translated into action through reproduction of the observed behavior in seemingly appropriate contexts. During reproduction of the behavior, a person receives feedback from others and can adjust their representation for future references.
• Motivation: reenacts a behavior depending on responses and consequences the observer receives when reenacting that behavior. (Bandura, 1986, 2002)
A common misconception regarding modeling is that it only leads to learning the behaviors that have been modeled. However, modeling can lead to innovative behavior patterns. Observers typically see a given behavior performed by multiple models; even in early childhood one often gets to see both parents model a given behavior. When the behavior is then matched, the observer will typically select elements from the different models, relying on only certain aspects of the behavior performed by each, and then create a unique pattern that accomplishes the final behavior. Thus, partial departures from the originally modeled behavior can be a source of new directions, especially in creative endeavors (such as composing music or creating a sculpture). In contrast, however, when simple routines prove useful, modeling can actually stifle innovation. So, the most innovative individuals appear to be those who have been exposed to innovative models, provided that the models are not so innovative as to create an unreasonably difficult challenge in modeling their creativity and innovation (Bandura, 1977b, 1986; Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1963).
Moreover, modeling does not limit to only live demonstrations but also verbal and written behavior can act as indirect forms of modeling. Modeling not only allows students to learn behavior that they should repeat but also to inhibit certain behaviors. For instance, if a teacher glares at one student who is talking out of turn, other students may suppress this behavior to avoid a similar reaction. Teachers model both material objectives and underlying curriculum of virtuous living. Teachers should also be dedicated to the building of high self-efficacy levels in their students by recognizing their accomplishments.
Outcome Expectancies
To learn a particular behavior, people must understand what the potential outcome is if they repeat that behavior. The observer does not expect the actual rewards or punishments incurred by the model, but anticipates similar outcomes when imitating the behavior (called outcome expectancies), which is why modeling impacts cognition and behavior. These expectancies are heavily influenced by the environment that the observer grows up in; for example, the expected consequences for a DUI in the United States of America are a fine, with possible jail time, whereas the same charge in another country might lead to the infliction of the death penalty. For example, in the case of a student, the instructions the teacher provides help students see what outcome a particular behavior leads to. It is the duty of the teacher to teach a student that when a behavior is successfully learned, the outcomes are meaningful and valuable to the students.
Self-Efficacy
Social Cognitive Theory posits that learning most likely occurs if there is a close identification between the observer and the model and if the observer also has a good deal of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is the extent to which an individual believes that they can master a particular skill. Self-efficacy beliefs function as an important set of proximal determinants of human motivation, affect, and action-which operate on action through motivational, cognitive, and affective intervening processes (Bandura, 1989).
According to Bandura (1995), self-efficacy is "the belief in one's capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations" (p. 2). Bandura and other researchers have found an individual's self-efficacy plays a major role in how goals, tasks, and challenges are approached. Individuals with high self-efficacy are more likely to believe they can master challenging problems and they can recover quickly from setbacks and disappointments. Individuals with low self-efficacy tend to be less confident and don't believe they can perform well, which leads them to avoid challenging tasks. Therefore, self-efficacy plays a central role in behavior performance. Observers who have high level of self-efficacy are more likely to adopt observational learning behaviors. Self-efficacy can be developed or increased by:
• Mastery experience: which is a process that helps an individual achieve simple tasks that lead to more complex objectives.
• Social modeling: provides an identifiable model that shows the processes that accomplish a behavior.
• Improving physical and emotional states: refers to ensuring a person is rested and relaxed prior to attempting a new behavior. The less relaxed, the less patient, the more likely they won't attain the goal behavior.
• Verbal persuasion: is providing encouragement for a person to complete a task or achieve a certain behavior. (McAlister, Perry, & Parcel, 2008)
For example, students become more effortful, active, pay attention, highly motivated and better learners when they perceive that they have mastered a particular task (Bandura, 1993). It is the duty of the teacher to allow student to develop and perceive their efficacy by providing feedback to understand their level of proficiency. Teachers should ensure that the students have the knowledge and strategies they need to complete the tasks. Self-efficacy development is an exploring human agency and human capability process. Young children have little understanding of what they can and cannot do, so the development of realistic self-efficacy is a very important process:
...Very young children lack knowledge of their own capabilities and the demands and potential hazards of different courses of action. They would repeatedly get themselves into dangerous predicaments were it not for the guidance of others. They can climb to high places, wander into rivers or deep pools, and wield sharp knives before they develop the necessary skills for managing such situations safely...Adult watchfulness and guidance see young children through this early formative period until they gain sufficient knowledge of what they can do and what different situations require in the way of skills. (Bandura, 1986, p. 414)
During infancy, the development of perceived causal efficacy, in other words the perception that one has affected the world by one’s own actions, appears to be an important aspect of developing a sense of self. As the infant interacts with its environment, the infant is able to cause predictable events, such as the sound that accompanies shaking a rattle. The understanding that one’s own actions can influence the environment is something Bandura refers to as personal agency, the ability to act as an agent of change in one’s own world. The infant also begins to experience that certain events affect models differently than the child. For example, if a model touches a hot stove it does not hurt the infant, so the infant begins to recognize their uniqueness, their actual existence as an individual. During this period, interactions with the physical environment may be more important than social interactions, since the physical environment is more predictable, and therefore easier to learn about (Bandura, 1986, 1997). Quickly, however, social interaction becomes highly influential.
Not only does the child learn a great deal from the family, but as they grow peers become increasingly important. As the child’s world expands, peers bring with them a broadening of self-efficacy experiences. This can have both positive and negative consequences. Peers who are most experienced and competent can become important models of behavior. However, if a child perceives themselves as socially inefficacious, but does develop self-efficacy in coercive, aggressive behavior, then that child is likely to become a bully. In the midst of this effort to learn socially acceptable behavior, most children also begin attending school, where the primary focus is on the development of cognitive efficacy. For many children, unfortunately, the academic environment of school is a challenge. Children quickly learn to rank themselves (grades help, both good and bad), and children who do poorly can lose the sense of self-efficacy that is necessary for continued effort at school. According to Bandura, it is important that educational practices focus not only on the content they provide, but also on what they do to children’s beliefs about their abilities (Bandura, 1986, 1997).
As children continue through adolescence toward adulthood, they need to assume responsibility for themselves in all aspects of life. They must master many new skills, and a sense of confidence in working toward the future is dependent on a developing sense of self-efficacy supported by past experiences of mastery. In adulthood, a healthy and realistic sense of self-efficacy provides the motivation necessary to pursue success in one’s life. Poorly equipped adults, wracked with self- doubt, often find life stressful and depressing. Even psychologically healthy adults must eventually face the realities of aging, and the inevitable decline in physical status. There is little evidence, however, for significant declines in mental states until very advanced old age. In cultures that admire youth, there may well be a tendency for the aged to lose their sense of self-efficacy and begin an inexorable decline toward death. But in societies that promote self-growth throughout life, and who admire elders for their wisdom and experience, there is potential for aged individuals to continue living productive and self-fulfilling lives (Bandura, 1986, 1997).
In summary, as we learned more about our world and how it works, we also learned that we can have a significant impact on it. Most importantly, we can have a direct effect on our immediate personal environment, especially with regard to personal relationships, behaviors, and goals. What motivates us to try influencing our environment is specific ways in which we believe, indeed, we can make a difference in a direction we want in life. Thus, research has focused largely on what people think about their efficacy, rather than on their actual ability to achieve their goals (Bandura, 1997).
Self-Regulation
Self-regulation and self-efficacy are two elements of Bandura’s theory that rely heavily on cognitive processes. They represent an individual’s ability to control their behavior through internal reward or punishment in the case of self- regulation, and their beliefs in their ability to achieve desired goals as a result of their own actions, in the case of self- efficacy. Bandura never rejects the influence of external rewards or punishments, but he proposes that including internal, self-reinforcement and self-punishment expands the potential for learning:
...Theories that explain human behavior as solely the product of external rewards and punishments present a truncated image of people because they possess self-reactive capacities that enable them to exercise some control over their own feelings, thoughts, and actions. Behavior is therefore regulated by the interplay of self-generated and external sources of influence...(Bandura, 1977b, p. 129).
Self-regulation is a general term that includes both self-reinforcement and self-punishment. Self-reinforcement works primarily through its motivational effects. When an individual sets a standard of performance for themselves, they judge their behavior and determine whether or not it meets the self-determined criteria for reward. Since many activities do not have absolute measures of success, the individual often sets their standards in relative ways. For example, a weight-lifter might keep track of how much total weight they lift in each training session, and then monitor their improvement over time or as each competition arrives. Although competitions offer the potential for external reward, the individual might still set a personal standard for success, such as being satisfied only if they win at least one of the individual lifts. The standards that individuals set for themselves can be learned through modeling. This can create problems when models are highly competent, much more so than the observer is capable of performing (such as learning the standards of a world-class athlete). Children, however, seem to be more inclined to model the standards of low-achieving or moderately competent models, setting standards that are reasonably within their own reach (Bandura, 1977b). According to Bandura, the cumulative effect of setting standards and regulating one’s own performance in terms of those standards can lead to judgments about one’s self. Within a social learning context, negative self-concepts arise when one is prone to devalue oneself, whereas positive self-concepts arise from a tendency to judge oneself favorably (Bandura, 1977b). Overall, the complexity of this process makes predicting the behavior of an individual rather difficult, and behavior often deviates from social norms in ways that would not ordinarily be expected. However, this appears to be the case in a variety of cultures, suggesting that it is indeed a natural process for people (Bandura & Walters, 1963).
Impact of Social Cognitive Theory
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) has influenced many areas of inquiry including media, health education, and morality. Social cognitive theory is often applied as a theoretical framework of studies pertained to media representation regarding race, gender, age and beyond (Aubrey, 2004; Mastro & Stern, 2003; Raman, Harwood, Weis, Anderson, & Miller, 2008). Social cognitive theory suggested heavily repeated images presented in mass media can be potentially processed and encoded by the viewers (Bandura, 2011). Media content analytic studies examine the substratum of media messages that viewers are exposed to, which could provide an opportunity to uncover the social values attached to these media representations (Raman, Harwood, Weis, Anderson, & Miller, 2008). Although media contents studies cannot directly test the cognitive process, findings can offer an avenue to predict potential media effects from modeling certain contents, which provides evidence and guidelines for designing subsequent empirical work (Nabi & Clark, 2008; Raman, Harwood, Weis, Anderson, & Miller, 2008). Social cognitive theory is pervasively employed in studies examining attitude or behavior changes triggered by the mass media. As Bandura suggested, people can learn how to perform behaviors through media modeling (Bandura, 2002).
Social Cognitive theory has been widely applied in media studies pertained to sports, health, education and beyond. For instance, Hardin and Greer (2009) examined the gender-typing of sports within the theoretical framework of social cognitive theory, suggesting that sports media consumption and gender-role socialization significantly related with gender perception of sports in American college students. In series TV programming, according to social cognitive theory, the awarded behaviors of liked characters are supposed to be followed by viewers, while punished behaviors are supposed to be avoided by media consumers. However, in most cases, protagonists in TV shows are less likely to experience the long-term suffering and negative consequences caused by their risky behaviors, which could potentially undermine the punishments conveyed by the media, leading to a modeling of the risky behaviors. Nabi and Clark (2008) conducted experiments about individual’s attitudes and intentions consuming various portrayals of one-night stand sex-unsafe and risky sexual behavior, finding that individuals who had not previously experience one-night stand sex, consuming media portrayals of this behavior could significantly increase their expectations of having a one-night stand sex in the future, although negative outcomes were represented in TV shows.
In health communication, Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) has been applied in research related to smoking quit, HIV prevention, safe sex behaviors, and so on (Bandura 1994, 2004). For example, Martino, Collins, Kanouse, Elliott, and Berry (2005) examined the relationship between the exposure to television’s sexual content and adolescents’ sexual behavior through the lens of social cognitive theory, confirming the significant relationship between the two variables among white and African American groups; however, no significant correlation was found between the two variables in the ethic group of Hispanics, indicating that peer norm could possibly serve as a mediator of the two examined variables.
In public health, Miller's (2005) study found that choosing the proper gender, age, and ethnicity for models ensured the success of an AIDS campaign to inner city teenagers. This occurred because participants could identify with a recognizable peer, have a greater sense of self-efficacy, and then imitate the actions to learn the proper preventions and actions. A study
by Ahmed (2009) looked to see if there would be an increase in breastfeeding by mothers of preterm infants when exposed to a breastfeeding educational program guided by SCT. Sixty mothers were randomly assigned to either participate in the program or they were given routine care. The program consisted of SCT strategies that touched on all three SCT determinants: personal-showing models performing breastfeeding correctly to improve self-efficacy, behavioral -weekly check-ins for three months reinforced participants' skills, environmental-mothers were given an observational checklist to make sure they successfully completed the behavior. The author found that mothers exposed to the program showed significant improvement in their breastfeeding skills, were more likely to exclusively breastfeed, and had fewer problems then the mothers who were not exposed to the educational program.
In morality development, Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) emphasizes a large difference between an individual's ability to be morally competent and morally performing. Moral competence involves having the ability to perform a moral behavior, whereas moral performance indicates actually following one's idea of moral behavior in a specific situation (Santrock, 2008). Moral competencies include:
• what an individual is capable of
• what an individual knows
• what an individual's skills are
• an individual's awareness of moral rules and regulations
• an individual's cognitive ability to construct behaviors
As far as an individual's development is concerned, moral competence is the growth of cognitive-sensory processes; simply put, being aware of what is considered right and wrong. By comparison, moral performance is influenced by the possible rewards and incentives to act a certain way (Santrock, 2008). For example, a person's moral competence might tell them that stealing is wrong and frowned upon by society; however, if the reward for stealing is a substantial sum, their moral performance might indicate a different line of thought. Therein lies the core of social cognitive theory.
For the most part, social cognitive theory remains the same for various cultures. Since the concepts of moral behavior did not vary much between cultures (as crimes like murder, theft, and unwarranted violence are illegal in virtually every society), there is not much room for people to have different views on what is morally right or wrong. The main reason that social cognitive theory applies to all nations is because it does not say what is moral and immoral; it simply states that we can acknowledge these two concepts. Our actions in real-life scenarios are based on whether we believe the action is moral and whether the reward for violating our morals is significant enough, and nothing else (Santrock, 2008).
Continued Impact of Social Cognitive Theory
Bandura is still influencing the world with expansions of Social Cognitive Theory (SCT). SCT has been applied to many areas of human functioning such as career choice and organizational behavior as well as in understanding classroom motivation, learning, and achievement (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994). Bandura (2001) brought SCT to mass communication in his journal article that stated the theory could be used to analyze how "symbolic communication influences human thought, affect and action" (p. 3). The theory shows how new behavior diffuses through society by psychosocial factors governing acquisition and adoption of the behavior. Bandura’s (2011) book chapter “The Social and Policy Impact of Social Cognitive Theory” to extend SCT's application in health promotion and urgent global issues, which provides insight into addressing global problems through a macro social lens, aiming at improving equality of individuals' lives under the umbrellas of SCT. This work focuses on how SCT impacts areas of both health and population effects in relation to climate change. He proposes that these problems could be solved through television serial dramas that show models similar to viewers performing the desired behavior. On health, Bandura (2011) writes that currently there is little incentive for doctors to write prescriptions for healthy behavior, but he believes the cost of fixing health problems start to outweigh the benefits of being healthy. Bandura argues that we are on the cusp of moving from a disease model (focusing on people with problems) to a health model (focusing on people being healthy) and SCT is the theory that should be used to further a healthy society. On Population, Bandura (2011) states population growth is a global crisis because of its correlation with depletion and degradation of our planet's resources. Bandura argues that SCT should be used to get people to use birth control, reduce gender inequality through education, and to model environmental conservation to improve the state of the planet. Green and Peil (2009) reported he has tried to use cognitive theory to solve a number of global problems such as environmental conservation, poverty, soaring population growth, etc.
Criticism of Social Cognitive Theory
One of the main criticisms of the social cognitive theory is that it is not a unified theory. This means that the different aspects of the theory may not be connected. For example, researchers currently cannot find a connection between observational learning and self-efficacy within the social-cognitive perspective. The theory is so broad that not all of its component parts are fully understood and integrated into a single explanation of learning. The findings associated with this theory are still, for the most part, preliminary. The theory is limited in that not all social learning can be directly observed. Because of this, it can be difficult to quantify the effect that social cognition has on development. Finally, this theory tends to ignore maturation throughout the lifespan. Because of this, the understanding of how a child learns through observation and how an adult learns through observation are not differentiated, and factors of development are not included.
Educational Implications of Social Cognitive Theory
An important assumption of Social Cognitive Theory is that personal determinants, such as self-reflection and self- regulation, do not have to reside unconsciously within individuals. People can consciously change and develop their cognitive functioning. This is important to the proposition that self-efficacy too can be changed, or enhanced. From this perspective, people are capable of influencing their own motivation and performance according to the model of triadic reciprocality in which personal determinants (such as self-efficacy), environmental conditions (such as treatment conditions), and action (such as practice) are mutually interactive influences. Improving performance, therefore, depends on changing some of these influences. In teaching and learning, the challenge upfront is to 1) get the learner to believe in his or her personal capabilities to successfully perform a designated task; 2) provide environmental conditions, such as instructional strategies and appropriate technology, that improve the strategies and self-efficacy of the learner; and 3) provide opportunities for the learner to experience successful learning as a result of appropriate action (Self-efficacy Theory, n.d.). Accordingly, the theory itself has numerous implications in classroom teaching and learning practices:
1. Students learn a great deal simply by observing others;
2. Describing the consequences of behavior increases appropriate behaviors, decreasing inappropriate ones; this includes discussing the rewards of various positive behaviors in the classroom;
3. Modeling provides an alternative to teaching new behaviors. To promote effective modeling, teachers must ensure the four essential conditions exist: attention, retention, production, and motivation (reinforcement and punishment);
4. Instead of using shaping, an operant conditioning strategy, teachers will find modeling is a faster and more efficient means of teaching new knowledge, skills, and dispositions;
5. Teachers must model appropriate behaviors and they do not model inappropriate behaviors;
6. Teachers should expose students to a variety of models including peers and other adult models; this is important to break down stereotypes;
7. Modeling also includes modeling of interest, thinking process, attitudes, instructional materials, media (TV and advertisement), academic work achievement and progress, encouragement, emotions, etc. in the physical, mental and emotional aspects of development.
8. Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing a task; it is important for students to develop a sense of self-efficacy. Teachers can promote such self-efficacy by having students receive confidence-building messages, watch others be successful, and experience success on themselves;
9. Teachers should help students set realistic expectations ensuring that expectations are realistically challenging. Sometimes a task is beyond a student's ability;
10. Self-regulation techniques provide an effective method for improving student behaviors.
REFERENCES
Ahmed, A. (2009, July). Effect of breastfeeding educational program based of Bandura social cognitive theory on breastfeeding outcomes among mothers of preterm infants. Poster presented at the ILCA Conference, Orlando, FL.
Aubrey, J. S. (2004). Sex and punishment: An examination of sexual consequences and the sexual double standard in teen programming. Sex Roles, 50(7-8), 505-514.
Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1977a). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-
215. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.191
Bandura, A. (1977b). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought & action: A social cognitive theory. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice- Hall.
Bandura, A. (1988). Organizational application of social cognitive theory. Australian Journal of Management, 13(2), 275- 302. doi:10.1177/031289628801300210
Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American Psychologist, 44(9), 1175-1184. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.44.9.1175
Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist,28(2), 117-148. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2802_3
Bandura, A. (1994). Social cognitive theory and exercise of control over HIV infection. Preventing AIDS, 25-59.
Bandura, A. (1995). Self-efficacy in changing societies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman and Company.
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory of mass communication. Media Psychology, 3(3), 265-299. doi:10.1207/S1532785XMEP0303_03
Bandura, A. (2002). Social cognitive theory of mass communication. In J. Bryant & M. B. Oliver (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 94-124). New York, NY: Routledge.
Bandura, A. (2004). Health promotion by social cognitive means. Health Education & Behavior, 31(2), 143-164. Bandura, A. (2006). Toward a psychology of human agency. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 164-180.
Bandura, A. (2011). The social and policy impact of social cognitive theory. In M. Mark, S. Donaldson, & B. Campbell (Eds.), Social psychology and evaluation (pp. 33-70). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1963). Social learning and personality development. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). A comparative test of the status envy, social power, and secondary reinforcement theories of identificatory learning. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, 527-534.
Evans, R. I., & Bandura, A. (1989). Albert Bandura, the man and his ideas: A dialogue. New York, NY: Praeger.
Green, M., & Peil, J. A. (2009). Theories of human development: A comparative approach (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall Inc.
Hardin, M., & Greer, J. D. (2009). The influence of gender-role socialization, media use and sports participation on
perceptions of gender-appropriate sports. Journal of Sport Behavior, 32(2), 207-226.
Lent, R., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (1994, August). Toward a unifying social cognitive theory of career and academic interest, choice, and performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45(1), 79-122.
Martino, S. C., Collins, R. L., Kanouse, D. E., Elliott, M., & Berry, S. H. (2005). Social cognitive processes mediating the relationship between exposure to television's sexual content and adolescents' sexual behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(6), 914.
Mastro, D. E, & Stern, S. R. (2003). Representations of race in television commercials: A content analysis of prime-time advertising. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 47(4), 638-647.
McAlister, A. L., Perry, C. L., & Parcel, G. S. (2008). How individuals, environments, and health behaviors interact: Social cognitive theory. In K. Glanz, B. K. Rimer, & K. Viswanath (Eds.), Health behavior and health education: Theory, research, and practice (4th ed., pp. 169-188). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Miller, K. (2005). Communication theories: Perspectives, processes, and contexts (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw- Hill.
Nabi, R. L., & Clark, S. (2008). Exploring the limits of social cognitive theory: Why negatively reinforced behaviors on TV may be modeled anyway. Journal of Communication, 58(3), 407-427.
Ormrod, J. (2008). Human learning (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Pajares, F., Prestin, A., Chen, J., & Nabi, R. L. (2009). Social cognitive theory and media effects. In R. L. Nabi, & M. B. Oliver (Eds.), The sage handbook of media processes and effects (pp. 283-297). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Raman, P., Harwood, J., Weis, D., Anderson, J. L., & Miller, G. (2008). Portrayals of older adults in US and Indian magazine advertisements: A cross-cultural comparison. The Howard Journal of Communications,19(3), 221-240.
Santrock, J. W. (2008). A topical approach to lifespan development. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Inc. Self-efficacy theory. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Self-efficacy_theory
3.03: Additional Reading
Credible Articles on the Internet
Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. The American Psychologist, 44, 1175-1184. Retrieved from http://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Bandura/Bandura1989AP.pdf
Bandura, A. (1989). Social cognitive theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of child development (pp. 1-60). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Retrieved from http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/Bandura1989ACD.pdf
Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (pp. 71-81). New York, NY: Academic Press. Retrieved from http://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Bandura/Bandura1994EHB.pdf
Bandura, A. (1999). A social cognitive theory of personality. In L. Pervin, & O. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality, (2nd ed., pp. 154-196). New York, NY: Guilford Publications. Retrieved from https://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Bandura/Bandura1999HP.pdf
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. Retrieved from http://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/BanduraPu...a1991OBHDP.pdf
Bandura, A. (2002). Social cognitive theory in cultural context. Journal of Applied Psychology: An International Review, 51, 269-290. Retrieved from http://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Bandura/Bandura2002AP.pdf
Beck, H. P. (2001). Social learning theory. Retrieved from www1.appstate.edu/~beckhp/agg...allearning.htm Boeree, C. (2009). Personality theories: Albert Bandura. Retrieved from http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/bandura.html
Green, C. (1999). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Retrieved from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Bandura/bobo.htm
McLeod, S. (2016). Bandura: Social learning theory. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html Moore, A. (1999). Albert Bandura. Retrieved from www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psyc...ry/bandura.htm
Pajares, F. (2002). Overview of social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy. Retrieved from https://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Pajares/eff.html
Social learning theory. Retrieved from sites.google.com/a/nau.edu/e...s/home/social- learning-thoery
Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles
Grusec, J. E. (1992). Social learning theory and developmental psychology: The legacies of Robert Sears and Albert Bandura. Developmental Psychology, 28(5), 776-786.
Ponton, M. K., & Rhea, N. E. (2006). Autonomous learning from social cognitive perspective. New Horizons in Adult Education & Human Resource Development, 20(2), 38-49.
Books in Dalton State College Library
Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1959). Adolescent aggression: A study of the influence of child-training practices and family interrelationships. New York, NY: Ronald Press Co.
Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1963). Social learning and personality development. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Videos and Tutorials
Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment. (2012). Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dmBqwWlJg8U
Films Media Group. (2003). Bandura’s social cognitive theory: An introduction. Retrieved from Films on Demand database. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Educational_Learning_Theories_(Zhou_and_Brown)/03%3A_Social_Cognitive_Theory/3.01%3A_Introduction.txt |
Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (1896-1934) was born in Russia in 1896. He graduated with a law degree from Moscow University. Vygotsky's first big research project was in 1925 with a focus on psychology of art. A few years later, he pursued a career as a psychologist working with Alexander Luria and Alexei Leontiev. Together, they began the Vygotskian approach to psychology. Despite receiving no formal training in psychology, Vygotsky was fascinated by it. After his death of tuberculosis in 1934, his ideas were repudiated by the government. However, his ideas were kept alive by his students. When the Cold War ended in 1960s, Vygotsky's works were introduced to the English-speaking world. Vygotsky has written several articles and books on his theories and psychology, including Thought and Language, a widely recognized classic foundational work of cognitive science, published in 1934, the same year after his death.
Vygotsky is best known for being an educational psychologist with a sociocultural theory. This theory suggests that social interaction leads to continuous step-by-step changes in children's thought and behavior that can vary greatly from culture to culture (Woolfolk, 1998). Basically, Vygotsky's theory suggests that development depends on interaction with people and the tools that the culture provides to help form their own view of the world. There are three ways a cultural tool can be passed from one individual to another. The first one is imitative learning, where one person tries to imitate or copy another. The second way is by instructed learning which involves remembering the instructions of the teacher and then using these instructions to self-regulate. The final way that cultural tools are passed on to others is through collaborative learning, which involves a group of peers who strive to understand each other and work together to learn a specific skill (Tomasello, Kruger, & Ratner, 1993).
4.02: Required Reading
Discussion is given on the contribution of Vygotsky’s ideas to the understanding of the relation between the social world and cognitive development. Particular attention is given to the significance of culture, the role of language, and the student’s relationship with and development within this social world. In doing so, some similarities and contrasts between other learning theorists, specifically Piaget, are briefly discussed. Vygotsky’s views of the integrated and dynamic social nature of learning are described, and the notion of a zone of proximal development, which utilizes such ideas, is introduced. Vygotsky’s ideas on cognitive development are shown to lead to student-centered and a co-constructivist basis of learning, in which the student potential within the social context is accommodated.
The relationship between the social world and cognitive development has been considered by several investigators, such as Piaget (1959), Vygotsky (1978), Bandura (1977), Rogoff (1990), and Wood (1998). A commonality of the various theories is that student learning is not viewed as a simple process of information transfer from a source (teacher, parent, computer), but often involves an active social interaction in which, for example, a student constructs knowledge through discovery and experiment (Piaget), learns through imitation or observation (Bandura), or relies upon teacher support which is congruent with the student’s immediate (proximal) potential for learning (Vygotsky). The work of Vygotsky gives particular attention to the inter-relationships between macro-social (i.e. cultural-historical) and micro-social (i.e. interpersonal) influences on cognitive development, and thus social influences on learning in a broad sense. External social forces are viewed as important in the learner’s development, in which the learner is considered an apprentice (see also Rogoff, 1990) requiring the guidance, facilitation and support of teachers. This view is often contrasted with that of Piaget’s theory, in which the main forces driving cognitive development of a student are seen as within the individual (i.e. the student as a scientist), constrained to some extent by developmental stages (Lefrancois, 1999).
In the following sections, attention will be given to the ideas of Vygotsky on the relationship between the social world and cognitive development. In particular, the influences of culture, history and language on development will be considered, and a proposed mechanism of cognitive development through notions of student potential described. The specific implications of these ideas for educators will then be considered.
Cognitive Development and the Social World
As indicated above, the social world as defined by Vygotsky considers not only the interpersonal interactions between, say, a student and teacher, or student and peer, but also the broader sociocultural and historical influences on learning and the learning environment. The underlying themes of Vygotsky’s theory on cognitive development have thus often been summarized as: (i) the significance of culture, (ii) the role of a principal proponent of culture: language, and (iii) the student’s relationship with and development within this sociocultural world. In this context, culture is viewed as socially accepted behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs, and is constructed through human societal products such as institutions, symbol systems, and tools such as language. Culture in this sense is a dynamic outcome of historical events and developments, and thus products of human development. However, as emphasized by Vygotsky, at any particular historical time, culture itself will influence human mental functioning and behavior, and thus a complex integrated relationship between the cultural environment and personal development. In other words, humans are not only producing culture, but are also products of culture themselves.
The cultural influences on childhood development can be exemplified through the elementary and higher mental notions of Vygotsky. The former describes innate functions or characteristics of a young child such as responding to a mother’s voice and crying for a need. In the course of development, perhaps through operant conditioning, imitation, perception or some limited cognitive evaluation, elementary functions are gradually transformed into higher mental functions such as problem solving, logic, and propositional and hypothetical thinking. Vygotsky believed that this transformation is strongly influenced by culture. For example, culture results in language and other symbolism which perhaps define non-primitive consciousness (see below), and create the social processes and pressures (motives) for adopting the patterns of behavior and attitudes which are characteristic of that culture.
Vygotsky believed that language makes thought possible and is thus the basis of consciousness. Without language his view was that human development could not exceed that of primitive sense and perception functions, characteristic of lower forms of mammalian life. Language was also seen as the tool of culture which enables social interaction, and thus the direction of behavior and attitudes, and indeed the propagation and development of culture itself. The specific and early relationship of language and cognition can be identified through three key stages in the development of speech: social, egocentric, and inner speech (Vygotsky, 1986). Social or external speech dominates the first stage of language development, and is a means by which young children (typically up to the age of 3) express emotions or simple thoughts. The speech is principally used for control of behavior of others, but also acts as a means of conveying early social influences such as parental tolerances of behavior. Such influences inevitably lead to the restructuring of thoughts, and thus cognition. Egocentric speech occurs between the ages of 3 and 7 and describes an intermediate stage of language development between external speech and inner thoughts (see below). In this stage, the child will often talk to him or herself in an effort to control their own behavior or justify actions or approaches to a task. With maturity, egocentric speech becomes inner speech (self-talk), which has also been referred to as the stream of consciousness by James (1890). Vygotsky believed that inner speech enables individuals to direct and organize thought, and thus an important proponent of higher mental functioning. Hence, the set of arbitrary and conventional symbols which are used to convey meaning, but which are culturally determined in form and interpretation, become a part of the individual’s cognitive being.
Closely related to the formation of inner speech is the concept of internalization. This involves the internal acceptance (perhaps with individual modification or interpretation) of social (external) values, beliefs, attitudes or standards, as one’s own. In this sense, the psychological make-up of the individual is altered through internalization, and provides a dynamic mechanism by with the inter-social becomes the intra-social. However, such a mental adoption processes should not be confused with processes such as introjection or socialization. The former describes internalization in which there is little active participation by the individual; c.f. operant learning, and indeed some forms of hypnosis. In contrast, socialization describes a pseudo-internalization process in which apparent beliefs arise from a need to conform to society rather than any actual commitment. Internalization as viewed by Vygotsky therefore, represents a genuine, participative, and constructed process, but nevertheless determined by sociocultural influences. As indicated above, the outcome of internalization is that interpersonal or personal-cultural influences, become transformed into intrapersonal characteristics. Thus, every function in the child’s cognitive development, such as attention, logic or concept formation, appears twice: first on the social level and then on the individual level (Vygotsky, 1978).
An important implication of the above ideas is that there is much opportunity through the school system to influence the cognitive development of children. For example, through language, the presentation and interpretation of history and current
affairs, and the attitudes, beliefs and values of teachers (or significant others), the thought patterns and beliefs of students may be shaped. Unlike Piaget, who believed that children construct their own ideas of the world, Vygotsky’s ideas suggest that student-teacher and student-peer relationships are of prime importance of generating and facilitating new ideas, perspectives, and cognitive strategies. Furthermore, the student apprentice can be seen to be active within their learning environments, attempting to construct understanding where possible, and possibly contribute to or affirm with the adopted culture. In turn, this aspect of human development inevitably has influence on the environment itself, and thus a dialectic process in which learning and development is affected by the social world, and the social world changed through learning and development (Tudge & Winterhoff, 1993). In a similar way, Vygotsky has argued that natural (i.e. biological) and cultural development coincide and merge to form a dynamic and integrated sociobiological influence on personality (Vygotsky, 1986).
A second important implication of Vygotsky’s views is that rather than deriving explanations of a student’s psychological activity (e.g. intelligence and motivation) from the student’s characteristics, attention should be given to student behavior and performance when engaged in a social situation. Vygotsky in specific postulated the notion of a zone of proximal development (ZPD) which defines the difference between the child’s independent learning accomplishments, and accomplishments under the guidance of a person who is more competent at the specific task at hand. Vygotsky particularly viewed adults, rather than peers, as key in this relationship, perhaps because adults are more likely to be truly competent in the task, and thus less likely to cause regression rather than progression in the collaboration (Tudge & Winterhoff, 1993). The maximization of potential was then viewed as a social process, which challenges the traditional notions of intelligence testing with psychometric tests. For example, emphasis is given to the potential of the student and its social contextualization, rather than current cognitive abilities measured independent of a social context. However, this notion of potential does not necessarily imply an intelligence level, since the ZPD is a dynamic assessment which may be complicated through the various student-specific influences of the social learning environment. Past experiences (prior knowledge), personality attributes, locus of control, and self-esteem for example, may all have possible influences on the efficacy of learning through the social interaction. Likewise, as a further complexity, the ZPD is not a well-defined space, but created in the course of the social interaction (Tudge & Winterhoff, 1993). Nevertheless, the notion of the ZPD gives importance to the student- centered basis of education, and suggests that the individual progression towards an overall learning outcome will be dictated by the guided and subjective accomplishments of intermediate (proximal) outcomes.
Educational Implications
Although the social influences on cognitive development have been considered by other researchers, such as Piaget and Bandura, Vygotsky emphasized that individual development is inherently integrated with cultural, historical, and inter- personal factors. Furthermore, Vygotsky viewed the individual in the social context as the unit of analysis in development, rather than the sole individual. In other words, whilst the internalization of thoughts, attitudes, and beliefs have been widely accepted to be socially influenced, further higher mental development is postulated by Vygotsky to be inseparably dependent upon social interactions, and indeed new understanding is not necessarily viewed as an external feature to be adopted by the student, but something which is created in the process of the social (teaching) interactions (Tudge & Winterhoff, 1993). Some general implications of Vygotsky’s ideas on the social influences on cognitive development have been mentioned above, and can be summarized as:
• the central role of the teacher-student relationship in learning;
• the inherent cultural and immediate-social influences upon the student’s attitudes and beliefs towards, for example, learning, schooling, and the education philosophy;
• the importance and power of language as a primary tool for the transference of sociocultural influences upon the child; and
• the benefits of student-centered teaching, whereby the student can efficiently progress within their potential towards a learning outcome; i.e. constructing knowledge through social interaction or co-constructivism. (Tudge & Winterhoff, 1993)
Further specific educational implications of the above points arise when considering practical teaching within schools. For example, given a child with particular personality traits and temperament, how should a teacher instigate a teaching objective which is congruent with Vygotskian ideas? The ZPD describes what a student can accomplish with the help of competent support, therefore it describes the actual task that can be effectively supported by the teacher. Although this may seem a rather circular argument, the implication here is that teachers need to continuously evaluate how effectively a student is progressing in a learning activity and respond accordingly with modified tasks or intermediary learning objectives.
In other words, students should be given frequent opportunities to express understanding, and learning tasks fine-tuned by the teacher to address individual capabilities. Such teacher support, which is graduated and task-apportioned based on student needs, has been commonly referred to as scaffolding, which symbolizes strong initial teacher support which is gradually reduced as the student approaches the desired learning outcome. In specific, scaffolding may range from very detailed and explicit tuition, such as the explanation of procedures and demonstrations, to the facilitation or organization of activities for student self-tuition. Scaffolding has also been interpreted as a mechanism by which sequential ZPD’s are used to achieve a learning outcome beyond a child’s immediate (starting) potential, and thus the specific learning activities change as the student competence towards the ultimate task grows (Biggs & Moore, 1993). The notion of ZPD also suggests that effective teaching should not only be within the proximate potential of the individual, but should perhaps be at the upper-level of the ZPD so as to maintain the student interest in the activity.
But how are the above teaching implications of ZPD different from what experienced teachers naturally do? As stated earlier, the social interaction aspect is a key emphasis in the learning process, and therefore the student needs to be active in the learning interaction, and in collaboration with the teacher. Where teaching logistics dictate large classes, small group work should be encouraged whereby peer-support and improved teacher interaction can be maintained. However, as mentioned earlier, overt reliance on peer-support could cause regression in some cases, and requires careful evaluation and support by the teacher. Furthermore, in an educational context, a teacher is likely to prove the best role model, i.e. the best conveyer of culturally esteemed factors pertaining to education; see also the discussions of Biggs and Moore (1993) on modelling in learning.
The use of language related activities in the school environment are also indicated to be of importance to cognitive development. For example, the development of communication skills may influence the clarity and breadth of inner speech, and thus thought patterns. However, care is needed in the degree of literal interpretation of such influences, which may incorrectly suggest, for example, that students with difficulties in expressing themselves, or grasping subtle meanings in language, are necessarily poor in cognitive ability. Furthermore, certain abilities such as bodily-kinesthetic and musical skills, may not necessarily be best represented through language-based thought. However, at an early school age, the development of language is likely to be an enabling tool towards other educational abilities, which in our current cultural setting have a cognitive bias.
Finally, an interesting issue which arises through consideration of Vygotskian views is the specific role and advantages of computer-based learning. Here, in one sense, social interaction is removed, but in another, may be replaced by an interactive and responding interface, which could perhaps evaluate and respond to the user’s ZPD. Such sophisticated computation would inevitably rely on expert-systems type technologies, such that there is an intelligent (e.g. humanly adaptive like) response to user queries and misunderstandings. The relatively unsophisticated nature of many current educational software, even those which are stated to be interactive, may explain the current mixed results of such software.
The influence of the social world on cognitive development has been considered through the views of Vygotsky. The dynamic relationships between culture, history, interpersonal interactions and psychological development have been described, and the important role of language as a common and conducting medium discussed. One specific educational application of such ideas is through the ZPD, which emphasizes the importance of the social aspect of learning, and particularly the student-centered and co-constructivist basis of learning in which the individual’s potential within the social context is addressed. Such ideas have had impact on the school system by challenging teacher-directed (as opposed to student-centered) learning programs, and perhaps emphasize the care needed in, for example, computer-based and distance learning teaching initiatives.
Criticisms of Sociocultural Theory
The writings of Vygotsky have been widely-criticized both during his lifetime and after his death. Vygotsky did not do empirical work to validate his findings instead relying on observation and testing. Social interaction is central to Vygotsky. However, he did not say what types of social interaction are best for learning.
One criticism is Vygotsky's view of active construction of knowledge. Some critics suggest that learning is not always a result of active construction. Rather, learning can occur passively or osmotically. Some children, regardless of how much help is given by others, may still develop at a slower rate cognitively. This suggests that there are other factors involved such as genetics.
Vygotsky's theory of language is not well-developed. Vygotsky, of course, died at age 37 and may have gone on to elucidate his theories had he survived. His theories rely a lot on cultural influences, for it is culture that helps to develop learners' language acquisition and cognitive development. Vygotsky states that little language acquisition and cognitive development come from biological factors. However, some psychologists dismiss the idea that cultural influences play a dominant role in development of language. Some children take years to learn basic skills despite plenty of social support. In some cases, children are unable to grasp certain concepts until they reach a level of maturity. This lends credence to Piaget’s view of cognitive development occurring in stages and children not being unable to learn some concepts until they reach a certain age.
Perhaps the main criticism of Vygotsky's work concerns the assumption that it is relevant to all cultures. Rogoff (1990) dismisses the idea that Vygotsky's ideas are culturally universal and instead states the concept of scaffolding-which is heavily dependent on verbal instruction-may not be equally useful in all cultures for all types of learning. Indeed, in some instances, observation and practice may be more effective ways of learning certain skills.
In addition, Vygotsky was criticized for the concept of the "zone of proximal development," referred to as "one of the most used and least understood constructs to appear in contemporary educational literature" (Palinscar, 1998, p. 370) and "used as little more than a fashionable alternative to Piagetian terminology or the concept of IQ for describing individual differences in attainment or potential" (Faukner, Littleton, & Woodhead, 2013, p. 114).
Vygotsky's work has not received the same level of intense scrutiny that Piaget's has, partly due to the time-consuming process of translating Vygotsky's work from Russian. Also, Vygotsky's sociocultural perspective does not provide as many specific hypotheses to test as did Piaget's theory, making refutation difficult, if not impossible.
REFERENCES
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press. Biggs, J. B., & Moore, P. J. (1993). Process of learning (3rd ed.). London: Prentice Hall.
Faukner, D., Littleton, K., & Woodhead, M. (Eds.). (2013). Learning relationships in the classroom. New York, NY: Routledge.
James, W., (1950, originally published 1890). The principles of psychology. New York, NY: Dover. Lefrancois, G. R. (1999). Psychology for teaching (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Thomson Learning.
Palinscar, A. S. (1998). Keeping the metaphor of scaffolding fresh: A response to C. Addison Stone’s The metaphor of scaffolding: Its utility for the field of learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, 370-373.
Piaget, J. (1959). The language and thought of the child (3rd ed.). London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in thinking: Cognitive development in the social context. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press.
Tomasello, M., Kruger A. C., & Ratner, H. H. (1993). Cultural learning. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 16(1), 495-552.
Tudge, J. R. H., & Winterhoff, P. A. (1993). Vygotsky, Piaget, and Bandura: Perspectives on the relations between the social world and cognitive development. Human Development, 36, 61.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1986, edited and translated by A. Kozulin). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Wood, D. (1998). How children think and learn (2nd ed.). London, UK: Blackwell.
4.03: Additional Reading
Credible Articles on the Internet
Carol, S., & Princess, C. (n.d.). Lev Vygotsky. Retrieved from: http://cadres.pepperdine.edu/omcadre...t/vygotsky.htm
Cole, M., & Wertsch, J. (1996). Beyond the individual-social antimony in discussions of Piaget and Vygotsky. Retrieved from http://www.massey.ac.nz/~alock/virtual/colevyg.htm
Dahms, M., Geonnotti, K., Passalacqua, D., Schilk, J. N., Wetzel, A., & Zulkowsky, M. (2008). The educational theory of Lev Vygotsky: An analysis. In G. Clabaugh (Ed.), The educational theory of Lev Vygotsky:
A multidimensional analysis. Retrieved from http://www.newfoundations.com/GALLERY/Vygotsky.html
Gallagher, C. (1999). Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky. Retrieved from: www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psyc...y/vygotsky.htm
McCloud, S. (2009). Lev Vygotsky. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
Offord, L. (2005). The Mozart of psychology: Lev Semenovich Vygotsky. Retrieved from vygotsky.afraid.org/
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory. (2016). Retrieved from: https://oli.cmu.edu/jcourse/workbook...e717888ad145d1
Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles
Abdi, A. A. (2000). Dialogic inquiry: Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education. McGill Journal of Education, 35(1), 91-94.
Byrnes, H., Lantolf, J. P., & Thorne, S. L. T. (2008). Sociocultural theory and the genesis of second language development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 30(3), 394-396.
De León, L. (2012). Model of models: Preservice teachers in a Vygotskian scaffold. The Educational Forum, 76(2), 144- 157.
Gindis, B. (1999). Vygotsky's vision: Reshaping the practice of special education for the 21st century. Remedial and Special Education, 20(6), 333.
Jaramillo, J. A. (1996). Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and contributions to the development of constructivist curricula. Education, 117(1), 133-140.
Lantolf, J. P. (2006). Sociocultural theory and L2: State of the art. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28(1), 67-109. Mahn, H. (1999). Vygotsky's methodological contribution to sociocultural theory. Remedial and Special Education, 20(6),
341.
Shabani, K., Khatib, M., & Ebadi, S. (2010). Vygotsky's zone of proximal development: Instructional implications and teachers' professional development. English Language Teaching, 3(4), 237-248.
Books at Dalton State College Library
Dixon-Krauss, L. (1996). Vygotsky in the classroom: Mediated literacy instruction and assessment. [Washington, DC]: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Education Resources Information Center.
Kozulin, A. (1990). Vygotsky's psychology: A biography of ideas. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Maddux, C. D., Johnson, D. L., & Willis, J. W. (1997). Educational computing: Learning with tomorrow's technologies.
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Smidt, S. (2009). Introducing Vygotsky: A guide for practitioners and students in early years education. New York, NY: Routledge.
Videos and Tutorials
Vygotsky’s developmental theory: An introduction. (1994). Retrieved from Films on Demand database. Vygotsky’s developmental theory: Child constructs knowledge. (1994). Retrieved from Films on Demand database. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Educational_Learning_Theories_(Zhou_and_Brown)/04%3A_Sociocultural_Theory/4.01%3A_Introduction.txt |
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) was a 20th century psychologist known primarily for his research into moral psychology and development. Lawrence Kohlberg was born in Bronxville, New York on October 25, 1927. He received his Ph.D. in psychology from the University of Chicago in 1958. His dissertation was based on his research into the moral choices of adolescent boys and led to a life devoted to the exploration of moral and ethical development in young people. In 1962, he returned to the University of Chicago as an assistant professor. Kohlberg died of an apparent suicide in 1987, after a long battle with depression coupled with painful symptoms from a tropical parasite he had contracted in Belize in 1971.
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development were influenced by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget’s stage-based theory of cognitive development. Kohlberg expanded on Piaget’s cognitive development stages to form the six stages of moral development. He argued that correct moral reasoning was the most significant factor in moral decision-making, and that correct moral reasoning would lead to ethical behavior. Kohlberg believed that individuals progress through stages of moral development just as they progress through stages of cognitive development. Kohlberg’s theory of moral development included three levels and six stages. To determine which stage of moral development his subjects were in, Kohlberg presented them with invented moral dilemmas, such as the case of a man who stole medicine for his sick wife. According to Kohlberg, few people reach stages five and six; most tend to stay at stage four. Kohlberg purported that women were often at a lower stage of moral development than men, but psychologist Carol Gilligan questioned his findings. Gilligan claims that women place a stronger emphasis on caring and empathy, rather than justice. She developed an alternative scale, heavily influenced by Kohlberg's scale, which showed that both men and women could reach advanced stages of moral development.
5.02: Required Reading
Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development constitute an adaptation of a psychological theory originally conceived of by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. Kohlberg began work on this topic while a psychology postgraduate student at the University of Chicago in 1985, and expanded and developed this theory throughout his life.
The theory holds that moral reasoning, the basis for ethical behavior, has six identifiable developmental stages, each more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than its predecessor. Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgment far beyond the ages studied earlier by Piaget, who also claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages. Expanding on Piaget's work, Kohlberg determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that it continued throughout the individual's lifetime, a notion that spawned dialogue on the philosophical implications of such research.
Kohlberg relied for his studies on stories such as the Heinz dilemma, and was interested in how individuals would justify their actions if placed in similar moral dilemmas. He then analyzed the form of moral reasoning displayed, rather than its conclusion, and classified it as belonging to one of six distinct stages.
There have been critiques of the theory from several perspectives. Arguments include that it emphasizes justice to the exclusion of other moral values, such as caring; that there is such an overlap between stages that they should more properly be regarded as separate domains; or that evaluations of the reasons for moral choices are mostly post hoc rationalizations (by both decision makers and psychologists studying them) of essentially intuitive decisions.
Nevertheless, an entirely new field within psychology was created as a direct result of Kohlberg's theory, and according to Haggbloom et al.’s (2002) study of the most eminent psychologists of the 20th century, Kohlberg was the 16th most frequently cited psychologist in introductory psychology textbooks throughout the century, as well as the 30th most eminent overall.
Kohlberg's scale is about how people justify behaviors and his stages are not a method of ranking how moral someone's behavior is. There should however be a correlation between how someone scores on the scale and how they behave, and the general hypothesis is that moral behavior is more responsible, consistent and predictable from people at higher levels. Three Levels and Six Stages
Kohlberg's six stages Figure \(1\) can be more generally grouped into three levels of two stages each: pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional. Following Piaget's constructivist requirements for a stage model, as described in his theory of cognitive development, it is extremely rare to regress in stages-to lose the use of higher stage abilities. Stages cannot be skipped; each provides a new and necessary perspective, more comprehensive and differentiated than its predecessors but integrated with them.
Pre-Conventional Level
The pre-conventional level of moral reasoning is especially common in children, although adults can also exhibit this level of reasoning. Reasoners at this level judge the morality of an action by its direct consequences. The pre-conventional level consists of the first and second stages of moral development, and is solely concerned with the self in an egocentric manner. A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society's conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.
In Stage One (obedience and punishment driven), individuals focus on the direct consequences of their actions on themselves. For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished. "The last time I did that I got spanked so I will not do it again." The worse the punishment for the act is, the more "bad" the act is perceived to be. This can give rise to an inference that even innocent victims are guilty in proportion to their suffering. It is "egocentric," lacking recognition that others' points of view are different from one's own.
There is "deference to superior power or prestige."
Stage Two (self-interest driven) espouses the "what's in it for me" position, in which right behavior is defined by whatever is in the individual's best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others, but only to a point where it might further the individual's own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a "you scratch my back and I'll scratch yours" mentality. The lack of a societal perspective in the pre-conventional level is quite different from the social contract (Stage Five), as all actions have the purpose of serving the individual's own needs or interests. For the stage two theorists, the world's perspective is often seen as morally relative.
Conventional Level
The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults. Those who reason in a conventional way
judge the morality of actions by comparing them to society's views and expectations. The conventional level consists of the third and fourth stages of moral development. Conventional morality is characterized by an acceptance of society's conventions concerning right and wrong. At this level an individual obeys rules and follows society's norms even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid, however, and a rule's appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.
In Stage Three (interpersonal accord and conformity driven), the self enters society by filling social roles. Individuals are receptive to approval or disapproval from others as it reflects society's accordance with the perceived role. They try to be a "good boy" or "good girl" to live up to these expectations, having learned that there is inherent value in doing so. Stage three reasoning may judge the morality of an action by evaluating its consequences in terms of a person's relationships, which now begin to include things like respect, gratitude, and the "golden rule." "I want to be liked and thought well of; apparently, not being naughty makes people like me." Desire to maintain rules and authority exists only to further support these social roles. The intentions of actions play a more significant role in reasoning at this stage; "they mean well ..."
In Stage Four (authority and social order obedience driven), it is important to obey laws, dictums and social conventions because of their importance in maintaining a functioning society. Moral reasoning in stage four is thus beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three; society must learn to transcend individual needs. A central ideal or ideals often prescribe what is right and wrong, such as in the case of fundamentalism. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would-thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. When someone does violate a law, it is morally wrong; culpability is thus a significant factor in this stage as it separates the bad domains from the good ones. Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.
Post-Conventional Level
The post-conventional level, also known as the principled level, consists of stages five and six of moral development. There is a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society, and that the individual’s own perspective may take precedence over society’s view; they may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles. These people live by their own abstract principles about right and wrong principles that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice. Because of this level’s “nature of self before others,” the behavior of post-conventional individuals, especially those at stage six, can be confused with that of
those at the pre-conventional level.
People who exhibit post-conventional morality view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms ideally rules can maintain the general social order and protect human rights. Rules are not absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Contemporary theorists often speculate that many people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.
In Stage Five (social contract driven), the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights and values. Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet “the greatest good for the greatest number of people.” This is achieved through majority decision, and inevitable compromise. Democratic government is ostensibly based on stage five reasoning.
In Stage Six (universal ethical principles driven), moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. Legal rights are unnecessary, as social contracts are not essential for deontic moral action. Decisions are not reached hypothetically in a conditional way but rather categorically in an absolute way, as in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant. This involves an individual imagining what they would do in another’s shoes, if they believed what that other person imagines to be true. The resulting consensus is the action taken. In this way action is never a means but always an end in itself; the individual acts because it is right, and not because it is instrumental, expected, legal, or previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently operated at that level.
Further Stages
In Kohlberg's empirical studies of individuals throughout their life Kohlberg observed that some had apparently undergone moral stage regression. This could be resolved either by allowing for moral regression or by extending the theory. Kohlberg chose the latter, postulating the existence of sub-stages in which the emerging stage has not yet been fully integrated into the personality. In particular Kohlberg noted a stage 41⁄2 or 4+, a transition from stage four to stage five, which shared characteristics of both. In this stage the individual is disaffected with the arbitrary nature of law and order reasoning; culpability is frequently turned from being defined by society to viewing society itself as culpable. This stage is often mistaken for the moral relativism of stage two, as the individual views those interests of society that conflict with their own as being relatively and morally wrong. Kohlberg noted that this was often observed in students entering college.
Kohlberg suggested that there may be a seventh stage-Transcendental Morality, or Morality of Cosmic Orientation-which linked religion with moral reasoning. Kohlberg's difficulties in obtaining empirical evidence for even a sixth stage, however, led him to emphasize the speculative nature of his seventh stage.
Theoretical Assumptions (Philosophy)
The picture of human nature Kohlberg begins with is that humans are inherently communicative and capable of reason. They also possess a desire to understand others and the world around them. The stages of Kohlberg's model relate to the qualitative moral reasonings adopted by individuals, and so do not translate directly into praise or blame of any individual's actions or character. Arguing that his theory measures moral reasoning and not particular moral conclusions, Kohlberg insists that the form and structure of moral arguments is independent of the content of those arguments, a position he calls "formalism" (Table \(1\)).
Table \(1\)
Stages
Views of Persons
Social Perspective Level
6
Sees how human fallibility and frailty are impacted by communication
Mutual respect as a universal principle
5
Recognize that contracts will allow persons to increase welfare of both
Contractual perspective
4
Able to see abstract normative systems
Social systems perspective
3
Recognize good and bad intentions
Social relationships perspective
2
Sees that a) others have goals and preferences; b) either to conform or to deviate from norms
Instrumental egoism
1
No VOP: only self and norm are recognized
Blind egoism
Kohlberg's theory centers on the notion that justice is the essential characteristic of moral reasoning. Justice itself relies heavily upon the notion of sound reasoning based on principles. Despite being a justice-centered theory of morality, Kohlberg considered it to be compatible with plausible formulations of deontology and eudaimonia.
Kohlberg's theory understands values as a critical component of the right. Whatever the right is, for Kohlberg, it must be universally valid across societies (a position known as "moral universalism"); there can be no relativism. Moreover, morals are not natural features of the world; they are prescriptive. Nevertheless, moral judgments can be evaluated in logical terms of truth and falsity.
According to Kohlberg, someone progressing to a higher stage of moral reasoning cannot skip stages. For example, an individual cannot jump from being concerned mostly with peer judgments (stage three) to being a proponent of social contracts (stage five). On encountering a moral dilemma and finding their current level of moral reasoning unsatisfactory, however, an individual will look to the next level. Realizing the limitations of the current stage of thinking is the driving force behind moral development, as each progressive stage is more adequate than the last. The process is therefore considered to be constructive, as it is initiated by the conscious construction of the individual, and is not in any meaningful sense a component of the individual's innate dispositions, or a result of past inductions.
Progress through Kohlberg's stages happens as a result of the individual's increasing competence, both psychologically and in balancing conflicting social-value claims. The process of resolving conflicting claims to reach an equilibrium is called "justice operation." Kohlberg identifies two of these justice operations: "equality," which involves an impartial regard for persons, and "reciprocity," which means a regard for the role of personal merit. For Kohlberg, the most adequate result of both operations is "reversibility," in which a moral or dutiful act within a particular situation is evaluated in terms of whether or not the act would be satisfactory even if particular persons were to switch roles within that situation (also known colloquially as "moral musical chairs").
Knowledge and learning contribute to moral development. Specifically important are the individual's "view of persons" and their "social perspective level," each of which becomes more complex and mature with each advancing stage. The "view of persons" can be understood as the individual's grasp of the psychology of other persons; it may be pictured as a spectrum, with stage one having no view of other persons at all, and stage six being entirely socio-centric. Similarly, the social perspective level involves the understanding of the social universe, differing from the view of persons in that it involves an appreciation of social norms.
Examples of Applied Moral Dilemmas
Kohlberg established the Moral Judgement Interview in his original 1958 dissertation. During the roughly 45-minute tape recorded semi-structured interview, the interviewer uses moral dilemmas to determine which stage of moral reasoning a person uses. The dilemmas are fictional short stories that describe situations in which a person has to make a moral decision. The participant is asked a systemic series of open-ended questions, like what they think the right course of action is, as well as justifications as to why certain actions are right or wrong. The form and structure of these replies are scored and not the content; over a set of multiple moral dilemmas an overall score is derived.
Heinz Dilemma
A dilemma that Kohlberg used in his original research was the druggist's dilemma: Heinz Steals the Drug in Europe. From a theoretical point of view, it is not important what the participant thinks that Heinz should do. Kohlberg's theory holds that the justification the participant offers is what is significant, the form of their response. Below are some of many examples of possible arguments that belong to the six stages:
Stage One (obedience): Heinz should not steal the medicine because he would consequently be put in prison, which would mean he is a bad person. Or: Heinz should steal the medicine because it is only worth \$200, not how much the druggist wanted for it. Heinz had even offered to pay for it and was not stealing anything else.
Stage Two (self-interest): Heinz should steal the medicine because he will be much happier if he saves his wife, even if he will have to serve a prison sentence. Or: Heinz should not steal the medicine because prison is an awful place, and he would probably experience anguish over a jail cell more than his wife's death.
Stage Three (conformity): Heinz should steal the medicine because his wife expects it; he wants to be a good husband. Or: Heinz should not steal the drug because stealing is bad and he is not a criminal; he tried to do everything he could without breaking the law, you cannot blame him.
Stage Four (law-and-order): Heinz should not steal the medicine because the law prohibits stealing, making it illegal. Or: Heinz should steal the drug for his wife but also take the prescribed punishment for the crime as well as paying the druggist what he is owed. Criminals cannot just run around without regard for the law; actions have consequences.
Stage Five (human rights): Heinz should steal the medicine because everyone has a right to choose life, regardless of the law. Or: Heinz should not steal the medicine because the scientist has a right to fair compensation. Even if his wife is sick, it does not make his actions right.
Stage Six (universal human ethics): Heinz should steal the medicine, because saving a human life is a more fundamental value than the property rights of another person. Or: Heinz should not steal the medicine, because others may need the medicine just as badly, and their lives are equally significant.
Criticisms of the Theory of Moral Development
One criticism of Kohlberg's theory is that it emphasizes justice to the exclusion of other values, and so may not adequately address the arguments of those who value other moral aspects of actions. In addition, Kohlberg's theory was initially
developed based on empirical research using only male participants. Carol Gilligan, a former student of Kohlberg, argued that Kohlberg's theory is overly androcentric and did not adequately describe the concerns of women although research has generally found no significant pattern of differences in moral development between sexes.
Next, Kohlberg's stages are not culturally neutral, as demonstrated by its application to a number of different cultures. Although they progress through the stages in the same order, individuals in different cultures seem to do so at different rates. Kohlberg has responded by saying that although different cultures do indeed inculcate different beliefs, his stages correspond to underlying modes of reasoning, rather than to those beliefs.
Lastly, other psychologists have questioned the assumption that moral action is primarily a result of formal reasoning. Social intuitionists such as Jonathan Haidt, for example, argue that individuals often make moral judgments without weighing concerns such as fairness, law, human rights, or abstract ethical values. Thus the arguments analyzed by Kohlberg and other rationalist psychologists could be considered post hoc rationalizations of intuitive decisions; moral reasoning may be less relevant to moral action than Kohlberg's theory suggests.
Educational Implications
Moral and Character Development in Education (Huitt, 2004)
In assisting students with moral and character development, it is acknowledged that morals and character traits/attributes come into play within a rapidly changing context. Teachers cannot teach students all the specific knowledge, values, or behaviors that will lead to success in all aspects of their lives. Teachers must, therefore, acknowledge that some values are relative and teach students to develop their own views accordingly. At the same time, teachers must acknowledge that there are some absolutes with respect to morality and character that are accepted as commonalties among members of specific communities, major world religions, and moral philosophers. Teachers have an obligation to teach or support these morals and character development in the classroom, in the family, in religious organizations, and communities at large.
Moral and character development is integral to the development of self (Ashton & Huitt, 1980), and is as much the responsibility of early caregivers as it is of later educators. Nucci (1989) showed that "children's moral understandings were independent of specific religious concepts" and that both secular and religious children focus "on the same set of fundamental interpersonal issues: those pertaining to justice and compassion" (p. 195). In sum, parents, educators, affiliates of religious organizations, and community members have an obligation to provide young people with training appropriate to their age level that would assist them in holding to the absolutes that are common across philosophies and beliefs of the major religious traditions, while at the same time helping them develop and defend own acquired values.
Wynne (1989) reports that the quality of relationships among faculty (and between the faculty and adults in authority) is a major factor in the development of student character. An atmosphere of adult harmony is vitally important. According to Wynne, schools effectively assisting pupil character development are:
1. directed by adults who exercise their authority toward faculty and students in a firm, sensitive, and imaginative manner, and who are committed to both academics and pupil character development;
2. staffed by dedicated faculty who make vigorous demands on pupils and each other;
3. structured so that pupils are surrounded by a variety of opportunities for them to practice helping (prosocial) conduct;
4. managed to provide pupils-both individually and collectively-with many forms of recognition for good conduct;
5. oriented toward maintaining systems of symbols, slogans, ceremonies, and songs that heighten pupils' collective identities;
6. dedicated to maintaining pupil discipline, via clear, widely disseminated discipline codes that are vigorously enforced and backed up with vital consequences;
7. committed to academic instruction and assigned pupils significant homework and otherwise stressed appropriate academic rigor;
8. sensitive to the need to develop collective pupil loyalties to particular classes, clubs, athletic groups, and other sub-entities in the school;
9. sympathetic to the values of the external adult society, and perceive it as largely supportive and concerned with the problems of the young;
10. always able to use more money to improve their programs, but rarely regard lack of money as an excuse for serious program deficiencies;
11. open to enlisting the help, counsel, and support of parents and other external adults, but willing to propose important constructive changes in the face of (sometimes) ill-informed parent resistance;
12. disposed to define "good character" in relatively immediate and traditional terms.
In teaching moral and characters, it was not a failure of the economic or material aspect of society, in many cases, but rather a failure of the human, social, political, or spiritual aspects. The educational system must prepare individuals to progress in each of these arenas of life. Therefore, character development must be seen as an organic process in the development of the material/physical, human/psychological, and spiritual/transcendental aspects of human being.
The need for moral and character development in education led to the character education movement in the US. By the early 2000s, character education had become the fastest growing school reform movement (Kline, 2017). According to the US Department of Education (n.d.) website, character education is defined as a learning process that enables students and adults in a school community to understand, care about and act on core ethical values such as respect, justice, civic virtue and citizenship, and responsibility for self and others. Thus a set of morally desirable traits exists and these traits should be purposefully taught in schools (Editorial Projects in Education Research Center, 2004; McClellan, 1999; Prestwich, 2004). Huitt (2004) identified a list of moral and character attributes/traits as the focus for K-12 schools (Figure \(2\)) based on data results collected in south GA. Those attributes/traits can be integrated into the curriculum to assist young people strive for excellence in both character and competencies. Lesson Plan examples from Figure \(3\ to Figure 7\) are just a few.
The Lesson Plan is a great place for teachers to start teaching and supporting moral and character development in the classroom. Below are several examples of teaching and supporting moral and character development in a variety of subject areas across various grade levels:
Moral Development and Classroom Management (Nucci, 2009)
Schools and classrooms contribute to students’ moral development through the nature of the overall social and emotional climate. This includes the way in which teachers and schools address behavioral issues through classroom management and discipline. Paying attention to the emotional climate of classrooms is important because children incorporate emotional experiences within their social cognitive schemes.
Variations in the emotional experiences of children can affect their moral orientations. The development of morality in children is supported by experiences of emotional warmth and fairness. Children who grow up in such environments tend to construct a view of the world based on goodwill. A child who maintains an orientation of goodwill feels emotionally secure and expects the world to operate according to basic moral standards of fairness. Children who maintain this orientation are more likely to engage in prosocial behavior. A moral classroom climate is one that fosters this tendency toward goodwill. The elements of a moral classroom climate address the following four needs: autonomy, belonging, competence, and fairness.
In early childhood it is especially important to construct a classroom climate characterized by positive emotion. In middle childhood students are less dependent on adults. However, they become more susceptible to social comparison and peer exclusion. A positive moral climate reduces competition and increases opportunities for peer collaborative learning and social problem solving. In adolescence the challenge is to offset the negative impact of student cliques and tendencies toward alienation. Large high schools pose special challenges for the creation of moral community. The Just Community School and the Small Schools movement are efforts to address this challenge through “schools within schools.
A positive moral atmosphere is complemented by behavioral management in the form of developmental discipline. In addition to the goals of control and efficiency common to all approaches to behavioral management, developmental discipline includes the additional goal of fostering students’ social and moral competence. Developmental discipline engages students’ intrinsic motivation to do what is right for their own reasons. Developmental discipline deemphasizes the use of external rewards and punishments to shape behavior. Conflicts and misbehavior are addressed primarily through social problem solving. Teacher discourse provides suggestions and scaffolding to support students’ efforts to resolve disputes and arrive at fair solutions.
Teacher feedback in support of positive behavior avoids the use of external rewards such as gold stars or certificates of recognition for good conduct or character because such external rewards reduce intrinsic moral motivation. Moral action and compliance with school conventions is aided by teachers’ judicious use of positive feedback in the form of validations that use moderate language referring to specific behavior and not the characteristics of the student. Responses to misbehavior should minimize the use of consequences when alternative problem-solving methods are available. When consequences are to be employed they should be “light” and in the form of logical consequences that are connected in a meaningful way to the nature of the transgression.
Moral Development and Cheating in the Classroom
Cheating is a violation of social norms (Kline, 2017). Williams (2012) categorized cheating into five dimensions: total cheating, serious cheating, social cheating, plagiarism, and student identified serious cheating. Academic Dishonesty (n.d.) breaks cheating into two dimensions: individual characteristics, such as gender and GPA, and institutional environment. To cheat or not, on the surface, it would seem that a student’s level of moral development would be the central factor for deciding whether or not to cheat (Kline, 2017). According to Thoma and Dong (2014) moral reasoning generally increases as the level of education increases. According to Kohlberg’s theory, higher stages of moral development would result in clearer moral thinking and thus produce better moral actions and behaviors.
However, in the case of cheating in the classroom, it is found that moral behavior is situation specific regardless of moral development levels or stages (Harthshorne & May, 1928-1930; Kline, 2017; Leming, 2008) Honesty or dishonesty in one situation does not predict the behavior of a child in another situation; no significant difference was found on cheating between students who used religious or moral focused programs and those who did not (Clouse, 2001; Harthshorne & May, 1930; Leming, 1993). Research has shown low levels of significance for factors such as level of education, GPA, a little or no significance for grade level, and cheating is equally prevalent across academic levels and demographic variables such as ethnicity or gender, but it does decrease with age at the college level (Geddes, 2011; Kline, 2017; McCabe & Trevino, 1993; Williams, 2012).
Cheating has always been a concern for educators and it is more prevalent than ever despite all of the focus and efforts on moral education (Kline, 2017; Schab, 1991). A general decrease in aversion toward dishonesty and an increase in the willingness to engage in dishonest behavior over a 30-year period was reported by Schab (1991). There is a disconnect between perceptions of cheating and cheating behaviors (Honz, Kiewra, & Yang, 2010; Williams, 2012). Giving answers or homework to another student is viewed more lightly than receiving or stealing answers or homework from another student; cheating within the classroom was viewed as a greater offense than cheating outside the classroom (Honz, Kiewra, & Yang, 2010). A significant relationship between cheating incidences and perceptions of cheating was also found that the less serious the cheating was perceived to be, the greater the number of cheating incidences was, meaning that the more seriously the behavior was perceived, the less frequently it occurred (Kline, 2017; Williams 2012). Remarkably, there was no large discrepancy in cheating perceptions across grade level and academic level (Kline, 2017).
What does this all mean for teachers? In responding to cheating, preventive measures are among the first strategies in the classroom (Santrock, 2018). It is the teachers’ responsibility to help students understand the purpose of learning and goals of education. Teachers should foster intrinsic motivation for learning in the classroom. Learning is not to get a high grade. To improve students’ self-efficacy for tests, teachers can help students understand the learning materials, and provide help for students. Study guides and additional assistance can help better prepare students not to cheat. Woolfolk (2015) also suggested the use of a variety of assessment measures in testing students’ learning, in order to reduce testing pressure and cheating and to promote intrinsic learning, such as the use of group project, research project, open-book exam, and take- home test, to name a few. Teachers can emphasize the importance of moral behavior and character integrity in the classroom. To help shape students’ perceptions on cheating, parents, peers, and others can also help influence students as to what behavior is acceptable and what is not in terms of cheating (Thoma & Dong, 2014). It is important to teach students to be responsible, disciplined, moral individuals (Sandtrock, 2018).
In addition to clarifying goals and purpose of education for intrinsic motivation for learning, providing assistance for testing preparation, instilling character traits, and shaping perceptions on cheating, and the use of a variety of forms of testing learning as mentioned above, it is necessary to help students form proper expectations of testing and cheating culture. Rules of testing and consequences of cheating must to be clearly announced to students in the classroom. Students’ questions related to testing procedures need to be addressed before testing. During testing, teachers need to closely monitor students’ progress so that no opportunities are created for students to cheat. Cheating incidences should be handled immediately to stop continuous violations. To reduce cheating incidences, testing pressure, and cheating temptations during testing, teachers can help create a low-pressure testing atmosphere, for examples, classical music may be used as background music. Cheating should be dealt promptly, properly, and consistently according to the established rules and policies to reduce and stop cheating offences. This again helps create a culture of not cheating, form an intrinsically motivated learning atmosphere, and shape students’ perceptions of what is acceptable and what is not in terms of cheating behaviors.
REFERENCES
Academic Dishonesty. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.mnsu.edu/cetl/teachingre...ishonesty.html
Ashton, P., & Huitt, W. (1980). Egocentrism-sociocentrism: The dynamic interplay in moral development. In J. Magary, P. Taylor, & G. Lubin (Eds.), Piagetian theory and the helping professions (Vol. 9, pp. 293-297). Chicago, IL: Association for the Study of Piagetian Theory.
Clouse, B. (2001). Moral education: Borrowing from the past to advance the future. Contemporary Education, 72(1), 23- 28.
Editorial projects in education research center. (2004, August 3). Issues A-Z: Character education. Education Week. Retrieved from http://www.edweek.org/ew/issues/character-education/
Geddes, K. A. (2011). Academic dishonesty among gifted and high-achieving students. Gifted Child Today, 34(2), 50-56.
Haggbloom, S. J., Warnick, R., Waarnick, J. E., Jones, V., K., Yarbrough, G. L., McGahhey, R., ... Monte, E. (2002). The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century. Review of General Psychology, 6(2), 139-154. doi:10.1037/1089- 2680.6.2.139
Hartshorne, H., & May, M. (1928-1930). Studies in the nature of character. New York, NY: Macmillan.
Hartshorne, H., & May, M. (1930). A summary of the work of the character education inquiry. Religious Education, 25,607-619, 754-762.
Honz, K., Kiewra, K. A., & Yang, Y. (2010). Cheating perceptions and prevalence across academic settings. Mid-Western Educational Researcher, 23(2), 10-17.
Huitt, W. (2004). Moral and character development. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA. Retrieved from www.edpsycinteractive.org/morchr/morchr.html
James, R. (1979). Development in judging moral issues. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Kline, J. T. (2017). Morality, cheating, and the purpose of public education. Retrieved from http://preserve.lehigh.edu/cgi/viewc...63&context=etd
Leming, J. S. (1993). Synthesis of research / in search of effective moral education. Educational Leadership, 51(3), 63-71. Retrieved from www.ascd.org/publications/edu...Research-~-In- Search-of-Effective-Character-Education.aspx
Leming, J. S. (2008). Research and practice in moral and character education: Loosely coupled phenomena. In L. P. Nucci & D. Narváez (Eds.), Handbook of moral and character education (pp. 134-157). New York, NY: Routledge.
McCabe, D. L., & Trevino, L. K. (1993). Academic dishonesty: Honor codes and other contextual influences. The Journal of Higher Education, 64(5), 522-538.
McClellan, B. E. (1999). Moral education in America: Schools and the shaping of character from colonial times to the present (1st ed.). New York, NY: Teachers College, Columbia University.
Nucci, L. (1989). Challenging conventional wisdom about morality: The domain approach to values education. In L. Nucci (Ed.), Moral development and character education: A dialogue (pp. 183-203). Berkley, CA: McCutchan.
Nucci, L. P. (2009). Nice is not enough: Facilitating moral development. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Prestwich, D. L. (2004). Moral education in America's Schools. School Community Journal, 14(1), 139-150.
Santrock, J. (2018). Educational psychology (6th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.
Schab, F. (1991). Schooling without learning: Thirty years of cheating in high school. Adolescence, 26(104), 839-847.
Thoma, S. J., & Dong, Y. (2014). The defining issues test of moral judgment development. Behavioral Development Bulletin, 19(3), 55-61.
Williams, L. K. (2012). Cheating incidences, perceptions of cheating, and the moral development level of college students. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1009056995
Woolfolk, A. (2015). Educational psychology (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Wynne, E. (1989). Transmitting traditional values in contemporary schools. In L. Nucci, Moral development and character education: A dialogue (pp. 19-36). Berkeley, CA: McCutchan.
5.03: Additional Reading
Credible Articles on the Internet
Barger, R. (2000). Kohlberg. Retrieved from http://www.csudh.edu/dearhabermas/kohlberg01bk.htm
Barger, R. N. (2000). Summary and inspiration for Kohlbergs theory of moral development stages. Retrieved from http://www.csudh.edu/dearhabermas/kohlberg01bk.htm
Crain, W. C. (1985). Theories of development. Retrieved from http://view2.fdu.edu/site-downloads/8266
Davis, D. (2010). Kohlberg’s moral stages. Retrieved from http://www.haverford.edu/psych/ddavi...rg.stages.html
Domain based moral education. Retrieved from http://www.moraledk12.org/
Huitt, W. (2004). Values. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/top...ct/values.html
Garrett, J. (2003). Theories of cognitive and moral development. Retrieved from http://people.wku.edu/jan.garrett/cogmordv.htm
Kohlberg’s ideas of moral reasoning. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://web.cortland.edu/andersmd/KOHL/kidmoral.HTML
Kohlberg's stages of moral development. (2009). Retrieved from http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/top...al_development
McLeod, S. (2011). Kohlnberg. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/kohlberg.html
Moral development and moral education: An overview. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.moraledk12.org/#!about- mde/c1se
Sax, R. (2005). Do the right thing: Cognitive science’s search for a common morality. Retrieved from http://www.bostonreview.net/rebecca-...nitive-science
Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles
Armon, C., & Dawson, T. L. (1997). Developmental trajectories in moral reasoning across the life span. Journal of Moral Education, 26(4), 433-453.
Baxter, G. D., & Rarick, C. A. (1987). Education for the moral development of managers: Kohlberg's stages of moral development and integrative education. Journal of Business Ethics (1986-1998), 6(3), 243.
Blum, L. (1999). Race, community and moral education: Kohlberg and Spielberg as civic educators. Journal of Moral Education, 28(2), 125-143.
Bruess, B. J., & Pearson, F. C. (2002). The debate continues: Are there gender differences in moral reasoning as defined by Kohlberg? College Student Affairs Journal, 21(2), 38-52.
Henry, S. E. (2001). What happens when we use Kohlberg? His troubling functionalism and the potential of pragmatism in moral education. Educational Theory, 51(3), 259.
Kirschenbaum, H. (1976). Clarifying values clarification: Some theoretical issues and a review of research. Group & Organization Studies (Pre-1986), 1(1), 99.
Kohlberg L. (1966). Moral development in the schools: A developmental view. The School Review, 74(1), 1-30.
Osen, F. K. (1996). Kohlberg’s dormant ghosts: The case of education. Journal of Moral Education, 25(3), 253-273.
Thompson, R., Laible, D., & Ontai, L. (2006). Early understanding of emotion, morality, and the self: Developing a working model. In R. Kail (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 31). San Diego, CA: Academic. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc...=rep1&type=pdf
Weinstock, M., Assor, A., & Broide, G. (2009). Schools as promoters of moral judgment: The essential role of teachers' encouragement of critical thinking. Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal, 12(1), 137-151.
Books at Dalton State College Library
Sheehy, N. (2004). Fifty key thinkers in psychology. New York, NY: Routledge.
Slater, A., & Quinn, P. C. (2012). Developmental psychology: Revisiting the classic studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Videos and Tutorials
Child development theorists: Freud to Erikson to Spock and beyond. (2009). Retrieved from Films on Demand database.
Khan Academy. (2014). Kohlberg moral development. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Onkd8tChC2A | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Educational_Learning_Theories_(Zhou_and_Brown)/05%3A_Theory_of_Moral_Development/5.01%3A_Introduction.txt |
David Allen Kolb (1939- ), American "organizational" sociologist and educational theorist, is best known for his research into experiential learning and learning styles. Kolb received his Bachelor of Arts from Knox College in 1961, his Master of Arts from Harvard in 1964 and his Ph.D. in sociology from Harvard University in 1967. His research has its roots in the works of John Dewey, Kurt Lewin and Jean Piaget and the more recent work of Jack Mezirow, Paulo Freire and other theorists, focusing on how humans process experience. As part of that tradition, Kolb states that experiential learning is a process where knowledge results from making meaning as a result of direct experience, i.e., or simply "learning from experience." His experiential learning theory is a holistic or “meta-view” of learning that is a combination of experience, perception, cognition, and behavior. To explore and continue research on the experiential learning theory, David Kolb, along with his wife Alice Kolb, founded Experience Based Learning Systems (EBLS) in 1981. In addition to experiential learning, Kolb is also known for contributions in important research into organizational behavior, individual and social change, and career development and professional education. Kolb is an emeritus professor of organizational behavior at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio.
6.02: Required Reading
Experiential learning is a cyclical process that capitalizes on the participants' experiences for acquisition of knowledge. This process involves setting goals, thinking, planning, experimentation, reflection, observation, and review. By engaging in these activities, learners construct meaning in a way unique to themselves, incorporating the cognitive, emotional, and physical aspects of learning.
"Tell me, and I will forget. Show me, and I may remember. Involve me, and I will understand." (Confucius Circa 450 BC)
The Experiential Learning Theory
Experiential Learning Theory "provides a holistic model of the learning process and a multi-linear model of adult development" (Baker, Jensen, & Kolb, 2002, p. 51). In other words, this is an inclusive model of adult learning that intends to explain the complexities of and differences between adult learners within a single framework. The focus of this theory is experience, which serves as the main driving force in learning, as knowledge is constructed through the transformative reflection on one's experience (Baker, Jensen, & Kolb, 2002).
The learning model outlined by the Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) contains two distinct modes of gaining experience that are related to each other on a continuum: concrete experience (apprehension) and abstract conceptualization (comprehension). In addition, there are also two distinct modes of transforming the experience so that learning is achieved: reflective observation (intension) and active experimentation (extension) (Baker, Jensen, & Kolb, 2002). When these four modes are viewed together, they constitute a four-stage learning cycle that learners go through during the experiential learning process (Figure \(1\). The learners begin with a concrete experience, which then leads them to observe and reflect on their experience. After this period of reflective observation, the learners then piece their thoughts together to create abstract concepts about what occurred, which will serve as guides for future actions. With these guides in place, the learners actively test what they have constructed leading to new experiences and the renewing of the learning cycle (Baker, Jensen, & Kolb).
The ELT model for learning can be viewed as a cycle consisting of two distinct continuums, apprehension-comprehension and intension-extension. However, these dialectical entities must be integrated in order for learning to occur. Apprehension- comprehension involves the perception of experience, while intension-extension involves the transformation of the experience. One without the other is not an effective means for acquiring knowledge (Baker, Jensen, & Kolb, 2002). Another way to view this idea is summarized as follows, "perception alone is not sufficient for learning; something must be done with it" and "transformation alone cannot represent learning, for there must be something to be transformed" (Baker, Jensen, & Kolb, pp. 56-67).
The ELT model attempts to explain why learners approach learning experiences in such different manners but are still able to flourish. Indeed, some individuals develop greater proficiencies in some areas of learning when compared to others (Laschinger, 1990). The ELT model shows that during the learning process, learners must continually choose which abilities to use in a given learning situation and resolve learning abilities that are on opposite ends of a continuum (Baker, Jensen, & Kolb, 2002). Indeed, learners approach the tasks of grasping experience and transforming experience from different points within a continuum of approaches. However, it is important that they also resolve the discomfort with the opposite approach on the continuum in order for effective learning to occur. Thus, if a learner is more comfortable perceiving new information in a concrete manner and actively experimenting during the processing of the experience, the learner must also undergo some abstract conceptualization and reflective observation in order to complete the cycle and lead to effective learning. Thus, a learner who experiments with models and manipulates them in the process of learning must also be able to conceptualize and form observations based on what s/he experiences. This must occur, even if the learners do not consider themselves strong in these areas (Baker, Jensen, & Kolb). This is at the heart of the ELT model and Kolb's view of the adult learner.
Applications of Experiential Learning Theory
There are currently many applications of Experiential Learning Theory within educational systems, especially on college campuses. These examples include field courses, study abroad, and mentor-based internships (Millenbah, Campa, & Winterstein, 2000). Additional examples of well-established experiential learning applications include cooperative education, internships and service learning. There are also numerous examples of computer-based interventions based on experience.
Cooperative Education (Co-Op)
Cooperative Education (Co-Op) is a structured educational strategy integrating classroom studies with work-based learning related to a student's academic or career goals. It provides field-based experiences that integrate theory and practice. Co-Op is a partnership among students, educational institutions, and work sites which include business, government, and non-profit community organizations. Students typically earn credit and a grade for their co-op experience while working in a paid or unpaid capacity. College and university professional and career-technical programs such as engineering, media arts and business often require cooperative education courses for their degrees. The National Commission for Cooperative Education (http://www.co-op.edu/) supports the development of quality work-integrated learning programs.
Internships
Closely related to cooperative education are internships. An internship is typically a temporary position, which may be paid or unpaid, with an emphasis on on-the-job training, making it similar to an apprenticeship. Interns are usually college or university students, but they can also be high school students or post graduate adults seeking skills for a new career. Student internships provide opportunities for students to gain experience in their field, determine if they have an interest in a particular career, create a network of contacts, and, in some circumstances, gain school credit.
Service Learning
Service learning is a teaching and learning strategy that integrates meaningful community service with instruction and reflection to enrich the learning experience, teach civic responsibility, and strengthen communities with the emphasis on meeting community needs. Because of its connection to content acquisition and student development, service-learning is often linked to school and college courses. Service-learning can also be organized and offered by community organizations. Learn and Serve America (www.servicelearning.org/) supports the service-learning community in education, community-based initiatives and tribal programs, as well as all others interested in strengthening schools and communities using service-learning techniques and methodologies.
Field Course Scenario
A university offers a field-based campus course in wildlife and research management that requires students to actively participate in activities other than those normally encountered during a lecture or recitation section of class. These students are introduced to various vegetation sampling techniques in the one-hour lecture period, but application and use of the techniques occurs when students must describe the vegetation's structural differences between two woodlots on campus.
Students are provided with a general goal statement requiring them to differentiate between the two areas based on structure but are not told how to determine these differences or how detailed the description of structure must be (e.g., vertical cover or vertical cover broken out by height strata). Students must first determine the objectives of the project before proceeding. Once these have been agreed on with all members of the group, methods for collecting the data are determined. Students may work with others in the class or with the instructor to determine the most appropriate sampling design. After selecting an appropriate sampling design, students are required to collect the data, and thus learn about the technique(s) through experience with it (concrete experience). By doing so, students learn how to use the technique and are able to more readily decide if the technique is suitable under different sampling regimes (reflection and generalization).
During this process, students gain a broader understanding of the technique and its applicability; much of this may never be addressed or presented in a classroom setting. Based on the prerequisites for the course, the instructor worked from the assumption that students have an understanding of ecological concepts and basic statistics. Having these prerequisites facilitates students putting the techniques to use in the environment being studied. An additional benefit of allowing students to experiment with techniques is that unexpected events may occur e.g., it rains halfway through sampling. These unstructured events can further increase a student's confidence, excitement, and familiarity with a technique requiring the student to make decisions about how to proceed or when to stop (active experimentation). These types of events are difficult to model in a classroom, and even if possible, many students do not know how to deal with unexpected circumstances when their only training has been through discussion. Feeling adequately trained to handle these circumstances will require students to have firsthand knowledge and experience with real-world situations.
Another popular use of experiential learning which has been around for a long time is role play. It has been used for educational and training purposes, for military strategic and tactical analysis and simply as games. We role play in childhood-imitating our parents, playing with dolls and cars, building sand castles and pretending we are princes and warriors-with the result that learning takes place, preparing us for life.
Role Play Scenario
The subject of this lesson is a controversy that has deep roots in American History, the Constitution and the Bill of Rights. Using the PBS documentary video In The Light Of Reverence, the teacher has the students closely examine the struggles of the Lakota Sioux to maintain their sacred site at Mato Tipila (Lakota for Bear's Lodge) at Devils Rock in Wyoming. Although the site at Devil's Rock was never ceded by treaty to the U.S. government, it is now under the administration of the National Park Service. Rock climbers claim any U.S. citizen should have complete access to the site because it is on federal land. In deference to the religious practices of the Lakota, the National Park Service asks that people do not climb there during the entire month of June. The case has been litigated up to the Supreme Court.
After watching the video and discussing various aspects of the controversy, students role-play members of four teams: the Lakota, rock climbers, National Park Service, and the courts. Using extensive online resources linked to the lesson, students research the issues and evaluate the sources. The first three teams present their demands in a hearing. The court tries to help them reach a compromise and then adjudicates any unresolved issues. The lesson continues as students compare the plight of the Lakota to that of the Hopi and Wintu, who also struggle to maintain their sacred lands. The students will understand the concept of "rights in conflict" arising under the First Amendment (freedom of religion), interpret a current conflict from multiple perspectives, learn to advocate for a point of view, and learn to resolve a conflict through a conflict resolution scenario.
Simulations and Gaming
Simulations and gaming within instruction also involve direct experience and thus are valid examples of experiential learning. Within game interactions, there are often several cycles presented to the participant. These cycles generally consist of participation by the user, decision making, and a period of analysis. This process coincides greatly with the Experiential Learning Cycle outlined above (Marcus, 1997). In addition, it has been found that simulations which shorten the debriefing period at the end of the game session can diminish their own effectiveness. This means that games which do not allow for appropriate reflection are not as effective as if proper reflection occurs. Thus, it is apparent that the reflective observation and abstract conceptualization portions of simulations and games are vital to learning, which has also been established by the Experiential Learning Theory (Ulrich, 1997).
E-learning
Yet another application of experiential learning is in the field of e-learning. Specifically, there has been an effort to utilize this model to increase the effectiveness of Continuing Professional Development (CPD) e-learning courses. It was found that many of these courses did not allow for concrete experience and active experimentation due to the fact that the learning processes were based on more traditional learning methods and not capitalizing on the self-directed nature of the learners (Friedman, Watts, Croston, & Durkin, 2002). However, with the use of different technologies such as multimedia resources, web-based discussions, online planners, and creative tasks, e-learning courses could be improved in a manner that would strengthen the entire experiential learning cycle for the learner (Frank, Reich, & Humphreys, 2003).
Steps to Integrating Experiential Learning in the Classroom
1. Set up the experience by introducing learners to the topic and covering basic material that the learner must know beforehand (the video scenario as well as discussion).
2. Engage the learner in a realistic experience that provides intrigue as well as depth of involvement (mock trial).
3. Allow for discussion of the experience including the happenings that occurred and how the individuals involved felt (discussion afterwards).
4. The learner will then begin to formulate concepts and hypotheses concerning the experience through discussion as well as individual reflection (discussion afterwards, but also could be done with journaling).
5. Allow the learners to experiment with their newly formed concepts and experiences (interpreting current conflict and conflict resolution scenario).
6. Further reflection on experimentation (discussion, but could also be done through journaling).
Criticisms of Experiential Learning Theory
Since Kolb created the Experiential Learning Theory and the accompanying learning model, his work has been met with various criticisms about its worth and effectiveness. One of the criticisms of this model is that the concrete experience part of the learning cycle is not appropriately explained in the theory and remains largely unexplored. Herron (as cited in Yorks & Kasl, 2002, pp. 180-181) believes that "the notion of feeling is nowhere defined or elaborated, thus concrete experience is not properly explored. The model is really about reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation." Another common criticism of the theory that exposes a weakness is that the idea of immediate and concrete experience is problematic and unrealistic (Miettinen, 2000).
Other criticisms of the ELT are that the concepts outlined by Kolb are too ill-defined and open to various interpretations and that the ideas he presents are an eclectic blend of ideas from various theorists that do not fit logically together. Another, perhaps more biting criticism of Kolb's work is that his ELT model is only an attempt to explain the societal benefit of his Learning Styles Inventory and thus may actually be a well derived marketing ploy (Miettinen, 2000). Also, it is believed that the phases in the ELT learning model remain separate and do not connect to each other in any manner (Miettinen).
However, the most tangible weaknesses of the ELT and the ELT learning model are the vast differences between it and the ideas established by John Dewey, whose beliefs are largely attributed to the establishment of the ELT. Dewey believed that non-reflective experience borne out of habit was the dominant form of experience and that reflective experience only occurred when there were contradictions of the habitual experience. But, in a glaring weakness of the ELT, Kolb does not adequately discuss the role of non-reflective experience in the process of learning (Miettinen, 2000). In addition, Dewey believed that observations of reality and nature were the starting point of knowledge acquisition. Kolb, however, believes that the experience is the starting point of knowledge acquisition and disregards the observations concerning the subjective reality of the learner, another blatant weakness (Miettinen). A final weakness in the ELT that was noticed is its lack of discussion concerning the social aspect of experience. The ELT learning model focused on the learning process for a single learner and failed to mention how the individual fit into a social group during this process and what role this group may play. Also, there was no discussion on how a social group may gain knowledge through a common experience.
Revised Experiential Learning Cycle
With all of the criticisms of the Experiential Learning Theory, it may be too easy to overlook its merits in the field of adult education. Each adult has his/her own unique set of experiences and set of learning abilities that he/she feels comfortable utilizing. Kolb's theory accounts for this fact and shows how the learner can utilize his/her experiences and learning strengths in the process of constructing knowledge. Kolb also did a good job of integrating the two dialectical entities into the model to create a complete learning cycle in which the entire learning process can be traced. In addition, Kolb did a great job of showing how the learner can be effective utilizing his/her learning strengths, while at the same time using skills that are underdeveloped to complete the learning cycle.
However, due to the weaknesses of the ELT model as created by Kolb, it is necessary to construct another model, which includes Kolb's beliefs and at the same time confronts the weaknesses that have been found. Below (Figure \(2\)) is a representation of a model that could be used for this purpose. The idea behind this model was to include the observations of the learners' own subjective reality as a starting point for experience. Then, a disruptive experience occurs, which challenges the habitual patterns of the learner. Once the experience has been encountered learners enter a stage of emotion inventory in which they become cognizant of their emotions in reaction to the experience. These emotions then play a role in the next step, which is a stage of reflective observation similar to that outlined by Kolb in his model. After this stage, learners enter a stage of conceptualization and hypothesis formation in which they attempt to piece the information gathered thus far concerning the experience into logical chunks. Once this occurs, learners address the experience in some manner. This may include active experimentation to test a hypothesis. Or, it may also include higher order planning which requires even more in-depth examination of the experience. This stage can lead to two different types of experiences, expected and disruptive, both of which lead to repetition of the learning cycle. The expected experiences include those which can be predicted by the concepts and hypothesis that were established in the learning cycle. Disruptive experiences, on the other hand, include those that conflict with the concepts that were formulated in the experiential process. It is also readily evident in the model that the experiential learning cycle can occur individually or within a social group.
Performed Individually
• Subjective Stimuli: Observations about an individual's surrounding environment and nature made by the individual, as well as more affective and temporal judgments about things not really seen but that are definitely felt. It is possible that individuals can learn from this activity and not enter the cycle depicted below.
Can Occur Individually or In a Social Group
• Disruptive Experience: Experience that is a disruption of the habitual manner in which an individual experiences things. This is in contrast to a non-reflective experience borne out of habit.
• Emotion Inventory: Inventory of emotions that are created by the disruptive experience.
• Reflective Observation: Observations concerning the experience and reflection upon the event including causes, possible effects, etc.
• Conceptualization/Hypothesizing: Further processing of the experience; creating concepts to explain the experience and construction of explanatory hypotheses.
• Addressing: The concepts and hypotheses that have been constructed are formulated and the experience is addressed in some manner. There is an attempt to predict future experience. This may involve planning, active experimentation, or cautious testing.
The encompassing circle of the environment depicts how all of the activities take place in the context of a certain environment and are affected somehow by the environment.
Educational Implications
Experiential Learning Theory outlines the manner in which learners gain knowledge and understanding through experiences. Though some may debate which steps are present in experiential learning, there is no debate about the worth of experience in learning. Through experience, learners are able to construct firsthand a sense of understanding of the events going on around them. Educators have begun to harness the power of experience in study abroad courses, field studies, role plays, and numerous computer-based interventions. The future could bring even more applications of this theory, a possibility as exciting for the learner as much as it is the facilitator.
REFERENCES
Baker, A., Jensen, P., & Kolb, D. (2002). Conversational learning: An approach to knowledge creation. Wesport, CT: Quorum Books.
Frank, M., Reich, N., & Humphreys, K. (2003). Respecting the human needs of students in development of e-learning. Computers & Education, 40, 57-70.
Friedman, A., Watts, D., Croston, J., & Durkin, C. (2002). Evaluating online CPD using educational criteria derived from the experiential learning cycle. British Journal of Educational Technology, 33, 367-378.
LaBanca, F. (2008). Impact of problem finding on the quality of authentic open inquiry science research projects. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Danbury, CT: Western Connecticut State University.
Laschinger, H. (1990). Review of experiential learning theory research in the nursing profession. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 15, 985-993.
Miettinen, R. (2000). The concept of experiential learning and John Dewey's theory of reflective thought and action. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 19(1), 54-72.
Millenbah, K. F., Campa, H. III, & Winterstein, S. R. (2000). Models for the infusing experimental learning in the curriculum. In W. B. Kurtz, M. R. Ryan, & D. E. Larson (Eds.), Proceedings of the third biennial conference in natural resource education (pp. 44-49). Retrieved from pdfs.semanticscholar.org/b28...17aacb9bba.pdf
Ulrich, M. (1997). Links between experiential learning and simulation & gaming. Retrieved from http://www.ucs.ch/service/download/d...xplearning.pdf
Yorks, L., & Kasl. E. (2002). Toward a theory and practice for whole-person learning: Reconceptualizing experience and the role of affect. Adult Education Quarterly, 52(3), 176-192.
6.03: Additional Reading
Credible Articles on the Internet
Burnard. P. (1989). Experiential learning: Some theoretical considerations. International Journal of Life Long Education, 7(2), 127-133. Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/1...tled20#preview
Coffey, H. (2010). Experiential education. Retrieved from www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/4967
Dewey, J. (1902). The school as social center. Proceedings of the National Education Association, 373-383. Retrieved from www.cws.illinois.edu/IPRHDigi...l%20center.pdf
Experiential Learning. (2009). Retrieved from: https://www.niu.edu/facdev/_pdf/guid...l_learning.pdf
Field, R. (1998). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from http://www.iep.utm.edu/dewey/ Greenaway, R. (n.d.). Experiential learning articles and critiques of David Kolb’s theory. Retrieved from http://reviewing.co.uk/research/expe...#axzz3KUY7zIoh
Neill, J. (2005). John Dewey the modern father of experiential education. Retrieved from: www.wilderdom.com/experientia...tialDewey.html
Neill, J. (2005). Summary of Dewey’s Experience and Education. www.wilderdom.com/experientia...Education.html
Oxendine, C., Robinson, J., & Willson, G. (2004). Experiential learning. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from http://epltt.coe.uga.edu/index.php?t...ntial_Learning
Peer-Reviewed Articles
Kayes, D. (2002). Experiential learning and its critics: Preserving the role of experience in management learning and education. Academy Of Management Learning & Education, 1(2), 137-149.
Kirschner, P., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75-86. Retrieved from
www.cogtech.usc.edu/publicati...ller_Clark.pdf
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Roberts, T. G. (2003). An interpretation of Dewey's experiential learning theory. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED481922)
Schmidt, M. (2010). Learning from teaching experience: Dewey’s theory and preservice teachers’ learning. Journal of Research in Music Education, 58(2), 131-146.
Dalton State College Books
Boisvert, R. D. (1998). John Dewey: Rethinking our time. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Campbell, H. M. (1971). John Dewey. New York, NY: Twayne
Hook, S. (1971). John Dewey: An intellectual portrait. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Videos and Tutorials
John Dewey: An introduction to his life and work. (2003). Retrieved from Films on Demand database. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Educational_Learning_Theories_(Zhou_and_Brown)/06%3A_Experiential_Learning_Theory/6.01%3A_Introduction.txt |
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917- ), a Russian American psychologist, was born on April 29, 1917 to Dr. Alexander Bronfenbrenner and Kamenetski Bronfenbrenner. At the age of 6, his family relocated to United States. For a short period of time, they settled at Letchworth village in Pittsburgh where his father worked as a research director and clinical psychologist. Bronfenbrenner attended Cornell University after his graduation from Haverstraw High School. In 1938, he completed his double major in psychology and music. After that he completed his M.A. at Harvard University. In 1942, he completed his Ph.D. from the University of Michigan. Shortly after that, he was hired as a psychologist in the army doing many assignments for the Office of Strategic Services and the Army Air Corps. In the administration and research, he worked as an assistant chief psychologist before he accepted the offer from the University of Michigan to work as an assistant professor in Psychology. In 1948, he accepted an offer from Cornell University as a professor in Human development, family studies and psychology. He also served as a faculty member on the Board of Trustees in the late 1960’s and 1970’s. Urie is admired all over the world to develop the innate relationship between research and policy on child development. He holds the view that child development is better applicable when institutional policies motivate studies in a natural environment and theory is best suited in a practical application when it is relevant.
7.02: Required Reading
The literature from the human developmental sciences provides more comprehensive conceptual and operational definitions of human development than the economic literature typically does (Gottlieb, Wahlsten, & Lickliter, 1998; Lerner, 1998; Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 1998). In essence, according to Thelen and Smith (1998), “The theory of development is based on very general and content-independent principles that describe the behavior of complex physical and biological systems” (p. 258). Thus, development can only be understood as (1) “the multiple, mutual, and continuous interaction of all the levels of the development system, from the molecular to the cultural”; and (2) “as nested processes that unfold over many time scales, from milliseconds to years” (Thelen & Smith, 1998, p. 258). In other words, human development refers to change over time, and time is typically characterized as chronological age. Age is not the cause of development; it is just a frame of reference. More specifically, development comprises interactions among various levels of functioning, from the genetic, physiological, and neurological to the behavioral, social, and environmental. Human development is a permanent exchange among these levels. And the more mature the person, the more influence and control the person has over the organization of these interactions.
Human developmental science attributes the driving force of development to so-called proximal processes: stimulating, regular face-to-face interactions over extended periods with people, objects, or symbols, which promote the realization of the genetic potential for effective biological, psychological, and social development. For example, parents influence and shape their children through parenting behaviors, role modeling, and encouraging certain behaviors and activities for their children.
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model (Figure \(1\)) is well suited to illustrate some important dimensions of these human developmental processes, as it captures the complexity of human development as an intricate web of interrelated systems and processes. A basic tenet of the bioecological systems’ theories of development (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006) is that child and youth development is influenced by many different “contexts,” “settings,” or “ecologies” (for example, family, peers, schools, communities, sociocultural belief systems, policy regimes, and, of course, the economy). The model is able to account for multiple face-to-face environments, or settings, within the microsystem of a person (for example, family, school, peers); how relations between settings (mesosystem) can affect what happens within them (for example, interactions between school and family); and how settings within which the individuals have no direct presence (exo- and macrosystem) can affect settings in their microsystems (for example, how parents’ experiences at their workplace affect their relationships within the family) (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Thus, this model allows the analysis of the lives of people, “living organisms whose biopsychological characteristics, both as a species and as individuals, have as much to do with their development as do the environments in which they live their lives” (Bronfenbrenner, 1995, p. 8).
A central question in scientific research on how ecologies influence development is how macrosystem contexts and events (for example, aggregate economic shocks) influence intermediate (exo- and mesosystem) contexts, which in turn influence the settings or contexts within the developing person’s microsystem, settings within which the person has face-to-face interactions or proximal processes. Aggregate economic shocks are thought to affect the ecology of human development by hitting the macrosystem, as depicted in Figure \(1\).
This model is integrative and interdisciplinary, drawing on and relating concepts and hypotheses from disciplines as diverse as biology, behavioral genetics and neurobiology, psychology, sociology, cultural anthropology, history, and economics- focusing on and highlighting processes and links that shape human development through the life course (Bronfenbrenner, 1995). In particular, this model relates to the economic model of human capital investments outlined earlier in many, but not all, respects. It provides a complementary framework for understanding how shocks affect human development understood as complex systems of interactive processes between developing individuals and their surroundings. As such, bioecological developmental models have the potential to enrich or expand the standard economic approach to human capital.
In what follows we will expound on human developmental processes and how these are nested within a complex set of systems and settings. “Domains,” “processes,” and “context” provide a convenient organizational structure for discussing the complex topic of human development.
Domains
It is widely understood that human development has many distinct and important dimensions, or domains (Alkire, 2002). Fundamental domains of development are not generally hierarchical (one is not more important than others), irreducible (fundamental dimensions cannot be reduced to other dimensions), or incommensurable (they cannot be adequately compared to each other). Nonetheless, in the practical world of science, programs, and policies, some domains receive more attention than others. In the scientific study of child and youth development, three domains-physical, biological, and neuroanatomical development; cognitive, language, and academic development; and social, emotional, and behavioral development-have received much more attention than have moral, spiritual, and religious development or artistic and aesthetic development. The program and policy world parallels the scientific world in placing greater emphasis on children’s physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development, roughly aligned with the domains of health, education, and social-emotional or psychosocial well-being.
Each of these three fundamental domains is a complex system of complex subsystems. These systems emerge and evolve over the course of human development and are complexly interrelated to other domains of human developmental systems and subsystems. The “organizational systems” perspective on human development focuses on these fundamental domains and strives to account for how advances or lags in one domain affect and are affected by advances or lags in other domains. For example, the evidence reveals that nutrients by themselves do not suffice to bring about even purely physical, biological, or neuroanatomical development and thus that development can be significantly delayed and even irreversibly compromised in the absence of other factors crucial to development, such as a secure attachment relationship and other proximal processes (Corrales & Utter, 2005). The bioecological systems’ perspective on human development examines how different contexts, settings, experiences, and events affect different domains of child and youth development.
The implications of multiple and interrelated domains of development are clear. Examining the impacts both within the physical (health), cognitive (educational), and social-emotional (psychosocial wellbeing) domains and across these domains will likely enrich efforts to understand child and youth development.
Processes
Put very simply, children’s development is the result of proximal processes; of participating in increasingly complex reciprocal interactions with people, objects, and symbols in their immediate environments (their microsystem contexts) over extended periods of time (represented by the chronosystem) (Bronfenbrenner, 1994a). Thus, according to Bronfenbrenner’s definition, “a microsystem is a pattern of activities, social roles, and interpersonal relations experienced by the developing person in a given face-to-face setting with particular physical, social, and symbolic features that invite, permit, or inhibit engagement in sustained, progressively more complex interaction with, and activity in, the immediate environment” (Bronfenbrenner, 1994b, p. 39). Examples of settings within the microsystem are families, neighborhoods, day care centers, schools, playgrounds, and so on within which activities, roles, and interpersonal relations set the stage for proximal processes as crucial mechanisms for human development.
The heterogeneity in individual outcomes thus stems from systematic variation in individuals’ characteristics and environments and in the nature of the developmental outcomes under scrutiny, which jointly determine form, power, content, and direction of proximal processes (Bronfenbrenner, 1994a). Thus, proximal processes determine the capacities of individuals to (1) differentiate perception and response; (2) direct and control their own behaviors; (3) cope successfully under stress; (4) acquire knowledge and skills; (5) establish and maintain mutually rewarding relationships; and (6) modify and construct their own physical, social, and symbolic environments (Bronfenbrenner, 1994a). Proximal processes are thought to be the most important influences on children’s development.
Of course, not only do microcontexts affect children and youth, but also children and youth affect their microcontexts. Children, youth, and the mircocontexts transact (see Sameroff, 2009, for a transactional model). Insecurely attached children are more emotionally demanding for stressed parents to care for, and children slowed in language development stimulate less verbal exchange with adults. Economic shocks are likely to have an impact on these transactional, bidirectional systems of influences between children or youth and their immediate environments. This view of human development as transactional places heavy design and data demands on studies of the underlying mechanisms or pathways of influence, including studies of the influence of economic shocks on child and youth development.
Context and the Interplay of Systems and Settings
In the bioecological model, contextual effects are manifested in a complex interplay of the micro-, meso-, exo-, and macrosystems. The ways these systems interact and influence each other can contribute to an understanding of how shocks to the macrosystem, such as a financial crisis, can disrupt the developmental process as it is transmitted to various settings in a child’s microsystem. Household socioeconomic status, neighborhood characteristics, and school environments, just to mention a few, will determine the quality, frequency, and intensity of proximal processes. For instance, there is a significant body of literature that looks at how household poverty and hardship affect child development (see, for example, Duncan & Brooks-Gunn, 1997). Neighborhood and community contexts and their influence on children have also been studied extensively (see, for example, Brooks-Gunn, Duncan, & Aber, 1997). For instance, although family socioeconomic status is correlated with well-being and human development, it is not clear if socioeconomic status causes variations in health and well-being or if personal characteristics and dispositions of individuals influence both their socioeconomic status and their future socioemotional well-being and behavior (Conger, Conger, & Martin, 2010, p. 687; Mayer, 1997). In addition, studies have started to unravel the pathways through which poverty affects child and youth development, ranging from the availability of quality prenatal and perinatal care, exposure to environmental toxins such as lead, less cognitive stimulation at home, harsh and inconsistent parenting, to lower teacher quality (McLoyd, 1998). Furthermore, various studies have compared the implications of temporary versus chronic deprivation and how the impact differs according to life stage of the developing person (see, for accounts, Elder, 1999; McLoyd, 1998; McLoyd et al., 2009). In other words, a temporary drop in socioeconomic status during a crisis may have markedly different long-term implications depending on the age of the child.
A mesosystem, according to Bronfenbrenner, “comprises the linkages and processes taking place between two or more settings containing the developing person” (1994b, p. 40), such as the relations between home and school He notes that “it is formed or extended whenever the developing person moves into a new setting” (1979, p. 25). The main distinction between the meso- and the microsystem is that in the microsystem activities, social roles, and interpersonal relations are confined to one setting, whereas the mesosystem incorporates the interactions across the boundaries of at least two settings (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 209). The mesosystem is structured by institutions that have taken-for-granted rules for interaction and that shape expected behaviors with the help of shared norms. Institutions may be mutually reinforcing or in tensions with one another, as when the implicit rules for gaining status among peers are at odds with standards of behavior valued by schools and with rules facilitating educational achievement (Carter, 2007; Warikoo, 2010).
Settings in the mesosystem can enhance (or diminish) people’s developmental potential when (1) a transition is made together with a group of others that they have engaged with in previous settings (versus alone) (for example, transition with a group of peers from kindergarten to school); (2) when roles and activities between two settings are compatible (or incompatible) and encourage (or discourage) trust, positive orientation, and consensus on goals, as well as a balance of power in favor of the developing person; (3) when the number of structurally different settings is increased (or decreased) and others are more (or less) mature or experienced; and (4) when cultural or subcultural contexts differ from each other (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, pp. 209-223).
An exosystem refers to “the linkages and processes taking place between two or more settings, at least one of which does not contain the developing person, but in which events occur that indirectly influence processes within the immediate setting in which the developing person lives” (Bronfenbrenner, 1994b, p. 40). An example of such an exosystem setting would be the parent’s workplace, in which the child does not interact directly, but which could indirectly, through parental stress, job loss, or the like, influence family dynamics and thus the developing child. Consequently, a causal sequence of at least two steps is required to qualify as an exosystem. The first step is to establish a connection between events in the external setting, or exosystem, which does not include the developing person, to processes in the microsystem, which does include the person, and, second, to link these processes to developmental changes in the developing person (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Important to note in this context is the ability of the child to influence parents just as much as parents influence the child, and this influence can reach far beyond the family into settings of the child’s exosystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
Research to date has focused on three prominent exosystems that are particularly likely to influence the developmental processes of children and youth through their influence on the family, school, and peers: parents’ workplaces, family social networks, and neighborhood-community contexts (Bronfenbrenner, 1994b). To illustrate, Kohn’s research (see, for example, Pearlin & Kohn, 2009) demonstrated that the beliefs, standards, and expectations parents face at work, for example concerning their autonomy or dependency, is what they bring home and essentially expect the same from their children. As a result, parents who were always subdued at work have a tendency to subdue their children. This factor may help explain intergenerational transmission of values. Economic shocks can have a tremendous effect on exosystems, affecting not only the workplaces of parents but also the situations of those who do not have work. Several functions of work-such as organization of the day, income, and social status, among others-can be affected.
The macrosystem captures “the overarching pattern of micro-, meso-, and exosystems characteristic of a given culture or subculture, with particular reference to the belief systems, bodies of knowledge, material resources, customs, lifestyles, opportunity structures, hazards, and lifecourse options that are embedded in each of these broader systems” (Bronfenbrenner, 1994b, p. 40). These include the laws and regulations, political economy, economic markets, and public policies of the societies within which the developing person is embedded. Incorporating the macrosystem takes the analysis beyond the identification of class, ethnic, and cultural differences in child-rearing practices and outcomes and incorporates the phenomena of aggregate economic shocks. Of particular interest are dynamic aspects of “ecological transitions,” such as investigations of how social and economic changes affect children and youths’ development and how they adapt to such changes in the macrosystem.
While Bronfenbrenner refers mainly to cultural aspects of the macrosystem, a society’s cultural frameworks, politics, and institutions are all closely interrelated and mutually reinforcing. Thus, the process of change can be induced through several channels or entities, the result of which will be a “complicated set of interlocking physical and social relations, patterns, and processes” (Martin, McCann, & Purcell, 2003, p. 114). Put another way, the macrosystem can be interpreted as “space” that Lefebvre (1991) defined as an “unavoidably social product created from a mix of legal, political, economic, and social practices and structures” (p. 190). Individuals draw on these cultural tools that their environment puts at their disposal, or that they choose to make sense of challenges and imagine effective solutions. They also find strategies for action by observing the behaviors of those around them and the consequences of their actions.
The bioecological model is flexible enough to accommodate cross-national variations in the weight given to various aspects of human development influenced by the local culture (for instance, the greater emphasis on self-esteem, self-actualization, and individualization characteristic of the American upper-middle class; see Markus, 2004). It also takes into consideration meso- and macrolevel conditions for collective human development, including shared myths and narratives that buttress the individual sense of self and capabilities (see, for example, Hall & Lamont, 2009).
Similarly, the bioecological model is capable of capturing “experiences.” Proximal processes and other interactions are “experienced by the developing person,” which is meant to indicate, “that the scientifically relevant features of any environment include not only its objective properties but also the way in which these properties are perceived by the persons in that environment” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 22). Experiences in this sense are individual (and collective) constructs of the “objective,” which determines an individual’s (and a group’s) capacity for making meaning and for self-representation (Hall & Lamont, 2009). Experiences, while in part determined by the individual’s personality, are embedded in local culture and customs; thus, understanding the cultural frameworks and narratives that shape the relationships and processes within and between settings and systems is crucial to recognizing factors that enhance or weaken the resilience of a developing person.
One example of the cultural or contextual variability in the meaning of experience comes from the empirical literature on the influence of parenting styles on the development of children’s academic and social-emotional competencies. Early research indicated that authoritative parenting (which combines warmth with firm control) promoted greater child competence than did authoritarian (low warmth, very high control) or laissez-faire (low warmth, low control) parenting (for reviews, see Baumrind, 1989, 1991). But subsequent research observed race, ethnic, and neighborhood differences in the influence of parenting styles on child competence. In a sample of African American and Latino-American parents living in dangerous inner-city neighborhoods, authoritarian parenting behaviors were associated with less adolescent delinquency than authoritative parenting behaviors (Florsheim, Tolan, & Gorman-Smith, 1996). This pattern of findings has led child developmentalists to believe that “high control” parenting has greater adaptive value in more dangerous neighborhoods and may be “experienced” by children in a different way in those contexts (Furstenberg et al., 1999; Garcia-Coll et al., 1996; McLoyd, 1990; Rodriguez & Walden, 2010).
Finally, only recently have the theory, measures, and mathematical models been available to enable the rigorous empirical study of child and youth development in context. As pointed out previously, children and youth are embedded in and transact with each other in and across contexts. Consequently, the study of peer and other spillover effects in human developmental science has grown, as it has in the social sciences, although many of these studies do not convincingly control for what determines the individuals with whom one interacts. These advances are directly relevant to improving our understanding of the impact of economic shocks on child and youth development.
To reiterate, the human developmental process consequently depends on more than the available resources, prices, policies, and parental preferences for investments in their children. From a human development perspective, if we are to fully understand the effects of economic shocks on child and youth development, we must track the influence of economic (macro) shocks on exo- and mesosystems and in turn on children’s microsystem contexts and the proximal processes-that is, the reciprocal interactions between children and immediate contexts-that are the drivers of human development.
Educational Implications
The Bioecological Model by Bronfenbrenner looked at patterns of development across time as well as the interactions between the development of the child and the environment. The implications of the Model include the social and political policies and practices affecting children, families, and parenting. The Bioecological Model as depicted in Figure 7.1 serve as a visual organizer to both summarize and unpack key concepts and themes as they related to individual development, teaching and learning, and educational practices. As teachers and educators strive to become evidence-based practitioners, the goal of learning this Model is to understand the theoretical and research foundations that inform the work in supporting students' well-being, teaching and learning and identify and use other factors/resources such as parents, family, peers, to provide positive influence on students’ learning and development.
In that regard, Bronfenbrenner‘s Bioecological Model encourages much consideration of what constitutes supportive interactions in fostering development. It goes beyond identifying what might influence development, and, more importantly, assists in considering how and why it influences development. Furthermore, Bronfenbrenner’s theory also assists in considering how an interaction might be added or taken away or improved to foster development and, especially, how a face-to-face interaction between a developing individual and an agent within his or her environment might be changed. Although Bronfenbrenner’s multi-system model has value in identifying the resources that influence development, it is likely of most value in assisting consideration of how the resource might be used. Inherent within this idea is the emphasis Bronfenbrenner places on proximal processes, those interactions nearest to the individual have the greatest influence on the development of the individual.
Criticisms of the Bioecological Model
A criticism of Bronfenbrenner has been that the model focuses too much on the biological and cognitive aspects of human development, but not much on socioemotional aspect of human development. A more comprehensive view of human development with the 3 domains of human development in the center is suggested (Integrated Ecological Systems and Framework, n.d.). This ecological model is called the Integrated Ecological Systems Framework (Figure \(2\)).
Developmentalists often refer to the three domains as overlapping circles that represent the intricately interwoven relationship between each of the following aspects of an individual’s experience (Figure \(3\)). Biological Processes: the physical changes in an individual’s body. Cognitive Processes: the changes in an individual’s thinking and intelligence. Socioemotional Processes: the changes in an individual's relationship with other people in emotions, in personality and in the role of social contexts in development.
REFERENCES
Alkire, S. (2002). Dimensions of human development. World Development, 30(2), 181-205. UK: Elsevier Science.
Baumrind, D. (1989). Rearing competent children. In W. Damon (Ed.), Child development today and tomorrow (pp. 349-378). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Nature-Nurture reconceptualized in developmental perspective: A bioecological model. Psychological Review, 101(4), 568-86.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1995). Developmental ecology through space and time: A future perspective. In P. Moen, G. Elder, & K. Lusher (Eds.), Examining lives in context: Perspectives on the ecology of human development (pp. 619-647). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (2006). The biological model of human development. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Theoretical models of human development (6th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 793-828). New York, NY: Wiley.
Carter, P. (2007). Keeping it real: School success beyond black and white. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Conger, R., K. Conger, & Martin, M. (2010). Socioeconomic status, family processes, and individual development. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 685-704.
Corrales, K., & Utter, S. (2005). Growth failure. In P. Q. Samour & K. King, Handbook of pediatric nutrition (3rd ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.
Damon, W., & Lerner, R. M. (1998). Handbook of child psychology: Theoretical models of human development. New York, NY: Wiley.
Duncan, G., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (Eds.). (1997). Consequences of growing up poor. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
Elder, G., & Caspi, A. (1988). Economic stress in lives: Developmental perspectives. Journal of Social Issues, 44 (4), 25- 45.
Florsheim, P., Tolan P. H., & Gorman-Smith, D. (1996). Family processes and risk for externalizing behavior problems among African American and Hispanic boys. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64 (6), 1222-1230.
Furstenburg, F. F., Cook, T., Eccles, J., Elder, G. H., & Sameroff, A. (1999). Managing to make it: Urban families in high-risk neighborhoods. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Garcia-Coll, C., Lamberty, G., Jenkins, R., Mc Adoo, H. P., Crnic, P., Wasik, B. H., & Vázquez, H. G. (1996). An integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children. Child Development, 67(5), 1891- 1914.
Gottlieb, G., Wahlsten, D., & Lickliter, R. (1998). The significance of biology for human development: A developmental psychobiological systems view.” In R Lerner (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (6th ed., Vol. 1). New York, NY: Wiley.
Hall, P., & Lamont, M. (Eds.). (2009). Successful societies: How institutions and culture affect health. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Integrated ecological systems and framework. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://sites.google.com/site/humand...ated-framework
Lefebvre, H. (1991). The production of space. Hoboken, NJ: Blackwell Publishing.
Markus, H. R. (2004). Culture and personality: Brief for an arranged marriage. Journal of Research in Personality, 38, 75-83.
Martin, D., McCann, E., & Purcell, M. (2003). Space, scale, governance, and representation: Contemporary geographical perspectives on urban politics and policy. Journal of Urban Affairs, 25(2), 113-121.
McLoyd, V. C. (1990). The impact of economic hardship on black families and children: Psychological distress, parenting, and socioemotional development. Child Development, 61(2), 311-346.
Pearlin, L., & Kohn, M. (2009). Social class, occupation, and parental values: A cross-national study. In A. Grey (Ed.), Class and personality in society (pp. 161-184). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
Rodriguez, M. L., & Walden, N. J. (2010). Socializing relationships. In D. P. Swanson, C. M. Edwards, & M. B. Spencer (Eds.), Adolescence: Development during a global era (pp. 299-340). Burlington, MA: Academic Press.
Thelen, E., & Smith, L. (1998). Dynamic systems theories. In R. Lerner (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (6th ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.
Warikoo, N. (2010). Balancing act: Youth culture in the global city. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
7.03: Additional Reading
Credible Articles on the Internet
Boemmel, J., & Briscoe, J. (2001). Web Quest project theory fact sheet on Urie Bronfenbrenner. Retrieved from http://ruby.fgcu.edu/courses/twimber.../FactSheet.pdf
Bronfenbrenner, U. (2007). The bioecological model of human development. Retrieved from onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/1...y0114/abstract
Bronfenbrenner, U. (n.d.). Ecological models of human development. Retrieved from: www.psy.cmu.edu/~siegler/35bronfebrenner94.pdf
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977.) Toward an experimental ecology of human development. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc...=rep1&type=pdf
Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles
Brendtro, L. K. (2006). The vision of Urie Bronfenbrenner: Adults who are crazy about kids. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 15(3), 162-166.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist, 32, 513- 530. Retrieved from www2.humboldt.edu/cdblog/CD350-Hansen/wp- content/uploads/sites/28/2014/08/Bronfenbrenner.pdf
Guhn, M., & Goelman, H. (2011). Bioecological theory, early child development and the validation of the population level early development instrument. Social Indicators Research, 103(2), 193-217.
Lang, S. S. (2005). Renowned bioecologist addresses the future of human development. Human Ecology, 32(3), 24-24.
Rosa, E. M., & Tudge, J. (2013). Urie Bronfenbrenner's theory of human development: Its evolution from ecology to bioecology. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 5(4), 243-258.
Stolzer, J. (2005). ADHD in America: A bioecological analysis. Ethical Human Psychology and Psychiatry, 7(1), 65-75,103.
Taylor, E. (2003). Practice methods for working with children who have biologically based mental disorders: Abioecological model. Families in Society, 84(1), 39-50.
Wertsch, J. V. (2005). Making human beings human: Bioecological perspectives on human development. The British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 23, 143-151.
Books at Dalton State College Library
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Friedman, S. L., & Wachs, T. D. (1999). Measuring environment across the life span: Emerging methods and concepts. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Videos and Tutorials
History of parenting practices: Child development theories. (2006). Retrieved from Films on Demand database. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Educational_Learning_Theories_(Zhou_and_Brown)/07%3A_Bioecological_Model_of_Human_Development/7.01%3A_Introduction.txt |
Erik H. Erikson (1902-1994), born in Germany in 1902, was a world-renowned scholar of the behavioral sciences. His contributions ranged from psychology to anthropology. Moreover, his two biographies, one of Ghandi, the other a Pulitzer- Prize study of Martin Luther, earned him distinction in literature. Curiously, however, he was not a hero in his own house. Serious students of personality theory underscored his seminal contribution: linking individual development to external forces (structured as the "Life Cycle," the stages ranging from infancy to adulthood). Rather than the negations of pathology, Erikson welcomed the affirmation of human strength, stressing always the potential of constructive societal input in personality development. Erikson's dual concepts of an (individual) ego and group identity have become an integral part of group psychology, with terms such as adolescent "identity diffusion," or adolescent "moratorium," having been mainstreamed into everyday language.
In 1933, when the Nazi power was gaining power in Germany, Erikson and his wife and young son left for the US. The Eriksons settled first in Boston. Erikson began teaching at Harvard's medical school, in addition to his work under Henry A. Murray at the university's Psychology Clinic. It was here he met Margaret Mead, Gregory Bateson, Ruth Benedict as well as Kurt Lewin. In 1936, Erikson moved to Yale University where he was attached to both the medical school and to the Yale Institute of Human Relations. His first field study of the Sioux Indians in South Dakota was launched from New Haven. The subsequent work with the Yurok Indians, commenced after he had gone to the University of California in 1939 to join Jean MacFarlane's longitudinal study of personality development. During World War II, Erikson did research for the U.S. Government, including an original study of "Submarine Psychology." In 1950, the same year in which Childhood and Society, his most steady-selling book was published, Erikson resigned from the University of California. Though not a Communist, he refused to sign the loyalty contract stating, that "...my conscience did not permit me," to collaborate with witch hunters. He returned to Harvard in the 1960s as a professor of human development and remained there until his retirement in 1970. In 1973 the National Endowment for the Humanities selected Erikson for the Jefferson Lecture, the United States' highest honor for achievement in the humanities.
8.02: Required Reading
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, as articulated by Erik Erikson, in collaboration with Joan Erikson (Thomas, 1997), is a comprehensive psychoanalytic theory that identifies a series of eight stages, in which a healthy developing individual should pass through from infancy to late adulthood. All stages are present at birth but only begin to unfold according to both a natural scheme and one's ecological and cultural upbringing. In each stage, the person confronts, and hopefully masters, new challenges. Each stage builds upon the successful completion of earlier stages. The challenges of stages not successfully completed may be expected to reappear as problems in the future.
However, mastery of a stage is not required to advance to the next stage. The outcome of one stage is not permanent and can be modified by later experiences. Erikson's stage theory characterizes an individual advancing through the eight life stages as a function of negotiating his or her biological forces and sociocultural forces. Each stage is characterized by a psychosocial crisis of these two conflicting forces (Figure 8.1). If an individual does indeed successfully reconcile these forces (favoring the first mentioned attribute in the crisis), he or she emerges from the stage with the corresponding virtue (Table \(1\)). For example, if an infant enters into the toddler stage (autonomy vs. shame and doubt) with more trust than mistrust, he or she carries the virtue of hope into the remaining life stages (Crain, 2011).
Stage: Approximate Age
Virtues
Psychosocial Crisis
Significant Relationship
Existential Question
Examples
Infancy 0-2 Years
Hope
Trust vs. Mistrust
Mother
Can I trust the world?
Feeding; Abandonment
Early Childhood 2-4 Years
Will
Autonomy vs.
Shame and Doubt
Parents
Is it okay to be me?
Toilet Training;
Clothing
Themselves
Preschool Age 4-5 Years
Purpose
Initiative vs. Guilt
Family
Is it okay for me to do, move, and act?
Exploring; Using Tools or Making Art
School Age 5-12 Years
Competence
Industry
vs. Inferiority
Neighbors School
Can I make it in the world of people and things?
School; Sports
Adolescence 13-19 Years
Fidelity
Identity vs.
Role Confusion
Peers Role Model
Who am I? Who can I be?
Social
Relationships
Early Adulthood 20-39 Years
Love
Intimacy
vs. Isolation
Friends Partners
Can I love?
Romantic Relationships
Adulthood 40-64 Years
Care
Generativity
vs. Stagnation
Household Workmates
Can I make my life count?
Work; Parenthood
Maturity 65-Death
Wisdom
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Mankind My kind
Is it okay to have been me?
Reflection on Life
Stages of Psychosocial Identity Development
Existential Question: Can I Trust the World?
The first stage of Erik Erikson's theory centers around the infant's basic needs being met by the parents and this interaction leading to trust or mistrust. Trust as defined by Erikson is an essential trustfulness of others as well as a fundamental sense of one's own trustworthiness (Sharkey, 1997). The infant depends on the parents, especially the mother, for sustenance and comfort. The child's relative understanding of world and society come from the parents and their interaction with the child. A child's first trust is always with the parent or caregiver; whomever that might be; however, even the caregiver is secondary whereas the parents are primary in the eyes of the child. If the parents expose the child to warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the infant's view of the world will be one of trust. Should the parents fail to provide a secure environment and to meet the child's basic needs; a sense of mistrust will result (Bee & Boyd, 2009). Development of mistrust can lead to feelings of frustration, suspicion, withdrawal, and a lack of confidence (Sharkey, 1997).
According to Erik Erikson, the major developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food, comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust-that others are dependable and reliable. If they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns mistrust-that the world is an undependable, unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous place. While negative, having some experience with mistrust allows the infant to gain an understanding of what constitutes dangerous situations later in life; yet being at the stage of infant or toddler, it is a good idea not to put them in situations of mistrust: the child's number one needs are to feel safe, comforted, and well cared for (Bee & Boyd, 2009).
Existential Question: Is It Okay to Be Me?
As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to explore their surroundings. The parents still provide a strong base of security from which the child can venture out to assert their will. The parents' patience and encouragement helps foster autonomy in the child. Children at this age like to explore the world around them and they are constantly learning about their environment. Caution must be taken at this age while children may explore things that are dangerous to their health and safety.
At this age children develop their first interests. For example, a child who enjoys music may like to play with the radio. Children who enjoy the outdoors may be interested in animals and plants. Highly restrictive parents, however, are more likely to instill in the child a sense of doubt, and reluctance to attempt new challenges. As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers become capable of satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to feed themselves, wash and dress themselves, and use the bathroom.
If caregivers encourage self-sufficient behavior, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy-a sense of being able to handle many problems on their own. But if caregivers demand too much too soon, refuse to let children perform tasks of which they are capable, or ridicule early attempts at self-sufficiency, children may instead develop shame and doubt about their ability to handle problems.
Existential Question: Is it Okay for Me to Do, Move, and Act?
Initiative adds to autonomy the quality of undertaking, planning and attacking a task for the sake of just being active and on the move. The child is learning to master the world around them, learning basic skills and principles of physics. Things fall down, not up. Round things roll. They learn how to zip and tie, count and speak with ease. At this stage, the child wants to begin and complete their own actions for a purpose. Guilt is a confusing new emotion. They may feel guilty over things that logically should not cause guilt. They may feel guilt when this initiative does not produce desired results.
The development of courage and independence are what set preschoolers, ages three to six years of age, apart from other age groups. Young children in this category face the challenge of initiative versus guilt. As described in Bee and Boyd (2009), the child during this stage faces the complexities of planning and developing a sense of judgment. During this stage, the child learns to take initiative and prepare for leadership and goal achievement roles. Activities sought out by a child in this stage may include risk-taking behaviors, such as crossing a street alone or riding a bike without a helmet; both these examples involve self-limits.
Within instances requiring initiative, the child may also develop negative behaviors. These behaviors are a result of the child developing a sense of frustration for not being able to achieve a goal as planned and may engage in behaviors that seem aggressive, ruthless, and overly assertive to parents. Aggressive behaviors, such as throwing objects, hitting, or yelling, are examples of observable behaviors during this stage.
Preschoolers are increasingly able to accomplish tasks on their own, and can start new things. With this growing independence comes many choices about activities to be pursued. Sometimes children take on projects they can readily accomplish, but at other times they undertake projects that are beyond their capabilities or that interfere with other people's plans and activities. If parents and preschool teachers encourage and support children's efforts, while also helping them make realistic and appropriate choices, children develop initiative-independence in planning and undertaking activities. But if, instead, adults discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss them as silly and bothersome, children develop guilt about their needs and desires (Rao, 2012).
Existential Question: Can I Make it in the World of People and Things?
The aim to bring a productive situation to completion gradually supersedes the whims and wishes of play. The fundamentals of technology are developed. The failure to master trust, autonomy, and industrious skills may cause the child to doubt his or her future, leading to shame, guilt, and the experience of defeat and inferiority (Erik Erikson’s Stages of Social-Emotional Development, n.d.). The child must deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense of inferiority, failure, and incompetence.
Children at this age are becoming more aware of themselves as “individuals.” They work hard at “being responsible, being good and doing it right.” They are now more reasonable to share and cooperate. Allen and Marotz (2003) also list some perceptual cognitive developmental traits specific for this age group. Children grasp the concepts of space and time in more logical, practical ways. They gain a better understanding of cause and effect, and of calendar time. At this stage, children are eager to learn and accomplish more complex skills: reading, writing, telling time. They also get to form moral values, recognize cultural and individual differences and are able to manage most of their personal needs and grooming with minimal assistance (Allen & Marotz, 2003). At this stage, children might express their independence by talking back and being disobedient and rebellious.
Erikson viewed the elementary school years as critical for the development of self-confidence. Ideally, elementary school provides many opportunities to achieve the recognition of teachers, parents and peers by producing things-drawing pictures, solving addition problems, writing sentences, and so on. If children are encouraged to make and do things and are then praised for their accomplishments, they begin to demonstrate industry by being diligent, persevering at tasks until completed, and putting work before pleasure. If children are instead ridiculed or punished for their efforts or if they find they are incapable of meeting their teachers' and parents' expectations, they develop feelings of inferiority about their capabilities (Crain, 2011).
At this age, children start recognizing their special talents and continue to discover interests as their education improves. They may begin to choose to do more activities to pursue that interest, such as joining a sport if they know they have athletic ability, or joining the band if they are good at music. If not allowed to discover their own talents in their own time, they will develop a sense of lack of motivation, low self-esteem, and lethargy. They may become "couch potatoes" if they are not allowed to develop interests.
Existential Question: Who Am I and What Can I Be?
The adolescent is newly concerned with how they appear to others. Superego identity is the accrued confidence that the outer sameness and continuity prepared in the future are matched by the sameness and continuity of one's meaning for oneself, as evidenced in the promise of a career. The ability to settle on a school or occupational identity is pleasant. In later stages of adolescence, the child develops a sense of sexual identity. As they make the transition from childhood to adulthood, adolescents ponder the roles they will play in the adult world. Initially, they are apt to experience some role confusion- mixed ideas and feelings about the specific ways in which they will fit into society-and may experiment with a variety of behaviors and activities (e.g. tinkering with cars, baby-sitting for neighbors, affiliating with certain political or religious groups). Eventually, Erikson proposed, most adolescents achieve a sense of identity regarding who they are and where their lives are headed. The teenager must achieve identity in occupation, gender roles, politics, and, in some cultures, religion.
Erikson is credited with coining the term "identity crisis" (Gross, 1987, p. 47). Each stage that came before and that follows has its own “crisis” but even more so now, for this marks the transition from childhood to adulthood. This passage is necessary because "Throughout infancy and childhood, a person forms many identifications. But the need for identity in youth is not met by these" (Wright, 1982, p. 73). This turning point in human development seems to be the reconciliation between “the person one has come to be” and “the person society expects one to become.” This emerging sense of self will be established by “forging” past experiences with anticipations of the future. In relation to the eight life stages as a whole, the fifth stage corresponds to the crossroads.
What is unique about the stage of Identity is that it is a special sort of synthesis of earlier stages and a special sort of anticipation of later ones. Youth has a certain unique quality in a person's life; it is a bridge between childhood and
adulthood. Youth is a time of radical change-the great body changes accompanying puberty, the ability of the mind to search one's own intentions and the intentions of others, the suddenly sharpened awareness of the roles society has offered for later life (Gross,1987).
Adolescents "are confronted by the need to re-establish [boundaries] for themselves and to do this in the face of an often potentially hostile world" (Stevens, 1983, pp. 48-50). This is often challenging since commitments are being asked for before particular identity roles have formed. At this point, one is in a state of “identity confusion” but society normally makes allowances for youth to "find themselves" and this state is called “the moratorium.”
The problem of adolescence is one of role confusion-a reluctance to commit which may haunt a person into his mature years. Given the right conditions-and Erikson believes these are essentially having enough space and time, a psychosocial moratorium, when a person can freely experiment and explore-what may emerge is a firm sense of identity, an emotional and deep awareness of who he or she is (Stevens, 1983, pp. 48-50).
As in other stages, bio-psycho-social forces are at work. No matter how one has been raised, one's personal ideologies are now chosen for oneself. Often, this leads to conflict with adults over religious and political orientations. Another area where teenagers are deciding for themselves is their career choice, and often parents want to have a decisive say in that role. If society is too insistent, the teenager will acquiesce to external wishes, effectively forcing him or her to ‘foreclose' on experimentation and, therefore, true self-discovery. Once someone settles on a worldview and vocation, will he or she be able to integrate this aspect of self-definition into a diverse society? According to Erikson, when an adolescent has balanced both perspectives of "What have I got?" and "What am I going to do with it?" he or she has established their identity (Gross, 1987). Dependent on this stage is the ego quality of fidelity-the ability to sustain loyalties freely pledged in spite of the inevitable contradictions and confusions of value systems (Stevens, 1983).
Given that the next stage (Intimacy) is often characterized by marriage, many are tempted to cap off the fifth stage at 20 years of age. However, these age ranges are actually quite fluid, especially for the achievement of identity, since it may take many years to become grounded, to identify the object of one's fidelity, to feel that one has "come of age". In the biographies Young Man Luther and Gandhi's Truth, Erikson determined that their crises ended at ages 25 and 30, respectively.
Erikson does note that the time of Identity crisis for persons of genius is frequently prolonged. He further notes that in our industrial society, identity formation tends to be long, because it takes us so long to gain the skills needed for adulthood's tasks in our technological world. So... we do not have an exact time span in which to find ourselves. It doesn't happen automatically at eighteen or at twenty-one. A very approximate rule of thumb for our society would put the end somewhere in one's twenties (Gross, 1987).
Existential Question: Can I Love?
The Intimacy vs. Isolation conflict is emphasized around the age of 30. At the start of this stage, identity vs. role confusion is coming to an end, though it still lingers at the foundation of the stage (Erikson, 1950). Young adults are still eager to blend their identities with friends. They want to fit in. Erikson believes we are sometimes isolated due to intimacy. We are afraid of rejections such as being turned down or our partners breaking up with us. We are familiar with pain and to some of us rejection is so painful that our egos cannot bear it. Erikson also argues that "Intimacy has a counterpart: Distantiation: the readiness to isolate and if necessary, to destroy those forces and people whose essence seems dangerous to our own, and whose territory seems to encroach on the extent of one's intimate relations" (Erikson, 1950, p. 237).
Once people have established their identities, they are ready to make long-term commitments to others. They become capable of forming intimate, reciprocal relationships (e.g. through close friendships or marriage) and willingly make the sacrifices and compromises that such relationships require. If people cannot form these intimate relationships-perhaps because of their own needs-a sense of isolation may result; arousing feelings of darkness and angst.
Existential Question: Can I Make My Life Count?
Generativity is the concern of guiding the next generation. Socially-valued work and disciplines are expressions of generativity. The adult stage of generativity has broad application to family, relationships, work, and society. "Generativity, then is primarily the concern in establishing and guiding the next generation... the concept is meant to include... productivity and creativity" (Erikson, 1950, p. 240).
During middle age the primary developmental task is one of contributing to society and helping to guide future generations. When a person makes a contribution during this period, perhaps by raising a family or working toward the betterment of society, a sense of generativity-a sense of productivity and accomplishment-results. In contrast, a person who is self-centered and unable or unwilling to help society move forward develops a feeling of stagnation-a dissatisfaction with the relative lack of productivity. Central tasks of middle adulthood are to:
• Express love through more than sexual contacts.
• Maintain healthy life patterns.
• Develop a sense of unity with mate.
• Help growing and grown children to be responsible adults.
• Relinquish central role in lives of grown children.
• Accept children's mates and friends.
• Create a comfortable home.
• Be proud of accomplishments of self and mate/spouse.
• Reverse roles with aging parents.
• Achieve mature, civic and social responsibility.
• Adjust to physical changes of middle age.
• Use leisure time creatively.
Existential Question: Is it Okay to Have Been Me?
As we grow older and become senior citizens we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. If we see our life as unproductive, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.
The final developmental task is retrospection: people look back on their lives and accomplishments. They develop feelings of contentment and integrity if they believe that they have led a happy, productive life. They may instead develop a sense of despair if they look back on a life of disappointments and unachieved goals. This stage can occur out of the sequence when an individual feels they are near the end of their life (such as when receiving a terminal disease diagnosis).
Ninth Stage
Joan M. Erikson, who married and collaborated with Erik Erikson, added a ninth stage in The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version (Erikson & Erikson, 1998). Living in the ninth stage, she wrote, "old age in one's eighties and nineties brings with it new demands, reevaluations, and daily difficulties" (Erikson & Erikson, 1998, p. 4). Addressing these new challenges requires "designating a new ninth stage". Erikson was ninety-three years old when she wrote about the ninth stage (Erikson & Erikson, 1998, p. 105).
Joan Erikson showed that all the eight stages "are relevant and recurring in the ninth stage" (Mooney, 2007, p. 78). In the ninth stage, the psychosocial crises of the eight stages are faced again, but with the quotient order reversed. For example, in the first stage (infancy), the psychosocial crisis was "Trust vs. Mistrust" with Trust being the "syntonic quotient" and Mistrust being the "diatonic" (Erikson & Erikson, 1998, p. 106). Joan Erikson applies the earlier psychosocial crises to the ninth stage as follows:
• Basic Mistrust vs. Trust: Hope. In the ninth stage, "elders are forced to mistrust their own capabilities" because one's "body inevitably weakens." Yet, Joan Erikson asserts that "while there is light, there is “hope” for a "bright light and revelation" (Erikson & Erikson, 1998, pp. 106-107).
• Shame and Doubt vs. Autonomy: Will Ninth stage elders face the "shame of lost control" and doubt "their autonomy over their own bodies." So it is that "shame and doubt challenge cherished autonomy" (Erikson & Erikson, 1998, pp. 107-108).
• Inferiority vs. Industry: Competence Industry as a "driving force" that elders once had is gone in the ninth stage. Being incompetent "because of aging is belittling" and makes elders "like unhappy small children of great age" (Erikson & Erikson, 1998, p. 109).
• Identity Confusion vs. Identity: Fidelity Elders experience confusion about their "existential identity" in the ninth stage and "a real uncertainty about status and role" (Erikson & Erikson, 1998, pp. 109-110).
• Isolation vs. Intimacy: Love. In the ninth stage, the "years of intimacy and love" are often replaced by "isolation and deprivation." Relationships become "overshadowed by new incapacities and dependencies" (Erikson & Erikson, 1998, pp. 110-111).
• Stagnation vs. Generativity: Care. The generativity in the seventh stage of "work and family relationships" if it goes satisfactorily, is "a wonderful time to be alive." In one's eighties and nineties, there is less energy for generativity or caretaking. Thus, "a sense of stagnation may well take over" (Erikson & Erikson, 1998, pp. 111-112).
• Despair and Disgust vs. Integrity: Wisdom. Integrity imposes "a serious demand on the senses of elders." Wisdom requires capacities that ninth stage elders "do not usually have." The eighth stage includes retrospection that can evoke a "degree of disgust and despair." In the ninth stage, introspection is replaced by the attention demanded to one's "loss of capacities and disintegration" (Erikson & Erikson, 1998, pp. 112-113).
Living in the ninth stage, Joan Erikson expressed confidence that the psychosocial crisis of the ninth stage can be met as in the first stage with the "basic trust" with which "we are blessed" (Erikson & Erikson, 1998, pp. 112-113). Erikson saw a dynamic at work throughout life, one that did not stop at adolescence. He also viewed the life stages as a cycle: the end of one generation was the beginning of the next. Seen in its social context, the life stages were linear for an individual but circular for societal development (Erikson, 1950). Erik Erikson believed that development continues throughout life. Erikson took the foundation laid by Freud and extended it through adulthood and into late life (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2004).
Criticism of the Psychosocial Theory of Identity Development
Erikson's theory may be questioned as to whether his stages must be regarded as sequential, and only occurring within the age ranges he suggests. There is debate as to whether people only search for identity during the adolescent years or if one stage needs to happen before other stages can be completed. However, Erikson states that each of these processes occur throughout the lifetime in one form or another, and he emphasizes these "phases" only because it is at these times that the conflicts become most prominent (Erikson, 1956).
Most empirical research into Erikson has related to his views on adolescence and attempts to establish identity. His theoretical approach was studied and supported, particularly regarding adolescence, by James E. Marcia. Marcia's work (1966) has distinguished different forms of identity, and there is some empirical evidence that those people who form the most coherent self-concept in adolescence are those who are most able to make intimate attachments in early adulthood. This supports Eriksonian theory in that it suggests that those best equipped to resolve the crisis of early adulthood are those who have most successfully resolved the crisis of adolescence.
Educational Implications
Teachers who apply psychosocial development in the classroom create an environment where each child feels appreciated and is comfortable with learning new things and building relationships with peers without fear (Hooser, 2010). Teaching Erikson’s theory at the different grade levels is important to ensure that students will attain mastery of each stage in Erikson's theory without conflict. There are specific classroom activities that teachers can incorporate into their classroom during the three stages that include school age children. The activities listed below are just a few suggested examples that apply psychosocial development.
At the preschool level, teachers want to focus on developing a hardy personality. Classroom examples that can be incorporated at the Preschool Level are as follows:
1. Find out what students are interested in and create projects that incorporate their area of interest.
2. Let the children be in charge of the learning process when participating in a classroom project. This will exhibit teacher appreciation for the areas of interest of the students as well as confidence in their ability.
3. Make sure to point out and praise students for good choices.
4. Offer continuous feedback on work that has been completed.
5. Do not ridicule or criticize students openly. Find a private place to talk with a child about a poor choice or behavior. Help students formulate their own alternate choices by guiding them to a positive solution and outcome.
6. When children experiment, they should not be punished for trying something that may turn out differently than the teacher planned.
7. Utilize physical activity to teach fairness and sportsmanship (Bianca, 2010).
Teachers should focus on achievement and peer relationships at the Elementary Level. Classroom examples that can be incorporated at the Elementary Level are as follows:
1. Create a list of classroom duties that needed to be completed on a scheduled basis. Ask students for their input when creating the list as well as who will be in charge of what.
2. Discuss and post classroom rules. Make sure to include students in the decision-making process when discussing rules.
3. Encourage students to think outside of their day-to-day routine by role playing different situations.
4. Let students know that striving for perfection is not as important as learning from mistakes. Teach them to hold their head high and move forward.
5. Encourage children to help students who may be having trouble socially and/or academically. Never allow any child to make fun of or bully another child.
6. Build confidence by recognizing success in what children do best.
7. Provide a variety of choices when making an assignment so that students can express themselves with a focus on their strengths.
8. Utilize physical activity to build social development and to help students appreciate their own abilities as well as the abilities of others (Bianca, 2010).
During the middle and high school years, building identity and self-esteem should be part of a teacher's focus. Classroom examples that can be incorporated at the Middle School and High School Level are as follows:
1. Treat all students equally. Do not show favoratism to a certain group of students based on gender, race, academic ability or socioeconimic status.
2. Incorporate guest speakers and curriculum activities from as many areas as possible so as to expose students to many career choices.
3. Encourage students to focus on their strengths and acknowledge them when they exhibit work that incorporates these strengths.
4. Encourage students to develop confidence by trying different approaches to solving problems.
5. Incorporate life skills into lesson planning to increase confidence and self-sufficiency.
6. Utilize physical activity to help relieve stress, negative feelings and improve moods (Bianca, 2010).
REFERENCES
Allen, E., & Marotz, L. (2003). Developmental profiles pre-Birth through twelve (4th ed.). Albany, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning.
Bee, H., & Boyd, D. (2009, March). The developing child (12th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Bianca, A. (2010, June 4). Psychosocial development in physical activity. Retrieved from www.ehow.com/about_6587070_ps...l-activity.htm
Crain, W. (2011). Theories of development: Concepts and applications (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Erik Erikson’s stages of social-emotional development. (n.d.). Retrieved from childdevelopmentinfo.com/child- development/erickson/#ixzz3ZaBI7RQf
Erik Erikson's 8 stages of psychosocial development. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://web.cortland.edu/andersmd/ERIK/stageint.HTML
Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. New York, NY: W.W. Norton.
Erikson, E. H. (1956). The problem of ego identity. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 4, 56-121. doi:10.1177/000306515600400104.
Erikson, E. H., & Erikson, J. M. (1998). The life cycle completed: Extended version. New York, NY: W.W. Norton.
Gross, F. L. (1987). Introducing Erik Erikson: An invitation to his thinking. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
Hooser, T. C. V. (2010, November 28). How to apply psychosocial development in the classroom. Retrieved from http://www.ehow.com/how_7566430_appl...classroom.html
Kail, R. V., & Cavanaugh, J. C. (2004). Human development: A life-span view (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth.
Macnow, A. S. (Ed.). (2014). MCAT behavioral science review. New York, NY: Kaplan Publishing.
Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3,551-558. doi:10.1037/h0023281
Mooney, J. (2007). Erik Erikson. In Joe L. Kincheloe & Raymond A. Horn (Eds.), The praeger handbook of education and psychology (Vol. 1, p. 78). Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?id=O1...of+Education+a nd+Psychology&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjWnfK7i_DWAhWDwiYKHdrjAooQ6AEIJjAA#v=onepage&q=The%20 Praeger%20Handbook%20of%20Education%20and%20Psychology&f=false
Rao, A. (Ed.). (2012, July). Principles and practice of pedodontics (3rd ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?id=Yn...t+of+independe nt+activities+or+dismiss+them+as+silly+and+bothersome,+children+develop+guilt+about+their+needs+and+desires&so urce=bl&ots=R-A9YrkvAH&sig=DNUdrJg- ZsnT96jXA8FipC64eDQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjnstb0je_WAhWHQyYKHfkpCXUQ6AEINjAD#v=onepage&q =discourage%20the%20pursuit%20of%20independent%20activities%20or%20dismiss%20them%20as%20silly%20and% 20bothersome%2C%20children%20develop%20guilt%20about%20their%20needs%20and%20desires&f=false
Sharkey, W. (1997, May). Erik Erikson. Retrieved from www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psyc...ry/erikson.htm
Stevens, R. (1983). Erik Erikson: An introduction. New York, NY: St. Martin's Press.
Thomas, R. M. (1997, August 8). Joan Erikson is dead at 95: Shaped thought on life cycles. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/1997/08/08/u...fe-cycles.html.
Wright, J. E. (1982). Erikson: Identity and religion. New York, NY: Seabury Press.
8.03: Additional Reading
Credible Articles on the Internet
Davis, D., & Clifton, A. (1999). Psychosocial theory: Erikson. Retrieved from http://www.haverford.edu/psych/ddavi...on.stages.html
Erikson, R. (2010). ULM Classroom Management. Retrieved from https://ulmclassroommanagement.wikis...m/Erik+Erikson
Krebs-Carter, M. (2008). Ages in stages: An exploration of the life cycle based on Erik Erikson’s eight stages of human development. Retrieved from http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum...0.01.04.x.html
McLeod. S. (2017). Erik Erikson. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html
Ramkumar, S. (2002). Erik Erikson's theory of development: A teacher's observations. Retrieved from http://www.journal.kfionline.org/iss...s-observations
Sharkey, W. (1997). Erik Erikson. Retrieved from www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psyc...ry/erikson.htm
Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles
Capps, D. (2004). The decades of life: Relocating Erikson's stages. Pastoral Psychology, 53(1), 3-32.
Christiansen, S. L., & Palkovitz, R. (1998). Exploring Erikson's psychosocial theory of development: Generativity and its relationship to paternal identity, intimacy, and involvement in childcare. Journal of Men's Studies, 7(1), 133-156.
Coughlan, F., & Welsh-Breetzke, A. (2002). The circle of courage and Erikson's psychosocial stages. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 10(4), 222-226.
Domino, G., & Affonso, D. D. (1990). A personality measure of Erikson's life stages: The inventory of psychosocial balance. Journal of Personality Assessment, 54, (3&4), 576-588.
Kidwell, J. S., Dunham, R. M., Bacho, R. A., Pastorino, E., & Portes, P. R. (1995). Adolescent identity exploration: A test of Erikson's theory of transitional crisis. Adolescence, 30(120), 785-793.
Books in Dalton State College Library
Sheehy, N. (2004). Fifty key thinkers in psychology. New York, NY: Routledge.
Videos and Tutorials
Khan Academy. (n.d.) Erikson's psychosocial development. Retrieved from www.khanacademy.org/test- prep/mcat/individuals-and-society/self-identity/v/eriksons-psychosocial-development | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Educational_Learning_Theories_(Zhou_and_Brown)/08%3A_Psychosocial_Theory_of_Identity_Development/8.01%3A_Introduction.txt |
Howard Gardner (1943- ) currently serves as the John H. and Elisabeth A. Hobbs Professor of Cognition of Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. He also holds positions as Adjunct Professor of Psychology at Harvard University and Senior Director of Harvard Project Zero. Among numerous honors, Gardner received a MacArthur Prize Fellowship in 1981 and the University of Louisville’s Grawemeyer Award in Education in 2000. He has received honorary degrees from twenty-nine colleges and universities, including institutions in Bulgaria, Chile, Greece, Ireland, Israel, Italy, South Korea and Spain. He has twice been selected by Foreign Policy and Prospect magazines as one of the 100 most influential public intellectuals in the world. In 2011, Gardner received the Prince of Asturias Award for Social Sciences. Gardner is best known in educational for his theory of multiple intelligences, a critique of the notion that there exists but a single human intelligence that can be adequately assessed by standard psychometric instruments.
9.02: Required Reading
Multiple Intelligences Scenario
Ms. Cunningham, a seventh grade American History teacher, is preparing a unit on the American Civil Rights Movement of the 1950's and 1960's. The teacher has created a succession of lessons to be completed over a two-week period to enhance her students' understanding of the events, organizations, and individuals that were crucial to the movement. When the unit is over, Ms. Cunningham wants her students to have a complete picture of the historical period. She designs a variety of activities that give the students the opportunity to explore historical and cultural aspects of the 1950's and 1960's, and to fully identify with those who were involved in the Movement. In order to reach her instructional goals, the students will read selected excerpts from the textbook and listen to various lecturers about the Movement. In addition to the aforementioned, the students will complete several exploratory tasks about the Civil Rights Movement as well.
To begin the unit the teacher uses a KWL chart on the overhead to spur discussion and start the students' "juices" flowing. A KWL chart is a visual representation of what students already know, what they want to know, and what they learned at the end of a lesson. This activity is completed as a class. The students take turns sharing the tidbits of information that they already know about the Civil Rights movement. This information is on major figures, events and places involved in the Civil Rights movement. Upon establishing what basic prior knowledge the students possess, it is now time to begin discovering new information and confirming previously held information about the Civil Rights movement. Ms. Cunningham then lectures on the basic events, people, and places involved in the majority of the Civil Rights movement in order to provide students some framework within which to begin placing their new information.
She closes the first lesson by asking the students to create a timeline using the dates of events she has provided. This will be a working outline to be used throughout the unit. During a subsequent lesson, students are asked to share their outlines with their classmates in small groups. They should make corrections and comments on the outlines as needed. Ms. Cunningham gains class consensus of the proper order for their working outline as she places an enlarged version on the classroom wall.
The culmination of this unit will be a final project in which students create a portfolio containing work on three mini- projects. All students will listen to the same guest lecturers, view the same video-taped footage and participate in the same class discussions during the first half of each class. The remainder of each class period will be reserved for work on personal exploration pertaining to their portfolio pieces. Ms. Cunningham has provided a list of possible activities and a rubric for each suggested activity in order to support and to guide the student's work. She has also arranged her room so that "art" materials are in a central location. Mapping and graphing information is grouped together and there is a section with reading and research materials.
Mrs. Cunningham's students will have many options for creating something chat can be included in their portfolios. Students will have the option to write letters to members of the community who were teenagers during the Civil Rights Movement,
asking them to share their memories and experiences about life during the time period. Students may work in teams to prepare speeches based on period issues for their fellow classmates. Students may consult with the school's Media Specialist or more knowledgeable other to find resources for the class, including popular music from the time period. They may also learn and share dances that were popular during the 1950's and 1960's. If they choose, students may include music in the plays they write and act out for their classmates. With the assistance of the Art instructor, students may opt to work together to create a mural that represents key figures of the Civil Rights Movement such as Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr., with accompanying biographical information about each leader. Students may also create a map representing key events. Students may also work in groups to prepare short plays to enact for the class based on the readings and what they learn from the guest speakers. Afterwards, Mrs. Cunningham will moderate discussion sessions about the plays. All students will keep a record of their thoughts and feelings about the mini-lessons they completed. This journaling process will provide a synthesis of the materials with which they dealt. As one final measure, students present their portfolios to their classmates.
James, a student whose proclivities lean towards creative visual projects expresses interest in working on the mural of Civil Rights leaders. Mrs. Cunningham feels that James needs to shift gears and concentrate on other activities in the classroom. The teacher suggests that James work on creating the map and/or timeline. At the teacher's encouragement, James begins to work on the other projects, but his attention continues to drift towards the students painting the mural. He contributes some excellent ideas and shows so much interest in the details and creation of the mural, that the teacher allows him to shift his focus back towards the visual project.
In another seventh grade classroom, Mr. Smith taught a unit on the Civil Rights Movement by assigning textbook readings and lecturing the students on the historical events surrounding the Movement. Students were given sentence completion pop quizzes throughout the course of the lesson. The teacher showed videotaped programs to the class and each student wrote a short research paper about a Civil Rights leader or prominent figure. At the end of the unit, students were given a multiple choice and essay test.
What Is the Theory of Multiple Intelligences?
Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences utilizes aspects of cognitive and developmental psychology, anthropology, and sociology to explain the human intellect. Although Gardner had been working towards the concept of Multiple Intelligences for many years prior, the theory was not introduced until his book Gardner (1983) Frames of Mind was published. Gardner's research consisted of brain research and interviews with stroke victims, prodigies, and individuals with autism. Based on his findings, Gardner established eight criteria for identifying the seven separate intelligences. The eight criteria used by Gardner to identify the intelligences are listed below:
• Isolation by brain damage/neurological evidence;
• The existence of prodigies, idiot savants, and exceptional individuals;
• Distinguishable set of core operations;
• Developmental stages with an expert end state;
• Evolutionary history and plausibility;
• Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system;
• Support from experimental psychological tasks; and
• Support from psychometric research
Originally, the theory accounted for seven separate intelligences. Subsequently, with the publishing of Gardner's (1999) book Intelligence Reframed, two more intelligences were added to the list. The nine intelligences are Verbal/Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical, Visual/Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalistic, and Existential. Gardner's theory challenges traditional, narrower views of intelligence. Previously accepted ideas of human intellectual capacity contend that an individual's intelligence is a fixed entity throughout his lifetime and that intelligence can be measured through an individual's logical and language abilities. According to Gardner's theory, an intelligence encompasses the ability to create and solve problems, create products or provide services that are valued within a culture or society. Listed below are key points of Gardner's theory:
• All human beings possess all nine intelligences in varying degrees.
• Each individual has a different intelligence profile.
• Education can be improved by assessment of students' intelligence profiles and designing activities accordingly.
• Each intelligence occupies a different area of the brain.
• The nine intelligences may operate in consort or independently from one another.
• These nine intelligences may define the human species.
The Nine Multiple Intelligences
Verbal/Linguistic. Verbal/Linguistic intelligence refers to an individual's ability to understand and manipulate words and languages. Everyone is thought to possess this intelligence at some level. This includes reading, writing, speaking, and other forms of verbal and written communication. Teachers can enhance their students' verbal/linguistic intelligence by having them keep journals, play word games, and by encouraging discussion. People with strong rhetorical and oratory skills such as poets, authors, and attorneys exhibit strong linguistic intelligence. Some examples are T.S. Elliot, Maya Angelou, and Martin Luther King Jr. Traditionally, linguistic intelligence and logical/mathematical intelligence have been highly valued in education and learning environments.
Logical/Mathematical. Logical/Mathematical intelligence refers to an individual's ability to do things with data: collect, and organize, analyze and interpret, conclude and predict. Individuals strong in this intelligence see patterns and relationships. These individuals are oriented toward thinking: inductive and deductive logic, numeration, and abstract patterns. They would be a contemplative problem solver-one who likes to play strategy games and to solve mathematical problems. Being strong in this intelligence often implies great scientific ability. This is the kind of intelligence studied and documented by Piaget. Teachers can strengthen this intelligence by encouraging the use of computer programming languages, critical-thinking activities, linear outlining, Piagetian cognitive stretching exercises, science-fiction scenarios, logic puzzles, and through the use of logical/sequential presentation of subject matter. Some real life examples people who are gifted with this intelligence are Albert Einstein, Niehls Bohr, and John Dewey.
Visual/Spatial. Visual/Spatial intelligence refers to the ability to form and manipulate a mental model. Individuals with strength in this area depend on visual thinking and are very imaginative. People with this kind of intelligence tend to learn most readily from visual presentations such as movies, pictures, videos, and demonstrations using models and props. They like to draw, paint, or sculpt their ideas and often express their feelings and moods through art. These individuals often daydream, imagine and pretend. They are good at reading diagrams and maps and enjoy solving mazes and jigsaw puzzles. Teachers can foster this intelligence by utilizing charts, graphs, diagrams, graphic organizers, videotapes, color, art activities, doodling, microscopes and computer graphics software. It could be characterized as right-brain activity. Pablo Picasso, Bobby Fischer, and Georgia O'Keefe are some examples of people gifted with this intelligence.
Bodily/Kinesthetic. Bodily/Kinesthetic intelligence refers to people who process information through the sensations they feel in their bodies. These people like to move around, touch the people they are talking to and act things out. They are good at small and large muscle skills; they enjoy all types of sports and physical activities. They often express themselves through dance. Teachers may encourage growth in this area of intelligence through the use of touching, feeling, movement, improvisation, "hands-on" activities, permission to squirm and wiggle, facial expressions and physical relaxation exercises. Some examples of people who are gifted with this intelligence are Michael Jordan, Martina Navratilova, and Jim Carrey.
Musical. Musical intelligence refers to the ability to understand, create, and interpret musical pitches, timbre, rhythm, and tones and the capability to compose music. Teachers can integrate activities into their lessons that encourage students' musical intelligence by playing music for the class and assigning tasks that involve students creating lyrics about the material being taught. Composers and instrumentalists are individuals with strength in this area. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Louis Armstrong are examples.
Interpersonal. Although Gardner classifies interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences separately, there is a lot of interplay between the two and they are often grouped together. Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to interpret and respond to the moods, emotions, motivations, and actions of others. Interpersonal intelligence also requires good communication and interaction skills, and the ability show empathy towards the feelings of other individuals. Teachers can encourage the growth of interpersonal intelligence by designing lessons that include group work and by planning cooperative learning activities. Counselors and social workers are professions that require strength in this area. Some examples of people with this intelligence include Gandhi, Ronald Reagan, and Bill Clinton.
Intrapersonal. Intrapersonal intelligence, simply put, is the ability to know oneself. It is an internalized version of Interpersonal Intelligence. To exhibit strength in Intrapersonal Intelligence, an individual must be able to understand their own emotions, motivations, and be aware of their own strengths and weaknesses. Teachers can assign reflective activities, such as journaling to awaken students' intrapersonal intelligence. It’s important to note that this intelligence involves the use of all others. An individual should tap into their other intelligences to completely express their intrapersonal intelligence. Those who are often associated with this intelligence are Sigmund Freud, Plato, or Virginia Woolf.
Naturalistic. Naturalistic intelligence is seen in someone who recognizes and classifies plants, animals, and minerals including a mastery of taxonomies. They are holistic thinkers who recognize specimens and value the unusual. They are aware of species such as the flora and fauna around them. They notice natural and artificial taxonomies such as dinosaurs to algae and cars to clothes. Teachers can best foster this intelligence by using relationships among systems of species, and classification activities. Encourage the study of relationships such as patterns and order, and compare-and-contrast sets of groups or look at connections to real life and science issues. Charles Darwin and John Muir are examples of people gifted in this way.
Intelligence
Strengths
Preferences
Learns Best Through
Needs
Verbal / Linguistic
Writing, reading, memorizing dates, thinking in words, telling stories
Write, read, tell stories, talk, memorize, work at solving puzzles
Hearing and seeing words, speaking, reading, writing, discussing and debating
Books, tapes, paper diaries, writing tools, dialogue, discussion, debated, stories, etc.
Mathematical/ Logical
Math, logic, problem-solving, reasoning, patterns
Question, work with numbers, experiment, solve problems
Working with relationships and patterns, classifying, categorizing, working with the abstract
Things to think about and explore, science materials, manipulative, trips to the planetarium and science museum, etc.
Visual/Spatial
Maps, reading charts, drawing, mazes, puzzles, imagining things, visualization
Draw, build, design, create, daydream, look at pictures
Working with pictures and colors, visualizing, using the mind's eye, drawing
LEGOs, video, movies, slides, art, imagination games, mazes, puzzles, illustrated book, trips to art museums, etc.
Bodily / Kinesthetic
Athletics, dancing, crafts, using tools, acting
Move around, touch and talk, body language
Touching, moving, knowledge through bodily sensations, processing
Role-play, drama, things to build, movement, sports and physical games, tactile experiences, hands-on learning, etc.
Musical
Picking up sounds, remembering melodies, rhythms, singing
Sing, play an instrument, listen to music, hum
Rhythm, singing, melody, listening to music and melodies
Sing-along time, trips to concerts, music playing at home and school, musical instruments, etc.
Interpersonal
Leading, organizing, understanding people, communicating, resolving conflicts, selling
Talk to people, have friends, join groups
Comparing, relating, sharing, interviewing, cooperating
Friends, group games, social gatherings, community events, clubs, mentors/ apprenticeships, etc.
Intrapersonal
Recognizing strengths and weaknesses, setting goals, understanding self
Work alone, reflect pursue interests
Working alone, having space, reflecting, doing self-paced projects
Secret places, time alone, self-paced projects, choices, etc.
Naturalistic
Understanding nature, making distinctions, identifying flora and fauna
Be involved with nature, make distinctions
Working in nature, exploring living things, learning about plants and natural events
Order, same/different, connections to real life and science issues, patterns
Naturalistic. Naturalistic intelligence is seen in someone who recognizes and classifies plants, animals, and minerals including a mastery of taxonomies. They are holistic thinkers who recognize specimens and value the unusual. They are aware of species such as the flora and fauna around them. They notice natural and artificial taxonomies such as dinosaurs to algae and cars to clothes. Teachers can best foster this intelligence by using relationships among systems of species, and classification activities. Encourage the study of relationships such as patterns and order, and compare-and-contrast sets of groups or look at connections to real life and science issues. Charles Darwin and John Muir are examples of people gifted in this way.
Existential Intelligence. There is a ninth intelligence that has yet to experience full acceptance by educators in the classroom. That is existential intelligence, which encompasses the ability to pose and ponder questions regarding the existence-including life and death. This would be in the domain of philosophers and religious leaders.
Educational Implications
Although the theory was not originally designed for use in a classroom application, it has been widely embraced by educators and enjoyed numerous adaptations in a variety of educational settings. Teachers have always known that students had different strengths and weaknesses in the classroom. Gardner's research was able to articulate that and provide direction as to how to improve a student's ability in any given intelligence. Teachers were encouraged to begin to think of lesson planning in terms of meeting the needs of a variety of the intelligences. From this new thinking, schools such the Ross School in New York, an independent educational institution, and the Key Learning Community, a public magnet school in Indianapolis emerged to try teaching using a Multiple Intelligences curriculum. The focus of this part of the chapter will be on lesson design using the theory of Multiple Intelligences, and providing various resources that educators may use to implement the theory into their classroom activities.
Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom
There are many ways to incorporate Multiple Intelligences theory into the curriculum, and there is no set method by which to incorporate the theory. Some teachers set up learning centers with resources and materials that promote involving the different intelligences. For example, in the above scenario, Ms. Cunningham creates an area with art supplies in her classroom. Other instructors design simulations that immerse students into real life situations. Careful planning during the lesson design process will help to ensure quality instruction and valuable student experiences in the classroom.
Other instructional models, such as project-based and collaborative learning may be easily integrated into lessons with Multiple Intelligences. Collaborative learning allows students to explore their interpersonal intelligence, while project-based learning may help structure activities designed to cultivate the nine intelligences. For instance, Ms. Cunningham uses aspects of project-based learning in her classroom by allowing students to plan, create, and process (through reflection) information throughout the Civil Rights unit, while also integrating activities that teach to the intelligences. This particular instructional model allows students to work together to explore a topic and to create something as the end product. This works well with Multiple Intelligences theory, which places value on the ability to create products. By collaborating with the Media Specialist to give students the opportunity to choose from a variety of resources to complete their assignments, Ms. Cunningham uses aspects of resource-based learning, an instructional model that places the ultimate responsibility of choosing resources on the student. It is important for teachers to carefully select activities that not only teach to the intelligences, but also realistically mesh with the subject matter of the lesson or unit. Multiple Intelligences theory should enhance, not detract from what is being taught.
Disney's website entitled Tapping into Multiple Intelligences suggests two approaches for implementing Multiple Intelligences theory in the classroom. One is a teacher-centered approach, in which the instructor incorporates materials, resources, and activities into the lesson that teach to the different intelligences. The other is a student-centered approach in which students actually create a variety of different materials that demonstrate their understanding of the subject matter. The student-centered approach allows students to actively use their varied forms of intelligence. In a teacher-centered lesson, the number of intelligences explored should be limited to two or three. To teach less than two is nearly impossible since the use of speech will always require the use of one's verbal/linguistic intelligence. In a student-centered lesson, the instructor may incorporate aspects of project-based learning, collaborative learning, or other inquiry-based models. In such a case, activities involving all nine intelligences may be presented as options for the class, but each student participates in only one or two of the tasks.
Ms. Cunningham incorporates both student-centered and teacher-centered activities into her unit on the Civil Rights Movement. The teacher-led lecture is a standard example of a teacher-centered activity. The lecture teaches to students' verbal/linguistic intelligence. The viewing of the videotape is another example of a teacher-centered activity. This activity incorporates visual/spatial intelligence into how the unit is learned. It is important to note that many activities, although designed to target a particular intelligence, may also utilize other intelligences as well. For example, in Ms. Cunningham's classroom the students may work together on creating a mural of Civil Rights leaders. This is a student-centered activity that directly involves visual/spatial intelligence, but also gives students a chance to exercise their Interpersonal intelligence. The journal assignment, also a student-centered activity, is designed to enhance students' Intrapersonal intelligence by prompting them to reflect on their feelings and experiences in relation to the Civil Rights Movement.
This activity also taps into verbal/linguistic intelligence. The timeline and map assignments are student-centered activities that are designed to enhance students' logical/mathematical intelligence, but they also delve into Visual/Spatial intelligence. Students must collect and organize information for both the timeline and the map therefore using their logical/mathematical intelligence. In creating these items, students must think visually as well. By incorporating dance into one lesson, Ms. Cunningham is able to promote awareness of her students' bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. By showing videos of popular dances from the time period, or inviting an expert from the community to talk about the social aspects of dance, Ms. Cunningham might incorporate a teacher-centered activity. Having students learn and perform dances is a student-centered way of teaching through bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. The short plays that students prepare involve bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, as well as interpersonal and verbal/linguistic intelligences. Class discussions provide an opportunity for students to exercise both areas of their personal intelligences, as well as to reinforce the subject matter.
Planning and Implementing Student-Centered Lessons
This type of lesson revolves around student created materials. The types of activities and assignments that support student- centered lessons can be easily designed in concert with many of the inquiry-based models. One of the most important aspects of student-centered lessons is allowing students to make choices (Figure 9.2). Teachers should encourage students to exercise their weaker intelligences, but allow them to explore their stronger areas as well. In Ms. Cunningham's class, the student named James is very strong in visual/spatial intelligence and always leans towards this type of project. The teacher encourages James to participate in other activities, but when it is obvious that his interest lies in working on the mural, Ms. Cunningham allows him to work on the project. Listed below are steps to implement a student-centered lesson or unit:
• Carefully identify instructional goals, objectives, and instructional outcomes.
• Consider activities that you can integrate into the lesson or unit that teach to the different intelligences. Teachers need not incorporate all nine intelligences into one lesson.
• When gathering resources and materials, consider those which will allow students to explore their multiple intelligences.
• Specify a timeframe for the lesson or unit.
• Allow for considerable element of student choice when designing activities and tasks for the intelligences.
• Design activities that are student-centered, using inquiry-based models of instruction.
• Provide a rubric for student activities. You might consider having students help create rubrics.
• Incorporate assessment into the learning process.
In an effort to maximize students' interest in both the subject matter and their own learning proclivities, teachers may wish to teach their students a little bit about Multiple Intelligences. Teachers can brief the class about each type of intelligence and then follow up with a self-assessment for each student. In this way, students will be able to capitalize on their strengths and work on their weaker areas. Disney's Tapping Into Multiple Intelligences website includes a self-assessment.
Planning and Implementing a Teacher-Centered Lesson
Structured, teacher-centered activities provide an opportunity for teachers to introduce material and establish prior knowledge and student conceptions. Teachers may lecture students, show informational videos and posters, perform drills, pose problem-solving exercises, arrange museum visits, and plan outings to concerts. There are all examples of teacher- centered activities. All of these activities integrate the Multiple Intelligences into the subject matter being taught. Teacher- centered lessons should be limited to a few activities that provide a foundation for students to later complete more exploratory tasks in which they can demonstrate understanding of the material. A teacher may choose to start an instructional unit or lesson with teacher-centered activities and then follow up with subsequent student-centered lessons (Table \(2\)).
Intelligence
Teacher-Centered
Student-Centered
Verbal/Linguistic
• Present content verbally
• Ask questions aloud and look for student feedback
• Interviews
• Student presents material
• Students read content and prepare a presentation for his/her classmates
• Students debate over an issue
Logical/Mathematical
• Provide brain teasers or challenging questions to begin lessons.
• Make logical connections between the subject matter and authentic situations to answer the question "why?"
• Students categorize information in logical sequences for organization
• Students create graphs or charts to explain written info
• Students participate in webquests associated with the content
Bodily/Kinesthetic
• Use props during lecture
• Provide tangible items pertaining to content for students to examine
• Review using sports related examples (throw a ball to someone to answer a question)
• Students use computers to research subject matter
• Students create props of their own explaining subject matter (shadow boxes, mobiles, etc... )
Students create review games
Visual/Spatial
• When presenting the information, use visuals to explain content
• PowerPoint slides, charts, graphs, cartoons, videos, overheads, smartboards
• Have students work individually or in groups to create visuals pertaining to the information
• Posters, timelines, models, PowerPoint slides, maps, illustrations, charts, concept mapping
Musical
• Play music in the classroom during reflection periods
• Show examples or create musical rhythms for students to remember things
• Create a song or melody with the content embedded for memory
• Use well known songs to memorize formulas, skills, or test content
Interpersonal
• Be aware of body language and facial expressions
• Offer assistance whenever needed
• Encourage classroom discussion
• Encourage collaboration among peers
• Group work strengthens interpersonal connections
• Peer feedback and peer tutoring
• Students present to the class
• Encourage group editing
Intrapersonal
• Encourage journaling as a positive outlet for expression
• Introduce web logging (blogs)
• Make individual questions welcome
• Create a positive environment
• Journaling
• Individual research on content
• Students create personal portfolios of work
Naturalistic
• Take students outside to enjoy nature while in learning process (lecture)
• Compare authentic subject matter to natural occurrences
• Relate subject matter to stages that occur in nature (plants, weather, etc.)
• Students organize thoughts using natural cycles
• Students make relationships among content and the natural environment (how has nature had an impact?)
• Students perform community service
Teachers may follow these steps when designing and implementing a teacher-centered lesson:
• Identify instructional goals and objectives.
• Consider teacher-centered activities that teach to students' Multiple Intelligences. In a teacher-centered lesson, limit the number of activities to two or three.
• Consider what resources and materials you will need to implement the lesson. For example, will you need to schedule a museum visit or to consult the Media Specialist for videos or other media?
• Specify a timeframe for the lesson or unit.
• Provide an opportunity for reflection by students.
• Provide a rubric to scaffold student activities.
• Integrate assessment into the learning process.
Assessment is one of the biggest challenges in incorporating Multiple Intelligences in the classroom. Ms. Cunningham's students are given the option of working on several mini-projects during the course of the Civil Rights unit. At the end of the unit, their performance is assessed through a portfolio that represents their work on these projects. It is very important for assessment to be integrated into the learning process. Assessment should give students the opportunity to demonstrate their understanding of the subject matter. One of the main goals of acknowledging and using Multiple Intelligences in the classroom is to increase student understanding of material by allowing them to demonstrate the ways in which they understand the material. Teachers need to make their expectations clear, and may do so in the form of a detailed rubric.
Benefits of Using Multiple Intelligences Theory in the Classroom
Using Multiple Intelligences theory in the classroom has many benefits:
• As a teacher and learner you realize that there are many ways to be "smart."
• All forms of intelligence are equally celebrated.
• By having students create work that is displayed to parents and other members of the community, your school could see more parent and community involvement.
• A sense of increased self-worth may be seen as students build on their strengths and work towards becoming an expert in certain areas.
• Students may develop strong problem-solving skills that they can use in real life situations.
Criticisms of Theory of Multiple Intelligences
One of the most widely held criticisms is that there is little, if any, empirical evidence to support it. Most of these critics are of the psychometric testing community (Armstrong, 2009). They argue that rather than eight unique and autonomous intelligences, there is really only one intelligence that you can test for, the “Spearman g-factor,” or one’s general intelligence. According to Linda Gottfredson (2004) of the University of Delaware, "The g factor was discovered by the first mental testers, who found that people who scored well on one type of mental test tended to score well on all of them. This common factor, g, can be distilled from scores on any broad set of cognitive tests, and it takes the same form among individuals of every age, race, sex, and nation yet studied” (p. 35). As a matter of fact, three scientists put together a comprehensive, 16- part test, 2-test relating to each of the 8 intelligences, and found that people generally scored about the same on each of them. Gardner counters this by saying that he agrees that there is a g-factor, but sees the g-factor as a mere manifestation of the mathematical logical intelligence. Furthermore, MI Theory, Gardner argues, is solidly grounded in research showing the existence of savants and how brain damage can affect an isolated skill set, or intelligence.
A second common criticism is that MI Theory is a pc mind frame, a way to simply tell “dumb” children’s parents that there is hope for their kid. They argue that it is simply used to make everyone feel good about him or herself. However, there is nothing in MI Theory stating that anyone has to be good at a particular intelligence, let alone all of them. There are humans who for whatever reason are not capable or learning or understanding or being intelligent in the way that other people are. MI does not deny their existence; it only gives psychology and education a different lens to view intelligence and smarts to get a fuller picture of each person's abilities. Below are some quotes from MI critics:
To date there have been no published studies that offer evidence of the validity of the multiple intelligences. In 1994, Sternberg (1994) reported finding no empirical studies. In 2000, Allix (2000) reported finding no empirical validating studies, and at that time Gardner and Connell (2000) conceded that there was "little hard evidence for MI theory" (p. 292). In 2004, Sternberg and Grigerenko (2004) stated that there were no validating studies for multiple intelligences, and in 2004, Gardner (2004) asserted that he would be "delighted were such evidence to accrue" (p. 214), and he admitted that "MI theory has few enthusiasts among psychometricians or others of a traditional psychological background" because they require "psychometric or experimental evidence that allows one to prove the existence of the several intelligences" (p. 214). (Waterhouse, 2006, p. 208)
The human brain is unlikely to function via Gardner’s multiple intelligences. Taken together the evidence for the intercorrelations of subskills of IQ measures, the evidence for a shared set of genes associated with mathematics, reading, and g, and the evidence for shared and overlapping “what is it?” and “where is it?” neural processing pathways, and shared neural pathways for language, music, motor skills, and emotions suggest that it is unlikely that that each of Gardner’s intelligences could operate “via a different set of neural mechanisms” (Gardner, 1999, p. 99). Equally important, the evidence for the “what is it?” and “where is it?” processing pathways, for Kahneman’s two decision-making systems, and for adapted cognition modules suggests that these cognitive brain specializations have evolved to address very specific problems in our environment. Because Gardner claimed that that the intelligences are innate potentialities related to a general content area, MI theory lacks a rationale for the phylogenetic emergence of the intelligences. (Waterhouse, 2006, p. 213)
REFERENCES
Allix, N. M. (2000). The theory of multiple intelligences: A case of missing cognitive matter. Australian Journal of Education, 44(3), 272-293.
Armstrong, T. (2009). Multiple intelligences in the classroom (3rd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st century. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (2004). Changing minds. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Gardner, H., & Connell, M. (2000). Response to Nicholas Allix. Australian Journal of Education, 44, 288-292.
Gottfredson, L. (2004). Schools and the g factor. Wilson Quarterly (Summer), 4, 35-45. Retrieved from www1.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/2004schools&g.pdf
Sternberg, R. J. (1994). Thinking styles: Theory and assessment at the interface between intelligence and personality. In R. J. Sternberg & P. Ruzgis (Eds.), Personality and intelligence (pp. 105-127). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Sternberg, R. J., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2004). Intelligence and culture: How culture shapes what intelligence means, and the implications for a science of well-being. Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, 359(1449), 1427-1434. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2004.1514
Waterhouse, L. (2006). Multiple intelligences, the Mozart effect, and emotional intelligence: A critical review. Educational Psychologist, 41(4), 247-255. doi: 10.1207/s15326985ep4104_1
9.03: Additional Reading
Credible Articles on the Internet
Big thinkers: Howard Gardner on multiple intelligences. (2009, April). Retrieved from http://www.edutopia.org/multiple-intelligences-howard-gardner-video
Bixler, B. (n.d.). A multiple intelligences primer. Retrieved from http://www.personal.psu.edu/staff/b/x/bxb11/MI/
Concept to classroom: Tapping into multiple intelligences. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/con.../mi/index.html
Gardner's eight criteria for identifying multiple intelligences. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://surfaquarium.com/MI/criteria.pdf
Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.niu.edu/facdev/_pdf/guid...elligences.pdf
Huitt, W. (2002). Intelligence. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/top...on/intell.html
Multiple intelligences. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.tecweb.org/styles/gardner.html
Multiple intelligences: A theory for everyone. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.svsd.net/cms/lib5/PA01001...icle%20TWO%20- %20Advanced%2013-14.pdf
Wilson, L. (1998). What's the big attraction? Why teachers are drawn to using multiple intelligence theory in their classrooms. Retrieved from www.edtech1.com/documents/Mul...0to%20using%20 MI.pdf
Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles
Brualdi, A. (1998). Gardner's theory. Teacher Librarian, 26(2), 26-28.
Gardner, H. (1999). Multiple intelligences. Atlantic Monthly, 11, 5-99.
Henshon, S. E. (2006). An evolving field: The evolution of creativity, giftedness, and multiple intelligences: An interview with Ellen winner and Howard Gardner. Roeper Review, 28(4), 191-194.
Klein, P. (1997). Multiplying the problems of intelligence by eight: A critique of Gardner's theory. Canadian Journal of Education, 22(4), 377.
Takahashi, J. (2013). Multiple intelligence theory can help promote inclusive education for children with intellectual disabilities and developmental disorders: Historical reviews of intelligence theory, measurement methods, and suggestions for inclusive education. Creative Education, 4(9), 605-610.
Vardin, P. A. (2003). Montessori and Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Montessori Life, 15(1), 40.
Books at Dalton State College
Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (2000). The disciplined mind: Beyond facts and standardized tests, the K-12 education that every child deserves (New ed.). New York, NY: Penguin Books.
Gardner, H. (2007). Five minds for the future. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Videos and Tutorials
EQ and the Emotional Curriculum. (2000). Retrieved from Films on Demand database. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Educational_Learning_Theories_(Zhou_and_Brown)/09%3A_Theory_of_Multiple_Intelligences/9.01%3A_Introduction.txt |
Benjamin Samuel Bloom (1913-1999) was born on February 21, 1913 in Lansford, Pennsylvania. Bloom received both a bachelor’s and master’s degree from Pennsylvania State University in 1935. He went on to earn a doctorate’s degree from the University of Chicago in 1942, where he acted as first a staff member of the Board of Examinations (1940-1943), then a University Examiner (1943-1959), as well as an instructor in the Department of Education, beginning in 1944.
Bloom’s most recognized and highly regarded initial work spawned from his collaboration with his mentor and fellow examiner Ralph W. Tyler and came to be known as Bloom’s Taxonomy. These ideas are highlighted in his third publication, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook I, The Cognitive Domain. He later wrote a second handbook for the taxonomy in 1964, which focuses on the affective domain. Bloom’s research in early childhood education, published in his 1964 Stability and Change in Human Characteristics sparked widespread interest in children and learning and eventually and directly led to the formation of the Head Start program in America. Aside from his scholarly contributions to the field of education, Benjamin Bloom was an international activist and educational consultant. In 1957, he traveled to India to conduct workshops on evaluation, which led to great changes in the Indian educational system. He helped create the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement, the IEA, and organized the International Seminar for Advanced Training in Curriculum Development. He developed the Measurement, Evaluation, and Statistical Analysis (MESA) program at the University of Chicago. Benjamin Bloom died in his home in Chicago on September 13, 1999.
10.02: Required Reading
Bloom's Taxonomy was created in 1956 under the leadership of educational psychologist Dr. Benjamin Bloom in order to promote higher forms of thinking in education, such as analyzing and evaluating concepts, processes, procedures, and principles, rather than just remembering facts (rote learning). It is most often used when designing lesson objectives, learning goals, and instructional activities. Bloom et al. (1956) identified three domains of educational activities or learning:
• Cognitive Domain: mental skills (knowledge)
• Psychomotor Domain: manual or physical skills (skills)
• Affective Domain: growth in feelings or emotional areas (attitude)
Since the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be a little bigger than what would be normally used. Domains may be thought of as categories. Instructional designers, trainers, and educators often refer to these three categories as KSA (Knowledge [cognitive], Skills [psychomotor], and Attitudes [affective]). This taxonomy of learning behaviors may be thought of as "the goals of the learning process." That is, after a learning episode, the learner should have acquired a new skill, knowledge, and/or attitude.
While Bloom et al. (1956) produced an elaborate compilation for the cognitive and affective domains, they omitted the psychomotor domain. Their explanation for this oversight was that they have little experience in teaching manual skills within the college level. However, there have been at least three psychomotor models created by other researchers. Their compilation divides the three domains into subdivisions, starting from the simplest cognitive process or behavior to the most complex. The divisions outlined are not absolutes and there are other systems or hierarchies that have been devised, such as the Structure of Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO). However, Bloom's Taxonomy is easily understood and is probably the most widely applied one in use today.
The Cognitive Domain (Clarka, 2015a)
The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills (Bloom, 1956). This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major levels of cognitive processes, starting from the simplest to the most complex: Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation. The levels can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first ones must normally be mastered before the next one can take place.
Bloom's Revised Taxonomy
Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, and David Krathwohl revisited the cognitive domain in the mid-nineties and made some changes, with perhaps the three most prominent ones being:
• Changing the names in the six levels from noun to verb forms;
• Rearranging them as shown in Figure \(1\) and Figure \(2\); and
• Creating a cognitive processes and knowledge dimension matrix (Anderson et al., 2000; Table \(3\), Table \(4\), & Figure \(3\)).
This new taxonomy reflects a more active form of thinking and is perhaps more accurate. The new version of Bloom's Taxonomy with examples and keywords is shown in Table \(1\).
Old (Original) Cognitive Domain
New (Revised) Cognitive Domain
Levels
Examples, Key Words (Verbs), and Learning Activities and Technologies
Levels
Examples, Key Words (Verbs), and Learning Activities and Technologies
Knowledge: Recall data or information.
Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices from memory to a customer. Know the safety rules. Define a term.
Key Words: arranges, defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects, states Technologies: bookmarking, flash cards, Internet search, reading
Remembering:
Recall or retrieve previous learned information.
Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices from memory to a customer. Recite the safety rules. Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects, states Technologies: book marking, flash cards, rote learning based on repetition, reading
Comprehension:
Understand the meaning, translation, interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. State a problem in one's own words.
Examples: Rewrites the principles of test writing. Explain in one's own words the steps for performing a complex task. Translates an equation into a computer spreadsheet. Key Words: comprehends, converts, diagrams, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives an example, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes, translates Technologies: create an analogy, participating in cooperative learning, taking notes, story telling
Understanding:
Comprehending the meaning, translation, interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. State a problem in one's own words.
Examples: Rewrite the principles of test writing. Explain in one's own words the steps for performing a complex task. Translate an equation into a computer spreadsheet. Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives an example, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes, translates Technologies: create an analogy, participating in cooperative learning, taking notes, storytelling, Internet search
Application: Use a
concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction. Apply what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in the work place.
Examples: Use a manual to calculate an employee's vacation time. Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test.
Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses Technologies: collaborative learning, create a process, blog, practice
Applying: Use a
concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction. Apply what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in the work place.
Examples: Use a manual to calculate an employee's vacation time. Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test. Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses Technologies: collaborative learning, create a process, blog, practice
Analysis: Separate material or concepts into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. Distinguish between facts and inferences.
Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction. Recognize logical fallacies in reasoning. Gathers information from a department and selects the required tasks for training.
Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates Technologies: fishbowls, debating, questioning what happened, run a test
Analyzing:
Separate material or concepts into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. Distinguish between facts and inferences.
Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction. Recognize logical fallacies in reasoning. Gathers information from a department and selects the required tasks for training.
Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates Technologies: fishbowls, debating, questioning what happened, run a test
Synthesis: Build a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure.
Examples: Write a company operations or process manual. Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrates training from several sources to solve a problem. Revises and process to improve the outcome. Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes
Technologies: essay, networking
Evaluating: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials.
Examples: Select the most effective solution. Hire the most qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new budget.
Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports Technologies: survey, blogging
Evaluation: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials.
Examples: Select the most effective solution. Hire the most qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new budget. Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports Technologies: survey, blogging
Creating: Build a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure.
Examples: Write a company operations or process manual. Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrate training from several sources to solve a problem. Revise and process to improve the outcome. Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes
Technologies: create a new model, write an essay, network with others
Cognitive Processes and Levels of Knowledge Matrix
Bloom's Revised Taxonomy not only improved the usability of it by using action words, but added a Cognitive Process Dimension and Knowledge Dimension Matrix (Figure 10.4). While Bloom's original cognitive taxonomy did mention three levels of knowledge or products that could be processed, they were not discussed very much and remained one-dimensional:
• Factual: The basic elements students must know to be acquainted with a discipline or solve problems.
• Conceptual: The interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger structure that enable them to function together.
• Procedural: How to do something, methods of inquiry, and criteria for using skills, algorithms, techniques, and methods.
In Krathwohl and Anderson's (2001) revised version, the authors combine the cognitive processes with the above three levels of knowledge to form a matrix. In addition, they added another level of knowledge-metacognition:
• Metacognitive: Knowledge of cognition in general, as well as awareness and knowledge of one’s own cognition.
When the cognitive and knowledge dimensions are arranged in a matrix, as shown below, it makes a nice performance aid for creating performance objectives (Table \(2\)).
The Cognitive Process Dimension
The Knowledge Dimension
Remember
Understand
Apply
Analyze
Evaluate
Create
Factual
Conceptual
Procedural
Metacognitive
However, others have also identified five contents or artifacts (Clark & Chopeta, 2004; Clark & Mayer, 2007) for the knowledge dimension (Table \(3\)):
• Facts: Specific and unique data or instance.
• Concepts: A class of items, words, or ideas that are known by a common name, includes multiple specific examples, shares common features. There are two types of concepts: concrete and abstract.
• Processes: A flow of events or activities that describe how things work rather than how to do things. There are normally two types: business processes that describe work flows and technical processes that describe how things work in equipment or nature. They may be thought of as the big picture, of how something works.
• Procedures: A series of step-by-step actions and decisions that result in the achievement of a task. There are two types of actions: linear and branched.
• Principles: Guidelines, rules, and parameters that govern. It includes not only what should be done, but also what should not be done. Principles allow one to make predictions and draw implications. Given an effect, one can infer the cause of a phenomena. Principles are the basic building blocks of causal models or theoretical models (theories).
Thus, the new Cognitive Process Dimension and Knowledge Dimension Matrix would look as shown in Table \(3\).
The Cognitive Process Dimension
The Knowledge Dimension
Remember
Understand
Apply
Analyze
Evaluate
Create
Facts
Concepts
Processes
Procedures
Principles
Metacognitive
An example matrix that has been filled in will look like Table \(4\):
The Cognitive Process Dimension
The Knowledge Dimension
Remember
Understand
Apply
Analyze
Evaluate
Create
Facts
list
paraphrase
classify
outline
rank
categorize
Concepts
recall
explain
show
contrast
criticize
modify
Processes
outline
estimate
produce
diagram
defend
design
Procedures
reproduce
give an example
relate
identify
critique
plan
Principles
state
convert
solve
differentiate
conclude
revise
Metacognitive
proper use
interpret
discover
infer
predict
actualize
The Psychomotor Domain (Clark, 2015b)
The psychomotor domain (Simpson, 1972) (Figure \(3\)) includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor- skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. Thus, psychomotor skills rage from manual tasks, such as digging a ditch or washing a car, to more complex tasks, such as operating a complex piece of machinery or dancing.
The seven major levels (Table \(5\)) are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex (Simpson, 1972):
Levels
Examples and Key Words (Verbs)
Perception (awareness): The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection, to translation.
Examples: Detect non-verbal communication cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving to the correct location to catch the ball. Adjust heat of stove to correct temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjust the height of the forks on a forklift by comparing where the forks are in relation to the pallet.
Key Words: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects
Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that predetermine a person's response to different situations (sometimes called mindsets).
Examples: Know and act upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process. Recognize one's abilities and limitations. Show desire to learn a new process (motivation). NOTE: This subdivision of Psychomotor is closely related with the "Responding to phenomena" subdivision of the Affective domain.
Key Words: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers
Guided Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill that include imitation, trial, and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing.
Examples: Perform a mathematical equation as demonstrated. Follow instructions to build a model. Respond hand-signals of instructor while learning to operate a forklift.
Key Words: copies, traces, follows, reacts, reproduces, responds
Mechanism (basic proficiency): This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency.
Examples: Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking faucet. Drive a car.
Key Words: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches
Complex Overt Response (Expert): The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic performance. For example, players are often utter sounds of satisfaction as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a football, because they can tell by the feel of the act what the result will produce.
Examples: Maneuver a car into a tight parallel parking spot. Operate a computer quickly and accurately. Display competence while playing the piano.
Key Words: assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches
NOTE: The Key Words are the same as Mechanism, but will have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc.
Adaptation: Skills are well-developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements.
Examples: Respond effectively to unexpected experiences. Modify instruction to meet the needs of the learners. Perform a task with a machine, which was not originally intended to do (machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing the new task).
Key Words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies
Origination: The creating of new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills.
Examples: Construct a new theory. Develop a new and comprehensive training programming. Create a new gymnastic routine.
Key Words: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiate, makes, originates
Other Psychomotor Domain Taxonomies
Bloom et al. (1956) did not produce a compilation for the psychomotor domain model, but others have. The one discussed above is by Simpson (1972) (Table \(5\)). There are two other popular versions by Dave (1970) (Table \(6\)) and Harrow (1972) (Table \(7\)):
Levels
Examples and Key Words (Verbs)
Imitation: Observing and patterning behavior after someone else. Performance may be of low quality.
Examples: Copying a work of art. Performing a skill while observing a demonstrator.
Key Words: copy, follow, mimic, repeat, replicate, reproduce, trace
Manipulation: Being able to perform certain actions by memory or following instructions.
Examples: Being able to perform a skill on one's own after taking lessons or reading about it. Following instructions to build a model.
Key Words: act, build, execute, perform
Precision: Refining, becoming more exact. Performing a skill within a high degree of precision.
Examples: Working and reworking something, so it will be "just right." Performing a skill or task without assistance. Demonstrating a task to a beginner.
Key Words: calibrate, demonstrate, master, perfection
Articulation: Coordinating and adapting a series of actions to achieve harmony and internal consistency.
Examples: Combining a series of skills to produce a video that involves music, drama, color, sound, etc. Combining a series of skills or activities to meet a novel requirement.
Key Words: adapt, constructs, combine, creates, customize, modifies, formulate
Naturalization: Mastering a high level of performance until it become second-nature or natural, without needing to think much about it.
Examples: Maneuvering a car into a tight parallel parking spot. Operating a computer quickly and accurately. Displaying competence while playing the piano. Michael Jordan playing basketball or Nancy Lopez hitting a golf ball.
Key Words: create, design, develop, invent, manage, naturally
Levels
Examples and Key Words (Verbs)
Reflex Movements: Reactions that are not learned, such as an involuntary reaction.
Examples: instinctive response Key Words: react, respond
Fundamental Movements: Basic movements such as walking, or grasping.
Examples: performing a simple task
Key Words: grasp an object, throw a ball, walk
Perceptual Abilities: Response to stimuli such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic, or tactile discrimination.
Examples: tracking a moving object, recognizing a pattern
Key Words: catch a ball, draw or write
Physical Abilities (fitness): Stamina that must be developed for further development such as strength and agility.
Examples: gaining strength, running a marathon Key Words: agility, endurance, strength
Skilled Movements: Advanced learned movements as one would find in sports or acting.
Examples: Using an advanced series of integrated movements, performing a role in a stage play or play in a set of series in a sports game.
Key Words: adapt, constructs, creates, modifies
Non-discursive Communication: Effective use body language, such as gestures and facial expressions.
Examples: Expressing one's self by using movements and gestures
Key Words: arrange, compose, interpretation
The Affective Domain (Clark, 2015c)
The affective domain is one of three domains in Bloom's Taxonomy, with the other two being the cognitive and psychomotor (Bloom, et al., 1956). The affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, & Masia, 1973) includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five major levels are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex (Figure \(4\) & Table \(8\)):
Levels
Examples and Key Words (Verbs)
Receiving Phenomena: Awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention.
Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and remember the name of newly introduced people.
Key Words: acknowledges, asks, follows, gives, listens, understands
Responding to Phenomena: Active participation on the part of the learners. Attend and react to a particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation).
Examples: Participate in class discussions. Give a presentation. Question new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules and practice them.
Key Words: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, presents, tells
Valuing: The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the learner's overt behavior and are often identifiable.
Examples: Demonstrate belief in the democratic process. Is sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value diversity). Show the ability to solve problems. Propose a plan to social improvement and follows through with commitment. Inform management on matters that one feels strongly about.
Key Words: appreciates, cherishes, treasures, demonstrates, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, respects, shares
Organizing: The organizing of values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating a unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values.
Examples: Recognize the need for balance between freedom and responsible behavior. Explain the role of systematic planning in solving problems. Accept professional ethical standards. Create a life plan in harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs. Prioritize time effectively to meet the needs of the organization, family, and self.
Key Words: compares, relates, synthesizes
Internalizing Values (characterization): Having a value system that controls their behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most important characteristic of the learner. Instructional objectives are concerned with the student's general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional).
Examples: Show self-reliance when working independently. Cooperate in group activities (display teamwork). Use an objective approach in problem solving. Display a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis. Revise judgments and change behavior in light of new evidence. Value people for what they are, not how they look.
Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays, influences, modifies, performs, qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies
Educational Implications (Clark, 2015d)
Learning or instructional strategies determine the approach for achieving the learning objectives and are included in the pre- instructional activities, information presentation, learner activities, testing, and follow-through. The strategies are usually tied to the needs and interests of students to enhance learning and are based on many types of learning styles (Ekwensi, Moranski, &Townsend-Sweet, 2006). Thus the learning objectives point you towards the instructional strategies, while the instructional strategies will point you to the medium that will deliver or assist the delivery of the instruction, such as elearning, self-study, classroom learning and instructional activities, etc.
The Instructional Strategy Selection Chart (Figure 10.13) shown below is a general guideline for selecting the teaching and learning strategy. It is based on Bloom's Taxonomy (Learning Domains). The matrix generally runs from the passive learning methods (top rows) to the more active participation methods (bottom rows). Bloom's Taxonomy (the right three columns) runs from top to bottom, with the lower level behaviors being on top and the higher behaviors being on the bottom. That is, there is a direct correlation in learning:
• Lower levels of performance can normally be taught using the more passive learning methods.
• Higher levels of performance usually require some sort of action or involvement by the learners.
Instructional Strategy
Cognitive Domain
(Bloom, 1956)
Psychomotor Domain
(Simpson, 1972)
Affective Domain
(Krathwohl, Bloom, & Masia, 1973)
Lecture, reading, audio/visual, demonstration, or guided observations, question and answer period.
1. Knowledge (Remembering)
1. Perception
2. Set
1. Receiving Phenomena
Discussions, multimedia, Socratic didactic method, reflection. Activities such as surveys, role playing, case studies, fishbowls, etc.
2.Comprehension (Understanding)
3. Application (Applying)
3. Guided Response
4. Mechanism
2. Responding to Phenomena
Practice by doing (some direction or coaching is required), to simulated learning settings.
4. Analysis (Analyzing)
5. Complex Response
3. Valuing
Use in real situations. May use several high-level activities.
5. Synthesis (Evaluating)
6. Adaptation
4. Organizing Values into Priorities
Normally developed on own (informal learning) through self-study or learning through mistakes, but mentoring and coaching can speed the process.
6. Evaluation (Creating)
7. Origination
5. Internalizing Values
Criticisms of Bloom’s Taxonomy
As Morshead (1965) pointed out on the publication of the second volume, the classification was not a properly constructed taxonomy, as it lacked a systemic rationale of construction. This was subsequently acknowledged in the discussion of the original taxonomy in its 2000 revision (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001), and the taxonomy was reestablished on more systematic lines. It is generally considered that the role the taxonomy played in systematizing a field was more important than any perceived lack of rigor in its construction.
Some critiques of the taxonomy's cognitive domain admit the existence of six categories of cognitive domain but question the existence of a sequential, hierarchical link (Paul, 1993). Often, educators view the taxonomy as a hierarchy and may mistakenly dismiss the lowest levels as unworthy of teaching (Flannery, 2007; Lawler, 2016). The learning of the lower levels enables the building of skills in the higher levels of the taxonomy, and in some fields, the most important skills are in the lower levels, such as identification of species of plants and animals in the field of natural history (Flannery, 2007; Lawler, 2016). Instructional scaffolding of higher-level skills from lower-level skills is an application of Vygotskian constructivism (Keene, Colvin, & Sissons, 2010; Vygotsky, 1978).
Some consider the three lowest levels as hierarchically ordered, but the three higher levels as parallel (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Others say that it is sometimes better to move to Application before introducing concepts (Tomei, 2010, p.66). The idea is to create a learning environment where the real world context comes first and the theory second to promote the student's grasp of the phenomenon, concept or event. This thinking would seem to relate to the method of problem- based learning.
Furthermore, the distinction between the categories can be seen as artificial since any given cognitive task may entail a number of processes. It could even be argued that any attempt to nicely categorize cognitive processes into clean, cut-and- dried classifications undermines the holistic, highly connective and interrelated nature of cognition (Fadul, 2009). This is a criticism that can be directed at taxonomies of mental processes in general.
REFERENCES
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., Airasian, P. W., Cruikshank, K. A., Mayer, R. E., Pintrich, P. R., ... Wittrock, M. C. (2000). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York, NY: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives, Handbook I: The cognitive domain. New York, NY: David McKay Co Inc.
Bloom, B.S. (Ed.). Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives, Handbook I: The cognitive domain. New York, NY: David McKay Co., Inc.
Clark, D. R. (2015, January 12). Bloom’s taxonomy of learning domains. Retrieved from http://nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloo...#three_domains
Clark, D. R. (2015a, January 12). Bloom’s Taxonomy: The original cognitive domain. Retrieved from http://nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/Bloo...e_version.html
Clark, D. R. (2015b, January 12). Bloom’s taxonomy: The psychomotor domain. Retrieved from http://nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/Bloo...or_domain.html
Clark, D. R. (2015c, January 12). Bloom’s taxonomy: The affective domain. Retrieved from http://nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/Bloo...ve_domain.html
Clark, D. R. (2015d, January 12). Learning strategies or instructional strategies. Retrieved from http://nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/strategy.html
Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2007). E-Learning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Clark, R., & Chopeta, L. (2004). Graphics for learning: Proven guidelines for planning, designing, and evaluating visuals in training materials. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer.
Dave, R. H. (1970). Psychomotor levels. In R. J. Armstrong (Ed.), Developing and writing behavioral objectives (pp. 20- 21). Tucson, AZ: Educational Innovators Press.
Ekwensi, F., Moranski, J., & Townsend-Sweet, M., (2006). E-Learning concepts and techniques. Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania's Department of Instructional Technology. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4cc...19ef826486.pdf
Fadul, J. A. (2009). Collective learning: Applying distributed cognition for collective intelligence. The International Journal of Learning, 16(4), 211-220.
Flannery, M. C. (2007, November). Observations on biology. The American Biology Teacher, 69(9), 561-564. doi:10.1662/0002-7685(2007)69[561:OOB]2.0.CO;2
Harrow, A. (1972). A taxonomy of psychomotor domain: A guide for developing behavioral objectives. New York, NY: David McKay Co., Inc.
Keene, J., Colvin, J., & Sissons, J. (2010, June). Mapping student information literacy activity against Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive skills. Journal of Information Literacy, 4(1), 6-21. doi:10.11645/4.1.189
Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1973). Taxonomy of educational objectives, the classification of educational goals. Handbook II: Affective domain. New York, NY: David McKay Co., Inc.
Lawler, S. (2016, February 26). Identification of animals and plants is an essential skill set. Retrieved from http://theconversation.com/identific...kill-set-55450
Morshead, R. W. (1965). On Taxonomy of educational objectives Handbook II: Affective domain. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 4(1), 164-170. doi:10.1007/bf00373956
Paul, R. (1993). Critical thinking: What every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing world (3rd ed.). Rohnert Park, CA: Sonoma State University Press.
Simpson, E. J. (1972). The classification of educational objectives in the psychomotor domain. Washington, DC: Gryphon House.
Tomei, L. A. (2010). Designing instruction for the traditional, adult, and distance learner: A new engine for technology- based learning. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
10.03: Additional Reading
Credible Articles on the Internet
Armstrong, P. (n.d.). Bloom’s taxonomy. Retrieved from http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub...ooms-taxonomy/
Bloom’s taxonomy of education objectives. (2016). Retrieved from https://teaching.uncc.edu/services-p...nal-objectives
Bloom's taxonomy revised: A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing. (2016). Retrieved from www.ccri.edu/ctc/pdf/Blooms_...d_Taxonomy.pdf
Eisner, E. W. (2000). Benjamin Bloom. Prospects: The quarterly review of comparative education, xxx (3). Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/001...1/123140eb.pdf
Eisner, E. W. (2002). Benjamin Bloom 1913-99. Retrieved from http://www.ibe.unesco.org/Internatio...Pdf/bloome.pdf
Forehand, M. (2005). Bloom's taxonomy: Original and revised. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Athens, GA: University of Georgia. Retrieved from http://epltt.coe.uga.edu/index.php?t...m%27s_Taxonomy
Hess, K. K., Jones, B. S., Carlock, D., & Walkup, J. R. (2009). Cognitive rigor: Blending the strengths of Bloom's taxonomy and webb's depth of knowledge to enhance classroom-level processes. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED517804.pdf
Honan, W. H. (1999). Benjamin Bloom, 86, a leader in the creation of head start. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/1999/09/15/us...l?pagewanted=1
Huitt, W. (2004). Bloom et al.'s taxonomy of the cognitive domain. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/top...ion/bloom.html
Illinois Online Network. (n.d.). Objectives. Retrieved from http://www.ion.uillinois.edu/resourc...ctives.asp#top
Overbaugh, R. C., & Schultz, L. (n.d.). Bloom's taxonomy. Retrieved from http://www.fitnyc.edu/files/pdfs/CET...msTaxonomy.pdf
Shabatura, J. (2013). Using Bloom’s taxonomy to write effective learning objectives. Retrieved from https://tips.uark.edu/using-blooms-taxonomy/
Wilson, L. (2016). Anderson and Krathwohl-Bloom’s taxonomy revised. Retrieved from thesecondprinciple.com/teachi...onomy-revised/
Peer-Reviewed Articles
Athanassiou, N., McNett, J. M., & Harvey, C. (2003). Critical thinking in the management classroom: Bloom's taxonomy as a learning tool. Journal of Management Education, 27(5), 533-555.
Halawi, L. A., Pires, S., & McCarthy, R. V. (2009). An evaluation of E-learning on the basis of bloom's taxonomy: An exploratory study. Journal of Education for Business, 84(6), 374-380.
Hogsett, C. (1993). Women's ways of knowing bloom's taxonomy. Feminist Teacher, 7(3), 27.
Kastberg, S. E. (2003). Using bloom's taxonomy as a framework for classroom assessment. The Mathematics Teacher, 96(6), 402-405.
Seaman, M. (2011). Bloom’s taxonomy: Its evolution, revision, and use in the field of education. Curriculum and Teaching Dialogue, 13(1), 29-131A.
Books from Dalton State College Library
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives (Complete ed.). New York, NY: Longman.
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals (1st ed.). New York, NY: Longmans & Green.
Videos and Tutorials
The critics: Stories from the inside pages. (2006). Retrieved from Films on Demand database. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Educational_Learning_Theories_(Zhou_and_Brown)/10%3A_Blooms_Taxonomy/10.01%3A_Introduction.txt |
Abraham Harold Maslow (1908-1970) was born on April 1, 1908, in Brooklyn, New York. His parents were Jewish immigrants from Russia who were rather uneducated. Maslow was the sole Jewish boy in his neighborhood; therefore, he was unhappy and lonesome throughout the majority of his childhood. Maslow also had problems within his home. His father continually degraded him and pushed him to excel in areas that were of no interest to him. His mother also treated him poorly. Because of this Maslow wanted no interaction with his parents. Maslow perceived his mother as being entirely insensitive and unloving.
After a difficulty childhood, Maslow was able to obtain a Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin in 1934. After he received his Ph.D. in 1934, he continued to teach at the University of Wisconsin. Maslow theorized that humans have several inborn needs that were the basis for his theory of motivation on the hierarchy of needs. Furthermore, he believed that the needs are ranked in terms of a hierarchy. Nonhumans can possess the lower, more basic needs also, but only humans may possess the higher needs. First, physiological needs are related to survival. These necessities include food, water, elimination, sex, and sleep. If one of these needs is not achieved, it will rule the individual's life. Maslow believed that most humans achieve these needs easily. After one need is met, the individual moves onto the next level. However, Maslow stressed that a person can experience periodic times of hunger or thirst and still move onto higher levels, but the individual's life cannot be dominated by just one need.
Safety needs appear when physiological needs are fulfilled. These are the needs for structure, order, security, and predictability. Reducing uncertainty is the chief objective at this stage. Individuals are free from danger, fear, and chaos when the safety needs are adequately met. Affiliation is the next level after the physiological and safety needs are attained. This level includes the need for friends, family, identification with a group, and a personally intimate relationship. A person may experience feelings of solitude and emptiness if these needs are not quenched. The esteem needs will follow only if one has achieved the physiological, safety, and belongingness needs. In this stage, approval must come from earned respect and not from fame or social status. Acceptance and self-esteem originate from engaging in activities that are deemed as being socially constructive. An individual may possess feelings of inferiority if the esteem needs are not reached.
If the previous needs are sufficiently met, a person now has the opportunity to become self-actualized. However, self- actualization is an exceptional feat since it so rarely occurs. A person who reaches this stage strives for growth and self- improvement. According to Maslow, the majority of people advance through the hierarchy of needs from the bottom up, in an orderly fashion.
11.02: Required Reading
In Maslow (1943a), various propositions were presented which would have to be included in any theory of human motivation that could lay claim to being definitive. These conclusions may be briefly summarized as follows:
1. The integrated wholeness of the organism must be one of the foundation stones of motivation theory.
2. The hunger drive (or any other physiological drive) was rejected as a centering point or model for a definitive theory of motivation. Any drive that is somatically based and localizable was shown to be atypical rather than typical in human motivation.
3. Such a theory should stress and center itself upon ultimate or basic goals rather than partial or superficial ones, upon ends rather than means to these ends. Such a stress would imply a more central place for unconscious than for conscious motivations.
4. There are usually available various cultural paths to the same goal. Therefore conscious, specific, local-cultural desires are not as fundamental in motivation theory as the more basic, unconscious goals.
5. Any motivated behavior, either preparatory or consummatory, must be understood to be a channel through which many basic needs may be simultaneously expressed or satisfied. Typically, an act has more than one motivation.
6. Practically all organismic states are to be understood as motivated and as motivating.
7. Human needs arrange themselves in hierarchies of pre-potency. That is to say, the appearance of one need usually rests on the prior satisfaction of another, more pre-potent need. Man is a perpetually wanting animal. Also no need or drive can be treated as if it were isolated or discrete; every drive is related to the state of satisfaction or dissatisfaction of other drives.
8. Lists of drives will get us nowhere for various theoretical and practical reasons. Furthermore any classification of motivations must deal with the problem of levels of specificity or generalization the motives to be classified.
9. Classifications of motivations must be based upon goals rather than upon instigating drives or motivated behavior.
10. Motivation theory should be human-centered rather than animal-centered.
11. The situation or the field in which the organism reacts must be taken into account but the field alone can rarely serve as an exclusive explanation for behavior. Furthermore the field itself must be interpreted in terms of the organism. Field theory cannot be a substitute for motivation theory.
12. Not only the integration of the organism must be taken into account, but also the possibility of isolated, specific, partial or segmental reactions. It has since become necessary to add to these another affirmation.
13. Motivation theory is not synonymous with behavior theory. The motivations are only one class of determinants of behavior. While behavior is almost always motivated, it is also almost always biologically, culturally and situationally determined as well.
This paper is an attempt to formulate a positive theory of motivation which will satisfy these theoretical demands and at the same time conform to the known facts, clinical and observational as well as experimental. It derives most directly, however, from clinical experience. This theory is, I think, in the functionalist tradition of James and Dewey, and is fused with the holism of Wertheimer (n.d.), Goldstein (1939), and Gestalt Psychology, and with the dynamicism of Freud (1933) and Adler (1938). This fusion or synthesis may arbitrarily be called a 'general-dynamic' theory.
It is far easier to perceive and to criticize the aspects in motivation theory than to remedy them. Mostly this is because of the very serious lack of sound data in this area. I conceive this lack of sound facts to be due primarily to the absence of a valid theory of motivation. The present theory then must be considered to be a suggested program or framework for future research and must stand or fall, not so much on facts available or evidence presented, as upon researches to be done, research suggested perhaps, by the questions raised in this paper.
The Basic Needs
The 'physiological' needs. The needs that are usually taken as the starting point for motivation theory are the so-called physiological drives. Two recent lines of research make it necessary to revise our customary notions about these needs, first, the development of the concept of homeostasis, and second, the finding that appetites (preferential choices among foods) are a fairly efficient indication of actual needs or lacks in the body.
Homeostasis refers to the body's automatic efforts to maintain a constant, normal state of the blood stream. Cannon (1932) has described this process for (1) the water content of the blood, (2) salt content, (3) sugar content, (4) protein content, (5) fat content, (6) calcium content, (7) oxygen content, (8) constant hydrogen-ion level (acid-base balance) and (9) constant temperature of the blood. Obviously this list can be extended to include other minerals, the hormones, vitamins, etc.
Young (1936) in a recent article has summarized the work on appetite in its relation to body needs. If the body lacks some chemical, the individual will tend to develop a specific appetite or partial hunger for that food element.
Thus it seems impossible as well as useless to make any list of fundamental physiological needs for they can come to almost any number one might wish, depending on the degree of specificity of description. We cannot identify all physiological needs as homeostatic. That sexual desire, sleepiness, sheer activity and maternal behavior in animals, are homeostatic, has not yet been demonstrated. Furthermore, this list would not include the various sensory pleasures (tastes, smells, tickling, stroking) which are probably physiological and which may become the goals of motivated behavior.
In a previous paper (Maslow, 1943a), it has been pointed out that these physiological drives or needs are to be considered unusual rather than typical because they are isolable, and because they are localizable somatically. That is to say, they are relatively independent of each other, of other motivations and of the organism as a whole, and secondly, in many cases, it is possible to demonstrate a localized, underlying somatic base for the drive. This is true less generally than has been thought (exceptions are fatigue, sleepiness, maternal responses) but it is still true in the classic instances of hunger, sex, and thirst.
It should be pointed out again that any of the physiological needs and the consummatory behavior involved with them serve as channels for all sorts of other needs as well. That is to say, the person who thinks he is hungry may actually be seeking more for comfort, or dependence, than for vitamins or proteins. Conversely, it is possible to satisfy the hunger need in part by other activities such as drinking water or smoking cigarettes. In other words, relatively isolable as these physiological needs are, they are not completely so.
Undoubtedly these physiological needs are the most pre-potent of all needs. What this means specifically is, that in the human being who is missing everything in life in an extreme fashion, it is most likely that the major motivation would be the physiological needs rather than any others. A person who is lacking food, safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly than for anything else.
If all the needs are unsatisfied, and the organism is then dominated by the physiological needs, all other needs may become simply non-existent or be pushed into the background. It is then fair to characterize the whole organism by saying simply that it is hungry, for consciousness is almost completely preempted by hunger. All capacities are put into the service of hunger-satisfaction, and the organization of these capacities is almost entirely determined by the one purpose of satisfying hunger. The receptors and effectors, the intelligence, memory, habits, all may now be defined simply as hunger-gratifying tools. Capacities that are not useful for this purpose lie dormant, or are pushed into the background. The urge to write poetry, the desire to acquire an automobile, the interest in American history, the desire for a new pair of shoes are, in the extreme case, forgotten or become of secondary importance. For the man who is extremely and dangerously hungry, no other interests exist but food. He dreams food, he remembers food, he thinks about food, he emotes only about food, he perceives only food, and he wants only food. The more subtle determinants that ordinarily fuse with the physiological drives in organizing even feeding, drinking or sexual behavior, may now be so completely overwhelmed as to allow us to speak at this time (but only at this time) of pure hunger drive and behavior, with the one unqualified aim of relief.
Another peculiar characteristic of the human organism when it is dominated by a certain need is that the whole philosophy of the future tends also to change. For our chronically and extremely hungry man, Utopia can be defined very simply as a place where there is plenty of food. He tends to think that, if only he is guaranteed food for the rest of his life, he will be perfectly happy and will never want anything more. Life itself tends to be defined in terms of eating. Anything else will be defined as unimportant. Freedom, love, community feeling, respect, philosophy, may all be waved aside as fripperies which are useless since they fail to fill the stomach. Such a man may fairly be said to live by bread alone.
It cannot possibly be denied that such things are true but their generality can be denied. Emergency conditions are, almost by definition, rare in the normally functioning peaceful society. That this truism can be forgotten is due mainly to two reasons. First, rats have few motivations other than physiological ones, and since so much of the research upon motivation has been made with these animals, it is easy to carry the rat-picture over to the human being. Secondly, it is too often not realized that culture itself is an adaptive tool, one of whose main functions is to make the physiological emergencies come less and less often. In most of the known societies, chronic extreme hunger of the emergency type is rare, rather than common. In any case, this is still true in the United States. The average American citizen is experiencing appetite rather than hunger when he says "I am hungry." He is apt to experience sheer life-and-death hunger only by accident and then only a few times through his entire life.
Obviously a good way to obscure the 'higher' motivations, and to get a lopsided view of human capacities and human nature, is to make the organism extremely and chronically hungry or thirsty. Anyone who attempts to make an emergency picture into a typical one, and who will measure all of man's goals and desires by his behavior during extreme physiological deprivation is certainly being blind to many things. It is quite true that man lives by bread alone-when there is no bread. But what happens to man's desires when there is plenty of bread and when his belly is chronically filled?
At once other (and 'higher') needs emerge and these, rather than physiological hungers, dominate the organism. And when these in turn are satisfied, again new (and still 'higher') needs emerge and so on. This is what we mean by saying that the basic human needs are organized into a hierarchy of relative prepotency.
One main implication of this phrasing is that gratification becomes as important a concept as deprivation in motivation theory, for it releases the organism from the domination of a relatively more physiological need, permitting thereby the emergence of other more social goals. The physiological needs, along with their partial goals, when chronically gratified cease to exist as active determinants or organizers of behavior. They now exist only in a potential fashion in the sense that they may emerge again to dominate the organism if they are thwarted. But a want that is satisfied is no longer a want. The organism is dominated and its behavior organized only by unsatisfied needs. If hunger is satisfied, it becomes unimportant in the current dynamics of the individual.
This statement is somewhat qualified by a hypothesis to be discussed more fully later, namely that it is precisely those individuals in whom a certain need has always been satisfied who are best equipped to tolerate deprivation of that need in the future, and that furthermore, those who have been deprived in the past will react differently to current satisfactions than the one who has never been deprived.
The safety needs. If the physiological needs are relatively well gratified, there then emerges a new set of needs, which we may categorize roughly as the safety needs. All that has been said of the physiological needs is equally true, although in lesser degree, of these desires. The organism may equally well be wholly dominated by them. They may serve as the almost exclusive organizers of behavior, recruiting all the capacities of the organism in their service, and we may then fairly describe the whole organism as a safety-seeking mechanism. Again, we may say of the receptors, the effectors, of the intellect and the other capacities that they are primarily safety-seeking tools. Again, as in the hungry man, we find that the dominating goal is a strong determinant not only of his current world-outlook and philosophy but also of his philosophy of the future. Practically everything looks less important than safety, (even sometimes the physiological needs which being satisfied, are now underestimated). A man, in this state, if it is extreme enough and chronic enough, may be characterized as living almost for safety alone.
Although in this paper we are interested primarily in the needs of the adult, we can approach an understanding of his safety needs perhaps more efficiently by observation of infants and children, in whom these needs are much more simple and obvious. One reason for the clearer appearance of the threat or danger reaction in infants, is that they do not inhibit this reaction at all, whereas adults in our society have been taught to inhibit it at all costs. Thus even when adults do feel their safety to be threatened we may not be able to see this on the surface. Infants will react in a total fashion and as if they were endangered, if they are disturbed or dropped suddenly, startled by loud noises, flashing light, or other unusual sensory stimulation, by rough handling, by general loss of support in the mother's arms, or by inadequate support.
In infants we can also see a much more direct reaction to bodily illnesses of various kinds. Sometimes these illnesses seem to be immediately and per se threatening and seem to make the child feel unsafe. For instance, vomiting, colic or other sharp pains seem to make the child look at the whole world in a different way. At such a moment of pain, it may be postulated that, for the child, the appearance of the whole world suddenly changes from sunniness to darkness, so to speak, and becomes a place in which anything at all might happen, in which previously stable things have suddenly become unstable. Thus a child who because of some bad food is taken ill may, for a day or two, develop fear, nightmares, and a need for protection and reassurance never seen in him before his illness.
Another indication of the child's need for safety is his preference for some kind of undisrupted routine or rhythm. He seems to want a predictable, orderly world. For instance, injustice, unfairness, or inconsistency in the parents seems to make a child feel anxious and unsafe. This attitude may be not so much because of the injustice per se or any particular pains involved, but rather because this treatment threatens to make the world look unreliable, or unsafe, or unpredictable. Young children seem to thrive better under a system which has at least a skeletal outline of rigidity, in which there is a schedule of a kind, some sort of routine, something that can be counted upon, not only for the present but also far into the future. Perhaps one could express this more accurately by saying that the child needs an organized world rather than an unorganized or unstructured one.
The central role of the parents and the normal family setup are indisputable. Quarreling, physical assault, separation, divorce or death within the family may be particularly terrifying. Also parental outbursts of rage or threats of punishment directed to the child, calling him names, speaking to him harshly, shaking him, handling him roughly, or actual physical punishment sometimes elicit such total panic and terror in the child that we must assume more is involved than the physical pain alone. While it is true that in some children this terror may represent also a fear of loss of parental love, it can also occur in completely rejected children, who seem to cling to the hating parents more for sheer safety and protection than because of hope of love.
Confronting the average child with new, unfamiliar, strange, unmanageable stimuli or situations will too frequently elicit the danger or terror reaction, as for example, getting lost or even being separated from the parents for a short time, being confronted with new faces, new situations or new tasks, the sight of strange, unfamiliar or uncontrollable objects, illness or death. Particularly at such times, the child's frantic clinging to his parents is eloquent testimony to their role as protectors (quite apart from their roles as food-givers and love-givers).
From these and similar observations, we may generalize and say that the average child in our society generally prefers a safe, orderly, predictable, organized world, which he can count, on, and in which unexpected, unmanageable or other dangerous things do not happen, and in which, in any case, he has all-powerful parents who protect and shield him from harm.
That these reactions may so easily be observed in children is in a way a proof of the fact that children in our society, feel too unsafe (or, in a word, are badly brought up). Children who are reared in an unthreatening, loving family do not ordinarily react as we have described above (Shirley, 1942). In such children the danger reactions are apt to come mostly to objects or situations that adults too would consider dangerous.
The healthy, normal, fortunate adult in our culture is largely satisfied in his safety needs. The peaceful, smoothly running, 'good' society ordinarily makes its members feel safe enough from wild animals, extremes of temperature, criminals, assault and murder, tyranny, etc. Therefore, in a very real sense, he no longer has any safety needs as active motivators. Just as a sated man no longer feels hungry, a safe man no longer feels endangered. If we wish to see these needs directly and clearly we must turn to neurotic or near-neurotic individuals, and to the economic and social underdogs. In between these extremes, we can perceive the expressions of safety needs only in such phenomena as, for instance, the common preference for a job with tenure and protection, the desire for a savings account, and for insurance of various kinds (medical, dental, unemployment, disability, old age).
Other broader aspects of the attempt to seek safety and stability in the world are seen in the very common preference for familiar rather than unfamiliar things, or for the known rather than the unknown. The tendency to have some religion or world-philosophy that organizes the universe and the men in it into some sort of satisfactorily coherent, meaningful whole is also in part motivated by safety-seeking. Here too we may list science and philosophy in general as partially motivated by the safety needs (we shall see later that there are also other motivations to scientific, philosophical or religious endeavor).
Otherwise the need for safety is seen as an active and dominant mobilizer of the organism's resources only in emergencies, e.g. war, disease, natural catastrophes, crime waves, societal disorganization, neurosis, brain injury, chronically bad situation.
Some neurotic adults in our society are, in many ways, like the unsafe child in their desire for safety, although in the former it takes on a somewhat special appearance. Their reaction is often to unknown, psychological dangers in a world that is perceived to be hostile, overwhelming and threatening. Such a person behaves as if a great catastrophe were almost always impending, i.e., he is usually responding as if to an emergency. His safety needs often find specific expression in a search for a protector, or a stronger person on whom he may depend, or perhaps, a Fuehrer.
The neurotic individual may be described in a slightly different way with some usefulness as a grown-up person who retains his childish attitudes toward the world. That is to say, a neurotic adult may be said to behave 'as if' he were actually afraid of a spanking, or of his mother's disapproval, or of being abandoned by his parents, or having his food taken away from him. It is as if his childish attitudes of fear and threat reaction to a dangerous world had gone underground, and untouched by the growing up and learning processes, were now ready to be called out by any stimulus that would make a child feel endangered and threatened.
The neurosis in which the search for safety takes its dearest form is in the compulsive-obsessive neurosis. Compulsive- obsessives try frantically to order and stabilize the world so that no unmanageable, unexpected or unfamiliar dangers will ever appear (Maslow & Mittelemann, 1941); they hedge themselves about with all sorts of ceremonials, rules and formulas so that every possible contingency may be provided for and so that no new contingencies may appear. They are much like the brain injured cases, described by Goldstein (1939), who manage to maintain their equilibrium by avoiding everything unfamiliar and strange and by ordering their restricted world in such a neat, disciplined, orderly fashion that everything in the world can be counted upon. They try to arrange the world so that anything unexpected (dangers) cannot possibly occur. If, through no fault of their own, something unexpected does occur, they go into a panic reaction as if this unexpected occurrence constituted a grave danger. What we can see only as a none-too-strong preference in the healthy person, e.g., preference for the familiar, becomes a life-and-death necessity in abnormal cases.
The love needs. If both the physiological and the safety needs are fairly well gratified, then there will emerge the love and affection and belongingness needs, and the whole cycle already described will repeat itself with this new center. Now the person will feel keenly, as never before, the absence of friends, or a sweetheart, or a wife, or children. He will hunger for affectionate relations with people in general, namely, for a place in his group, and he will strive with great intensity to achieve this goal. He will want to attain such a place more than anything else in the world and may even forget that once, when he was hungry, he sneered at love.
In our society the thwarting of these needs is the most commonly found core in cases of maladjustment and more severe psychopathology. Love and affection, as well as their possible expression in sexuality, are generally looked upon with ambivalence and are customarily hedged about with many restrictions and inhibitions. Practically all theorists of psychopathology have stressed thwarting of the love needs as basic in the picture of maladjustment. Many clinical studies have therefore been made of this need and we know more about it perhaps than any of the other needs except the physiological ones (Maslow & Mittelemann, 1941).
One thing that must be stressed at this point is that love is not synonymous with sex. Sex may be studied as a purely physiological need. Ordinarily sexual behavior is multi-determined, that is to say, determined not only by sexual but also by other needs, chief among which are the love and affection needs. Also not to be overlooked is the fact that the love needs involve both giving and receiving love (Maslow, 1942; Plant, 1937).
The esteem needs. All people in our society (with a few pathological exceptions) have a need or desire for a stable, firmly based, (usually) high evaluation of themselves, for self-respect, or self-esteem, and for the esteem of others. By firmly based self-esteem, we mean that which is soundly based upon real capacity, achievement and respect from others. These needs may be classified into two subsidiary sets. These are, first, the desire for strength, for achievement, for adequacy, for confidence in the face of the world, and for independence and freedom (Fromm, 1941) Secondly, we have what we may call the desire for reputation or prestige (defining it as respect or esteem from other people), recognition, attention, importance or appreciation. These needs have been relatively stressed by Alfred Adler and his followers, and have been relatively neglected by Freud and the psychoanalysts. More and more today however there is appearing widespread appreciation of their central importance.
Satisfaction of the self-esteem need leads to feelings of self-confidence, worth, strength, capability and adequacy of being useful and necessary in the world. But thwarting of these needs produces feelings of inferiority, of weakness and of helplessness. These feelings in turn give rise to either basic discouragement or else compensatory or neurotic trends. An appreciation of the necessity of basic self-confidence and an understanding of how helpless people are without it, can be easily gained from a study of severe traumatic neurosis (Kardiner, 1941; Maslow, 1939).
The need for self-actualization. Even if all these needs are satisfied, we may still often (if not always) expect that a new discontent and restlessness will soon develop, unless the individual is doing what he is fitted for. A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if he is to be ultimately happy. What a man can be, he must be. This need we may call self-actualization.
This term, first coined by Kurt Goldstein, is being used in this paper in a much more specific and limited fashion. It refers to the desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the tendency for him to become actualized in what he is potentially. This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming. The specific form that these needs will take will of course vary greatly from person to person. In one individual it may take the form of the desire to be an ideal mother, in another it may be expressed athletically, and in still another it may be expressed in painting pictures or in inventions. It is not necessarily a creative urge although in people who have any capacities for creation it will take this form.
The clear emergence of these needs rests upon prior satisfaction of the physiological, safety, love and esteem needs. We shall call people who are satisfied in these needs, basically satisfied people, and it is from these that we may expect the fullest (and healthiest) creativenes. Since, in our society, basically satisfied people are the exception, we do not know much about self-actualization, either experimentally or clinically. It remains a challenging problem for research.
The preconditions for the basic need satisfactions. There are certain conditions which are immediate prerequisites for the basic need satisfactions. Danger to these is reacted to almost as if it were a direct danger to the basic needs themselves. Such conditions as freedom to speak, freedom to do what one wishes so long as no harm is done to others, freedom to express one's self, freedom to investigate and seek for information, freedom to defend one's self, justice, fairness, honesty, orderliness in the group are examples of such preconditions for basic need satisfactions. Thwarting in these freedoms will be reacted to with a threat or emergency response. These conditions are not ends in themselves but they are almost so since they are so closely related to the basic needs, which are apparently the only ends in themselves. These conditions are defended because without them the basic satisfactions are quite impossible, or at least, very severely endangered.
If we remember that the cognitive capacities (perceptual, intellectual, learning) are a set of adjustive tools, which have, among other functions, that of satisfaction of our basic needs, then it is clear that any danger to them, any deprivation or blocking of their free use, must also be indirectly threatening to the basic needs themselves. Such a statement is a partial solution of the general problems of curiosity, the search for knowledge, truth and wisdom, and the ever-persistent urge to solve the cosmic mysteries.
We must therefore introduce another hypothesis and speak of degrees of closeness to the basic needs, for we have already pointed out that any conscious desires (partial goals) are more or less important as they are more or less close to the basic needs. The same statement may be made for various behavior acts. An act is psychologically important if it contributes directly to satisfaction of basic needs. The less directly it so contributes, or the weaker this contribution is, the less important this act must be conceived to be from the point of view of dynamic psychology. A similar statement may be made for the various defense or coping mechanisms. Some are very directly related to the protection or attainment of the basic needs, others are only weakly and distantly related. Indeed if we wished, we could speak of more basic and less basic defense mechanisms, and then affirm that danger to the more basic defenses is more threatening than danger to less basic defenses (always remembering that this is so only because of their relationship to the basic needs).
The desires to know and to understand. So far, we have mentioned the cognitive needs only in passing. Acquiring knowledge and systematizing the universe have been considered as, in part, techniques for the achievement of basic safety in the world, or, for the intelligent man, expressions of self-actualization. Also freedom of inquiry and expression has been discussed as preconditions of satisfactions of the basic needs. True though these formulations may be, they do not constitute definitive answers to the question as to the motivation role of curiosity, learning, philosophizing, experimenting, etc. They are, at best, no more than partial answers.
This question is especially difficult because we know so little about the facts. Curiosity, exploration, desire for the facts, desire to know may certainly be observed easily enough. The fact that they often are pursued even at great cost to the individual's safety is an earnest of the partial character of our previous discussion. In addition, the writer must admit that, though he has sufficient clinical evidence to postulate the desire to know as a very strong drive in intelligent people, no data are available for unintelligent people. It may then be largely a function of relatively high intelligence. Rather tentatively, then, and largely in the hope of stimulating discussion and research, we shall postulate a basic desire to know, to be aware of reality, to get the facts, to satisfy curiosity, or as Wertheimer phrases it, to see rather than to be blind.
This postulation, however, is not enough. Even after we know, we are impelled to know more and more minutely and microscopically on the one hand, and on the other, more and more extensively in the direction of a world philosophy, religion, etc. The facts that we acquire, if they are isolated or atomistic, inevitably get theorized about, and either analyzed or organized or both. This process has been phrased by some as the search for 'meaning.' We shall then postulate a desire to understand, to systematize, to organize, to analyze, to look for relations and meanings.
Once these desires are accepted for discussion, we see that they too form themselves into a small hierarchy in which the desire to know is prepotent over the desire to understand. All the characteristics of a hierarchy of prepotency that we have described above, seem to hold for this one as well.
We must guard ourselves against the too easy tendency to separate these desires from the basic needs we have discussed above, i.e., to make a sharp dichotomy between 'cognitive' and 'conative' needs. The desire to know and to understand are themselves conative, i.e., have a striving character, and are as much personality needs as the 'basic needs' we have already discussed (Wertheimer, n.d., p. 386).
Future Characteristics of the Basic Needs
The degree of fixity of the hierarchy of basic needs. We have spoken so far as if this hierarchy were a fixed order but actually it is not nearly as rigid as we may have implied. It is true that most of the people with whom we have worked have seemed to have these basic needs in about the order that has been indicated. However, there have been a number of exceptions:
1. There are some people in whom, for instance, self-esteem seems to be more important than love. This most common reversal in the hierarchy is usually due to the development of the notion that the person who is most likely to be loved is a strong or powerful person, one who inspires respect or fear, and who is self-confident or aggressive. Therefore such people who lack love and seek it, may try hard to put on a front of aggressive, confident behavior. But essentially they seek high self-esteem and its behavior expressions more as a means- to-an-end than for its own sake; they seek self-assertion for the sake of love rather than for self-esteem itself.
2. There are other, apparently innately creative people in whom the drive to creativeness seems to be more important than any other counter-determinant. Their creativeness might appear not as self-actualization released by basic satisfaction, but in spite of lack of basic satisfaction.
3. In certain people the level of aspiration may be permanently deadened or lowered. That is to say, the less pre- potent goals may simply be lost, and may disappear forever, so that the person who has experienced life at a very low level, i.e., chronic unemployment, may continue to be satisfied for the rest of his life if only he can get enough food.
4. The so-called 'psychopathic personality' is another example of permanent loss of the love needs. These are people who, according to the best data available (Levy, 1937), have been starved for love in the earliest months of their lives and have simply lost forever the desire and the ability to give and to receive affection (as animals lose sucking or pecking reflexes that are not exercised soon enough after birth).
5. Another cause of reversal of the hierarchy is that when a need has been satisfied for a long time, this need may be under-evaluated. People who have never experienced chronic hunger are apt to underestimate its effects and to look upon food as a rather unimportant thing. If they are dominated by a higher need, this higher need will seem to be the most important of all. It then becomes possible, and indeed does actually happen, that they may, for the sake of this higher need, put themselves into the position of being deprived in a more basic need. We may expect that after a long-time deprivation of the more basic need there will be a tendency to reevaluate both needs so that the more pre-potent need will actually become consciously prepotent for the individual who may have given it up very lightly. Thus, a man who has given up his job rather than lose his self-respect, and who then starves for six months or so, may be willing to take his job back even at the price of losing his self-respect.
6. Another partial explanation of apparent reversals is seen in the fact that we have been talking about the hierarchy of prepotency in terms of consciously felt wants or desires rather than of behavior. Looking at behavior itself may give us the wrong impression. What we have claimed is that the person will want the more basic of two needs when deprived in both. There is no necessary implication here that he will act upon his desires. Let us say again that there are many determinants of behavior other than the needs and desires.
7. Perhaps more important than all these exceptions are the ones that involve ideals, high social standards, high values and the like. With such values people become martyrs; they give up everything for the sake of a particular ideal, or value. These people may be understood, at least in part, by reference to one basic concept (or hypothesis) which may be called 'increased frustration-tolerance through early gratification.' People who have been satisfied in their basic needs throughout their lives, particularly in their earlier years, seem to develop exceptional power to withstand present or future thwarting of these needs simply because they have strong, healthy character structure as a result of basic satisfaction. They are the 'strong' people who can easily weather disagreement or opposition, who can swim against the stream of public opinion and who can stand up for the truth at great personal cost. It is just the ones who have loved and been well loved, and who have had many deep friendships who can hold out against hatred, rejection or persecution.
I say all this in spite of the fact that there is a certain amount of sheer habituation which is also involved in any full discussion of frustration tolerance. For instance, it is likely that those persons who have been accustomed to relative starvation for a long time, are partially enabled thereby to withstand food deprivation. What sort of balance must be made between these two tendencies, of habituation on the one hand, and of past satisfaction breeding present frustration tolerance on the other hand, remains to be worked out by further research. Meanwhile we may assume that they are both operative, side by side, since they do not contradict each other. In respect to this phenomenon of increased frustration tolerance, it seems probable that the most important gratifications come in the first two years of life. That is to say, people who have been made secure and strong in the earliest years, tend to remain secure and strong thereafter in the face of whatever threatens.
Degree of relative satisfaction. So far, our theoretical discussion may have given the impression that these five sets of needs are somehow in a step-wise, all-or-none relationships to each other. We have spoken in such terms as the following: "If one need is satisfied, then another emerges." This statement might give the false impression that a need must be satisfied 100 per cent before the next need emerges. In actual fact, most members of our society who are normal, are partially satisfied in all their basic needs and partially unsatisfied in all their basic needs at the same time. A more realistic description of the hierarchy would be in terms of decreasing percentages of satisfaction as we go up the hierarchy of prepotency, For instance, if I may assign arbitrary figures for the sake of illustration, it is as if the average citizen is satisfied perhaps 85 per cent in his physiological needs, 70 per cent in his safety needs, 50 per cent in his love needs, 40 per cent in his self-esteem needs, and 10 per cent in his self-actualization needs.
As for the concept of emergence of a new need after satisfaction of the prepotent need, this emergence is not a sudden, saltatory phenomenon but rather a gradual emergence by slow degrees from nothingness. For instance, if prepotent need A is satisfied only 10 per cent: then need B may not be visible at all. However, as this need A becomes satisfied 25 per cent, need B may emerge 5 per cent, as need A becomes satisfied 75 per cent need B may emerge go per cent, and so on.
Unconscious character of needs. These needs are neither necessarily conscious nor unconscious. On the whole, however, in the average person, they are more often unconscious rather than conscious. It is not necessary at this point to overhaul the tremendous mass of evidence which indicates the crucial importance of unconscious motivation. It would by now be expected, on a priori grounds alone, that unconscious motivations would on the whole be rather more important than the conscious motivations. What we have called the basic needs are very often largely unconscious although they may, with suitable techniques, and with sophisticated people become conscious.
Cultural specificity and generality of needs. This classification of basic needs makes some attempt to take account of the relative unity behind the superficial differences in specific desires from one culture to another. Certainly, in any particular culture an individual's conscious motivational content will usually be extremely different from the conscious motivational content of an individual in another society. However, it is the common experience of anthropologists that people, even in different societies, are much more alike than we would think from our first contact with them, and that as we know them better we seem to find more and more of this commonness, we then recognize the most startling differences to be superficial rather than basic, e. g., differences in style of hair-dress, clothes, tastes in food, etc. Our classification of basic needs is in part an attempt to account for this unity behind the apparent diversity from culture to culture. No claim is made that it is ultimate or universal for all cultures. The claim is made only that it is relatively more ultimate, more universal, more basic, than the superficial conscious desires from culture to culture, and makes a somewhat closer approach to common-human characteristics, Basic needs are more common-human than superficial desires or behaviors.
Multiple motivations of behavior. These needs must be understood not to be exclusive or single determiners of certain kinds of behavior. An example may be found in any behavior that seems to be physiologically motivated, such as eating, or sexual play or the like. The clinical psychologists have long since found that any behavior may be a channel through which flow various determinants. Or to say it in another way, most behavior is multi-motivated. Within the sphere of motivational determinants any behavior tends to be determined by several or all of the basic needs simultaneously rather than by only one of them. The latter would be more an exception than the former. Eating may be partially for the sake of filling the stomach, and partially for the sake of comfort and amelioration of other needs. One may make love not only for pure sexual release, but also to convince one's self of one's masculinity, or to make a conquest, to feel powerful, or to win more basic affection. As an illustration, I may point out that it would be possible (theoretically if not practically) to analyze a single act of an individual and see in it the expression of his physiological needs, his safety needs, his love needs, his esteem needs and self-actualization. This contrasts sharply with the more naive brand of trait psychology in which one trait or one motive accounts for a certain kind of act, i.e., an aggressive act is traced solely to a trait of aggressiveness.
Multiple determinants of behavior. Not all behavior is determined by the basic needs. We might even say that not all behavior is motivated. There are many determinants of behavior other than motives. For instance, one other important class of determinants is the so-called 'field' determinants. Theoretically, at least, behavior may be determined completely by the field, or even by specific isolated external stimuli, as in association of ideas, or certain conditioned reflexes. If in response to the stimulus word 'table' I immediately perceive a memory image of a table, this response certainly has nothing to do with my basic needs.
Secondly, we may call attention again to the concept of 'degree of closeness to the basic needs' or 'degree of motivation.' Some behavior is highly motivated, other behavior is only weakly motivated. Some is not motivated at all (but all behavior is determined).
Another important point is that there is a basic difference between expressive behavior and coping behavior (functional striving, purposive goal seeking). An expressive behavior does not try to do anything; it is simply a reflection of the personality. A stupid man behaves stupidly, not because he wants to, or tries to, or is motivated to, but simply because he is what he is. The same is true when I speak in a bass voice rather than tenor or soprano. The random movements of a healthy child, the smile on the face of a happy man even when he is alone, the springiness of the healthy man's walk, and the erectness of his carriage are other examples of expressive, non-functional behavior. Also the style in which a man carries out almost all his behavior, motivated as well as unmotivated, is often expressive.
We may then ask, is all behavior expressive or reflective of the character structure? The answer is 'No.' Rote, habitual, automatized, or conventional behavior may or may not be expressive. The same is true for most 'stimulus-bound' behaviors. It is finally necessary to stress that expressiveness of behavior, and goal-directedness of behavior are not mutually exclusive categories. Average behavior is usually both.
Goals as centering principle in motivation theory. It will be observed that the basic principle in our classification has been neither the instigation nor the motivated behavior but rather the functions, effects, purposes, or goals of the behavior. It has been proven sufficiently by various people that this is the most suitable point for centering in any motivation theory (Murray, 1938).
Animal- and human-centering. This theory starts with the human being rather than any lower and presumably 'simpler' animal. Too many of the findings that have been made in animals have been proven to be true for animals but not for the human being. There is no reason whatsoever why we should start with animals in order to study human motivation. The logic or rather illogic behind this general fallacy of 'pseudo-simplicity' has been exposed often enough by philosophers and logicians as well as by scientists in each of the various fields. It is no more necessary to study animals before one can study man than it is to study mathematics before one can study geology or psychology or biology.
We may also reject the old, naive, behaviorism which assumed that it was somehow necessary, or at least more 'scientific' to judge human beings by animal standards. One consequence of this belief was that the whole notion of purpose and goal was excluded from motivational psychology simply because one could not ask a white rat about his purposes. Tolman (1932) has long since proven in animal studies themselves that this exclusion was not necessary.
Motivation and the theory of psychopathogenesis. The conscious motivational content of everyday life has, according to the foregoing, been conceived to be relatively important or unimportant accordingly as it is more or less closely related to the basic goals. A desire for an ice cream cone might actually be an indirect expression of a desire for love. If it is, then this desire for the ice cream cone becomes extremely important motivation. If however the ice cream is simply something to cool the mouth with, or a casual appetitive reaction, then the desire is relatively unimportant. Everyday conscious desires are to be regarded as symptoms, as surface indicators of more basic needs. If we were to take these superficial desires at their face value we would find ourselves in a state of complete confusion which could never be resolved, since we would be dealing seriously with symptoms rather than with what lay behind the symptoms.
Thwarting of unimportant desires produces no psychopathological results; thwarting of a basically important need does produce such results. Any theory of psychopathogenesis must then be based on a sound theory of motivation. A conflict or a frustration is not necessarily pathogenic. It becomes so only when it threatens or thwarts the basic needs, or partial needs that are closely related to the basic needs (Maslow, 1943b).
The role of gratified needs. It has been pointed out above several times that our needs usually emerge only when more prepotent needs have been gratified. Thus gratification has an important role in motivation theory. Apart from this, however, needs cease to play an active determining or organizing role as soon as they are gratified.
What this means is that, e.g., a basically satisfied person no longer has the needs for esteem, love, safety, etc. The only sense in which he might be said to have them is in the almost metaphysical sense that a sated man has hunger, or a filled bottle has emptiness. If we are interested in what actually motivates us, and not in what has, will, or might motivate us, then a satisfied need is not a motivator. It must be considered for all practical purposes simply not to exist, to have disappeared. This point should be emphasized because it has been either overlooked or contradicted in every theory of motivation I know (Maslow, 1942) the perfectly healthy, normal, fortunate man has no sex needs or hunger needs, or needs for safety, or for love, or for prestige, or self-esteem, except in stray moments of quickly passing threat. If we were to say otherwise, we should also have to aver that every man had all the pathological reflexes, e.g., Babinski, etc., because if his nervous system were damaged, these would appear.
It is such considerations as these that suggest the bold postulation that a man who is thwarted in any of his basic needs may fairly be envisaged simply as a sick man. This is a fair parallel to our designation as 'sick' of the man who lacks vitamins or minerals. Who is to say that a lack of love is less important than a lack of vitamins? Since we know the pathogenic effects of love starvation, who is to say that we are invoking value-questions in an unscientific or illegitimate way, any more than the physician does who diagnoses and treats pellagra or scurvy? If I were permitted this usage, I should then say simply that a healthy man is primarily motivated by his needs to develop and actualize his fullest potentialities and capacities. If a man has any other basic needs in any active, chronic sense, then he is simply an unhealthy man. He is as surely sick as if he had suddenly developed a strong salt-hunger or calcium hunger.
If this statement seems unusual or paradoxical the reader may be assured that this is only one among many such paradoxes that will appear as we revise our ways of looking at man's deeper motivations. When we ask what man wants of life, we deal with his very essence.
Summary
There are at least five sets of goals, which we may call basic needs. These are briefly physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization. In addition, we are motivated by the desire to achieve or maintain the various conditions upon which these basic satisfactions rest and by certain more intellectual desires.
These basic goals are related to each other, being arranged in a hierarchy of prepotency. This means that the most prepotent goal will monopolize consciousness and will tend of itself to organize the recruitment of the various capacities of the organism. The less prepotent needs are minimized, even forgotten or denied. But when a need is fairly well satisfied, the next prepotent ('higher') need emerges, in turn to dominate the conscious life and to serve as the center of organization of behavior, since gratified needs are not active motivators.
Thus man is a perpetually wanting animal. Ordinarily the satisfaction of these wants is not altogether mutually exclusive, but only tends to be. The average member of our society is most often partially satisfied and partially unsatisfied in all of his wants. The hierarchy principle is usually empirically observed in terms of increasing percentages of non-satisfaction as we go up the hierarchy. Reversals of the average order of the hierarchy are sometimes observed. Also it has been observed that an individual may permanently lose the higher wants in the hierarchy under special conditions. There are not only ordinarily multiple motivations for usual behavior, but in addition many determinants other than motives.
Any thwarting or possibility of thwarting of these basic human goals, or danger to the defenses which protect them, or to the conditions upon which they rest, is considered to be a psychological threat. With a few exceptions, all psychopathology may be partially traced to such threats. A basically thwarted man may actually be defined as a 'sick' man, if we wish. It is such basic threats which bring about the general emergency reactions.
Certain other basic problems have not been dealt with because of limitations of space. Among these are (a) the problem of values in any definitive motivation theory, (b) the relation between appetites, desires, needs and what is 'good' for the organism, (c) the etiology of the basic needs and their possible derivation in early childhood, (d) redefinition of motivational concepts, i.e., drive, desire, wish, need, goal, (e) implication of our theory for hedonistic theory, (f) the nature of the uncompleted act, of success and failure, and of aspiration-level, (g) the role of association, habit and conditioning, (h) relation to the theory of inter-personal relations, (i) implications for psychotherapy, (j) implication for theory of society, (k) the theory of selfishness, (l) the relation between needs and cultural patterns, (m) the relation between this theory and Alport's theory of functional autonomy. These as well as certain other less important questions must be considered as motivation theory attempts to become definitive.
Criticisms of Maslow’s Theory of Motivation (McLeod, 2017)
The most significant limitation of Maslow's theory concerns his methodology. Maslow formulated the characteristics of self-actualized individuals from undertaking a qualitative method called biographical analysis. He looked at the biographies and writings of 18 people he identified as being self-actualized. From these sources he developed a list of qualities that seemed characteristic of this specific group of people, as opposed to humanity in general. It is extremely difficult to empirically test Maslow's concept of self-actualization in a way that causal relationships can be established.
From a scientific perspective there are numerous problems with this particular approach. First, it could be argued that biographical analysis as a method is extremely subjective as it is based entirely on the opinion of the researcher. Personal opinion is always prone to bias, which reduces the validity of any data obtained. Therefore, Maslow's operational definition of self-actualization must not be blindly accepted as scientific fact.
Furthermore, Maslow's biographical analysis focused on a biased sample of self-actualized individuals, prominently limited to highly educated white males (such as Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein, William James, Aldous Huxley, Gandhi, and Beethoven). Although Maslow (1970) did study self-actualized females, such as Eleanor Roosevelt and Mother Teresa. They comprised a small proportion of his sample. This makes it difficult to generalize his theory to females and individuals from lower social classes or different ethnicity, which leads to questions on population validity of Maslow's findings.
Another criticism concerns Maslow's assumption that the lower needs must be satisfied before a person can achieve their potential and self-actualize. This is not always the case, and therefore Maslow's hierarchy of needs in some aspect has been falsified. Through examining cultures in which large numbers of people live in poverty (such as India), it is clear that people are still capable of higher order needs such as love and belongingness. However, this should not occur, as according to Maslow, people who have difficulty achieving very basic physiological needs (such as food, shelter etc.) are not capable of meeting higher growth needs. Also, many creative people, such as authors and artists (e.g. Rembrandt and Van Gogh) lived in poverty throughout their lifetime, yet it could be argued that they achieved self-actualization.
Psychologists now conceptualize motivation as a pluralistic behavior, whereby needs can operate on many levels simultaneously. A person may be motivated by higher growth needs at the same time as lower level deficiency needs. Contemporary research by Tay & Diener (2011) has tested Maslow’s theory by analyzing the data of 60,865 participants from 123 countries, representing every major region of the world. The survey was conducted 2005-2010. Respondents answered questions about six needs that closely resemble those in Maslow's model: basic needs (food, shelter); safety; social needs (love, support); respect; mastery; and autonomy. They also rated their well-being across three discrete measures: life evaluation (a person's view of his or her life as a whole), positive feelings (day-to-day instances of joy or pleasure), and negative feelings (everyday experiences of sorrow, anger, or stress). The results of the study support the view that universal human needs appear to exist regardless of cultural differences. However, the ordering of the needs within the hierarchy was not correct. According to Diener, “Although the most basic needs might get the most attention when you don't have them, you don't need to fulfill them in order to get benefits from other loftier needs. Even when we are hungry, for instance, we can be happy with our friends” (as cited in Bauman, 2017, p. 41).
Educational Implications (McLeod, 2017)
Maslow’s theory of motivation is also called the theory of hierarchical needs. Maslow's (1968) has made a major contribution to teaching and classroom management in schools. Rather than reducing behavior to a response in the environment, Maslow (1970) adopts a holistic approach to education and learning. Maslow looks at the complete physical, emotional, social, and intellectual qualities of an individual and how they impact on learning.
Applications of Maslow's hierarchical needs theory to the work of the classroom teacher are obvious. Before a student's cognitive needs can be met they must first fulfil their basic physiological needs. For example, a tired and hungry student will find it difficult to focus on learning. Students need to feel emotionally and physically safe and accepted within the classroom to progress and reach their full potential.
Maslow suggests students must be shown that they are valued and respected in the classroom and the teacher should create a supportive environment. Students with a low self-esteem will not progress academically at an optimum rate until their self-esteem is strengthened.
Maslow (1971) argued that a humanistic educational approach would develop people who are “stronger, healthier, and would take their own lives into their hands to a greater extent. With increased personal responsibility for one’s personal life, and with a rational set of values to guide one’s choosing, people would begin to actively change the society in which they lived” (p. 195).
REFERENCES
Adler, A. (1938). Social interest. London: Faber & Faber.
Bauman, S. (2017). Break open the sky: Saving our faith from a culture of fear. New York, NY: Multnomah.
Cannon, W. B. (1932). Wisdom of the body. New York, NY: Norton.
Freud, S. (1933). New introductory lectures on psychoanalysis. New York, NY: Norton.
Fromm, E. (1941). Escape from freedom. New York, NY: Farrar and Rinehart.
Goldstein, K. (1939). The organism. New York, NY: American Book Co.
Kardiner, A. (1941). The traumatic neuroses of war. New York, NY: Hoeber.
Levy, D. M. (1937). Primary affect hunger. Psychiat., 94, 643-652.
Maslow, A. H. (1939). Dominance, personality and social behavior in women. Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 3-39.
Maslow, A. H. (1942). The dynamics of psychological security-insecurity. Character & Pers., 10, 331-344.
Maslow, A. H. (1943a). A preface to motivation theory. Psychosomatic Med., 5, 85-92.
Maslow, A. H. (1943b). Conflict, frustration, and the theory of threat. Journal of Abnormal (Soc.) Psychol., 38, 81-86.
Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a Psychology of being. New York, NY: D. Van Nostrand Company.
Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Harper & Row.
Maslow, A. H. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. New York, NY: Viking.
Maslow, A. H., & Mittelemann, B. (1941). Principles of abnormal psychology. New York, NY: Harper & Bros.
McLeod, S. A. (2017). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html
Murray, H., Barrett, W., Homburger, E., Langer, W., Mereel, H. S., Morgan, C. D., ...Wolf, R. E. (1938). Explorations in personality. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Plant, J. (1937). Personality and the cultural pattern. New York, NY: Commonwealth Fund.
Shirley, M. (1942). Children's adjustments to a strange situation. Journal of Abrnormal Soc.) Psychol., 37, 201-217. Tay, L., & Diener, E. (2011). Needs and subjective well-being around the world. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(2), 354-365.
Tolman, E. C. (1932). Purposive behavior in animals and men. New York, NY: Century.
Wertheimer, M. (n.d.). Unpublished lectures at the New School for Social Research.
Young, P. T. (1936). Motivation of behavior. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
11.03: Additional Reading
Credible Articles on the Internet
Boeree, C. G. (2006). Abraham Maslow. Retrieved from http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/Maslow.html
Burleson, S., & Thoron, A. (2009). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and its relation to learning and achievement. Retrieved from edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/WC/WC15900.pdf
Gawel, J. E. (1997). Herzberg's theory of motivation and Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/files/herzberg.html
Green, C. D. (2000). Classics in the history of psychology. Retrieved from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm
Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles
Gambrel, P. A., & Cianci, R. (2003). Maslow's hierarchy of needs: Does it apply in a collectivist culture. Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship, 8(2), 143-161.
Gordon Rouse, K., A. (2004). Beyond Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: What do people strive for? Performance Improvement, 43(10), 27-31.
Hagerty, M. R. (1999). Testing Maslow's hierarchy of needs: National quality-of-life across time. Social Indicators Research, 46(3), 249-271.
Milheim, K. L. (2012). Towards a better experience: Examining student needs in the online classroom through Maslow's hierarchy of needs model. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 8(2), 159.
Vanagas, R., & Raksnys, A. V. (2014). Motivation in public sector- motivational alternatives in the Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Public Policy and Administration Research Journal, 13(2). doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.13165/VPA-14-13-2-10
Books at Dalton State College Library
Goble, F. G. (1978). The third force: The psychology of Abraham Maslow. New York, NY: Grossman.
Maslow, A. H. (1999). Toward a psychology of being (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Wiley & Sons.
Sheehy, N. (2004). Fifty key thinkers in psychology. New York, NY: Routledge.
Videos and Tutorials
Child Development Theorists: Freud to Erikson to Spock and Beyond. Retrieved from Films on Demand database. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Educational_Learning_Theories_(Zhou_and_Brown)/11%3A_Theory_of_Human_Motivation/11.01%3A_Introduction.txt |
Information Processing Theory is concerned with how people view their environment, how they put that information into memory, and how they retrieve that information later on. The Information Processing Theory approach is based on the idea that humans process information they receive instead of simply responding to external stimuli. According to the Information Processing Theory model, the mind is often compared to a computer. The computer, like mind, analyzes information and determines how the information will be stored. There are three components of the Information Processing Theory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Sensory memory is all of the things that you experience through your five senses-hearing, vision, taste, smell, and touch. The capacity of sensory memory is about four items and the duration is limited to .5 to 3 seconds. Short-term memory, also called working memory, is the temporary storage, lasts about 15-30 seconds, holds about 7 items of information, and includes the thinking part of applying what come out of the sensory memory. Long-term memory is memory that can be accessed at a later time, is long lasting, and can hold infinite information. The Information Processing Theory addresses how people respond to the information they receive through their senses and how they further process those information with steps of attention, forgetting, and retention. Unlike other cognitive developmental theories, the information processing theory includes a continuous pattern of development instead of development in stages.
12.02: Required Reading
The information processing (IP) theory is a cognitive approach to understanding how the human mind transforms sensory information. The model (Figure \(1\)) assumes that information that comes from the environment is subject to mental processes beyond a simple stimulus-response pattern. "Input" from the environment goes through the cognitive systems which is then measured by the "output." Information that is received can take several paths depending on attention, encoding, recognition, and storage. The central executive feature controls how much information is being processed, though more primitive sensory areas of the brain first accept environmental input. The theory looks at real time responses to presented stimuli and how the mind transforms that information.
The model assumes that through the process of maturation, one develops greater abilities to attend to stimulus, recognize patterns, encode, and retrieve information. Over long spans of time, individuals process information with greater efficiency.
Over the life span, individuals experience more information, associations, and ways to categorize the input. The process may seem passive, but the model assumes that input from the environment is actively transformed and rehearsed to become a part of long-term memory. For environmental information to become a part of long-term memory, one must attend to, rehearse, and make sense of the stimuli. The interaction between nature and nurture coincide for changes in development. The model does not attempt nor can it distinguish between the two.
How Does the Information Processing Model Work?
Sensory Memory (Table \(1\))
Sensory memory is where information gathered from the environment is stored. Sensory memory is very limited, passive, and lasts about .5-3 seconds. It has the capacity of holding 4 items. It is affected by attention. Information is gathered from the environment through the sensory register (sensory motor). In order for information to enter the short-term memory from the sensory register, it must be attended to by the senses. Information that is not attended to is lost from the sensory memory and never enters the short-term memory. The best understood sensory registers (SRs) are for seeing (iconic) and hearing (echoic). Very little is known about tactile (touch), olfactory (smell), and gustatory (taste) SRs. For example, light reflecting off the cup hits my eye; the image is transferred through my optic nerve to the sensory register. If I do not attend to it, it fades from this memory store and is lost. In fact, my cup is on my desk most of the day, and I see it without really "seeing" it many times during the day. Each memory stage has four attributes: 1. Representation; 2. Capacity; 3. Duration; and 4. Cause of forgetting. For the visual sensory register, for example, representation is iconic-limited to the field of vision, and lasts for about 250 milliseconds. The main cause of forgetting is decay. Representation in the auditory register is echoic (based on sound); its duration is 2-3 seconds; it is only limited to the sounds we can actually hear and decay is the primary cause for forgetting. Much less is known about the other three register types.
Short-Term Memory (Working Memory) (Table \(1\))
Short-Term Memory (STM) is also known as working memory. It is where consciousness exists. In the cup example, if I attend to the cup, it will be moved into STM. At this point, it is difficult to talk about the cup in STM memory without referring to long-term memory (LTM). For example, I might attend to the cup and think, "That's my cup. It has coffee in it. I poured that coffee 3 hours ago." Each of those statements draws on LTM. I know it is my cup because it is the one that a potter friend of mine made for me. I know it has coffee in it, because I remember getting it this morning. I know that I poured that cup at 9:00 am. The statement that the coffee is 3 hours old required me to look at the current time, and retrieve from LTM that subtracting the current time from pouring time tells me how old the coffee is. Performing the subtraction used no STM processing space, because experience in doing arithmetic allows me to do this automatically.
STM is where the world meets what is already known, and where thinking is done. You perceive and attend to stimuli; that information is then actively processed based on information stored in LTM. The use strategies such as rehearsal (repeating information verbally (acoustic encoding) and chunking (categorizing information together in one memory slot) can expand the capacity of short-term memory (McLeod, 2009). In terms of the characteristics of this memory stage, the representation is echoic. It is limited to 5-9 items, and it lasts between 15-30 seconds (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971). At the STM stage, interference is the principal cause of forgetting. STM can hold about 7 (the magic number) items (Miller, 1956). A common example of this is calling information for a phone number. After the operator gives you the number, you begin repeating it to keep it in STM. This repetition is termed rehearsal. Rehearsal can also be used to get information into LTM, but it is very inefficient. Rehearsal primarily serves a maintenance function; it can be used to keep information in STM. In the phone number example, if someone interrupts you to ask you a question while you are rehearsing the number, responding interferes with rehearsal, and the phone number is lost. You must call the information again.
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) further researched short-term memory and developed an alternative model as working memory model (Figure \(2\); Figure \(3\)).
In the working memory model (Figure 12.3), Central Executive is the part of working memory where information is controlled. Visuospatial Sketchpad stores and processes visual and spatial information. Phonological Loop stores and processes speech-form based sound information. Episodic Buffer is where information is brought to the forefront, used, constructed from and to the Long-Term Memory, where information is retained indefinitely.
Long-Term Memory (Table \(1\))
The final stage in the IP model is long-term memory (LTM), which involves the storage and recall of information over extended periods of time, such as hours, days, weeks, or years (Merriam-Webster, 2017). LTM is everything we know and know how to do. For most cognitive psychologists, the world of LTM can be categorized as one of three types of memory (Figure 12.4): declarative, procedural or episodic. Declarative knowledge can be defined as knowledge needed to complete this sentence "Knowing that..." By contrast, procedural knowledge is "Knowing how..." These two types of knowledge account for most of what is learned in school and at work. The remaining type of knowledge is episodic which might also be called anecdotal. This is memory for specific events in one's life: a memory of your first kiss or of your graduation. The personal stories in our lives comprise episodic memory. While this makes for a neat tautology, some have suggested that it is incomplete.
Pavio (1986) has asserted that memory for images differs from memory for words. He offers a dual coding hypothesis asserting that when we see an image, both the image and a label for that image are stored in memory. He has extended the hypothesis, suggesting that dual codes may exist for the other senses as well. For example, the smell of an orange is stored along with its label "orange." Others have suggested that there are mechanisms that control thinking and learning. These control processes are called metacognition. Metacognition often takes the form of strategies. For example, learners attempting to master a complex topic might choose to use a strategy such as drawing pictures to help them understand the complex inter-relationships of the various components of the topic. Strategic readers might stop and mentally summarize what they have just read in order to ensure comprehension.
The 1970s saw great expansion of understanding of human learning. It became clear that there was no one method of teaching that ensured successful learning. Many researchers, especially in the field of second language (L2) acquisition, recognizing this fact, turned their attention to learners, attempting to answer the question "Why is it that some learners succeed in learning regardless of the methods used to teach them?" Rubin (1975) and Stern (1975) formulated lists of the characteristics and strategies that "good" language learners use in their study. Rubin and Thompson (1982) offered guidance to foreign language students on how to make themselves better learners. Extensive study of this notion of learning strategies in the 1980s led O'Malley et al. (1985) to formulate a list of 24 strategies used by English as a Second Language (ESL) students in their study. Most importantly, the strategies were classified into three categories: Metacognitive Strategies: is a term borrowed from IP theory. These strategies, according to O'Malley et al. (cited in Brown,1987), "indicate an 'executive ' function...that involve planning for learning, thinking about the learning process as it is taking place, monitoring...and evaluating learning..." (Brown, 1987, p. 94). Metacognitive strategies might include using advance organizers, self- planning, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation; Cognitive Strategies: are more task-specific, and often refer to "direct manipulation of the learning material itself” (Brown, 2000, p. 124). Examples of cognitive strategies are note-taking, repetition, guessing meaning from context, or using mnemonic devices; Socio-affective Strategies: refer to strategies that use association with or input from teachers or peers. O'Malley, Chamot, Stewer-Manzanares, Russo, and Kupper (1985) have gone on to suggest that these strategies can be overtly taught to learners, facilitating one of the most important goals of learning, learner autonomy.
Finally, there is another viewpoint that offers the notion of concepts. For example, there exists a concept called "bird," which can be reduced to declarative statements such as: "It has feathers," "It has wings and flies," "It lays eggs," and the like. The concept of "bird" can also include our episodic experiences with birds-the parakeet I had when I was a child, the sparrow I found dead by the fence one morning, etc. It can also include the hundreds of images that we have seen of birds, as well as all instances of real birds we have seen. All of this collectively is what we know of as "bird." It is the concept of bird, the tightly woven collection of knowledge that we have for birds.
In the end, there are five types of knowledge in LTM-declarative, procedural, episodic, imagery, and strategic knowledge; there also exists one collective type called conceptual knowledge. For the LTM stage, the representation is semantic (based on meaning). Capacity and duration are considered unlimited in LTM, and the cause of forgetting is failure to retrieve.
How information gets into the LTM? In order to keep information in the working, it needs to be rehearsed (rote memorization). Rote memorization is not an effective way to move information to the long-term memory. However, by using the correct methods, information can be moved from the short-term memory into the long-term memory where it can be kept for long periods of time. Information that is stored in the long-term memory does not need to be rehearsed. To retrieve information from the long-term memory, short-term memory must be used. Usually if someone "forgets" something that is stored in the long-term memory, they have simply forgotten how to retrieve it or where it is stored.
In order for information to move from short-term (working) memory to long term memory, it must be attended within 5 to 20 seconds of entering. Information must be linked to prior knowledge and encoded in order to be permanently stored in long term memory. It is generally believed that encoding for short-term memory storage in the brain relies primarily on acoustic encoding, while encoding for long-term storage is more reliant on semantic encoding (The Human Memory, n.d). Some encoding methods include chunking, imagery, and elaboration. For examples, when I think about teaching learners, I need to know what they already know so that they can relate the new information to their existing knowledge. This is elaboration. While teachers can do some of that for learners, elaboration is an active process. The learner must be actively engaged with the material that is to be learned. This does not necessarily mean that the learner must be physically active; rather, it implies that they should be actively relating this new piece of information to other ideas that they already know. LTM is often regarded as a network of ideas. In order to remember something, ideas are linked, one to another until the sought-after information is found. Failure to remember information does not mean that it has been forgotten; it is merely the procedure for retrieval has been forgotten. With more elaboration, more pathways to that piece of information are created. More pathways make retrieval of the information more likely. If it is found, it is not forgotten.
Type
Characteristics
Representation
Capacity
Duration
Cause of Forgetting
Sensory Memory
limited and passive; store information gathered from the external environment
senses (seeing, hearing, taste, feel, touch)
4 items
.5-3 seconds
decay
Short-Term Memory
active information processing: rehearsing and chunking
visual imaging and acoustic (sound)encoding
5-9 items
16-30 seconds (5-15 seconds without rehearsal)
interference
Long-Term Memory
unlimited; store information over extended periods of time (hours, days, weeks, months, years, etc.)
semantic encoding: chunking, imagery, and elaboration (knowledge: declarative, procedural, episodic, imagery, strategic, collective/ conceptual)
infinite
permanent
forgetting the retrieval pathway
Human as Computer
Within the IP model, humans are routinely compared to computers (Figure 12.6). This comparison is used as a means of better understanding the way information is processed and stored in the human mind. Therefore, when analyzing what actually develops within this model, the more specific comparison is between the human brain and computers. Computers were introduced to the study of development and provided a new way of studying intelligence (Lachman & Lachman, 1979) and “added further legitimacy to the scientific study of the mind” (Goodwin, 2005, p. 411). In the model below, you can see the direct comparison between human processing and computer processing. Within this model, information is taken in (or input). Information is encoded to give meaning and compared with stored information. If a person is working on a task, this is where the short-term memory (working) memory is enacted. An example of that for a computer is the Central Processing Unit (CPU). In both cases, information is encoded, given meaning, and combined with previously stored information to enact the task. The latter step is where the information is stored where it can later be retrieved when needed. For computers, this would be akin to saving information on a hard drive, where you would then upload the saved data when working on a future task (using the short-term (working) memory).
Information Processing Theory views humans as information processing systems with memory systems sometimes referred to as cognitive architecture (Miller, 2011). A computer metaphor is often applied to human cognitive systems, wherein information (a stimulus) is inputted (sensed) and the brain then performs processes such as comparing the information to previously stored information (schemas), transforming information (encoding), or storing information in long-term memory.
This theory views humans as machines, actively inputting, retrieving, processing and storing information. Context, social content, and social influences on processing are generally ignored in favor of a focus on internal systemic processes (Miller 2011). Nature provides the hardware, or the neurological processing system likely predisposed to economical and efficient processing, as well as being pre-tuned to attend to specific stimuli. The “Nurture” component presents as the environment which provides the stimuli to be inputted and processed by the system.
Current Areas of Research
Information Processing Theory is currently being utilized in the study of computer or artificial intelligence. This theory has also been applied to systems beyond the individual, including families and business organizations. For example, Ariel (1987) applied Information Processing Theory to family systems, with sensing, attending, and encoding stimuli occurring either within individuals within the system or as the family system itself. Unlike traditional systems theory, where the family system tends to maintain stasis and resists incoming stimuli which would violate the system's rules, the Information Processing family develops individual and mutual schemas which influence what and how information is attended to and processed. Dysfunctions can occur both on the individual level as well as within the family system itself, creating more targets for therapeutic change. Rogers, Miller, and Judge (1999) utilized Information Processing Theory to describe business organizational behavior, as well as to present a model describing how effective and ineffective business strategies are developed. In their study, components of organizations that "sense" market information are identified as well as how organizations attend to this information, which gatekeepers determine what information is relevant/important for the organization, how this is organized into the existing culture (organizational schemas), and whether or not the organization has effective or ineffective processes for their long-term strategy.
Memory, Human Development, Social Influences, and Learning
When children are faced with information that is unfamiliar to them, they are left with the task of developing strategies to encode the information so as to store it and accurately and easily access it at a later time (Miller, 2011). Depending on the age of the child, the method of storing information into memory differs. As children develop, increased cognitive abilities, increased memory capacity, and other social/cultural factors serve as major contributors to their development. Older children are more likely to develop memory strategies on their own, are better at discerning what memory strategies are appropriate for particular situations and tasks, and are better able to selectively attend to important information and filter out extraneous information.
Memory and Strategies
The strategies children use to encode and remember information are of interest to Information Processing researchers (e.g., task analysis research). For example, “young children are capable of using rehearsal to aid memory if they are told to rehearse, but they are deficient at spontaneously producing a strategy” (production deficiency) (Miller, 2011, p. 283). Therefore, young children are unable to ascertain the appropriate time to use particular strategies. On children’s encoding strategy development characteristics, Miller (2011) pointed out the following:
• As children develop they become more capable of developing appropriate strategies to acquire and remember units of knowledge when necessary;
• A child’s ability to selectively choose which information they attend to is another developmental milestone;
• A child may choose a strategy that does not produce a desired outcome (utilization deficiency);
• Children may use several strategies on the same task;
• They may frequently change their strategies used or strategies develop as a result of increased knowledge, development, etc.;
• Children develop strategies over the course of their development;
• Children may employ strategies at an early age that prove ineffective later in development; and
• Children may develop new strategies that they find effective and useful later in life.
Information processing theory combines elements of both quantitative and qualitative development. Qualitative development occurs through the emergence of new strategies for information storage and retrieval, developing representational abilities (such as the utilization of language to represent concepts), or obtaining problem-solving rules (Miller, 2011). Increases in the knowledge base or the ability to remember more items in short-term (working) memory are examples of quantitative changes, as well as increases in the strength of connected cognitive associations (Miller, 2011). The qualitative and quantitative components often interact together to develop new and more efficient strategies within the processing system.
Memory and Knowledge
Information Processing Theory views memory and knowledge formation as working together, and not as separate and mutually exclusive concepts. Humans are better able to remember things they have knowledge of, which increases the recall of stored information. Increased knowledge allows the person to more readily access information because it has been categorized and the bits of information relate to one another.
As children develop, they also gain an understanding of their own memory and how it works, which is called metamemory. Also, children also gain information about how human cognitive functioning, which is called metacognition. These are other important developmental milestones, which indicate the child is able to process much more complex and less concrete information. This is important in our overall functioning, because it shows an understanding of our own functioning related to specific tasks and how to best adapt our learning and memory strategies.
Younger children have less memory capacity. A child’s level of comprehension is integrally connected with their memory (Miller, 2011). As the child develops, they are able to process information at a faster speed, and they have an increased capacity of how much information they can take in at a time. Increased memory capacity allows the child to process and store more bits of information (Miller, 2011). Thus, older children are able to take in more information at a faster rate, therefore allowing better efficiency of information processing.
Increased knowledge enables the child to more readily access information from their long-term storage and utilize it in appropriate situations (Miller, 2011). The more associations one is able to make and the more complex their network of associations, the better their information recall. A developmental milestone examined in children is their ability to take information and expound upon it. Younger children are more likely to purely recall the information they process. However, as children develop and gain knowledge, they are better able to gather information, make inferences, judgments, and go beyond pure recall (Miller, 2011).
Memory and Social Influences
One's culture greatly influences how one remembers bits of information by how the culture emphasizes various elements, emotions, or even events (Shaki & Gravers, 2011). As the text discusses, children can manage and handle more information at once due to increased capacity, and “because new information can be packaged into preexisting categories and structures” (Miller, 2011, p. 290). The knowledge gained, however, is not obtained without interaction with the child’s external environment. Attitudes and beliefs about gender, race, sex roles, etc. greatly influence how a child processes and recalls information (Miller, 2011). Beck (1975) suggests that as we develop we learn how to process external stimuli, and these messages are processed, interpreted and incorporated into one’s internal schemas. For example, children in a school setting who are taught that men and women occupy certain gender-stereotypic jobs are thus more likely to process information through such a “filter" (Best, 1983). The text points out that children may even reconstruct images later to fit with their schema of a particular occupation (Miller, 2011). This relates to the construction of scripts, which are assumptions or expectations about what is supposed to happen in a particular situation. They can greatly influence how a child remembers events and may potentially lead to assumptions about people, events, etc. (Miller, 2011). While scripts are helpful in making the information processing system more efficient, they can hinder the recall of specific information and enhance the generalizations made about people, events, etc. Language is an integral part of one's culture that can greatly influence the information processing system. Language, the nature of a task's instruction, and the type of task can all greatly impact the processing of information (Shaki & Gravers, 2011). Furthermore, individualistic versus collectivistic cultures can have different outlooks on human development as well as the proper formation and development of an individual, which therefore influences motivations and actions toward goals (Hamamura, Meijer, Heine, Kamaya, & Hori, 2009).
Criticisms of Information Processing Theory
Models based upon Information Processing Theory take a somewhat simplistic view of cognitive processing, with information processing being viewed largely as a linear process. This IP model does not take into account simultaneous or parallel processing. For example, with the linear model, which suggests rehearsal is required to encode information in long- term memory, is likely faulty in cases of trauma, where information can be encoded automatically and without rehearsal due to a single exposure to traumatic stimuli. The metaphor of the computer is off-putting to many, who dislike comparing human beings to machines. Moreover, no current computer program can truly simulate the full range of human cognition. Computer constructed models that are based upon this theory are highly complex and again cannot take into account all the nuances of human thought despite their complexity. Information Processing Theory does not account for fundamental developmental changes, or changes to the "hardware" of the brain. For example, how do humans gain the ability to utilize representational thought utilizing language? How do people develop "formal operations" thinking, such as abstract logical or social thinking when previously their thoughts were in "concrete" terms? There is an excessive focus on internal cognitive processes, with little attention being paid to environmental influences or the nature of the external stimuli the individual is exposed to. Lastly, the impact of emotions or behaviors on cognitive processing or interpretation is not sufficiently included in this model. For example, the Information Processing model does not consider how an individual can process a stimulus differently if they are angry versus if they are in a calm state. The Information Processing model is described as being universal, with little attention being paid to individual differences or cultural differences.
Educational Implications
In K-12 classrooms, most teachers hand out worksheets to help students practice (or rehearse) their new information. To improve students' encoding, teachers should look for ways to incorporate more senses. For example, when learning new vocabulary (such as in a foreign language) teachers could have the students act out the words. In higher education classrooms, the more modes of information an instructor can provide to students the better. If the classroom or course doesn't condone itself to a lab-like lesson or environment to allow students to actually experience the concept on their own, instructors could point the students in the direction of a good video tutorial on that day's lesson. The instructor could even make their own videos.
Making learning multi-modal. The more modes the teacher or the instructor have working at one time, the more likely learners are going to remember (e.g. the more senses used, the better). Humans, like computers, need to do something with new information so to store it in our brains so that we can recall it again later when needed. We need to create a similar pathway so we make sure our brain knows not to discard the newly learned information. This process is called encoding. A good example of encoding we are all familiar with is ROY G BIV. This acronym was created as a way to remember the colors on the color spectrum: Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, and Violet. Additionally, the more times we practice pulling the information out, the easier and easier it becomes when needed. During encoding, a learner may watch, listen, repeat, recall, etc., it is very important to keep cognitive load in mind when trying to learn, recall, and remember new information. Cognitive load is a term concerning the manner in which cognitive resources are focused and used during learning and problem solving (Chandler & Sweller, 1991; Sweller, 1988, 1989). It is argued that cognitive load can be reduced for learners via instructional design. When designing and presenting information, teachers and the instructors are encouraged to consider learner activities that optimize intellectual performance. Overloading a learner with information and stimuli can have negative effects on task completion and comprehension. To help students effectively process information, the teacher or the instructor could use the following guidelines:
• Gain students' attention. Example: Gain attention before providing information, move around the room, voice fluctuations, etc.
• Ask students to recall prior relevant learning. Example: review of previous day's material.
• Point out important information. Example: information on the board, handouts, study guides, etc.
• Organizing information. Example: present information starting at simple and moving to more complex.
• Categorize related information. Example: Present information in a logical sequence and teach students to look for similarities and differences.
• Have students relate new information. Example: Connect new information with something that is already known.
• Teaching encoding for memorizing lists. Example: mnemonics and imagery.
• Repetition of learning. Example: Present information in many different ways and provide many ways for students to manipulate information.
• Overlearning. Example: Daily practice drills.
• Pay attention not to create cognitive overloading activities.
REFERENCES
Ariel, S. (1987). An information processing theory of family dysfunction. Psychotherapy, 24, 477-495.
Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1971). The control processes of short-term memory. Institute for Mathematical Studies in the Social Sciences. Standford, CA: Stanford University.
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning andmotivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 8, pp. 47-89). New York, NY: Academic Press.
Beck, A. T. (1975). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. Madison, CT: International Universities Press, Inc.
Best, R. (1983). We’ve all got scars: What boys and girls learn in elementary school. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Brown, H. D. (1987). Principles of language teaching and learning (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NY: Prentice-Hall.
Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching. White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.
Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1991). Cognitive load theory and the format of instruction. Cognition & Instruction, 8, 293- 240.
Goodwin, C. J. (2005). A history of modern psychology. Danvers, MA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Hamamura, T., Meijer, Z., Heine, S. J., Kamaya, K., & Hori, I. (2009). Approach avoidance motivation and information processing: A cross-cultural analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 454-462.
Lachman, J. L., & Lachman, R. (1979). Theories of memory organization and human evolution. In C. R. Puff (Ed.), Memory organization and structure. New York, NY: Academic Press.
McLeod, S. A. (2009). Short term memory. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/short-term-memory.html
Merriam-Webster. (2017). Long term memory. Retrieved from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/long- term%20memory
Miller, G. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. The psychological review, 63, 81-97.
Miller, P. H. (2011). Theories of developmental psychology. New York, NY: Worth.
O’Malley, M., & Chamot, A. (1994). The CALLA handbook: Reading. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley.
O'Malley, M., Chamot, A. U., Stewer-Manzanares, G., Russo, R. P., & Kupper, L. (1985). Learning strategy applications with students of English as a second language. TESOL Quarterly, 19, 557-584.
Pavio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A dual coding approach. New York, NY: Oxford Press.
Rogers, P. R., Miller, A., & Judge, W. Q. (1999). Using information-processing theory to understand planning/performance relationships in the context of strategy. Strategic Management Journal, 20, 567-577.
Rubin, J. (1975). What the "good language learner" can teach us. TESOL Quarterly, 9, 41-51.
Rubin, J., & Thompson, I. (1982). How to become a more successful language learner. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Shaki, S., & Gevers, W. (2011). Cultural characteristics dissociate magnitude and ordinal information processing. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 42, 639-650.
Stern, H. H. (1975). What can we learn from the good language learner? The Canadian Modern Language Review, 31, 304-318.
Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12, 257-285. Sweller, J. (1989). Cognitive technology: Some procedures for facilitating learning and problem solving in mathematics and science. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 457-466.
The human memory. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.human-memory.net/processes_encoding.html
12.03: Additional Reading
Credible Internet Sites
Can understanding information processing theory help student learning? (n.d.). Retrieved from www.etsu.edu/fsi/learning/infoprocessing.aspx
Hall, R. H. (n.d.). Information processing theory. Retrieved from http://web.mst.edu/~rhall/ed_psych/info.html
Huitt, W. (2003). The information processing approach to cognition. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/top.../infoproc.html
Information processing theory. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://psysc613.wikispaces.com/
Information+Processing+Theory Information processing theory. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.shsu.edu/aao004/documents/8_003.pdf
Lutz, S., & Huitt, W. (2003). Information processing and memory: Theory and applications. Educational Psychology Interactive, Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/papers/infoproc.pdf
McLeod, S. A. (2008). Information processing. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/information- processing.html
Orey, M. (2001). Information processing. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from http://epltt.coe.uga.edu/index.php?t...ion_processing
Slate, J. R., & Charlesworth, J. R. (n.d.). Information processing theory: Classroom applications. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED293792.pdf
Peer-Reviewed Articles
Ruiji, L. (2012). The development on multimedia teaching resources based on information processing theory. International Journal of Advancements in Computing Technology, 4(2), 58-64.
Books in Dalton State College Library
Coolen, A. C. C., Kühn, R., & Sollich, P. (2005). Theory of neural information processing systems. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Lindsay, P. H., & Norman, D. A. (1972). Human information processing: An introduction to psychology. New York, NY: Academic Press.
Videos and Tutorials
Kahn Academy. (2013). Information processing model: Sensory, working, and long-term memory. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pMMRE4Q2FGk
Powerpoints Presentations
• Powerpoints Presentations
This set of lecture slides was created as part of a remix of pre-existing open materials collected and reviewed by Molly Zhou and David Brown. Learning theories covered include the theories of Piaget, Bandura, Vygotsky, Kohlberg, Dewey, Bronfenbrenner, Eriksen, Gardner, Bloom, and Maslow.
Ancillary Materials
This set of lecture slides was created as part of a remix of pre-existing open materials collected and reviewed by Molly Zhou and David Brown. Learning theories covered include the theories of Piaget, Bandura, Vygotsky, Kohlberg, Dewey, Bronfenbrenner, Eriksen, Gardner, Bloom, and Maslow. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Educational_Learning_Theories_(Zhou_and_Brown)/12%3A_Information_Processing_Theory/12.01%3A_Introduction.txt |
ICEBREAKER
Think about your favorite teacher – a teacher that you learned a great deal from, who helped you to develop your potential or who made you feel at home in the classroom. What characteristics did this teacher have which allowed you to learn, be comfortable, or grow?
Think about your least favorite teacher – a teacher who you simply could not learn from, who interfered with your personal growth, or who created a sense of unease in the classroom. What characteristics did this teacher demonstrate which shut down your learning, stunted your personal growth, or made you uncomfortable?
In a short descriptive paragraph, compare the characteristics of your favorite teacher with the characteristics of your least favorite teacher. Prepare to share with others.
Guiding Questions
1. How do great teachers act?
2. What do great teachers do?
3. How do great teachers present themselves professionally?
4. How does a great teacher make you feel?
5. What is special about a great teacher?
Self Reflection
1. Does this describe the person I am?
2. What would I need to do to be this person?
3. Do I want to be this person?
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: WHY TEACH?
• Why Teach?
• Why do people teach?
As we examine the characteristics of good and bad teachers in our school experience, it is likely we will see correlations between the student-teacher relationship (STR) and our performance or lack of ease in the classroom. As we look at teaching through this lens, we come to understand that teaching content is only one aspect of the teacher role. Creating an emotionally caring and educationally supportive environment in our classroom can give us an advantage in engaging students for learning.
The following TED Video is presented by Ms. Rita Pierson. Ms. Pierson is an inspiring former teacher who has a philosophy that all students can learn, and that a teacher can lift students to heights they never thought they could achieve. This presentation focuses on practical success and failure resulting from classroom relationships. Often pre-service teachers believe that they are preparing for a career that will require them only to teach the content. However, as teachers, we cannot shy away from the fact that we also teach complex human beings.
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1.02: Teaching Philosophy
Philosophy:
There are many different ways to teach, varying circumstances to take into account, and philosophies to apply to each classroom. And what better way to have a positive impact on the world than to offer knowledge for consumption? The term ‘teacher’ can be applied to anyone who imparts knowledge of any topic, but it is generally more focused on those who are hired to do so (teach, n.d., n.p.). In imparting knowledge to our students, it is inevitable that we must consider our own personal philosophies, or pedagogies, and determine not only how we decide what our philosophies are, but also how those impact our consumers.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: TEACHING PHILOSOPHIES
• Why is content important?
• How might a philosophy shape the way a teacher delivers content?
Reading Activity:
• Read the following article written by Horace Mann
Horace Mann, from Report of the Massachusetts Board of Education (1848)
Horace Mann (May 4, 1796 – August 2, 1859) was an American educational reformer known for his commitment to promoting public education.
Without undervaluing any other human agency, it may be safely affirmed that the common school, improved and energized as it can easily be, may become the most effective and benignant of all the forces of civilization. Two reasons sustain this position. In the first place, there is an universality in its operation, which can be affirmed of no other institution whatever. If administered in the spirit of justice and conciliation, all the rising generation may be brought within the circle of its reformatory and elevating influences. And, in the second place, the materials upon which it operates are so pliant and ductile as to be susceptible of assuming a greater variety of forms than any other earthly work of the Creator. . . .
According to the European theory, men are divided into classes-some to toil and earn, others to seize and enjoy. According to the Massachusetts theory, all are to have an equal chance for earning, and equal security in the enjoyment of what they earn. A republican form of government, without intelligence in the people, must be, on a vast scale, what a mad-house without superintendent or keepers would be on a small one. . . . However elevated the moral character of a constituency may be, however, well-informed in matters of general science or history, yet they must, if citizens of a republic, understand something of the true nature and functions of the government under which they live. . . .
The establishment of a republican government, without well-appointed and efficient means for the universal education of the people, is the most rash and foolhardy experiment ever tried by man. . . . It may be an easy thing to make a republic, but it a very laborious thing to make republicans; and woe to the republic that rests upon no better foundations than ignorance, selfishness, and passion! . . .
Such, then, . . . is the Massachusetts system of common schools. Reverently it recognizes and affirms the sovereign rights of the Creator, sedulously and sacredly it guards the religious rights of the creature. . . . In a social and political sense, it is a free school system. It knows no distinction of rich and poor, of bond and free, or between those, who, in the imperfect light of this world, are seeking, through different avenues, to reach the gate of heaven. Without money and without price, it throws open its doors, and spreads the table of its bounty, for all the children of the State. Like the sun, it shines not only upon the good, but upon the evil, that they may become good; and, like the rain, its blessings descend not only upon the just, but upon the unjust, that their injustice may depart from them, and be know no more.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: HORACE MANN
• What might be Mann’s underlying philosophy, or purposes, for education?
• What is the historical context for Mann’s argument for educating a citizenry?
• In what ways has Mann’s philosophy changed since 1848?
• What has not changed since 1848?
In order to develop a teaching philosophy, a teacher should examine and continuously reflect on the following:
• Creation of an articulated philosophy that can become a foundation upon which an individual’s life work can be built.
• Consideration of how your attitude is a function of who you are, how it affects your philosophy towards education, and how it shapes who you are as a teacher.
• Formulation of a teaching style that integrates teaching strategies with one’s own personality and philosophy.
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One of the main charges to teachers is to convey content to their students. Teachers need to express why the content they teach is important to learn. For elementary teachers, the necessity for students to learn how to calculate, read, and write is a given, but the answer is not as clear for other subjects: music, science, physical education, history, and art. Many parents do not see the need for their children to study a subject past a certain point. In order to ground why content is important, reflection and creation of a personal philosophy is essential.
In conveying content, teachers need to use the most effective strategies available. Different content might require a variety of approaches. Another factor to consider is if technology will enhance student understanding. Teachers with a good grasp of strategies along with a wide variety of ways to instruct students during a lesson will be more successful.
Students’ mindsets indicate how well and how much they are able to learn. Psychologist Carol Dweck, (2008) defines a growth mindset as the increase in ability to learn when a learner accepts that they may improve, and this improvement will lead to increased ability to learn more. Effort is valued because effort and self-efficacy lead to knowing more and therefore having more ability to learn. Individuals with a growth mindset also ask for help when needed and respond well to constructive feedback. In contrast, individuals with a fixed mindset assume that some people naturally have more ability than others and nothing can be done to change that. Individuals with a fixed mindset often view effort in opposition to ability (“Smart people don’t have to study”) and so do not try as hard and are less likely to ask for help since they believe that asking questions indicates that they are not smart. There are individual differences in students’ beliefs about their views of intelligence. However, teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices influence these students’ perceptions, behaviors, and willingness to adopt a growth mindset.
Teachers with a growth mindset believe that the goal of learning is mastering the material and figuring things out. Assessment is used by these teachers to understand what students know so they can decide whether to move to the next topic, re-teach the entire class, or provide remediation for a few students. Assessment also helps students understand their own learning and demonstrate their competence. Teachers with these views say things like, “We are going to practice over and over again. That’s how you get good. And you’re going to make mistakes. That’s how you learn” (Patrick, Anderman, Ryan, Edelin, & Midgley, 2001, p. 45).
In contrast, teachers with a fixed mindset are more likely to believe that the goal of learning is doing well on tests – and especially outperforming others. These teachers are more likely to say things that imply fixed abilities such as, “This test will determine what your math abilities are,” or stress the importance of interpersonal competition, “We will have speech competition and the top person will compete against all the other district schools and last year the winner got a big award and their photo in the paper.” When teachers stress competition some students will be motivated; however, there can only a few winners so there are many more students who believe they have no chance of winning. Another problem with competition as an assessment is that the focus can become winning rather than understanding the material.
Teachers who view assessment as promoting and developing learning rather than as a means of ranking students, or awarding prizes to those who did very well, or catching those who did not pay attention, are likely to enhance student willingness to identify and correct gaps in learning and understanding.
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1.04: Teacher Knowledge
Content Knowledge, Pedagogical Content Knowledge, And Curricular Knowledge
If teaching is the highest form of understanding as Aristotle claims, then what are the forms of understanding and how might we develop a framework for articulating this understanding?
This complex understanding is part of the foundational requisites of teacher knowledge. According to Gudmundsdottir & Shulman (1987), there are three main foci that form the foundation of teacher knowledge: Content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, and curricular knowledge.
Content knowledge: Teachers need to understand the truth claims of the discipline and interpretive community (professional organization) as well be able to explain why these accepted truth claims are warranted. For example, a Family and Consumer Science teacher would be able to explain what effective resume would look or appropriately tailor a cover letter.
Pedagogical Content Knowledge: Teachers need to understand the teachability of the content. Teachers need to be able to articulate the core topics of the discipline as well as the best examples (and worst) of the key concepts being taught. In addition, teachers should understand when illustrations and representations of key concepts of the discipline will be useful. Teachers need to understand which topics are easier or more difficult for students to learn. Moreover, teachers need to also understand the developmental appropriateness of the topic in relation to their students. For example, an English Language Arts/Reading teacher should be able to evaluate the readability and appropriateness of a certain novel selected for a class and then be able to provide appropriate accommodations for supporting students’ comprehension of the text.
Curricular Knowledge: Teachers need to describe the range of programs designed to teach a particular topic or subject at a particular level. Teachers should be able to identify and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the instructional materials used to teach particular subjects or topics. For example, math teachers should be able to describe possible concepts that could be on the New York State Regents exam.
In addition to these three foci, a teacher needs to develop a philosophy, or purpose, in which they have an established opinion on the conditions of student learning, their goals for student learning, and how these goals are realized in the classroom. The development of and adherence to a self-identified philosophy of teaching and learning serve as a teacher’s guidelines for curricular choices, classroom management strategies, and relationship with students as well colleagues.
Possible Discussion Activity:
• Choose a grade-level content area, explain what would be the best way to teach the content you chose (pedagogical content knowledge)
• Webquest: Go to EnageNY.org
• Research and locate instructional materials for the grade and content you chose for the first discussion that may be used to deliver instruction. Evaluate the possible strengths and weaknesses of the instructional material. Do these correspond to your developing stances on education? If so, why? If not, why? (curricular knowledge)
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To teach is to communicate. One cannot be an excellent educator if they do not possess strong communication skills. According to Silver (2018),
Teaching is all about communication – listening, speaking, reading, presenting and writing. Teachers who hone their communication skills are prepared to instruct, advise and mentor students entrusted in their care. Additionally, teachers must communicate well to effectively collaborate with colleagues and update administrators on student progress. Frequently, parents call, visit or email, so teachers must be adept at answering questions verbally and in writing.
-Freddie Silver
As noted above, teachers are engaged in communication with many different people. While much of a teacher’s day is spent with their students, they must also interact with other teachers, paraprofessionals, administrators, parents, and community members. Many first-year teachers are surprised by how many different forms of communication they must engage in each day. Because of this, it is good to have a basic understanding of these different types of communication.
Communication with Students
Communication in a classroom is very different from communication in other aspects of life. Rarely is the teacher engaged in communication with one student while others wait patiently to be heard. Many interactions are happening concurrently. Disruptions happen frequently. It can be very confusing, to say the least. In classroom communication, you will find that it is helpful to understand its various functions. It helps to be aware that classroom communication serves three purposes at once: content, procedures and behavioral control (Wells, 2006).
Classroom events are often so complex that just talking with students can become confusing. It helps to think of the challenge as a problem in communication—or as one expert put it, of “who says what to whom, and with what effect” (Lasswell, 1964). In classrooms, things often do not happen at an even pace or in a logical order, or with just the teacher and one student interacting while others listen or wait patiently. While such moments do occur, events may sometimes instead be more like a kaleidoscope of overlapping interactions, disruptions, and decision—even when activities are generally going well. One student finishes a task while another is still only halfway done. A third student looks like she is reading, but she may really be dreaming. You begin to bring her back on task by speaking to her, only to be interrupted by a fourth student with a question about an assignment. While you answer the fourth student, a fifth walks in with a message from the office requiring a response; so the bored (third) student is overlooked awhile longer. Meanwhile, the first student—the one who finished the current task—now begins telling a joke to a sixth student, just to pass the time. You wonder, “Should I speak now to the bored, quiet reader or to the joke-telling student? Or should I move on with the lesson?” While you are wondering this, a seventh student raises his hand with a question, and so on.
One way to manage situations like these is to understand and become comfortable with the key features of communication that are characteristic of classrooms. One set of features has to do with the functions or purposes of communication, especially the balance among talk related to content, to procedures, and to controlling behavior. Another feature has to do with the nature of nonverbal communication—how it supplements and sometimes even contradicts what is said verbally. A third feature has to do with the unwritten expectations held by students and teachers about how to participate in particular kinds of class activities—what we will later call the structure of participation.
Communication with the Community
Since teachers have public personae that extend beyond the classroom, it is critical teachers are able to communicate effectively to multiple community stakeholders who may be invested in local, statewide, or national educational policies and decision making. There is a multitude of social contexts where teachers will be required to communicate and represent themselves, their students, and their schools. This poses a unique challenge to educators as they navigate these disparate communicative contexts.
As representatives for their schools and students, teachers may be asked opinions on various educational policies. Teachers need to be critically aware that these opinions will not be interpreted as entirely personal opinions, but rather their opinions could be seen as representing an official school or school board policy.
Teachers may also need assistance from outside agencies, media, and others to aid in building robust educational activities for their students. It is important, then, for teachers to consider the intended audience and purposes for their communication and ensure that the teachers’ intentions can be easily discerned and that they fall within the legal confines of their position.
QUICK WRITE
• Think of one context in which teachers would need to communicate to the community.
• Describe the context including interlocutors and other intended audiences
• For what purposes is the communication intended?
• In what ways might the teacher represent the school? Students? The community? Self?
• What considerations, if any, should the teacher think about before any correspondence?
Teachers, as well as students, need to think critically and carefully about the public nature of social media–both in terms of affordances and perils. Teachers should curate their own professional learning networks (PLNs) using social media, i.e., Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Blogster, etc… There are many excellent PLNs for pre-service, early career, and veteran teachers that support teachers and celebrate our profession:
Teachers also need to ensure that texts chosen to be made public are thought of critically with respect to the audience, purpose, medium, and possible consequences of the text. The following blog, written by a teacher, (Knoll, 2017) and the article from the NEA (Simpson, 2010), provide a guided discussion on the affordances and possible dangers of public, social media communication:
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What are some rules you will follow as a teacher about how you will communicate using social media?
2. Why should teachers celebrate our profession? What are some appropriate ways we can share and celebrate our teaching?
3. Why is medium just as important as the message? For example, why would a teacher blog be a more apt medium to write about educational policies and pedagogies than a Facebook post?
Communication with Colleagues
The colloquial isolated teacher in his/her classroom defies the collaboration that oftentimes takes place within and across grades levels and departments. Some teams of teachers collaborate to plan, including lesson planning and learning activities. This sharing of ideas makes teaching stronger and fosters a sense of collegiality. Lessons may be improved upon when a number of teachers incorporate their knowledge and expertise. Even new teachers have a voice within this environment and can have meaningful suggestions on what should be included.
Collective autonomy within a school is encouraged and bolstered by the administrative leader. As a result, morale is often more positive when the interaction between teachers is strong and positive. Teacher leadership affects the way the school performs, and the way school policies are carried out. Having an opinion and voicing that opinion helps the faculty come to a consensus.
Secretaries and custodians are colleagues also and should be treated with respect. Secretaries are key to gaining access to school officials while they are a great resource for filling out forms to procure a variety of items. Custodians work hard to keep rooms clean and respond to emergencies that occur on any given day.
Communication with Administration
Advocating for the great ideas a teacher wants to incorporate into lessons is one reason to plan on communicating well with the administration of the school. At times, a teacher needs to request additional money for a crucial program of essential equipment. Presenting a strong, well-planned argument is paramount in making any headway in changing funding or adding activities into the curriculum.
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Teachers engage in the process of lifelong learning as a way to meet the needs of their students, respond to best practices in the literature and research and try to integrate the newly acquired approaches to support student learning. Some examples of lifelong learning, also known as professional development, may be attendance at a conference, mentoring (either as the mentee or mentor), joining a professional organization and conducting research. As an undergraduate student pursuing your Bachelors Degree in education you are immersed in a constant environment of learning.
New York state has teacher induction requirements for first-year teachers. As a first-year teacher in New York State, you will be assigned a mentor in your district who will serve to support and guide you through the challenges, questions, and joys that your first year of teaching will offer. Strong mentor-mentee programs increase the development of a new teacher’s connection to the school community and reduce isolations (NYSED, 2013).
ACTIVITY: THINK IT, INK IT
Think it, Ink it (5 minutes) and divide into groups of 4-5 students and share your answers.
1. As a first-year teacher what personal qualities would you hope for in a mentor?
2. What specific type of information do you want your mentor to provide you with?
3. How will you advocate for your needs as a first-year teacher/ mentee?
Report out to the class the results of the group’s conversation.
Resources for professional development and learning
At some level reflection on practice is something you must do for yourself, since only you have had your particular teaching experiences, and only you can choose how to interpret and make use of them. But this individual activity also may benefit from the stimulus and challenge offered by fellow professionals. Others’ ideas may differ from your own, and they can, therefore, help in working out your own thoughts and in alerting you to ideas that you may otherwise take for granted. These benefits of reflection can happen in any number of ways, but most fall into one of four general categories:
• talking and collaborating with colleagues
• participating in professional associations
• attending professional development workshops and conferences
• reading professional literature
Many teacher education preparation programs follow the INTASC Standards developed by the Council of Chief State School Officers. Standard nine outlines professional learning and ethical practice. Below you will find the exact excerpt from Standard 9. Notice Some of the relevant aspects are using data and evidence to support and evaluate classroom practices. Another key component to lifelong learning is engaging in ongoing reflective practice. Reflection is a hallmark of instructional leaders and assists teachers in meeting a diverse range of student needs.
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
The teacher engages in ongoing professional learning and uses evidence to continually evaluate his/her practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and actions on others (learners, families, other professionals, and the community, and adapts practice to meet the needs of each learner.
PERFORMANCES
9(a) The teacher engages in ongoing learning opportunities to develop knowledge and skills in order to provide all learners with engaging curriculum and learning experiences based on local and state standards.
9(b) The teacher engages in meaningful and appropriate professional learning experiences aligned with his/her own needs and the needs of the learners, school, and system.
9(c) Independently and in collaboration with colleagues, the teacher uses a variety of data (e.g., systematic observation, information about learners, research) to evaluate the outcomes of teaching and learning and to adapt planning and practice.
9(d) The teacher actively seeks professional, community, and technological resources, within and outside the school, as supports for analysis, reflection, and problem-solving.
9(e) The teacher reflects on his/her personal biases and accesses resources to deepen his/her own understanding of cultural, ethnic, gender, and learning differences to build stronger relationships and create more relevant learning experiences.
9(f) The teacher advocates, models, and teaches safe, legal, and ethical use of information and technology including appropriate documentation of sources and respect for others in the use of social media.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
9(g) The teacher understands and knows how to use a variety of selfassessment and problem-solving strategies to analyze and refl ect on his/her practice and to plan for adaptations/adjustments.
9(h) The teacher knows how to use learner data to analyze practice and differentiate instruction accordingly.
9(i) The teacher understands how personal identity, worldview, and prior experience affect perceptions and expectations, and recognizes how they may bias behaviors and interactions with others.
9(j) The teacher understands laws related to learners’ rights and teacher responsibilities (e.g., for educational equity, appropriate education for learners with disabilities, confi dentiality, privacy, appropriate treatment of learners, reporting in situations related to possible child abuse).
9(k) The teacher knows how to build and implement a plan for professional growth directly aligned with his/her needs as a growing professional using feedback from teacher evaluations and observations, data on learner performance, and school- and systemwide priorities.
CRITICAL DISPOSITIONS
9(l) The teacher takes responsibility for student learning and uses ongoing analysis and refl ection to improve planning and practice.
9(m) The teacher is committed to deepening understanding of his/her own frames of reference (e.g., culture, gender, language, abilities, ways of knowing), the potential biases in these frames, and their impact on expectations for and relationships with learners and their families.
9(n) The teacher sees him/herself as a learner, continuously seeking opportunities to draw upon current education policy and research as sources of analysis and reflection to improve practice.
9(o) The teacher understands the expectations of the profession including codes of ethics, professional standards of practice, and relevant law and policy
Activity: How do you plan to integrate reflection into your practice as a teacher? How does reflection connect to teacher induction and mentor programs?
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In her role as the Director of the Sofia Center for Professional Development at Bosque School, Sheryl Chard hosts workshops, seminars, and retreats for Bosque School faculty and other educators in the community that are heavily informed by feedback from countless educators. These innovative professional development opportunities allow teachers to connect with local experts and other educators, explore their roles in education through art and personal expression, and provide teachers with opportunities to grow in a professional environment that recognizes the indispensable role they hold in our society.
The experience in reflective teaching is that you must plunge into the doing, and try to educate yourself before you know what it is you’re trying to learn.
—Donald Schön
Donald Schön (1987), a philosopher and educational researcher, makes an important observation: learning to teach often means making choices and taking actions without knowing in advance quite what you need to learn or what the consequences will be. The problem, as we have pointed out more than once, is that classroom events are often ambiguous and ambivalent, in that they usually serve more than one purpose. A teacher compliments a student’s contribution to a discussion: at that moment she may be motivating the student, but also focusing classmates’ thinking on key ideas. Her comment functions simultaneously as behavioral reinforcement, information, and expression of caring. At that moment complementing the student may be exactly the right thing to do. Or not: perhaps the praise causes the teacher to neglect the contributions of others, or focuses attention on factors that students cannot control, like their ability instead of their effort. In teaching, it seems, everything cuts more than one way, signifies more than one thing. The complications can make it difficult to prepare for teaching in advance, though they also make teaching itself interesting and challenging.
The complications also mean that teachers need to learn from their own teaching by reflecting (or thinking about the significance of) their experiences. In the classrooms, students are not the only people who need to learn. So do teachers, though what teachers need to learn is less about curriculum and more about students’ behavior and motivation, about how to assess their learning well, and about how to shape the class into a mutually supportive community.
Thinking about these matters begins to make a teacher a reflective practitioner, a professional who learns both from experience and about experience. Becoming thoughtful helps you in all the areas discussed in this text: it helps in understanding better how students’ learning occurs, what motivates students, how you might differentiate your instruction more fully, and how you can make assessments of learning more valid and fair.
Learning to reflect on practice is so important, in fact, that we have referred to and illustrated its value throughout this book. In addition, we devote this entire appendix to how you, like other professional teachers, can develop habits of reflective practice in yourself. First, we describe what reflective practice feels like as an experience, and offer examples of places, people, and activities that can support your own reflection on practice. Then we discuss how teachers can also learn simply by observing and reflecting on their own teaching systematically, and by sharing the results with other teachers and professionals. This is an activity we mentioned in this book previously; we call it teacher research or action research. As you will see, reflective practice not only contributes to teachers’ ability to make wise decisions, but also allows them to serve as effective, principled advocates on behalf of students.
Concluding activities (check for understanding)
ACTIVITY
1. Make a list of the five most important characteristics of an excellent teacher.
• Do you possess these characteristics?
• If not, what steps can you take to add the characteristic(s) to your teaching profile?
2. Write a paragraph of your teaching philosophy.
• Why content is important?
• Best way to teach?
• What will your style be?
• What are your goals as a teacher?
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1.08: References
American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American psychological association Washington. DC: American Psychological Association.
Chard, S. (2014). No more bad coffee: professional development that honors teachers. Ted talk. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aiW0s6_83dw
Dweck, C. S. (2008). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House Digital, Inc..
Gudmundsdottir, S., & Shulman, L. (1987). Pedagogical content knowledge in social studies. Scandinavian Journal of Educationl Research, 31(2), 59-70.
Knoll, J. (2017). The do’s and don’ts of social media for teachers. Retrieved from the We Are Teachers website: https://www.weareteachers.com/dos-donts-social-media-for-teachers/
Quin, D. (2017). Longitudinal and contextual associations between teacher–student relationships and student engagement: A systematic review. Review of Educational Research, 87(2), 345-387. Retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3102/0034654316669434?casa_token=IjQdlgCqZjsAAAAA:9UQQr-Y90eCIKGx3ryK6D3Ic1kETPirML5FHF2e4B3KhIEFdaTkC1G72vTZWv34PyXVvPu-CwPnPhg
Lasswell, H. (1964). The structure and function of communication in society. In W. Schramm (Ed.), Mass communications. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
Mariconda, B. (2003). Easy and Effective ways to communicate with Parents. Scholastic Inc.
NYSEG. (2013). Office of teaching initiatives: Mentoring. Retrieved from: http://www.highered.nysed.gov/tcert/resteachers/mentoring.html
Patrick, H., Anderman, L. H., Ryan, A. M., Edelin, K. C., & Midgley, C. (2001). Teachers’ communication of goal orientations in four fifth-grade classrooms. The Elementary School Journal, 102(1), 35-58.
Pierson, R. (2013). Every child needs a champion. Ted talk. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SFnMTHhKdkw
Purdue, O. W. L. (2019). APA Formatting and Style Guide. Retrieved from: https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/
Shon, D. (1987). The Reflective Practitioner. London: Arena.
Silver, F. (2018). Why is it important for teachers to have good communication skills? Retrieved from: https://work.chron.com/important-teachers-good-communication-skills-10512.html
Simpson, M. (2010). Cyberspeak no evil. Retrieved from the NEA website: www.nea.org/home/38324.htm
Wells, G. (2006). The language experience of children at home and at school. In J. Cook-Gumperz (Ed.), The social construction of literacy, 2nd edition, 76–109. New York: Cambridge University Press.
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Learning Objectives
• Explain Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy.
• Identify and describe the eight instructional strategies.
• Create a learning objective.
• Create an activity appropriate for Gen Z Students.
In this chapter, a variety of general pedagogical strategies are introduced. Think of the strategies as being part of a spectrum that goes from student centered at one extreme to teacher centered at the other. Bloom (1956) created a hierarchy that classifies thinking from low cognitive load, knowledge , to high cognitive load, creating . Others have revised Bloom’s Taxonomy in order to reflect new media understanding and technological competencies. Bloom’s Taxonomy is often used by effective teachers to write clear learning objectives to meet the standards of the lesson.
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02: Teaching and Learning
Bloom’s hierarchical classification from low-level to high-level thinking has proven invaluable for classroom instruction. The taxonomy provides a way to classify objectives and learning outcomes while showing its versatility as its use spread to a variety of educational applications. An important resource for writing objectives with verbs classified by level, the taxonomy helps teachers to track whether students are using higher-order thinking skills while engaged in a lesson.
Bloom’s taxonomy underwent a major revision by Krathwohl & Anderson (2001), as depicted in the Figure One. This revision allows teachers to identify the complexity of thinking required of the students by a lesson. The image below shows the increasing cognitive load and provides a short definition of each level.
The verbs associated with differing levels of thinking skills required for any given task provide guidance as a teacher writes outcomes of any lesson for a class. For instance, a lower order outcome may be: The student will recall multiplication tables one through four . A higher order outcome might be: The student will differentiate between nutritious foods and foods with processed ingredients . When teachers understand the complexity of thinking levels required by the lesson, they may ensure that students have a good balance among all skills in the spectrum.
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2.02: Instructional Strategies
Direct Instruction
In general usage, the term direct instruction refers to (1) instructional approaches that are structured, sequenced, and led by teachers, and/or (2) the presentation of academic content to students by teachers, such as in a lecture or demonstration. In other words, teachers are “directing” the instructional process or instruction is being “directed” at students.
The basic techniques of direct instruction not only extend beyond lecturing, presenting, or demonstrating, but many are considered to be foundational to effective teaching. For example:
• Establishing learning objectives for lessons, activities, and projects, and then making sure that students understand the goals.
• Purposefully organizing and sequencing a series of lessons, projects, and assignments that move students toward understanding and the achievement of specific academic goals.
• Reviewing instructions for an activity or modeling a process—such as a scientific experiment—so that students know what they are expected to do.
• Providing students with clear explanations, descriptions, and illustrations of the knowledge and skills being taught.
• Asking questions to make sure of student understanding after a lesson.
As seen in Figure Two, teachers rarely use either direct instruction or some other teaching approach—in practice, diverse strategies are frequently blended together. For these reasons, negative perceptions of direct instruction likely result more from a widespread overreliance on the approach, and from the tendency to view it as an either/or option, rather than from its inherent value to the instructional process (Carnine, Silbert, Kameenui, & Tarver, 1997).
Drill and Practice
The drill and practice instructional strategy refers to small tasks, such as the memorization of spelling and vocabulary words, or the practicing of the multiplication tables repeatedly. As students, drill and practice instruction was probably a familiar memory throughout your schooling. It is used primarily for students to master fundamental materials through repetition. By today’s educational standards, drill and practice is considered outdated and often deemed ineffective as an instructional strategy. According to Jill Sunday Bartoli, “Having to spend long periods of time on repetitive tasks is a sign that learning is not taking place — that this is not a productive learning situation.” (Bartoli, 1989, p. 292)
Lecture
Lecture is a convenient instructional strategy. Material can be delivered efficiently since there are no interruptions from students. Lecture still allows the teacher to relate new material to other topics in the course, define and explain key terms, and relate material to students’ interests.
Lecture is an instructional strategy that places students in a passive role. Essentially the lecturer is the expert and the students are having knowledge poured into their brains. The material and presentation are solely the intellectual product of the teacher. Students sit silently at desks that face the lecturer.
Often lecture topics are not remembered well because retrieval pathways to memory have not been established by students actively participating in the instruction. Students have not taken the presented material and created their own interpreted meaning. The lecturer usually does not know if students understand the topic because there is no feedback from students (Lujan, H. & DiCarlo, S, 2006).
Question and Answer
The technique of question and answer allows the application of knowledge by students and offers a more reflective response. By asking questions, teachers are inviting brief responses from students, which incorporate their prior knowledge and some interpretation of that knowledge. This allows indications of whether students were listening and understand the material being presented. Questions serve both to motivate students to listen and to assess how much and how well they know the material. Incorporating this instructional approach allows both the teacher to ask students questions and students to ask the teacher questions, fostering a better understanding of th e lesson ( Paul & Elder, 2007).
Discussion
In this instructional strategy, the role of the teacher shifts to leading an exchange of ideas about a specific topic. The teacher is no longer the sole provider of the content as students gain a voice for their ideas and the research they have conducted. At times, the teacher may assign students individual concepts that they have to speak about during the discussion. Some control of what course the discussion takes devolves to students. All of the content planned for the lesson might not be discussed. In fact, after reflecting on the day’s discussion a teacher might have to begin the next day’s discussion on important content that had been overlooked or squeezed out of the lesson.
Teachers need to develop strategies so that the voices of all students are heard. In addition, for effective class discussions students need to listen to what their classmates are saying so the points made during the dialogue allow students to make sense of the new ideas. As the discussion takes place, time should be taken for the teacher or better yet, a student to summarize the important points (Brookfield & Preskill, 2012).
Mental modeling
When a person perceives how something works in the real world and then formalizes that thought process a mental model is created. Mental modeling is a student-centered pedagogical strategy that helps students to solve problems or make decisions. For example, a mathematics teacher verbally modeling the thought process she is using while solving a problem in front of the class is using mental modeling. When teachers model the process of thinking or doing, the strategy of mental modeling becomes clearer to students. Students may then explain their own mental models to learn the strategy and improve their use of it.
Mental modeling often starts with a question, for example: why does lake effect snow occur? “What if” questions are also good starting points, for example: What if gravity ceased entirely? Strategies used by teachers and students engaged in mental modeling include observation, asking questions, as well as location and analysis of information. The level of cognitive load in mental modeling is high making it a strategy that should be employed often.
Teachers are encouraged to help students select the right mental model and help students select relevant information to develop their model. Teachers should create or find problems, case studies, lab activities, and projects at the appropriate grade level for their students. For students to have success they need to possess the appropriate background knowledge and supports to develop an accurate mental model. Often students encounter more success when they focus on the process instead of the outcome (Hestenes, D, 2010).
Inquiry
When students investigate to answer a question about a particular topic, they are using inquiry or inquiry-based learning. When teachers use inquiry-based learning, students or teachers may identify questions, however in any case questions posed should be open ended. Inquiry learning may be experienced individually; but it is beneficial when students work with other students. Differing perspectives and varied resources are important to inquiry-based projects.
Providing responses to questions such as “Why is the sky blue?” demands high-order thinking skills from both the student and the teacher. Allowing students to explore a broad topic, and to choose questions in which they are invested creates the best environment for successful inquiry-based projects. Students benefit from learning and negotiating through group investigation in order to answer a question.
Teachers who wish to engage in inquiry-based learning set the stage for this process in three ways:
1. Assess students to determine their knowledge of the topic, and lay groundwork when that knowledge does not exist.
2. Match the scope of the inquiry question to the learning level of students.
3. Provide resources and/or provide internet search strategies for locating credible resources that will inform the inquiry.
The teacher’s role in inquiry-based learning is one of mentor and advisor. Students may struggle through problems; however, if the struggle occurs at a level that students may be successful, this struggle is worthwhile. The teacher’s most difficult role, in this case, is to resist answering questions that would inform the inquiry and therefore negate the process for the student!
Inquiry based learning requires time and patience; however this teaching strategy lays groundwork for real-world learning in which students will engage throughout their lives (Sharples, Collins, Feißt, Gaved, Mulholland, Paxton, & Wright, 2011).
Discovery Learning
“Discovery learning is a type of learning where learners construct their own knowledge by experimenting with a domain and inferring rules from the results of these experiments” (Van Joolingen, 2000, p.385).
In today’s educational realm, discovery learning is also called problem-based learning or experiential learning. Students participate through a hands-on approach and learning is interactive. Through discovery learning students are encouraged to explore with little guidance from the instructor. Discovery learning is based on the beliefs of Piaget (Ültanır, 2012), in which students are provided with a topic, and from that point students choose how they are going to learn, discover new information, synthesize the information and do so without correction from the teacher. The teacher does feed back to the student, as do the other members of the class, once the project is complete.
It is important that teachers create specific goals and guide students through discovery learning using pre-determined structures, for example, groupwork, fieldwork, or interaction with others. Unless this is the case, students may have too much freedom resulting in a lack of rigor within the method. However, Mayer (2004) states, “In many ways, guided discovery appears to offer the best method for promoting constructivist learning. The challenge of teaching by guided discovery is to know how much and what kind of guidance to provide and to know how to specify the desired outcome of learning.” (p.14)
Group work
In group work, students are assigned one or more partners to collaborate with on ideas in a strategy like think-pair-share or problem solving. Before students begin working, the teacher explains the objectives, expectations, and details of the activity or project. This explanation is meant to ensure all group members understand the goal of the group. As the group works together it is expected that all members teach and learn from each other. At the end of the group activity the teacher may debrief with groups or may provide a grade on a group artifact.
Students often need to be oriented on how to work effectively with their peers. Listening to group members’ ideas and not attaching self-worth to proposed ideas go a long way toward reaching the goals of the activity. Compromise is a skill that requires practice to be effective. Alignment of group activities with the Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) Benchmarks (New York State, 2018) provides a well-defined way to identify and advance the skills students need to be effective group members.
When engaging students in groupwork, teachers should circulate to monitor the groups’ progress toward accomplishing the objectives of the lesson. Asking groups what they are discussing and why that is important to the topic assists in reinforcing the idea that the group activity is educational. As teachers see group behavior that is not on-task, the teacher should not hesitate to address this with the group. This reinforces to all groups that students are individually accountable for their behavior in the group. They are not “lost in a crowd”. (Blatchford, Kutnick, Baines, & Galton, 2003).
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A learning objective is a short statement of the goals and objectives that students should know or be able to put into practice after a lesson.
Key Points
• Teacher’s curriculum guides often provide overarching objectives for a unit of study in your content area’s standards. Teachers must use the standards for their content area to individual teacher to formulate learning objectives for daily lesson plans. (To view the standards for the various content areas in New York State, visit the New York State Department of Education website)
• Bloom’s Taxonomy (Bloom et al., 1956) is a framework that categorizes different educational goals. Each level of the Taxonomy has a different level of complexity. The lowest levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy require lower order thinking skills (ex. remembering and understanding) and the categories on the higher level of the Taxonomy require higher-order thinking skills (analyzing, evaluating and creating).
Term
Learning Objective
• Any fact, technique or other outcome that a student is expected to achieve at the end of a specific course of instruction
A learning objective is a short statement of the goals and objectives that students should know or be able to put into practice after a lesson. Focusing on what students should know is frequently called the “cognitive” approach; focusing on what students should be able to do is known as the “behavioral” approach. While most teachers are, by temperament, drawn to one of the two approaches, in practice, most teachers often combine the two, perhaps without knowing it.
Large-scale learning objectives will be articulated in a teacher’s curriculum guide, but it is up to each individual teacher to formulate learning objectives for individual lesson plans. Teachers must create lesson plans that include objectives that are:
1. Measurable
2. Observable
3. Content-based
4. Student-centered
5. Aligned to the state standards
New York State provides teachers with a curriculum that needs to be covered in a specific course. The teacher must create objectives that align with the curriculum. Teachers need to make sure that they can measure if the students have met the objectives of the lesson. This can be achieved by giving formative and summative assessments (Types of assessments will be discussed in Chapter 6). If students do not meet the objective of the lesson, a teacher needs to be aware and try to remediate to ensure that students can meet the objectives with support from the teacher or a fellow student. In order to be able to measure objectives teachers have to be able to observe the student meeting the objective. For example, I caution pre-service teachers to not use “know” or “understand” in their objectives. These verbs are not concrete and they hard to measure.
It is important to have 2-3 objectives in a lesson plan. This allows the teacher to scaffold instruction (Wood, Bruner, and Ross, 1976). Teachers have to consider that students have varying levels of readiness to complete a certain task. If teachers offer support to students during the learning process, they may be able to complete complex tasks. Teachers can use multiple levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy to create objectives that start with tasks that require lower order thinking skills, and moving to more complex tasks that require higher order thinking instruction. If there are multiple objectives, a teacher can measure what objective the students did not meet, and just address that part of the lesson.
Example Objectives
Knowledge (1):
The student will be able to list the parts of a fish with 85% accuracy
The student will be able to recognize nouns in a sentence with 85% accuracy.
Comprehension (2):
The student will be able to paraphrase the results of the survey on the effects of second-hand smoke with 85% accuracy.
The student will be able to summarize Wilson’s Fourteen Points with 85% accuracy.
Application (3):
The student will produce argumentative essays on school uniforms with 85% accuracy.
The student will be able create a graph of emissions of greenhouse gases with 85% accuracy.
Analysis (4):
The student will be able to compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis with 85% accuracy.
The student will be able to explain the various ways to solve an equation 85% accuracy.
Evaluation (5):
The student will be able to critique the New Deal policies with 85% accuracy
The student will be able to evaluate the effectiveness of U.S. propaganda during WWII with 85%.
Create (6):
The student will be able to construct a program for addressing flood disaster relief with 85% accuracy.
The student will be able to create an annotated timeline of the Cold War with 85% accuracy.
Activity
For the activity, students will be able to write objectives for each category of Bloom’s Taxonomy on the topic of your choosing
Step 1: Pick a topic (does not have to be in you content area)
Step 2: You will create six objectives relating to the topic you choose using action verbs from each category of Bloom’s taxonomy. You must number each of the objectives to correspond with the different categories
1. Remember
2. Understand
3. Apply
4. Analyze
5. Evaluate
6. Create
Step 3: Print pages one through four of the cube template. Using these pages, write one objective on each side of the cube
Step 4: Fold the cube on the lines and glue the appropriate tabs
Step 5: Be ready to share and discuss your objectives for the next class meeting
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We have heard a lot about Millennials (born 1981-1996) and all of the characteristics that go along with this group. However, most students entering college these days are considered Generation Z (Gen Z). Gen Z is loosely defined as anyone born between 1996 and 2015, “…this group makes up a quarter of the U.S. population and by 2020 will account for 40% of all consumers,” (Finch, 2015, np). Gen Z are currently between 4-24 years old (nearly 74 million in U.S.) and it’s safe to say will make up a majority of students in your future classrooms.
This cohort has grown up post 9/11 and in a world of terrorism, recession, racial unrest, corporate scandals and financial insecurity. They have never known a world without access to internet technology and have grown up with iPads and iPhones in their hands. They have the background knowledge to be experienced with digital literacy, but likely do not practice caution in their digital media use. Even though Gen Z spends a lot of time on social media, they seem to be pretty good at deciphering true from false information in record time. Fast Company suggests “Generation Z spends a lot of time on social media… they can sniff out canned or insincere messages in seconds”. Your Gen Z students expect honesty and straightforward responses, and are often determined to gain these responses, even if they aren’t forthcoming.
Characteristics of Gen Z Learners
• Often children of Generation X but may have parents who are Millennials
• Multitaskers
• Concerned with money and job security
• Usually independent
• Tend to be loyal, compassionate and thoughtful
• Responsible and determined
• Value education
• Future focused
• Active volunteers
• Prefer communication through Snap Chat & Instagram instead of email and traditional social media platforms such as Facebook
• Communicate with images (e.g. emojis)
• Use the internet to gain information for school and interests
• Have less face-to-face contact because of smartphones
• Use social media daily to maintain relationships
• More stressed and depressed than previous generations
Supplemental resources:
Activity:
Using the characteristics of Gen Z and the supplemental resources, create a learning activity that you believe would engage Gen Z students. Prepare to share this activity with other class members. Do they believe this activity would be helpful? What suggestions might they have to improve the activity you have outlined?
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2.05: References
Alber, R. (2014). 6 scaffolding strategies to use with your students. Edutopia. Retrieved on 4/29/19 from www.edutopia.org/blog/scaffolding-lessons-six-strategies-rebecca-alber
Arend, B. & Davis, J. (n.d.). Seven ways of learning: A resource for more purposeful, effective, and enjoyable college teaching. Retrieved 3/5/19 from sevenwaysoflearning.com/the-seven-ways/learning-with-mental-models.
Bartoli, J. S., “An ecological response to Coles’s interactivity alternative,” Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1989, vol. 22(5), 292-297.
Blatchford, P., Kutnick, P., Baines, E., & Galton, M. (2003). Toward a social pedagogy of classroom group work. International Journal of Educational Research, 39(1-2), 153-172.
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. Vol. 1: Cognitive domain. New York: McKay, 20-24.
Brookfield, S. D., & Preskill, S. (2012). Discussion as a way of teaching: Tools and techniques for democratic classrooms. John Wiley & Sons.
Carnine, D., Silbert, J., Kameenui, E. J., & Tarver, S. G. (1997). Direct instruction reading. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Elmore, T. (2019). Six Simple Ways to Better Engage Generation Z. Growing Leaders. Retrieved from https://growingleaders.com/blog/six-simple-ways-engage-generation-z/
Finch, J. (2015). What is Generation Z and What Does it Want? Fast Company. Retrieved from https://www.fastcompany.com/3045317/what-is-generation-z-and-what-does-it-want
Heck, T. (2018). What is Bloom’s taxonomy? A definition for teachers. Retrieved 3/5/19 from www.teachthought.com/learning/what-is-blooms-taxonomy-a-definition-for-teachers.
Krathwohl, D. & Anderson, L. (2009). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. Longman.
Mayer, R. E. (2004). Should there be a three-strike rule against pure discovery learning?: The case for guided methods of instruction. American Psychologist, 59(1), 14-19.
New York State Education Department. (2018). New York State Social and Emotional Learning Benchmarks. Retrieved from: http://www.p12.nysed.gov/sss/documents/NYSSELBenchmarks.pdf
Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2007). Critical thinking: The art of Socratic questioning. Journal of developmental education, 31(1), 36.
Sharples, M., Collins, T., Feißt, M., Gaved, M., Mulholland, P., Paxton, M., & Wright, M. (2011, June). A “laboratory of knowledge-making” for personal inquiry learning. In International Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Education (pp. 312-319). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Ültanır, E. (2012). An epistemological glance at the constructivist approach: Constructivist learning in Dewey, Piaget, and Montessori. International Journal of Instruction, 5(2).
Van Joolingen, W. R. (2000, June). Designing for collaborative discovery learning. In International Conference on Intelligent Tutoring Systems (pp. 202-211). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
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Learning Objectives
• Describe the process of becoming a teacher in New York State
• Create New York State TEACH account
• Write a draft of the pre-service teacher resume
• Identify Professional Organizations according to Content and Grade Level Specialties
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03: Becoming a Teacher
The New York State Department of Education website (NYSED, 2019) informed the content shared in Sections 1.1 and 1.2. Requirements can change quickly, therefore please monitor the NYSED site for changes during your teacher education program.
The requirements for teacher certification include the following:
1. Completion of your teacher education program with a GPA of 3.0. Once you have completed this requirement, the teacher education program will issue a letter recommending you for your initial teaching license.
2. Completion of the ed TPAwith satisfactory scores on the multiple measures assessed. The ed TPA consists primarily of written reflections, lesson plans and videotaped classroom experiences in order to predict effective teaching and potential impact on students in the classroom. Guidelines, resources and handbooks are available on the NYSTCE web page.
1. The edTPA is completed during student teaching. Three to five lesson plans and a video component are required.
2. The edTPA consists of 4 templates: context, planning, instruction, and assessment. The templates ask for information about a short teaching experience selected by the pre-service teacher.
3. Students with a concentration in elementary education, Birth – 6th (B-6) grade have a choice between two options: They may choose an ed TPA in B – 2 (birth – second grade concentration), or they may choose to complete the ed TPA for grades 1 – 6 (first – sixth grade concentration). The grades 1 – 6 ed TPA has an additional template for mathematics context and instruction.
3. Completion of the Content Specialty Testfor your concentration. Under the Tests link on the NYSTCE web page you will find a list of content specialty tests. In order to gain initial licensure, you must demonstrate mastery of your chosen discipline. Many of these links will indicate the format of the test, the time the test will take, and study guides for the test.
4. Successfully complete the Educating All Students (EAS) assessment. The EAS assessment consists of multiple choice and written response items. Each multiple-choice item will portray a classroom-based scenario with several responses to the scenario. From these responses, students are asked to choose the most appropriate response. The EAS test measures the professional and pedagogical knowledge and skills necessary to teach all students effectively in NYS public schools. Pre-service teachers in the secondary programs should take the EAS after completion of EPSY 229 and EDUC 346. Preservice teachers in childhood/elementary programs should take the EAS after the methods block.
5. Students for whom English is a second language are required to take the New York State English as a Second Language Achievement Test (NYSESLAT). This assessment scores the prospective teacher’s ability to communicate proficiently with students in a primarily English-speaking classroom.
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The TEACH system (2019) is designed for you to perform various functions regarding teacher certification and fingerprinting. It is a requirement of the program that you complete the TEACH self-registration process before enrollment in EDUC 201: Diversity and Teaching. The TEACH website is located at http://www.highered.nysed.gov/tcert/teach/. During the registration process, you will choose a username and password and validate your identity through submitting your fingerprints to the TEACH system. The New York State Education Department (NYSED) requires all applicants for teaching certification to pass the fingerprinting process before they can be awarded a teaching certificate.
Validating your identity will ensure your certification and fingerprint records are properly linked to your personal TEACH account. After you have completed the self-registration process you will be able to use the TEACH system to access your certification and fingerprint information as well as the TEACH system online services.
3.2.1 Fingerprinting Information
The IdentoGO website (2019) located at http://www.identogo.com/ lists all fingerprinting locations in your specific area. You may navigate to the website, choose Locations, and then enter your zip code to find an appropriate location near you. Appointments are required in order to be fingerprinted at any location. Once you have entered your zip code click to select the location at which you wish to be fingerprinted. You will then be provided with the street address of the location. Below the location hours you will be prompted to Schedule Appointment. You may select this link or call (877) 472-6915 to make the appointment over the phone. Prior to scheduling the appointment, you will be prompted for your service code. Use the service code, 14ZGQT, to schedule your fingerprinting appointment. Fingerprinting fees may be paid in person with a credit card, cash or check made payable to “MorphoTrust USA” at the fingerprint-scanning appointment. At the fingerprint-scanning appointment, your photo will be taken, and you will need two forms of identification. At least one form of identification must be photo identification:
• photo identification documents: S. passport (expired or unexpired), driver license, SUNY Oneonta student ID card
• additional identification documents: voter registration card, U.S. military card, U.S. Social Security card, birth certificate (original or a certified copy)
Fingerprinting results will automatically be posted to your TEACH account when analysis is completed. You may check periodically to determine whether your fingerprints have been posted and analysis is complete. It is important to note that when your fingerprinting results are complete, they are posted onto your TEACH account ABOVE the fingerprinting box. Look for the phrase “DCJS and FBI Results Received”. Inside the box itself, it will say “No DATA Found”. This can be confusing. Once a public school has requested fingerprinting clearance for you, the results for that will be printed in the box along with the date of the request and the name of the school district.
The cost of fingerprinting to meet the requirements of teacher certification follows:
• New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services (Fingerprint search fee) – \$75.00
• FBI fee – 12.00
• MorphoTrust – 12.00
Total Fee (payable to MorphoTrust USA) – \$99.00
See NYSED’s finger print process webpage for further details: http://www.highered.nysed.gov/tsei/ospra/fpprocess.html
Fingerprint information was adapted from the SUNY Oneonta Field Experience website (2019).
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Building a resume is an important task as you join any professional community, teaching or otherwise. A resume is a quick and professional introduction to you and your skills. It allows potential employers and collaborators get to know you. A resume should tell a good story. A teaching resume should tell a good story about your professional education and experiences that shape your stance as a qualified educator. It is important to begin shaping your professional teaching resume early in your teacher preparation program. You may then continue adding to and revising the resume as you gain valuable professional experiences by completing and documenting field experience opportunities in the program.
Discussion Questions
What are the conventions of a teaching resume?
In what ways do resumes tell a story?
What makes an educational resume different than other professions?
Sample Resume
BEA A. TEACHER
Local Street Address,
City, State Zip
Permanent Street Address, City, State Zip phone
number • email
OBJECTIVE
To obtain a teaching position at the elementary level in the Oneonta City School District
EDUCATION
Bachelor of Science, Early Childhood/Childhood Education (B-6), Concentration in Biology Month Year
State University of New York (SUNY), College at Oneonta, Oneonta, NY NCATE Accredited
Advanced Regents Diploma Month Year
Burnt Hills-Ballston Lake Senior High School, Burnt Hills, NY
RELATED EXPERIENCE
Teacher, School Name, City, State Month Year – Month Year
• Work with 25 students, K-12, and all ability levels
• Instruction in reading, writing, math, and study skills
• Effectively manage average classroom of 20 students
• Met with parents regarding student classroom behavior
Student Teacher – Kindergarten, School Name, City, State Month Year – Month Year
• Used centers for math, science, social studies, health, and writing
• Implemented a positive discipline plan and phonics instruction with small groups
• Developed thematic unit on plants/gardening around major instructional goals
Student Teacher – Fourth Grade, School Name, City, State Month Year – Month Year
• Created and implemented literature units on density
• Developed and taught writing unit on “why” stories
• Used teacher’s manuals as guideline for teaching math and science
• Modified lesson plans to meet students’ needs required for 504/IEP plans
• Adapted units for time, money, geometry, and weather
Program Assistant, School/Organization Name, City, State Month Year – Month Year
• After school program sponsored by XYZ Central School
• Supervised and managed groups of 15-20 children grades K-5
FIELD EXPERIENCE
Observation/Participation – 200 Hours Year – Year
• Kindergarten Participation, Unadilla Valley Central School, New Berlin, NY
• Pre-Kindergarten, Head Start/Early Head Start Day Care, Oneonta, NY
• Fourth Grade, Commack Road Elementary School, Islip, NY
• First Grade, Wing Elementary School, Islip, NY
OTHER EXPERIENCE
Support Staff, Company Name, City, State Month Year – Month Year
• Various clerical responsibilities, including developed proficiency in all Microsoft Office products
Sales Clerk, Department Store, City, State Month Year – Month Year
• Provided exceptional customer service to approximately 40 individuals each day
• Utilized creativity to design two store displays each month
• Responsible for additional duties in manager’s absence
VOLUNTEER EXPERIENCE
St. Vincent Elementary School, St. Vincent, NY Month Year – Month Year
• Coordinated after school program for 25 children, ages 5 to 8
• Maintained a safe and conducive learning environment
ACTIVITIES
Leadership Institute, SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, NY Month Year – Month Year
Elementary Education Club, SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, NY Month Year – Month Year
Professional Memberships
Professional Education Council, SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, NY Month Year – Month Year
Association for Teachers, SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, NY Month Year – Month Year
Skills
Foreign Language: Spanish Fluency
Computer Programs: MS Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Access Classroom Technology: ELMO, SmartBoard
MM 08/17
Figure 1. Sample Resume Adapted from Template (All Business Templates, 2017)
Many resources exist on the campus of SUNY Oneonta to assist you in building your resume. The Career Development Center (2019) is available to provide guidance concerning the necessary components and steps for building your resume.
The document is provided by the Career Development Center, specifically for students who are beginning to build their professional resume.
Career Development Center
110 Netzer Admin. Building
(607) 436 -2534
10 Steps to Building A Solid Resume
Students often ask: what should I be doing now to prepare to write my resume when the time comes? Here are some steps that you can take today to make sure that yours will be a resume that will gain the attention of potential future employers:
1. Establish solid relationships with professors and employers. Don’t be afraid to talk to your professors. They can provide a wealth of information and assistance as you determine your career path. You can also learn a great deal from work supervisors, even in part-time and summer jobs. Some day you will be asking these people to write or give a verbal reference for you; the better they know you, the more qualified they will feel to speak about your skills and abilities.
2. Set career goals. As soon as you are ready to do so, it is better to start off in a direction, even if you may need to alter that direction later on. Do some research– talk to professors, advisors, career counselors, professionals in fields of interest, etc.– and then weigh the information you have collected. The suggestions in the remainder of this article will help you as you evaluate your plans and goals.
3. Join clubs and participate in activities related to your career goals. There are many clubs and organizations on your campus; some relate to academic majors, others to interest areas. Participating in any of these groups can help you to gain insight into a particular field or investigate your interests and skills. Working with fellow students, faculty advisors, and others you encounter can also provide extremely valuable experience in building teamwork and communication skills, both of which are vital to almost any career you may pursue.
4. Be selective about part-time and summer employment. While any job can provide valuable experience, employers are often looking for someone who can demonstrate as many of the necessary skills as possible for their available position. The more relevant experience you have, the better prepared you are for a position in your chosen field. You can also use part-time and summer jobs to “test drive” a career choice you are considering.
5. Volunteer with an organization or agency where you can gain skills related to your career goals. Volunteering is another a great way to meet people, gain skills, and find out if a certain career is really a good “fit” for you. There are many wonderful opportunities for volunteering in most communities; showing that you had the initiative to take advantage of this type of experience can be very impressive to future employers. This step is especially important for those students who are limited in their choices of summer and part-time jobs.
6. Do an internship. What better way to familiarize yourself with the inner workings of a prospective career field than to do an internship with a company or organization in that field? For many internships, academic credit is obtained through the student’s major department. Contact your academic advisor for more information and, if encouraged to locate your own internship, you can contact your college career center for further assistance.
7. Get good grades. In almost any career you can imagine, employers are looking for the best and brightest graduates to fill their company’s openings. Whether you plan to be a teacher, an accountant, a stockbroker, or a psychologist, the better you have performed in your past “job” (as a student), the better your prospective employers can expect you to perform for them. And if you plan to attend graduate school, a high GPA may be an entrance requirement.
8. Determine skills and abilities needed to succeed in your career and take every possible opportunity to strengthen them. Flexibility? Communication? Computer literacy? Initiative? What are the skills you will need to succeed on the job? Look at job descriptions, talk to employers, professors, and those currently employed in your field of choice to find out what you will need to do to succeed in your chosen career. Skills do not magically appear your first day on the job (or during your interview!) but take time and effort to build. Start now with your “job” as a student and practice, practice, practice! Be on time for class, initiate questions or discussions, gain computer skills, and make sure that all work you submit shows your best possible effort.
9. Start planning early. As you can see from steps #1 – 8 above, planning and preparing for a career is not something that can be done well during the last semester of your senior year. You can write your resume during that time, but if you want some good, quality information to put on it, the earlier you start, the better off you’ll be.
10. Visit your college career center. For the most current information about almost any career field you can imagine, your college career center is the first place you should check. If you need any assistance at all in determining what your career path might be, staff members will be willing to take the time to answer your questions. And when you are ready to write your resume, many career centers offer workshops, written materials, and/or a resume critiquing service to help ensure that your resume is the best possible tool for marketing your skills to employers.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCE
Northland University (2019) has created an excellent guide to creating a resume. This guide is geared toward new educators who wish to build their resumes in order to highlight experience during their programs. This guide is available at https://my.northland.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2015/07/Education-Majors-Resume-Guide.pdf
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Professional organizations are essential contributors in assisting educators in developing, building, and sustaining teachers’ professional learning networks.
Discussion Questions
Consider the following questions:
• What are your professional organization’s belief statements or position statements on teaching
• What journals do your organization publish for practicing teachers?
• What resources do your professional organization provide teachers?
• What special events does your organization hold for teachers?
Professional organizations are important to ongoing professional development and growth. Teachers take advantage of conferences, meetings and opportunities to both mentor and be mentored through the professional organizations for their content areas and/or interest areas.
All professional organizations have web sites that assist in understanding their content, the activities and opportunities they provide to their members, and any publications that the organization may publish for its members. In addition, most professional organizations offer a student rate that can assist in building your resume and networking with like-minded educators. A list of national professional organizations adapted from Masters in Education (2019) appear below.
Professional Organizations by Subject/Concentration Area
• National Council of Teachers of English – NCTE www.ncte.org
• National Science Teachers Association – NSTA www.nsta.org
• National Council for the Social Studies – NCSS http://www.socialstudies.org/
• American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages – ACTFL www.actfl.org
• American Association of Family and Consumer Science – AAFCS www.aafcs.org
• International Literacy Association – ILA http://literacyworldwide.org
• National Council of Teachers of Mathematics – NCTM www.nctm.org/
• Professional Organizations for birth-6th grade practitioners
• Association for Childhood Education International www.acei.org
• Teachers First https://www.teachersfirst.com/proforgs.cfm
• Association of American Educators https://www.aaeteachers.org/
• Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), Division for Early Childhood (DEC) http://www.dec-sped.org/
• National Association for the Education of Young Children http://www.naeyc.org/
In addition to those on the national level, most states will also have professional organizations for various contents and grade levels. These are an excellent way to make contacts with other educators in your state.
Suggested Activities
3.1 Describe the process of becoming a teacher in New York State
3.1 Think – pair – share; outline, discuss and then create a potential timeline for completing your teacher certification process over the next four years.
3.1 In small groups discuss the aspects of the certification process which seem most easily accomplished and those that seem most difficult.
3.2 Create New York State TEACH account
3.3 Write a draft of the pre-service teacher resume
3.4 Identify professional organizations according to content and grade level specialties
1. Locate, research, and join either a local or national organization, preferably related to your content concentration or major that supports students, pre-service, and/or beginning teachers.
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3.05: References
All Business Templates. (2019). Sample Resume for Teacher without Experience. Retrieved from: https://www.allbusinesstemplates.com/template/LH9B9/sample-resume-for-teacher-without-experience/ on March 19, 2019.
IdentiGo. (2019) New York Dept of Education – Certification. Retrieved from: https://uenroll.identogo.com/workflows/14ZGQT on March 19, 2019.
Masters in Education: Advancing the Skills of Educators. (2019) Professional Teacher Organizations. Retrieved from: http://www.masters-education.com/professional-teacher-organizations/ on March 19, 2019
New York State Education Department (NYSEG). (2019). Home Page. Retrieved from: http://www.nysed.gov/ on March 19, 2019
Northland College Career Education Center. (nd). Resume Guide for Education Majors. Retrieved from: https://my.northland.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2015/07/Education-Majors-Resume-Guide.pdf on March 19, 2019.
Office of Education Advisement and Field Experience. (2019). Fingerprinting Information. Retrieved from: suny.oneonta.edu/office-education-advisement-and-field-experience/teacher-certification/fingerprinting-information on March 19, 2019.
SUNY Oneonta Career Development Center. (2019). Application Materials: Resume Tips. Retrieved from: https://suny.oneonta.edu/career-development-center/prepare-employment/application-materials on March 19, 2019.
TEACH Online Services. (2019). NYSED.gov. Retrieved from: http://www.highered.nysed.gov/tcert/teach/ on March 19, 2019
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Learning Objectives
• Identify aspects of the four curricula: explicit, hidden, null, and extracurricular
• Critically analyze sociological influences of a hidden, null, and extracurricular curriculum.
• Explain the differences of the four curricula
• Identify how the different cognitive and affective domains of learning shape curricular design.
Curriculum, according to John Dewey (1902) “…is a continuous reconstruction, moving from the child’s present experience out into that represented by the organized bodies of truth that we call studies . . . the various studies . . . are themselves experience— they are that of the race” (p. 11–12). This chapter will focus on the different types of curriculum and the relationship between curricula, cognition, and affect.
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04: Curriculum and Academic Standards
What is the importance of curriculum? Answers will vary. According to the United States Department of Education the purpose of having a curriculum is to provide teachers with an outline for what should be taught in classrooms(https://www.ed.gov/k-12reforms/standards). The United States Department of Education wants to ensure that students are exposed to rigorous curricular goals to ensure that are prepared for real-world experiences that will make students college and career ready.
At the state level, the New York State Education Department (NYSED) has the responsibility to create standards that reflect what students should know as a result of instruction delivered by trained educators (http://www.nysed.gov/curriculum-instruction). Teachers in New York State have curricula they must follow in order to meet standards that are passed into law and adopted by the NYSED. NYSED has adopted curricular support for educators by making resources available to assist local school districts in developing and implementing local curricula.
For more information on the standards that apply to your specific content area, you can visit http://www.nysed.gov/curriculum-instruction.
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4.02: Sociological Influences of the Four Curricula
There are four different types of curricula that educators have to address in the classroom; t hese four are the explicit, implicit, null, and extracurricular. The most obvious curriculum in the classroom is the explicit curriculum because that is the curriculum that has been approved by the New York State Board of Regents. Curriculum of extracurricular activities also exists for such activities as academic clubs, band and chorus, or sports. The curriculum that is not so obvious is the implicit or “hidden curriculum” and the null curriculum, which is information that students may never be exposed to because they are excluded from the explicit curriculum. Each of these curricula will be explained below with examples to illustrate what each entail.
Explicit
Explicit instruction can be described as being a curriculum that has been intentionally designed, field tested by educators, and disseminated publicly, often with resources that will help teachers facilitate classroom instruction. To illustrate this point, one could look at the current modules that were created to offer guidance on how to deliver instruction to students and provide curriculum maps, graphic organizers, and supplemental materials that could be used to deliver the prescribed curriculum.
Module 1 in the 5th Grade ELA curriculum uses excerpts from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and Esperanza Rising as the central texts focused on in the module. The curriculum map also provides several supplemental resources that are used to offer context to the central texts, such as a history of the United Nations, to understand how the UDHR was created and for what purpose. The module maps out suggested pacing, or benchmarks in the modules. Continuing with the 5th grade New York State ELA module 1 example, teachers are encouraged to give students the vocabulary that will be used in the module to clarify the goals of the module. The 5th grade ELA Module 1 example suggested that teachers assess the vocabulary they need for the module using short constructed or selected response questions. The students would then read supplemental human rights accounts that are meant to be scaffolds that lead up to the novel Esperanza Rising, in which students will be asked to use extended responses with textual evidence from the novel to explain how Esperanza changed over time.
Implicit
The hidden curriculum are lessons that emerge from the culture of the local school district school and the behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs that have defined by the district. Bruner (1960) addressed the need to cultivate an understanding of ideas by including content beyond the explicit curriculum. An example of a hidden curriculum is character education. Character education may address values that are not part of the state-approved curriculum. While character education can be found in the explicit curriculum, the nuances of the character education program may be informed by many factors present in the local school district including the school community’s cultural expectations, values, and perspectives. A character education program may also include specific curricular topics which may contain varying ideological and/or cultural messages. Teaching strategies that connect the school to the community like problem-based learning or applied learning, can also be part of the implicit curriculum.
Null
Eisner (1985) defined null curriculum as information that schools do not teach:
… the options students are not afforded, the perspectives they may never know about, much less be able to use, the concepts and skills that are not part of their intellectual repertoire (Eisner,1985, p. 107).
There are several examples of null curriculum that can be identified in content areas. For example, in social studies, the teacher may give a general overview of the history of science while covering the scientific revolution. However, this information is excluded from the formal curriculum. Another example would be the exclusion of Darwin’s theory of evolution from the official biology curriculum. Null content may represent specific facts omitted in a particular unit of study. An example of this would be a social studies unit focusing on the New Deal may not reference the fact that the New Deal failed to resolve the problem of unemployment.
Extra
Extra-curricular curriculum includes school-sponsored opportunities that fall outside of academic requirements prescribed on the local and state levels. Examples of extra-curricular activities include participation in sports, music, student governance, yearbook, school newspaper, and academic clubs. Extracurricular participation is a strategy to promote school connectedness (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2009). Extracurricular activities are often associated with many positive outcomes such as higher academic achievement and decreased school dropout (Farb & Matjasko, 2012).
According to the United States National Center for Education Statistics (2012), sports are the most common type of extracurricular activity among secondary school students, with 44% of high school seniors reporting participation in some type of sport. Additionally, 21% of students participate in music activities, as well as clubs, such as academic (21%), hobby (12%), and vocational clubs (16%).
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4.03: The Cognitive and Affective Domains of Curricula
As discussed previously, Dewey (1902) explained that curriculum as being a means for schools to attain their objectives for learning. The learning, whether it be through planned or unplanned experiences, is a framework intended to provide students with the necessary content to achieve the educational outcomes adopted by the New York State Department of Education. Local school districts develop their curricula according to the educational outcomes outlined by the state. The curriculum can be viewed from varying perspectives. The cognitive perspective of curriculum focuses primarily on the acquisition of knowledge. The affective perspective tends to go beyond the acquisition of knowledge to include the degree that students value the knowledge that is being delivered to achieve educational outcomes. These two perspectives of curricula allow people to consider not only the subject matter, but how the students react to the material being delivered.
Bloom et al. (1959) created a taxonomy that sought to classify the various educational goals of the classroom. Bloom’s Taxonomy addressed the progression of educational goals that focused on lower-order thinking skills such as remembering and understanding to higher-order thinking skills through which students apply the knowledge they have learned through a process of analysis. Students use their higher-order thinking skills to evaluate the concrete information they have learned to create a product from the information they have learned. The structure of the taxonomy serves as tool for educators to scaffold instruction, which offers students intellectual and social supports to use higher-order thinking skills.
Vygotsky (1978) created the Zone of Proximal Development, which stresses modeling and teaching at students’ instructional levels rather than at the students’ frustration levels. Vygotsky defined the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more competent peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p.86). Vygotsky saw the importance of assessing students’ cognitive abilities to determine the level of students’ cognitive growth. Teachers model instructional activities that allow students to process knowledge and apply the information, which ultimately heightens the students’ level of cognitive development.
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The Cognitive Domain of Curricula
The cognitive domain of curricula deals with how students gain knowledge. In today’s schools, this is often achieved by dividing the knowledge into separate content areas. In this model, the different content areas are taught independently of supporting student emotions or social skills; therefore, in this model, instruction is contained to content-specific facts and skills.
Subject-Centered
The idea of subject-centered instruction separates instruction into distinct content areas. The skills and content contributing to the curriculum varies by subject. While this model was adopted in the United States in the 1870’s, it is still in practice today, especially at the secondary level. The pros and cons of this model were outlined by Ornstein (1982).
Pros of subject-centered Instruction Cons of subject-centered instruction
Subjects are a logical way to organize and interpret learning. The curriculum is fragmented, and concepts learned in isolation.
Such organization makes it easier for people to remember information for future use. It deemphasizes life experiences and fails to consider the needs and interests of students.
Teachers (in secondary schools, at least) are trained as subject-matter specialists. The teacher dominates the lesson, allowing little student input.
Textbooks and other teaching materials are usually organized by subject. The emphasis is on using lower-order thinking skills like teaching of knowledge, and the recall of facts.
Core Curriculum
The core curriculum emphasizes knowledge within the subject areas that all students should learn. People in favor of having a core curriculum believe that all students should know a common body of knowledge. This model takes a more interdisciplinary approach to ensure that all prescribed content is covered.
Mastery Learning
Mastery learning includes multiple educational practices based on the principle that if students are given adequate time to study and have appropriate instruction most students can meet the learning standards set for the course. Mastery learning is based on the acknowledgement of the differing rate of time that students take to master material. Theoretically speaking, there could be the possibility that all students will be learning at different paces and the teacher will have to attend to the differences in the pace of instruction of all of their students (Block & Anderson, 1974).
The Affective Domain of Curricula
The Affective domain of curricula places emphasis on feeling and valuing in education. This is the aspect of the curriculum that emphasizes emotions and motivation. This domain is rooted in the belief that schools have responsibilities beyond the delivery of instruction. In this domain, the information is presented in a manner that guides students to seeing the value in the things they are learning in the classroom in a way that helps the students see the value in the material that is being covered in the course. It is the goal to make a lasting impression on the students, eliciting an emotional response from the students. The affective domain of curricula also attempts to address concepts such as morality, character building, resiliency, empathy, and perseverance by modeling and promoting good citizenship in the classroom (Miller, 2005)
Student-Centered Curriculum
A student-centered curriculum emphasizes students’ interests and needs. In student-centered instruction students take a more active role in their own learning. The students construct their own knowledge with the assistance of the teacher (Ornstein, 1982). The Progressive philosophy of education informs the student-centered curriculum. Teachers who identify with this philosophy believe that focusing on students’ needs and personal interests, students tend to be more motivated to engage with the material in a more meaningful way.
Humanistic
Humanistic learning focuses on student mastery and personal growth. The objectives of humanistic learning strive to instill a set of values and feelings in the students. The humanistic model focuses on the importance of cultivating the human potential. Humanists seek a higher sense of consciousness in the students and enhancement of the mind (Ornstein, 1982).
Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is a teaching strategy that is structured around small groups comprised of students with varying ability levels. Cooperative learning incorporates a variety of learning experiences to enhance their understanding of a particular topic. In some cases, members of each group are assigned tasks. These tasks are then shared with students in other groups. In this model students take on the role of the learner as well as teacher (Johnson & Johnson, 1999). The jigsaw model is an excellent way to engage students in this type of learning. See the video at the bottom of this page to watch a teacher model this technique.
Broad Fields Curriculum
Broad fields design is in response to the lack of integration under subject-centered design. Many educators feel that curricula in the subject –centered model is too compartmentalized. The students sometimes have difficulty making interdisciplinary connections between the different subjects. The drawback with this interdisciplinary model is combining so many subjects, students get knowledge that is less in-depth in comparison to the deeper content of a single-subject. (Barnett, 2009)
Activity Curriculum
This movement originated in private child-centered schools and impacted the public elementary school curriculum. This advocated carefully planned activities that were tied to a child’s needs and interests. This teaching strategy acted as the basis of emerging teaching strategies that included life experiences, field trips, and group activities (Ornstein, 1982).
Stakeholders and Curricular Decision Making
Parents, Schools, and Communities
Parents can be the most valuable influences on the curriculum adopted at the local level. The Board of Education adopts the curriculum, but the parents are the taxpayers in the district, so they have a vested interest in the way their children are taught. This input can be made through contacting individual teachers and/or the administration to shape their children’s educations.
Special Interest Groups
Special interest groups advocate for particular policies and focus in education. These groups can be comprised of people from a specific culture, ethnicity, or religious group and may lobby for changes in education through a political lens based on their political party affiliation.
State Legislatures
Public schools are funded by taxpayer dollars and governed by their respective states and departments of education. State legislators tend to focus on what best meets the needs of all students. State legislatures play a vital role in education because they set the state budget for education and pass laws pertaining to the educational system statewide. Some policies are influenced by state legislators and the state’s department of education.
Schools
The school’s influence revolves around both the philosophical picture of what schools should accomplish and the practical picture of what to do with the students today. Colleges often share their expectations for incoming students so that K-12 teachers can make the students college or career ready.
Textbooks and Testing Companies
The states that represent the greatest possible business for the publishers can have tremendous influence over the content of the books. California and Texas, for example, account for approximately 20 percent of the textbook market.
Standards: The Next Generation
The New York State Board of Regents revised the ELA and Mathematics Learning Standards in 2017. The ELA and Mathematics standards were revised to ensure that New York State has well-crafted standards for our students (NYSED, 2017). This is the most recent iteration of the information that any teacher and student in New York State will be held accountable for. Creation of good objectives that allow for achievement of both cognitive and affective goals will assist us in meeting these standards.
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4.05: References
Barnett, R. (2009). Knowing and becoming in the higher education curriculum. Studies in higher education, 34(4), 429-440.
Block, J. H., & Anderson, L. W. (1974). Mastery learning. Handbook on Teaching Educational Psychology.
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. Vol. 1: Cognitive domain. New York: McKay, 20-24.
Bruner, J. S. (1960). On learning mathematics. The Mathematics Teacher, 53(8), 610-619.
Dewey, J. (1902). The child and the curriculum (No. 5). University of Chicago Press.
Eisner, E. W. (1994). The educational imagination: On the design and evaluation of school programs. Macmillan Coll Division.
Flinders, D. J., Noddings, N., & Thornton, S. J. (1986). The null curriculum: Its theoretical basis and practical implications. Curriculum Inquiry, 16(1), 33-42.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1999). Making cooperative learning work. Theory into practice, 38(2), 67-73.
Miller, M. (2005). Teaching and learning in affective domain. Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved March, 6, 2008.
NYSED. (2017) New York State Next Generation English Language Arts and Mathematics Learning Standards. Retrieved from: http://www.nysed.gov/next-generation-learning-standards
Ornstein, A. C. (1982). Curriculum contrasts: A historical overview. The Phi Delta Kappan, 63(6), 404-408.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
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Learning Objectives
• Describe different philosophies of education
• Describe characteristics of one philosophy of education
• Connect characteristics of one philosophy of education to instructional methods and classroom management
• Write a brief I-statement on students’ emerging philosophy of education
• Differentiate between an educational philosophy and ideology
Pre-Reading Activity
Think and write on the following guiding questions
• What does being teacher mean?
• What are the aspects that make teachers what teachers are?
• What should be taught?
• How should it be taught?
• Why is it important to teach….(insert content)?
• What is knowledge?
• How does knowledge become learned by students?
• What is the relationship between teacher and student?
Whether you are aware or not, you have begun writing philosophical statements about education and being a teacher. After sharing your answers, please do the following:
1. Complete the Educational Philosophies Self-Assessment Survey
2. Compile your score using Educational Philosophies Self-Assessment Scoring Guide
What does this survey reveal about your underlining philosophy?
Do you agree or disagree with this assessment? Explain.
What might this survey reveal with your reasons in becoming a teacher?
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05: Educational Philosophies
A philosophy grounds or guides practice in the study of existence and knowledge while developing an ontology (the study of being) on what it means for something or someone to be—or exist. Educational philosophy, then, provides a foundation which constructs and guides the ways knowledge is generated and passed on to others. Therefore, it is of critical import that teachers begin to develop a clear understanding of philosophical traditions and how the philosophical underpinnings inform their educational philosophies; because, a clear educational philosophy will help guide and develop cohesive reasons for how each teacher designs classroom spaces and learning interactions with both teachers and students. A clear philosophy also frames the curriculum along a spectrum from teacher-centered curriculum to student-centered curriculum to society-centered curriculum.
Over the course of history, philosophy has had several paradigm shifts that influence teaching and learning. Each of these paradigm shifts altered the ontology, epistemology, axiology and school of philosophy, which also shaped what it means to be a teacher within each historical era. While Occidental metaphysical traditions are grounded in the tradition of the Ancient Greeks and the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle, philosophical traditions from the 19th century helped ground the early foundations of educational philosophy and the development of public education in Europe and the United States.
“What does it mean to be?” is the guiding question of ontology, and stemming from one’s stance on this foundational question, a general structure (Table 1) guides an educator’s general stance on epistemology, axiology, educational philosophy, and psychological orientations; these, then, inform, or should inform, an educator’s choice of instructional methods and classroom management techniques.
Visual Literacy Activity
Rather than focusing on the difficult and the abstract, let’s focus on the concrete and work our way up. Use Table 1 to help answer the following questions:
1. Choose one instructional activity from Table 1 you feel is an effective method of instruction. Explain why?
2. Choose one classroom management technique from Table 1 you feel is an effective classroom management technique. Explain why?
3. Do your two choices align in a similar area of the outlined shape? If so, explain why they might align? If not, explain why they might not align.
4. Trace your two choices up the table to psychological orientations, educational philosophy, axiology, epistemology, and ontology. Does this line align with where you placed on the philosophy of education assessment survey? If so, you are beginning to construct an outline for your philosophy of education. If not, you may need to explore more on what you feel is important in being a teacher. In either case, you will use the rest of this chapter to help guide your (re)developing philosophy of education.
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Generally, there are four ontological perspectives that frame schools of educational philosophy. Two ontological frameworks, idealism and realism, stem from Ancient Greece. The Ancient Greek philosopher Plato developed the tradition of idealism; whereas, Aristotle, Plato’s student, formed an antithetical ontology of realism. Progressivism and existentialism grew from the philosophical remnants of the Age of Enlightenment in the 19th century. Pragmatism formed within the United States during the late 1800s; at the same time, existentialism developed as a continental philosophy in Europe. While the early public education system in United States was guided by idealism and realism, pragmatism and existentialism has served as the influential foundations of 20th and 21st century educational philosophies.
Idealism
For idealists, ideas are the only true reality. Conscious reasoning is the only way to locate what is true, beautiful, and just. Plato founded Idealism and outlined its tenets in his book The Republic. For Plato, there are two worlds. The first world is home of the spiritual or mental world where universal ideas and truth were permanent; this world can only be found through conscious reasoning. The second world is the world of appearances and imperfection; a world experienced through sensory experiences of sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste. Plato outlines this duality between the two worlds in “The Allegory of the Cave.” In this famous allegory, people are chained against walls with a fire behind them. What the people perceive as real are only shadowed projections on the wall of cave. If one was to break free, leave the cave, and discover the sun, this new “realm” would discover the true source of everything that was previously known. It would be the realm of pure fact and form. This is the source of all that is real. The real world is just an imperfect projection of these ideas, forms, and truth.
Almost two centuries later, Dutch philosopher Renè Descartes would shift Platonic Idealism toward mind-body dualism with his famous phrase “Cogito, ergo sum (I think; therefore, I am).” For Descartes, the only proof of his existence is his thinking—a thinking being. Like Plato, Descartes outlined a rationale for why perceptions are unreliable, and the external world is illusory. Only through rationale deduction, could one obtain truth. While Plato outlined a dualism between two separate worlds, Descartes established an Idealism founded on mind-body dualism where the thinking mind is given privilege over the physical body and external world. This dualism would heavily influence philosophy and educational philosophy well into the 20th century.
Teaching, for Idealists, focuses on moral excellence that will benefit society. Students should focus on subjects of the mind like literature, history, and philosophy. Students will demonstrate understanding through participation in lecture and through Socratic-dialogues which engage students in introspection and insight that bring to conscious the universal forms and concepts.
Key philosophers:
Plato, Descartes
Realism
Realism’s central tenet is based on a reality, or external universe, independent from the human mind. Aristotle, Plato’s student, contradicted his teacher’s Idealist philosophy and formulated a philosophy on determining truth through observation. Reality can be truly understood by careful observation of all the data. Because of his emphasis on careful observation, Aristotle is often referred as the Father of the Scientific Method. Through logic, humans can reason about the physical universe. Essences of things or substances, therefore, can be determined by examination of the object or substance. Aristotle’s logic, then, emphasizes induction as well as deduction, and the real world can be determined through both.
During the Enlightenment, Common Sense Realism began to counter the Idealism of Descartes. Rather than the skepticism of the external world espoused by Idealists, the Common Sense Realists, like John Locke, argue that ordinary experiences intuit a self and the physical world without the skepticism of the real world outside the mind. This Realism would influence the development of Empiricism and Pragmatism later in the Enlightenment.
For realists, teaching methods should focus on basic skills and memorization and mastery of facts. Students demonstrate content mastery of these skills through critical observation and applied experimentation.
Pragmatism
Like Realism, Pragmatism requires empirical observation of the real world; however, unlike Realism and Idealism, the real world is not an unchanging whole, but is evolving and changing according to how thought is applied into action towards a problem. Thought cannot or should not describe or represent reality, but rather, should be applied by the practical applying thoughts and experiences to problems that arise. The universe, then, is always evolving according to new applied thoughts turned into actions. Pragmatism’s founder Charles Sanders Pierce posits thought must produce action towards an ever-changing universe.
John Dewey, the founder of Progressivism, believed that experience is central to explaining the world; moreover, experience is what is needed to be explained. One needs practical experiences and uses explanations to find models that would best fit any given problem or situation. As new experiences and explanations arise, reality will evolve or change to new situations and problems.
Pragmatists focus on hands-on, experiential learning tasks such as experimenting, and working on projects in groups. Students will demonstrate understanding through applied learning tasks to concrete problems or tasks.
Key philosophers:
Charles S. Pearce, William James, John Dewey
Existentialism
Existentialism grew from the continental philosophies forming in Europe during the 19th and early 20th century, most notably hermeneutic phenomenology—the examination of lived-experience. Hermeneutic phenomenology and existentialism countered the dualisms inherent in both Idealism and Realism. The world does not have any meaning outside human existence within a world. The mind/body or mind/physical world duality and cannot have any meaning without a human being actively absorbed in the world. Jean Paul Sarte posited that “existence precedes essence”, which means one’s existence comes before the nature, or fact, of a thing. This means that individual human beings are free to determine their own meaning for life and do not possess any inherent identity different than one the individual chooses or creates.
Existentialists position the individual as responsible for their own being, or existence. “Who am I? What should I do?” become central questions for an individual’s project in being. If one identifies with being a teacher, or any other identity like being a parent, then one must evaluate what does one who teaches (or any other identity) really do? After thoughtful and careful reflection, one must choose to authentically do the project of being a teacher (or any other identity). Acting in accordance to your chosen beliefs and values despite social pressures is the way to have an authentic existence; however, acting or adopting false values based on social pressures would be acting in “bad faith” and one would be living an inauthentic existence according to Sartre.
In educational settings, Existentialists focus on giving students personal choice where they must confront others’ views in order to clarify and develop authentic actions in terms of the students’ developing identities. Existentialists have difficulty positioning students as objects to measured, tracked, or standardized. Teachers who adhere to an Existentialist ontology create activities to guide students to self-direction and self-actualization.
Key philosophers:
Søren Kierkegaard, Jean Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir
Axiology
Axiology is the study of value or concepts of worth. There are two main axiological stances: one that explores ethics and what is right and wrong; and the other deals with aesthetics and what is beautiful. While there are two main stances of axiology between ethics and aesthetics, axiology can be further refined. Analytical philosophy, or logical positivist, attempts to measure value based on the mathematics of value in an attempt to determine objective facts on why something has value. Normative ethics focuses on how a person determines basic ethical or moral standards. Ethics of care, unlike normative ethics, focuses on relational aspects between humans and a person’s identity that can be defined by one’s individual relations with others. Lastly, aesthetics is related to the philosophy of art. A person focusing on aesthetics puzzles how one experiences or determines beauty, ugliness, form, and the sublime.
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There are four philosophical perspectives currently used in educational settings: essentialism, perennialism, progressivism, and social reconstructionism/critical pedagogy. Unlike the more abstract ontology and axiology, these four perspectives focus primarily on what should be taught and how it should be taught, i.e. the curriculum.
Essentialism
Essentialism adheres to a belief that a core set of essential skills must be taught to all students. Essentialists tend to privilege traditional academic disciplines that will develop prescribed skills and objectives in different content areas as well as develop a common culture. Typically, essentialism argues for a back-to-basics approach on teaching intellectual and moral standards. Schools should prepare all students to be productive members of society. Essentialist curricula focuses on reading, writing, computing clearly and logically about objective facts about the outside real world. Schools should be sites of rigor where students learn to work hard and respect authority. Because of this stance, essentialism tends to subscribe to tenets of Realism. Essentialist classrooms tend to be teacher-centered in instructional delivery with an emphasis on lecture and teacher demonstrations.
Key theorists:
William Bagley, E.D. Hirsh Jr.
Perennialism
Perennialism advocates for seeking, teaching, and learning universal truths that span across historical time periods. These truths, Perennialists argue, have everlasting importance in helping humans solve problems regardless of time and place. While Perennialism resembles essentialism at first glance, perennialism focuses on the individual development of the student rather than emphasizing skills. Perennialism supports liberal arts curricula that helps produces well-rounded individuals with some knowledge across the arts and sciences. All students should take classes in English Language Arts, foreign languages, mathematics, natural sciences, fine arts, and philosophy. Like Essentialism, Perennialism may tend to favor teacher-centered instruction; however, Perennialists do utilize student-centered instructional activities like Socratic Seminar, which values and encourages students to think, rationalize, and develop their own ideas on topics.
Key theorists:
Robert Hutchins, Mortimer Adler
Progressivism
Progressivism focuses its educational stance toward experiential learning with a focus on developing the whole child. Students learn by doing rather than being lectured to by teachers. Curriculum is usually integrated across contents instead of siloed into different disciplines. Progressivism’s stance is in stark contrast to both Essentialism and Perennialism in this manner. Progressivism follows a clear pragmatic ontology where the learner focuses on solving real-world problems through real experiences. Progressivist classrooms are student-centered where students will work in cooperative/collaborative groups to do project-based, expeditionary, problem-based, and/or service-learning activities. In progressivist classrooms, students have opportunities to follow their interests and have shared authority in planning and decision making with teachers.
Key theorists:
John Dewey, Maria Montessori
Social Reconstructionism & Critical Pedagogy
Social reconstructionism was founded as a response to the atrocities of World War II and the Holocaust to assuage human cruelty. Social reform in response to helping prepare students to make a better world through instilling democratic values. Critical pedagogy emerged from the foundation of the early social reconstructionist movement. Critical pedagogy is the application of critical theory to education. For critical pedagogues, teaching and learning is inherently a political act and they declare that knowledge and language are not neutral, nor can they be objective. Therefore, issues involving social, environmental, or economic justice cannot be separated from the curriculum. Critical pedagogy’s goal is to emancipate marginalized or oppressed groups by developing, according to Paulo Freire, conscientização, or critical consciousness in students. Critical pedagogy de-centers the traditional classroom, which positions teacher at the center. The curriculum and classroom with a critical pedagogy stance is student-centered and focuses its content on social critique and political action.
Key theorists:
Paulo Freire, bell hooks (note: bell hooks intentionally does not capitalize her name, which follows her critical stance that language, even how we write one’s own name, is political and ideological.)
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Educational psychology focuses on how learning occurs; however, like educational perspectives and axiology, there are differing positions in educational psychology that can be traced back to ontological stances. There are four main psychology stances on human development and learning that inform education: information processing, behaviorism, constructivism / cognitivism, and humanism.
Information Processing
Information processing theorists typically equate the human mind as analogous to computer processing. The mind uses hierarchical structures where a learner processes knowledge and ideas in the mind by attending, receiving, processing, storing, and retrieving knowledge from memory. All knowledge has three aspects: declarative, procedural, or conditional knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the knowing of this or that, e.g., penguins have feathers or trees grow by converting carbon dioxide and sunlight into oxygen (photosynthesis). Procedural knowledge is the knowing how to do things or the steps/strategies involved in how to do things, e.g., the steps involved in multiplying mixed numbers or the best ways to make a tuna fish sandwich. Conditional knowledge involves knowing the when and the why to apply the other two types of knowledge, e.g., readers skim newspapers to get the gist, but apply close reading to literature or difficult texts to develop deeper understandings.
Key theorists:
John Atkinson, Richard Shiffrin
Behaviorism
Unlike the information processing stance, behaviorism is not concerned with internal thought processes because they cannot be observed. Environment and other external forces shape one’s behavior. Learning occurs when conditioned by external stimuli with reinforcement, positive or negative, from others in addition to feedback from outside objects. The teacher aids students in learning by conditioning them to achieve desirable behaviors through careful observation and applying the appropriate reinforcers for the desired behavior. Learning, then, comes through repetition and meaningful connection through reinforcement. Reinforcers take shape in different ways: grades, stickers, candy, praise, or negative reinforcers that will remove positive reinforcers.
Key theorists:
B.F. Skinner, Montrose Wolf
Constructivism / Cognitivism
Constructivism or cognitivism positions students as active learners that construct their own understandings through active engagement with outside interaction with people, objects, places, and events with reflection on the experience. Learning occurs when a learner comes in conflict with what one knows or believes, which causes an imbalance and a quest on the learner to restore cognitive equilibrium. Learners organize their understandings into organized structures or schemas. When new information is presented, learners must modify the structures or schemas to accommodate and assimilate the new knowledge. Social constructivists focus on the shared, social construction of knowledge by learning a skill or concepts with more experienced learners until one can do the skill or apply the concepts independently, which is referred to by educators as the Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1978).
Key theorists:
Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky
Humanism
Humanism views these as essential to being human: children are inherently good, humans have free will, humans have a moral conscience, humans can reason, and humans have aesthetic discernment. Learning and understanding are developed through sensual experience, which is gradual and organic in human development. Humanists position students to be in control of their own learning; therefore, students are given a lot of autonomy, choice, and responsibility in the learning environment. Humanism positions students to become self-reliant, life-long learners that are engaged through intrinsic motivation to learn new ideas. Recent iterations of humanism focus on the social and emotional well-being of children in addition to cognitive abilities of children.
Key theorists:
Carl Rogers, Harold C. Lyon Jr.
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5.05: References
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Learning Objectives
• Define assessment
• Differentiate between assessment and evaluation
• Identify the goals of assessment
• Identify assessment, accountability, and historical factors
• Define formative and summative assessment
• Define global assessments Articulate the process of assigning grades
Think about and discuss
You and your friend are both enrolled in an Introduction to Education course. As you compare the syllabi and assignments, you note that the text is the same and that there are similar assignments. The one difference is that your friend’s syllabus lists a midterm and a final exam, which total 80% of the course grade.; while your syllabus lists quizzes at the completion of every three chapters. With 15 chapters to be covered, you figure that while your friend will have 2 test grades, you will have 5. You and your friend try to decide if one position is more favorable to the student.
In the meantime, you speak to a student in the third section of the course and discover that their professor does not give any quizzes. All points earned are based on project-based assignments and rubrics.
• The university offers a drop-add period and time is getting close. Should you remain in the section you have been assigned, or should you transfer to one of the other sections?
• Which student is in the most advantageous position?
• Which student is in the least advantageous position?
• Which situation would you prefer? Why?
• Which situation would you least prefer? Why?
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06: Assessment
Assessment, as defined by www.edglossary.org , “ refers to the wide variety of methods or tools that educators use to evaluate, measure, and document the academic readiness, learning progress, skill acquisition, or educational needs of students.” It is analogous to evaluation, judgment, rating, appraisal, and analysis. (Great Schools Partnership, 2015)
Although the terms assessment and evaluation are often used synonymously, they are in fact distinctive and different. The intent of assessment is to measure effectiveness; evaluation adds a value component to the process. A teacher may assess a student to ascertain how well the individual successfully met the learning target. If, however, the measurement is used to determine program placement, for example with a special education program, honors club, or for Individual Educational Program documentation, the assessment constitutes an evaluation.
Goals of Assessment
Assessment is two-fold in nature. It enables the teacher to gather information and to then determine what the learner knows or does not know and concurrently drives the planning phase. In order to meet the needs of all learners, the teacher may need to differentiate the instruction.
The teacher is then responsible for providing positive feedback in a timely manner to the student. This feedback should include specifically whether the student met the learning target, specifically what needs to be improved upon, and who and how these goals will be met.
The intent of assessment has traditionally been to determine what the learner has learned. Today, the emphasis is on authentic assessment. While the former typically employed recall methods, the latter encourages learners to demonstrate greater comprehension. (Wiggins, 1990)
7 Keys to Effective Feedback
Characteristics Outcome
1) Goal-referenced Learner knows whether they are on track towards a goal or need to change course.
2) Tangible & transparent Learners can understand exactly how your feedback relates to the task at hand.
3) Actionable Learners know specifically what actions to take to move towards their goal
4) User-friendly Learner finds the feedback appropriate to his/her cognitive level.
5) Timely Learner receives feedback while the attempt and effect are still fresh in their mind.
6) Ongoing Learner has multiple opportunities to learn and improve towards the ultimate goal.
7) Consistent Learner can adjust his/her performance based on stable, accurate, and trust-worthy feedback.
Methods to Assess
Within an academic setting, assessment may include “the process of observing learning;i describing, collecting, recording, scoring, and interpreting information about a student’s or one’s own learning http://www.k12.hi.us/atr/evaluation/glossary.htm.”
It can occur by observations, interviews, tests, projects or any other information gathering method. Within the early childhood and early primary elementary grades, observations are used frequently to assess learners. Teachers may use a checklist to note areas of proficiency or readiness and may opt to use checkmarks or some other consistent means for record-keeping.
Another form of assessment in the early grades incorporates anecdotal records. These consist of narratives in which the teacher notes behaviors or abilities. Anecdotal records should be factual accounts, with interpretation clearly delineated.
It is helpful for a teacher to include the date, day, and time. This record-keeping may result in emerging patterns. Does the learner exhibit certain behaviors or respond to learning activities because of proximity to lunchtime, or morning or afternoon? The aspect of understanding how individuals learn can be noted within the affective domain. (Kirk, N/D) This may influence how a student learns and behaves within a classroom setting. Seating, natural and artificial lighting, noise, and temperature all influence how a student feels and interacts within the environment and can have effect cognitive behaviors.
Interviews can be used on the elementary or secondary levels as an assessment tool. Like any other well- planned assessment tool, they necessitate careful planning and development of questions, positive rapport with the student, and an environment that is free from distractions, outside noise, and time constraints. Interviews may or may not be audiotaped or videotaped and scoring rubrics may be used to assess (Southerland, ND).
Tests offer yet another venue for assessment purposes. They may take the form of essay or short response, fill-in-the-blank, matching, or true or false formats. Like any of the other methods, they should be valid and reliable. Carefully thought out test questions need to be tied to learning standards and a clear and fair scoring measure needs to be in place.
Typically, assessment has been viewed as the result; the letter or point assigned at the end of an assignment; however, assessment can and should come at the beginning, end and throughout the teaching and learning process. While assessment should drive instruction, it often falls short when determining instructional decisions
Scenario
Danielle Stein eagerly anticipated the upcoming parent-teacher conferences of the day. She had studied hard as a Childhood Education major and had worked diligently in her first year as a third-grade teacher at Maplewood Elementary School. Danielle had planned interdisciplinary lessons, employed inquiry-based learning centers, and met regularly with individual students to ensure that they had mastered the skills as determined by the state standards.
Each student had a portfolio filled with dated representations of their work. Ms. Stein understood the importance of specific and timely feedback and had painstakingly provided detailed written feedback on each work sample. She meticulously arranged the portfolios along with anecdotal notes and looked forward to sharing the accomplishments of the students with their family members.
As last-minute jitters began to set in, Danielle realized that she had no grades for any of the students. Despite doing all the right things, she had no way to assign a grade to any of the work the students had done. How would she respond when guardians asked what grade their child would earn on the first report card? How would she accurately tell them how they compared with their peers in reading? In math? In social studies and science?
Danielle quickly realized she was not as prepared as she had anticipated.
Discussion Questions
How do teachers assess student work? Is there a certain number of assignments that should be graded within a 9-week session? Are there alternatives to letter grades? Reflect on how you were graded as a student.
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Sputnik –cold war fear mentality
The headlines on October 4, 1957 revealed that the Soviet Union had successfully launched Sputnik 1, the first man-made satellite. This event single-handedly launched America into a decades long endeavor to not only compete in the space program, but to evaluate and launch a new and purportedly improved educational system that would afford its students a curriculum of rigor, especially in the realms of mathematics and science. It would, presumably, prepare U.S. students to compete with other nations.
This event also marked a pivotal reversal of progressive educational philosophy that prevailed during the 1950’s. Some proponents of a more rigorous curricula contended that U.S. education was “soft,” that they relied too heavily on vocational training, and that teachers were not trained effectively. (Watters, 2015)
Life, a weekly magazine at the time, known for its general interest stories and quality photographs ran a five-part essay entitled The Crisis in U.S. Education.” The cover photo was intended to juxtapose the seriousness of the Soviet student with the carefree image of the U.S. student. Inside articles contrasted the former as a student of physics and chemistry with the latter who jokingly referred to his inability to solve simple geography problems.
Critics of the U.S. educational system included Arthur Bester (Educational Wastelands 1953 and Restoration of Learning 1956). Bestor, professor of history at the University of Illinois wrote a Life magazine article, “What Went Wrong with US Schools?” He made sharp comparisons to schools and the Sputnik satellite; contending that US students were simply not prepared. (Bestor, 1953)
These series of events set the stage for the educational reform measures of the next decades; a period marked by the need for rigor, accountability and competitive edge within the global sphere.
Nearly two decades later, the historic report, A Nation at Risk (April 1983), would catapult a nation toward an increased urgency for rigor and competency. As the framers stated:
We report to the American people that while we can take justifiable pride in what our schools and colleges have historically accomplished and contributed to the United States and the well-being of its people, the educational foundations of our society are presently being eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity that threatens our very future as a Nation and a people. What was unimaginable a generation ago has begun to occur–others are matching and surpassing our educational attainments. toward the educational foundations of our society are presently being eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity that threatens our very future as a Nation and a people. (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983)
In an age of accountability and data driven curriculum, policy makers have supported standardized and other testing measures; however, some organizations have highlighted the importance of a balance between teaching and testing. The “Learning Is More Than a Test Score” campaign has brought to light the curricula omissions in favor of increased time for testing and preparation of testing [1] Studies reveal that students spend 20 to 50 hours each year taking tests while those in heavily tested grades spend 60 to more than 110 hours per year. These figures translate to additional pupil expenditures of \$700 to at time, more than \$1,000 per year and account for 20 to 40 minutes of lost instructional time each day (see footnote 1).
The debate continues about the loss of academic time and dollars spent in relation to the benefits of test preparation.
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Formative Assessment
Assessment should be designed to inform the teacher and learner in order to accommodate the needs of the learner. The formative assessment is one which occurs throughout a lesson or unit and may take a variety of forms. A teacher may determine what students know by question and answer formats, checklists, or by paper and pencil assignments. Likewise, games such as Kahoot and Jeopardy may assist in similar data collection. The informed teacher can utilize the results of the formative assessment to re-engage or to modify the teaching plans to meet the individual needs of the students.
Summative Assessment
The summative assessment is the evaluation that is given at the conclusion of a unit or lesson. It may determine student placement or level of knowledge and is often thought of as a grade determinant. Results of summative assessment are not used in lesson planning; rather, they are used to evaluate the mastery of material. It can take the form of a question and answer or paper and pencil approach like the formative assessment. Summative assessments also typically have one correct answer.
Formative Assessment Both Summative Assessment
They are assessments that we carry out to help inform the learning ‘in the moment’. Formative assessment is coninuous, informal and should have a central and pivotal role in every classroom.
If used correctly, it will have a high impact on current learning and help you guide your instruction and teaching
Are ways to assess pupils.
Must evaluate pupils effectively
Are used for student feedback
Assist in future lesson planning
There are different types of summative assessments that we carry out ‘after the event,’ often periodic (rather than continuous), and are often measured against a set standard.
Summative assessment can be thought of as helping to validate and ‘check’ formative assessment – it is a periodic measure of how children are, overall, progressing in their mathematics learning.
Includes:
• Quizzes
• Talking in class
• Creating diagrams or charts
• Homework or classword
• Exit Surveys
Includes:
• End of year assessments
• Midterm or end-of-term exams
• End of term portfolios
• SATs
High-Stakes Assessments is one example of a summative evaluation in that it is used to determine a grade or placement. As American students falter compared to other industrialized countries, policy makers have shifted toward a great concentration on high-stakes testing to increase student standing. Unfortunately, this emphasis on high-stakes testing has not yielded an increase in scores (Michael Hout, 2012).
Global Assessment
According to the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), Reading Literacy scores, United States students earned an average score of 497, whileSingapore students earned the highest average, 535 and Lebanon students tied with Kosovo for the lowest average of 347. This places United States students in the average range of reading. (Reading Literacy: Average Scores, 2015)
1. Mathematics Literacy scores revealed an average of 470 for U.S. students as compared to Singapore scores of 564 at the highest end and 328 from the Dominican Republic at the lowest end placing United States students as below average performers. (Mathematics Literacy: Average Scores, 2015)
Although students in the United States have demonstrated an interest and positive attitude toward science, the scores reveal a discrepancy between attitude and performance, with United States students scoring at an average of 496 as compared to a high of 556 (Singapore), and a low of Dominican Republic (332).
Assigning Grades
If you return to the Think About and Discuss at the beginning of this chapter, you may realize that there is no one way to assess and no one way that educators will agree upon. Ultimately, as a reflective educator, you will recognize that the intent of assessment should be to communicate to students and family members how closely learners have met the learning goals. How you choose to determine this is left to you or to the school in which you teach. Will you choose to assign letter grades, comments, or both? Will you give partial credit? Will opt not to use grades at times?
Will your grades be fairly assigned? Will you measure what the student knew initially and then measure the learning gain or will you opt to only measure the latter?
How will the grades impact the motivation and social-emotional state of the learner?
Final Words
As you can see, the stroke of a pen can have lasting impressions on the student. Grades can classify learners. They can motivate or squelch desire. They can encourage or demean. They can be used to punish or to teach. How will you use grades as a means to plan and instruct for the benefit of all learners?
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6.04: References
Bestor, A. (1953). Educational Wastelands: The Retreat from Learning in Our Public Schools. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Great Schools Partnership. (2015, 11 10). Assessment. Retrieved from The Glossary of Education Reform: https://www.edglossary.org/assessment/
Michael Hout, S. E. (2012). Do High-Stakes Tests Improve Learning? Issues in Science and Technology, 33-38.
Kirk, K. (N/D). What is the Affective Domain anyway? Retrieved from Student Motivations and Attitudes: The Role of the Affective Domain in Geoscience Learning: https://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/affective/intro.html
Mathematics Literacy: Average Scores. (2015). Retrieved from IES: NCES Natuional Center for Education Statistics: https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/pisa/pisa2015/pisa2015highlights_5.asp
National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A Nation At Risk. Washington, DC: National Commission of Education.
National Institute for Science Education. (N/D). Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATS) – Overview. Retrieved from Field-tested Learning Assessment Guide: http://archive.wceruw.org/cl1/flag/cat/cat.htm
OECD . (2015). Country Note: Key Findings from PISA 2015 For the United States. OECD Countries: OECD.
Reading Literacy: Average Scores. (2015). Retrieved from IES: NCES National Center for Education Statistics: https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/pisa/pisa2015/pisa2015highlights_4.asp
SlideShare. (2014, 10 22). Providing Students with Effective Feedback. Retrieved from Effective Feedback: https://www.slideshare.net/keithwparker3/effective-feedback-40601385
Southerland, S. A. (N/D). Classroom Assessment Techniques Interviews. Retrieved from Field-tested Learning Assessment Guide: http://archive.wceruw.org/cl1/flag/cat/interviews/interviews1.htm
Watters, A. (2015, June 20). How Sputnik Launched Ed-Tech: The National Defense Education Act of 1958. Retrieved from hackeducation.com: http://hackeducation.com/2015/06/20/sputnik
Wiggins, G. (1990). The Case for Authentic Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 2(2). California Assessment Program. Retrieved from University of Delaware Center for Teaching & Assessment of Learning: https://ctal.udel.edu/resources/the-case-for-authentic-assessment/
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Learning Objectives
• Detail the significance of classroom management
• Outline models of classroom management
• Describe the characteristics of effective classroom management
When you think about your school days, what are your fond memories? Maybe the teacher who taught so well; the teacher who connected deeply making you love the subject that you did not even think of; those study halls; those fun club activities; and of course, your school friends! But, did you ever think how do the teachers make this all happen? How was this teaching and learning possible, given the array of subjects you learn at school, the variety of topics you cover in each subject, and the need to teach diverse students with different learning abilities and needs? How did the teachers make their teaching effective?
Many of you will agree that if you are to teach effectively and for students to learn, you may need to have plan to deliver your class. But keep in mind that you may have the best content-wise lesson plan for your class and you may even have the best resources to deliver your instruction, however, if you want to be a successful teacher, you need to also create the atmosphere for teaching and learning. Hence, in order to create an atmosphere for learning, classroom management plan serves as a prerequisite for effective teaching and learning (Allen, 1996).
In this chapter you will learn the significance of classroom management, briefly study the models of classroom management, learn the characteristics of effective classroom management and draft your own classroom management plan to be reflective of and consistent with your teaching philosophy.
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07: Classroom Management
Icebreaker
Consider these two scenarios and imagine yourself as a teacher in that situation. In small groups, reflect on what could be some of the strategies you would implement to create an effective learning atmosphere? What could be some of the changes that you would make in your classroom to overcome such situations?
Scenario A: This is an excerpt from a professional journal kept by Kelvin Seifert, a Kindergarten teacher.
20xx-11-14: Today my student Carol sat in the circle, watching others while we all played Duck, Duck, Goose (in this game, one student is outside the circle, tags another student who then chases the first person around the circle). Carol’s turn had already passed. Apparently, she was bored, because she flopped on her back, smiling broadly, rolling around luxuriously on the floor in the path of the other runners. Several classmates noticed her, smiled or giggled, began flopping down as well. One chaser tripped over a “flopper” “Sit up, Carol,” said I, the ever-vigilant teacher. “You’re in the way.” But no result. I repeated this twice, firmly; then moved to pick her up. Instantly Carol ran to the far side of the gym, still smiling broadly. Then her best friend ran off with her. Now a whole new game was launched, or really two games: “Run-from-the-teacher” and “Enjoy-being-watched-by-everybody.” A lot more exciting, unfortunately, than Duck, Duck, Goose! (Seifert & Sutton, 2009)
Scenario B: An excerpt from Kelvin’s same journal several years later, when he was teaching math in high school:
20xx-3-4: The same four students sat in the back again today, as usual. They seem to look in every direction except at me, even when I’m explaining material that they need to know. The way they smile and whisper to each other, it seems almost like they are “in love” with each other, though I can’t be sure who loves whom the most. Others—students not part of the foursome—seem to react variously. Some seem annoyed, turn the other way, avoid talking with the group, and so on. But others seem almost envious—as if they want to be part of the “in” group, too, and were impressed with the foursome’s ability to get away with being inattentive and almost rude. Either way, I think a lot of other students are being distracted. Twice during the period today, I happened to notice members of the group passing a note, and then giggling and looking at me. By the end, I had had enough of this sort of thing, so I kept them in briefly after class and asked one of them to read the note. They looked a bit embarrassed and hesitant, but eventually one of them opened the note and read it out loud. “Choose one.” it said. “Mr. Seifert looks (1) old ____, (2) stupid____, or (3) clueless____.” (Seifert & Sutton, 2009)
Kelvin’s experiences in managing these very different classrooms taught him what every teacher knows or else quickly learns ; management matters a lot. But his experiences also taught him that management is about more than correcting the misbehaviors of individuals and more than just discipline. Classroom management is also about orchestrating or coordinating entire sets or sequences of learning activities so that everyone , misbehaving or not, learns as easily and productively as possible. Educators sometimes , therefore , describe good management as the creation of a positive learning environment , because the term calls attention to the totality of activities and people in a classroom, as well as to their goals and expectations about learning (Jones & Jones, 2007). Management according to Kelvin refers to individual students’ behavior and learning, and in speaking of the learning environment he more often meant the overall “feel” of the class as a whole ( Seifert & Sutton, 2009).
Why is Classroom Management crucial?
Managing the learning environment is both a major responsibility and an on-going concern for all teachers, even those with years of experience (Good & Brophy, 2002). There are several reasons. In the first place, a lot goes on in classrooms simultaneously, even when students seem to be doing only one task in common. Twenty-five students may all seem to be working on a sheet of math problems. But look more closely: several may be stuck on a particular problem, each for different reasons. A few others have worked only the first problem or two and are now chatting quietly with each other instead of continuing. Still, others have finished and are wondering what to do next. At any one moment, each student needs something different, such as different information, different hints, or different kinds of encouragement. Such diversity increases even more if the teacher deliberately assigns multiple activities to different groups or individuals (for example, if some students do a reading assignment while others do the math problems).
Another reason that managing the environment is challenging is because a teacher cannot predict everything that will happen in a class. A well-planned lesson may fall flat on its face, or take less time than expected, and you find yourself improvising to fill class time. On the other hand, an unplanned moment may become a wonderful, sustained exchange among students, and prompt you to drop previous plans and follow the flow of discussion. Interruptions happen continually: a fire drill, a drop-in visit from another teacher or the principal, a call on the intercom from the office. An activity may indeed turn out well, but also rather differently than you intended; you, therefore, have to decide how, if at all, to adjust the next day’s lesson to allow for this surprise.
A third reason for the importance of management is that students may form opinions and perceptions about your teaching that are inconsistent with your own. What you intend as encouragement for a shy student may seem to the student herself like “forced participation.” An eager, outgoing classmate watching your effort to encourage the shy student, moreover, may not see you as either encouraging or coercing, but as overlooking or ignoring other students who already want to participate. The variety of perceptions can lead to surprises in students’ responses—most often small ones, but occasionally major.
At the broadest, society-wide level, classroom management challenges teachers because public schooling is not voluntary. Students’ presence in a classroom is therefore not a sign, in and of itself, that they wish to learn. Instead, students’ presence is just a sign that an opportunity exists for teachers to motivate students to learn. Some students, of course, do enjoy learning and being in school, while others enjoy school because teachers have worked hard to make classroom life pleasant and interesting. Those students become motivated because you have successfully created a positive learning environment and have sustained it through skillful management.
Fortunately, it is possible to earn this sort of commitment from many students, and this chapter describes ways of doing so. We begin with ways of preventing management problems from happening by increasing students’ focus on learning. The methods include ideas about arranging classroom space, about establishing procedures, routines, and rules, and about communicating the importance of learning to students and parents. After these prevention-oriented discussions, we look at ways of refocusing students when and if their minds or actions stray from the tasks at hand. As you probably know from being a student, bringing students back on task can happen in many ways, and the ways vary widely in the energy and persistence required of the teacher. We try to indicate some of these variations, but because of space limitations and because of the richness of classroom life, we cannot describe them all (Seifert & Sutton, 2009).
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During the mid-1900’s, teachers started to express their concerns about managing classrooms. There was not any systematic approach developed by then. Traditionally, teachers used the authoritative assertion techniques, however, this technique did not last long and began to fade gradually (Allen, 1996). Later, researchers began to observe teachers all over the country to study what worked well and what did not for almost a decade from 1969 to 1979. This led to a systematic development of classroom management models.
There are several models that have been developed over the years. Allen (1996) in his research “Seven Models of Discipline” summarizes seven systematic models of classroom management borrowing from Charles’ book Building Classroom Discipline: From Models to Practice (1985). These models were a derivative of extensive classroom observations studying the student- teacher behavior in addition to considering the psychological aspects of humans (Allen, 1996, p. 1). They are:
1. The Kounin Model: Withitness, Alerting and Group Management.
2. The Neo-Skinnerian Model: Shaping Desired Behavior.
3. The Ginott Model: Addressing the Situation with Sane Messages.
4. The Glasser Model: Good Behavior comes from Good Choices.
5. The Dreikurs Model: Confronting Mistaken Goals.
6. The Canter Model: Assertively taking charge
7. The Jones Model: Body language, Incentive Systems, and providing Efficient help. (see Allen, 1996, p. 2-9 for detailed description of each model)
Over time scholars built on these models and developed other models based on their classroom needs. Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne (2006) discuss three classroom management models “based on the premise that teachers can diversify their skill set in order to best meet the needs of different groups of students” (as cited in ASCD, 2013).
First, the Noninterventionist model where a teacher helps students meet their potential by “enhancing personal growth building a strong, positive relationship, and assisting students with developing problem-solving abilities” (ASCD, 2013, p. 1). The end goal is to help student reach their potential independent of teacher’s direction.
Second, the Interventionist model where it is believed that students’ development is a “product of environmental conditions brought on by intervention in a student’s daily surroundings” (ASCD, 2013, p. 2). This approach is usually practiced in a positive reinforcement classroom where clear rules and classroom procedures have been established. Further, students are rewarded, or face consequences based on these classroom procedures (ASCD, 2013) The next section on Characteristics of Effective Classroom Management details the keys to successful classroom management and ways to establish a safe learning environment.
Third, the Interactivist model as the name suggests calls for teachers to consider each student’s learning and behavioral needs further helping them understand “their actions and consequences” (ASCD, 2013, p. 2). This approach makes students accountable for their actions and own learning.
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7.03: Characteristics of Effective Classroom Management
Robert J. Marzano and Jana S. Marzano (2003) in their research “The key to classroom Management” argue that by “combining appropriate levels of dominance and cooperation and an awareness of student needs, teachers can have positive classroom dynamics” (p. 6). Furthermore, Marzano (2003) in another meta-analysis of more than 100 studies, found that teacher-student relationship is one of the major characteristics for effective classroom management. In fact, their study presented some revealing data that teachers with quality student-teacher relationship s had 31 percent few er classroom management issues than did the teachers who did not have quality relationships with students. Hence, Marzano and Marzano (2003) propose some effective characteristics for better student-teacher relationships. Having specific teacher behaviors such as (1) exhibiting appropriate levels of dominance; (2) exhibiting appropriate levels of cooperation; and (3) being aware of high-needs students, builds the foundation for student-teacher relationships (Marzano, 2003, p. 8). Below, you will find a brief summary of teacher behaviors emphasized in Marzano and Marzano’s work “ The Key to Classroom Management ” (2003).
Appropriate levels of Dominance
Dominance in this context is neither referring to forceful control, nor does it have a negative connotation to it; rather, Wubbels et al. (1999), refer to it as “the teacher’s ability to provide clear purpose and strong guidance regarding both academics and student behavior” (as cited in Marzano & Marzano, 2003, p. 8). Hence, teachers can cultivate appropriate levels of dominance by establishing clear expectations in their classroom rules and procedures as well as establishing consequences for student behavior. Further, setting up clear learning goals is crucial for creating appropriate levels of dominance. Providing clear goals about the instruction and content at the beginning of the unit, providing feedback on these goals in a systematic manner, and the use of rubrics helps teachers establish and maintain clear learning goals. Finally, exhibiting assertive behavior favors teachers in developing appropriate levels of dominance (Marzano & Marzano, 2003, pp. 8-9). Borrowing from Emmer and colleagues (2003), Marzano and Marzano (2003) explain assertive behavior as “the ability to stand up for one’s legitimate rights in ways that make it less likely that other swill ignore or circumvent them” (p. 146). They further elaborated that assertive behavior does not mean passive or aggressive behavior. Rather, it is the use of assertive body language such as maintaining an erect posture, use of an appropriate tone of voice, and persisting until students respond with the appropriate behavior (as cited in Marzano & Marzano, p. 8).
Appropriate Levels of Cooperation
Unlike dominance where the teacher is the agent to make a change, cooperation calls for collaboration between student and teacher to work as a team. Marzano and Marzano (2003) emphasize that the interaction of dominance and cooperation plays a crucial role in effective student-teacher relationships. By providing flexible learning goals teachers can foster appropriate levels of cooperation. Empowering students to set their own objectives for a lesson is a way to impart a sense of cooperation and it also reflects that the teacher genuinely cares for student’s learning by accommodating their needs (Marzano & Marzano, 2003, p. 11). Teachers can reflect appropriate levels of cooperation by demonstrating a personal interest in each student in the class. They can greet students informally, talk about their personal interests and achievements, discuss extra-curricular interests, and so on that communicates concern for students. Finally, by using equitable and positive classroom behaviors, teachers can create and maintain appropriate levels of cooperation. Subtle behaviors such as maintaining eye contact with each student, setting up seating arrangement that facilitate easy movement for both students and teachers, and encouraging all students to contribute to class discussions. It is also recommended to call upon students who do not usually participate to motivate them for participation.
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Classrooms are filled with a diverse student population. To meet the different needs of students, teachers have to be equipped to accommodate their learning needs. Adelman and Taylor (2002) note that about “12-22 percent of all students in school suffer from mental, emotional, or behavioral disorders, and relatively few receive mental health services” (as cited in Marzano & Marzano, 2003). More importantly, although teachers may not be in a position to directly address their needs, Marzano and Marzano (2003) argue “that teachers with effective classroom management skills are aware of high-needs students and have a repertoire of specific techniques for meeting some of their needs” (p. 11). According to Marzano and Marzano (2003), there are five main categories of high-needs students. Each group further has some sub-categories, as explained below. The authors also suggest classroom management strategies for each of these categories and subcategories (p.11).
1. Passive students refrain themselves from criticism, ridicule, or rejection and exhibit behavior that keeps them away from the domination of others. The two subcategories of passive students are those who fear relationships, and those who fear failure. Teachers need to build trust and strong relationships with students, create a safe and welcoming environment, use positive reinforcement, and motivate them by rewarding their success. On the other hand, teachers also need to make sure to keep passive students away from aggressive people and withhold criticism (Marzano & Marzano, 2003)
2. Aggressive students, as the name suggests exhibit domination and control people around them through their demanding behavior. They do not worry about the consequences of their actions. The three subcategories are of aggressive students are hostile, oppositional, and covert. Marzano and Marzano (2003) explain,
Hostile students often have poor anger control, low capacity for empathy, and an inability to see the consequences of their actions. Oppositional students exhibit milder forms of behavior problems, but they consistently resist following rules, argue with adults, use harsh language, and tend to annoy others. Students in the covert subcategory may be quite pleasant at times, but they are often nearby when trouble starts and they never quite do what authority figures ask of them. (p. 12)
Hence, teachers need to develop appropriate strategies to help aggressive students make the best of their schooling. Creating discipline policy, behavior contracts, using rewards, and consequences approach have proven to help aggressive students. Although these students seem too aggressive and resist behavioral changes, it is necessary for teachers to understand the myriad of underlying reasons behind this behavior. Teachers need to work with students individually by creating goals, make them own these goals, foster ways for them to achieve and celebrate successes (Marzano & Marzano, 2003, p. 12).
1. Marzano and Marzano (2003) categorize students with attention problems as one category of high-needs students. The two subgroups in this category are hyperactive and inattentive students. While hyperactive students have “difficulty with motor control, both physically and verbally,” inattentive students have difficulty in staying focused on tasks (p. 10). Similar to aggressive students, working on behavior management contracts with students is helpful. Additionally, teachers must develop strategies to enhance students’ concentration skills (Marzano & Marzano, 2003).
2. Perfectionist students create challenging goals for them that are unattainable, hence feel low on self-esteem when they could not accomplish those goals. They are afraid of making mistakes assuming the shame and guilt associated with failure further lacking ways to cope with it. Teachers can help students set realistic goals, acknowledge mistakes, and to learn from it. Peer support also helps perfectionist students come out of this behavior (Marzano & Marzano, 2003)
3. Socially inept students feel lonely for their failed attempts to make and keep friends. They are often left alone due to their unusual behavior, “may stand too close and touch others in annoying ways, talk too much, and misread others’ comments” (Marzano & Marzano, 2003, p. 12). Teachers can counsel such students about social behavior, expose them to good role models, create an understanding of facial expressions, and suggest them appropriate ways to carry themselves.
Activity: Role-Playing (10-15 mins)
Instructions: Have students form small groups in which they develop role-play scenarios with recommended classroom management strategies based on the models and characteristics of effective classroom management outlined above. Each group will choose a model explained above and develop a real classroom scenario. Make sure students mention their preferred future grade/s they would like to teach including their suggestions as to what approach will be taken to deal in that scenario. Next, have the groups trade scenarios and role-play them to the class.
Conclusion
Research validates that “poor classroom management results in lost instructional time, feelings of inadequacy, and stress” ( Sayeski & Brown, 2014, p. 119). Hence, building teacher-student relationship helps build a strong foundation for effective classroom management that in turn is a key to high student achievement (Marzano & Marzano, 2003). Ultimately, exhibiting appropriate levels of dominance, cooperation, and being aware of high-needs students is crucial for effective classroom management.
Additional Resources
1. Webinar: Reframing Classroom Management: the Classroom Consensus | Teaching Tolerance
www.tolerance.org
Need tips for responding to student behavior and keeping learning on task? We created this webinar for you, with input from over 1,200 educators who completed our classroom management survey.
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7.05: References
References:
Adelman, H. S., & Taylor, L. (2002). School counselors and school reform: New directions. Professional School Counseling, 5(4), 235–248.
Allen, T. H. (1996). Seven models of discipline: Developing a discipline plan for you. Retrieved from https://www.wtc.ie/images/pdf/Classr...ement/cm24.pdf
Charles, C. M. (1985). Building Classroom Discipline: From Models to Practice. Longman: New York.
Emmer, E. T., Evertson, C. M., & Worsham, M. E. (2003). Classroom management for secondary teachers (6th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Good, T. & Brophy, J. (2002). Looking in classrooms, 9th edition. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Jones, V. & Jones, L. (2006). Comprehensive classroom management: Creating communities of support and solving problems, 6th edition. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Krause, K., Bochner, S., Duchesne, S. (2006). Managing behavior and classrooms. Education psychology for learning and teaching (2nd ed.) Melbourne, AU: Thomson Learning.
Marzano, R. J. & Marzano, J. S. (2003). The Key to Classroom Management. Educational Leadership, 61(1), 6-13.
Marzano, R.J. (2003). What works in schools: Translating research into action (pp. 104–105). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Sayeski, K. L., & Brown, M. R. (2014). Developing a Classroom Management Plan Using a Tiered Approach. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 47(2), 119-127.
Seifert, K, Sutton, R. (2009). Educational Psychology. Retrieved from http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~seifert/EdPsy2009.pdf
Wubbels, T., Brekelmans, M., van Tartwijk, J., & Admiral, W. (1999). Interpersonal relationships between teachers and students in the classroom. In H. C. Waxman & H. J. Walberg (Eds.), New directions for teaching practice and research (pp. 151–170). Berkeley, CA: McCutchan.
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Learning Objectives
• Identify important points during the timeline of American Education
• Explain how past events continue to affect current education and educational policy.
• Locate and explain, by referencing examples in a Nation at Risk, the three competing goals of public education: democratic equality, social efficiency, and social mobility.
• Explain the Nation at Risk commission’s recommendations.
• Identify two recommendations that affect current educational policies.
In this chapter, by studying the history of education in America, a better understanding of what currently exists in the educational landscape and why can be achieved. Important innovations have occurred throughout the history of education. In contrast, not every policy or strategy resulted in better education. In the beginning, education was not very widespread and definitely not available to all children.
Thomas Jefferson (1779) had a radical idea that every child should receive an education at the public’s expense. The education Jefferson proposed was limited in scope compared with the amount of time spent by a student currently. One of the needs in a democratic society required the ability to read and understand what was read. Jefferson’s efforts met with stiff resistance while all efforts to obtain legislative approval failed.
After the Revolution, America needed to separate itself from Britain. Noah Webster called for the elimination of British texts. He wrote the popular Blue Back Speller that Americanized the spelling of many words. Other authors began writing texts that promoted national ideals. Education was being used to make America a unique country.
In the early 1800s Horace Mann began the make-over of the Massachusetts school system as the state superintendent of education. Mann began visiting schools, making reports, and publicly arguing for a free education for all children. In addition, Mann argued for teacher preparation and standardized equipment. His ideas resulted in common schools that were free, had standard curriculums, were funded by taxes, and gave some local control back to the state. Shortly after Mann’s death , he was recognized as a leader in public education and Massachusetts passed public, tax supported, compulsory education.
Slavery had been abolished in Massachusetts early, but African American children were mistreated and harassed in integrated schools leading to segregated schools. A concern about the growth of prejudice generated by segregation in schools and a resentment among African American parents over supporting schools their children could not attend led to unsuccessful petitions to close segregated schools. Roberts v City of Boston (1850) argued before the state supreme court failed because the court cited provisions had been made for the African American children to have a school even though it was segregated. In 1855 the state legislature abolished segregation in schools.
Since the beginning of American education, the Protestant faith was a dominant influence with philosophy, holidays, and even prayers. Besides wide spread prejudice against Catholics, they did not want their children exposed to religious beliefs not supported at home. Well attended Great School Debates argued by Cardinal Hughes against a multitude of Protestant ministers occurred. Hughes wanted public funds to start Catholic schools, but the NY City School Board held the line on funding only public schools. The Catholic school system started by breaking away from the public-school system.
At the end of the Civil War, slavery was abolished by the Thirteenth Amendment. Unfortunately, although African Americans were no longer slaves, states of the former Confederacy actively fought integration. Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877 signaling the beginning of the Jim Crow era and the erosion of black civil rights and liberties. By 1896, states had been using the doctrine of separate but equal to justify segregation. Facilities and equipment were vastly inferior for African American students, not equal. Plessy v. Ferguson had worked its way up to the US Supreme Court. Plessy argued Louisiana’s law of separate but equal violated the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments and that segregation labeled African American people as inferior. The Supreme Court ruled that separate but equal did not violate the Constitution.
As more and more people migrated to the West for opportunity, state constitutions touted free public educations. So many schools were opening that a new source of teachers was needed. Katherine Beecher established teaching as a female moral calling. Beecher’s stand allowed females to journey into the vast expanse of the western plains. With the influx of female teachers, care came into the American classrooms. Students also received moral education through the very popular McGuffey’s Readers.
By 1890, America’s public schools were educating more students than any other nation on Earth. Unfortunately, many minorities were segregated from public education including, African Americans, Native Americans, and Mexicans. In 1896, John Dewey open his first progressive laboratory in Massachusetts. The progressive philosophy practiced hands-on learning that led to problem solving and critical thinking. Progressivism was popular until World War II.
In 1954, a unanimous decision crafted by Chief Justice Earl Warren in the case of Brown v. the Topeka Board of Education heard before the US Supreme Court ended segregation in public schools. Cases from Kansas, Delaware, Washington, DC, South Carolina, and Virginia were combined. In Topeka, each of the students who tried to enroll in a neighborhood school were denied admission. Thurgood Marshall, a future Supreme Court Justice, was one of the lawyers who argued the case for the NAACP. The justices stated that separate facilities are inherently unequal, and that education is a right. Not much changed, the southern states resisted integration, and African American faculty of students who were integrated lost their jobs. As nine students, the Little Rock Nine, tried to integrate a white high school the Alabama National Guard under the direction of the governor prevented the students from entering the school. President Eisenhower federalized the national guard and sent federal troops to enforce the integration in 1959. Finally, when the Civil Rights Act was passed in 1964 stipulating that noncompliance in integration would result in the loss of federal funds, states complied with the Court’s order. By 1972, 91% of students attended integrated schools.
In 1958, the Russians launched Sputnik, the world’s first satellite. America found itself behind in the resulting space race. The National Defense Education Act called for finding and educating more talent in science, mathematics, foreign languages, and technology. Monetary support was given to states and students. Vocational education received funding, also. A call for experimentation and research in media to improve the presentation of academic subject matter with training given to teachers.
In 1965, Congress passed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act to provide all students a fair and equal opportunity to achieve an exceptional education. Part of the act’s goal was to close the achievement gap between poor students and all other students. The three major titles of the act are: Title I – Financial Assistance for the Education of Low-Income Families; Title VI – Aid to Handicapped Children; and Title VII – Bilingual Education Programs, which established the federal fingerprints on education. Congress reauthorized the act in 2001 as the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). A major provision added testing of all students in grades 3 through 8 in reading and mathematics with each state setting their own standards. Wide spread criticism caused Congress to reauthorize the act as the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) in 2015. Although the testing continued, accountability was transferred to the states. States submit goals and standards with a plan on how they will be achieved. States also determine the consequences for low-achieving schools (bottom 10%). In addition, all schools are to offer college and career counseling and Advanced Placement courses to all students.
In 1968, Mexican American students from three Los Angelis East Side high schools (Garfield, Roosevelt, and Lincoln) walked out over high dropout rates, lack of college prep courses, rundown schools, and a low number of Mexican American teachers. Student walkouts were a part of a larger scope of activism in the Mexican American community that grew out of treatment as second-class citizens. The walkouts lasted more than a week with student speeches and clashes with the police culminating with students presenting demands at a board of education meeting. The board of education granted the request for smaller class sizes and more bilingual counselors and teachers immediately. A grand jury indicted the activists, the “Eastside 13,” but an appeals court vacated the indictment in 1970. Actions taken by the students cultivated a sense of possibility in the community.
By 1971, Detroit and its suburbs presented areas of entrenched segregation as a result of white flight, real estate policies, neighborhood associations, and town policies. A judge approved the Detroit metro plan as a remedy, but the plan failed to garner support from most of the groups involved. In fact, the plan failed to reverse segregation and did not raise the quality of education. When the Supreme Court struck down busing as a means of achieving integration in the Milliken v Bradley case, integration was deemed the responsibility of the city. Detroit is still searching for a solution to this thorny issue.
In 1972, Congress passed Title IX of the Education Amendments Act that states: “No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance” (US Congress). Title IX corrected an oversight by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which did not prohibit sex discrimination against persons employed at educational institutions. If a school discriminated on the basis of gender, federal funds would be withheld from the school. Enforcement fell to lawsuits brought by the federal government. The act resulted in the creation of public-school sports teams for girls.
Lau v. Nicols (1974) was decided unanimously by the Supreme Court. Supplemental language instruction was denied to most Chinese students who were integrated into the San Francisco public school system; therefore, these students did not receive a meaningful education. In fact, few students throughout the country received supplemental English instruction since funding was limited and participation was voluntary. The Court stated that supplemental instruction was required because the school district received federal funds. The Court argued that a “sink or swim” policy for learning was prohibited. Subsequent decisions required plaintiffs to provide proof of intentional discrimination which weakened the Lau finding.
In 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act was passed by Congress that required “public schools receiving federal funds to provide equal education to students with physical and mental disabilities” (US Congress). To ensure that the education provided students with disabilities closely aligned with the education of non-disabled students, students with disabilities were evaluated and an educational plan with parent input was created. Schools were required to provide procedures for parents to dispute decisions with judicial review as a last resort. The act required disabled students to be placed in the least restrictive environment with the greatest opportunity to interact with non-disabled students. Only when the nature and severity of the disability prevented education in a regular classroom were separate schools allowed.
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Frontloading Activity
Before continuing the reading, take some time to review the history of American public education and write on the following questions:
• What are one or two goals of public education over the course of American history?
• Do the original goals of Thomas Jefferson and Horace Mann still inform public policy for education? Why or why not?
David Labaree (1997), an educational historian, argued that there have been three overarching goals of public education in the United States since the inception of public education in the 1800’s: 1) democratic equality, 2) social efficiency, and 3) social mobility. A democratic equality goal aims at educating an engaged citizenry capable of actively participating in a democratic society. A social efficiency goal aims at educating young people to help the economic success of the country. Finally, a social mobility goal aims at educating young people in order for people to “gain a competitive advantage in the struggle for competitive social positions” (p. 42). Two of these goals—democratic equality and social efficiency—can be defined as public goods, or goods that benefit society as a whole; whereas the social mobility goal positions education as a private resource, or commodity. Each of these goals, Labaree argued, tacitly guides the direction of public education policy. At times, these three goals compete against the inherent aims of the other goals, i.e., public goods versus private goods. In some cases, such as social mobility, there are internal contradictions, or aporias, within a single goal’s overall aims. For example, families with higher socio-economic status tend to work to protect and ensure their children’s social status, which creates gatekeeping mechanisms to limit access to educational opportunities. However, families in lower socio-economic strata seek to expand equitable access to educational opportunities in order to help advance the economic and social well-being of their children. In either case, social mobility goals envision education as a private and limited resource.
Consolidating Understanding Activity
The following podcast and webinar further elaborate Labaree’s model of public education goals as well as describe how each goal competes with one another. As you listen to the first twenty minutes of podcast, paraphrase each of the three goals and give concrete examples of each goal.
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: pb.libretexts.org/foundationsofeducation/?p=126
After listening to the previous podcast, watch David Labaree’s webinar up to minute 26:20. As you watch, take notes on the ways Labaree elaborates on how the goals compete with one another.
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: pb.libretexts.org/foundationsofeducation/?p=126
• In what ways does each goal compete with one another?
• In what ways does the tension between public and private goods manifest themselves in real-world situations?
Take note of the internal contradictions of social mobility goals:
• What are the gatekeeping mechanisms that influence who gets access to certain classes like Advanced Placement?
• In what ways do the internal contradictions of social mobility manifest themselves in real-world situations?
Review this chapter and videos on the periods of educational history. Return to your original ideas on what you thought were/are the goals of public education in the U.S. Write on the following questions:
• Give one example of each of Labaree’s educational goals from this chapter or the linked videos.
• Which of Labaree’s goals most resemble your own thesis on the goals of public education?
• Which of Labaree’s goals best fits your own personal goal for education as a student? Explain.
• Which of Labaree’s goals best fits your emerging philosophy of education? Explain.
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Assignment:
Read a Nation at Risk:
A nation at risk is printed in the back of this book in Appendix B, or available at the link below:
As you read A Nation at Risk, complete the guided reading*to help prepare for class discussion.
A Nation at Risk was the report published in 1983 by the commission on excellence in education appointed by President Regan. The report quickly pointed out that the level of student illiteracy was high and that SAT scores had been on a steady decline for the two decades before publication of the report. Mediocrity was a word used to describe the state of education in America. SAT scores actually started to improve beginning in 1980.
The report provided specific recommendations for improving the nation’s educational system. Every student at the minimum should be required to take: (a) 4 years of English; (b) 3 years of mathematics; (c) 3 years of science; (d) 3 years of social studies; and (e) one-half year of computer science. All K-12 schools and colleges should adopt rigorous standards. To be effective, the standards needed to be measurable. In fact, the report kicked off the standard movement with professional education organizations creating and publishing national standards. Longer school days or years would be needed to study the curricula outlined by the new standards. Many suggestions were given to improve teacher preparation programs, educational leadership, and fiscal support.
Education was directly tied to economic competitiveness, and schools were to be accountable for the quality of student education verified by external testing. The call for more testing began with the report. Comparisions of American schools began to be made to international schools. Scores of America’s top-level students were highest or near the top on international tests.
“Any attempt to isolate developments in the schools from those in society at large turns out to reflect principally the inclination to institutionalize blame for whatever is going wrong: the formal part of the learning process cannot be separated from its societal context” (College Board). In the 1960s and 70s society was tumultuous during a large part of the report. Watching tv for longer periods of time was on the rise among students. More students of poverty and color were taking the SATs. Single-parent families were on the increase. These were all factors that, in general, affect the academic performance of students negatively.
Teachers have increasingly resisted what they see as misplaced blame and narrowing of the curriculum. A large part of the problem is that negative political rhetoric about education increased. One aspect of misplaced blame is the concentration and increase of students living in poverty. The tipping point depends on what the purpose of education is determined to be. Teachers lean to expanding the minds of students and want art and music included in the curriculum.
Wrap Up
Past educational events continue to have an impact on educational policy and how American teachers go about educating students. Examining history in context gives reason to much of the current educational landscape. Labaree argues for three goals of education: democratic equality, social efficiency, and social mobility. Viewing history through these lenses allows for a decision to be made on the validity of his claim. A Nation at Risk still holds a strong sway on how education is viewed in this country from a need to provide the capability of citizens to maintain the country’s economic well being to holding teachers solely responsible for the quality of graduates.
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8.04: References
Alvarez, S. (2013). 3 things to know about the history of Detroit busing. Retrieved 3/1/19 from www.michiganradio,org/post/3-things-know-about-history-detroit-busing
Brown Foundation. (n.d.). Prelude to brown – 1849: Roberts v. the city of Boston. Retrieved 3/1/19 from brownvboard.org/content/prelude-brown-a849-roberts-v-city-boston/
Brown v. Board of Education. (n.d.). Legal Information Institute. Retrieved 3/1/19 from www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/347/483
Dobbs, C. (2016). Noah Webster and the dream of a common language. Retrieved 3/1/19 from coonecticuthistory.org/noah-webster-and-the-dream-of-a-common-language/ct
Labaree (1997). Public goods, private goods: The American struggle over educational goals. American Educational Research Journal, 33(1). 39-81.
Michals, D. (2015). Catherine Ester Beecher, National Women’s History Museum. Retrieved 3/1/19 from www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/catherine-ester-beecher/
Moody, A. (2012). The education for all handicapped children act: A faltering step towards integration. Retrieved 3/1/19 from commondo.trincollege.edu/edreform/2012/05/the-education-for-all-handicapped-children-act-a-faltering-step towards-integration
Paul, C. (n.d.). Elementary and secondary education act of 1965. Retrieved 3/1/19 from socialwelfare.librar.vcu.edu/programs/education/elemntary-and-secondary-education-act-of-1968/
PBS. (n.d.) Horace Mann: Only a teacher. Retrieved 3/1/19 from www.pbs.org/onlyateacher/Horace.html/
Plessy v. Fergusson. (n.d.) Oyez. Retrieved 3/1/19 from http://www.oyez.org/cases/1850-1900/163us537/
Public Law 85-864. (1958). National Defense Education Act. Retrieved 3/1/19 at wwwedu.oulu.fi/tohtorikoulutus/jarjestettava_opetus/Troehler/NDEA_1958.pdf
Saggara, E. (2013). 18th century advice: Thomas Jefferson on education reform. Retrieved 3/1/19 from www.dailysignal.com/2013/04/14/18th-century-advice-thomas-jefferson-on-education-reform/
Sahagun, L. (2018). East LA, 1968: “Walkout!” The day high school students helped ignite the Chicano power movement. Retrieved 3/1/19 from www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-1968-east-la-walkouts-20180301-htmlstory.html
Stern, W. (1997). How Dagger John saved New York’s Irish. City Journal. NY:NY.
US Department of Education. (n.d.). Developing programs for English learners: Lau v. Nichols. Retrieved 3/1/19 from www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/ell/lau.html
US Department of Labor. (n.d.). Title IX, Education Amendments of 1972. Retrieved 3/1/19 from www.dol.gov/oasam/regs/statutues/titleix.htm
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Learning Objectives
• Identify the many ways in which students differ.
• Describe bilingual learning and how it affects a classroom.
• After viewing a lesson in Spanish, describe the lived-experience of being a language learner in the context of learning academic content.
• Reflect on the importance of building relationships with your students.
• Define and reflect on differences in learning and motivation.
• Define Childhood Trauma and Social Emotional Learning.
• Identify the effects of childhood trauma on student learning and behavior
• Identify trauma informed practices and explain the value of using them in the classroom.
• Identify teaching practices that encourage social emotional learning.
Optional In-Class Activity
Your instructor will give you a piece of paper with something already drawn on it. Use what is there as a beginning and complete the picture. You can orient the paper any way that you wish and draw anything that you want. Once the pictures are complete, the class will look at them and discuss the activity.
When you conceive of your future classroom, what does it look like? In what ways will your students be alike? In what ways will they be different? The dimensions along which your future students will differ are numerous and vary widely. There are many ethnic and cultural factors to consider, such as gender, religion, ethnicity and language. What affect will this have on the learning environment and climate of your classroom? Additionally, your students will have differences in styles of learning, degree of motivation, temperament, emotional well-being and social skills. Students also vary in need, and can have cognitive and, or physical impairments. Many of your students will embody several of these characteristics at the same time. Some of these dimensions can be attributed to heredity. Others are a result of where a student is from. Others, still, are a result of the student’s home life and experiences. Regardless of the origin or type of factors that work together to make each student unique, a well-prepared teacher needs to be knowledgeable of how student diversity affects their classroom and their teaching. This chapter will review the array of student differences, with specific attention to the needs of English Language Learners, and the importance of childhood trauma and social and emotional learning in today’s classrooms.
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09: Student Diversity and Social Emotional Learning
When you envision your future classroom full of students, what does it look like? How does it sound? What do your students have in common? How do they differ? Reflecting on these questions is valuable. Hopefully, you will come to understand that you are not going to be teaching a class of students, as much as a collection of individuals, each with their own strengths, talents, weaknesses, personalities and needs. There are many ways in which your future students may differ. The following is a brief overview of some of the myriad factors that will make your students unique and, in some cases, challenging.
As defined by the National Education Association (www.nea.org, n.d.), diversity is “the sum of the ways that people are both alike and different” (para. 1). The NEA goes on to list a variety of dimensions that are included in diversity. Some of these are: “race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, language, culture, religion, mental and physical ability, class and immigration status” (para. 1, www.nea.org, n.d.). It is such diversity that creates both richness and challenge within a classroom. The variety of students in one’s classroom provide many opportunities for learning and growth for everyone in that community. Concurrently, such diversity brings with it many related challenges such as the need for differentiated learning techniques to meet the needs of every student. Individual perspectives relating to diversity can provide the fuel for bullying and harassment of students. And these are just two potential issues; there are many more.
Reflect on the Following:
What does each of these mean to you? Where do you fit in each of these categories? What was your school like regarding diversity on these levels? Is anything missing?
Activity (The Regents of the University of Michigan, 2016) www.crlt.umich.edu/print/355
You might identify your own attitudes toward diversity by remembering certain pivotal moments in your life. Ask yourself the following questions:
• Recall the incident in which you first became aware of differences. What was your reaction? Were you the focus of attention or were others? How did that affect how you reacted to the situation?
• What are the “messages” that you learned about various “minorities” or “majorities” when you were a child? At home? In school? Have your views changed considerably since then? Why or why not?
• Recall an experience in which your own difference put you in an uncomfortable position vis-à-vis the people directly around you. What was that difference? How did it affect you?
• How do your memories of differences affect you today? How do they (or might they) affect your teaching?
Another term we hear used a lot regarding today’s classrooms is multicultural. When you think of the word culture, what comes to mind? The word means different things to different people. Culture is a very all-encompassing concept and includes the many things that combine to make one community or group different from another, such as their: values, clothing, religion, holidays, traditions, language, music, literature, beliefs and expectations (Alsubaie, 2015; Perso, 2012). If we look at culture that way, it is clear that everyone is coming from their own unique cultural experience, including students and teachers. The culture of the teacher and the students in one classroom will affect the education process found there (Alsubaie, 2015). It is, therefore, very important to seek to understand both your own background and cultural beliefs and those of your students. As stated by Alsubaie (2015) “teachers who learn more about their students’ backgrounds, cultures and experiences will feel more capable and efficient in their work as teachers” (p. 88). The more aware you become of your own personal set of beliefs, values and expectations, and even of your own biases, the better able you will be to seek to understand your future students.
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9.02: Emergent Bilinguals
The term English Language Learner (ELL) has been used predominantly as a label to students who are developing their language proficiency in English. ELL is also the preferred term by state and federal agencies since it used to determine protected status for students who fall under this category. However, the term ELL tends to devalue the language(s) in which these students are proficient. The term emergent bilingual has begun to replace the term ELL because it values the funds of knowledge and language competencies the students already have while celebrating their identity as someone becoming bilingual. Bilingualism or the students’ emerging bilingualism is shown as an asset rather a deficit.
As an educator, it is our duty to ensure students acquire the content standards for all students as well as the academic language proficiency within all content areas for emergent bilinguals as well. Non-specialists or non-ESOL teachers need to scaffold and support the language development of emergent bilinguals in their classrooms. Sheltered Instruction (Center for Applied Linguistics, 2018) is an effective instructional model for teachers to use across content and grade levels. There are eight interconnected components for each lesson that uses sheltered instruction:
• Lesson Preparation
• Building Background
• Comprehensible Input
• Strategies
• Interaction
• Practice/Application
• Lesson Delivery
• Review & Assessment
For more information on lesson activities and research that use sheltered instruction, please visit http://www.cal.org/siop/resources/.
In addition to sheltered instruction, the Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence from the University of California outlines five standards for effective education of all students (Teaching Tolerance, 2019):
• Joint productive activity: Teachers and students producing together
• Language development across the curriculum
• Contextualization: Connecting school to students’ lives
• Challenging Activities: Teaching complex thinking
• Instructional Conversation: Teaching through conversation
For more information and to see a list of indicators that demonstrate these standards, please visit https://www.tolerance.org/professional-development/five-standards-of-effective-pedagogy
Emergent Bilingual Activity
For this activity, you will experience how emergent bilinguals feel in a classroom learning content, biology in this case. You will watch the video and take the quiz at the end of the video. Please try your best.
After watching the video and taking the quiz, answer the following questions:
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: pb.libretexts.org/foundationsofeducation/?p=138
1. How did not being fluent (or being fluent) in Spanish make you feel? Why?
2. In what ways did the instructor help support the content to someone who might not understand Spanish?
3. How well did you do on the quiz? How did that make you feel?
4. How might you apply these new understandings of being a non-fluent speaker of a language to you teaching emergent bilinguals who are not yet fluent in academic English?
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Beyond the extensive list of diversity elements above, as a teacher, one will also be faced with the variations of ways in which students learn, feel about themselves as learners, and are motivated to learn (or not!). In future courses that you will take to prepare yourself for being the best possible teacher, you will learn much more about these factors, but for our purposes, let’s take a brief look at each of these.
Learning Styles
Everyone has a way in which they feel that they learn best. It can be through listening, watching, touching or doing, or a combination of any of them. This can also affect what tools best help a student in the classroom. Some will do well just reading the textbook, some may need hands-on experiments, or charts and graphic organizers. There is no one size fits all approach to learning, which is one of the great challenges that teachers face. Take a moment and think. In what way do your learn best? How do you study? If you have never taken any kind of learning style test, there are many you can find online for free to take for fun. There are many different types of learning style approaches.
“Different systems have been used to describe the different ways in which people learn. Some describe the differences between how extroverts (outgoing, gregarious, social people) and introverts (quiet, private, contemplative people) learn. Some divide people into “thinkers” and “feelers.” A popular theory of different learning styles is Howard Gardner’s “multiple intelligences,” based on eight different types of intelligence:
1. Verbal (prefers words)
2. Logical (prefers math and logical problem solving)
3. Visual (prefers images and spatial relationships)
4. Kinesthetic (prefers body movements and doing)
5. Rhythmic (prefers music, rhymes)
6. Interpersonal (prefers group work)
7. Intrapersonal (prefers introspection and independence)
8. Naturalist (prefers nature, natural categories)
The multiple intelligences approach recognizes that different people have different ways, or combinations of ways, of relating to the world.
Another approach to learning styles is called the VARK approach, which focuses on learning through different senses (Visual, Aural, Reading/Writing, and Kinesthetic):
• Visual learners prefer images, charts, and the like.
• Aural learners learn better by listening.
• Reading/writing learners learn better through written language.
• Kinesthetic learners learn through doing, practicing, and acting.”
Above material from: wiki.creativecommons.org/images/3/3c/Learning_Styles_and_Study_Skills.pdf_
Having an understanding that students learn differently and that certain subjects are best taught in varying ways will lead you to seek out many teaching strategies. Having a large toolkit of such strategies will help you to accommodate your students’ needs. This can also be referred to as differentiated learning or differentiated instruction. Differentiated instruction, according to Tomlinson (as cited by Ellis, Gable, Greg & Rock, 2008, p. 32) is the process of “ensuring that what a student learns, how he or she learns it, and how the student demonstrates what he or she has learned is a match for that student’s readiness level, interests, and preferred mode of learning.” By the time you are ready to teach, you should be prepared to differentiate your instruction in many ways, which will all be based on your knowledge of your students and how they learn best.
Motivation
Motivation to learn is very complex, and includes one’s one developmental level, beliefs in the value of learning (in general or something in particular) and the belief in one’s ability to be successful (academic-self-concept comes into play here). In future classes, you will study educational psychology. One definition from that discipline for motivation follows.
“Motivation is an internal state that activates, guides and sustains behavior. Educational psychology research on motivation is concerned with the volition or will that students bring to a task, their level of interest and intrinsic motivation, the personally held goals that guide their behavior, and their belief about the causes of their success or failure” (k-12 Academics.com, n.d. retrieved from https://www.k12academics.com/educational-psychology/motivation ).
As a teacher, you are tasked with helping to motivate your students to learn. As with diversity, it is best to begin by knowing about yourself first. What motivates you? What motivated you when you were a student? What did your teachers do to motivate you? Did it work for you? Did it work for everyone in your class?
“One of the most difficult aspects of becoming a teacher is learning how to motivate your students. It is also one of the most important. Students who are not motivated will not learn effectively. They won’t retain information; they won’t participate and some of them may even become disruptive. A student may be unmotivated for a variety of reasons: They may feel that they have no interest in the subject, find the teacher’s methods un-engaging or be distracted by external forces. It may even come to light that a student who appeared unmotivated actually has difficulty learning and is need of special attention” (n.d., retrieved from https://teach.com/what/teachers-change-lives/motivating-students/ ).
Students who are highly motivated to learn are what some might call easy to teach, because they want to be there. They want to learn. Students who are completely unmotivated can be more difficult to reach. They may seem like they don’t care. There are many reasons for this, and we will look briefly at these when we discuss social and emotional learning.
Academic Self-Concept
As noted by Wilson, Del Siegle, McCoach, Little and Reis (2014), “Academic self-concept represents how students feel about themselves as learners in school contexts and has implications for both student achievement and well-being” (p. 111). The authors go on to state that a student’s “academic self-concept informs their perception about not only their current tasks and school-related activities but also their future goals and academics” (p. 111). In your future practice with students, you will discover that students with strong positive academic self-confidence may be more likely to take on challenging tasks, complete projects, and seem more motivated. In light of the definition, this would make sense. If you think you can be successful, you will be more willing to try. If you think and believe that you will NOT be successful at something, then it would follow that you would be disinclined to try something new or challenging.
Understanding how academic self-confidence affects your students will assist you in developing lessons and procedures that will help them to be successful. A teacher can have a positive effect on a student’s academic self-confidence. Pay attention to those students who seem to feel that they can’t do anything well, or that they won’t be successful. Find opportunities to give them specific positive feedback and support them in areas of weakness.
Temperament
Perhaps you have spent time with a number of infants. How were they alike? How did they differ? Or compare yourself with your siblings or other children you have known well. You may have noticed that some seemed to be in a better mood than others and that some were more sensitive to noise or more easily distracted than others. These differences may be attributed to temperament. Temperament is an inborn quality noticeable soon after birth. According to Chess and Thomas (1996), children vary on 9 dimensions of temperament. These include activity level, regularity (or predictability), sensitivity thresholds, mood, persistence or distractibility, among others. The New York Longitudinal Study was a long-term study of infants on these dimensions which began in the 1950s. Most children do not have their temperament clinically measured, but categories of temperament have been developed and are seen as useful in understanding and working with children. These categories include easy or flexible, slow to warm up or cautious, difficult or feisty, and undifferentiated (or those who can’t easily be categorized). Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology.
Reflection:
• Think about your own temperament? How might this affect your teaching style?
• Where would you place yourself?
• How does this affect you as a student?
• How do you manage your temperamental qualities?
• How might having a variety of temperaments in your classroom affect the learning environment and your ability to teach?
Think about how you might approach each type of child in order to improve your interactions with them. An easy or flexible child will not need much extra attention unless you want to find out whether they are having difficulties that have gone unmentioned. A slow to warm up child may need to be given advance warning if new people or situations are going to be introduced. A difficult or feisty child may need to be given extra time to burn off their energy. A caregiver’s ability to work well and accurately read the child will enjoy a goodness of fit meaning their styles match and communication and interaction can flow. Rather than believing that discipline alone will bring about improvements in children’s behavior, our knowledge of temperament may help a parent, teacher or other gain insight to work more effectively with a child.
Temperament doesn’t change dramatically as we grow up, but we may learn how to work around and manage our temperamental qualities. Temperament may be one of the things about us that stays the same throughout development.
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You can now see how many factors combine to create each unique student that you will teach, as well as how challenging it can be to meet the needs of such a variety of learners. Another issue of which new teachers should be aware is that of childhood trauma. While there is enough information on this topic to fill its own textbook, having a brief overview of the information will be beneficial to your understanding of working with a diverse array of students.
What is trauma?
According to the Child Welfare Information Gateway (2014), trauma is “an emotional response to an intense event that threatens or causes harm. This harm can be physical or emotional, real or perceived, and it can threaten a child or someone close to him or her. Trauma can be a result of a single event, or it can result from exposure to multiple events over time” (p. 2). There are many events that might possibly cause trauma. These include, but are not limited to physical, emotional or sexual abuse, neglect, effects of poverty, being separated from your loved ones, bullying, domestic or community violence through which harm to a loved one or pet has been witnessed, accidents, natural disasters, and behavior that is unpredictable dur to addiction or mental illness (Child Information Gateway, 2014, p. 2). A traumatic experience is very often overwhelming to the individual, extremely painful or frightening, and include a loss of control and the inability to regulate one’s emotions. It is vital to remember that a traumatic experience overwhelms one’s ability to cope and that this can be different for each person. Therefore, due to a variety of factors (such as resilience) what might be traumatic to one student might not be to another. Again, this is not a “one size fits all” scenario. Each student is an individual.
How Trauma Affects the Brain
There is no shortage of information regarding how trauma affects brain development, but very basically, “when a stressful experience (such as being abused, neglected, or bullied) overwhelms the child’s natural ability to cope” this can cause a “flight, fight or freeze” response. This response results in changes in the body, including an accelerated heart rate and higher blood pressure. This also results in changes in how the brain “perceives and responds to the world”. The result of this can be that the “trauma interferes with normal development and can have long lasting effects” (above information from Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2014, p. 2).
How Trauma Affects Learning and Classroom Environment
What is the likelihood that you will have students in your classroom who are dealing with trauma related incidents? According to the National Child Traumatic Stress Network (n.d.), More than two-thirds of children reported at least one traumatic event by the age of sixteen. I would say that your chances are quite good that you will encounter students facing these issues.
A variety of learning related tasks are affected by trauma. Students who have experienced trauma may have difficulty regulating emotions. They may have impaired cognitive functions. The ability or organize material sequentially may be difficult. Transitions may be problematic. Problem solving might be hard. They may be self-protective, easily frustrated, and have inconsistent moods. This is just a brief non-inclusive list of some of the ways in which your classroom could be impacted by students with a background of child trauma.
Maslow vs. Blooms
In a previous chapter, you learned about Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning, which guides teachers in the creation of excellent learning experiences. In psychology, you may have heard about Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs (represented below).
Look this over carefully. Now go back and look at Bloom’s Taxonomy?
Reflection: Can you see any issue with trying to do both at the same time? Which should come first? What does the above depiction say to you about your students and your classroom?
Read the following and then think about how this might play out in your future classroom.
• At the base of the pyramid are all of the physiological needs that are necessary for survival. These are followed by basic needs for security and safety, the need to be loved and to have a sense of belonging, and the need to have self-worth and confidence. The top tier of the pyramid is self-actualization, which is a need that essentially equates to achieving one’s full potential, and it can only be realized when needs lower on the pyramid have been met. According to Maslow (1943), one must satisfy lower-level needs before addressing those needs that occur higher in the pyramid. So, for example, if someone is struggling to find enough food to meet his nutritional requirements, it is quite unlikely that he would spend an inordinate amount of time thinking about whether others viewed him as a good person or not. Instead, all of his energies would be geared toward finding something to eat.
Trauma Informed Practice
Some students can exhibit difficult behaviors because of their backgrounds while some will not. All of them need to be understood and supported. According to the Substance Abuse for Mental Health Administration (2014), the components of trauma-informed care consist of the creation of a safe environment, supporting and teaching emotional regulation and building relationships and connectedness. Knowing your student is vital. Trying to understand your students’ triggers is also of key importance. Remember always that they are not trying to push your buttons (We Are Teachers Staff, 2018). Their behaviors are often reactions to being triggered by something (such as a loud noise or yelling). The primary function of the triggered response is to help the child achieve safety in the face of perceived danger. Seek first to understand the child’s behavior and change your thinking from “what is wrong with this student?” to “what has this student been through?” (Bashant, 2016).
If relationship building, support, understanding and the creation of a safe environment are key to working with your students, what doesn’t work is equally apparent. Sadly, it is often the first thing educators turn to when these behaviors appear. The research is clear that punishment of this behavior not only does not work, it is highly detrimental to the student. According to NEA Today (2016), because traumatic experiences directly shape your students’ brains, the disruptive behavior that is witnessed and often punished isn’t willful disobedience or defiance, but a subconscious effort to self-protect. Their altered brains are screaming: Flight! Flee! Freeze! Their goal is to be safe. Respond in ways that help to make your students feel connected and safe first, and then revisit possible consequences for any broken rules.
Starr Commonweath Chief Clinical Officer, Dr. Caelan Soma (2018) offered these tips for understanding and working with students who have experienced trauma.
1. They are not trying to push your buttons.
2. They worry about what is going to happen next.
3. Even if the situation doesn’t seem that bad to you, it is how the child feels that matters, not how you feel.
4. Trauma does not always have to be associated with violence
5. You don’t need to know how the trauma was caused to be able to help.
6. They need to feel that they are good at something and that they can have a positive influence on the world.
7. There is a direct connection between stress and learning.
8. Self-regulation is a challenge.
9. You can ask kids directly what you can do to help them make it through the day.
10. Be supportive of students with trauma even when they are outside of your classroom.
(for more information, the link to the above article is located in the teacher references section).
There are numerous videos, books, and articles regarding trauma informed best practices. At the end of this chapter, there is a link to the National Child Traumatic Stress Networks Child Trauma Toolkit for Educators. This free and easy to download resource has numerous tips and suggestions for teachers.
Social Emotional Learning
Social emotional learning (SEL) has become part of many states’ educational missions, including New York. SEL can be defined as “the process through which children, youth, and adults acquire and effectively apply the knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary to understand and manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy for other, establish and maintain positive relationships and make responsible decisions” (Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning, 2015, para. 1 as cited in NYSED, 2018) p. 6). Five core social emotional competencies were created as a framework for SEL (Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL) 2017). These are:
According to the New York State Education Department (2018) “extensive research indicates that effective mastery of social emotional competencies is associated with greater well-being and better school performance; whereas the lack of competency in these areas can lead to a variety of personal, social and academic issues” (p. 6). Because of this, New York State Education Department development social emotional learning benchmarks to serve as a guide for educators in the state. The goals of the SEL benchmarks for New York State schools are:
1. Develop self-awareness and self-management skills essential to success in school and in life.
2. Use social awareness and interpersonal skills to establish and maintain positive relationships.
3. Demonstrate ethical decision-making skills and responsible behaviors in personal, school, and community contexts. (NYSED.gov, 2018).
To learn more about NYSED’s position on SEL, you can find the document online (see resources link at the end of the chapter).
The goal of introducing SEL into the daily activities on a school is, in part, foster a more positive school climate. Additionally, SEL can help children gain skills needed to succeed in school, in the workplace and in life (www.cfcchildren.org). According to CASEL, SEL works, and leads to increased academic achievement and improved behavior (casel.org, 2018).
Building Relationships
Over the course of your education to become a teacher you will most likely hear a lot about the value of forming good relationships with your students. It may sound like a “no-brainer”, but its importance cannot be overstated. According to the Room 241 Team (Concordia University Portland, 2018), “…for children who have been affected by trauma, strong connections are vital. Rich relationships with teachers help children form the foundations of resilience” (para. 3). Venet (2018) echoed the value of relationship building as part of the delicate balancing act of working with trauma-affected students. The author stated that “…students who have experienced trauma, start by flipping traditional classroom paradigm: Relationships have to come before content…” (para. 6). The more you know and understand your students, the better.
Connell (2016) suggested ten ways that a teacher can build relationships with their students:
1. Greet each student every day with both a hello and a good-bye.
2. Use letters and questionnaires to help you find out about your students.
3. Get parent input if you can.
4. Appeal to your students’ interests.
5. Speak to students with respect.
6. Attend outside activities.
7. Let students inside your world (with appropriate boundaries, of course).
8. Let your students have a voice.
9. Be real.
10. Trust that they will all do great things.
This teacher from North Carolina has a unique way of beginning each class: (USA Today, Moments that Give us Hope (2017).
https://youtu.be/4JueNr1e0H4
As you move forward in your education, be sure to always remember the importance of listening. So many students are not listened to at home. People are distracted. Do your best to have your students feel heard and valued. It can make all the difference in the world.
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: pb.libretexts.org/foundationsofeducation/?p=142
-America’s Promise Alliance, 2015
Summary
Every year teachers will meet new groups of students. Every class will be a unique combination of individuals. They will vary by many factors related to diversity. They will have different temperaments and learning styles. Their motivation levels won’t all be the same. Some will have experienced many childhood traumas, while some will have experienced few or none. Their experience and maturity in relation to social emotional learning will differ as well. However, one thing will remain constant. Your students will do best in a positive environment where mutual respect is fostered. Strong teacher-student relationships are the cornerstone of these classrooms. Having knowledge about yourself, child development and differentiated instruction will help you to have a greater understanding of your students. You will be learning this as you move forward in your education. What you cannot be taught is to care about forging these relationships in the first place. That must already be a part of who you are.
Additional Resources:
One of the first studies on trauma informed practices in public school was covered in a full-length documentary entitled: Paper Tigers. It can be rented on numerous sites, including You Tube here:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iV3wzUhJSKs
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9.05: References
Alsubaie, M. A. (2015). Examples of current issues in the multicultural classroom. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(10), 86-89.
Bashant, J. (2016). Trauma sensitive schools: Understanding and working with traumatized students
[PowerPoint slides]. Capital Area School Development Association (CASDA).
Child Welfare Information Gateway (2014). Factsheet for Families: Parenting a child who has experienced trauma. Retrieved from www.childwelfare.gov
Center for Applied Linguistics (2018). What is the SIOP model? Retrieved from: http://www.cal.org/siop/about/
Center for Teaching and Learning, University of North Carolina, Chapek Hill (n.d.). Diversity issues for the instructor: Identifying your own attitudes. Retrieved from www.crit.umich.edu/pring/355
Collaborative for Academic, Social. And Emotional Learning (CASEL) (2019). What is SEL? Retrieved from https://casel.org/what-is-sel/
Committee for Children (n.d.) What is Social-Emotional Learning? Retrieved from https://www.cfchildren.org/about-us/what-is-sel/
Connell, G. (2016). 10 ways to build relationships with students this year [Blog post]. Scholastic Teacher’s Blog Retrieved from www.scholastic.com/teachers/blog-posts/genia-connell/10- ways-build-relationships-students-year-1/
Cox, J. (n.d.) Teaching strategies to approach different learning styles. Retrieved from www.teachhub.com/teaching-strategies-approach-different-learning-styles
K12 Academics.com, n.d. retrieved from https://www.k12academics.com/educational-psychology/motivation
NCTSN (The National Child Traumatic Stress Network) (2008). Child trauma toolkit for educators Retrieved from www.NCTSN.org
NEA.org (n.d.) Diversity Toolkit Introduction. Retrieved from www.nea.org/tools/diversity-toolkit-introduction.html
NYSED (2018). New York State Social Emotional Learning Benchmarks. Retrieved from http://www.p12.nysed.gov/sss/documents/NYSSELBenchmarks.pdf
Room 241 Team (2018, September 4). Trauma-informed strategies to use in your classroom [Blog post].
Concordia University Portland Blog retrieved from education.cu-portland.edu/blog/classroom-resources/trauma-informed-strategies/
Starr Commonwealth (2018). 10 Things about childhood trauma every teacher needs to know. We Are Teachers. Retrieved from https://www.weareteachers.com/10-things-about-childhood-trauma-every-teacher-needs-to-know/
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMSHA). Understanding child trauma (2015). Retrieved from www.samhsa.gov/child-trauma/understnading-child-trauma
Teach.com, n.d., retrieved from https://teach.com/what/teachers-change-lives/motivating-students/
Teaching Tolerance (2019). Five standards for effective pedagogy. Retrieved from https://www.tolerance.org/professional-development/five-standards-of-effective-pedagogy
Tomlinson, C. (as cited by Ellis, Gable, Greg & Rock, 2008, p. 32) Retrieved from+ https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiated_instruction can also be found in https://www.basicknowledge101.com/pdf/Differentiated%20instruction.pdf
Venet, A. S., 2018. Edutopia. The how and why of trauma informed teaching. Retrieved from https://www.edutopia.org/article/how-and-why-trauma-informed-teaching
Wilson, H., Del Siegle, D., McCoach, D.B., Little, C. & Reis, S. (2014). A model of academic self-concept: Perceived difficulty and social comparison among academically accelerated secondary students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 58(2), 11-126.
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Learning Objectives
• Describe the hierarchy of New York State governance of education
• Identify the role of Federal, State and Local government on NYS Education
• Describe how public schools are financed
• Identify the governmental agencies and how NYS public education financed
• Identify other School Options (Charter, Magnet, Online)
Icebreaker: Reflect, write and Discuss
Take five minutes to reflect on the questions below and write out your thoughts. Once finished writing discuss your ideas with a partner.
1. New York State spends approximately \$24,000 to educate each student a year. If you attended a New York State Public school do you think you received a \$24,000 education each year? Yes or No and why?
2. What are your thoughts on the amount of money NYS spends on each pupil per year?
3. What should be the criteria for how money is allocated per school district? Who do you think should determine the amount of money allocated per school?
4. If you oversaw the New York State Education budget what is one specific area you would improve and why?
As a future teacher you will need to be aware of how schools are organized, governed and financed. Where you work will also determine the amount of money and resources available to you. The federal, state and local government all play a role in the complex financial system of education. Keep in mind that how well a school is funded is often a reflection of the community composition and wealth (number of businesses, homeowners, taxpayers, population size). In this chapter we will learn how schools are governed and financed in public education and begin to explore how these factors impact our ability to help students learn.
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10: The Governance and Finance of American Public Education
The New York State (NYS) Board of Regents is responsible for the general supervision of all educational services in New York State. The Board of Regents is composed of 17 members elected by the legislature for five-year terms. One Regent is from each of the 13 judicial districts with four Regents in an at large capacity. The Chancellor of the Board of Regents is elected by the Regents members. The Board of Regents is responsible for setting overall educational policy and heads the University of the State of New York (SUNY). Types of policies include learning standards, state exams including the Regents Exams, data collection and assessment, school report cards, accountability of educational programs, and teacher licenses.
The New York State Commissioner of Education, who is the chief executive officer of the Board of Regents, is elected by the Board of Regents. The commissioner is responsible for enforcement of educational laws, compliance to educational policies, and general supervision of schools. The New York State Governor is advised by a cabinet member about education. The governor creates a budget, a part of which pertains to state aid to public schools. Other responsibilities of the governor are to appoint commissions and to create programs. An example of is the 2013 Reform Commission that investigated and made recommendations about full day pre-K, awards for high performing teachers, and early college high school programs. The NYS Senate and House pass educational laws and appoint the Regents.
Federal Influences on Governance
The 10th Amendment gives states control over education that limits the role of the federal government in education. The Secretary of Education is a cabinet position appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the Senate. The responsibility of the secretary of education is to ensure all schools are abiding by the federal policies and laws pertaining to education. Both the House and Senate have education committees to review educational policies and proposed laws. Adoption of federal policies were influenced by funding in the past, but a new law has drastically limited this practice. An example was Race to the Top as an incentive for adopting the CCSS under the Obama administration.
The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) recently replaced No Child Left Behind (2002) and represents a reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), originally authorized in 1965 as the federal legislation that guides public education in the United States. In response to state feedback under NCLB, ESSA provides states the flexibility to develop programs that meet the needs of individual states. An important component to ESSA is the inclusion of a measure of equity and access to education for all students including disadvantaged and high needs students.
Local Influences on Governance
As a teacher it is your responsibility to become familiar with your school’s organizational structure, policies, procedures and culture. Understanding how your school is governed and establishing good communication with your superintendent, principal and colleagues will ensure you are meeting the expectations of the district. We will discuss several layers of local governance including the Board of Education, Superintendent and other district and building-level personnel that ensure a school is complying with the multitude of policies and laws of the state and Federal Government.
Local Board of Education
As a teacher your work is primarily influenced by the local arm of school governance, the Board of Education. In New York State all public schools have a Board of Education (BOE). The board’s powers and duties are derived from the state constitution, the laws of New York State and the regulations or rulings of the New York State Commissioner of Education. The Board of Education is a group of locally elected officials who serve as volunteers and have several important responsibilities, most notably to establish district policies, develop an annual budget for public approval, approve or disapprove of the superintendent’s recommendations on personnel matters and contracts, and to evaluate the superintendent. Board members typically serve in two, three or four-year terms. The size of the BOE varies but must include an odd number of members for voting purposes (5, 7,9).
Meetings of the BOE are held in public and the meeting minutes and proceedings are public information except for matters of personnel which are confidential. Anyone who is an adult may serve as a member of the BOE. There is no educational requirement to serve as a member of the BOE. Community members choose to run for this position for a variety of reasons. Some members are parents, grandparents, business owners and concerned citizens. The local BOE often reflects many of the values, customs and culture of a school district. As a new, or veteran, teacher you should plan to attend some of the BOE meetings to gain a better sense of the community that you work in and the people who determine educational policy in your district. Be sure to review policies and procedures.
Superintendent of Schools
The superintendent of schools is selected by the Board of Education and is the chief executive officer of the district. As such, the superintendent is responsible for the day-to-day operation of the district and administration of board policies, programs and plans for board action. Superintendents are hired and serve for a term period, usually four years. Superintendents are not eligible to earn tenure like teachers and principals. A superintendent works with a team of administrators to ensure the educational and safety needs of students are met. Typically, they will supervise school business officials, various principals and curriculum leaders and other members of the school management team (buildings and grounds, transportation director, etc.). The superintendent, as school leader, should be a very visible and influential member of the school community. The superintendent’s vision, philosophy and values all contribute to decisions that create school climate and culture.
District Personnel
Many students come to teaching from a variety of backgrounds and experiences in schools. School settings are as diverse as are people. Schools operate in rural, suburban and urban areas. Schools range from multi-building districts to PK-12 one-building schools with 100 students. Considering this level of diversity each school may or may not have the resources to support district and building level personnel. A familiar hierarchy in schools might be the Superintendent, Principal, Assistant Principal, Director of Curriculum, the Business office and teachers. See Figure 1.1.
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Federal Government Finance
The Federal government plays an important role in both governance and finance. The President of the United States appoints a secretary of education to administer the department and distribute funding to states for educational purposes. In 2018 the federal government appropriated \$59 Billion dollars to education, a 13 percent decrease from 2017. Despite the decrease, this funding is an important source of revenue for public schools. In addition, each house of Congress has their own committee on education. Members of these committees provide guidance and expertise as educational policies and budgets are developed. States and local school districts, rather than the Federal Government, make most of the major decisions about the content, assessment, teaching force, structure, and funding of elementary and secondary education. The Federal Government influences educational policy by attaching educational policies to receipt of federal funds (Kober & Usher, 2012).
Title I Funding
The purpose of Title I, Part A of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) is to ensure that all children have a fair, equal, and significant opportunity to obtain a high-quality education and reach, at a minimum, proficiency in state academic achievement standards and State academic assessments. It provides financial assistance through state education agencies to local educational agencies to meet the educational needs of children who are failing or are most at risk of failing the State’s challenging academic achievement standards and state academic assessments in schools with high concentrations of children from low-income families.
State and Local Finance
Public schools are funded approximately 90% by state and local revenue sources. Most local funds come from property taxes (Kober & Usher, 2012). Since most of the school funding comes from property taxes schools use a variety of methods to maintain positive community relationships. Remember, taxpayers need to apprSove the school budget each year; however, depending on your community composition, many taxpayers do not have children in school. Schools may host senior citizen luncheons or appreciation days, community health fairs and offer up the school for community use. It is wise for teachers to develop relationships with all members of the school community. Strong school-community relations help increase the likelihood that a school’s budget is passed. Schools and teachers need to demonstrate that they are using public funds in a responsible manner. Teachers must find high quality, cost effective programming and materials to help students learn.
In 2015-16, New York State had the largest per pupil average expenditure in the United States at \$24,657 versus Idaho, the lowest state at \$7,921 (Digest of Education Statistics, 2018). This demonstrates the variability in funding and resources by state. However, within states variability also exists between communities, largely due to revenues from property taxes. School districts that are wealthier tend to have more money and resources to dedicate to education.
Local School Budget Development Process
As stated above, one of the major roles of the members of the Board of Education is to develop a budget in collaboration with administrators. A budget is a plan of financial operation expressing the estimates of proposed expenditures for a fiscal year and the proposed means of financing them. Multiple laws and procedures must be followed during budget development. A detailed outline of the process can be found at http://www.p12.nysed.gov/mgtserv/budgeting/handbook/legalaspects.html on the New York State Education website. Educational law emphasizes that the budget should be written in plain language in a manner that taxpayers can understand (NYSED.gov, 2019). When developing a budget, the BOE and administration need to keep several factors in mind and have accurate information about educational objectives, enrollment projection; the community’s receptiveness to tax increases, capacity and limitations of facilities (Budgeting Handbook, www.NYSED.gov, 2019 http://www.p12.nysed.gov/mgtserv/budgeting/handbook/process.html ).
An important term that BOE members, administrators, taxpayers and teachers alike need to understand is the tax levy. The tax levy is the term use for the sum of revenue in property taxes a district must collect, after removing other sources of funding including state aid, to meet the proposed budget. The tax levy is significant because this is the basis for determining the tax rate for each of the cities, towns or villages that make up a school district (https://www.questar.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Budget-Development-Guidebook.pdf )
To determine the tax levy, school districts use a state formula that begins with an increase of 2 percent or the level of inflation (whichever is less). The Tax levy limit is the amount a district’s tax levy may increase without requiring a supermajority to approve a proposed budget (60 percent of votes plus one). The result is often a number higher than 2 percent. In 2011 New York State established a tax levy limit (generally referred to as the tax cap) that affects all local governments (including counties, cities, towns, villages and fire districts) and school districts in New York State except New York City and the “Big Five” dependent city school districts (New York City, Yonkers, Buffalo, Rochester, and Syracuse). Under this law, the property taxes levied by affected local governments and school districts generally cannot increase by more than 2 percent, or the rate of inflation, whichever is lower (legislation summary, www.osc.state.ny.us).
What is included in the School Budget?
The school budget presentation and materials must include categories of revenues, expenditures and fund balance information, as well as comparison data from the prior year’s budget (NYSED.gov, 2019). Sources of a school’s financial resources (revenues) include property taxes, state education aid and federal education aid. In addition, schools often have a fund balance to offset budget costs. There are several types of fund balances that a school may have. Typically, they represent funds that were not used in a prior fiscal year or when additional unanticipated revenues are accepted. It is important to remember that schools must estimate their state aid revenues when developing a budget. While New York State aims to have an adopted budget by April 1st that does not always happen. School districts are required by law to present their budget the third Tuesday of May and often are working with estimated state aid revenues.
The school budget, by law, must be presented to the public in three different components ( http://www.p12.nysed.gov/mgtserv/budgeting/). The first component is the program component (salaries and benefits of teachers, instructional costs such as supplies, co-curricular activities and interscholastic athletics equipment, and textbooks; and transportation operating costs. The program component is where most of a school district’s expenses are incurred. See figure 1.2 for an example. The second component is the capital component which includes transportation capital, debt service, and lease expenditures; legal judgments; and settled claims; custodial costs and all facility costs, including service contracts, utilities, maintenance, repairs, construction, and renovation. The third budget component is the administrative component which includes office and administrative costs, salaries and benefits for certified school administrators, data processing, supplies, legal fees; property insurance; and school board expenses.
Once the budget is complete, the BOE must present the budget at a public hearing. The budget hearing must be held no more than fourteen days nor less than seven days before the date of the annual meeting and election. Notice of the date, time and place of the public hearing must be included in the notice of the annual meeting. (Education Law §§1608, 1716, 2003, 2004 &2601-a) The annual school meeting and election must be held the third Tuesday in May (http://www.p12.nysed.gov/mgtserv/budgeting/handbook/legalaspects.html).
Budget Voting Process
Under state law a school can present a budget to voters two times for adoption. If the budget is not approved the school must adopt a contingency budget. According to the New York State Education Department budgeting handbook, a contingency budget includes “items for which the statutes themselves either provide mandates or give discretion to the board of education, these may be considered expenditures deemed to be absolutely necessary to operate and maintain schools. The emphasis should be on those expenditures considered essential to maintain an educational program, preserve property, and assure the health and safety of students and staff. In addition, section 2023 of the Education Law places a computed dollar cap on general fund appropriations. The administrative component of the budget is also subject to a cap.” ( http://www.p12.nysed.gov, 2019). If a contingency budget is adopted, the tax levy may be no greater than that of the prior year. Here is a link to an article the highlights a failed budget: https://cnycentral.com/news/local/voters-reject-altmare-parish-williamstown-school-district-budget-proposal
Access and Equity in Education funding
As we think about funding for schools, we turn our thoughts to equity and equality in education. Included below is a short video describing equity and equality in more general terms. As a teacher you will have to make decisions on how best to meet the learning needs of your students. Local budgets will determine the types of materials and resources both teachers and students will have access to. For example, access to technology, opportunities for professional development, updated textbooks and materials, access to field trips, and availability of extracurricular opportunities are a few ways that budgets impact schools and students. In a school with fewer resources how can you make your materials equitable (fair) to the resources wealthier districts have? As a teacher the question of equity of resources is one you will need to get involved in. Advocating for equitable curricular and program resources for your students is an appropriate role for teachers.
Equity Vs. Equality Explanation Video:
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: pb.libretexts.org/foundationsofeducation/?p=152
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Although this chapter is primarily focused on the governance and finance of public schools, we will briefly describe other options that may be available to students. School choice is a term used to describe the school options that a student may choose to attend rather than your local public school. Schools might include magnet schools (schools focused on a specific vocational or academic strand i.e., music, arts, science), charter schools (public schools managed outside of state requirements by private entities) and virtual schools (schools where coursework is completed entirely online). Depending on where you live there may be a variety of options for students to choose from.
According to the New York State Department of Education website there were 292 charter school in operation serving approximately 130,000 students in the 2018-2019 school year. Advocates of charter schools believe that these schools provide an opportunity for students to learn in an environment that is not bound by traditional curricular mandates. However, proponents of public education believe that charter schools are part of a larger effort to privatize education. The Network for Public Education’s report, Asleep at the Wheel, outlines several serious concerns about charter schools including the misuse of millions of taxpayer dollars awarded to charter schools with little oversight and barriers to enrollment that do not allow equal access for all students (Burris & Bryant, 2019). The conversation over school choice, charter schools and efforts to privatize schools will be ongoing. As a teacher it is wise to stay up to date on these issues.
Link to the full Asleep at the Wheel report: https://networkforpubliceducation.org/asleepatthewheel/
Summary
Keep in mind that local, state and federal policies impact your work as a teacher and the available resources to help students learn. Advocating for policies and funding that reflect your philosophy and values as a teacher is important. Understanding your local school district’s policies and procedures is your responsibility. Maintaining positive relationships with all community members and keeping up to date on issues of community concern will help you make informed-decisions. Understanding how the school budget was developed and district priorities will assist you in answering questions form students and in advocating for educational resources.
Homework and/or Class Activity:
As discussed, the local administration and school board will have the strongest impact on the school and your work as a teacher.
1. Select a school district where you might like to work. Go to the website and identify key personnel in the administration and Board of Education members.
2. What is the district’s organizational structure? How many BOE members are there? What can you tell about the educational mission, policies and procedures of the school by examining this information? Are the BOE meeting minutes and agenda easy to find?
Write up a short summary of your impressions, thoughts and ideas after reflecting on school governance, organization and finance. Be prepared to share with the class.
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10.04: References
(n.d.). Retrieved from www.eseanetwork.org/about/titlei
Burris, C., & Bryant, J. (2019, April 17). Asleep at the Wheel:. Retrieved from http://networkforpubliceducation.org/asleepatthewheel/
Digest of Education Statistics, 2018. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d18/tables/dt18_236.70.asp
Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.ed.gov/essa?src=policy
Foundation, R. W. (2018, August 06). Equity vs. Equality. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MlXZyNtaoDM
Kober, N., & Usher, A. (2012). A public education primer: Basic (and sometimes surprising) facts about the U.S. education system. Washington, DC: Center on Education Policy.
President’s FY 2018 Budget Request for the U.S. Department of Education. (2018, May 23). Retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/budget/budget18/index.html
The Constitution of the State of New York. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.dos.ny.gov/info/constitution/article_11_education.html
Title I, Part A – Improving Basic Programs Operated by Local Education Agencies. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.nysed.gov/budget-coordination/title-i-part-improving-basic-programs-operated-local-education-agencies
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Learning Objectives
• Identify the importance of ethics and the ethical practices of teachers.
• Recognize the responsibilities of teachers as role models.
• Determine individual values and code of ethics in becoming a teacher.
• Compare the New York State Code of Ethics for Educators with the National Education Association (NEA) Code of Ethics.
• Explain why integrity is an essential disposition for teachers.
• Identify liability of teachers concerning copyright laws, mandated reporting and academic freedom.
• Explain the FERPA law
• Identify landmark legal cases in education and their importance in students’ rights in schools.
What the teacher is, is more important than what he teaches -Karl Meninge
Teachers as Professional Role Models
Teachers are important role models for their students both in and out of the classroom. Whether teachers are in school or involved in community functions, there are high standards of behavior expected of them. What is meant by the term professionalism? The term professionalism relates to a certain level of degree, skill or expertise in one’s specialized area. Indeed, teachers must obtain schooling, required clinical experience and certain tests in order to enter the field of teaching. In addition to this level of knowledge, teachers must demonstrate integrity, impartiality and ethical behavior in the classroom and in their conduct with parents and coworkers. Teachers must model strong character traits, such as reliability, honesty, respect, lawfulness, patience, fairness, responsibility and collaboration.
In Loco Parentis translates to “in place of parent”. Historically schools are basically responsible for students while in the hands of teachers. Therefore, teachers have a great deal of responsibility for the welfare of their students.
• Foundations of Education. Authored by: SUNY Oneonta Education Department. License: CC BY: Attribution
11: Ethics and Legal Issues in Education
Ethics is defined as the discipline of dealing with what is good and bad with moral duty and obligation. As students who will be entering the teaching profession in the next few years, it is imperative to understand that there is a code of ethics that you are expected to follow. Teachers are often held to higher standards than other professions, both in their classrooms and in their personal lives. Teachers are expected to be fair to all their students, not impose their personal views and not abuse their powers as educators. We will examine both the New York State and the National Educator’s Association Code of Ethics to get a better understanding of these expectations. These codes of ethics for teachers are designed to protect the rights of all students. The teaching profession requires that individuals be excellent ethical role models.
As a pre-service teacher it is also important to reflect on your own set of values and beliefs. Consider how you will interact with students, manage classroom behavior and assess students’ progress. This is just a small part of an educator’s duties. The behaviors allowable in your college years may not be acceptable as a new teacher. Everything from the way you dress and speak to how you engage in social media are closely securitized as a teacher. You need to be very conscientious of your appearance, attitudes and behaviors. Teachers are expected to have high ethical standards all the time, both in and out of the classroom.
Activity
• After reading the New York State Code of Ethics for Educators, summarize the six principles.
• Compare New York State Code of Ethics with NEA Code of Ethics. Compare and contrast the similarities and differences.
• List your own values and code of ethics in becoming a teacher.
• Define integrity and explain why it is an essential disposition for teachers.
Teachers, like other professions, are expected to follow a code of ethics to guide and inform their behavior and decision-making.
The National Education Association’s preamble for its code of ethics:
“The Educator, believing in the worth and dignity of each human being, recognizes the supreme importance of the pursuit of truth, devotion to excellence, and nurture of the democratic principles. Essential to these goals is the protection of freedom to learn and to teach and the guarantee of equal educational opportunity for all. The educator accepts the responsibility to adhere to the highest ethical standards.”
New York State Code of Ethics for Educators
Statement of Purpose
The Code of Ethics is a public statement by educators that sets clear expectations and principles to guide practice and inspire professional excellence. Educators believe a commonly held set of principles can assist in the individual exercise of professional judgment. This Code speaks to the core values of the profession. “Educator” as used throughout means all educators serving New York schools in positions requiring a certificate, including classroom teachers, school leaders and pupil personnel service providers.
Principle 1: Educators nurture the intellectual, physical, emotional, social, and civic potential of each student.
Educators promote growth in all students through the integration of intellectual, physical, emotional, social and civic learning. They respect the inherent dignity and worth of each individual. Educators help students to value their own identity, learn more about their cultural heritage, and practice social and civic responsibilities. They help students to reflect on their own learning and connect it to their life experience. They engage students in activities that encourage diverse approaches and solutions to issues, while providing a range of ways for students to demonstrate their abilities and learning. They foster the development of students who can analyze, synthesize, evaluate and communicate information effectively.
Principle 2: Educators create, support, and maintain challenging learning environments for all.
Educators apply their professional knowledge to promote student learning. They know the curriculum and utilize a range of strategies and assessments to address differences. Educators develop and implement programs based upon a strong understanding of human development and learning theory. They support a challenging learning environment. They advocate for necessary resources to teach to higher levels of learning. They establish and maintain clear standards of behavior and civility. Educators are role models, displaying the habits of mind and work necessary to develop and apply knowledge while simultaneously displaying a curiosity and enthusiasm for learning. They invite students to become active, inquisitive, and discerning individuals who reflect upon and monitor their own learning.
Principle 3: Educators commit to their own learning in order to develop their practice.
Educators recognize that professional knowledge and development are the foundations of their practice. They know their subject matter, and they understand how students learn. Educators respect the reciprocal nature of learning between educators and students. They engage in a variety of individual and collaborative learning experiences essential to develop professionally and to promote student learning. They draw on and contribute to various forms of educational research to improve their own practice.
Principle 4: Educators collaborate with colleagues and other professionals in the interest of student learning.
Educators encourage and support their colleagues to build and maintain high standards. They participate in decisions regarding curriculum, instruction and assessment designs, and they share responsibility for the governance of schools. They cooperate with community agencies in using resources and building comprehensive services in support of students. Educators respect fellow professionals and believe that all have the right to teach and learn in a professional and supportive environment. They participate in the preparation and induction of new educators and in professional development for all staff.
Principle 5: Educators collaborate with parents and community, building trust and respecting confidentiality.
Educators partner with parents and other members of the community to enhance school programs and to promote student learning. They also recognize how cultural and linguistic heritage, gender, family and community shape experience and learning. Educators respect the private nature of the special knowledge they have about students and their families and use that knowledge only in the students’ best interests. They advocate for fair opportunity for all children.
Principle 6: Educators advance the intellectual and ethical foundation of the learning community.
Educators recognize the obligations of the trust placed in them. They share the responsibility for understanding what is known, pursuing further knowledge, contributing to the generation of knowledge, and translating knowledge into comprehensible forms. They help students understand that knowledge is often complex and sometimes paradoxical. Educators are confidantes, mentors and advocates for their students’ growth and development. As models for youth and the public, they embody intellectual honesty, diplomacy, tact and fairness. (New York State Education Department, 2017).
NEA Code of Ethics
PRINCIPLE I
Commitment to the Student
The educator strives to help each student realize his or her potential as a worthy and effective member of society. The educator therefore works to stimulate the spirit of inquiry, the acquisition of knowledge and understanding, and the thoughtful formulation of worthy goals.
In fulfillment of the obligation to the student, the educator–
1. Shall not unreasonably restrain the student from independent action in the pursuit of learning.
2. Shall not unreasonably deny the student’s access to varying points of view.
3. Shall not deliberately suppress or distort subject matter relevant to the student’s progress.
4. Shall make reasonable effort to protect the student from conditions harmful to learning or to health and safety.
5. Shall not intentionally expose the student to embarrassment or disparagement.
6. Shall not on the basis of race, color, creed, sex, national origin, marital status, political or religious beliefs, family, social or cultural background, or sexual orientation, unfairly–
1. Exclude any student from participation in any program
2. Deny benefits to any student
3. Grant any advantage to any student
7. Shall not use professional relationships with students for private advantage.
8. Shall not disclose information about students obtained in the course of professional service unless disclosure serves a compelling professional purpose or is required by law.
PRINCIPLE II
Commitment to the Profession
The education profession is vested by the public with a trust and responsibility requiring the highest ideals of professional service.
In the belief that the quality of the services of the education profession directly influences the nation and its citizens, the educator shall exert every effort to raise professional standards, to promote a climate that encourages the exercise of professional judgment, to achieve conditions that attract persons worthy of the trust to careers in education, and to assist in preventing the practice of the profession by unqualified persons.
In fulfillment of the obligation to the profession, the educator–
1. Shall not in an application for a professional position deliberately make a false statement or fail to disclose a material fact related to competency and qualifications.
2. Shall not misrepresent his/her professional qualifications.
3. Shall not assist any entry into the profession of a person known to be unqualified in respect to character, education, or other relevant attribute.
4. Shall not knowingly make a false statement concerning the qualifications of a candidate for a professional position.
5. Shall not assist a noneducator in the unauthorized practice of teaching.
6. Shall not disclose information about colleagues obtained in the course of professional service unless disclosure serves a compelling professional purpose or is required by law.
7. Shall not knowingly make false or malicious statements about a colleague.
8. Shall not accept any gratuity, gift, or favor that might impair or appear to influence professional decisions or action.
(Adopted by the NEA 1975 Representative Assembly (National Education Association, 1975).
It is important that you look closely at the expectations this college requires of you while an education major. Professional dispositions associated with you as a pre-service teacher are noted below. Please review these dispositions and reflect on responsibilities you have as an education major. These dispositions are part of the rubric that SUNY Oneonta will evaluate you throughout the program.
SUNY ONEONTA – DIVISION OF EDUCATION
The Division of Education at SUNY Oneonta is committed to preparing educators who not only possess content knowledge but also conduct themselves professionally through the expression of appropriate professional dispositions. As defined by the Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC), dispositions are the “habits of professional action and moral commitments that underlie the performances play a key role in how teachers do, in fact, act in practice” (Council of Chief State School Officers, 2011, p. 6).
Learner & Learning: “To ensure that each student learns new knowledge and skills, teachers must understand that learning and developmental patterns vary among individuals, that learners bring unique individual differences to the learning process, and that learners need supportive and safe learning environments to thrive” (Council of Chief State School Officers, 2011, p. 8).
The candidate:
1. Demonstrates respect for cultural differences and the beliefs of others.
2. Demonstrates patience and flexibility during the learning process.
3. Creates a challenging learning environment that demonstrates high expectations for others.
4. Develops, maintains, and models appropriate relationships within the learning environment, community, and larger diverse society.
5. Demonstrates student-centered decision-making based on student needs when planning and adjusting instruction.
6. Demonstrates critical thinking in written & oral form.
7. Demonstrates use of Evidence-Based Practices.
8. Demonstrates compliance with New York State Code of Ethics for Educators and SUNY Oneonta academic standards.
9. Demonstrates initiative and responsibility for own actions: independence, going beyond what is given, seeking after knowledge and professional development, and actively seeking solutions to problems.
10. Demonstrates professional demeanor and appearance appropriate to the situation.
11. Fosters respectful communication among all members of the learning community.
12. Is prepared for class or appointments.
13. Is punctual for class or appointments.
14. Demonstrates reflective practice in written or verbal form.
(SUNY Oneonta Student Teaching Handbook, 2017)
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“There is no higher value in our society than integrity.” Arlen Specter
Integrity refers to a person having strong moral values. We associate people who have integrity as being honest and decent. To consistently do the “right” thing, even if nobody is watching. According to Seth Meyers, “The good news about integrity is that we’re not born with it—or without it—which means that it’s a behavior-based virtue we can cultivate over time.” (Psychology Today, 2015). Integrity is an extremely important trait to cultivate and highly valued in our society. As future teachers, you are expected to possess this characteristic and held to a higher standard than many other careers.
Activity
Read the article below and be prepared to discuss the following questions:
1. List 3-5 characteristics that demonstrate integrity.
2. Think of an example that shows a person having integrity in a situation.
According to the article, how are integrity and honesty different?
Teachers and Copyright Laws
Teachers are not exempt from copyright laws, and you must be careful about the materials you use in your classroom. In the Copyright Act of 1976, Congress established guidelines for the duplication of copyright works. According to the law, teachers may make a single copy of a chapter of a book, an article, a short story, short essay or poem, a diagram, chart or picture. Educators may make multiple copies of copyrighted work for the use in classroom provided they meet specific guidelines of brevity, spontaneity and cumulative effect. Please refer to the following website for detailed guidelines:
www.custompublisher.com/blog/2007/10/11/the-guidelines-to-classroom-copying-what-are-brevity-spontaneity-and-cumulative-effect/
Teachers also need to be mindful of copyright laws involving electronic media. Pay attention to copyright laws for using videos, DVDs and software programs. Be aware that internet laws are still evolving, and it is best to check with their librarian or media specialist in your school building.
Teachers as Mandated Reporters
In 1974, Congress enacted the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, which defines child abuse and neglect as the physical or mental injury, sexual abuse, negligent treatment, or maltreatment of a child under the age of 18 by a person who is responsible for the child’s welfare under circumstances that indicate that the child’s welfare is harmed or threatened thereby. All states require teachers and school personnel to report suspected child abuse. Usually a reasonable suspicion, or a reasonable cause to believe is enough to require a teacher to report according to the law. Much more detailed information will be covered on this topic in the EDUC 213 class, you are required to take.
Teachers and Academic Freedom
Teachers have always been allowed a fair amount of academic freedom in creating and teaching their coursework. Academic freedom basically refers to the freedom of teachers to communicate information, without legal interference. So even if a teacher makes an off-color comment about their principal, the school district cannot fire that teacher. However, as previously mentioned, teachers are held to a higher code of ethics and should be mindful of what they say, print and post in social media.
Academic freedom can vary depending on what grades are being taught and where schools are located. Higher education tends to allow more academic freedom than secondary and elementary school teachers. There may be more public pressure about academic freedom of teachers in smaller, more rural schools than larger, city school districts. As future teachers, you need to be mindful of the school district you work in and pay careful attention to how you state facts versus opinions to your students.
The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA):
The Family Education Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA), also known as the Buckley Amendment was passed by Congress in 1974. The law applies to all schools that receive funds under an applicable program of the U.S. Department of Education. This law was passed to clarify who had access to students’ school records. Included in school records are personal records, grades, test scores and teachers’ reports. This law mandated that schools had to share all information about students with their parents and/or legal guardians. It further required schools to explain recorded observations to parents, when requested.
FERPA gives parents certain rights with respect to their children’s education records. These rights transfer to the student when he or she reaches the age of 18 or attends a school beyond the high school level. Students to whom the rights have transferred are “eligible students.” (U.S. Department of Education, 2018).
If the student is not a dependent, then the student must generally provide consent for the school to disclose the information to the parents.
Legal Issues Involving and Court Cases Involving Students’ Rights
Brown v Board of Education:
The famous landmark case, Brown versus the Board of Education involved a nine-year-old girl named Linda Brown when she was refused to attend an all-white elementary school in Topeka, Kansas. Oliver Brown, Linda’s father was the prime plaintiff in this case. “In his lawsuit, Brown claimed that schools for black children were not equal to the white schools, and that segregation violated the so-called “equal protection clause” of the 14th Amendment, which holds that no state can “deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws” (History 2009). The court case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka lasted from 1952 to 1954 and went to the United States Supreme Court. The court declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students to be unconstitutional. Schools were required to be desegregated, as a result of this ruling.
In the Supreme Court decision, issued on May 17, 1954, Justice Earl Warren wrote that “in the field of public education the doctrine of ‘separate but equal’ has no place,” as segregated schools are “inherently unequal.” As a result, the Court ruled that the plaintiffs were being deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the 14th Amendment. (USA Today, 2019).
Group Assignment
EDUCATION LEGAL ISSUES & STUDENTS’ RIGHTS
1. Each group will be assigned an educational landmark case.
2. The task of each group is to teach the rest of the class about their assigned court case.
3. Minimum of two (2) research sources must be included in APA format at the end of the presentation.
4. The following questions (below) need to be fully answered and then presented, using either PowerPoint, Prezi, or Sway.
5. Presentation should be a maximum of 20 minutes with all members presenting a part of the case.
6. See evaluation for additional guidance.
7. You will receive a group grade for the written portion of this assignment and an individual grade for your individual presentation portion.
8. Please write each student’s name at the bottom of the slide(s) they created and presented.
One way of finding information will be from the Milne Library. If you wish to do this, use the following guide to find your case:
• Begin at SUNY Oneonta home page
• Click Milne Library
• Click Databases
• Click “L”
• Click LexisNexis Academic
• Click Legal Research
• Click Look Up a Legal Case
• Type in full name of case (you don’t need to type the citation)
• Click on name of the case (if it is highlighted)
COURT CASES
Group 1: Tinker v. Des Moines (1969) – Students Constitutional Rights and Freedom of Expression
Group 2: Goss v. Lopez (1975) – Suspension & Due Process
Group 3: Ingraham v. Wright (1977) – Corporal Punishment
Group 4: Bethel v. Fraser (1986) – Vulgar Speech
Group 5: Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier (1988) – Newspaper Censorship
Group 6: Veronia School District v. Acton (1995) – Drug Testing
Locker, Backpack, Jacket, Purse Search
Group 7: Davis v. Monroe County Board of Education (1999) – Sexual Harassment
QUESTIONS TO ADDRESS:
• The situation that brought about the lawsuit. What? When? Where? Why?
• What was the issue the court had to decide?
• Who was the original plantiff (person who sued)? What arguments were used to convince the courts?
• Who was the original defendant? What arguments were used to convince the court?
• What was the court ruling? What reasoning was used for the decision?
• Was there dissent (opposition)? By whom/what reasons were used for disagreeing with the majority opinion?
• What was the significance of the case at the time?
• What is the significance of the case for today’s schools? To you as a future teacher?
Contributors and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
• Foundations of Education. Authored by: SUNY Oneonta Education Department. License: CC BY: Attribution
11.03: References
AFT: Academic Freedom. Retrieved from https://www.aft.org/position/academic-freedom
Carter, Stephen L., (1996) The Insufficiency of Honesty. Atlantic Monthly, p.74-76.
Dreon,Oliver. (2017). Education Ethics and Conduct Toolkit. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Retrieved from https://www.pspc.education.pa.gov/Promoting-Ethical-Practices-Resources/Ethics-Toolkit/Pages/default.aspxhttps://www.pspc.education.pa.gov/Promoting-Ethical-Practices-Resources/Ethics-Toolkit/Pages/default.aspx
History: Brown v. BOE. (2009). Retrieved from https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/brown-v-board-of-education-of-topeka
Meyers, Seth. (2019). Psychology Today. Sussex Publishing. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/insight-is-2020/201504/7-signs-people-integrity
NEA: National Education Association (2017). Code of Ethics. Retrieved from http://www.nea.org/home/30442.htm
New York State Education Department. (2017) Office of Office Initiatives. Retrieved from http://www.highered.nysed.gov/tcert/resteachers/codeofethics.html
Premium Source Publishing. (2007). The Guidelines to Classroom Copying. Retrieved from www.custompublisher.com/blog/2007/10/11/the-guidelines-to-classroom-copying-what-are-brevity-spontaneity-and-cumulative-effect/
SUNY Oneonta Office of Education Advisement and Field Experience. (2017) Student Teaching Handbook. Retrieved from:http://www.oneonta.edu/academics/ed/oeafe/documents/SUNY-Oneonta-Student-Teaching-Handbook.pdf
U.S Department of Education. (March,1, 2018).Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act. Retrieved from: https://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/fpco/ferpa/index.html
USA Today. (April 5, 2019). 63 years after landmark Brown v. Board case, segregated classrooms persist. Retrieved from: https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/investigations/2019/04/05/segregated-classrooms-mississippi/3347927002/
Contributors and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
• Foundations of Education. Authored by: SUNY Oneonta Education Department. License: CC BY: Attribution | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Foundations_of_Education_(Lumen)/11%3A_Ethics_and_Legal_Issues_in_Education/11.02%3A_Integrity.txt |
Appendix A: 15 Must Haves for All Child Care Programs Checklist761
Table A.1 Can you check yes for each of these 15 must-haves?
Program #1
Program #2
Program #3
Questions
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Is the program licensed? Ask to see the license. If
not, ask Why and then check your State's licensing
regulations to make sure the program is not
required to be licensed.
Look at the program's past inspection reports and
complaint history.
Are visits from parents allowed and encouraged
anytime the child care program is open? If you are
not allowed to visit at any time (Without calling
ahead), this is not the best program for your child
and you should consider a different program.
Does the program have an appropriate number Of
adults 'tusking after each group Of children? This is
known as the child-to-adult ratio. Recommended
ratios are usually lower for younger children. For
example, the American Academy Of Pediatrics
recommends that child care centers have no more
than 3 infants under 12 months Old per adult.
Are children, including infants, supervised at all
times, even they are sleeping?
Does the director (Of a child care center) have a
college degree in child development or a related
field? DO teachers (or the owner and operator Of a
family child care home) have a credential or college
degree in early childhood education or a related
DO all adults in the program receive ongoing training
in working With children and child development?
Is there a planned schedule for each day or week
that encourages learning and includes active and
quiet play, group and individual learning activities,
rest time, and meal times?
Is the environment safe, clean, and well
maintained? For example, are safe cribs provided
for each infant, and does the program follow safe
sleep guidelines? Are electrical outlets covered?
Are medicines and dangerous items, including
cleaning supplies, kept out Of the reach Of children?
Is there a written discipline policy that explains how
behavioral concerns are handled? DO discipline
techniques included in the policy teach and guide
children rather than punish them? For example,
does the policy make it clear that there Will be no
spanking, humiliating, or excluding children? HOW
does the program make sure that techniques are
used in ways that are clear, consistent, and fair?
Does the program feel warm and welcoming? Are
the children happily engaged in activities?
Do the adults seem to enjoy working With and caring
for the children? Are they actively involved With the
children and do they pay attention to the needs Of
each child? Have all adults working in the program had state and national background checks, including
fingerprinting?
Have the adults in the program been trained on how
to prevent child abuse how to recognize and
report the signs of abuse?
Is there someone present at all times Who has been
trained in pediatric first aid and CPR? Do staff know
how to respond to an allergic reaction? Is there a
first aid kit available? Are the adults in the program
trained in how to prevent injuries?
Does the program have a clear, written plan to
follow a child is injured, sick, or lost?
Is there a written plan for to
emergencies and disasters such as fire or flooding?
Does the program conduct regular fire drills? | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Health_Safety_and_Nutrition_(Paris)/16%3A_Appendices/16%3A_Appendix_A-_15_Must_Haves_for_All_Child_Care_Programs_Checklist.txt |
Appendix B: Title 22 Licensing Regulation Highlights762
101152 DEFINITIONS
• Child Care Center means any child care facility of any capacity, other than a Family Child Care Home, in which less than 24-hour per day, non-medical care and supervision are provided to children in a group setting
• The Department means the California Department of Social Services or agency which is authorized to assume licensing responsibilities.
101156 LICENSE REQUIRED
• Unless a child care arrangement is exempt from licensure (101158), no adult, partnership, corporation, public agency or other governmental entity shall operate, establish, manage, conduct or provide care and supervision without a valid license from the Department.
101160 POSTING OF LICENSE
• The license shall be posted in a prominent, publicly accessible location in the center.
101167 TRANSFER AND SALE
• A license is not transferable.
• The licensee shall provide written notice to the department and to the child’s parent/legal guardian of the intent to sell the day care center at least 20 days prior to the transfer of the property or business.
• The seller shall notify, in writing, a prospective buyer of the necessity to obtain a license.
• The prospective buyer shall submit an application for a license within five days of the acceptance of the offer by the seller.
101169 APPLICATION FOR LICENSE
• 101170 CRIMINAL RECORD CLEARANCE
• The Department will conduct a criminal record review of all persons working in a child care facility including:
• Adults responsible for administration or supervision of staff.
• Any person, other than a child, residing in the facility.
• Any person who provides care and supervision to children.
• Any staff person who has contact with the children.
• Relatives and legal guardians of a child in the facility are exempt.
• A volunteer or student who is always directly supervised by a fingerprinted staff, and who spends no more than 16 hours per week at the facility is exempt.
• Prior to employment, residence or initial presence in the child care facility, all individuals subject to a criminal record review shall obtain a Department of Justice clearance, or request a transfer of a current clearance to be associated with the facility.
101170.2 CHILD ABUSE CENTRAL INDEX
• A Child Abuse Central Index review shall be conducted on the applicant and all individuals subject to a criminal record review prior to licensure, employment or initial presence in the facility.
101171 FIRE CLEARANCE
• All Child Care Centers shall secure and maintain a fire clearance.
101173 PLAN OF OPERATION
• Each licensee shall keep on file a current, written, definitive plan of operation. This document must contain the program methods; goals; admission policies, procedures, and agreement; the administrative organization and staffing plan; a sketch of the building; sample menus and transportation arrangements.
101174 DISASTER AND MASS CASUALTY PLAN
• Each licensee shall have a disaster plan of action in writing.
• Disaster drills shall be documented and conducted every six months.
101175 WAIVERS AND EXCEPTIONS FOR PROGRAM FLEXIBILITY
• The Department has the authority to approve the use of alternate concepts, programs, services, equipment, space, qualifications, ratios and demonstration projects when there is an alternative for safe and adequate services submitted in writing with substantiating evidence to support the request.
101179 CAPACITY DETERMINATION
• A license is issued for a specific capacity which is the maximum number of children that can be cared for at any given time. The number of children is determined by the fire clearance; the physical features of the Child Care Care Center, including available space; and the available staff to meet the care and supervision needs of the children.
101182 ISSUANCE/TERM OF LICENSE
• A separate license is issued for each age component.
• At lease one director or teacher at the center shall have 15 hours of training on preventive health practices, including pediatric cardiopulmonary resuscitation and pediatric first aid. A staff member with certification in pediatric CPR and first aid shall be present at all times.
101187 LICENSING FEES
• The licensee shall be charged application and annual fees.
101193 DEFICIENCIES IN COMPLIANCE
• If during a licensing evaluation the evaluator determines that a deficiency exists, a notice of deficiency will be issued in writing, unless the deficiency is corrected during the visit.
• The person in charge of the facility shall meet with the evaluator to discuss any deficiencies noted and to jointly develop a plan of correction.
101200 INSPECTION AUTHORITY
• The Department has inspection authority to enter and inspect a facility without advance notice.
• The Department has the authority to interview children or staff, and to inspect and audit child or Child Care Center records, without prior consent.
101206 REVOCATION OR SUSPENSION OF LICENSE
• The Department has the authority to suspend or revoke a license.
101208 EXCLUSIONS
• The Department may prohibit an individual from being employed or allowed in a licensed facility or from service as an administrator for the facility.
101212 REPORTING REQUIREMENTS
• The licensee shall report to the Department required information about the center director, any intent to make structural changes to the facility, or any change in the plan of operation that would affect services to children.
• The licensee shall report the following incidents to the Department:
• Any injury to any child that requires medical treatment.
• Any unusual incident or child absence that threatens safety.
• Any suspected physical or psychological abuse of any child.
101213 FINANCES
• The licensee must develop a financial plan to meet operating costs and maintain financial records.
101214 ACCOUNTABILITY
• The licensee is accountable for the general supervision of the Child Care Center and for the establishment of policies concerning its operation.
101215.1 CHILD CARE CENTER DIRECTOR QUALIFICATIONS
• All centers shall have a director who is responsible for the operation of the center, including compliance with regulations, and communications with the Department. The director shall be on the premises during the hours of operation and shall not accept outside employment that interferes with the duties specified.
• When the director is absent, a fully qualified teacher can act as a substitute.
• Child care center directors shall have completed one of the following prior to employment:
• High school graduation or GED and 15 semester units at an accredited college in specified early childhood education classes. Three of the required units shall be in administration or staff relations and 12 units shall include courses that cover the area of child growth and development; child, family and community; and program/ curriculum and four years of teaching experience in a licensed center or comparable group child care program or
• Two years of experience are required if the director has an AA degree with a major in child development or
• A Child Development Site Supervisor Permit or Child Development Program Director permit issued by the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing.
101216 PERSONNEL REQUIREMENTS
• The director shall complete 15 hours of health and safety training, if necessary, pursuant to Health and Safety Code Section 1596.866.
• Personnel shall be competent to provide necessary services to meet the individual needs of children in care and there shall be enough staff to meet those needs.
• Licensees may utilize volunteers provided that volunteers are supervised and are not included in the staffing plan.
• Center personnel shall be at least 18 years old.
• All personnel shall be in good health and physically and mentally capable of performing assigned tasks.
• A health screening, including a tuberculosis test is required.
• Personnel shall provide for the care and safety of children without physical or verbal abuse, exploitation or prejudice.
101216.1 TEACHER QUALIFICATIONS
• A teacher shall have completed with passing grades a least six postsecondary semester units of specified early childhood education classes, or have a valid Child Development Assistant permit issued by the California Commission on Teacher
• Credentialing. A teacher hired with six units must complete at least two additional units each semester until fully qualified.
• A fully qualified teacher shall have 12 postsecondary semester units in early childhood education from an accredited college and six months of work experience in a licensed Child Care Center or similar program. The units specified shall include courses covering child growth and development; child, family and community; and program/curriculum.
• A teacher shall complete 15 hours of health and safety training, if necessary, pursuant to Health and Safety code, Section 1596.866.
101216.2 TEACHER AIDE QUALIFICATIONS
• An aide in a Child Care Center must be 18 years of age, a high school graduate, or be currently participating in an occupational program at high school.
• An aide shall work only under the direct supervision of a teacher.
• An aide may escort or assist children in going to the bathroom and may supervise napping children without being under the direct supervision of a teacher.
101216.3 TEACHER – CHILD RATIO
• There shall be a ratio of one teacher visually observing and supervising no more than 12 children in attendance. The total number of children shall not exceed licensed capacity.
• The licensee may use teacher aides in a teacher-child ratio of one teacher and one aide for every 15 children.
• A ratio of one fully qualified teacher and one aide for every 18 children is allowed if the aide has six semester units of early childhood education from an accredited college.
• The director may be included in the teacher-child ratio when the director is actually teaching a group of children.
• Licensees shall maintain an up-to-date list of qualified substitutes.
• A teacher should not perform housekeeping or maintenance duties that prevent him/her from performing duties related to providing care and supervision to children.
• Persons employed for clerical, housekeeping and maintenance functions are not included as teachers in the teacher-child ratio.
101216.4 TODDLER COMPONENT
• Licensees serving preschool-age children may create a special program component for children between the ages of 18 months and 30 months.
• A ratio of six children to each teacher shall be maintained for all children in attendance in the toddler program.
• The maximum group size with two teachers, or one fully qualified teacher and one aide shall not exceed 12 toddlers.
• The toddler program must be physically separate.
101218.1 ADMISSION PROCEDURES
• The licensee shall have policies that allow the center to understand the state of the child’s health and development and to assess whether the center can meet the individual needs of the child.
• The child’s authorized representative shall receive written information about the center’s policies including services, activities, hours, fees and procedures to be followed in the case of emergency, illness or injury.
• The licensee shall post the PUB 393, Child Care Center Notification of Parents’ rights Poster, in a prominent accessible area at the center.
101219 ADMISSION AGREEMENTS
• The licensees and the child’s authorized representative shall complete a current individual written admission agreement for the child. This document must specify the basic services, payment provisions, modification conditions, refund conditions, rights of the Department, and termination provisions.
101220 CHILD’S MEDICAL ASSESSMENTS
• Prior to, or within 30 calendar days following enrollment, the licensee will obtain a licensed physician’s written medical assessment of the child. The assessment must be less than one year old.
101220.1 IMMUNIZATIONS
• Prior to admission to a Child Care Center, children shall be immunized against diseases as required by the California Code of Regulations, Title 17.
• The licensee must document and maintain each child’s immunizations records for as long as the child is enrolled.
101221 CHILD’S RECORDS
• A separate, complete and current record for each child must be maintained.
• All information and records obtained from or regarding children are confidential.
101223 PERSONAL RIGHTS
• The licensee shall ensure that each child is accorded the following personal rights:
• To be accorded dignity in his/her personal relationships with staff.
• To receive safe, healthful and comfortable accommodations.
• To be free from corporal or unusual punishment, infliction of pain, humiliation, intimidation, ridicule, coercion, threat, mental abuse or other actions of a punitive nature including interference with functions of daily living such as eating, sleeping or toileting, or withholding of shelter, clothing, medication or aids to physical functioning.
• To be free to attend religious services or activities of his/her choice.
• Not to be locked in any room, building or center premises.
• Not to be placed in any restraining device.
• The center must inform each child’s authorized representative of these rights and provide a copy of the Personal Rights form. This form must also be posted.
101223.2 DISCIPLINE
• Any form of discipline or punishment that violates a child’s personal rights is not permitted regardless of authorized representative consent or authorization.
101224 TELEPHONES
• All Child Care Centers shall have working telephone service onsite.
101225 TRANSPORTATION
• Only drivers licensed for the type of vehicle operated shall be permitted to transport children.
• Motor vehicles used to transport children shall be maintained in safe operating condition.
• All vehicle occupants shall be secured in an appropriate restraint system. Children shall not be left in parked vehicles.
101226 HEALTH-RELATED SERVICES
• The licensee shall immediately notify the child’s authorized representative if the child becomes ill or sustains an injury more serious than a minor cut or scratch.
• The licensee shall document all minor injuries and notify the child’s authorized representative of the nature of the injury when the child is picked up from the center.
• The licensee shall make prompt arrangements for obtaining medical treatment for any child as necessary.
• In centers where the licensee chooses to handle medication:
• Medications must be kept inaccessible to children.
• Prescription medications must be administered in accordance with the label directions as prescribed by the child’s physician and there must be written approval and instructions from the child’s authorized representative before giving medication to the child.
• Nonprescription medications must be administered in accordance with the product label and there must be written approval and instructions from the child’s authorized representative before giving medication to the child.
101226.1 DAILY INSPECTION FOR ILLNESS
• The licensee shall be responsible for ensuring the children with obvious symptoms of illness are not accepted.
• No child shall be accepted without contact between center staff and the person bringing the child to the center.
101226.2 ISOLATION FOR ILLNESS
• A center shall be equipped to isolate and care for any child who becomes ill during the day.
• The child’s authorized representative shall be notified immediately when the child becomes ill enough to require isolation, and shall be asked to pick up the child as soon as possible.
101227 FOOD SERVICE
• Food selection, storage preparation and service shall be safe and healthful and of the quality and quantity necessary to meet the needs of children.
• Meal services are elective.
• Between meals, snacks must be available for all children. Snacks will include servings from two or more of the four major food groups.
• Menus must be in writing and posted at least one week in advance.
• Pesticides and similar toxic substances must not be stored with food.
• Soaps and cleaning compounds must be stored separately from food.
• Kitchens and food areas shall be clean.
• All food shall be protected against contamination.
• Necessary equipment includes a sink, refrigeration, hot and cold running water and storage space. This equipment must be well maintained.
101229 RESPONSIBILITY FOR PROVIDING CARE AND SUPERVISION
• The licensee shall provide care and supervision as necessary to meet the children’s needs. No child shall be left without the supervision of a teacher at any time. Supervision includes visual observation.
101229.1 SIGN IN AND SIGN OUT
• The licensee shall develop, maintain and implement a written procedure to sign the child in/out of the center. The person who signs the child in/out shall use his/her full legal signature and shall record the time of day. All sign in/out sheets shall be kept for one month.
101230 ACTIVITIES AND NAPPING
• Each center shall provide for a variety of daily activities including quiet and active play, rest and relaxation, eating, and toileting.
• All children shall be given an opportunity to nap or rest without distraction.
• A napping space and a cot or mat must be available for each child under age 5.
• No child shall be forced to stay awake or stay in the napping area longer than the normal napping period.
• A teacher-child ratio of one teacher or aide supervising 24 napping children is permitted, provided that the remaining teachers necessary to meet the overall ratios are immediately available at the center.
101231 SMOKING PROHIBITION
• Smoking is prohibited on the premises of a Child Care Center.
101237 ALTERATIONS TO EXISTING BUILDINGS OR NEW FACILITIES
• Prior to construction or alterations, the licensee shall notify the Department of the proposed change(s).
101238 BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS
• The center shall be clean, safe, sanitary and in good repair at all times.
• All children shall be protected against hazards.
• Licensees shall ensure the inaccessibility of pools and all bodies of water.
• Disinfectants, cleaning solutions, poisons and items that could pose a danger to children shall be stored where inaccessible to children
• Storage areas for poisons shall be locked.
• Firearms and other weapons are not allowed on the premises.
101238.2 OUTDOOR ACTIVITY SPACE
• There shall be at least 75 square feet per child of outdoor activity space. The outdoor space shall provide a shaded rest area and permit children to reach the activity space safely.
• The surface of the activity space shall be in a safe condition and free of hazards.
• The areas around and under climbing equipment, swings, slides and similar equipment shall be cushioned with material that absorbs falls.
• Sandboxes shall be inspected daily and kept free of foreign materials.
• The playground shall be enclosed by a fence at least four feet high.
• Hazardous equipment such as a fuse box shall be inaccessible.
101238.4 STORAGE SPACE
• Each child shall have an individual storage space for personal items.
• There must be storage space in the playrooms for materials and equipment.
101239 FIXTURES, FURNITURE, EQUIPMENT, AND SUPPLIES
• A comfortable temperature shall be maintained at all times.
• All window screens shall be in good repair and free of insects and debris.
• Fireplaces and open-faced heaters shall be inaccessible.
• All containers used for storing solid wastes must have a tight-fitting cover.
• There must be one toilet and hand-washing sink for every 15 children.
• Common towels or washcloths are prohibited.
• Tables and chairs scaled to the size of children must be provided.
• All play equipment and materials used by children must be age-appropriate.
• Furniture and equipment must be maintained in good condition.
• A baby walker shall not be allowed on the premises.
• Permanent playground equipment must be securely anchored to the ground.
101239.1 NAPPING EQUIPMENT
• Cots must be maintained in a safe condition.
• Floor mats used for napping must be at least ¾ inch thick, covered with vinyl or similar material that can be wiped, and marked to distinguish the sleeping side from the floor side.
• Bedding must be individually stored and kept clean.
101239.2 DRINKING WATER
• Drinking water must be readily available both indoors and outdoors.
• Children must be free to drink as they wish.
SCHOOL-AGE CHILD CARE CENTER
101451 GENERAL
• In addition to Child Care Center General Licensing Requirements, school- age centers shall be governed by this chapter.
101471 SCHOOL-AGE CHILD CARE CENTER FIRE CLEARANCE
• In addition to Section 101171, School-age centers located on functioning school sites may submit verification of the school fire inspection. The school fire inspection shall be accepted as sufficient fire clearance for licensing purposes.
101482 ISSUANCE OF A SCHOOL-AGE CHILD CARE CENTER LICENSE
• The Department shall issue a license to an applicant according to Health and Safety Code Section 1597.21, after a completed application has been submitted, and all licensing requirements have been met.
101515 SCHOOL-AGE CHILD CARE CENTER DIRECTOR QUALIFICATIONS AND DUTIES
• In addition to Section 101215.1, the following shall apply:
• All school-age centers shall have a director. In a combination program, the director of the Child Care Center may also direct the school-age component.
• Units and training may be combined to meet the total educational requirement: 15 units or 300 training hours, or any combination thereof.
• As an alternative educational requirement, a director may substitute 6 units in early childhood education with 6 units appropriate to school-age children.
• As an alternative educational requirement, a director of a school- age program that stands alone may substitute 20 training hours for each required unit of education in Section 10125.1(h)(1). Units and training hours may be combined to meet the total educational requirement.
• In addition to a 3-unit semester administration course, 3 units in early childhood education, child development or school-age courses, the director may substitute 9 core units from the following: recreation, physical education, human services, units earned toward an elementary or middle school teaching credential, early childhood education, child development or school-age child units.
• A director is required to complete 12 units or 240 training hours prior to employment. The remaining 3 units must be completed within one year of employment.
• A director may qualify by possessing an Associate of Arts or a Bachelor’s Degree from an accredited or approved college provided at least 3 units or 60 training hours are in early childhood education, child development, or school-age child courses; and 3 units in administration or staff relations.
• Section 1597.21(f) of the Health and Safety code allows a director to use alternative approved sources of education.
• Verification of education shall be by transcript or certificate with hours completed shown on the certificate.
• A director needs to have verified experience of at least 3 hours a day for a minimum of 100 days in a calendar year. Health and Safety Code Section 1597.21 allows for alternative types of experience.
101516.2 SCHOOL-AGE CHILD CARE CENTER TEACHER QUALIFICATION AND DUTIES
• In addition to Section 101216.1, the following shall apply:
• As an alternative education requirement, a school-age teacher may substitute 20 training hours for each required unit. Units and training hours may be combined to meet the total educational requirements of 12 units or 240 training hours, or any combination thereof.
• School-age teachers may use alternative educational requirements. A teacher may substitute: recreation, physical education, human services, units earned toward an elementary or middle school teaching credential; early childhood education, child development or school-age child units.
• A teacher is required to complete 6 units prior to employment.
• Health and Safety Code, section 1597.21(f), allows a teacher to use alternative approved sources of education.
• Alternative types of experience may also be accepted. To be a fully qualified school-age teacher, experience must be verified showing at least 3 hours a day for a minimum of 50 days in a six- month period.
• In a combination center, a fully qualified teacher shall be designated to work closely with the director planning the daily activities of the school-age center.
101516.5 TEACHER-CHILD RATIO
• In addition to Section 101216.3, the following shall apply:
• One teacher to supervise no more than 14 children.
• One teacher and 1 aide can supervise no more than 28 children.
• Staffing for mixed-aged groups shall be based on the youngest child in the group.
• Directors may be counted in the ratio when actually working with groups of children.
101520 MEDICAL ASSESSMENTS
• Notwithstanding Section 101216.2, the licensee shall not be required to document medical assessments on school-age children who are enrolled in a public or private school.
101520 IMMUNIZATIONS
• Notwithstanding Section 101220.1, the licensee is not required to document immunizations of children also enrolled in a public or private elementary school.
101521 CHILD’S RECORDS
• 101526.1 DAILY INSPECTION FOR ILLNESS
• In addition to Section 101226.1, upon arrival or admittance to the center, school-age children shall be observed for signs of illness. If a child is found to be ill, follow Section 101226.2.
101527 FOOD SERVICE
• In addition to Section 101227, before and after school programs shall offer nutritious snacks to children.
101529.1 SIGN-IN AND SIGN-OUT
• 101538.2 OUTDOOR ACTIVITY SPACE FOR SCHOOL-AGE CHILDREN
• In addition to Section 101238.2:
• Outdoor activity space for school-age children shall by physically separated from space provided other children at the center.
• School-age child care programs that are operated on the site of a functioning school ground are exempt from square-footage requirements.
101538.3 INDOOR ACTIVITY SPACE FOR SCHOOL-AGE CHILDREN
• In addition to Section 101238.3, the following applies:
• Indoor space for school-age children shall be physically separated from space provided other children in the center.
• School-age child care programs that are operated on the site of a functioning school are exempt from square-footage requirements.
101539 FIXTURES, FURNITURE, EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES
• In addition to Section 101239, the following applies:
• Toilets used by school-age children shall provide individual privacy. Toilet facilities shall not be used simultaneously by children of both sexes.
• School-age programs that operate on the site of a functioning school are exempt from toilet requirements.
INFANT CARE CENTERS
101351 GENERAL
• Child Care Centers providing infant care shall be governed by the requirements of this subchapter. These centers shall also be governed by the previously listed Child Care Center General Licensing requirements.
101361 LIMITATIONS ON CAPACITY AND AMBULATORY STATUS
A child, whose developmental needs require continuation in an Infant Care Center, may remain in an Infant Care Center up to the age of three years.
101415 INFANT CARE CENTER DIRECTOR QUALIFICATIONS AND DUTIES
• An infant center director must meet the requirements of Section 101215.1, and the following:
• Experience requirements shall be completed in an Infant Care Center or a comparable group child care program with children less than five years of age.
• At least 3 semester units completed must be related to infant care.
• When the infant director is temporarily away from the center, the director shall appoint a substitute director.
• In centers where an assistant director is required, the assistant director shall act as a substitute.
• A fully qualified infant care teacher can act as a substitute for the director, or the assistant director.
• If the director’s absence is more than 30 consecutive days, a substitute director shall meet the qualifications of a director.
101415.1 ASSISTANT INFANT CARE CENTER DIRECTOR QUALIFICATIONS AND DUTIES
• An assistant director shall be present if the center has 25 or more infants in attendance. The assistant director has to be a fully qualified infant teacher and have completed, with passing grades, at least three semester units in administration at an approved college. This course work may be completed within one year of employment of the assistant director.
• The assistant director shall work under the direction of the center director.
101416.2 INFANT CARE TEACHER QUALIFICATION S DUTIES
• In addition to Section 101216.1, infant care teachers need to have taken and passed, at least 3 semesters units in early childhood education or child development, and 3 semester units in the care of infants from an approved college.
• After employment, a teacher who has not completed the 12 required semester units shall complete with passing grades, at least 2 units each semester until the 12 semester units are completed.
• To be a fully qualified infant care teacher, he/she shall:
• Complete 12 semester units, with passing grades, in early childhood education or child development. At least 3 units shall be related to the care of infants.
• Have a least 6 months experience in a licensed infant care program or comparable program for children under five years old.
101416.3 INFANT CARE AIDE QUALIFICATION AND DUTIES
• An aide must work under the supervision of the director or a fully qualified teacher, except when observing sleeping infants.
• Aides shall participate in an on-the job training program.
• An aide shall provide direct care and supervision to infants.
101416.5 STAFF-INFANT RATIO
• There shall be a ratio of one teacher to every four infants.
• An aide may be substituted for a teacher if there is a fully qualified teacher directly supervising no more than 12 infants.
• When in activities away from the center there shall be a minimum of one adult to every two infants.
• The director may be counted in the staff-infant ratio when actually working with infants.
• There shall be one staff visually observing no more than 12 sleeping infants, as long as additional staff are available at the center to meet the above ratios when necessary.
101416.8 STAFFING FOR INFANT WATER ACTIVITIES
• A ratio of one adult to two infants shall be required during activities near a swimming pool or any body of water.
101417 TODDLER COMPONENT IN AN INFANT CARE CENTER
• Licensees serving infants may create a special program component for children between 18 and 30 months.
• A ratio of one teacher for every 6 toddlers is required.
• An aide participating in on-the job training can substitute for a teacher when directly supervised by a fully qualified teacher.
• Maximum group size is two teachers to 12 toddlers.
• The toddler program shall be conducted in areas physically separate from those used by older or younger children.
101419.2 INFANT NEEDS AND SERVICES PLAN
• A plan must be completed and on file for every infant prior to attending the center. This plan must be signed by the authorized representative.
• The plan shall include: an individual feeding plan, individual toilet training plan, and any services needed different from those provided by the program.
101419.3 MODIFICATIONS TO INFANT NEEDS AND SERVICES PLAN
• The plan shall be updated quarterly or as often as necessary.
101423.1 INFANT CARE DISCIPLINE
• In addition to 101223.3, no infant shall be confined to a crib, high chair, playpen, or any other furniture or equipment as a form of discipline.
101425 INFANT CARE TRANSPORTATION
• Driver has to be 18 years old or older to transport infants.
• The vehicle must contain a first-aid kit.
• Children must be secured in a child passenger restraint system, i.e., a car seat.
• Staff/infant ratios must be maintained whether the vehicle is moving or parked.
• Infants in vehicles shall have constant adult supervision and shall not be left unattended.
101426.2 INFANT CARE ISOLATION FOR ILLNESS
• In addition to 101226.2, the isolation area must have a crib, cot, mat or playpen for each ill infant. This isolation area must be under constant visual supervision by staff.
101427 INFANT CARE FOOD SERVICE
• In addition to 101227, the following shall apply:
• Each infant shall have an individual feeding plan completed prior to the infant’s first day at the center. This plan must be developed by the director, infant’s representative and/or physician.
• The plan shall include: instructions for infant’s special diet, feeding schedule, breast milk or formula, schedule for introduction to solid/new foods, food consistency, likes and dislikes, allergies, schedule for introduction of cups and utensils.
• This plan shall be updated as often as necessary.
• Bottle fed infants shall be fed at least every four hours.
• Infant care centers shall have appropriate food available for the infants.
• The center shall provide only commercially prepared formulas that are stored and prepared in accordance with the label.
• The infant’s representative may provide formula or breast/mother’s milk. Such formula or milk shall be bottled before being accepted by the center.
• Bottles shall be labeled.
• Center may heat formula or breast/mother’s milk.
• Center must keep a supply of nipples. Bottles/nipples can not be shared between infants unless sterilized.
• Infants unable to hold a bottle shall be held by staff for bottle feeding.
• Bottles cannot be propped; infants shall not carry a bottle while ambulatory; a bottle given to an infant able to hold his/her own shall be unbreakable.
• High chairs or appropriate seating equipment shall be used for infants during feeding. Infants unable to sit unassisted shall be held by staff for feeding.
• Bottles, dishes and food containers brought from infant’s home shall be labeled with infant’s name and current date.
• Formula partially consumed in a bottle shall be discarded at end of each day.
• Food shall be discarded if not consumed within 72 hours of date on the container label.
• The infant care center shall not serve honey.
• Commercially prepared baby food in jars shall be transferred to a dish before being fed to the infant. Any food left over in the dish at the end of a meal shall be discarded.
• Mother may make arrangements with center for privacy to nurse infant.
• Bottles and nipples in center shall be sterilized.
• Infants shall not be bathed in, and diapers or clothing shall not be rinsed in, the food preparation area.
101428 INFANT CARE PERSONAL SERVICES
• There shall be a written toilet-training plan for each infant being toilet trained.
• Whenever a potty chair is used, it shall be placed on the floor and promptly emptied, cleaned and disinfected after each use.
• No child shall be left unattended while on a potty chair or seat.
• Each child shall receive instruction and assistance in handwashing after use of the toilet. The infant shall be kept clean and dry at all times.
• Soiled or wet clothing provided by the infant’s representative shall be placed in an airtight container and given to the representative at the end of the day.
• When changing an infant’s diaper, each infant shall be on a changing table and no infant shall be left unattended while on the changing table.
• Towels and washcloths used for cleaning infants shall not be shared and shall be washed after each us.
• The changing table shall be disinfected after each use.
101429 RESPONSIBILITY FOR PROVIDING CARE AND SUPERVISION FOR INFANTS
• In addition to 101229, each child shall be constantly supervised and under direct visual observation by a staff person at all times. Under no circumstances shall any infant be left unattended.
101430 INFANT CARE ACTIVITIES
• The center shall implement a written plan to ensure the provision of indoor and outdoor activities designed to meet the needs of the infants, including but not limited to, quiet and active play; rest and relaxation; eating; toileting; individual attention; being held by a caregiver.
• All infants shall be given the opportunity to nap/sleep without distraction or disturbances.
• No infant shall be forced to sleep, stay awake, or stay in the napping area.
101438.1 INFANT CARE GENERAL SANITATION
• All items used by pets and animals shall be kept out of the reach of infants.
• Each caregiver shall wash his/her hands with soap and water before feeding and after each diaper change.
• Areas that infants have access to shall be washed, cleared and sanitized as follows: floors shall be vacuumed or swept and mopped daily and as often as necessary. Carpeted floors shall be vacuumed daily and cleaned at least every 6 months. Walls shall be washed with disinfecting solution at least weekly.
• The diaper changing area shall be disinfected including walls and floors. After each diaper change, counter tops, sinks, drawers and cabinets near diaper changing area shall be washed.
• Objects that are used by infants that are mouthed shall be washed and disinfected.
• All disinfectants and other hazardous materials shall be stored inaccessible to infants.
• Only dispenser soap in an appropriate dispenser shall be used.
• Only disposable paper towels in an appropriate holder or dispenser shall be used for hand drying.
101438.2 OUTDOOR ACTIVITY SPACE FOR INFANTS
• In addition to Section 101238.2, the following shall apply:
• Outdoor space shall be physically separated from space used by children not in the infant center.
• Outdoor space shall be equipped with age-appropriate toys and equipment
101438.3 INDOOR ACTIVITY SPACE FOR INFANTS
• The sleeping area for infants shall be physically separated from the indoor activity space.
• The indoor activity space shall be equipped with age- appropriate washable toys and equipment.
101439 INFANT CARE CENTER FIXTURES, EQUIPMENT, AND SUPPLIES
• In addition to Section 101239, the following shall apply:
• There shall be appropriate furniture and equipment such as cribs, cots or mats, changing tables and feeding chairs.
• High chairs or low-wheeled feeding tables or any equipment used for seating an infant shall have broad-base legs.
• No infant shall be permitted to stand up in a high chair.
• All equipment shall be washed/disinfected after each use.
• Infant changing tables shall have a padded surface no less than 1 inch thick; raised sides at least 3 inches high; kept in good repair, within an arm’s reach of a sink and not located in the kitchen or food preparation area.
• There shall be one hand washing sink for every 15 infants and one potty chair for every 5 infants being toilet trained.
• Infants shall not be permitted to play with the potty chair.
• Toy storage containers shall be safe and maintained in good condition.
• Containers shall not be lockable.
• Toys shall be safe and not have any sharp edges, or small parts.
• Fixtures, furniture, equipment or supplies shall not be made of or contain toxic substances.
101439.1 INFANT CARE CENTER NAPPING EQUIPMENT
• In addition to Section 101239.1, the following shall apply:
• A standard size six-year crib or porta-crib shall be provided for each infant who is unable to climb out of a crib.
• Cribs shall not limit the ability of staff to see the infant.
• Cribs shall not limit the infant’s ability to stand upright.
• Crib mattresses shall be covered with vinyl or similar moisture- resistant material; shall be wiped and disinfected daily and when wet or soiled.
• Cribs shall be maintained in a safe condition.
• Each crib shall be occupied by only one infant at a time.
• Each infant’s bedding shall be used by him/her only, and replaced when wet or soiled.
• Bedding shall be changed daily or more often if required.
• Cribs, mats or cots shall be arranged so as to provide a walkway and work space between the cribs, mats or cots sufficient to permit staff to reach each infant without stepping over any other infant. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Health_Safety_and_Nutrition_(Paris)/16%3A_Appendices/17%3A_Appendix_B-_Title_22_Licensing_Regulation_Highlights.txt |
Appendix C: Health and Safety Checklist763
Safety Factor
Yes
No
Description/Comments
All areas are safe, clean, and free from pests.
Exits are clearly marked, and emergency evacuation routes and other safety procedures are posted in the classroom and in appropriate locations throughout the site.
Lighting is sufficient and adequate for all classroom activities.
Emergency lighting is available in case of a power failure.
Fire extinguishers are available, accessible, tested, and serviced regularly.
Smoke, carbon monoxide, and as necessary, radon detectors are installed, properly located, and tested regularly.
Current child care, health, fire, and other applicable licenses and inspection certificates are present on site.
All indoor and outdoor spaces meet minimum square footage requirements per most stringent regulations.
All playground areas are visible to supervising adults.
Necessary accommodations and modifications are made to ensure the safety, comfort, and full participation of all children including those with disabilities.
19: Appendix D- Example Injury Incident Report Form
Appendix D: Example Injury/Incident Report Form
Date Incident Occurred
Time Incident Occurred:
Child’s Name:
Age:
Adults that observed:
Where incident occurred: (describe location and any equipment)
Cause of injury: (description what happened beforehand and/or hazards involved)
Description of injury: (what type of injury and the part/s of body injured)
Description of first aid given:
Was medical treatment required? No Yes (please describe)
Follow-up plan for care of the child (if needed):
Corrective action needed to prevent reoccurrence:
Parent/Guardian that was contacted:
Time:
Notified by:
Contact method: Phone In person
Staff Signature:
Date:
Parent/Guardian Signature:
Date:
20: Appendix E- Example Playground Inspection Form
Appendix E: Example Playground Inspection Form764
Inspected By: _________________________________________
Time ________________
Date ________________
Surfacing
OK
IF NOT OK, COMMENTS OR ACTIONS TO BE TAKEN
1. Safety surface depth sufficient (12”)?
_______________________________________________________
1. Inadequate safety surface material (other than ASTM surfacing material)?
_______________________________________________________
1. Does safety surface comply with ADA?
_____ Yes ______ No ______ Don’t Know
1. Poor drainage area (standing water) or potential problems?
_______________________________________________________
1. Areas of compaction, kick-out, or wear have been leveled or repaired?
_______________________________________________________
1. Sidewalks, paved surfaces, steps, and platforms have been swept or cleaned of loose surface materials and debris?
_______________________________________________________
General Hazards
1. There are no sharp points, corners, or edges?
________________________________________________________
1. There are no protrusions or projections?
________________________________________________________
1. There are no pinch points, crush points, or exposed moving parts?
________________________________________________________
1. Potential clothing entanglement hazards have been eliminated?
________________________________________________________
1. There are no missing or damaged protective caps or plugs?
________________________________________________________
1. Hanging tree branches have been trimmed (6’ clearance)?
________________________________________________________
1. Fall zones not per CPSC (6’ perimeter all directions)?
________________________________________________________
1. Openings < 3 ½” or > 9” to prevent head entrapment?
________________________________________________________
1. Footings exposed, cracked or loose in ground?
________________________________________________________
1. Trip hazards, broken glass, trash, ropes, tree roots or foreign objects in play area have been removed?
________________________________________________________
Play Structures
1. Broken supports or anchors?
________________________________________________________
1. Pipe ends missing plugs or caps?
________________________________________________________
1. Broken or missing rails/rungs/steps?
________________________________________________________
1. Protruding bolt heads or threads?
________________________________________________________
1. Loose, missing, worn or rusted bolts/nuts/or other fasteners?
________________________________________________________
1. Broken clamps?
________________________________________________________
1. Peeling or chipped paint?
________________________________________________________
1. Entrapment/pinch or crush points?
________________________________________________________
1. Vinyl coated decks/platforms/steps have visible cracks or peeling?
________________________________________________________
1. Excessive wear of any component/slide part?
________________________________________________________
1. Wooden equipment is free of splinters, checking, large cracks, warping, and rot?
________________________________________________________
1. General condition/appearance?
___________Good _________ Fair __________Poor
Swings
1. Broken, twisted, worn, rusted chain?
________________________________________________________
1. Inadequate (non-commercial) chain?
________________________________________________________
1. Worn, rusted or broken swing hangers?
________________________________________________________
1. Open, worn or rusted “S” hooks (dime will not pass through)?
________________________________________________________
1. Grommets show wear or rust?
________________________________________________________
1. Missing, worn or cracked swing seats?
________________________________________________________
1. Inadequate fall zone around swings?
________________________________________________________
1. Swing frame damaged?
________________________________________________________
1. Swing chain wrapped around top rail?
________________________________________________________
1. Safety surface worn or scattered?
________________________________________________________
1. Loose, missing or protruding bolts?
________________________________________________________
1. General condition/appearance?
___________Good _________ Fair __________Poor
Slides
1. Slide bedways have imperfections?
________________________________________________________
1. Handrails loose or missing?
________________________________________________________
1. Steps broken or missing, or flaws/cracks?
________________________________________________________
1. Sit down transition platform present?
________________________________________________________
1. Safety rails or sit-down canopy at bedway entry present?
________________________________________________________
1. Slide exit parallel to ground?
________________________________________________________
1. Safety surface at slide exit has been leveled or repaired?
________________________________________________________
1. Fall zone adequate on all sides?
________________________________________________________
1. General condition/appearance?
___________Good _________ Fair __________Poor
Freestanding Climbers/Monkey Bars
1. Not free-fall design?
________________________________________________________
1. Loose or broken rails or rungs?
________________________________________________________
1. Need painting?
________________________________________________________
1. Tire worn, cut or broken?
________________________________________________________
1. Plastic structures are free of holes and cracks?
________________________________________________________
1. General condition/appearance?
___________Good _________ Fair __________Poor | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Health_Safety_and_Nutrition_(Paris)/16%3A_Appendices/18%3A_Appendix_C-_Health_and_Safety_Checklist.txt |
Appendix F: Example Emergency Self-Assessment Form765
QUESTION
YES
NO
Have you done an assessment of the types of emergencies your early childcare education program could experience based on your geographic region?
Has your early childcare education program developed specific procedures for preparedness, response, and recovery for each type of emergency indicated as a possibility, including how to be informed and how to communicate?
Does your plan account for practicing and revising your emergency response?
Do you have a list of emergency contact information for first responders that is visible in your facility
Do you have updated emergency contact information for each child in your early childcare education program?
Do you have an emergency kit that is updated monthly and has enough supplies to last for up to 72 hours, including emergency contact information for each child in your early childcare education program and daily attendance sheets?
Does your program have plans in place to train children, families, and staff (if applicable) about emergency-preparedness plans and procedures?
Does your plan address continuation of services for children and families?
Does your plan include how to address the mental health and emotional needs of children, families, and staff (if applicable) before, during, and after an emergency?
Plans to address any questions that receive a NO rating:
22: Appendix G- Example Emergency Response Plans
Appendix G: Example Emergency Response Plans766
Example of Blank Evacuation Plan
Example of Complete Evacuation Plan of Sample Center for a Fire
Example of Blank Shelter-in-Place Response
Example of Lockdown Response
23: Appendix H- Emergency Mitigation Checklist
Appendix H: Emergency Mitigation Checklist767
Issue
Yes
No
Steps to Mitigate Risk
Large appliances (refrigerators):
braced to wall?
Large appliances should be anchored to wall studs or masonry, not drywall.
Cabinets: braced to wall?
Cabinets should be anchored to the wall studs or masonry, not drywall.
Shelves/bookshelves:
braced to wall?
Shelves/bookshelves should be anchored to wall studs or masonry, not drywall.
Dressers: braced to wall?
Dressers should be anchored to wall studs or masonry, not drywall.
Changing tables: braced to wall?
Changing tables should be anchored to wall studs or masonry, not drywall
Blackboards/projection screens/
televisions: safely hung on a stud?
Make sure that blackboards/projection screens/televisions are secured safely to a stud.
Fish bowls/animal habitats: safely secured so they do not slide off shelves?
If you have fish bowls/animal habitats, ensure that the shelve has a lip to prevent the bowls/
habitats from slide off and injuring the animal and/or children.
Fire extinguishers: mounted to wall?
Make sure that fire extinguishers are mounted to the wall using clips that make them easy to take down and use in case of a fire.
Lamps: safely secured so they do not slide off shelves?
Secure lamps with hooks or earthquake putty.
Pictures: braced to wall or safely secured so they do not slide off shelves?
Use closed hooks or earthquake putty to secure pictures to walls.
Lightweight or tall room dividers: braced by interconnecting them?
Move heavier items to lower shelves.
Exit signs and emergency lights: safely secured and functioning?
Lightweight room dividers are safer in case of emergency. Interconnecting them will help brace them.
Chemicals and/or cleaning products: secured in cabinet?
For Centers, check that exit signs and emergency lights are working and can be seen from the hallway. For Child Care Homes, check that exit signs and emergency lights are working and are placed above the exits where it can easily be
Blocks and heavy objects: stored on lowest shelves?
Use baby-proof cabinet locks to secure cabinet doors to prevent chemicals and/or cleaning products from falling out. Alternatively, use latching cleaning cabinets to hold chemicals and/or cleaning products. Remember to brace all cabinets on wall!
Heavy or sharp items (such as
metal trucks or dollhouses): stored on shelves with ledge barriers'?
Store blocks and other heavy
objects on the lowest shelves to
prevent injuries.
Store heavy or sharp items
on shelves with ledge barriers
to prevent injuries from falling
objects.
25: Appendix J- Exclusion Form
Appendix J: Exclusion Form
Child’s Name:____________________________________ Date:__________________________
Today your child was observed to have the following signs or symptoms of illness:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Based on our exclusion policy, your child is being excluded from care: yes no
If excluded, your child can return when:
• The signs and symptoms are gone
• The child can comfortably participate in the program
• We can provide the care your child needs
• When you have clearance from a medical care provider
• Other: ________________________________________
Parent/guardian: ________________________________ Date: ____________ Time: _________
26: Appendix K- Notice of Exposure to Contagious Disease
Appendix K: Notice of Exposure to Contagious Disease
Date:
Dear Parent/Guardian:
A child in the program has or is suspected of having: ___________________________________
Information about this disease
This disease is spread by: _________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
The symptoms are: ______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
The disease can be prevented by: __________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
What we are doing to prevent the spread: ___________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
What you can do at home to prevent the spread: _____________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
If your child has any of the symptoms of this disease: __________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
27: Appendix L- Individualized Health Care Plan
Appendix L: Individualized Health Care Plan769
Child: ______________________________________Birthdate: _______________________
Parent(s) or Guardian(s): ______________________________________________________
Phone #: _________________________ Alternate Phone #:__________________________
Primary Health Care Provider: __________________________________________________
Primary Health Care Provider Phone #: ___________________________________________
DIAGNOSIS:
1. _________________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________________
3. _________________________________________________________________________
Routine Care
Medication
When
How Much
How
Possible Side Effects
Describe accommodations the child needs in daily activities
Diet or Feeding
Naptime/Sleeping
Toileting
Outdoor Activities/Field Trips
Transportation
Other
Emergency Care
Call parents for: ______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
While waiting for parent/guardian or medical help to arrive: ____________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Give as Needed or Emergency Medication for: _______________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Medication
When
How Much
How
Possible Side Effects
Get medical attention for: ________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
CALL 911 (Emergency Medical Services) FOR: _________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Date plan completed: _______________ Plan will be updated on or before: ________________
Parent(s) or Guardian(s):
___________________________________ ______________________________________
Staff Name(s) & Title(s):
___________________________________ ______________________________________
___________________________________ ______________________________________
Health Care Provider Name(s) & Title(s):
___________________________________ ______________________________________
___________________________________ ______________________________________ | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Health_Safety_and_Nutrition_(Paris)/16%3A_Appendices/21%3A_Appendix_F-_Example_Emergency_Self-Assessment_Form.txt |
Appendix M: Infectious Disease Information
Bronchitis (Chest Cold)
A chest cold occurs when the airways of the lungs swell and produce mucus in the lungs. That’s what produces the cough. A chest cold, often called acute bronchitis, lasts less than 3 weeks and is the most common type of bronchitis.
Acute bronchitis is usually caused by a virus and often occurs after an upper respiratory infection. Bacteria can sometimes cause acute bronchitis, but even in these cases, antibiotics are NOT recommended and will not help an infected person get better.
Symptoms of acute bronchitis last less than 3 weeks and can include:
• Coughing with or without mucus
• Soreness in the chest
• Feeling tired (fatigue)
• Mild headache
• Mild body aches
• Sore throat771
Most chest colds will get better on their own within one week and are not cause for exclusion from child care.
Chickenpox
Chickenpox is a highly contagious disease caused by the varicella-zoster virus (VZV). It can cause an itchy, blister-like rash. The rash first appears on the chest, back, and face, and then spreads over the entire body, causing between 250 and 500 itchy blisters. Chickenpox can be serious, especially in babies, adolescents, adults, pregnant women, and people with a weakened immune system. The best way to prevent chickenpox is to get the chickenpox vaccine.772
The classic symptom of chickenpox is a rash that turns into itchy, fluid-filled blisters that eventually turn into scabs. The rash may first show up on the chest, back, and face, and then spread over the entire body, including inside the mouth, eyelids, or genital area. It usually takes about one week for all of the blisters to become scabs.
Other typical symptoms that may begin to appear 1-2 days before rash include:
• fever
• tiredness
• loss of appetite
• headache774
The virus spreads mainly through close contact with someone who has chickenpox (or shingles). It takes about 2 weeks (from 10 to 21 days) after exposure to a person with chickenpox or shingles for someone to develop chickenpox. A person with chickenpox is contagious beginning 1 to 2 days before rash onset until all the chickenpox lesions have crusted (scabbed).775
“Children/staff with chickenpox should be excluded for six days after the rash first appears or until all blisters are crusted over and dry.”776
Conjuctivitis (Pink Eye)
Pink eye, or conjunctivitis, is one of the most common and treatable eye conditions in the world. It can affect both children and adults. It is an inflammation of the thin, clear tissue that lines the inside of the eyelid (conjunctiva) and the white part of the eyeball. This inflammation makes blood vessels more visible and gives the eye a pink or reddish color.
The symptoms may vary, but usually include:
• Redness or swelling of the white of the eye or inside the eyelids
• Increased amount of tears
• Eye discharge which may be clear, yellow, white, or green
• Itchy, irritated, and/or burning eyes
• Gritty feeling in the eye
• Crusting of the eyelids or lashes
• Contact lenses that feel uncomfortable and/or do not stay in place on the eye
There are four main causes of pink eye:
• Viruses
• Bacteria
• Allergens (like pet dander or dust mites)
• Irritants (like smog or swimming pool chlorine) that infect or irritate the eye and eyelid lining
It can be difficult to determine the exact cause of pink eye because some signs and symptoms may be the same no matter the cause. When pink eye is caused by a virus or bacteria, it is very contagious. It can spread easily and quickly from person to person (through contact with the discharge from the infected eye). Pink eye caused by allergens or irritants is not contagious.778
If a child has discharge from the eye, they should be excluded from care until they have been examine and cleared for re-admission by a health care provider “with or without treatment as determined by the health provider…They do not need to be sent home in the middle of the day. Children with conjunctivitis caused by allergies need not be excluded.”779
Fifth Disease (Slapped Cheek)
Fifth disease is a mild rash illness caused by parvovirus B19. It is more common in children than adults. A person usually gets sick with fifth disease within 14 days after getting infected with parvovirus B19.
The symptoms of fifth disease are usually mild and may include
• fever
• runny nose
• headache
• rash (on face and body)
Parvovirus B19—which causes fifth disease—spreads through respiratory secretions, such as saliva, sputum, or nasal mucus, when an infected person coughs or sneezes. You are most contagious when it seems like you have “just a fever and/or cold” and before you get the rash or joint pain and swelling. After you get the rash you are not likely to be contagious. Fifth disease is usually mild and will go away on its own. Children and adults who are otherwise healthy usually recover completely.781 “A child who has been diagnosed with fifth disease need not be excluded from child care.”782
Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease
Hand-foot-mouth disease is a common viral infection that most often begins in the throat. Hand-foot-mouth disease (HFMD) is most commonly caused by a virus called coxsackievirus A16. Children under age 10 are most often affected.
Symptoms of HFMD include:
• Fever
• Headache
• Loss of appetite
• Rash with very small blisters on the hands, feet, and diaper area that may be tender or painful when pressed
• Sore throat
• Ulcers in the throat (including tonsils), mouth, and tongue
The virus can spread from person-to-person through tiny, air droplets that are released when the sick person sneezes, coughs, or blows their nose. You can catch hand-foot-mouth disease if:
• A person with the infection sneezes, coughs, or blows their nose near you.
• You touch your nose, eyes, or mouth after you have touched something contaminated by the virus, such as a toy or doorknob.
• You touch stools or fluid from the blisters of an infected person.
The virus is most easily spread the first week a person has the disease. The time between contact with the virus and the start of symptoms is about 3 to 7 days.785
“Children with hand-foot-and-mouth disease do not need to stay home as long as they are feeling well enough to participate…Children with hand-foot-and-mouth disease usually do not need treatment and will get better on their own within a week.”786
Hepatitis A
Hepatitis A is a highly contagious liver infection caused by the hepatitis A virus. It can range from a mild illness lasting a few weeks to a severe illness lasting several months. Although rare, hepatitis A can cause death in some people.
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What is the difference between hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C?
Hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C are liver infections caused by three different viruses. Although each can cause similar symptoms, they have different modes of transmission and can affect the liver differently. Hepatitis A is usually a short-term infection and does not become chronic. Hepatitis B and hepatitis C can also begin as short-term, acute infections, but in some people, the virus remains in the body, resulting in chronic disease and long-term liver problems. There are vaccines to prevent hepatitis A and hepatitis B; however, there is no vaccine for hepatitis C.
Most children younger than age 6 do not have symptoms when they have hepatitis A. Older children and adults typically have symptoms. If symptoms develop, they usually start appearing 4 weeks after exposure, but can occur as early as 2 and as late as 7 weeks after exposure. Symptoms usually develop over a period of several days and can include:
• Fever
• Fatigue
• Loss of appetite
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Abdominal pain
• Dark urine
• Diarrhea
• Clay-colored stools
• Joint pain
• Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes)
Hepatitis A usually spreads when a person unknowingly ingests the virus from objects, food, or drinks contaminated by small, undetected amounts of stool from an infected person. A person can transmit the virus to others up to 2 weeks before symptoms appear.787
A child diagnosed with hepatitis A should be excluded from care until one week after the onset of symptoms.788
Impetigo
Impetigo is a common contagious skin infection that may be caused by two germs—Streptococcus pyogenes and Staphylococcus aureus. Recommended treatment depends on which germs are causing impetigo. With the right treatment, impetigo usually goes away within two to three weeks.
The signs of impetigo include red sores that pop easily and leave a yellow crust, fluid-filled blisters, itchy rash, skin lesions, and swollen lymph nodes. The sores can be uncomfortable and painful.
Impetigo is typically spread through skin-to-skin contact with an individual who has impetigo, but it can also be spread by contact with objects someone with impetigo has touched (for example, towels, blankets, and toys).
It is recommended that children with impetigo be excluded from care until 24 hours after treatment is started.790
Measles
Measles is a serious illness caused by a virus. The virus can last for one to two weeks. It is rare today because most children are immunized against it. However, the number of diagnosed cases has grown across the country. This increase is related to children not being vaccinated.
Measles starts with a fever that can get very high. Some of the other symptoms that may occur are:
• Fatigue
• Cough, runny nose, and red, watery eyes
• Rash of tiny, red spots that usually lasts five to six days, (the rash begins at the hairline, moves to the face and upper neck, and proceeds down the body)
• Diarrhea
• Ear infection
Measles spreads when a person infected with the measles virus breathes, coughs, or sneezes. It is very contagious from five days before until four days after the start of the rash. After exposure, it can take one to two weeks for the person to get sick.
Measles can spread by being in a room with a person with measles and up to two hours after that person is gone. It can also spread from an infected person even before they have a measles rash. Almost everyone who has not had the measles vaccine will get measles if they are exposed to the measles virus. People who have had measles or were immunized usually can’t catch it again.
Children diagnosed with measles should remain out of the center until a doctor determines the child is no longer infectious. Any unimmunized children or staff should be excluded from the program for two weeks after the rash appears in the last case of measles at the facility.792
Meningitis
Meningitis is inflammation of the thin tissue that surrounds the brain and spinal cord, called the meninges. There are several types of meningitis. The most common is viral meningitis. You get it when a virus enters the body through the nose or mouth and travels to the brain. Bacterial meningitis is rare, but can be deadly. It usually starts with bacteria that cause a cold-like infection. It can cause stroke, hearing loss, and brain damage. It can also harm other organs. Pneumococcal infections and meningococcal infections are the most common causes of bacterial meningitis.
Other rare forms of meningitis include, fungal meningitis, parasitic meningitis, amebic meningitis, and non-infectious meningitis.793
“Children with meningitis generally feel too ill to attend child care. They can return when they feel better with no fever, or when the health care provider determines the disease is no longer contagious.”794
Molluscum Contagiosum
Molluscum contagiosum is an infection caused by a poxvirus (molluscum contagiosum virus). The result of the infection is usually a benign, mild skin disease characterized by lesions (growths) that may appear anywhere on the body. Within 6-12 months, Molluscum contagiosum typically resolves without scarring but may take as long as 4 years.
The lesions, known as Mollusca, are small, raised, and usually white, pink, or flesh-colored with a dimple or pit in the center. They often have a pearly appearance. They’re usually smooth and firm. In most people, the lesions range from about the size of a pinhead to as large as a pencil eraser (2 to 5 millimeters in diameter). They may become itchy, sore, red, and/or swollen.
Mollusca may occur anywhere on the body including the face, neck, arms, legs, abdomen, and genital area, alone or in groups. The lesions are rarely found on the palms of the hands or the soles of the feet.796
“Children with this rash should not be excluded from ECE settings. Molluscum is a nuisance, not a serious health problem.”797
Mumps
Mumps is best known for the puffy cheeks and tender, swollen jaw that it causes. It is one of the diseases that is vaccine preventable. This is a result of swollen salivary glands under the ears on one or both sides, often referred to as parotitis.
Other symptoms that might begin a few days before parotitis include:
• Fever
• Headache
• Muscle aches
• Tiredness
• Loss of appetite
Symptoms typically appear 16-18 days after infection, but this period can range from 12–25 days after infection.
Some people who get mumps have very mild symptoms (like a cold), or no symptoms at all and may not know they have the disease.
In rare cases, mumps can cause more severe complications.
Most people with mumps recover completely within two weeks.799
Mumps is a contagious disease caused by a virus. It spreads through direct contact with saliva or respiratory droplets from the mouth, nose, or throat. An infected person can likely spread mumps from a few days before their salivary glands begin to swell to up to five days after the swelling begins. A person with mumps should limit their contact with others during this time. For example, stay home from school and do not attend social events.800
Norovirus
Norovirus is the most common cause of vomiting and diarrhea, and foodborne illness.
The most common symptoms of norovirus are:
• diarrhea
• vomiting
• nausea
• stomach pain
Other symptoms includes fever, headache, and body aches.
Norovirus causes inflammation of the stomach or intestines. This is called acute gastroenteritis.
A person usually develops symptoms 12 to 48 hours after being exposed to norovirus. Most people with norovirus illness get better within 1 to 3 days.
If you have norovirus illness, you can feel extremely ill, and vomit or have diarrhea many times a day. This can lead to dehydration, especially in young children, older adults, and people with other illnesses.801
You can get norovirus by accidentally getting tiny particles of feces or vomit from an infected person in your mouth. This can happen through contaminated food and water, touching contaminated surfaces and then putting your fingers in the mouth, and having direct contact with someone that is infected with norovirus.
If you get norovirus illness, you can shed billions of norovirus particles that you can’t see without a microscope. Only a few norovirus particles can make other people sick. You are most contagious
• when you have symptoms of norovirus illness, especially vomiting, and
• during the first few days after you recover from norovirus illness.
However, studies have shown that you can still spread norovirus for two weeks or more after you feel better.802 Children that are infected with norovirus should be excluded for 48 hours after becoming symptom free.803
Pertussis
Pertussis is a vaccine preventable respiratory illness commonly known as whooping cough. It is a very contagious disease caused by a type of bacteria called Bordetella pertussis. These bacteria attach to the cilia (tiny, hair-like extensions) that line part of the upper respiratory system. The bacteria release toxins (poisons), which damage the cilia and cause airways to swell.804
It can cause serious illness in babies, children, teens, and adults. Symptoms of pertussis usually develop within 5 to 10 days after you are exposed. Sometimes pertussis symptoms do not develop for as long as 3 weeks.
The disease usually starts with cold-like symptoms and maybe a mild cough or fever. In babies, the cough can be minimal or not even there. Babies may have a symptom known as “apnea.” Apnea is a pause in the child’s breathing pattern. Pertussis is most dangerous for babies. About half of babies younger than 1 year who get the disease need care in the hospital.
Early symptoms can last for 1 to 2 weeks and usually include:
• Runny nose
• Low-grade fever (generally minimal throughout the course of the disease)
• Mild, occasional cough
• Apnea – a pause in breathing (in babies)
Pertussis in its early stages appears to be nothing more than the common cold. Therefore, healthcare professionals often do not suspect or diagnose it until the more severe symptoms appear.
After 1 to 2 weeks and as the disease progresses, the traditional symptoms of pertussis may appear and include:
• Paroxysms (fits) of many, rapid coughs followed by a high-pitched “whoop” sound (babies with pertussis may not cough at all)
• Vomiting (throwing up) during or after coughing fits
• Exhaustion (very tired) after coughing fits
Pertussis can cause violent and rapid coughing, over and over, until the air is gone from your lungs. When there is no more air in the lungs, you are forced to inhale with a loud “whooping” sound. This extreme coughing can cause you to throw up and be very tired. Although you are often exhausted after a coughing fit, you usually appear fairly well in-between. Coughing fits generally become more common and bad as the illness continues, and can occur more often at night. The coughing fits can go on for up to 10 weeks or more.
Recovery from pertussis can happen slowly. The cough becomes milder and less common. However, coughing fits can return with other respiratory infections for many months after the pertussis infection started.807
Children who receive antibiotics should be excluded for 5 days of treatment. Children who do not receive treatment, should stay home for 21 days from the onset of symptoms.808
Pinworms
A pinworm (“threadworm”) is a small, thin, white roundworm (nematode) called Enterobius vermicularis that sometimes lives in the colon and rectum of humans. Pinworms are about the length of a staple. While an infected person sleeps, female pinworms leave the intestine through the anus and deposit their eggs on the surrounding skin.
Pinworm infection (called enterobiasis or oxyuriasis) causes itching around the anus which can lead to difficulty sleeping and restlessness. Symptoms are caused by the female pinworm laying her eggs. Symptoms of pinworm infection usually are mild and some infected people have no symptoms.
Pinworm infection often occurs in more than one person in household and institutional settings. Child care centers often are the site of cases of pinworm infection.
People become infected, usually unknowingly, by swallowing (ingesting) infective pinworm eggs that are on fingers, under fingernails, or on clothing, bedding, and other contaminated objects and surfaces. Because of their small size, pinworm eggs sometimes can become airborne and ingested while breathing.810 Children and adults with a pinworm infection should be excluded only until their initial dose of treatment has begun.811
RSV
Respiratory syncytial (sin-SISH-uhl) virus, or RSV, is a common respiratory virus that usually causes mild, cold-like symptoms. Most people recover in a week or two, but RSV can be serious, especially for infants and older adults. In fact, RSV is the most common cause of bronchiolitis (inflammation of the small airways in the lung) and pneumonia (infection of the lungs) in children younger than 1 year of age in the United States. It is also a significant cause of respiratory illness in older adults.812
Symptoms of RSV infection usually include
• Runny nose
• Decrease in appetite
• Coughing
• Sneezing
• Fever
• Wheezing
These symptoms usually appear in stages and not all at once. In very young infants with RSV, the only symptoms may be irritability, decreased activity, and breathing difficulties.
Image M.14 – This infant has an RSV infection.813
RSV can also cause more severe infections such as bronchiolitis, an inflammation of the small airways in the lung, and pneumonia, an infection of the lungs. It is the most common cause of bronchiolitis and pneumonia in children younger than 1 year of age.
Almost all children will have had an RSV infection by their second birthday. People infected with RSV usually show symptoms within 4 to 6 days after getting infected. Most RSV infections go away on their own in a week or two.814
RSV can spread when an infected person coughs or sneezes. You can get infected if you get droplets from the cough or sneeze in your eyes, nose, or mouth, or if you touch a surface that has the virus on it, like a doorknob, and then touch your face before washing your hands. Additionally, it can spread through direct contact with the virus, like kissing the face of a child with RSV.
People infected with RSV are usually contagious for 3 to 8 days. However, some infants, and people with weakened immune systems, can continue to spread the virus even after they stop showing symptoms, for as long as 4 weeks. Children are often exposed to and infected with RSV outside the home, such as in school or child-care centers. They can then transmit the virus to other members of the family.
RSV can survive for many hours on hard surfaces such as tables and crib rails. It typically lives on soft surfaces such as tissues and hands for shorter amounts of time.815
“Frequently, a child is infectious before symptoms appear. Therefore, an infected child does not need to be excluded from child care unless he or she is not well enough to participate in usual activities.”816
Ringworm
Ringworm is a common skin infection that is caused by a fungus. It’s called “ringworm” because it can cause a circular rash (shaped like a ring) that is usually red and itchy. Anyone can get ringworm. The fungi that cause this infection can live on skin, surfaces, and on household items such as clothing, towels, and bedding.
Ringworm goes by many names. The medical terms are “tinea” or “dermatophytosis.” Other names for ringworm are based on its location on the body – for example, ringworm on the feet is also called “athlete’s foot.”817
Ringworm can affect skin on almost any part of the body as well as fingernails and toenails. The symptoms of ringworm often depend on which part of the body is infected, but they generally include:
• Itchy skin
• Ring-shaped rash
• Red, scaly, cracked skin
• Hair loss
Symptoms typically appear between 4 and 14 days after the skin comes in contact with the fungi that cause ringworm. 819
The fungi that cause ringworm can live on skin and in the environment. There are three main ways that ringworm can spread:
1. From a person who has ringworm
2. From an animal that has ringworm.
3. From the environment.820
“There is no need to exclude children/staff with these common, mild infections once treatment has been started. Refer persons with a suspicious rash to their health care providers for appropriate diagnosis and treatment and allow them to return as soon as treatment has begun.”821
Roseola
Roseola is a viral infection that commonly affects infants and young children. It involves a pinkish-red skin rash and high fever.
Roseola is common in children ages 3 months to 4 years, and most common in those ages 6 months to 1 year.
It is caused by a virus called human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6), although similar syndromes are possible with other viruses.
The time between becoming infected and the beginning of symptoms (incubation period) is 5 to 15 days.
The first symptoms include:
• Eye redness
• Irritability
• Runny nose
• Sore throat
• High fever, that comes on quickly and may be as high as 105°F (40.5°C) and can last 3 to 7 days
About 2 to 4 days after becoming sick, the child's fever lowers and a rash appears. This rash most often:
• Starts on the middle of the body and spreads to the arms, legs, neck, and face
• Is pink or rose-colored
• Has small sores that are slightly raised
The rash lasts from a few hours to 2 to 3 days. It usually does not itch.
There is no specific treatment for roseola. The disease most often gets better on its own without complications.823 “A child with fever and rash should be excluded from child care until seen by a health care provider. After the fever breaks, a child may return to care while the rash is still present, provided that the child feels well and is able to participate fully in all activities.”824
Rotavirus
Rotavirus is most common in your infants and young children. Children, even those who are vaccinated, may get infected and sick from rotavirus more than once. That is because neither natural infection with rotavirus nor vaccination provides full protection from future infections. Children who are not vaccinated usually have more severe symptoms the first time they get rotavirus disease. Vaccinated children are less likely to get sick from rotavirus.825
Symptoms usually start about 2 days after a person is exposed to rotavirus. Vomiting and watery diarrhea can last 3 to 8 days. Additional symptoms may include loss of appetite and dehydration (loss of body fluids), which can be especially dangerous for infants and young children.
Symptoms of dehydration include:
• decreased urination
• dry mouth and throat
• feeling dizzy when standing up
• crying with few or no tears and
• unusual sleepiness or fussiness.826
People who are infected with rotavirus shed the virus in their stool (poop). This is how the virus gets into the environment and can infect other people (through contaminated food, surfaces, or unwashed hands). People shed rotavirus the most, and are more likely to infect others, when they have symptoms and during the first 3 days after they recover. People with rotavirus can also infect others before they have symptoms.827
“Children with rotavirus should be excluded from child care if the stool cannot be contained by diapers or toilet use.”828
Rubella (German Measles)
Rubella is a vaccine preventable disease that is also called German measles, but it is caused by a different virus than measles.829 It is usually mild with fever and a rash. About half of the people who get rubella do not have symptoms. If you do get them, symptoms may include
• A rash that starts on the face and spreads to the body
• Mild fever
• Aching joints, especially in young women
• Swollen glands
Rubella spreads when an infected person coughs or sneezes. People without symptoms can still spread it. There is no treatment, but the measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine can prevent it.831
Shigella
Shigellosis is a very contagious diarrheal disease caused by bacteria called Shigella. Shigella causes about 500,000 cases of diarrhea in the United States annually.
Symptoms of the Shigella infection typically start one to two days after exposure and include:
• Diarrhea (sometimes bloody)
• Fever
• Abdominal pain
• A painful sensation of needing to pass stools even when bowels are empty
Shigella spreads when people put something in their mouths or swallow something that has come into contact with stool of a person infected with Shigella.
Exclusion is required for all diapered children whose stool is not contained in the diaper and toilet-trained children if the diarrhea is causing soiled clothing. Re-admission after diarrhea can occur when diapered children have their stool contained by the diaper (even if the stools remain loose) and when toilet-trained children are continent.832
Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) is a contagious disease, caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The bacteria usually attack the lungs, but can attack any organ in the body. Recommended treatment depends on whether a person has:
• Latent TB infection–has no symptoms and can't spread the TB bacteria to others; has potential to develop active TB disease if not treated
• Active TB disease–has symptoms such as a fever, cough, or weight loss; these persons may be able to spread the germ to others. Needs treatment to cure the disease.
TB is spread in the air when a person with active TB disease of the lung or throat coughs, sneezes, or speaks. The germs can be inhaled by someone else and they can become infected. TB is often spread between people who spend time together every day. TB in children usually comes from being around adults with active TB disease.
Children and staff with active TB disease should be excluded from the Head Start or child care center until treatment is started, and the doctor determines the child or staff member is no longer infectious. All children and staff should be tested for TB infection if there has been an exposure to a person with active TB disease within the center or at home.833 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Health_Safety_and_Nutrition_(Paris)/16%3A_Appendices/28%3A_Appendix_M-_Infectious_Disease_Information.txt |
Appendix N: Self-Assessment for Positive and Healthy Meals and Snacks834
Section 1: Fruits
Fruits avalible daily
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
Fruit options include fresh, frozen, and/or fruit packed in Water or juice (not
packed in light or heavy syrup)
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
Fruit options are accessible to Children for self-serving
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
All fruit names are introduced to the children prior to the meal or snack
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
Fruit names are written and/or pictured near where children eat
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
Adults caring for children (mg, assistants, etc.) model to children how to serve themselves and participate in family style dining
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
Notes / Reflections:
Section 2: Vegtables
Vegatbels avalible daily
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
Vegetable options include and/or labeled "reduced sodium" or “no salt added”
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
Vegetables are available to children for self-serving
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
All vegetable names are introduced to the children prior to the meal or snack
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
Vegetable names are written and/or pictured near where children eat
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
Adults caring for children (mg, assistants, etc.) model to children how to serve themselves and participate in family style dining
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
Notes / Reflections:
Section 3: Beverages
Fat free or 1% ild is provided daily for children
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
Milk is available to children for self-serving
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
Drinking water is available to children for self-serving
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
If juice is served it is either 100% fruit or vegetable juice
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
All beverage names are introduced to the children prior to the meal or snack
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
Beverage names are written and/or pictured near where children eat
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
Notes / Reflections:
Section 4: Menu Selections
Menu boards featuring daily meals and snacks are available and Visible near Where Children eat (e.g. classroom or space)
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
The menu includes a variety of foods which consider cultural and ethnic preferences
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
The menu is modified for children with food allergies / intolerances and children with disabilities
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
A monthly menu is provided to all families and staff
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
All beverage names are introduced to the children prior to the meal or snack
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
A monthly nutrition and/or physical activity message is included on the monthly menu
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
Notes / Reflections:
Section 4: ECE Providoers Role During Meal/Snack Time
Mealtime takes place at regular scheduled time and is part of the children daily routine.
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
Adults caring for children have been trained and model appropriate mealtime behavior
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
Adults caring for children turn off all visible screens, including televisions, tablets, phones, etc. During meal time an engaging conversation with the children
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
Adults caring for children sit with children at the table during meal time
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
Adults caring for caring for children discuss if children stomachs feel full before serving a second helping of food
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
During meal time, adults caring for children encourage children to try new or less preferred foods
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
A transition activity (e.g. Reading a book, coloring activity, listening to quiet music, etc.) is offered to children when they're done with their meal
Frequntly
Sometimes
Never
Ready to get started
Notes / Reflections:
Action Plan
Based on your self-assessment, create an action plan. Tips for completing your action plan:
• Share ideas and planning with staff in your program to ensure clear expectations
• Determine how many steps you think it will take to achieve a goal;
• Define the steps and determine who is responsible for each step; and
• Set a time-line for the completion of a goal and dates by which each step should be complete.
Action Plan Worksheet
Start Date:
ECE Program Name:
Goal:
Objective / Steps
Actions Items (Child, Family, Program, Staff)
Program Environment
Program Policies
Sample Objective Step: Update menus over a 3 month period to integrate more fruits an vegetables
Discuss these changes with the children and how they help them grow strong and healthy
Update menu boards to share information about fresh fruits and vegetables.
Include healthy eating as a required topic at family orientation
Who is responsible?
Program Staff
Program Director, cook teachers
Program Director
Date
June 1st
July 1st
August 1st
Objective Step
Who is responsible?
Date
31: Appendix P- Food Allergy Management and Prevention Plan Checklist
Appendix P: Food Allergy Management and Prevention Plan Checklist841
Check if you have plans or procedures
Priorities for a Food Allergy Management and Prevention Plan
-
1. Does your school or ECE program ensure the daily management of food allergies for individual children by:
Developing and using specific procedures to identify children with food allergies?
Developing a plan for managing and reducing risks of food allergic reactions
in individual children through an Emergency Care Plan (Food Allergy Action Plan)?
Helping students manage their own food allergies? (Does nota I to ECE programs.)
-
1. Has your school or ECE program prepared for food allergy emergencies by:
Setting up communication systems that are easy to use in emergencies?
Makin sure staff can epinephrine auto-injectors quickly and easily?
Making sure that epinephrine is used when needed and that someone immediately contacts emergency medical services?
Identifying the role of each staff member in a food allergy emergency?
Preparing for food allergies reactions in children without a prior history
of food allergies?
Documenting the response to a food allergy emergency?
-
1. Does your school or ECE program train staff how to manage food allergies and respond to allergy reactions by:
Providing general training on food allergies for all staff?
Providing in-depth training for staff who have frequent contact with children with food allergies?
Providing specialized training for staff who are responsible for managing the health of children with food allergies on a daily basis?
-
1. Does your school or ECE program educate children and family members about food allergies by:
Teaching all children about food allergies?
Teaching all parents and families about food allergies?
-
1. Does your school or ECE program create and maintain a healthy and safe educational environment by:
Creating an environment that is as safe as possible from exposure to food allergens?
Developing food-handling policies and procedures to prevent food allergens from unintentional contact in another food?
Making outside groups aware of food allergy policies and rules when they use school or ECE program facilities before or after operating hours?
Creating a positive psychosocial climate that reduces bullying and social isolation and promotes acceptance and understanding of children with food allergies? | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Health_Safety_and_Nutrition_(Paris)/16%3A_Appendices/29%3A_Appendix_N-_Self-Assessment_for_Positive_and_Healthy_Meals_and_Snacks.txt |
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Explain why health and well-being in early childhood is so important.
• Describe qualities and benefits of high-quality early care and education programs.
• Outline what the book will be addressing in regards to safety, health, and nutrition.
• Discuss what licensing is and its role in keeping children safe and healthy.
• Compare and contrast Title 22 and Title 5 licensing requirements.
A culture of wellness exists when staff and child health and safety are valued, supported, and promoted through health & wellness programs, policies, and environment.1
Introduction
Evidence shows that experiences in childhood are extremely important for a child’s healthy development and lifelong learning. How a child develops during this time affects future cognitive, social, emotional, language, and physical development, which in turn influences school readiness and later success in life. Research on a number of adult health and medical conditions points to pre-disease pathways that have their beginnings in early and middle childhood.
During early childhood, the human brain grows to 90 percent of its adult size by age 3. Early childhood represents the period when young children reach developmental milestones that include:
• Emotional regulation and attachment
• Language development
• Cognitive development
• Physical development (motor skills)
All of these milestones can be significantly delayed when young children experience inadequate caregiving, environmental stressors, and other negative risk factors. These stressors and factors can affect the brain and may seriously compromise a child’s physical, social-emotional, and cognitive growth and development.
More than any other developmental periods, childhood sets the stage for:
• School success
• Health literacy
• Self-discipline
• The ability to make good decisions about risky situations
• Eating habits
• Conflict negotiation and healthy relationships with family and friends3
Understanding Childhood Health Concerns
Although young children are typically healthy, it is during this time that they are at risk for conditions such as:
• Developmental and behavioral disorders
• Child maltreatment
• Asthma and other chronic conditions
• Obesity
• Dental caries (cavities)
• Unintentional injuries
While typically nonfatal, these conditions affect children, their education, their relationships with others, and the health and well-being of the adolescents and adults they will become.5
Emerging Issues in Childhood Health
The keys to understanding childhood health are recognizing the important roles these periods play in adult health and well-being and focusing on conditions and illnesses that can seriously limit children’s abilities to learn, grow, play, and become healthy adults.
Prevention efforts in early and middle childhood can have lasting benefits. Emerging issues in early and middle childhood include implementing and evaluating multidisciplinary public health interventions that address social determinants of health by:
• Fostering knowledgeable and nurturing families, parents, and caregivers
• Creating supportive and safe environments in home, schools, and communities
• Increasing access to high-quality health care6
Early Childhood Development and Education
Early childhood, particularly the first 5 years of life, impacts long–term social, cognitive, emotional, and physical development. Healthy development in early childhood helps prepare children for the educational experiences of kindergarten and beyond. Early childhood development and education opportunities are affected by various environmental and social factors, including:
• Early life stress
• Socioeconomic status
• Relationships with parents and caregivers
• Access to early education programs
Early life stress and adverse events can have a lasting impact on the mental and physical health of children. Specifically, early life stress can contribute to developmental delays and poor health outcomes in the future. Stressors such as physical abuse, family instability, unsafe neighborhoods, and poverty can cause children to have inadequate coping skills, difficulty regulating emotions, and reduced social functioning compared to other children their age.
Additionally, exposure to environmental hazards, such as lead in the home, can negatively affect a child's health and cause cognitive developmental delays. Research shows that lead exposure disproportionately affects children from minority and low–income households and can adversely affect their readiness for school.
The socioeconomic status of young children's families and communities also significantly affects their educational outcomes. Specifically, poverty has been shown to negatively influence the academic achievement of young children. Research shows that, in their later years, children from disadvantaged backgrounds are more likely to need special education, repeat grades, and drop out of high school. Children from communities with higher socioeconomic status and more resources experience safer and more supportive environments and better early education programs.
The Effects of Poverty on Education
“Despite being one of the most developed countries in the world, the United States has one of the highest rates of childhood poverty globally.”7 “Poverty has a particularly adverse effect on the academic outcomes of children, especially during early childhood.”8 Research has shown that children from families in poverty enter school with a readiness gap. Contributions to this gap include:
• Poor physical development and health (due to poor nutrition and lack of access to medical care)
• Challenges with concentration, memory, attentiveness, curiosity, and motivation9 due to the chronic stress of living in poverty
• Greater risk for behavioral and emotional problems
• Exposure to environmental hazards (such as lead paint) and violence in their communities.
Two additional things that are important to note:
• This gap disproportionately affects Black and Latinx children.
• Families experiencing poverty have challenges finding affordable, high-quality early care and education programs and are often in districts with under-resourced schools. 10
Early childhood programs are a critical outlet for fostering the mental and physical development of young children. According to the Center on the Development Child at Harvard University’s A Science-Based Framework for Early Childhood Policy,
“ The principal elements that have consistently produced positive impacts include:
• highly skilled teachers;
• small class sizes and high adult-to-child ratios;
• age-appropriate curricula and stimulating materials in a safe physical setting;
• a language-rich environment;
• warm, responsive interactions between staff and children; and
• high and consistent levels of child participation.”11
The National Association for the Education for Young Children says that high quality programs:
• Create caring communities of learners in which children develop relationships with each and the teachers and each child and family are included.
• Teach to support children’s development and learning by being intentional with the environmental design, materials, and activities and by providing positive guidance for children’s behavior.
• Have developmentally appropriate curriculum that helps children learn and grow that sets challenging, yet achievable goals for children, balances adult instruction and group activities with play and child-chosen experiences, provides enough time for deep engagement, and is based on the children’s interests, abilities, and knowledge.
• Regularly assesses children’s development and learning to inform their environmental design, curriculum, and interactions with children and their families.
• Is founded on partnerships with families in which families are respected and valued, share their goals and concerns, are encouraged to participate, and with clear communication (in a family’s home language whenever possible).12
And you can check out the checklist 15 Must-Haves for All Child Care Programs published by The Administration for Children and Families Office of Child Care in Appendix A.
Early childhood development and education programs can also help reduce educational gaps. For example, Head Start is a federally funded early childhood program that provides comprehensive services for children from low–income families. Head Start aims to improve health outcomes, increase learning and social skills, and close the gap in readiness to learn for children from low–income families and at-risk children. Enrolling children in full-day kindergarten after the completion of preschool has also been shown to improve academic achievement.
Furthermore, extended early childhood programs for children up to 3rd grade, also referred to as booster programs, can provide comprehensive educational, health, and social services to complement standard early childhood and kindergarten programs. These programs help sustain and bolster early developmental and academic gains. Characteristic of such programs include:
• Low student-teacher ratio
• Teacher training
• Creation of school-family partnerships
• School meals
• Provision of transportation to and from school
• Health care services and referrals
• Home visitation
• Supportive social services
Quality education in elementary school is necessary to reinforce early childhood interventions and prevent their positive effects from fading over time. Research also shows that school quality has an impact on both the short– and long–term educational attainment of children, as well as on their health. For example, children who enroll in low–quality schools with limited health resources, safety concerns, and low teacher support are more likely to have poorer physical and mental health.
The developmental and educational opportunities that children have access to in their early years have a lasting impact on their health as adults. The Carolina Abecedarian Project found that the children in the study who participated in a high–quality and comprehensive early childhood education program, including health care and nutritional components, were in better health than those who did not. The study found that, at age 21, the people who participated in the comprehensive early education program exhibited fewer risky health behaviors—for example, they were less likely to binge drink alcohol, smoke cigarettes, and use illegal drugs. This group also self–reported better health and had a lower number of deaths.
Furthermore, by their mid–30s the children who participated in the comprehensive early childhood development and education program had a lower risk for heart disease and associated risk factors, including obesity, high blood pressure, elevated blood sugar, and high cholesterol. These studies show that quality early childhood development and education programs can play a key role in reducing risky health behaviors and preventing or delaying the onset of chronic disease in adulthood. We will look at what high quality programming looks like at the end of the chapter.
Early childhood development and education are key determinants of future health and well–being. Addressing the disparities in access to early childhood development and education opportunities can greatly bolster young children’s future health outcomes.
Additional research is needed to increase the evidence base for what can successfully impact the effects of childhood development and education on health outcomes and disparities. This additional evidence will facilitate public health efforts to address early childhood development and education as social determinants of health.14
Importance of Considering Holistic Development
Early childhood education (ECE) is not a singular concept, but rather a holistic concept that focuses on several aspects of a child's development, including their cognitive, social, emotional, moral, spiritual, and physical well-being (American Academy of Pediatrics 2012; Chisholm 2004; Tinajero & Loizillon 2012). According to Shonkoff, et al. (2011), debates about early childhood education often focus on education and the enhancement of children's cognitive skills and later academic progress. However, these authors stress the importance of viewing children in a holistic manner as part of a bigger system. In this manner, early childhood education becomes a vehicle for enhancing the physical, cognitive, mental, social and economic well-being of individuals and the societies in which they live. Early care and education programs should enhance multiple interrelated dimensions of a child's life; including health and safety, nutrition, emotional well-being, and social competence.15
Focus on Wellness
Rather than waiting for health issues to arise, families and early childhood education programs should focus on supporting children’s wellness. “Wellness describes the entirety of one’s physical, emotional, and social health; this includes all aspects of functioning in the world (physiological, intellectual, social, and spiritual), as well as subjective feelings of well-being. A child who is doing well frequently experiences joy, delight, and wonder, is secure and safe in his/her family and community, and is continually expanding and deepening his/her engagement with the world around him/her.”16
Wellness is an active process. It requires awareness and directed, thoughtful attention to the choices we make. Early care and education programs can play a critical role in helping children, families and staff commit to and implement healthy lifestyle choices that promote both physical and mental well-being. The two, in fact, are closely linked. Our feelings, thoughts, and behaviors directly impact our physical health. Similarly, our physical health status has a direct impact on our feelings, thoughts, and behaviors.18
We must also support children’s mental well-being and help them navigate everyday stress and adversity as well as trauma and significant sources of stress. The American Psychological Association shares that “[b]uilding resilience — the ability to adapt well to adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats or even significant sources of stress — can help our children manage stress and feelings of anxiety and uncertainty.”19
It is important that children are in an environment that keeps them physically and emotionally safe and healthy and provides sound nutrition. As an early educator, providing these requires attention, planning, and intention.
Introduction to Safety, Health, and Nutrition
This book is divided into three sections. These include:
• Safety
• Health
• Nutrition
Safety
Children are curious and eager to learn. They depend on their caregivers to keep them safe by making sure that nothing within a child’s reach can harm them. Injuries are a serious health risk to young children. But most injuries are predictable and preventable.20
But it fails to protect children by being enclosed with a fence and gate.21
ECE programs can prevent risks and unnecessary harm to children by committing to a culture of safety. A culture of safety prioritizes safety at all levels. It encourages programs to learn from past problems and prevent them in the future.22 Programs should not assume that nothing will ever go wrong. In fact, they should plan that something is going to go wrong. And their goal is to make it as hard as possible for things to go wrong.23
Chapters 2 through 5 will focus on ways programs can protect children’s safety.
• Chapter 2 discusses active supervision and creating a culture of safety
• Chapter 3 covers creating safe indoor environments
• Chapter 4 examines creating safe outdoor environments
• Chapter 5 addresses caring for minor injuries and managing emergencies
• Chapter 6 discusses child maltreatment (abuse and neglect)
Health
“Health is more than merely the absence of disease—it is an evolving human resource that helps children and adults adapt to the challenges of everyday life, resist infections, cope with adversity, feel a sense of personal well-being, and interact with their surroundings in ways that promote successful development.”24
As mentioned at the beginning of the chapter, research is showing that many adult health issues, such as high blood pressure, heart disease, and diabetes, are linked to what happens during early childhood (and even prenatally!). We also know that during early childhood there are biological systems that are more sensitive to environmental factors (such as child maltreatment, malnutrition, and recurring issues to infectious disease).26
It is vital for children and their families to have support for children’s physical, oral, and mental health. This happens through promoting health and protection from illness.
Chapters 7 through 11 focus on children’s health.
• Chapter 7 examines promoting health
• Chapter 8 looks at preventing illness
• Chapter 9 addresses supportive health care
• Chapter 10 describes special health care needs during childhood
• Chapter 11 discusses children’s mental health
Nutrition
Healthy eating and being active are essential to a child's well-being. Children who are under- or over-nourished are at risk for chronic health problems.27 Early childhood is an important time for developing healthy habits for life. Children’s bodies grow and develop in ways that affect the way they think, eat, and behave.28
A healthy diet not only affects growth, but also immunity, intellectual capabilities, and emotional well-being. Families and educators must ensure that children receive an adequate amount of needed nutrients to provide a strong foundation for the rest of their lives.29
Chapters 12 through 15 focus on nutrition for children.
• Chapter 12 delves into basic nutrition for children
• Chapter 13 examines protecting nutrition and wellness
• Chapter 14 discusses providing good nutrition
• Chapter 15 addresses menu planning and food safety
Introduction to Licensing for Child Care Centers in California
Licensing for child care programs in the state of California is overseen by the Community Care Licensing Division of the California Department of Social Services, whose primary mission is to ensure the health and safety of all children enrolled in licensed child care facilities in California.
Licensing oversees the operation of licensed child care facilities in child care centers and family child care homes. By definition, both types of child care facilities provide nonmedical, age-appropriate care and supervision of infant to school-age children for less than 24 consecutive hours at a time.
Child care centers provide care in a large-group setting, usually operate in an institutional or commercial building, and must meet a number of requirements regarding their physical facilities, and the services they provide. For the most part, when this book refers to licensing requirements, it will be referencing licensing for child care centers.
Family child care homes provide care in small-group settings in the licensee’s private house or apartment. They include two types of facilities: small family child care homes that care for no more than 8 children at any one time, and large family child care homes that care for no more than 14 children at any one time.
The key to licensing’s effort to protect the health and safety of children in child care is a thorough and fair licensing and inspection program that ensures all facilities are in compliance. Community Care Licensing is mandated by law to ensure that licensed facilities meet established health and safety standards and that the licensee has access to all relevant information about the department.
Once a facility meets all the requirements to merit a license, licensing’s principal way of helping facilities maintain compliance is through periodic unannounced site visits by licensing program analysts (LPAs). In addition to conducting these inspections, our LPAs work with licensees to address any needed changes, and conduct follow-up visits to confirm that problems have been eliminated. It is also the role of the LPA to investigate any complaints about a facility and consult with licensees to ensure they are aware of their rights and responsibilities.
Licensing also provides ready access to the child care advocate program. The advocates serve as a link between licensing and the community of licensees, provide information about licensed child care to families and the public, act as a liaison with businesses, child care organizations, and resource and referral agencies, and coordinate complaints and concerns on behalf of children in care. As a result, licensing is both an enforcement agency and a resource on health and safety requirements.31
The complete licensing regulations, often referred to as Title 22, can be found on the Community Care Licensing Division of the California Department of Social Services Child Care Regulations Online California Code of Regulations, Title 22, Division 12 only webpage (see Resources for Further Exploration). Highlights of the regulations can be found in Appendix B.
Licensing Requirements for Early Childhood Programs that are State-Subsidized
There are more stringent requirements for programs whose families get tuition assistance from the state of California, commonly referred to as Title 5. The most notable difference in Title 5 regulations is stricter adult-to-child ratios and staff qualifications. See Table 1.1 for a comparison of ratios.32
Table 1.1 – Title 22 and Title 5 Adult to Child Ratio Comparison33,34,35
Age Group
Title 22
Title 5
Infants
1 adult to 4 children
1 adult to 3 children
Preschoolers
1 adult to 12 children
1 adult to 8 children
School-Aged
1 adult to 14 children
1 adult to 14 children
Accreditation from the National Association for the Education of Young Children
While not legal regulations, there are even further requirements in place for programs that choose to pursue voluntary accreditation by the National Association for the Education of Young Children. One of the differences you will notice between licensing and accreditation is some levels of staff qualifications. See Table 1.2 for a comparison of staff qualifications.
Table 1.2 – Staff Qualifications Comparison36,37,38,39
Teachers’ Aides and Assistants
Title 22
Must be at least 18 years old and be supervised at all times by a teacher
Title 5
Aide: same as Title 22
Assistant: Must have 6 ECE units
NAEYC Accreditation
Child Development Associate (CDA) or 12 units in early childhood education, child development, elementary education, and/or early childhood special education
Teacher
Title 22
Must have 12 ECE units and 6 months of experience
Title 5
Associate teacher: 12 ECE units
Teacher: 24 ECE units and 16 GE units
Master Teacher: Teacher requirements and 6 units in specialization area and 2 units in adult supervision
NAEYC Accreditation
A minimum of higher education degree in early childhood education, child development, elementary education, or early childhood special education or 60 units with 30 units in early childhood education, child development, elementary education, and/ or early childhood special education. (preferred accredited higher education institutions)
Supervisor/ Director/ Administrator
Title 22
Must have 12 core ECE units and 3 administration units
Title 5
Site Supervisor: AA or 60 units with 24 ECE units and 5 administration units and 2 adult supervision units
Director: BA and 24 ECE units and 6 administration units and 2 adult supervision units
NAEYC Accreditation
A minimum of a baccalaureate-level higher education degree in early childhood education, child development, elementary education, or early childhood special education; or 120 college units with 36 units in early childhood education, child development, elementary education, and/or early childhood special education.
While licensing regulations ensure that children stay safe and healthy, high quality care goes even further to provide the best start for young children. One reason that programs choose to become NAEYC accredited is to document the quality of care and education they provide children and families they serve. There are other processes and assessments that programs may use to ensure high quality, as well.
Pause to Reflect
As you progress through this book and course, what connections can you make about how being knowledgeable about health, safety, and nutrition will support early childhood educators in both following licensing and other applicable regulations and ensuring they provide high quality care for young children and their families?
Summary
Early childhood is a critical time in development. Many outcomes, both positive and negative, have their beginnings in these years. It is vital that children’s health and safety be protected. High-quality early care and education programs can play a valuable role in improving outcomes for children. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Health_Safety_and_Nutrition_(Paris)/Section_I%3A_Introduction/01%3A_Childrens_Well-Being_and_Early_Childhood_Education.txt |
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Explain what active supervision is and what it might look like.
• Discuss how to create a culture of safety.
• Identify common risks that lead to injury in children.
• Describe how understanding injuries can help create a safety plan that prevents future injury.
• Summarize strategies teachers can use to help children learn about and protect their own safety.
• Recall several ways to engage family in safety education.
• Analyze the value of allowing risk play.
Licensing Regulations
Title 22 Regulations that relate to this chapter include:
101216.3 TEACHER – CHILD RATIO
• There shall be a ratio of one teacher visually observing and supervising no more than 12 children in attendance. The total number of children shall not exceed licensed capacity.
• The licensee may use teacher aides in a teacher-child ratio of one teacher and one aide for every 15 children.
• A ratio of one fully qualified teacher and one aide for every 18 children is allowed if the aide has six semester units of early childhood education from an accredited college.
• A teacher should not perform housekeeping or maintenance duties that prevent him/her from performing duties related to providing care and supervision to children.
• (from 101230 ACTIVITIES AND NAPPING) A teacher-child ratio of one teacher or aide supervising 24 napping children is permitted, provided that the remaining teachers necessary to meet the overall ratios are immediately available at the center.
101216.4 TODDLER COMPONENT (RATIO)
• Licensees serving preschool-age children may create a special program component for children between the ages of 18 months and 30 months
101516.5 TEACHER-CHILD RATIO (SCHOOL-AGE)
• In addition to Section 101216.3, the following shall apply:
• One teacher to supervise no more than 14 children.
• One teacher and 1 aide can supervise no more than 28 children.
• Staffing for mixed-aged groups shall be based on the youngest child in the group.
101416.5 STAFF-INFANT RATIO
• There shall be a ratio of one teacher to every four infants.
• An aide may be substituted for a teacher if there is a fully qualified teacher directly supervising no more than 12 infants.
• When in activities away from the center there shall be a minimum of one adult to every two infants.
• There shall be one staff visually observing no more than 12 sleeping infants, as long as additional staff are available at the center to meet the above ratios when necessary.
101226 HEALTH-RELATED SERVICES
• The licensee shall immediately notify the child’s authorized representative if the child becomes ill or sustains an injury more serious than a minor cut or scratch.
• The licensee shall document all minor injuries and notify the child’s authorized representative of the nature of the injury when the child is picked up from the center.
• The licensee shall make prompt arrangements for obtaining medical treatment for any child as necessary.
101229 RESPONSIBILITY FOR PROVIDING CARE AND SUPERVISION
• The licensee shall provide care and supervision as necessary to meet the children’s needs. No child shall be left without the supervision of a teacher at any time. Supervision includes visual observation.
Introduction
Keeping children safe must be a top priority for all early care and education programs. Active Supervision is the most effective strategy for creating a safe environment and preventing injuries in young children. It transforms supervision from a passive approach to an active skill. Staff use this strategy to make sure that children of all ages explore their environments safely. Each program can keep children safe by teaching all staff how to look, listen, and engage.
What is Active Supervision?
Active supervision requires focused attention and intentional observation of children at all times. Staff position themselves so that they can observe all of the children: watching, counting, and listening at all times. During transitions, staff account for all children with name-to-face recognition by visually identifying each child. They also use their knowledge of each child’s development and abilities to anticipate what they will do, then get involved and redirect them when necessary. This constant vigilance helps children learn safely.
Strategies to Put Active Supervision in Place
The following strategies allow children to explore their environments safely. Infants, toddlers, and preschoolers must be directly supervised at all times. This includes daily routines such as sleeping, eating, and diapering or bathroom use. Programs that use active supervision take advantage of all available learning opportunities and never leave children unattended.
Set Up the Environment
Staff set up the environment so that they can supervise children and be accessible at all times. When activities are grouped together and furniture is at waist height or shorter, adults are always able to see and hear the children. Small spaces are kept clutter-free and big spaces are set up so that children have clear play spaces that staff can observe.
Position Staff
Staff carefully plan where they will position themselves in the environment to prevent children from harm. They place themselves so that they can see and hear all of the children in their care. They make sure there are always clear paths to where children are playing, sleeping, and eating so they can react quickly when necessary. Staff stay close to children who may need additional support. Their location helps them provide support, if necessary.
Scan and Count
Staff are always able to account for the children in their care. They continuously scan the entire environment to know where everyone is and what they are doing. They count the children frequently. This is especially important during transitions when children are moving from one location to another.
Listen
Specific sounds or the absence of them may signify reason for concern. Staff who are listening closely to children immediately identify signs of potential danger. Programs that think systematically implement additional strategies to safeguard children. For example, bells added to doors help alert staff when a child leaves or enters the room.
Anticipate Children's Behavior
Staff use what they know about each child’s individual interests and skills to predict what he/she will do. They create challenges that children are ready for and support them in succeeding. But, they also recognize when children might wander, get upset, or take a dangerous risk. Information from the daily health check (e.g., illness, allergies, lack of sleep or food, etc.) informs staff’s observations and helps them anticipate children’s behavior. Staff who know what to expect are better able to protect children from harm.
Engage and Redirect
Staff use what they know about each child’s individual needs and development to offer support. Staff wait until children are unable to problem-solve on their own to get involved. They may offer different levels of assistance or redirection depending on each individual child’s needs. 41
What Does Active Supervision Look Like?
To understand what active supervision might look like in your program, consider the following example:
Maria and Yasmin have taken their three-year-old classroom out to the playground for outdoor playtime. The 15-foot square playground has a plastic climber, a water/sand table and a swing set. Maria and Yasmin stand at opposite corners of the playground to be able to move quickly to a child who might need assistance. The children scatter through the playground to various areas. Some prefer the climber, while others like the swings. Many of the children play with the sand table because it is new. Maria and Yasmin have agreed on a supervision plan for which children they will observe and are always counting the children in the areas closest to them, occasionally raising their fingers to show each other how many children are close to them. This helps them keep track of where the children are, and to make sure no one is missing. If one child moves to a different area of the playground, they signal each other so that they are both aware of the child’s change in location.
Maria has noticed that Felicity loves to play in the sand table. She hears children scolding each other and notices that Felicity throws the toys without looking. As Maria sees Felicity and Ahmed playing at the sand table, Maria stands behind Felicity and suggests she put the toy back in the basket when she is done with it. By remaining close, she is also able to redirect Ahmed who has never seen a sand table before and throws sand at his classmates. Kellan has been experimenting with some of the climbing equipment and is trying to jump off of the third step onto the ground. While he is able to do this, some of the other children whose motor skills are not as advanced also try to do this. To help them build these skills, Yasmin stands close to the steps on the climbing structure. She offers a hand or suggests a lower step to those who are not developmentally ready.
Maria and Yasmin signal to each other five minutes before playtime is over, then tell the children they have 5 minutes left to play. When the children have one minute left, Maria begins to hand out colors that match the colored squares they have painted on the ground. She asks Beto, a child who has trouble coming inside from playtime, to help her. When the children are handed a colored circle, they move to stand on the colored spot on the playground. As the children move to the line, Maria guides them to the right spot. When all children are in line, both Maria and Yasmin count the children again. They scan the playground to make sure everyone is in place, then move the children back into the classroom. They also listen to be sure that they do not hear any of the children still on the playground. Yasmin heads the line and Maria takes the back end, holding Beto’s hand. When they return to the classroom, there are spots on the floor with the same colors that were on the playground. The children move to stand on their matching color in the classroom. Maria and Yasmin take a final count, then collect the circles and begin the next activity.
Both Yasmin and Maria are actively engaged with the children and each other, supporting the children’s learning and growth while ensuring their safety. They use systems and strategies to make sure they know where children are at all times, and that support developmentally appropriate child risk-taking and learning.43
Pause to Reflect
Go back through the example and find the active supervision strategies that Yasmin and Maria used
Active Supervision for Infants and Toddlers
Infant/toddler care is responsive, individualized care. And it's important to think about infants and toddlers that are cared for in small groups with a primary-caregiver system of care and also to think about the flow of the day as being responsive to the individualized needs of the children. Staff work very closely with children throughout the day guiding them through individual or small-group routines and experiences. Staff are providing responsive, individualized care, and they will know each child well. That's an important piece of both individualized care and active and responsive supervision. They have a good sense of how each child gets through the day, what their abilities are, what their temperament is. Even as they grow and change from day to day, they're able to follow each child in their care with an understanding of how it is that they're growing.
In center-based programs or larger family child care homes, more than one caregiver is working together in a team. And the other thing that's important to remember is the kind of communication that develops between the two teachers in a classroom or a family-childcare provider and an assistant -- a communication that supports a child's safe movement throughout the day as well as their ability to explore and grow in a nurturing environment.
Adults provide support to each other, particularly at key times of the day, like transitions. All of those important, individualized routines require both adults to work together, such as individual sleeping times, going indoors and outdoors, changing times, feeding and eating times for infants and toddlers, and other times during the day when there may be a particular child that needs individualized care. It's so important that the staff working with them are working together to support continuity of care.
The environment itself can be a partner in caring for infants and toddlers, particularly when it comes to keeping children safe. We want to create environments that provide places for children to play and be both together and apart but always in full view and within easy reach of a caring and attentive adult.45
Creating an Environment of Yes!
An environment of “yes” means that everything infants and toddlers can get their hands on is safe and acceptable for them to use. One way to ensure this is to for adults to do ongoing safety checks in group care spaces and provide families with information about doing safety checks of their own. The teacher, home visitor, and the child’s family play a vital role in making sure everything is safe, then stepping back to allow exploration.
Sometimes infants and toddlers will use materials in creative ways that surprise us! When teachers feel uncomfortable about an activity, they should stop and ask themselves two questions:
• Is it dangerous?
• What are the children learning from this experience?
If it is decided that the activity is safe with supervision, they should stay nearby. They should be thoughtful and open to what the children might be learning. If the activity is not safe, they need to consider what else might address the infants’ and toddlers’ curiosity in the same way. For example, if young toddlers are delighted to discover that by shaking their sippy cups, liquid comes out; a teacher may be worried that this water on the floor will lead to a slippery accident. Instead, they might provide squeeze bottles outside or at the water table. The adult is responsible for keeping children safe and encouraging learning through curiosity.
Saying “no” to infants and toddlers or asking them to “share” is a strategy that rarely works. One way to prevent conflict is to reflect on, and then set up, the space where children play in ways that promote “yes!”
• What areas generate the most “no’s” or require the most adult guidance?
• What do the children need and enjoy the most when it comes to playtime?
• Do you have multiples of favorite toys?
• Do you have enough places where toddlers can play alone or with a few friends?
• Do you have adequate space for active play?
• Is the room appropriately child-proofed?46
Active Supervision for Preschoolers
It’s important not to become complacent with safety practices. Teachers need to keep it fresh, thoughtful, and intentional. This begins with setting up the environment. Classrooms will have unique factors to consider. But some general considerations include making sure that there is a teacher responsible for every part of the space children are in, which may be referred to as zoning, and for every part of the day (including transitions).
How teachers position their bodies is really important. They should see all of the children in their care from any position in the room. And when in playing areas, their back should not be to the center of the room, but towards the wall. It is also important to move closer to children as needed (rather than staying in one place and potentially missing out on problems that may arise).
Teachers also need to talk to each other, using back-and-forth communication, so that safety information is easily spread through the room. It may seem strange at first, sometimes, for teachers to talk to each other; but, it's incredibly helpful for active supervision – when there are either changes in staff or children's routines, changes in roles, changes during transitions.
And one of the main purposes of zoning was created to help all children be engaged and to minimize unnecessary wait times. When all staff know their roles in the classroom with zoning and tasks are getting handled, children are engaged and the unsupervised wait time is really minimized.
During transitions or routine changes, teachers need to have a heightened awareness. Transitions are challenging times for both children and their teachers, so the risk to safety increases. One thing that teachers can think about is how they can minimize the number of changes so that there aren't as many transitions happening in the classroom. There should be plans what adults will do, before, during, and after transition times.48
Creating a Culture of Safety
The topic of keeping children safe is only partly about policies and rules, and oversight. Those things are important. But most important of all, this is about staff, the people who work directly with children and families. Those people must be supported with opportunities for reflection, professional development, chances to think about the work they do and why that work is so important. What is challenging in that work, and what comes to them easily. It's the ability of programs to recognize and analyze challenging conditions and be able to make improvements.
Programs must make sure that staff have that sense of commitment and responsibility, and that they have the ability to ensure children are thriving is critical. They have to help make sure staff remember why we do the work, to be curious about children's interests, needs, and ideas, to have the opportunity to be creative, to enjoy children and each other's humor every day. These things, in addition to the policies and procedures, will allow staff to be fully present with children. Adults who can be fully present will keep children physically and emotionally safe and thriving.
The first step to doing this is to create a culture of safety. In this context, culture means the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterize a program; the way things work in that program and in that community. Experts and researchers have demonstrated that the culture of an organization plays a key role in all successful safety initiatives.
This is done by involving every staff member and committing to safety at all levels. Programs shouldn’t assume that nothing will ever go wrong. In fact, they should plan that something is going to go wrong. The goal is to create environments where there is zero harm, making it as hard as possible for things to go wrong.
Directors, managers, staff, and families must all embrace the belief that children have a right to be safe. All the adults in the program, the program leaders and staff, know that they are responsible for every child, all day, every day. People understand their roles and responsibilities in keeping children safe and embrace each of the 10 actions outlined in Table 2.1, that together support a culture of safety. This approach is holistic. It's integrated, and community-centered. It isn't an add-on. It's not a burden. It's a way of doing business so children don't get hurt.50
Table 2.1
10 Actions for a Culture of Safety51
1. Use Data to Make Decisions: Program and incident data serve as an important resource to help managers and staff evaluate children’s safety.
1. Actively Supervise: Children are never alone or unsupervised. Staff position themselves so that they can observe, count, and listen at all times.
1. Keep Environments Safe and Secure: Programs create, monitor, and maintain hazard-free spaces.
1. Make Playgrounds Safe: Regularly inspected, well-maintained, age-appropriate and actively supervised outdoor play spaces allow children to engage in active play, explore the outdoors, and develop healthy habits.
1. Transport Children Safely: Programs implement and enforce policies and procedures for drivers, monitors, children, and families using school buses, driving to and from the program, or walking.
1. Transport Children Safely: Programs implement and enforce policies and procedures for drivers, monitors, children, and families using school buses, driving to and from the program, or walking.
1. Be Aware of Changes that Impact Safety: Staff anticipate and prepare for children’s reactions to transitions and changes in daily routine, within and outside of the program.
1. Model Safe Behaviors: Staff establish nurturing, positive relationships by demonstrating safe behaviors and encouraging other adults and children to try them.
1. Teach Families about Safety: Staff engage families about safety issues and partner with them about how to reduce risks to prevent injuries that occur in the home.
1. Know Your Children and Families: Staff plan activities with an understanding of each child’s developmental level and abilities, and the preferences, culture, and traditions of their families. This includes everything from maintaining current emergency contact information to understanding families’ perceptions about safety and injury prevention.
Specific Risks for Injury
Child injuries are preventable, yet 8,110 children (from 0-19 years) died from injuries in the US in 2017.52 Car crashes, suffocation, drowning, poisoning, fires, and falls are some of the most common ways children are hurt or killed. The number of children dying from injury dropped nearly 30% over the last decade. However, injury is still the number 1 cause of death among children.53
Children during early childhood are more at risk for certain injuries. Using data from 2000-2006, the CDC determined that:
• For children less than 1 year of age, two–thirds of injury deaths were due to suffocation.
• Drowning was the leading cause of injury death between 1 and 4 years of age.
• Falls were the leading cause of nonfatal injury for all age groups of less than 15 years of age.
• For children ages 0 to 9, the next two leading causes were being struck by or against an object and animal bites or insect stings.
• Rates for fires or burns and drowning were highest for children 4 years and younger.54
Injury in Early Care and Education/Child Care
Families “are naturally concerned for their child’s safety, particularly when cared for outside of the home. However, children who spend more time in nonparental child care have a reduced risk of (unintentional) injury. This may be because child care centers and family day homes provide more supervision and/or safer play equipment. Nevertheless, injuries in child care settings remain a serious, but preventable, health care issue.”55
In the next two chapters, we will examine creating safe environments indoors and outdoors that specifically reduce the risks of injuries, including those introduced in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 – Preventing Injuries
Type of Injury
Prevention Tips
Sudden Infant Death
• Always put infants to sleep on their backs
• Cribs, bassinets, and play yards should conform to safety standards and covered in a tight-fitting sheet
• There should be no fluffy blankets, pillows, toys, or soft objects in the sleeping area
• Don’t allow children to overheat56
Choking
• Keeping objects smaller than 1½ inches out of reach of infants, toddlers, and young children.
• Have children stay seated while eating
• Cut food into small bites
• Ensure children only have access to age-appropriate toys and materials57, 58
Drowning
• Make sure caregivers are trained in CPR
• Fence off pools; gates should be self-closing and self-latching
• Supervise children in or near water59
• Inspect for any standing water indoors or outdoors that is an inch or deeper.
• Teach children water safety behaviors.60
Burns
• Have working smoke alarms
• Practice fire drills
• Never leave food cooking on the stove unattended; supervise any use of microwave
• Make sure the water heater is set to 120 degrees or lower61
• Keep chemicals, cleaners, lighters, and matches securely locked and out of reach of children.
• Use child-proof plugs in outlets and supervise all electrical appliance usage.62
Falls
• Make sure playground surfaces are safe, soft, and made of impact-absorbing material (such as wood chips or sand) at an appropriate depth and are well maintained
• Use safety devices (such as gates to block stairways and window guards)
• Make sure children are wearing protective gear during sports and recreation (such as bicycle helmets)
• Supervise children around fall hazards at all times63
• Use straps and harnesses on infant equipment.64
Poisoning
• Lock up all medications and toxic products (such as cleaning solutions and detergents) in original packaging out of sight and reach of children
• Know the number to poison control (1-800-222-1222)
• Read and follow labels of all medications
• Safely dispose of unused, unneeded, or expired prescription drugs and over the counter drugs, vitamins, and supplements65
• Use safe food practices.
Pedestrian
• Do not allow children under 10 to walk near traffic without an adult
• Increase the number of supervising adults when walking near traffic
• Teach children about safety including:
• Walking on the sidewalk
• Not assuming vehicles see you or will stop
• Crossing only in crosswalks
• Looking both ways before crossing
• Never playing in the road
• Not crossing a road without an adult
• Supervise children near all roadways and model safe behavior66
Motor-vehicle
• Children should still be safely restrained in a five-point harnessed car seat
• Children should be in back seat
• Children should not be seated in front of an airbag67
Creating a Safety Plan
Early care and education programs have an obligation to ensure that children in their care are in healthy and safe environments and that policies and procedures that protect children are in place. Using a screening tool, programs can identify where they need to make changes and improvements to ensure children are healthy and safe while in their care. A checklist such as the one modified from Head Start’s Health and Safety Screener in Appendix C can be used for this purpose.68
Programs must become familiar with the hazards to children that are specific to their population and location. Considerations for this plan include the type of early education program, ages of the children served, surrounding community, and family environments.
If any hazards are found upon screening, programs can make modifications to remove hazards or use safety devices to protect children from hazards. Care should be taken to ensure that the modifications include children with disabilities and special needs.
It will also be important to use positive guidance to help modify behaviors that put children’s safety at risk. Teachers can use role-modeling and communication to teach children how to respond to situations, including emergencies, that put their safety at risk.
Early childhood programs must continue to monitor for safety. This includes regular screening for safety and analysis of data surrounding injuries. Teachers must continuously monitor for conditions that may lead to children being injured and examine both the behaviors of children and adults in the environment.70
Documenting Injuries & Injury Prevention
When a child is injured, it is important to document the injury. This documentation is provided to families, typically in the form of an injury or incident report. See Appendix D for an example injury/incident report form. These should document:
• Who was involved in each injury? (child/children; staff, volunteers, family members)
• Where did the injury occur?
• What happened? (What was the cause?)
• What was the severity of each injury?
• When did each injury occur?
• Who – e.g., what staff were present and where were they at the time of each injury?
• What treatment was provided? How was the incident handled by staff?
• How could each injury have been prevented? What will be done in the future to prevent similar injuries?
• Who was notified in the child’s family? When? How?
It is important to keep these reports to analyze them to:
• identify location(s) for high risk of injury.
• pinpoint systems and services that need to be strengthened.
• develop corrective action plans
• incorporate safety and injury prevention into ongoing-monitoring activities.71
Hazard Mapping
One such process to do this is hazard mapping, which is an approach to prevent injuries by studying patterns of incidents.
Step One – Identify High-Risk Injury Locations
1. Create a map of the classroom, center, or playground area. Label the various places and/or equipment in the location(s) that is being mapped. Make the map as accurate as possible.
2. Place a “dot” or “marker” on the map to indicate where each specific incident and/or injury occurred over the past 3-6 months (or sooner, if concerns arise).
3. Look at the severity of the injuries.
4. Identify where most incidents occur.
Step Two – Identify Systems and Services that Need to be Strengthened
1. Review the information on the injury/incident reports for areas with multiple dots.
2. Consider what policy and practices are contributing to injuries/incidents.
Step Three – Develop a Corrective Action Plan
1. Prioritize and select specific activities/strategies to resolve problem areas.
2. Develop an action plan to correct the problem areas you identified. Include each of the activities/strategies selected in this corrective action plan. Identify the steps, the individuals responsible, and the dates for completion.
3. Create a plan for sharing the corrective action plan with staff and families.
Step Four – Incorporate Hazard Mapping into Ongoing Monitoring
1. Determine if any additional questions should be added to injury/incident report forms to obtain this missing information.
2. When developing corrective action plans, consider prioritizing more serious injuries, even if they have occurred less often.
3. Make sure there reduction in injuries and/or incidents and the severity of the injuries with a corrective plan.72
Teaching Children about Safety
While it is the adult’s responsibility to keep children safe and children should not be expected to actively protect themselves, teachers should help children develop safety awareness and the realization that they can control some aspects of their safety through certain actions. The earlier children learn about safety, the more naturally they will develop the attitudes and respect that lead to lifelong patterns of safe behavior.
Safety education involves teaching safe actions while helping children understand the possible consequences of unsafe behavior. Preschoolers learn through routines and daily practice and by engaging in language scripts and following simple rules. These scripts and rules may be communicated through voice, pictures, or signs. Children learn concepts and develop skills through repetition, then build upon these as concepts and skills become more complex.
Preschoolers need help to recognize that safe play may prevent injury. Teachers can promote independence and decision-making skills as children learn safe behaviors. Teachers can explain that children can make choices to stay safe, just as they wash their hands to prevent disease, brush their teeth to prevent cavities, and eat a variety of foods to help them grow strong and healthy.
Preschoolers can learn to apply a few simple and consistent rules, such as riding in a car seat and wearing seat belts, even though they are too young to understand the reasons for such rules. For example, four-year-old Morgan says, “Buckle up!” as she gets into a vehicle. Although Morgan lacks the skill needed to buckle the car seat buckle and does not understand the consequences of not being safely buckled into her car seat, she is developing a positive habit. Safety education in preschool focuses on behaviors the children can do to stay safe. It involves simple, concrete practices that children can understand.
The purpose of safety rules and guidance is to promote awareness and encourage developmentally appropriate behavior to prevent injury. Teachers may include separate rules for the classroom, playground, hallways, buses, or emergency drills. Limit the number of rules or guidelines, but foster consistency (e.g., three indoor rules, three playground rules) and base them upon the greatest hazards, threats, and needs in your preschool program and community.
Safety guidance is most effective when teachers have appropriate expectations and safety rules are stated in a positive manner. For example, an appropriate indoor safety rule might be stated, “We walk indoors,” rather than the negative, “Do not run indoors.” On the playground, a rule might state, “Go down the slide on your bottom, feet first.” As children follow these rules, acknowledge them for specific actions with descriptive praise (e.g., “Kevin, you sat on the slide and went down really fast! That looked like fun!”).
State rules clearly, in simple terms, and in children’s home languages; include pictures or icons with posted rules to assist all children’s understanding. Children often are more willing to accept a rule when they are given a brief explanation of why it is necessary. Gently remind children during real situations; with positive reinforcement, they will begin to follow safety rules more consistently. As children develop a greater understanding of safety rules, they begin to develop self-control and feel more secure.
Adults are fully responsible for children’s safety and compliance with safety rules and emergency procedures. Safety education for children, which include rules and reinforcement of verbal and picture scripts in children’s home languages (including sign language), is essential for handling emergency situations. Through practice and routines, children are better able to follow the teacher’s instruction and guidance. It is essential that teachers evaluate each child’s knowledge and skill in this area, and provide additional learning activities as needed to ensure that all children can follow emergency routines.
Here are some strategies that teachers can use to help children learn about safety:
• Incorporate safety into the daily routine.
• Involve children in creating rules
• Provide coaching and gentle reminders to help children follow safety rules.
• Acknowledge children’s self-initiated actions to keep themselves and others safe (such as pushing chairs in and wiping up spills)
• Provide time for children to practice safety skills (such as buckling seat belts)
• Introduce safety concepts and behaviors in simple steps.
• Role-play safety-helpers.
• Define emergency and practice what children should do in emergency situations.
• Introduce safety signs.
• Incorporate musical activities and safety songs.
Because of their level of cognitive development, many young children cannot consistently identify dangerous situations. They may understand some safety consequences and can learn some scripts. But adults must be responsible for their safety. Children often act impulsively, without stopping to consider the danger. By learning and following simple safety rules (e.g., take turns, wear a helmet) and practicing verbal, visual, or sign-language scripts, children establish a foundation of lifelong safety habits.74
Engaging Families
• Share written and visual safety messages with families through newsletters, brochures, bulletin boards, Web pages, and take-home activities in the home languages of the families in the program. Emphasize safety issues that relate to your preschool program and community.
• Integrate parent information with children’s learning about topics such as poisoning prevention and traffic safety.
• Provide safety information through workshops and during parent meetings; include information on a variety of topics, especially those that involve higher risk in specific communities, such as water safety, gun safety, or lead poisoning.
• Invite community safety personnel to participate in workshops and share resources and information about how to access community services.
• Address specific safety issues, such as vehicle safety and pedestrian safety, through one-on-one guidance during pickup and drop-off times.
• During family conferences, find out what messages family members would like teachers to reinforce at school.
• During home visits, offer to help families identify potential hazards in their family environment and ways to reduce possible injury.
• Post emergency plans on family bulletin boards and provide families with a written copy of the preschool program’s emergency plan. Include responses to different scenarios (e.g., evacuation, shelters), location of the designated evacuation shelter, and a number to call if family members cannot reach the preschool.
• Routinely update families’ emergency contact information.
• Encourage families to plan and practice emergency drills for fires, earthquakes, floods, violent encounters, or other situations that could occur in their home or community. Provide families with resources to develop a home evacuation plan and drill.
• Invite family members to attend the preschool or to serve as guest speakers as children learn about people who can help in emergency situations. Invited guests may include safety or medical personnel (e.g., firefighters, paramedics) or workers in related professions (e.g., construction workers, electricians, meteorologists, cleaning businesses).75
Risky Play and Children’s Safety: Balancing Priorities for Optimal Child Development
Injury prevention plays a key role in promoting children’s safety, which is considered to involve keeping children free from the occurrence or risk of injury. However, emerging research suggests that imposing too many restrictions on children’s outdoor risky play may be hampering their development. Like safety, play is deemed so critical to child development and their physical and mental health that it is included in Article 31 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. Thus, limitations on children’s play opportunities may be fundamentally hindering their health and well-being.
Eager and Little describe a risk deprived child as more prone to problems such as obesity, mental health concerns, lack of independence, and a decrease in learning, perception and judgment skills, created when risk is removed from play and restrictions are too high. Findings from disciplines such as psychology, sociology, landscape architecture, and leisure studies, challenge the notion that child safety is paramount and that efforts to optimize child safety in all circumstances is the best approach for child development. And families, popular culture, the media, and researchers in other disciplines have expressed views that child safety efforts promote the overprotection of children. These have the potential to trigger a backlash against proven safety promotion strategies, such as child safety seats or necessary supervision, possibly reversing the significant gains that have been made in reducing child injuries.
Families, caregivers, and educators can work to create a balance by fostering opportunities to engage in outdoor risky play that align with safety efforts. An approach that focuses on eliminating hazards, that have hidden potential to injure, such as a broken railing, but that does not eliminate all risks, could be used. This allows the child to recognize and evaluate the challenge and decide on a course of action that is not dangerous but may still involve an element of risk. Adults can also provide children with unstructured (open-ended) play materials that can be freely manipulated in conventional playgrounds
This approach is a central component of the Adventure Playground movement. Notably, European and Australian organizations and researchers appear to be attempting to put this idea in practice, with North American efforts lagging. For example, the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence in the U.K. released injury prevention guidelines that called for policies that counter “excessive risk aversion” and promote children’s need “to develop skills to assess and manage risks, according to their age and ability.” Both injury and play organizations, such as the U.K.’s Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents and Play Safety Forum promote the idea of keeping children as safe as necessary, not as safe as possible. International collaboration would benefit from translating this into practice in a manner that is sensitive to concerns for child safety and children’s developmental needs for risky play.77
Pause to Reflect
What do you think? What are your thoughts about keeping children as safe as necessary, not as safe as possible? What are appropriate ways for children to learn how to manage risk?
Summary
Active supervision is critical to keep young children safe. When programs create a culture of safety, they go beyond following regulations and policies, by making a commitment to protecting safety so that children don’t get hurt. There are some common risks to safety that educators should be aware or (and that will be covered in more depth in the next two chapters). When early care and education programs create a safety plan using data they have gathered by documenting and analyzing the injuries children get, they can make changes to help protect children’s safety.
While adults have the ultimate responsibility for safety, children can be taught about and families can be engaged in protecting children’s safety. Teachers must also consider the value of risk play when making decisions about what action to take to keep children safe. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Health_Safety_and_Nutrition_(Paris)/Section_II%3A_Safety/02%3A_Preventing_Injury_and_Protecting_Childrens_Safety.txt |
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Connect classroom design to safety and injury prevention.
• Discuss ways to handle unsafe behavior by understanding the function of behaviors.
• Describe how teachers can ensure the toys and materials they offer children do not present injury risks and are nontoxic.
• Explain ways adults can support safe and developmentally appropriate use of technology.
• Lists ways to protect children from choking, poisoning, burns, drowning, and falls.
• Identify how to implement safe sleep practices to protect against Sudden Infant Death Syndrome.
Licensing Regulations
Title 22 Regulations that relate to this chapter include:
101171 FIRE CLEARANCE
• All Child Care Centers shall secure and maintain a fire clearance.
101238 BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS
• The center shall be clean, safe, sanitary and in good repair at all times.
• All children shall be protected against hazards.
• Disinfectants, cleaning solutions, poisons and items that could pose a danger to children shall be stored where inaccessible to children
• Storage areas for poisons shall be locked.
• Firearms and other weapons are not allowed on the premises.
101538.3 INDOOR ACTIVITY SPACE
• There shall be at least 35 square feet of indoor activity space per child based on the total licensed capacity.
• The floors of all rooms shall have a surface that is safe and clean.
• (from 101438.3 and 101538.3) Spaces for infants and spaces for school-age children should be physically separated from indoor activity space
101239 FIXTURES, FURNITURE, EQUIPMENT, AND SUPPLIES
• All window screens shall be in good repair and free of insects and debris.
• Fireplaces and open-faced heaters shall be inaccessible.
• Tables and chairs scaled to the size of children must be provided.
• All play equipment and materials used by children must be age-appropriate.
• Furniture and equipment must be maintained in good condition.
• A baby walker shall not be allowed on the premises.
101439 INFANT CARE CENTER FIXTURES, EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES
• In addition to Section 101239, the following shall apply:
• There shall be appropriate furniture and equipment such as cribs, cots or mats, changing tables and feeding chairs.
• High chairs or low-wheeled feeding tables or any equipment used for seating an infant shall have broad-base legs.
• No infant shall be permitted to stand up in a high chair.
• Infant changing tables shall have a padded surface no less than 1 inch thick; raised sides at least 3 inches high; kept in good repair, within an arm’s reach of a sink.
• Toy storage containers shall be safe and maintained in good condition and shall not be lockable
• Toys shall be safe and not have any sharp edges, or small parts.
• Fixtures, furniture, equipment or supplies shall not be made of or contain toxic substances.
101239.1 NAPPING EQUIPMENT
• Cots must be maintained in a safe condition.
101439.1 INFANT CARE CENTER NAPPING EQUIPMENT
• In addition to Section 101239.1, the following shall apply:
• A standard size six-year crib or porta-crib shall be provided for each infant who is unable to climb out of a crib.
• Cribs shall not limit the ability of staff to see the infant.
• Cribs shall not limit the infant’s ability to stand upright.
• Crib mattresses shall be covered with vinyl or similar moisture- resistant material; shall be wiped and disinfected daily and when wet or soiled.
• Cribs shall be maintained in a safe condition.
• Cribs, mats or cots shall be arranged so as to provide a walkway and work space between the cribs, mats or cots sufficient to permit staff to reach each infant without stepping over any other infant
Introduction
Designing an effective and engaging classroom environment takes careful thought and planning, but it's important. A well-organized classroom that is interesting, orderly, and attractive contributes to children's participation and engagement with the learning materials and activities. This engagement, in turn, contributes to children's learning.
Let's look at it from a child's perspective. We want children to feel safe and comfortable in the classroom. We want them to be interested in the learning activities and to take full advantage of being at school and take full advantage of the activities you've planned and the materials you've selected. It can be helpful to get down at a child's level and take a look at the classroom. Does it feel welcoming and inviting? Is there enough room to move, make choices, and stay involved with a toy or activity or project? And does the room help the child know what to do and what's expected?
Designing an Effective and Safe Classroom Environment
There are all sorts of classrooms. They differ by size and shape, amount of light and wall space, placement of sinks and counters, and amount of storage. Figuring out how to design the physical space and to maximize children's interactions within the space will take some time. Make a floor plan. Move things around. Take a look at other classrooms and see what works.
Here are a few things to think about when designing your space and making it as workable as possible. Think about the number of interest areas or centers that you want or need for the group of children. Arrange the space so that noisy areas are separated from quiet areas. Locate centers next to needed storage or equipment. Use furniture or other items to provide boundaries. But, make sure that the adults can see all of the areas of the room.79
Factors to Consider
Space and boundaries:
• Are the centers clearly defined with furniture, rugs, or shelves?
• Is there enough space for all children to easily move about the room?
• In each defined area, is there adequate space for the number of children using it?
Proximity and distance:
• Are the quiet and noisy areas in proximity or separated?
• Are centers located near things that children need to complete projects (art center near sink, puzzle or game shelves within reach of tables, etc.)?
• Are teachers able to view children in all centers?
Home and culture:
• What home-like features are included in the classroom?
• How is(are) the culture(s) of the local community reflected in the classroom?
Flexibility and permanence:
• How does the space accommodate gross motor activity?
• What aspects of the physical space cannot be changed (cost or structural issues) and are challenging to overcome (e.g., limited access to natural light, cumbersome cubbies, etc.)?
Engagement and challenging behaviors:
• Are there areas of the classroom where challenging behaviors are more likely to occur?
• Are there areas where typically children are positively engaged in classroom activities?
Traffic patterns:
• Can children move easily from space to space?
• Is running and wandering discouraged?
Material selection:
• Are materials chosen to support development and learning?
• Are they culturally relevant and meaningful to the children?
• Is there is a sufficient variety and quantity (without overwhelming children)? 80
Pause to Reflect
So far, we haven’t specifically called out safety much in our discussion of environmental design. Look at some of the listed items and brainstorm how they each might be related to safety? For example, why is looking at areas of the classroom where challenging behaviors are more likely to occur a safety consideration?
Tips for Environmental Design
• Traffic patterns need to discourage running.
• Use furniture, rugs, and similar items to define boundaries.
• Ensure that teachers can see what is happening in all areas of the classroom.
• Cultural and home-like features are present in the room.
• Use spaces with as much flexibility as possible.
• Quiet and noisy centers are spaced appropriately.
• Ensure interesting classroom content selection is balanced with appropriate stimulation versus overstimulation.
• Each center provides enough information about what to do there and how to play.81
Grouping of Children
Teachers want to be intentional about how they group children, whether it's a decision made in the moment or as part of lesson planning. Match the size of the group with the purpose of the activity. Think about the children who will be in the group. Young children need opportunities to participate and learn with the whole group, small groups, and they will thrive with a bit of one-on-one time with an adult.83
Large groups are good for:
• Introducing concepts
• Building community
• Conducting routine activities
Small groups are good for:
• Maximizing back and forth interactions
• Peer modeling of skills
• Guiding instruction
One-on-one interactions are good for:
• Tasks requiring complex skills
• Instance when a child needs specific direction and assistance84
Pause to Reflect
How is considering group size related to safety? What might teachers need to observe for to determine if the group sizes are working well for the children?
Every early childhood environment is full of pros and cons; it is how educators work with the many characteristics of a classroom that can make a tremendous difference. Teachers can be surprised by the results when they:
• Assess the spaces for both limitations and strengths.
• Strategize how to optimize what they have to work with in their classrooms.
• Try a different arrangement, see what happens, and then modify based on what is working and what is not.
might need to be made to meet the needs of the children and keep them safe?85
Sometimes a modification can be minor (raising or lowering a shelf, “stop” signs over unavailable areas, masking tape to better define a space, etc.). This highlights the “work-in-progress” nature of early childhood environments. As the needs of children change, the room may need minor changes or have to be rearranged completely to meet those needs.86
A Few More Considerations for Environmental Design
When designing classroom environments, there are some other considerations to keep in mind:
Rotations:
• Avoid grouping the same children together all the time, especially when pairing skilled with less skilled children.
• Consider limiting the number of children per center and creating a system for rotating children through favorite areas.
• Regularly rotate some of the toys and materials to generate a sense of newness.
• Instruction can be tailored within small groups to meet educational goals. For example, one group of children that is working on learning numbers can read a counting book; another group working on fine motor skills can do beading; still another group of children working on social skills can practice joining play.
• Emphasize cooperation by choosing toys and activities that require it (e.g., large appliance boxes, games that need two or more players, balls for throwing back and forth, etc.).
• Whenever possible keep the design elements simple (both for the teacher’s sake and because simple tends to be longer-lasting). Also, some aspects of designing can be done spontaneously and quickly (spur of the moment) and still be effective. 87
Interpersonal Safety
Children can behave in ways that hurt themselves or others so teachers must prepared to handle unsafe behaviors in their duty to protect children from injury. An important way to think about behavior is as a form of communication. Young children let us know their wants and needs through their behavior long before they have or can use words in the heat of the moment. They give us cues to help us understand what they are trying to communicate.
Early childhood educators can help children by interpreting their cues and responding to meet their needs. The following example illustrates the importance of responding to the possible meaning behind behavior:
Javon bites Blair because he wants the block she is playing with and we remove Javon from the situation. Not only are we not responding to his want or need, but we are taking him out of the context where he can learn to communicate his feelings in a way that doesn’t hurt others.
Forms and Functions of Behavior
There are many reasons a child might use specific behaviors. This is why it is important for adults to carefully observe children, pay attention to their cues, get to know them, and know what part of the schedule gives them a hard time to better understand what they are trying to tell us through their behavior.88
Each behavior has a:
FORM = the behavior the child is using to communicate
AND A FUNCTION = the reason or purpose the child is using that behavior89
Table 3.1 – Forms and Functions of Behavior90
Forms of Communication
Function of Communication
Crying Cooing Reaching for caregiver Kicking their legs Gaze aversion (looking away) Squealing Biting Tantrums Pointing Smiling Pulling adult Clapping Words Jumping Obtain an object, activity, person Request help Initiate social interaction Request information Seek sensory stimulation Escape demands Escape activity Avoid a person Escape sensory stimulation Express emotion Express pain or illness
Here are some examples of form and functions of infants, toddlers, and preschoolers:
Table 3.2 – Examples of Forms and Possible Functions of Behaviors91
Form of Communication
Possible Functions of Communication
Toddler biting
• I want the dinosaur Joseph is playing with
• I’m teething
• This is my space—I don’t want you in my space
• I am really frustrated
• You just told me “no” and I don’t like it
• I want to play with you
Preschooler hitting
• I feel mad and don’t know how to express it
• I don’t want to stop playing
• I don't want to share my favorite toy
• I want to play by myself
Form and function are also shaped by culture. Children are socialized to express their feelings in culturally acceptable ways. It is important to talk with families so you can look for acceptable ways that children express themselves in a culturally respectful way.
As you have probably already experienced—it is not always easy to figure out the meaning of a child’s behavior. To add to the complexity of understanding the meaning of behavior:
• A single form of behavior may serve more than one function. For example, a toddler might use biting (form) for different functions (“I want the toy you have.” “I want to play with you but don’t know how to let you know.” “I’m tired.” “I’m frustrated because you don’t understand what I am trying to tell you.” “I want some attention.”)
• Several forms of behavior may serve one function. For example, a child’s purpose (function) may be to build with their favorite blocks, but they use different forms of behavior (biting, yelling, grabbing, running away with the blocks, sharing) based on how they feel that day, who is playing in the block area, or based on their cultural expectations.
• The meaning of behavior is shaped by culture, family, and the unique makeup and experiences of the individual child. For example, some cultures may express sadness by crying or by having a nonchalant facial expression. Some cultures may express happiness by laughing and being exuberant, while others may expect more restrained behaviors.
Some of these functions of communication become a concern for children’s safety (of the child communicating, the other children, and other people in the environment). Early childhood educators must take the time to understand a behavior’s meaning so that they can help the child replace unsafe forms of communication with forms that don’t hurt others or harm the environment. Pausing to try to figure out the meaning behind a child’s behavior—instead of just reacting to the behavior—can change the way we see a child, the way we respond to a child, and the way we teach a child. Becoming a “behavior has meaning” detective who is always on the lookout for the meaning of behavior will help you keep children safe.92 Take a look at the following example of an unsafe behavior, what it might mean, and what an educator might do to support the child.
Emilia and Sarae
Teacher Emilia says about a child Sarae, "I have to watch her like a hawk or she'll run down the hall or go out the gate, down the street, and I don't know where.”
What This Might Mean
So, we could reframe this to: Sarae is an active child. She may naturally be a kinesthetic learner, who needs to move and shake, has extra energy.
What the Teacher Might Do
A teacher can give Sarae positive ways to exercise the way she loves to be. So, whether that's during choice time, that there is an opportunity for her to dance, for example. Or, there' s an obstacle course set up for her to maneuver through.
out the function of their behavior/communication.93
When they are outdoors, the teacher can create opportunities for structured play so that is running with an intention; such as part of a game with her peers. If it's hard to get her back inside, give her a leadership role. Maybe she's the one who has the bell that cues everybody that it's time to line up. So now she's going to make sure she finds her friends and is the one responsible for bringing the whole group together to go inside.
The Potential Result
Reframing the behavior and provide positive outlets will not only keep Sarae safe, but it will also communicate to her that how she feels is okay and that she's being supported, acknowledged, and encouraged.94
Taking a Closer Look at Behavior
You may also find it valuable to examine behavior much the way you would injuries and traffic patterns. Gather data about unsafe behaviors:
• When are they happening? Are there specific times of day that children are finding it more challenging to behave/communicate in safe ways?
• Where are they happening? Are there hot spots for challenging behavior? What in the environment might be the focus of the unsafe behavior/communication?
• Why they are happening? What happened before the led up to the behavior? What happened after?
• Who are the behaviors happening between? All children will have times where they communicate with unsafe behavior, but some children may need more adult support in certain contexts (time of day, activity, groupings of children, etc.).
Look for patterns. Reflect on what can be changed in the physical environment, schedule/routine, groupings, and supervision to help prevent children from hurting themselves or others when trying to communicate their needs.
Biting
Biting is a common but upsetting behavior of toddlers. Here is some information and tips for responding to biting:
When a child bites another child
Intervene immediately between the child who bit and the bitten child. Stay calm don’t overreact, yell or give a lengthy explanation.
Use your voice and expression to show that biting is not acceptable. Look into the child’s eyes and say calmly but firmly, “I do not like it when you bite people.” For a child with more limited language, just say “No biting people.” Point out how the biter’s behavior affected the other person. “You hurt him and he’s crying.” Encourage the child who was bitten to tell the biter “You hurt me.” Encourage the child who bit to help the other child by getting the ice pack, etc.
Offer the bitten child comfort and first aid. Wash broken skin with warm water and soap. Observe general precautions if there is bleeding. Apply an ice pack or cool cloth to help prevent swelling. If the bitten child is a guest, tell the families what happened. Suggest the bitten child be seen by a health care provider if the skin is broken or there are any signs of infection (redness or swelling).
Preventing biting
Reinforce desired behavior. Notice and acknowledge when you like what your child is doing, especially for showing empathy or social behavior, such as patting a crying child, offering to take turns with a toy or hugging gently. Do not label, humiliate or isolate a child who bites.
Discourage play which involves “pretend” biting, or seems too rough and out of control. Help the child make connections with others.
Why do children bite and what can we do?
Children bite for many different reasons, so in order to respond effectively, it’s best to try and find out why they are biting. If a child:
• experiments by biting immediately say “no” in a firm voice, and give him a variety of toys to touch, smell and taste and encourage sensory-motor exploration.
• has teething discomfort, provide cold teething toys or safe, chewy foods.
• is becoming independent, provide opportunities to make age-appropriate choices and have some control (the bread or the cracker, the yellow or the blue ball), and notice and give positive attention as new self-help skills and independence develop.
• is using muscles in new ways, provide a variety of play materials (hard/soft, rough/smooth, heavy/light) and plan for plenty of active play indoors and outdoors.
• Is learning to play with other children, try to guide behavior if it seems rough (take the child’s hand and say, “Touch Jorge gently—he likes that”) and reinforce prosocial behavior (such as taking turns with toys or patting a crying child).
• is frustrated in expressing his/her needs and wants, state what she is trying to communicate (“you feel mad when Ari takes your truck” or “you want me to pay attention to you”).
• is threatened by new or changing situations such as a parent returning to work, a new baby, or parents/caregivers separating, provide special nurturing and be as warm and reassuring as possible, and help him or her talk about feelings even when he or she says things like “I hate my new baby.”95
Safe Toys, Materials, and Equipment
Play is a natural activity for every young child. Play provides many opportunities for children to learn and grow – physically, mentally, and socially. If play is the child’s work, then the toys, materials, and equipment in the environment are what will enable children to do their work well and safely.96
Safe Toys
Protecting children from unsafe toys is the responsibility of everyone. Careful toy selection and proper supervision of children at play are still—and always will be—the best ways to protect children from toy-related injuries.97
It is important that educators consider both safety and durability when choosing toys for children. Toys should be constructed to withstand the uses and abuses of children in the age range for which the toy is appropriate.
The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) has safety regulations for certain toys. Manufacturers must design and manufacture their products to meet these regulations so that hazardous products are not sold (see Table 3.3).
Table 3.3 – Mandatory Toy Safety Regulations98
Age
Regulations
For All Ages
• No shock or thermal hazards in electrical toys
• Amount of lead paint is severely limited
• No toxic materials in or on toys
• All materials for children 12 and under are non-hazardous
• Latex balloons and product with balloons are labeled as choking and suffocation hazard
Under Age 3
• Unbreakable – will withstand use and abuse
• No small parts or pieces which become lodged in throat
• Rattles large enough not to become lodged in the throat and will not separate into small pieces
• No balls with diameters 1.75 inches or less
Ages 3-6
• All toys and games with small parts must be labeled to warn of the choking hazard to young children
For 3 years and older
• Ball and toys with balls smaller than 1.75 inches in diameter and marbles or toys with marbles must be labeled to warn of the choking hazard
Under Age 8
• No electrically operated toys with heating elements
• No sharp points or edges on toys
In addition to the mandatory standards, many toy manufacturers also adhere to the toy industry’s voluntary safety standards (see Table 3.4).99
Table 3.4 – Voluntary Standards for Toy Safety100
Voluntary Standards for Toy Safety101
Puts age and safety labels on toys
Puts warning labels on crib gyms advertising that they should be removed from cribs when infants can push up on hands and knees to prevent strangulation
Makes squeeze toys and teethers large enough not to become lodged in an infant’s throat
Assures that the lid of a toy chest will stay open in any position to which it is raised and not fall unexpectedly on a child
Limits string length on crib and playpen toys to reduce the risk of strangulation
Toys should be chosen with care. Teachers should look for quality design and construction. Safety labels to look for include “Flame retardant/Flame resistant” on fabric products and “Washable/hygienic materials” on stuffed toys and dolls. Watch for the hazards listed in Table 3.5102.
Table 3.5 – Hazards to Avoid in Toys103
Hazards
Description
Sharp Edges
New toys intended for children under eight years of age should be free of sharp glass and metal edges. With use, however, older toys may break, exposing cutting edges.
Small Parts
The law bans small parts in toys intended for children under three. This includes removable small eyes and noses on stuffed toys and dolls and small, removable squeakers on squeeze toys.
Loud Noises
Some noise-making toys can produce sounds at noise levels that can damage hearing.
Cords And Strings
Toys with long strings or cords are dangerous for infants and very young children. The cords can become wrapped around an infant’s neck, causing strangulation. Never hang toys with long strings, cords, loops, or ribbons in cribs or playpens where children can become entangled. Remove crib gyms from the crib when the child can pull up on hands and knees; some children have strangled when they fell across crib gyms stretched across the crib.
Sharp Points
Toys that have been broken may have dangerous points or prongs. Stuffed toys may have wires inside the toy which could cut or stab if exposed. A CPSC regulation prohibits sharp points in new toys and other articles intended for use by children under eight years of age.
Propelled Objects
Projectiles—guided missiles and similar flying toys—can be turned into weapons and can injure eyes in particular. Children should never be permitted to play with hobby or sporting equipment that has sharp points.
Check all toys periodically for breakage and potential hazards. A damaged or dangerous toy should be thrown away or repaired immediately.
Age Appropriate Toys
Teachers must keep in mind the ages of children they are choosing toys for, including their typical interests and skill levels. The manufacturer’s age recommendation is a good starting place to ensure that toys are age-appropriate. Warnings such as “Not recommended for children under 3” should be followed.104 See Table 3.6 for some age-appropriate toys to consider. Please note that toys appear on the list when they become appropriate and are not repeated in later ages.
Table 3.6 – Age Appropriate Toys105
Age
Some Age Appropriate Toys
From 6 weeks to around 4 months these toys become appropriate
• Simple rattles
• Teethers
• Light, sturdy cloth toys and dolls
• Squeeze toys
• Texture and soft squeeze balls
Between 4 to 6 months these toys become appropriate
• Soft blocks
• Keys on rings
• Interlocking plastic rings
• Small hand-held manipulatives
• Toys on suction cups
Between 7 to 12 months these toys become appropriate
• Rubber or rounded wood blocks
• Push toys (simple cars, animals on wheels, etc.)
• Squeeze-squeak toys
• Roly-poly toys
• Activity boxes and cubes
• Containers with objects to empty and fill
• Transparent, chime, flutter, and action balls
• Large rubber or plastic pop beads
• Simple nesting cups
• Stacking rings
• Graspable unbreakable mirror toys
• Simple floating toys
• Paper and large crayons for scribbling
• Cloth, plastic, and board books
These toys become appropriate for 1-year-olds
In addition to above
• Push toys with large handles
• Toys to push on the floor
• Doll carriages and wagons
• Stable ride-on toys with no pedals
• Small stacking blocks
• Unit blocks
• Hollow blocks
• Large plastic bricks to press together
• Simple puzzles (at 1, 2-3 pieces and 1½, 3-5 pieces)
• Pegboards with large pegs
• Hidden object toys
• Simple pop-up toys
• Simple shape sorters
• Pounding and hammering toys
• Simple matching toys
• Simple lock boxes and toys
• Large beads for stringing
• Funnels and colanders
• Small sand toys
• Dolls and simple accessories
• Rhythm instruments operated by shaking and banging
• Simple dress-up clothes and role-play toys
• Child-sized dramatic play equipment
• Picture books
• More detailed toy vehicles
• Trains with simple coupling systems
These toys become appropriate for 2-year-olds
• Pull toys
• Small, light-weight wheelbarrows
• Push toys that look like adult equipment (lawnmower, vacuum, etc.)
• Small tricycles
• 4 to 5 and then 6-12 piece puzzles
• Magnetic boards with shapes, animals, and people
• Fit together toys
• Large balls
• Smelling jars
• Feeling bags
• Lacing cards
• Frames for buttoning, lacking, snapping, and hooking
• Small boats
• Water/sand mills
• More realistic dolls
• Small hand puppets
• All rhythm instruments
• Non-toxic paints
• Clay
• Markers
• Blunt-end scissors
• Chalk and chalkboard
• Costumes and dress-up clothing
• Realistic dramatic play props
• Larger trucks and construction vehicles
• Pop-up books
• Hidden picture books
These toys become appropriate at around 3 years of age
• Fit in frame puzzles up to 20 pieces
• Simple jigsaw puzzles
• Number boards with smaller pegs
• Frames to tie
• Large sandbox tools
• Realistic dolls
• Stuffed toys with accessories
• Music box toys
• Simple sock, mitten, and finger puppets
• Toy telephone, camera, doctor kit
• Cash register and equipment to play store
• Xylophone
• Paintbrushes
• Paste and glue
• Simple block printing
• Simple board, lotto, and card games
These toys become appropriate around 4 years of age
• Mosaic boards
• Felt boards
• Matching toys
• Geometrical concept toys
• Sand molds
• Wood-working tools
• Audio equipment
These toys become appropriate around 5 years of age
• Simple weaving loom
• Simple sewing kit (with a blunt-tipped needle)
• Paper dolls
• Dramatic play equipment that works
• Watercolor paint
• Science materials
• Toy typewriter
Pause to Reflect
Look at these toys that might be given to children. Do you know enough about them to know whether or not they are safe? If not, what would you need to know and do to make sure they are safe? How would you determine what age of children they are safe for?
Nontoxic Art Materials
Federal law requires that all art materials offered for sale to consumers of all ages in the United States undergo a toxicological review of the complete formulation of each product to determine the product’s potential for producing adverse chronic health effects. It also requires that the art materials be properly labeled for acute and chronic hazards, as required by the Labeling of Hazardous Art Materials Act(LHAMA) and the Federal Hazardous Substances Act (FHSA), respectively.
In addition to the LHAMA requirements, art materials – such as paintbrushes and stencils – that are designed or intended primarily for children 12 years of age or younger, are also required, like all children’s products, to comply with the requirements of the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act of 2008 (CPSIA).109 Under the FHSA, most children’s products that contain a hazardous substance are banned, whether the hazard is based on chronic toxicity, acute toxicity, flammability, or other hazard identified in the statute.
Children’s products that meet the FHSA’s definition of an art material include, but are not limited to, crayons, chalk, paint sets, colored pencils, and modeling clay. Non-toxic art and craft supplies intended for children are readily available. Read the labels and only purchase art and craft materials intended for children and that are labeled with the statement “Conforms to ASTM D-4236.”110
One such label will come from the Art and Creative Materials Institute’s (ACMI) certification program. “ACMI-certified product seals…indicate that these products have been evaluated by a qualified toxicologist and are labeled in accordance with federal and state laws… The AP (Approved Product) Seal identifies art materials that are safe and that are certified in a toxicological evaluation by a medical expert to contain no materials in sufficient quantities to be toxic or injurious to humans, including children, or to cause acute or chronic health problems.”111
Pause to Reflect
Look at each of the labels of art supplies. Can you find the label or seal on each? Can you find the warning on one of these materials that you would want to pay attention to if purchasing it to use with young children?
Safety Risks from Art Materials
For certain chemicals and exposure situations, children may be especially susceptible to the risk of injury. For example, since children are smaller than adults, children’s exposures to the same amount of a chemical may result in more severe effects. Further, children’s developing bodies, including their brains, nervous systems, and lungs may make them more susceptible than adults. Differences in metabolism may also affect children’s responses to some chemicals.
Children‘s behaviors and cognitive abilities may also influence their risk. For example, children under the age of 12 are less able to remember and follow complex steps for safety procedures, and are more impulsive, making them more likely to ignore safety precautions. Children have a much higher chance of toxic exposure than adults because they are unaware of the dangers, not as concerned with cleanliness and safety precautions as adults, and are often more curious and attracted to novel smells, sights, or sounds. Children need regular and consistent reminders of safety rules, and there is no substitute for direct supervision.
Guidelines for Selecting Art and Craft Materials
Here are some helpful reminders about choosing art materials for children:
• Note that even products labeled ‘non-toxic’ when used in an unintended manner can have harmful effects.
• Products with cautionary/warning labels should not be used with children under age 12.
• Avoid solvents and solvent-based supplies, which include turpentine, paint thinner, shellac, and some glues, inks, and a few solvent-containing permanent markers.
• Avoid products or processes that produce airborne dust that can be inhaled (including powdered tempera paint).
• Avoid old supplies, unlabeled supplies, and be wary of donated supplies with cautionary/warning labels and that do not contain the statement “Conforms to ASTM D4236.”
• Look for products that are clearly labeled with information about intended uses.
• Give special attention to students with asthma or allergies, which may elevate the students’ sensitivities to fumes, dust, or products that come into contact with the skin.118
• Gather your supplies beforehand so that you can continue to supervise their use without needing to step away.
• Instruct children on safety practices before you begin (such as, modeling how to cut safely with scissors).
• Do activities in well-ventilated areas.
• Use protective equipment (such as smocks).
• Assume that anything you use should be safe enough that it won’t harm children if it gets on their skin or in their mouths and/or eyes.119
Using Technology and Media Safely
Developmentally appropriate use of technology can help young children grow and learn, especially when families and early educators play an active role. Early learners can use technology to explore new worlds, make-believe, and actively engage in fun and challenging activities. They can learn about technology and technology tools and use them to play, solve problems, and role play. But how technology is used is important to protect children’s health and safety.
Technology can be a Tool for Learning
What exactly is developmentally appropriate when it comes to technology for children? In Technology and Interactive Media as Tools in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8, the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and the Fred Rogers Center state that “appropriate experiences with technology and media allow children to control the medium and the outcome of the experience, to explore the functionality of these tools, and pretend how they might be used in real life120.”
Lisa Guernsey, author of Screen Time: How Electronic Media—From Baby Videos to Educational Software—Affects Your Young Child, also provides guidance for families and early educators. For example, instead of applying arbitrary, “one-size-fits-all” time limits, families and early educators should determine when and how to use various technologies based on the Three C’s: the content, the context, and the needs of the individual child. They should ask themselves the following questions:
• Content—How does this help children learn, engage, express, imagine, or explore?
• Context—What kinds of social interactions (such as conversations with families or peers) are happening before, during, and after the use of the technology? Does it complement, and not interrupt, children’s learning experiences and natural play patterns?
• The individual child—What does this child need right now to enhance his or her growth and development? Is this technology an appropriate match with this child’s needs, abilities, interests, and development stage?121
Early childhood educators should keep in mind the developmental levels of children when using technology for early learning. That is, they first should consider what is best for healthy child development and then consider how technology can help early learners achieve learning outcomes. Technology should never be used for technology’s sake. Instead, it should only be used for learning and meeting developmental objectives, which can include being used as a tool during play.
When technology is used in early learning settings, it should be integrated into the learning program and used in rotation with other learning tools such as art materials, writing materials, play materials, and books, and should give early learners an opportunity for self-expression without replacing other classroom learning materials. There are additional considerations for educators when technology is used, such as whether a particular device will displace interactions with teachers or peers or whether a device has features that would distract from learning. Further, early educators should consider the overall use of technology throughout a child’s day and week, and adhere to recommended guidelines from the Let’s Move initiative, in partnership with families. Additionally, if a child has special needs, specific technology may be required to meet that child’s educational and care needs. And dual language learners can use digital resources in multiple languages or translation to support both their home language and English development.
classroom are using an app to create a “story” with photos of their recent field trip.122
For Infants and Toddlers
Research shows that unstructured playtime is particularly important for infants and toddlers because they learn more quickly through interactions with the real world than they do through media use and, at such a young age, they have limited periods of awake time. At this age, children require “hands-on exploration and social interaction with trusted caregivers to develop their cognitive, language, motor, and social-emotional skills.”
For children under the age of 2, technology use in early learning settings is generally discouraged. But if determined appropriate by the IFSP team under Part C of the IDEA, children with disabilities in this age range may also use technology, for example, an assistive technology device to help them communicate with others, access and participate in different learning opportunities, or help them get their needs met.
For Preschoolers
For children ages 2-5, families and early educators need to take into account that technology may be used at home and in early learning settings. New recommendations in the AAP’s 2016 Media and Young Minds Brief suggest that one hour of technology use is appropriate per day, inclusive of time spent at home and in early learning settings and across devices.123 The Department of Health and Human Services supports more limited technology use in early care settings, and more information on their recommendations can be found in Caring for Our Children: National Health and Safety Performance Standards.124 However, time is only one metric that should be considered with technology use for children in this age range. Early educators should also consider the quality of the content, the context of use, and opportunities the technology provides to strengthen or develop relationships.
For School-Aged Children
For children ages 6-8 in school settings, technology should be used as a tool for children to explore and become active creators of content. If children have more than one teacher, those teachers should be aware of how much screen time is being used across subject areas and at home. Students should learn to use technology as an integrated part of a diverse curriculum.
Active versus Passive Engagement
Early childhood educators should understand the differences between passive and active use of technology. Passive use of technology generally occurs when children are consuming content, such as watching a program on television, a computer, or a handheld device without accompanying reflection, imagination, or participation.
Active use occurs when children use technologies such as computers, devices, and apps to engage in meaningful learning or storytelling experiences. Examples include sharing their experiences by documenting them with photos and stories, recording their own music, using video chatting software to communicate with loved ones, or using an app to guide playing a physical game. These types of uses are capable of deeply engaging the child, especially when an adult supports them. While actions such as swiping or pressing on devices may seem to be interactive, if the child does not intentionally learn from the experience, it is not considered to be active use. To be considered active use, the content should enable deep, cognitive processing, and allow intentional, purposeful learning at the child’s developmental level.
Pause to Reflect
Do these children look like they are using technology actively or passively? What do you need to see or know to accurately make this determination?
Early childhood educators also need to think of ways they can reduce the sedentary nature of most technology use. Technology can encourage and complement physical activity, such as doing yoga with a video or learning about the plants outdoors with a nature app.
The Digital Divide
Research points to a widening digital use divide, which occurs when some children have the opportunity to use technology actively while others are asked primarily to use it passively. The research showed that children from families with lower incomes are more likely to complete passive tasks in learning settings while their more affluent peers are more likely to use technology to complete active tasks.
For low-income children who may not have access to devices or the internet at home, early childhood settings provide opportunities to learn how to use these tools more actively. For example, research shows that preschool-aged children from low-income families in an urban Head Start center who received daily access to computers and were supported by an adult mentor displayed more positive attitudes toward learning, improved self-esteem and self-confidence, and increased kindergarten readiness skills than children who had computer access but did not have support from a mentor.
Co-Viewing of Technology
Most research on children’s media usage shows that children learn more from content when parents/caregivers or early educators watch and interact with children, encouraging them to make real-world connections to what they are viewing both while they are viewing and afterward.
is the best way to make technology use effective. 126
There are many ways that adult involvement can make learning more effective for young children using technology. Adult guidance that can increase active use of more passive technology includes, but are not limited to, the following:
• Prior to the child viewing content, an adult can talk to the child about the content and suggest certain elements to watch for or pay particular attention to;
• An adult can view the content with the child and interact with the child in the moment;
• After a child views the content, an adult can engage the child in an activity that extends learning such as singing a song they learned while viewing the content or connecting the content to the world.
Safety Risks of Technology
In addition to the health risks of sedentary activity (in place of active play), there are concerns about privacy and security with any technology. The rights of children under 13 and technology in school are governed by federal laws, but looking at privacy policies is important.
Software and apps may also include advertising and in-app purchasing (generally inappropriate for young children). So early childhood educators should choose software and apps that avoid advertising and in-app purchases.
What is Digital Citizenship?
In the Ed Tech Developer’s Guide, released by the Office of Educational Technology in April 2015, digital citizenship is defined as “a set of norms and practices regarding appropriate and responsible technology use… and requires a whole-community approach to thinking critically, behaving safely, and participating responsibly online.”128
As early learners reach an appropriate age to use technology more independently, they must be taught about cyber safety, including the need to protect and not share personal information on the internet, the goals and influence of advertisements, and the need for caution when clicking on links. These skills are particularly important for older children who may be using a parent’s device unsupervised. Early childhood educators and administrators should ensure that the proper filters and firewalls are in place so children cannot access materials that are not approved for a school setting.129
Not all technology is appropriate for young children and not every technology-based experience is good for young children’s development. To ensure that technology has a positive impact, adults who use technology with children should continually update their knowledge and equip themselves to make sophisticated decisions on how to best leverage these technology tools to enhance learning and interpersonal relationships for young children.
Access to technology for children is necessary in the 21st century but not sufficient. To have beneficial effects, it must be accompanied by strong adult support.130
Preventing Injuries Indoors
Some injuries that early childhood educators should be aware of and intentionally act to prevent in the last chapter were presented in the previous chapter and earlier in this chapter during the discussion about safe toys and art materials. Here is some further information about injuries that are more likely to happen indoors.
Choking
Choking occurs when an object blocks the airway, preventing breathing.131 Infants have the highest rates of choking (140 per 100,000). That risk decreases as they get older and their airway increases in size, with 90% of fatal choking happening in children less than 4 years of age.132
Reducing the Risks of Choking
The main way to prevent choking is to recognize that objects that are 1½ inches or less in diameter are higher risk. 133 Foods are the most common cause of choking. Having children sit during snacks and meals at an unhurried pace, allowing time for children to properly chew their food helps prevent choking on food. Food is safest when cut into small pieces or served in small amounts. See Table 3.7 for foods that commonly cause choking.
Table 3.7 – Common Choking Hazards134
Foods
Other Items
• Cubed cheese
• Fruits (especially when the skin is left on)
• Peanut butter
• Popcorn
• Pretzels
• Raisins
• Vegetables (especially when raw)
• Ice cubes
• Candy
• Balloons
• Batteries
• Coins
• Bottle caps
• Small balls
• Office supplies
Toys, and other items that children may play with, are another common source of choking hazards. Ensuring children only have access to age-appropriate toys is an important step. See Table 3.7 for items that should be kept out of reach of young children.
Teachers can use a small parts tester, a commercial product commonly known as choke tube, to test whether or not an object is a choking hazard. Recognizing and responding to choking will be addressed in Chapter 5.135
Poisoning
There are many hazards that put children at risk for accidental poisoning, both indoors and outdoors. Poisoning can occur at any time a harmful substance is intentionally or unintentionally ingested. Poisons come in many forms including plants, cleaning supplies, spoiled food, and medications. Children, who are naturally curious and like to explore, are in particular at risk for poisoning.
Guidelines to Prevent Poisoning
• Keep all cleaning supplies and chemicals locked.
• All medications should be kept in a locked storage area, out of reach.
• Check medications periodically for expiration dates and properly dispose of expired medications. Some medications become toxic when they are past their expiration date.
• Do not tell children that medication is “candy” as this makes it look more attractive to them.
• Ensure all medications and chemicals are properly labeled. Childproof caps should be on medicine bottles.
• Use safe food practices. (see Chapter 15)
• Never use cans that have bulges or deep dents in them.
• Keep poisonous plants out of reach of children and pets. (see Table 3.8)
• Keep the number for Poison Control near a telephone.138
Poison Control
1-800-222-1222
Table 3.8 Poisonous Plants139
Common Name
Botanical Name
Azalea, rhododendron
Rhododendron
Caladium
Caladium
Castor bean
Ricinis communis
Daffodil
Narcissus
Deadly nightshade
Atropa belladonna
Dumbcane
Dieffenbachia
Elephant Ear
Colocasia esculenta
Foxglove
Digitalis purpurea
Fruit pits and seeds
contain cyanogenic glycosides
Holly
Ilex
Iris
Iris
Jerusalem cherry
Solanum pseudocapsicum
Jimson weed
Datura stramonium
Lantana
Lantana camara
Lily-of-the-valley
Convalleria majalis
Mayapple
Podophyllum peltatum
Mistletoe
Viscum album
Morning glory
Ipomoea
Mountain laurel
Kalmia iatifolia
Nightshade
Salanum spp.
Oleander
Nerium oleander
Peace lily
Spathiphyllum
Philodendron
Philodendron
Pokeweed
Phytolacca americana
Pothos
Epipremnum aureum
Yew
Taxus
Burns
Every day, over 300 children ages 0 to 19 are treated in emergency rooms for burn-related injuries and two children die as a result of being burned.
Younger children are more likely to sustain injuries from scald burns that are caused by hot liquids or steam, while older children are more likely to sustain injuries from flame burns that are caused by direct contact with fire. 140
Causes of Burns
Burns can be caused by dry or wet heat, chemicals, or electricity (both indoors and outdoors).
• Burns from dry heat can occur from fire, irons, hairdryers, curling irons, and stoves (American Institute for Preventive Medicine, 2012; Leahy, Fuzy & Grafe, 2013).
• Burns from wet or moist heat occur from hot liquids, such as hot water or steam (American Institute for Preventive Medicine; Leahy, Fuzy & Grafe). These types of burns are called scalds. Scalds can occur within seconds and cause serious injury.
• Chemical burns occur from chemical sources and can also cause serious burns when exposed to skin, or if swallowed, whether intentionally or unintentionally.
• Electrical burns can cause very serious injury as they can burn both the outside and inside of the person’s body, causing injury that cannot be seen, and which can be life-threatening.
• Radiation burns can also occur from sources of radiation such as sunlight (American Institute for Preventive Medicine).141
Types of Burns
Burns are divided into first, second, and third degree burns.
First degree burns affect only the outer layer of the skin (epidermis). These types of burns are the least serious as they are only on the surface of the skin. First degree burns usually appear red, dry, and slightly swollen (MedlinePlus, 2014). Blisters do not occur with this type of burn. They should heal within a couple of days (American Institute for Preventive Medicine, 2012). A first degree burn is pictured in the bottom left of Figure 3.20.
Second degree burns affect the top layer of the skin and the second layer of skin underneath (dermis). These are more serious than first degree burns. The skin may appear very swollen, red, moist, (MedlinePlus, 2014) and may have blisters or look watery and weepy (American Institute for Preventive Medicine, 2012). A second degree burn is pictured in the bottom middle of Figure 3.20.
Third degree burns are the most serious burn. A third degree burn affects all layers of the skin and may affect the organs below the surface of the skin. The skin may appear white or black and charred (MedlinePlus, 2014). The person may deny pain because the nerve endings in their skin have been burned away (American Institute for Preventive Medicine, 2012). Third degree burns require immediate medical treatment. If teachers suspect a child has a third degree burn, they should immediately call 911. A third degree burn is pictured in the bottom right of Figure 3.20.142
Chemical burns can occur anytime a liquid or powder chemical comes into contact with skin or mucous membranes that line the eyes, nose, or throat. Chemical burns may also occur if a chemical is swallowed. These burns can cause serious injury and emergency services should be contacted. If a person receives a chemical burn, the chemical should be removed from the skin by using a gloved hand to brush it off and then wash the area with plenty of cool water. Electrical burns can occur if a person has been using an electrical appliance and is exposed to water or if an electrical short occurs while using the electrical appliance. Using faulty or frayed cords on electrical appliances can result in electrical burns. Electrical burns are a serious injury. Emergency medical services (EMS) should be immediately activated.
Never use oils such as butter or vegetable oil on any type of burn as this can cause further injury. For first or second degree burns flush the area with plenty of cool (not ice cold) water for about 15 minutes or until the pain decreases and cover with a clean, dry bandage. Using ice or ice-cold water can cause frostbite (American Institute for Preventive Medicine, 2012). For major burns remove any clothing that is not stuck to the skin, cover the burned area with a dry, clean cloth, and seek emergency assistance. 144
Guidelines to Prevent Burns
• Install and regularly test smoke alarms.
• Practice fire drills. 145
• Train staff to use fire extinguishers.
• Teach children to stop, drop, and roll.146
• Never allow children to use electrical appliances unsupervised.
• Never use electrical appliances near water sources.
• Never use electrical appliances in which the cord appears to be damaged or frayed.
• Never pull a plug from the cord. Always remove a cord from an outlet by holding the base of the plug.
• Cover electrical outlets with childproof plugs. Never allow children to put anything inside an electrical outlet.
• Ensure stoves and other appliances are turned off when finished with them.
• Turn pot handles inward so that a person cannot accidentally bump a handle and spill hot liquids.
• Do not use space heaters and other personal heaters.
• Check to be sure the hot water heater is not set too high. To avoid scalds from hot tap water, hot water heaters should be set to 120 degrees or less (MedlinePlus, 2014).
• Keep chemicals, cleaning solutions, and matches and lighters securely locked and out of reach of children.147
Safe Sleeping
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) is identified when the death of a healthy infant occurs suddenly and unexpectedly, and medical and forensic investigation findings (including an autopsy) are inconclusive. SIDS is the leading cause of death in infants 1 to 12 months old, and approximately 1,500 infants died of SIDS in 2013 (CDC, 2015). Because SIDS is diagnosed when no other cause of death can be determined, possible causes of SIDS are regularly researched. One leading hypothesis suggests that infants who die from SIDS have abnormalities in the area of the brainstem responsible for regulating breathing (Weekes-Shackelford & Shackelford, 2005).148
This is a very important topic for early childhood educators as one study found that while data suggests that only 7% of incidents of SIDS should occur while children are in child care, 20.4% actually did.149
Risk Factors for SIDS
Babies are at higher risk for SIDS if they:
• Sleep on their stomachs
• Sleep on soft surfaces, such as an adult mattress, couch, or chair or under soft coverings
• Sleep on or under soft or loose bedding
• Get too hot during sleep
• Are exposed to cigarette smoke in the womb or in their environment, such as at home, in the car, in the bedroom, or other areas
• Sleep in an adult bed with parents/caregivers, other children, or pets; this situation is especially dangerous if:
• The adult smokes, has recently had alcohol, or is tired.
• The baby is covered by a blanket or quilt.
• The baby sleeps with more than one bed-sharer.
• The baby is younger than 11 to 14 weeks of age.
Important Facts About SIDS
• SIDS happens in families of all social, economic and ethnic groups.
• Most SIDS deaths occur between one and four months of age.
• SIDS occurs in boys more than girls.
• The death is sudden and unexpected, often occurring during sleep. In most cases, the baby seems healthy.
• Although it is not known exactly what causes SIDS, researchers know that it is not caused by suffocation, choking, spitting up, vomiting, or immunizations.
• SIDS is not contagious.151
Reducing the Risks
Although the sudden and unexpected death of an infant cannot be predicted or prevented, research shows that certain infant care practices can help reduce the risk of a baby dying suddenly and unexpectedly. Early childhood educators can help lower the risk of SUID for infants less than one year of age by following these risk reduction guidelines.
Sleeping Position
The chance of an infant dying suddenly and unexpectedly in childcare is higher when a baby first starts the transition from home to care. Research shows if a baby has been placed on his/her back by the families, and the childcare provider places the baby to sleep on his/her stomach, there is a higher risk of death in the first weeks of child care. One of the most important things you can do to reduce the risk of sudden unexpected death is to place babies to sleep on their backs.
Healthy babies do not choke when placed to sleep on their backs. By reflex, babies swallow or cough up fluids to keep the airway clear. Since the windpipe (trachea) is positioned on top of the esophagus, fluids are not likely to enter the airway. (See Figure 3.21)
Babies who are able to roll back and forth between their back and tummy should be placed on their backs for sleep and allowed to assume their sleep position of choice. When infants fall asleep while playing on their tummies, move the baby to a crib onto his/her back to continue sleeping.
Cribs, Sleep Surface and Bedding
Infants should sleep in a crib, bassinet, portable crib or play yard that conforms to the safety standards of the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC). The mattress should be firm, fit tightly, and be covered with a tight fitted sheet. Babies should not sleep on adult beds, waterbeds, couches, beanbag chairs or other soft surfaces. Do not use fluffy blankets or comforters under the baby, or put the baby to sleep on a sheepskin, pillow or other soft materials. Keep stuffed toys, bumper pads, loose bedding and other toys and soft objects out of the crib.
Temperature
Babies should be kept warm, not hot. Babies should be dressed with only one additional layer than you are wearing for warmth. In areas where babies sleep, keep the temperature so that it feels comfortable to you. If needed, infants can be dressed in blanket sleepers for warmth. This ensures that the baby’s head will be uncovered during sleep.
Smoke Free
No one should smoke around children. California Child Care Licensing Regulations prohibit smoking in childcare centers. Smoke in the infants’ environment is a major risk factor for SIDS.
Pacifiers
If the family provides a pacifier, it should be offered to the infant. If a pacifier is used, it should never be attached to a string. Infants should not be forced to take a pacifier and if it falls out during sleep it doesn’t need to be given back to the infant.
Breastfeeding
Breastfeeding has many health benefits for mother and baby, including a reduced risk of SIDS. Childcare programs should be breastfeeding friendly. 153
Other Things Caregivers and Teachers Can Do To Reduce the Risks
Families should be asked about their infant’s usual sleep position. Teachers should discuss the recommended back sleeping position with families and share the program’s policy is to place infants on their back to sleep. Policies should be developed to address sleep position. If a family insists their baby sleep on the side or stomach, they should be referred to their health care provider for further information. Programs should request that a medical care professional provide a signed statement for infants who have a medical reason for not being placed to sleep on their backs. Teachers can attend education programs to learn more about sudden unexpected infant deaths. Training and education for childcare providers may be available through local public health Resource and Referral agency or Public Health Department at no cost. Programs should be aware of resources for additional support and make them available to families as appropriate. It is vital to stay up‐to‐date with the latest recommendations for safe infant sleep. For education and informational materials, contact the California SIDS Program: 800‐369‐SIDS (7437).154
Indoor Falls
While most falls occur outdoors, and this topic is addressed in Chapter 4, they can also happen indoors. Teachers (and adults at home) can prevent falls indoors by
• Installing stops on windows that prevent them from being opened more than four inches or install window guards on lower parts of windows. Removing furniture from near windows. Screens should not be relied on to prevent a fall.
• Installing safety gates at the top and bottom of staircases. Installing lower rails on stairs that children can reach and use. Making sure the surface of the stairs stays clear.
• Using safety straps and harnesses on baby equipment and furniture. Children should not be left unattended in high chairs or on changing tables.
• Baby walkers should not be used (licensing prohibits these).
• Teaching children to walk where surfaces may be slick. Preventing these surfaces as much as possible, such as wiping up spills.155
Indoor Water Safety
Small children are top-heavy; they tend to fall forward and headfirst when they lose their balance. They do not have enough muscle development in their upper body to pull themselves up out of a bucket, toilet or bathtub, or for that matter, any body of water. Even a bucket containing only a few inches of water can be dangerous for a small child.
It’s important that early childhood educators follow the safety practices outlined in Chapter 4 for water safety both indoors and outdoors, keep children under active supervision, and be very aware of containers of water.156
Pause to Reflect
What are your top five tips for protecting children from safety hazards indoors? These can relate to toy safety, safe art materials, preventing poisoning, preventing choking, preventing burns, safe sleep, protecting from indoor falls, water safety, or any other hazard/area of safety.
Summary
Teachers need to create safe indoor environments in which children engage, explore, and interact. By recognizing that behavior is communication, they can help children use safe behaviors to get their needs met. Teachers should choose age-appropriate toys and materials that are well constructed, hazard-free, and nontoxic. With adult support, children can navigate media and technology safely. Teachers must work to prevent injuries that may occur indoors, such as choking, poisoning, burns, drowning, and falls. And teachers that care for infants must follow practices to reduce the risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Health_Safety_and_Nutrition_(Paris)/Section_II%3A_Safety/03%3A_Creating_Safe_Indoor_Environments.txt |
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Illustrate why outdoor play is essential to health and well-being.
• Describe elements of a safe outdoor play space.
• Recognize the importance of impact absorbing surfacing under equipment.
• Explain what use zones are.
• List age appropriate outdoor play equipment for each age group.
• Identify hazards on outdoor play equipment
• Develop a safety checklist to monitor the safety of the outdoor space.
• Outline ways to protect children from the weather, the sun, insects, drowning, and poisoning.
• Discuss how to keep children safe as pedestrians, in motor vehicles, and while on field trips.
Licensing Regulations
Title 22 Regulations that relate to this chapter include:
101238 BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS
• Licensees shall ensure the inaccessibility of pools and all bodies of water.
101238.2 OUTDOOR ACTIVITY SPACE
• There shall be at least 75 square feet per child of outdoor activity space. The outdoor space shall provide a shaded rest area and permit children to reach the activity space safely.
• The surface of the activity space shall be in a safe condition and free of hazards.
• The areas around and under climbing equipment, swings, slides and similar equipment shall be cushioned with material that absorbs falls.
• Sandboxes shall be inspected daily and kept free of foreign materials.
• The playground shall be enclosed by a fence at least four feet high.
• Hazardous equipment such as a fuse box shall be inaccessible.
• (from 101538.2 and 101438.2) Spaces for infants and spaces for school-age children should be physically separated from space provided for other children
101239 FIXTURES, FURNITURE, EQUIPMENT, AND SUPPLIES
• All play equipment and materials used by children must be age-appropriate.
• Furniture and equipment must be maintained in good condition.
• Permanent playground equipment must be securely anchored to the ground
101239.2 DRINKING WATER
• Drinking water must be readily available both indoors and outdoors.
• Children must be free to drink as they wish.
101416.8 STAFFING FOR INFANT WATER ACTIVITIES
• A ratio of one adult to two infants shall be required during activities near a swimming pool or any body of water.
101225 TRANSPORTATION
• Only drivers licensed for the type of vehicle operated shall be permitted to transport children.
• Motor vehicles used to transport children shall be maintained in safe operating condition.
• All vehicle occupants shall be secured in an appropriate restraint system. Children shall not be left in parked vehicles.
Introduction
There are countless benefits to outdoor play for children. Research shows that children who play outside regularly have healthier body weight, improved vision, and immune function, reduced stress, better sleep, improved motor skills. There are substantial immediate and long-term health consequences for children who aren't able to play outside or get enough physical activity such as increased obesity and chronic diseases. The research also shows us that kids who play outdoors have increased school readiness because outdoor play contributes to better social skills such as cooperation, increased attention span, improved school attendance, and improved brain development and cognition. Physical activity plays a critical role in supporting health and learning.
Being aware of the benefits of outdoor learning as they relate to overall health and school readiness is important so that teachers remember that the outdoor environment is an essential extension of the indoor environment. All the learning that takes place indoors can also take place outdoors. Anything programs do indoors can have an outdoor component.
Consider for just a moment how a program can increase the benefits of outdoor play while also minimizing injury. Reducing risk does not mean limiting play equipment or enforcing rules that restrict children's ability to move and explore their environment. An ideal playground is one that encourages children to challenge themselves while also preventing little risk for injury. In fact, studies show that playgrounds that are high challenge but low risk are the very best at promoting the goals of outdoor learning. Children get more physical activity, develop better physical, cognitive, social skills and are happier and more resilient when their outdoor play environment is challenging and safe.157
Playground Safety
When designing an outdoor space for children, it is critical to reduce the risk of injury while increasing the challenge. The first step is knowing what aspects of the actual learning environment are most likely to cause injuries.
Falls from, into, or on equipment are the most common cause of injury. Falls are most likely to occur on equipment that is not appropriate for the age and development of the children. And injuries are most likely to occur when the surface on which a child falls is not sufficiently shock-absorbing. The equipment pieces that are associated with the most injuries include climbers, such as monkey bars or overhead ladders, swings, and slides. About 85% of all playground injuries occur on these three pieces of equipment. And the most common cause of death on playgrounds is strangulation, that’s an injury that chokes the child.
It's important to understand that injuries are not accidents. Most injuries are predictable and preventable. Programs can take steps to prevent serious injuries by
• choosing developmentally-appropriate play equipment to ensure children do not fall from a high level and the challenges on the playground are matched with their ability.
• installing proper surfacing to minimize the severity of an injury if a child does fall.
• providing intentional and active supervision by maintaining close proximity to children, especially in places that are high risk for injury from a fall such as the slide or monkey bars).
• encouraging safe behaviors by introducing safety habits to children.
Reinforcing these safe behaviors in an early care and education program provides lifelong lessons about safety and injury prevention. As consultants, you can work with your program and teachers to predict and prevent many injuries and allow children to play.
Designing for Safety
Safe outdoor play space starts with selecting and correctly installing safe and age and developmentally-appropriate structures. The play space design should not be a hazard and should separate active play areas such as swings and slides from quieter activities such as the sandbox, nature-based learning, and dramatic play areas. Only equipment that is manufactured for public playgrounds or child care facilities should be used. So, home playground equipment like Little Tykes brand or plastic sets that home use at local stores are not appropriate.
To assess whether equipment is safe, you should look for these labels. Equipment must meet Consumer Product Safety Commission or CPSC recommendations and the American Society for Testing and Materials, or ASTM, standards. These are two organizations that set standards for design and manufacturing that ensure the equipment is safe. These logos can give you some peace of mind and knowing the equipment has been developed with the highest safety standards. And of course, it also needs to be installed according to the manufacturer's instructions and properly maintained.
Once playgrounds are installed, they should be inspected at least once each year by an inspector or local regulatory agency and whenever changes are made to the equipment or the intended users change. The inspection will identify hazards, check for proper equipment, installation, and maintenance, and provide a report that identifies and prioritize corrective actions to take to address any concerns. Together with a program, the consultant can review, discuss, and make a plan to address the inspector's concerns that are immediate right now as well as how to plan to prevent any issues in the future. 159
Importance of Impact Absorbing Surfaces
The playground surface is the material that lies under and around playground equipment. The surface material under the equipment should be able to cushion a child's fall. Injuries from falls occur not because children fall, but because the surface on which they fall isn't able to adequately absorb the impact of their fall. Proper surfacing is prevention of predictable injuries.
There isn't a single best surface to use on playgrounds. The best surface is the one that:
• the program can afford
• the program is able to appropriately maintain
• meets the needs of the children based on their age
• is workable given the climate where the program is located
• consistently meets the standard for depth that is based on the height of the equipment on the playground.
Surfaces such as asphalt, cement, dirt, and grass, however, are not acceptable surfaces. Grass is not an impact-absorbing surface. If a child falls onto grass, they are far more likely to get hurt than they are if they fall onto an appropriate impact absorbing surface.
There are two types of appropriate, impact-absorbing playground surfaces, unitary and loose-fill. Let’s look at each.
Unitary material such as tiles, mats, or a rubber surface is engineered to be sufficiently shock-absorbing.160 There are many options. If a program wants to use a unitary surface, it’s important that one is chosen for the appropriate height of equipment and that the manufacturer’s instructions are followed closely (and some require professional installation).161 Table 4.1 shows some examples of unitary surfacing materials.
Table 4.1 - Examples of Unitary Surfacing Materials
Examples of Unitary Surfacing Materials
Tiles162
Poured solid surface163
Loose fill surfaces, such as sand, pea gravel, shredded rubber, or engineered wood fiber and mulch, when installed correctly, will also safely cushion a child's fall.164 Table 4.2 shows examples of each of these and Table 4.3 details the depth and protection provided by these materials.
Table 4.2 – Loose-Fill Surfacing Materials
Loose-Fill Surfacing Materials
Engineered wood fiber165
Rubber mulch166
Sand167
Pea gravel168
Table 4.3 – Minimum Compressed Loose-Fill Surfacing Depths169
Depth of surfacing
Loose-Fill Material
Protects up to Fall Height
6 inches
Shredded/recycled rubber
10 feet
9 inches
Sand
4 feet
9 inches
Pea Gravel
5 feet
9 inches
Wood mulch
7 feet
9 inches
Wood chips
10 feet
Programs need to consider how data can help inform a decision about which surfacing is best for a particular playground. It’s important to think about who will be using the space and for what.
• Some surfaces like pea gravel are not an appropriate choice for infants and toddlers who might put it in their mouths since it can be a choking hazard.
• Few of the loose fill materials are accessible for wheelchair users without significant accommodation, such as a special wheelchair. Engineered wood fibers provide a little bit better access, but solid or unitary materials are best if you have children on the playground with mobility impairments.
• Will the staff be able to maintain the playground surface? All loose fill surfacing required daily raking to maintain depth.
• Consider how tall the equipment is because sand and pea gravel can't be used at fall heights that are greater than four to five feet.
• The climate is also an important consideration. Factor in temperature, wind conditions, and precipitation, because they all impact the surface materials you choose.
• Sand can harden when frozen.
• Artificial surfaces can get really hot, in fact, hot enough to cause burns when they're exposed to direct sunlight.
• Loose fill material, with the exception of rubber mulch, compress about 25 percent over time due to use and weathering.
The protective surfacing has to extend for the full use zone, which is the area under and around equipment where children might fall as a playground surface can't protect a child who falls onto a hard object such as a tricycle instead of onto the protective surface.170
Pause to Reflect
Think of a local playground or playgrounds you played on as a child? What type of surface was underneath the equipment? Was it well maintained? Did it protect children from injuries due to falls? Did the materials used caused any other hazards (such as overflowing sand that caused slipping or a surface that got too hot to safely touch skin)?
Use Zones
The use zone is the space that encompasses the activity/piece of equipment and the area around that activity/equipment that will keep children from colliding and provides enough separation between different pieces of equipment and types of play. It is also sometimes referred to as a fall zone. The use zone should be free of movable hazards like trikes and toys, rocks, and groups of children who might cluster and fixed hazards such benches.
Use zones vary depending on the size and the type of equipment. For most stationary equipment on the playground, the use zone should extend six feet in all directions (see Figure 4.3).171 Equipment that is taller than 30 inches should be at least nine feet from other pieces of equipment. And the use zone for swings should extend from the front and rear of the swings twice the height of the swing (see Figure 4.4). 172
Age Appropriateness
Age-appropriate equipment provides children with opportunities to safely practice gross motor skills without putting them at risk for unnecessary injury. This takes us back to the notion of creating playgrounds that are high challenge but low risk.
Children are less likely to fall when equipment is only used with the age group for which it is designed. Equipment that is made according to the ASPM or CPSC standards will clearly be marked with the age group for which it is intended. And that's usually either 6 to 23 months of age, 2 to 5 years of age, and 5 to 12 years of age. So, any equipment that is marked for 5 to 12 years of age is not acceptable on a preschool playground.175
Table 4.4 – Age-Appropriate Equipment176
Age
Age Appropriate Equipment
6 to 23 months
• equipment under 32 inches high
• ramps
• single-file stepladders
• spring rockers
• slides
• bucket swings
2 to 5 years
• climbers up to 60 inches in height
• rung ladders
• belt and tire swings
• balance beams
5 to 12 years
• arch climbers
• flexible climbers
• overhead rings and ladders
• poles
Not appropriate for any age
• trampolines
• swinging gates
• climbing ropes that are not secured at both ends
• animal figure swings
• multiple occupancy swings
• rope swings
• trapeze bars
Hazards on Playgrounds
Gaps in equipment such as the space between the platform and the top of the slide or hooks can entangle clothing or entrap body parts, causing trips, falls, or strangulation. Head entrapment into gaps that are large enough for a child's body to pass through (bigger than 3.5 inches) but too small for a child's head to pass through (smaller than 9 inches) can injure a child's neck or choke a child.
Equipment that spins and moves such as steering wheels or springs on rockers can pinch, cut, or crush fingers or other body parts. So, you want to make sure that any equipment that spins or moves is not accessible for little fingers. Broken parts or improperly installed equipment can cause injuries if the equipment tips over, breaks during use, or has sharp or loose parts that can cut or entrap a child. And railings to prevent falls can break if bolts are loose. See Table 4.5 for examples of dangers to watch for on playgrounds.
Table 4.5 – Playground Hazards177
Playground Hazards178
Example of a hazardous projection that increases in diameter from plane of initial surface and forms an entanglement hazard and may also be an impalement hazard.
Example of a hazardous projection that extends more than 2 threads beyond the nut and forms an impalement/laceration hazard and may also be an entanglement hazard.
If the distance between the platform and bottom of the railing is between 3.5 and 9 inches, it is an entrapment hazard.
If the distance between an opening (such as this railing) is between 3.5 and 9 inches, it is an entrapment hazard.
Entrapment hazard: when the perimeter of the net openings is between 17 inches and 28 inches
Strings on children’s clothing can create entanglement hazards and hood drawstrings can create strangulation hazards.
Pause to Reflect
Think of that playground again. Did it offer adequate use zones around the different pieces of equipment? Was the equipment used by the appropriate age groups (or did older children play on equipment designed for young children or vice versa)? How well did it protect children from the hazards mentioned (trips and falls, entrapment, impalement, entanglement, or strangulation)?
Riding Toys
All children older than age 1 should wear properly fitted and approved helmets when they are riding toys with wheels or using any wheeled equipment. Helmets should be removed as soon as children stop riding the wheeled toys or using the equipment. Approved helmets should meet the standards of the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC)179 and should pass the three-point check for a proper fit as shown in Table 4.6.
Table 4.6 – Three Point Check for Proper Helmet Fit
Three Point Check for Proper Helmet Fit
1. Helmet is level on the head, 1 to 2 finger-widths about eyebrows.
2. Straps are even and create a “Y” under each ear with straps laying flat against the head.
3. Chinstrap is buckled loose enough to fit one finger between the buckle and chin, but tight enough the opening the mouth should pull the helmet downward.
“Helmets provide the best protection against head and brain injury, whether [the] child is riding a bike, scooter or skateboard, or using skates. However, a helmet will only protect when it fits well.”181
Keeping Children Safe by Monitoring
Early care and education programs need to develop a routine inspection process to identify and prevent hazards. Outdoor play spaces are subject to a lot of wear and tear from use, sometimes misuse, from weather conditions. So, even if a program has correctly installed safe and age and developmentally-appropriate equipment, it still requires regular inspections and maintenance.
The outdoor space, including the playground, should be inspected using checklists such as the ones in Appendix E. It should be inspected upon initial installment.
It should also be inspected on a daily basis to identify hazards that may have appeared suddenly. It will also alert staff to any pieces of equipment that may have broken or become worn since last being used. Some general items to include in a daily inspection may include ensuring that
• any broken equipment is removed from children’s access or repaired
• the playground is free from
• glass, needles, cigarette butts, animal feces, and trash
• standing water
• trip hazards
• the use zones are free from obstacles that may have been moved into them, such as tricycles or movable benches
• displaced loose fill surfacing is raked
• platforms and pads are free of sand and surfacing debris and any tripping hazards
• the area is scanned for
• insects or insect nests
• broken equipment
• weather-related hazards such as hot surface or equipment, ice, or other damage from weather
A monthly inspection would include:
• checking for loose or missing hardware, checking
• inspecting equipment for broken parts, splinters, rust, or sharp edges,
• replenishing loose fill surfacing if needed, and
• examining vegetation for hazardous or poisonous plants.
There has to be a system in place to conduct inspections and then respond in a timely manner when something is identified. It's too common for someone to notice a hazard but to forget to report it or for somebody to report a hazard but then people forget to follow through to correct it. Many checklists include space for writing down a corrective action plan. Once the hazard is identified the person completing the form will write down what steps should be taken to correct the problem, including identifying who will fix it, what needs to be done, and when it will be done. The process should also include a system to check that the problem was fixed in a timely manner.
A record of any injury reported to have occurred on the playground should also trigger an additional inspection of that piece of equipment (this was previously discussed in Chapter 2). This will help identify potential hazards or dangerous design features that should be corrected.
Active Supervision
The most important tool for reducing playground injuries is active supervision (which is also addressed in Chapter 2). Early childhood educator should be actively supervising children at all times. Active supervision is a specific child supervision technique that requires focused attention and intentional observation of children at all times. Active supervision includes six basic strategies.
1. Plan and set up the environment to ensure clear sightlines and easy access to the children and the equipment at all times while they're out on the playground.
2. Teachers are positioned among the children in their care, changing positions as needed so that they can keep an eye on the children.
3. They are communicating about which children they're observing and any issues that divert their attention so that they know other teachers are taking up the slack and watching the other children.
4. Teachers are watching, counting, and listening to children at all times
5. They also use their knowledge of each child's development and abilities to anticipate what a child might do or to anticipate areas on the playground where a child might need some additional support.
6. And if needed, they get involved and they redirect children when necessary or they provide that additional support if needed.183
Other Safety Considerations for the Outdoors
In addition to designing and maintaining a safe playground for children, you also need to monitor environmental factors such as weather, the sun, insects, animals, poisonous plants or materials, and water. 184
Sun Safety
Children need protection from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays whenever they’re outdoors. Shade and sunscreen protect children from sun exposure and can help to reduce the risk of some skin cancers.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), even a few major sunburns can increase the risk of skin cancer later in life. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends the following guidelines regarding sun safety and the selection and application of sunscreen:
• If possible, use play areas that provide some shade to help children stay cool.
• Protect infants under 6 months from direct sunlight by keeping them in a shady spot under a tree, umbrella, or stroller canopy.
• Limit children’s sun exposure between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. when UV rays are the strongest.
• Encourage families to dress children in cool clothing such as lightweight cotton pants and long-sleeved shirts. A hat will protect their face, ears, and the back of their neck.
• Obtain written permission from children’s parents/ guardians to use a sunscreen with a SPF (sun protection factor) of at least 15. That is “broad-spectrum” sunscreen to screen out both UVB and UVA rays.
• Apply sunscreen at least 30 minutes before going outdoors so it is absorbed into the skin. It will need to be reapplied every two hours if children are outside for more than an hour, and more frequently if they are playing in water.
• Each child should have their own labeled bottle of sunscreen.
• For children older than 6 months, apply sunscreen to all exposed areas, including children’s ears if they are wearing a cap instead of a hat.
• For children younger than 6 months, use sunscreen on small areas of the body, such as the face and the backs of the hands if protective clothing and shade are not available.
from the sun and the heat when the temperature is high.
Hydration
Toddlers and preschool children cannot regulate their body temperatures well and need additional water when the weather is hot. Provide regularly scheduled water breaks to encourage all children to drink during active play, even if they don’t feel thirsty. Fluoridated water (bottled or from the faucet) can reduce the risk of early childhood caries, and is the best drink choice for young children in between meals. Each child should be provided their own cup or bottle. Staff may offer additional breast milk or formula to infants as water is not recommended, especially for infants younger than six months of age.185
Weather
Teachers should be aware of local weather conditions and monitor the temperature, humidity, and air quality. To stay up to date on current conditions:
• Check the Air Quality Index and limit play outdoors when there is poor air quality.
• Check the forecast for the UV Index to limit exposure to the sun on days when the Index is high.
• Check current and forecasted weather to be aware of the temperature and other weather conditions that may make the outdoors hazardous to children's health.
The charts in Figure 4.8 are from the Iowa Department of Public Health’s Child Care Weather Watch that will help you protect children from extreme temperatures.
Protecting Children from Heat-Related Illness
Children’s bodies heat up three to five times faster than adults.187 It’s important to help children during hot weather. Here are some tips from the American Academy of Pediatrics.
• Air conditioning should be provided when temperatures are high.
• Children need to stay hydrated.
• Children sweat less than adults, so they should wear light clothes in no more than one layer.
• Extra downtime to rest and recover from the heat should be provided
• Activities that will help children cool off (such as water play) can be planned.188
Protecting Children from Cold Weather
There is no set time that is safe for children to play safely when the weather is cold. Teachers will have to use their best judgment. Use the chart in Figure 4.8 to ensure it is safe to go outside.
When playing outdoors in the cold it is important for children to bundle up. They are at greater risk for frostbite than adults. They should dress in layers. Wet clothing should be removed. Scarves must be tucked into coats to avoid becoming a strangulation hazard. Gloves/mittens and socks must stay dry to protect fingers and toes from frostbite. Children should come in periodically to warm up. And even though it’s cold, sunscreen and hydration are still important.189
Protecting Children from Insects
Children and adults can be protected from insect bites by
• Checking for and removing insect nests and spiders under slides, in bushes and in the ground.
• Making sure there is no standing water near play areas for mosquitoes to lay their eggs.
• Checking for ticks after outdoor play. The Center for Disease Control provides instructions about Tick Removal (see Figure 4.10).
• Consulting with the local health department, Health Services Advisory Committee, or a child care health consultant about whether to use insect repellent when local insects are likely to carry diseases.
Water Safety
Drowning is a major cause of death among children under 5 years of age in California. Water safety presents a particular challenge to child care providers. Most drownings in this age group occur in home swimming pools. Water-filled bathtubs, wading pools, toilets, buckets or other containers are also places where top-heavy young children can drown. Water safety presents its own set of challenges to the child care environment.
Children between the ages of 1 and 4 years are at greatest risk from drowning. These children are just learning to walk and explore. They excel at getting out from under the watchful eye of the provider.
Wading in bodies of freshwater may carry the additional risk of injury from cuts, puncture wounds and infections. Standing bodies of water such as swimming pools, wading pools and hot tubs also have the potential for spreading disease, so they are not recommended for use with young children. Instead, the use of sprinklers is recommended.
Reducing the Risk of Drowning
Reduce water hazards and prevent access to water
• Safety precautions must be taken to keep any water in the child care environment as risk-free as possible.
• Any body of water poses a threat and young children can drown in as little as one inch of water,
• The indoor and outdoor environments should be thoroughly screened to detect hazards that may lead to the risk of drowning
Promote safe behaviors
• Because children move quickly, are curious and do not understand their physical abilities, they must be watched carefully around even small bodies of water.
• The majority of drownings occur within a surprisingly short period of time.
• Never, ever, leave a child alone, even for a moment, when there is a body of water in the environment.
• When near water, always reinforce safety for the children.
• Plan water play when children are the least tired and most alert.
• Teach children safe practices for swimming and playing in the water.
• Have a telephone within easy reach at all times.
Learn proper response if there is a water emergency and act immediately
• Pull the child from the water and place the child on his/her back.
• Check for breathing, and clear mouth and nose of any obstructions.
• Get another adult to call for emergency help.
• Begin rescue breathing or CPR as needed until the child is revived or help arrives.
Preventing Drownings
• Never leave a child alone in or near any body of water (tub, wading pools, shower, pool, water table or even a bucket).
• Always provide careful, direct and constant supervision of young children if there is a body of water present in the environment.
• Never expect swimming instruction to eliminate the risk of drowning in children.
• Supervise children in the water even if they are wearing flotation devices. These devices are not substitutes for constant supervision.
• Any hazard should be enclosed with a fence that is at least five feet tall and not easy to climb. A door or sliding glass door is not a safe substitute for a fence.
• Gates should have locks that are at least 55 inches high and self-closing. Keep gate keys in a safe place away from children.
• Never leave pool covers partially in place because children can become trapped beneath them. Pool covers are not a substitute for fencing.
• Keep chairs, tables and climbing equipment away from pool fences to prevent children from climbing over the fence into the pool.
• Learn CPR and keep rescue equipment at poolside, including a life preserver, shepherd’s crook and cordless telephone to call 9-1-1.
• If a portable wading pool is used in child care (although it is not recommended), it should be filled with water, used immediately, drained and put away as soon as children leave the pool.
• Never leave infants or children unattended around five-gallon buckets containing even a small amount of liquid. Empty buckets when not in use.
• Children with seizure disorders are particularly vulnerable to drowning. Know your children’s medical history.
• Teach children water safety behaviors:
• Do not run, push or play around swimming areas.
• Do not swim with anything in your mouth.
• Do not swim in very cold water because it increases the risk of drowning.
• Look out for other children who might be in danger.
• Do not go near a pool unless supervised.
• Do not scream for help unless you mean it.
• Do not roughhouse in the water.192
Preventing Poisoning Outdoors
This topic was covered in Chapter 3, but it is important to note that poisonous materials are also found outdoors, including some of the plants in Table 3.8.
Storing Toys, Materials, and Equipment Safely
In order to protect toys, materials, and equipment from the elements, they should be safely stored when not in use. Keep storage areas clean and dry to prevent mold and infestations of insects, spider, rodents, or other pests.
Pedestrian Safety
Each year for more than a decade, more than 700 children have died from injuries sustained while walking, over 500 of these in traffic. Although the fatality rate has declined somewhat during this period, it could be attributable to improvements in pre-hospital and emergency medical care or to a decline in walking as a mode of transportation. As we want children (and their educators and families) to get out and walk to for both health reasons and for opportunities to explore and learn about their communities, we must make sure that they have a safe environment in which to do so. Children under 10 should always have adult supervision.193
Teaching Children about Pedestrian Safety
Before going on a walk, teachers should talk to children about the safety practices that they will be using (see Table 4.7). Children need close adult supervision and proximity while walking because they may do the unexpected (like suddenly dart off the sidewalk).195
Table 4.7 – Safety Practices While Walking196,197
Safety Practices While Walking198,199
Always walk on the sidewalk (if there is one).
If there is no sidewalk, walk facing traffic.
Be safe and be seen (bright clothing during the day, lights and reflectors at night).
Walk safely. Don’t run, don’t push or roughhouse. Be aware and don’t let toys distract you.
Watch for cars pulling in and out of driveways. Make sure drivers make eye contact with you.
When it is time to cross the street, show children a good place to safely cross the street. Explain how to safely cross the street (see Figure 4.13). If there is a button at the crosswalk, have them push it.200
Figure 4.13 – Steps for Crossing the Road Safely201
Motor Vehicle Safety
Motor vehicle injuries are a leading cause of death among children in the United States. But many of these deaths can be prevented.
• In the United States, 723 children ages 12 years and younger died as occupants in motor vehicle crashes during 2016, and more than 128,000 were injured in 2016.
• One CDC study found that, in one year, more than 618,000 children ages 0-12 rode in vehicles without the use of a child safety seat or booster seat or a seat belt at least some of the time.
• Of the children ages 12 years and younger who died in a crash in 2016 (for which restraint use was known), 35% were not buckled up.202
Safely Transporting Children
Any licensed driver transporting children should be trained in safety practices and if alone, have CPR and first aid training. They should have a safe driving record and their license should authorize them to drive the type of vehicle being driven.203
The interior of vehicles used to transport children for field trips and out-of-program activities should be maintained at a temperature comfortable for children. All vehicles should be locked when not in use, headcounts of children should be taken before and after transporting to prevent a child from being left in a vehicle, and children should never be left in a vehicle unattended.205
Hot Car Warning!
“Never leave children in a car or in another closed motor vehicle. The temperature inside the car can quickly become much higher than the outside temperature—a car can heat up about 19 degrees in as little as 10 minutes and continue rising to temperatures that cause death.” 206
Passenger Safety in Motor Vehicles
When children are driven in a motor vehicle other than a bus, all children should be transported only if they are restrained in a developmentally appropriate car safety seat, booster seat, seat belt, or harness that is suited to the child's weight and age in accordance with state and federal laws and regulations. The child should be securely fastened, according to the manufacturer's instructions. The child passenger restraint system should meet the federal motor vehicle safety standards and carry notice of compliance. Child passenger restraint systems should be installed and used in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions and should be secured in back seats only.
Car safety seats should be replaced if they have been recalled, are past the manufacturer's “date of use” expiration date, or have been involved in a crash that meets the U.S. Department of Transportation crash severity criteria or the manufacturer's criteria for replacement of seats after a crash.207
Buckling children in age- and size-appropriate car seats, booster seats, and seat belts reduces the risk of serious and fatal injuries:
• Car seat use reduces the risk of injury in a crash by 71-82% for children when compared to seat belt use alone.
• Booster seat use reduces the risk for serious injury by 45% for children aged 4–8 years when compared with seat belt use alone.
• For older children and adults, seat belt use reduces the risk of death and serious injury by approximately half.208
Tips for Safe Field Trips
Early care and education programs can be enriched through carefully planned field trips. It is important that the destination be appropriate for the age and developmental level of each child that will be attending. Any special arrangements needed to make sure that all children can safely be included should be made ahead of time.
All staff and background-checked volunteers that will be attending should be made familiar with the travel plans, the field trip location, rules, and their responsibilities. The children should also be prepared for the trip. Teachers can review and practice safety precautions and emergency procedures.
Families should be made aware of the field trip and provide consent for their child to attend. Emergency information for every child should be kept with staff off-site at all times. An accurate list of all children in attendance must be kept as well (at the field trip destination and at the school/center).
Adults should be assigned small groups of children. All adults should be made aware of the chosen regrouping location and checkpoints. Information is also provided in Chapter 6 about preventing lost children on field trips.210
Summary
Safe, outdoor play is vital to children’s health and well-being. Environments that are well designed, with age appropriate, hazard-free equipment, impact absorbing surfaces, and use zones around equipment will protect children from many injuries. Supervising children and actively monitoring the outdoor space are also key to preventing injuries. Having knowledge about the weather, implementing sun safety practices, protecting children from insects, following safe practices around water play, and storing toys safely are also important for children’s safety. When going off site (and during drop off and pick up times), it’s important to remember pedestrian safety and how to safely transport children in motor vehicles. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Health_Safety_and_Nutrition_(Paris)/Section_II%3A_Safety/04%3A_Creating_Safe_Outdoor_Environments.txt |
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• List items to include in first aid and emergency kits.
• Outline the responses to minor cuts and scrapes, burns, broken bones, head injuries, bites, and foreign objects in the body.
• Describe the lifesaving responses to severe bleeding, choking, and not breathing or being without a pulse.
• Discuss lost or missing child prevention and response.
• Explain response to unauthorized persons on the premises.
• Identify potential disasters and emergencies that early care and education programs should prepare for.
• Summarize the three phases of emergency management (preparedness, response, and recovery).
• Distinguish when to use each type of emergency response (evacuation, sheltering in place, and lockdown).
Licensing Regulations
Title 22 Regulations that relate to this chapter include:
101174 DISASTER AND MASS CASUALTY PLAN
• Each licensee shall have a disaster plan of action in writing.
• Disaster drills shall be documented and conducted every six months.
101216.1 TEACHER QUALIFICATIONS
• A teacher shall complete 15 hours of health and safety training, if necessary, pursuant to Health and Safety code, Section 1596.866.
101224 TELEPHONES
• All Child Care Centers shall have working telephone service onsite.
101229.1 SIGN IN AND SIGN OUT
• The licensee shall develop, maintain and implement a written procedure to sign the child in/out of the center. The person who signs the child in/out shall use his/her full legal signature and shall record the time of day. All sign in/out sheets shall be kept for one month.
Introduction
An emergency is a situation that poses an immediate risk to health, life, property, or environment. Most emergencies require urgent intervention to prevent a worsening of the situation. Some emergencies will be obvious (such as natural disasters), but others will require early childhood educators to decide if it truly is an emergency.211
Once an emergency has been identified, it’s important to know what to do. This chapter introduces different first aid and emergency medical responses, the phases of a disaster, and more information about a few different types of emergencies.
Basic First Aid
“Minor accidents and unintentional childhood injuries are not unusual in the child care setting. Even with careful supervision, children frequently sustain scrapes, bruises, cuts, bites, and falls in the normal course of their day. Less frequently, medical emergencies…may require immediate intervention and treatment.”212
First Aid Kits
Here is a recommended list of supplies for the first aid kit (modified from the Emergency First Aid Guidelines for California Schools):
• Current National American Red Cross First Aid Manual or equivalent.
• American Academy of Pediatrics First Aid Chart.
• Pocket mask/face shield for CPR
• Disposable gloves (including latex-free gloves for persons with a latex allergy)
• Soap (plain)
• Cotton tipped applicators, individually packaged
• Assorted Band-Aids (1”x3”)
• Gauze squares (2”x2”’; 4”x4”), individually packaged
• Adhesive tape (1” width)
• Gauze bandage (2” and 4” widths) rolls
• Ace bandage (2” and 4” widths)
• Splints (long and short)
• Cold packs
• Triangular bandages for sling & Safety pins
• Tongue blades
• Disposable facial tissues
• Paper towels
• Sanitary napkins213
Minor Cuts and Scrapes
Before performing first aid for minor cuts and scrapes, early childhood educators should wash their hands and apply gloves. The cut or scrape should then be washed with cool water. The surrounding area can be washed with soap, but soap should not get into the wound. The cool water will wash away any debris that may be in the wound and will help blood vessels to constrict (become narrower), which helps to stop bleeding. Once the area is clean and the blood has decreased, place gentle pressure on the wound with a clean and sterile gauze pad. If the first gauze saturates with blood, add additional gauze pads. Gauze pads should not be removed, as this could cause any clots that have begun to form to be removed and bleeding to continue. When the wound has stopped bleeding, the cut or scrape can be covered by a clean bandage. Be sure to document the injury and communicate what happened with families.214,215
Burns
The treatment of burns depends on the type of burn (refer back to Figure 3.20). The first step for any burn is to remove the source of heat. For minor burns that are limited to a small area, a clean cool towel or cloth can be applied to the skin or the skin can be flushed with cool water. Do not use ice. A clean, dry sterile piece of gauze can then be taped over the area when the burn is cooled and is only first degree. Ointments, grease, and oils should never be put on a burn. And blisters should not be broken. Children with second degree burns should be referred for medical care. Emergency care must be sought (call 911) any time a child receives a third degree burn. 217,218
Broken Bones
If a child breaks a bone, it will require medical treatment. The child should be comforted and not be moved any more than necessary. Any bleeding should be stopped (apply pressure with a sterile bandage or clean cloth), the area should be immobilized, and the family should be contacted to seek medical care. If the child is not conscious, there is heavy bleeding, the bone has pierced the skin, or the break is suspected in the back, neck, or head, emergency medical care should be sought.219
Head Injuries
Most trauma to the head is minor and will not require first aid. But trauma that is associated with symptoms of a concussion (such as nausea, unsteadiness, headaches) needs to be evaluated by a medical professional. More serious injury indicated by the following warrant calling for emergency medical care (911). Keep the child skill, stop any bleeding, and monitor vital signs (and start CPR if needed).
Symptoms of severe head injury:
• Severe bleeding or bleeding from nose or ears
• Change in consciousness
• Not breathing
• Confusion or slow response to questions
• Dizziness, balance problems, or trouble walking
• Unequal pupil size
• Slurred speech
• Seizures
• Persistent crying
• Refusing to eat
• Repeated vomiting
• Bulge in an infant’s soft spot220,221
Injuries to the Mouth
Injuries to the head, face, and mouth are common in young children. Even when families do their best to keep children safe, oral injuries can happen. Most oral injuries happen when young children are learning to walk. The top front teeth are injured most often.
If the child’s tongue or lip is injured, the area should be cleaned. Ice wrapped in a clean cloth can be placed on the area to reduce swelling. If the bleeding doesn’t stop after 30 minutes, medical attention should be sought.
If a child has an injury to a tooth, families should contact a dentist for advice. Teeth that are knocked out should not be put back in the mouth.222
Injuries to the Nose and Nosebleeds
Nosebleeds are not unusual and not usually a health concern. If a child gets a nosebleed they should be reassured. They should sit upright and gently pinch the soft part of the nose for about 10 minutes (or the bleeding may start back up). Discourage nose-blowing, picking, or rubbing.223
If a nosebleed is heavy and won’t stop after 30 minutes, the child feels lightheaded, or the nosebleed is the result of an injury that may indicate a broken nose emergency medical care should be sought.224
Pause to Reflect
What experiences do you have with first aid (giving or receiving)? How might this affect how you respond to a child getting injured?
In addition to providing treatment for the injury, what else might an injured child need from a caring adult to feel emotionally safe?
Poisoning
If a child ingests a potentially poisonous substance, Poison Control should be contacted at 1-800-222-1222. They will advise about the effects of the substance that has been ingested and what the proper response should be.
Bites
How you will respond to bites depends on what bit (or stung) the child and how severe the injury is. Table 5.1 provides more information.
Table 5.1 – First Aid for Bites and Stings
Type of Bite/Sting
First Aid Response
Insect bites and stings225
For mild reactions:
• Move stinger (if needed)
• Wash with soap and water
• Can apply a cold compress
For severe reactions:
• Use epi-pen (if the child has one)
• Call 911
• Being CPR if needed
Animal bites226,227
• Wash wound with soap and water
• Apply antibiotic ointment and bandage
• If unsure if the skin was punctured have family consult a physician
Venomous snakebites228
• Remove the child from the area of the snake
• Get a good description of the snake
• Elevate area of snakebite and keep child calm
• Call 911
Human bites229
If the bite doesn’t break the skin:
• Wash with soap and water
If the skin is broken:
• Stop any bleeding
• Wash with soap and water
• Apply clean bandage
• Have family consult a physician
Foreign Objects in the Body
Foreign objects may end up on the inside of a child’s body. Table 5.2 lists ways to safely respond when this happens.
Table 5.2 – First Aid for Foreign Objects in Body
Location of Foreign Object
First Aid Response
Foreign object swallowed230
• Most swallowed items will pass through the digestive tract
• If the object is a battery, magnet, or sharp object medical care should be sought
• If blocking the airway, treat according to choking first aid
Foreign object in the nose231
• Have child blow nose gently (not hard or repeatedly)
• Do NOT probe or have child inhale it
• If easily visible and graspable, remove with tweezers
• Child will need medical care if the object remains in the nose
Foreign object in the ear232
• If the object is visible and graspable, remove with tweezers
• Do NOT probe ear
• Try using gravity by tipping the head to the affected side
• If those fail to dislodge the object, refer to the family for additional methods of removal or to have them seek medical assistance
Foreign object in the eye233
• Flush eye with a clean stream of warm water
• Don’t try to remove an embedded object
• Don’t allow the child to rub the eye
• If unable to remove with irrigation have family seek medical care
Foreign object in the skin234
If the object is small, such a splinter or thorn just under the surface of the skin
• Wash hands
• Use tweezers to remove the object
If the object is more deeply embedded in the skin or muscle
• Don’t try to remove it
• Bandage the wound by wrapping it with gauze without applying extra pressure
Lifesaving First Aid
Sometimes children will experience incidents or injuries that are a threat to their life. It’s important that early childhood educators know how to respond in these situations. It is recommended that every person working with children become certified in emergency response through an agency such as the Red Cross (licensing requires one staff member that is certified to be on-site at all times).
Situations such as the following are considered medical emergencies and early childhood educators should contact emergency medical services (911) if a child exhibits these symptoms:
• Bleeding that will not stop
• Breathing problems (difficulty breathing, shortness of breath)
• Change in mental status (such as unusual behavior, confusion, difficulty arousing)
• Choking
• Coughing up or vomiting blood
• Loss of consciousness
• Sudden dizziness, weakness, or change in vision
• Swallowing a poisonous substance235
While waiting for paramedics, early childhood educators will need to follow appropriate lifesaving procedures. Three of those responses are introduced below (but are not a substitute for becoming CPR and First Aid certified)
These instructions are not intended to be a substitute for becoming certified in first aid and CPR.
Responding to Severe Bleeding
Bleeding from most injuries can be stopped by applying direct pressure to the injury. This keeps from cutting off the blood supply to the affected limb. This procedure was introduced earlier in the section on responding to minor cuts and scrapes.236
cloth or your gloved hand, maintaining pressure until bleeding stops.237
Responding to Choking
If a child is not able to breathe, not able to cry, talk, or make noise, turning blue, or grabbing at their throat, or coughing and gagging the early childhood educator should call 911. If they are able to cough or gag (which indicates they are breathing), no further response is needed. If they are not breathing, an immediate response is important.238 The response to choking is called the Heimlich maneuver and varies based on the age of the person that is choking. If the child loses consciousness at any point start CPR (which is covered in the next section).
Responding to a Choking Infant (under 1 year of age)
1. Lay the infant face down, along your forearm. Use your thigh or lap for support. Hold the infant's chest in your hand and jaw with your fingers. Point the infant's head downward, lower than the body.
2. Give up to 5 quick, forceful blows between the infant's shoulder blades. Use the heel of your free hand.239
3. If the object is not dislodged, turn the infant face up. Use your thigh or lap for support. Support the head.
4. Place 2 fingers on the middle of his breastbone just below the nipples.
5. Give up to 5 quick thrusts down, compressing the chest 1/3 to 1/2 the depth of the chest.
6. Continue this series of 5 back blows and 5 chest thrusts until the object is dislodged or the infant loses consciousness.240
Responding to a Choking in a Child (over 1 year of age)
1. Lean the child forward and make 5 blows to their back with the heel of your hand.
2. If this does not work, stand behind the child and wrap your arms around the child's waist.
3. Make a fist with one hand. Place the thumb side of your fist just above the child's navel, well below the breastbone.243
4. Grasp the fist with your hand.
5. Make 5 quick, upward and inward thrusts with your fists.
6. Alternate between 5 blows to the back and 5 thrusts to the abdomen until the object is dislodged and the child breathes or coughs on their own.244
Responding to Children Who are Not Breathing or Without a Pulse
CPR stands for cardiopulmonary resuscitation. It is a lifesaving procedure that is done when a child's breathing or heartbeat has stopped. This may happen after drowning, suffocation, choking, or an injury. CPR involves:
• Rescue breathing, which provides oxygen to a child's lungs
• Chest compressions, which keep the child's blood circulating
Permanent brain damage or death can occur within minutes if a child's blood flow stops. Therefore, you must continue CPR until the child's heartbeat and breathing return, or trained medical help arrives.
CPR is best done by someone trained in an accredited CPR course. The newest techniques emphasize compression over rescue breathing and airway management, reversing a long-standing practice. The procedures described here are NOT a substitute for CPR training.
Machines called automated external defibrillators (AEDs) can be found in many public places and can be purchased for homes and early care and education programs. These machines have pads or paddles to place on the chest during a life-threatening emergency. They use computers to automatically check the heart rhythm and give a sudden shock if, and only if, that shock is needed to get the heart back into the right rhythm. When using an AED, follow the instructions exactly.
CPR for Infants (under 1 year of age)
1. Check for responsiveness. Shake or tap the infant gently. See if the infant moves or makes a noise. Shout, "Are you OK?"
2. If there is no response, shout for help. Send someone to call 911. Do not leave the infant yourself to call 911 until you have performed CPR for about 2 minutes.
3. Carefully place the infant on their back. If there is a chance the infant has a spinal injury, two people should move the infant to prevent the head and neck from twisting.246
4. Perform chest compressions:
• Place 2 fingers on the breastbone -- just below the nipples. Make sure not to press at the very end of the breastbone.
• Keep your other hand on the infant's forehead, keeping the head tilted back.
• Press down on the infant's chest so that it compresses about 1/3 to 1/2 the depth of the chest.
• Give 30 chest compressions. Each time, let the chest rise completely. These compressions should be FAST and hard with no pausing. Count the 30 compressions quickly: "1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, off."247
1. Open the airway. Lift up the chin with one hand. At the same time, push down on the forehead with the other hand.
2. Look, listen, and feel for breathing. Place your ear close to the infant’s mouth and nose. Watch for chest movement. Feel for breath on your cheek.
3. If the infant is not breathing:
• Cover the infant's mouth and nose tightly with your mouth.
• Alternatively, cover just the nose. Hold the mouth shut.
• Keep the chin lifted and head tilted.
• Give 2 breaths. Each breath should take about a second and make the chest rise.
1. Continue CPR (30 chest compressions followed by 2 breaths, then repeat) for about 2 minutes.
2. After about 2 minutes of CPR, if the infant still does not have normal breathing, coughing, or any movement, leave the infant to call 911.
3. Repeat rescue breathing and chest compressions until the infant recovers or help arrives.
If the infant starts breathing again, place them in the recovery position (see Figure 5.12). Periodically re-check for breathing until help arrives.248
CPR for Children (1 to 8 years of age)
1. Check for responsiveness. Shake or tap the child gently. See if the child moves or makes a noise. Shout, "Are you OK?"
2. If there is no response, shout for help. Send someone to call 911 and retrieve an automated external defibrillator (AED) if one is available. Do not leave the child alone to call 911 and retrieve an AED until you have performed CPR for about 2 minutes.
3. Carefully place the child on their back. If there is a chance the child has a spinal injury, two people should move the child to prevent the head and neck from twisting.252
4. Perform chest compressions:
• Place the heel of one hand on the breastbone -- just below the nipples. Make sure your heel is not at the very end of the breastbone.
• Keep your other hand on the child's forehead, keeping the head tilted back.
• Press down on the child's chest so that it compresses about 1/3 to 1/2 the depth of the chest.
• Give 30 chest compressions. Each time, let the chest rise completely. These compressions should be FAST and hard with no pausing. Count the 30 compressions quickly:"1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, off."253
1. Open the airway. Lift up the chin with one hand. At the same time, push down on the forehead with the other hand.
2. Look, listen, and feel for breathing. Place your ear close to the child's mouth and nose. Watch for chest movement. Feel for breath on your cheek.
3. If the child is not breathing:
• Cover the child's mouth tightly with your mouth.
• Pinch the nose closed.
• Keep the chin lifted and head tilted.
• Give two breaths. Each breath should take about a second and make the chest rise.
1. Continue CPR (30 chest compressions followed by 2 breaths, then repeat) for about 2 minutes.
2. After about 2 minutes of CPR, if the child still does not have normal breathing, coughing, or any movement, leave the child if you are alone and call 911. If an AED for children is available, use it now.
3. Repeat rescue breathing and chest compressions until the child recovers or help arrives.
4. If the child starts breathing again, place them in the recovery position (See Figure 5.9). Periodically re-check for breathing until help arrives. 254
chin is well up to keep the airway open. Arms and legs are locked to stabilize the position of the child.258
Lost or Missing Child
The best way to prevent children from going missing is to establish and follow procedures to monitor attendance. The following suggestions have been modified from New York City Health Code.
• Identify who is responsible for taking attendance
• Identify when attendance will be taken
• Identify how attendance is going to be confirmed, documented, and reported
• Make sure that staffing schedules ensure that adult-to-child ratios are maintained at all times
• Have clear procedures for any times children are transitioning between classrooms and outdoor spaces
• Follow procedures for transitioning children that arrive late or leave early
• Train all staff in procedures
• For special events and field trips
• A coordinator should be identified
• Ensure staff are familiar with the destination prior to event/trip
• Follow procedures for documenting parental approval
• Increase ratios with extra staff or volunteers (who have background clearance)
• Determine communication procedures with dependable methods (develop communication tree)
• Monitor attendance and take headcounts often
• Maintain trip attendance log
• Assign small groups of children to specific staff
• Establish areas for regrouping
• Take attendance before departure
And here are the procedures to follow if a child does go missing:
• Establish instructions for reporting (when, how, and by whom)
• Establish procedures for searching for the child while maintaining supervision of all other children
• Document the incident
• Develop actions to be taken in response to the event259
Unauthorized Adult Attempting or Gaining Access
There should also be policies and procedures in place to keep children safe from unauthorized persons on grounds of the early care and education program. Programs may choose to have entrances that are locked and only accessed through codes (each authorized person should have their own code) or by being buzzed in by a member of program staff.
Programs can also use cameras to monitor and record the entrances of the building, common spaces, hallways, classrooms, and outdoor spaces. Alarms and panic buttons are also something programs can consider using for added protection (and alarms protect the grounds even after hours of operation).
The front desk/entrance should be staffed with someone who can check each person entering to ensure they have been authorized to have access by matching their ID to the child’s record of authorized persons. Sign-in sheets should be used to document who is dropping each child off and who has picked them up. It is important to note that, unless the program has received a court order limiting the parent’s rights to custody, children cannot be kept from a parent.
The one exception to this is that according to California law, a program can deny access to an adult whose behavior presents a risk to children in the program. According to the California Department of Social Services and the Child Care Advocate Program, if a parent comes to pick up their child while inebriated or under the influence of drugs, child care providers must:
• Make every effort to prevent the parent from taking the child by taking the recommended steps
• Attempt to delay departure until you can contact another authorized person to pick the child up.
• Consider calling the police if the person refuses to cooperate or acts in a threatening manner
• If the child is taken, write down a description of the vehicle and the license plate and report the situation to the parent/legal guardian and/or police.261
Response to Unauthorized Person’s Attempt to Pick Up Child
According to the Public Counsel Law Center: Early Care and Education Law Project’s Guidelines for Releasing Children, if an unauthorized person attempts to pick up a child, a program should:
• Resist their demands
• Calmly request their ID and explain that the law requires that the enrolling parent/legal guardian authorize any person that will be permitted to pick up a child
• Call the custodial parent right away and let them know what is happening
• If the person refuses to comply, the police may need to be called
• If the child is taken by force, get a detailed description of the person and vehicle to report authorities immediately262
Disasters and Emergencies
Early care and education programs should consider how to prepare for and respond to emergency situations or natural disasters that may require evacuation, lock-down, or shelter-in-place and have written plans, accordingly. Written plans should be posted in each classroom and areas used by children. The following topics should be addressed, including but not limited to regularly scheduled practice drills, procedures for notifying and updating families, and the use of the daily class roster(s) to check attendance of children and staff during an emergency or drill when gathered in a safe space after exit and upon return to the program. All drills/exercises should be recorded.263
Emergencies often happen suddenly and can be devastating to programs and communities. Emergency preparedness is the process of taking steps to ensure your early care and education program is safe before, during, and after an emergency. Whether a natural disaster such as a tornado hits or a man-made emergency such as the appearance of a violent intruder occurs, early childhood educators need to know how to respond quickly and appropriately to situations that could happen in their program, center, or home. It’s important for every program to create an emergency preparedness plan specific to their location, building, and grounds.
Early care and education programs play an important role in supporting children and families in their local communities before, during, and after an emergency through three phases of emergency management:
• Preparedness—Takes place before an emergency. It includes being informed about any likely emergencies in your area; mitigating any existing concerns at your facility that could make an emergency worse; making plans to respond to emergencies before they happen; and building, maintaining, and updating supply kits you will take or keep with you during an emergency.
• Response—Begins the moment you are alerted to an impending emergency and continues as the emergency occurs.
• Recovery—Happens as soon as the emergency is over, when efforts are focused on food, water, shelter, safety, and the emotional needs of those affected. Recovery is also the process of rebuilding your program and returning to normalcy after an emergency, which is why it can last hours, weeks, months, or even years in the most extreme cases.
Preparedness
Ensuring you are prepared and ready for everyday activities is essential, and it is something you do every day in your program. Preparing and planning for emergencies is no different. Use the self-assessment in Appendix F to determine the steps you may need to take to develop a comprehensive and effective emergency-preparedness plan.
You will also need to consider the types of emergencies your program could experience. What types of emergencies have previously occurred in your area? Is your program in a flood zone or an area commonly threatened by wildfire? Do you experience severe weather events? Is there a history of violence in your community? Here are some possible emergencies to consider:
• Tornado
• Earthquake
• Hurricane
• Flooding
• Tsunami
• Thunderstorm
• House Fire/Wildfire
• Active Shooter/Violent Intruder (Prepared for?)
• Blackout/Power Outage
• Extreme Heat
• Winter Storm/Extreme Cold
• Landslide/Mudslide
• Volcanic Eruption
Your emergency plan should address all aspects of your early childcare education program, including the number and ages of enrolled children and any special health care needs or concerns of children and staff. While developing your emergency plan, use community resources for different perspectives and recommendations on preparedness, response, and recovery efforts. These resources can include but are not limited to:
• Child care health consultants
• Mental health consultants
• Child care resource and referral agencies (CCR&Rs)
• First responders, such as fire, law enforcement, and emergency medical personnel
• State/territory child care licensing agency
• Public health departments
• School district personnel, if your program is located within a school
• Community physicians who are disaster experts
Making Your Emergency Response Plan
Working together and communicating what to do during an event is essential. Understanding everyone’s role during an emergency before the emergency occurs helps make the response procedure quicker and more efficient. Establishing responsibilities can be addressed during training sessions and planning meetings before an emergency or drill, to ensure staff are comfortable with the procedures.
Types of Emergency Responses
There are many types of emergencies. The key to remember is that each is a method to put effective barriers between you and a threat. The difference is in the types of threats and what kind of barrier is called for.
• Evacuating is a means to leave a dangerous situation or area (e.g., because of a fire).
• Sheltering in place is the use of a structure and its indoor atmosphere to temporarily separate you from a hazardous outdoor atmosphere (e.g., tornadoes, earthquakes, severe weather, landslides, or debris flow). It entails closing all doors, windows, and vents and taking immediate shelter in a readily accessible location.
• A lockdown is a shelter-in-place procedure that is used in situations with intruders or emergencies that involve potential violence. Lockdown requires children and adults to shelter in a safe room, lock doors, and remain quiet until the event is over.
•
See a sample evacuation plan and example blank plans for evacuation, shelter-in-place, and lockdown in Appendix G.
Building an Emergency Kit
Building an emergency supply kit is an important part of preparedness. This kit ensures that your program has sufficient supplies and food if you and the children need to shelter in place or evacuate in an emergency for at least 72 hours. Make sure that all items are up to date and not expired. Consider appointing someone to be responsible for routinely checking expiration dates of the food in your kit. Here are some items you might consider including in your kit:
• Emergency contact information for children and staff
• Attendance sheet
• Facility floor plan with evacuation routes outlined
• Printed directions to evacuation sites
• Medication list with dosing instructions for each child who takes medication
• Battery- or hand-powered weather radio
• Battery-powered walkie-talkies to communicate with staff
• Fully charged cell phone and charger
• Flashlight and batteries
• First aid kit
• Diapers, toilet paper, diaper wipes
• Sanitary wipes and hand sanitizer
• Non-latex medical gloves
• Dry or canned infant formula
• Bottled water
• Non-perishable food
• Work gloves
• Paper towels
• Blankets
• Alternative power source for electric medical devices (if needed)
• Whistle
• Wrench or pliers for the director to turn off utilities
• Matches in a waterproof container
• Games or activities to entertain children
Practice Your Plan
Practicing your emergency plan in advance helps everyone respond quickly and appropriately when an emergency situation arises. You won’t know if the plan works unless you try it out, so practice with all children and adults. If you have enrolled children or staff with special health care needs or disabilities, address these specific needs with community partners during practice.
Regular emergency drills, both announced and unannounced, help everyone become familiar with emergency procedures and activities. This can reduce panic and fear during an actual emergency, freeing participants to focus on how to evacuate, shelter in place, or lockdown.
Reunification Procedures
An effective method of reuniting children with their parents and guardians after an emergency is an often-overlooked component of an emergency plan, but it is very important. Including up-to-date emergency contact information for each child in your emergency kit can help provide structure around this process. Reunification procedures that should be communicated to families:
• Evacuation or shelter-in-place locations
• What the program will do during a lockdown response
• What families should do during a lockdown response
• Who will contact families before, during, and after an emergency
• How families will be contacted (e.g., text, email, phone call)
• Procedures if a child needs to be transported for medical care (e.g., who will accompany the child, where they will go)
It is important for programs to have procedures in place if children cannot be reunited with their families immediately. Roads close, care gets delayed, and work shifts go into overtime during emergencies for parents/guardians working in hospitals or as first responders. Having a plan in case you need to take care of a child overnight is a critical part of your reunification procedures.
What is Mitigation?
Mitigation is similar to preparedness and involves reducing the seriousness or severity of disasters or emergencies. It is also a way of preventing future emergencies or disasters. Use the following checklist in Appendix H to ensure you are mitigating your program’s risks.268
Response
The goals of the response phase are to:
• Determine that an emergency is occurring
• Determine appropriate response (evacuation, shelter in place, or lockdown)
• Activate the emergency response plan
• Maintain communication with all staff and first responders
• Establish what information needs to be communicated to staff, teachers, assistants, children, families, and the community
• Provide emergency first aid as needed
Refer to Figure 5.18 to see the process responses should follow.
Response is directly related to preparedness—the more you prepare and practice your emergency response, the more efficient your response will be. After performing an emergency all involved parties should reflect upon how the drill went and provide feedback on what worked and what did not work. Updates and revisions to the plan and procedures should be made based on that feedback. Teachers should also discuss the drill with the children afterward, so the children can ask questions and understand what happened.270
Earthquake Response – Drop, Cover, and Hold On
In order to be prepared to respond when there is an earthquake, teachers should identify safe places. A safe place could be under a sturdy table or desk or against an interior wall away from windows, bookcases or tall furniture that could fall on teachers and children. The shorter the distance to move to safety, the less likely that someone will be injured.
Everyone should practice drop, cover, and hold on. Have children go under a table (or desk if school-age) and hold on to one leg of the table or desk. Have them protect their eyes by keeping their head down.
If an earthquake occurs inside, everyone should drop, cover, and hold on until the shaking stops. Teachers should then check everyone for injuries and look for things that may have fallen or broken that may now be a hazard (including fire). If evacuation is necessary, everyone should use stairs.
If an earthquake occurs when people are outdoors, they should stay outside, moving away from buildings, trees, streetlights and overhead lines, crouching down and covering their heads. Many injuries occur within ten feet of the entrance to buildings. Bricks, roofing and other materials can fall from buildings, injuring persons nearby. Trees, streetlights and overhead lines may also fall, causing damage or injury.272
Fire Response
Programs should have clear escape routes drawn on floor plans that note all doors, windows, and potential barriers. Every room should have two escape routes, which should be kept open/accessible at all times. And the evacuation site (and a backup evacuation site/temporary shelter) should be identified. These plans should be posted in every room and all program staff and families should be familiar with these (and regularly practice them).
If a fire occurs, 911 should be called immediately. A designated staff person should get the current record of the attendance and the emergency contact information for all of the children. As the children and staff evacuate, each should be noted so that no one is left behind. No one should go back into the building once it has been evacuated
Everyone should proceed to the evacuation site or temporary shelter. For children that cannot yet walk (infants, toddlers, or children with mobility impairments) a large wagon, or emergency crib on wheels, or similar equipment can be used for evacuation.
Recovery
The recovery phase refers to the actions taken from the time the emergency ends until the needs of staff, children, and families are met. It includes helping affected families resume their daily activities and helping all those affected cope with the aftermath of the emergency. Recovery can last for a few days, weeks, months, or even years. The goals of the recovery phase are to:
• Rebuild your facility or home if necessary, and restore services as quickly as possible.
• Meet the needs (physical, health, emotional) of children, families, and staff.
• Provide a supportive and caring environment that brings normalcy back into children’s lives.
Incorporating recovery resources into your emergency-preparedness plan can help you reach these goals more quickly while providing mental health and emotional support to children, families, and staff.
Reunification
Safely returning children to their families after an emergency begins to bring children and families back to normalcy. Preparing for this by keeping up-to-date emergency contact information for each child in your emergency kit can help provide structure around this process. As discussed in previous chapters, make sure you are communicating with families throughout the emergency, if possible. This communication may help the reunification process begin more quickly, as families may be able to safely pick up their children sooner.
Damage and Needs Assessment
A damage assessment of your facility or home after an emergency is crucial for your early childcare education program to open again. Assessments will differ based on the type of emergency your program, center, or home experienced. Resources to help you complete a damage assessment: b Flooding: usa.childcareaware.org/flooding/ b Hurricane: usa.childcareaware.org/hurricanes b Tornado: www.ready.gov/tornadoes Ensure that your early childcare education program has been given the all-clear from licensing and emergency officials before reopening.
Continuation of Services
After conducting your damage and needs assessment, an action plan is needed for how your early childcare education program will resume services to families. Use community resources, they can connect you to resources that can help you re-open your early care and education program or provide children with temporary child care. Resources related to the continuation of services: b childcareta.acf.hhs.gov/resource/continuation-child-careservices-louisianas-experience
Mental Health and Emotional Needs
Mental health support is a high priority after an emergency. Children and adults who have experienced stress and/or loss, either at the child care program or at home, may have difficulty coping. By offering a safe place and resources like mental health consultants, early care and education programs support children, families, and staff coping with fear, anger, and grief and help them resume their lives in a healthy way.
Coping with Disaster, Emergencies, and Tragedies
Keep in mind the following:
• Everyone who sees or experiences an emergency is affected by it in some way.
• It is normal to feel anxious about your own safety and that of your family and close friends.
• Profound sadness, grief, and anger are normal reactions during or after an emergency.
• Everyone has different needs and different ways of coping.
• Acknowledging feelings and focusing on your strengths and abilities can help recovery.
• Difficult memories of the disaster can be triggered by certain loud noises, weather events, or news clips from the emergency. This may be true even years later.
Engaging Families in Supporting Their Children After a Disaster
Further resources about how families can help children cope after a disaster:
Summary
When early care and education programs have staff that are knowledgeable about how to identify and respond to injuries and emergencies, they are prepared to keep children safe. This chapter provided basic information on responding to injuries. This content is not a replacement for the certification that teachers and other staff members should pursue.
It’s important to remember that emergencies can take many forms. Early care and education programs should be ready to act in the event of any type of emergency by being prepared and by knowing how to respond and recover.273 | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Health_Safety_and_Nutrition_(Paris)/Section_II%3A_Safety/05%3A_Caring_for_Minor_Injuries_and_Preparing_for_and_Managing_Emergencies.txt |
Chapter 6: Child Maltreatment
Warning: This chapter contains information about child abuse which may be triggering for some readers.
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Define the four types of child maltreatment (physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect).
• Identify risk factors for child maltreatment.
• Discuss protective factors and prevention strategies.
• List signs of each type of maltreatment.
• Explain what mandated reporting is and who it applies to.
Licensing Regulations
Title 22 Regulations that relate to this chapter include:
101170 CRIMINAL RECORD CLEARANCE
• The Department will conduct a criminal record review of all persons working in a child care facility including:
• Adults responsible for administration or supervision of staff.
• Any person, other than a child, residing in the facility.
• Any person who provides care and supervision to children.
• Any staff person who has contact with the children.
• Relatives and legal guardians of a child in the facility are exempt.
• A volunteer or student who is always directly supervised by a fingerprinted staff, and who spends no more than 16 hours per week at the facility is exempt.
• Prior to employment, residence or initial presence in the child care facility, all individuals subject to a criminal record review shall obtain a Department of Justice clearance, or request a transfer of a current clearance to be associated with the facility.
101170.2 CHILD ABUSE CENTRAL INDEX
• A Child Abuse Central Index review shall be conducted on the applicant and all individuals subject to a criminal record review prior to licensure, employment or initial presence in the facility.
101212 REPORTING REQUIREMENTS
• The licensee shall report the following incidents to the Department:
• Any injury to any child that requires medical treatment.
• Any unusual incident or child absence that threatens safety.
• Any suspected physical or psychological abuse of any child.
Mandated Reporter Laws
Child care providers are included in the professions that are required to report suspected child maltreatment by the Child Abuse and Neglect Reporting Act (CANRA) pursuant to Penal Codes 11164 through 11174.3.274
Introduction
One more responsibility early childhood educators have to protect children’s safety is to understand what child maltreatment is, risk factors for child maltreatment, signs of different forms of child maltreatment, and what they should do to support children and families and what they must legally do if they suspect child maltreatment.
Looking at the Data
In 2017, there were 674,000 substantiated victims of child abuse and neglect across the U.S. The youngest children are the most vulnerable to maltreatment. Nationally, states report that more than one-quarter (28.5%) of victims are younger than 3 years old. The victimization rate is highest for children younger than 1-year-old at 25.3 per 1,000 children.
The percentages of child victims are similar for both boys (48.6%) and girls (51.0%). Sixty-nine percent of victims are maltreated by a mother, either acting alone (40.8%) or with a father and/or nonparent (28.2%). More than 13.0 percent (13.5%) of victims are maltreated by a perpetrator who was not the child’s parent. The largest categories in the nonparent group are relative (4.7%), partner of parent (2.9%), and “other” (2.7%).
The effects of child abuse and neglect are serious, and a child fatality is the most tragic consequence. In 2017, a national estimate of 1,720 children died from abuse and neglect at a rate of 2.32 per 100,000 children in the population.276
Definitions
Child maltreatment includes all types of abuse and neglect of a child under the age of 18 by a parent, caregiver, or another person in a custodial role (such as clergy, a coach, a teacher) that results in harm, potential for harm, or threat of harm to a child. There are four common types of abuse and neglect: physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect.277
Physical Abuse
Physical abuse is a nonaccidental physical injury to a child caused by a parent, caregiver, or other person responsible for a child and can include punching, beating, kicking, biting, shaking, throwing, stabbing, choking, hitting (with a hand, stick, strap, or other object), burning, or otherwise causing physical harm. Physical discipline, such as spanking or paddling, is not considered abuse as long as it is reasonable and causes no bodily injury to the child. Injuries from physical abuse could range from minor bruises to severe fractures or death.
Abusive Head Trauma
Abusive head trauma (AHT), which includes shaken baby syndrome, is a preventable and severe form of physical child abuse that results in an injury to the brain of a child. AHT is most common in children under age five, with children under one year of age at most risk. It is caused by violent shaking and/or with blunt impact. The resulting injury can cause bleeding around the brain or on the inside back layer of the eyes.
Nearly all victims of AHT suffer serious, long-term health consequences such as vision problems, developmental delays, physical disabilities, and hearing loss. At least one of every four babies who experience AHT dies from this form of child abuse.
consequence of almost all victims of AHT.278
AHT often happens when a parent or caregiver becomes angry or frustrated because of a child’s crying. The caregiver then shakes the child and/or hits or slams the child’s head into something in an effort to stop the crying.
Crying, including long bouts of inconsolable crying, is normal behavior in infants. Shaking, throwing, hitting, or hurting a baby is never the right response to crying.
How Can Abusive Head Trauma Be Prevented?
Anyone can play a role in preventing AHT by understanding the dangers of violently shaking or hitting a baby’s head into something, knowing the risk factors and the triggers for abuse, and finding ways to support families and caregivers in their community.279
The Bottom Line
Shaking a baby can cause death or permanent brain damage. It can result in life-long disability.
Healthy strategies for dealing with a crying baby include:
• finding the reason for the crying
• checking for signs of illness or discomfort, such as diaper rash, teething, tight clothing;
• feeding or burping;
• soothing the baby by rubbing its back; gently rocking; offering a pacifier; singing or talking;
• taking a walk using a stroller or a drive in a properly-secured car seat;
• or calling the doctor if sickness is suspected
All babies cry. Caregivers often feel overwhelmed by a crying baby. Calling a friend, relative, or neighbor for support or assistance lets the caregiver take a break from the situation. If immediate support is not available, the caregiver could place the baby in a crib (making sure the baby is safe), close the door, and check on the baby every five minutes.280
If an early childhood educator is growing frustrated with a child’s crying or other behaviors, it’s important that they follow the same advice they would give a parent/caregiver or find a co-worker to relieve them while they calm down.
Sexual Abuse
Child sexual abuse is a significant but preventable adverse childhood experience and public health problem. Sexual abuse includes activities by a parent or other caregiver such as fondling a child’s genitals, penetration, incest, rape, sodomy, indecent exposure, and exploitation through prostitution or the production of pornographic materials. Sexual abuse is defined by the Federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act as “the employment, use, persuasion, inducement, enticement, or coercion of any child to engage in, or assist any other person to engage in, any sexually explicit conduct or simulation of such conduct for the purpose of producing a visual depiction of such conduct; or the rape, and in cases of caretaker or interfamilial relationships, statutory rape, molestation, prostitution, or other form of sexual exploitation of children, or incest with children”281
About 1 in 4 girls and 1 in 13 boys experience child sexual abuse at some point in childhood. And 90% of child sexual abuse is perpetrated by someone the child or child’s family knows.282
Emotional Abuse
Emotional abuse (or psychological abuse) is a pattern of behavior that impairs a child’s emotional development or sense of self-worth. This may include constant criticism, threats, or rejection as well as withholding love, support, or guidance. Emotional abuse is often difficult to prove, and, therefore, child protective services may not be able to intervene without evidence of harm or mental injury to the child (Prevent Child Abuse America, 2016). 283
Neglect
Neglect is the failure of a parent or other caregiver to provide for a child’s basic needs. Neglect generally includes the following categories:
• Physical (e.g., failure to provide necessary food or shelter, lack of appropriate supervision)
• Medical (e.g., failure to provide necessary medical or mental health treatment, withholding medically indicated treatment from children with life-threatening conditions)
• Educational (e.g., failure to educate a child or attend to special education needs)
• Emotional (e.g., inattention to a child’s emotional needs, failure to provide psychological care, permitting a child to use alcohol or other drugs)
Sometimes cultural values, the standards of care in the community, and poverty may contribute to what is perceived as maltreatment, indicating the family may need information or assistance. It is important to note that living in poverty is not considered child abuse or neglect. However, a family’s failure to use available information and resources to care for their child may put the child’s health or safety at risk, and child welfare intervention could be required. In addition, many states provide an exception to the definition of neglect for parents/caregivers who choose not to seek medical care for their children due to religious beliefs.
Abandonment is considered in many states as a form of neglect. In general, a child is considered to be abandoned when the parent’s identity or whereabouts are unknown, the child has been left alone in circumstances where the child suffers serious harm, the child has been deserted with no regard for his or her health or safety, or the parent has failed to maintain contact with the child or provide reasonable support for a specified period of time. Some states have enacted laws—often called safe haven laws—that provide safe places for parents to relinquish newborn infants.
Pause to Reflect
Come up with a situation that would be an example of each type of abuse and each type of neglect. Keep these in mind to revisit in another Pause to Reflect feature later in the chapter.
Risk Factors
Risk factors are those characteristics linked with child abuse and neglect—they may or may not be direct causes. A combination of individual, relational, community, and societal factors contribute to the risk of child abuse and neglect. Although children are not responsible for the harm inflicted upon them, certain characteristics have been found to increase their risk of being abused and or neglected.
Individual Risk Factors for Victimization
• Children younger than 4 years of age
• Special needs that may increase caregiver burden (e.g., disabilities, mental health issues, and chronic physical illnesses)
Risk Factors for Perpetration
There are different levels of risk factors for the perpetrators of child maltreatment
Individual Risk Factors
• Families’ lack of understanding of children’s needs, child development and parenting skills
• Parental history of child abuse and or neglect
• Substance abuse and/or mental health issues including depression in the family
• Parental characteristics such as young age, low education, single parenthood, a large number of dependent children, and low income
• Nonbiological, transient caregivers in the home (e.g., mother’s male partner)
• Parental thoughts and emotions that tend to support or justify maltreatment behaviors
Family Risk Factors
• Social isolation
• Family disorganization, dissolution, and violence, including intimate partner violence
• Parenting stress, poor parent-child relationships, and negative interactions
Community Risk Factors
• Community violence
• Concentrated neighborhood disadvantage (e.g., high poverty and residential instability, high unemployment rates, and high density of alcohol outlets), and poor social connections.286
Protective Factors
Protective factors may lessen the likelihood of children being abused or neglected. Protective factors have not been studied as extensively or rigorously as risk factors. Identifying and understanding protective factors are equally as important as researching risk factors.
Family Protective Factors
• Supportive family environment and social networks
• Concrete support for basic needs
• Nurturing parenting skills
• Stable family relationships
• Household rules and child monitoring
• Parental employment
• Parental education
• Adequate housing
• Access to health care and social services
• Caring adults outside the family who can serve as role models or mentors
Community Protective Factors
• Communities that support families and take responsibility for preventing abuse287
Preventative Strategies
Child abuse and neglect are serious problems that can have lasting harmful effects on its victims. The goal in preventing child abuse and neglect is to stop this violence from happening in the first place.
Child abuse and neglect are complex problems rooted in unhealthy relationships and environments. Preventing child abuse and neglect requires addressing factors at all levels of the social ecology–the individual, relational, community, and societal levels.288 As you can see in Figure 6.5, early care and education has a direct role to play in one of the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Division of Violence Prevention’s strategies and can support families in some of the others. Families who have access to quality childcare, which increases the likelihood that children will experience safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments. Access to affordable childcare also reduces parental stress and maternal depression, which are risk factors for child abuse and neglect.289
Domestic Violence
Given the magnitude of the problem of children’s exposure to violence, including the co-occurrence of domestic violence and child maltreatment, early care and education programs are serving children and families impacted by violence. Here are some key facts about domestic violence and intimate partner violence:
1. Intimate partner violence describes physical, sexual, or psychological harm by a current or former partner or spouse. This type of violence can occur among heterosexual or same-sex couples and does not require sexual intimacy. Intimate partner violence can vary in frequency and severity. It occurs on a continuum ranging from one hit that may or may not impact the victim to chronic, severe beating.
2. Domestic violence is the second leading cause of death for pregnant women, and some 25 to 50 percent of adolescent mothers experience partner violence before, during, or just after their pregnancy.
3. Witnessing family assault is among the most common victimizations experienced by toddlers (ages 2 to 5). Other common forms of victimization are assault by a sibling and physical bullying.
4. In 30 to 60 percent of families where either child abuse or domestic violence is present, child abuse and domestic violence co-occur.
Children may very well experience the violence themselves; however, even when they are not directly injured, exposure to traumatic events can cause social, emotional, and behavioral difficulties. Children exposed to domestic violence have often been found to develop a wide range of problems, including externalizing behavior problems, interpersonal skill deficits, and psychological and emotional problems such as depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In addition, a Michigan study of preschool-aged children found that those exposed to domestic violence at home are more likely to have health problems, including allergies, asthma, frequent headaches and stomach-aches, and generalized lethargy.
What Early Care and Education Programs Should Do to Help
It is critical that early childhood educators be prepared to work with and guide these children and families to needed services. Teachers and administrators can support the child and family during times of stress by making hotline and other domestic violence information available to families.
The early childhood workforce is currently comprised of about 1 million center-based teachers and caregivers, 1 million home-based teachers and caregivers, and an additional 2.7 million unpaid home-based teachers and caregivers. This workforce consists largely of women, and women are disproportionately affected by domestic violence. Therefore, information about appropriate services and programs should be made available for both staff and families.291
Signs of Child Maltreatment
It is important to recognize high-risk situations and the signs and symptoms of maltreatment. If you suspect a child is being harmed or the child directly discloses that they have experienced abuse or neglect, reporting suspicions may protect him or her and help the family receive assistance. Any concerned person can report suspicions of child abuse or neglect. Reporting your concerns is not making an accusation; rather, it is a request for an investigation and assessment to determine if help is needed.
Table 6.1 – Signs of General Maltreatment
Table 6.1 – Signs of General Maltreatment292
Child
• Shows sudden changes in behavior or school performance
• Has not received help for physical or medical problems brought to the families’ attention
• Has learning problems (or difficulty concentrating) that cannot be attributed to specific physical or psychological causes
• Is always watchful, as though preparing for something bad to happen
• Lacks adult supervision
• Is overly compliant, passive, or withdrawn
• Comes to school or other activities early, stays late, and does not want to go home
• Is reluctant to be around a particular person
• Discloses maltreatment
Parent/caregiver
• Denies the existence of—or blames the child for—the child’s problems in school or at home
• Asks teachers or other caregivers to use harsh physical discipline if the child misbehaves
• Sees the child as entirely bad, worthless, or burdensome
• Demands a level of physical or academic performance the child cannot achieve
• Looks primarily to the child for care, attention, and satisfaction of the parent’s emotional needs
• Shows little concern for the child
Parent/caregiver and child
• Touch or look at each other rarely
• Consider their relationship entirely negative
• State consistently they do not like each other
It is important to pay attention to other behaviors that may seem unusual or concerning. Additionally, the presence of these signs does not necessarily mean that a child is being maltreated; there may be other causes. They are, however, indicators that others should be concerned about the child’s welfare, particularly when multiple signs are present or they occur repeatedly.
Signs of Specific Forms of Child Maltreatment
Table 6.2 – Signs of Physical Abuse293
Scenario
Characteristics
A child who exhibits the following signs may be a victim of physical abuse:
• Has unexplained injuries, such as burns, bites, bruises, broken bones, or black eyes
• Has fading bruises or other noticeable marks after an absence from school
• Seems scared, anxious, depressed, withdrawn, or aggressive
• Seems frightened of his or her parents/caregivers and protests or cries when it is time to go home
• Shrinks at the approach of adults
• Shows changes in eating and sleeping habits
• Reports injury by a parent or another adult caregiver
• Abuses animals or pets
Consider the possibility of physical abuse when a parent or other adult caregiver exhibits the following
• Offers conflicting, unconvincing, or no explanation for the child’s injury or provides an explanation that is not consistent with the injury
• Shows little concern for the child
• Sees the child as entirely bad, burdensome, or worthless
• Uses harsh physical discipline with the child
• Has a history of abusing animals or pets
Table 6.3 – Signs of Sexual Abuse 295
Scenario
Characteristics
A child who exhibits the following signs may be a victim of sexual abuse:
• Has difficulty walking or sitting
• Experiences bleeding, bruising, or swelling in their private parts
• Suddenly refuses to go to school
• Reports nightmares or bedwetting
• Experiences a sudden change in appetite
• Demonstrates bizarre, sophisticated, or unusual sexual knowledge or behavior
• Becomes pregnant or contracts a sexually transmitted disease, particularly if under age 14
• Runs away
• Reports sexual abuse by a parent or another adult caregiver
• Attaches very quickly to strangers or new adults in their environment
Consider the possibility of sexual abuse when a parent or other adult caregiver exhibits the following
• Tries to be the child’s friend rather than assume an adult role
• Makes up excuses to be alone with the child
• Talks with the child about the adult’s personal problems or relationships
Table 6.4 – Signs of Emotional Abuse296
Scenario
Characteristics
A child who exhibits the following signs may be a victim of emotional abuse:
• Shows extremes in behavior, such as being overly compliant or demanding, extremely passive, or aggressive
• Is either inappropriately adult (e.g., parenting other children) or inappropriately infantile (e.g., frequently rocking or head-banging)
• Is delayed in physical or emotional development
• Shows signs of depression or suicidal thoughts
• Reports an inability to develop emotional bonds with others
Consider the possibility of emotional abuse when a parent or other adult caregiver exhibits the following
• Constantly blames, belittles, or berates the child
• Describes the child negatively
• Overtly rejects the child
Table 6.5 – Signs of Neglect297
Scenario
Characteristics
A child who exhibits the following signs may be a victim of neglect:
• Is frequently absent from school
• Begs or steals food or money
• Lacks needed medical care (including immunizations), dental care, or glasses
• Is consistently dirty and has severe body odor
• Lacks sufficient clothing for the weather
• Abuses alcohol or other drugs
• States that there is no one at home to provide care
Consider the possibility of neglect when a parent or other adult caregiver exhibits the following
• Appears to be indifferent to the child
• Seems apathetic or depressed
• Behaves irrationally or in a bizarre manner
• Abuses alcohol or other drugs
Pause to Reflect
Think back to your example situations. What signs might a teacher or caregiver notice for each of these?
Mandated Reporting of Child Maltreatment in California
A list of persons whose profession qualifies them as “mandated reporters” of child abuse or neglect is found in California Penal Code Section 11165.7. The list is extensive and continues to grow. It includes all school/district employees, administrators, and athletic coaches. All persons hired into positions included on the list of mandated reporters are required, upon employment, to be provided with a statement, informing them that they are a mandated reporter and their obligations to report suspected cases of abuse and neglect pursuant to California Penal Code Section 11166.5.
All persons who are mandated reporters are required, by law, to report all known or suspected cases of child abuse or neglect. It is not the job of the mandated reporter to determine whether the allegations are valid. If child abuse or neglect is reasonably suspected or if the child shares information with a mandated reporter leading him/her to believe abuse or neglect has taken place, the report must be made. No supervisor or administrator can impede or inhibit a report or subject the reporting person to any sanction.
To make a report, an employee must contact appropriate local law enforcement or county child welfare agency, listed below. This legal obligation is not satisfied by making a report of the incident to a supervisor or to the school. An appropriate law enforcement agency may be one of the following:
• A Police or Sheriff’s Department (not including a school district police department or school security department).
• A County Probation Department, if designated by the county to receive child abuse reports.
• A County Welfare Department/County Child Protective Services.
The report should be made immediately over the telephone and should be followed up in writing. The law enforcement agency has special forms for this purpose that they will ask you to complete. If a report cannot be made immediately over the telephone, then an initial report may be made via e-mail or fax.
abuse, it should be reported immediately.298
Rights to Confidentiality and Immunity
Mandated reporters are required to give their names when making a report. However, the reporter’s identity is kept confidential. Reports of suspected child abuse are also confidential. Mandated reporters have immunity from state criminal or civil liability for reporting as required. This is true even if the mandated reporter acquired the knowledge, or suspicion of abuse or neglect, outside his/her professional capacity or scope of employment.
Consequences of Failing to Report
A person who fails to make a required report is guilty of a misdemeanor punishable by up to six months in jail and/or up to a \$1,000 fine (California Penal Code Section 11166[c]).
After the Report is Made
The local law enforcement agency is required to investigate all reports. Cases may also be investigated by Child Welfare Services when allegations involve abuse or neglect within families.
Child Protective Services
Child Protective Services (CPS) is the major organization to intervene in child abuse and neglect cases in California. Existing law provides services to abused and neglected children and their families. More information can be found at Child Protective Services.299
The Impact of Childhood Trauma on Well-Being
Child abuse and neglect can have lifelong implications for victims, including on their wellbeing. While the physical wounds may heal, there are many long-term consequences of experiencing the trauma of abuse or neglect. A child or youth’s ability to cope and thrive after trauma is called “resilience.” With help, many of these children can work through and overcome their past experiences.
Children who are maltreated may be at risk of experiencing cognitive delays and emotional difficulties, among other issues, which can affect many aspects of their lives, including their academic outcomes and social skills development (Bick & Nelson, 2016). Experiencing childhood maltreatment also is a risk factor for depression, anxiety, and other psychiatric disorders (FullerThomson, Baird, Dhrodia, & Brennenstuhl, 2016).300
We will look more closely at this when we examine mental health, social and emotional well-being, adverse childhood events, and trauma informed care in Chapter 11.
Working with Children that Have Been Abused
Children who have experienced abuse or neglect need support from caring adults who understand the impact of trauma and how to help. Adverse childhood experiences and trauma-informed care will be addressed more in Chapter 11). Early childhood educators should consider the following suggestions:
• Help children feel safe. Support them in expressing and managing intense emotions. Help children understand their trauma history and current experiences (for example, by helping them understand that what happened was not their fault, or helping them see how their current emotions might be related to past trauma).
• Assess the impact of trauma on the child, and address any trauma-related challenges in the child’s behavior, development, and relationships.
• Support and promote safe and stable relationships in the child’s life, including supporting the child’s family and caregivers if appropriate. Often parents and caregivers have also experienced trauma.
• Manage your own stress. Providers who have histories of trauma themselves may be at particular risk of experiencing secondary trauma symptoms.
• Refer the child to trauma-informed services, which may be more effective than generic services that do not address trauma.301
Summary
Child maltreatment results from the interaction of a number of individual, family, societal, and environmental factors. Child abuse and neglect are not inevitable—safe, stable, and nurturing relationships and environments are key for prevention. Preventing child abuse and neglect can also prevent other forms of violence, as various types of violence are interrelated and share many risk and protective factors, consequences, and effective prevention tactics.302 When there is suspicion that maltreatment has occurred, it’s critical that early childhood educators report that. And being educated on trauma-informed care can help you support children who have been the victims of child maltreatment. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Health_Safety_and_Nutrition_(Paris)/Section_II%3A_Safety/06%3A_Child_Maltreatment.txt |
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Summarize what goes into child and staff health records.
• Describe the process of daily health checks.
• Explain good dental hygiene practices in the classroom.
• Discuss the importance of sleep.
• Identify different screenings early care and education programs can implement.
• Relate the importance of developmental screening.
• Recall ways to engage families in the screening process.
Licensing Regulations
Title 22 Regulations that relate to this chapter include:
101220 CHILD’S MEDICAL ASSESSMENTS
• Prior to, or within 30 calendar days following enrollment, the licensee will obtain a licensed physician’s written medical assessment of the child. The assessment must be less than one year old.
101220.1 IMMUNIZATIONS
• Prior to admission to a Child Care Center, children shall be immunized against diseases as required by the California Code of Regulations, Title 17.
• A child who does not meet any of these requirements shall not be admitted to a Child Care Center.
• The licensee must document and maintain each child’s immunizations records for as long as the child is enrolled.
101221 CHILD’S RECORDS
• A separate, complete and current record for each child must be maintained.
101226.1 DAILY INSPECTION FOR ILLNESS
• The licensee shall be responsible for ensuring the children with obvious symptoms of illness are not accepted.
• No child shall be accepted without contact between center staff and the person bringing the child to the center.
Introduction
Healthy development continues to support learning throughout childhood and later life. “Health in the earliest years…lays the groundwork for a lifetime of well-being…”303 To promote the health of children in early care and education programs, it’s important to keep records of both children's and staff’s health. Programs can support children’s oral health and healthy sleep habits. And they can help identify developmental and health concerns with screening.
Children’s Health Records
“The health and safety of individual children requires that information regarding each child in care be kept and available when needed. Children’s records consist of various documentation such as a child’s medical and immunization history, emergency medical care information, and parental permission to participate in specific activities…Each child care facility must keep accurate records on each child receiving care in child care.”305
Health records can help early care and education programs identify preventative health measures, develop care plans for children with special needs, and determine whether or not a child should be excluded from care due to illness.
California Title 22 Child Care licensing requirements list the following health-related items to include in the child’s records:
• Medical assessment and the following health information:
• Dietary restrictions and allergies.
• Instructions for action to be taken in case the child's authorized representative, or the physician designated by the authorized representative, cannot be reached in an emergency.
• A signed consent form for emergency medical treatment
• Record of any illness or injury requiring treatment by a physician or dentist and for which the center provided assistance to the child in meeting his/her necessary medical or dental needs.
• Record of current medications, including the name of the prescribing physician, and instructions, if any, regarding control and custody of medications.
• Current and updated immunization records306
The National Health and Safety Standards recommends that the following also be included in the child’s records:
• A health history completed by the family at admission
• The child’s health insurance information307
Staff Health Records
It is also important for records to be kept to document the health of all staff in an early care and education program. Licensing requires the following health-related items to be in staff records:
• Health Screening Report
• TB Clearance309
In September of 2016, Senate Bill 792 was passed that requires staff or volunteers in an early care and education program to provide records of immunizations (or immunity) for
• Pertussis
• Measles
• Influenza (annually between August 1 and December 1 of each year; can decline in writing)310
The Importance of Keeping Staff Healthy
A culture of wellness is a working environment where an employee's health and safety is valued, supported, and promoted through worksite, health and wellness programs, policies, benefits, and environmental supports. A culture of wellness for staff is really going to be the foundation for creating a culture of health and safety for children.
Staff have health problems such as obesity and depression at rates above the national average. Early care and education salaries are often low, creating personal financial stress. Staff turnover rates are high. In general, early childhood educators are undervalued for the important and high-demand work they do.
Staff wellness and stability will affect the quality of services a program is able to deliver to families and children. Children need consistent, sensitive, caring, and stable relationships with adults. Adults who are well, physically and mentally, are more likely to engage in positive relationships. When we support staff well-being, we strengthen early care and education.
Programs can use the CDC’s Workplace Health Model to support the health of their staff.311 It is outlined in this image (and a link is provided in the Further Resources to Explore feature at the end of the chapter).
planning and management, implementation, and evaluation.312
Pause to Reflect
What does staying healthy mean to you? What do you do (or could you do) to manage your stress, reinforce your resilience, and keep yourself physically healthy (nutrition, activity, etc.)? How could your employer help you stay healthy?
Daily Health Checks
Every day an informal, observation-based quick health check should be performed on every child (before the parent/caregiver leaves). Early childhood educators should use their knowledge about what is normal for a child to identify any concerns about the child’s well-being (but not as an attempt to formally diagnose illness). It is not a process that formally excludes children from illness, but following up concerns noticed at a health check may find reasons to exclude children.
“In a child care setting where lots of people are coming at the same time, it is hard to take a moment with each child. However, this welcoming routine can establish many things and is a good child development policy. This contact will help [teachers] better understand each child, help the children feel comfortable and good about themselves, reduce the spread of illness by excluding children with obvious signs of illness, and foster better communications with [families].”313
Conducting the Daily Health Check
Teachers should use all of their senses to check for signs of illness. This includes:
• Listening to what families tell you about how their child is feeling and what the child sounds like (hoarse voice, coughing, wheezing, etc.)
• Looking at the child from head to toe (with a quick scan) to see if the child looks flushed, pale, has a rash, has a runny nose or mucus in the eyes
• Feeling the child’s cheek or neck (as part of a greeting) for warmth or clamminess
• Smelling the child for unusual smelling breath or a bowel movement.
Here are the signs to observe for:
• General mood and atypical behavior
• Fever (elevated temperature)
• Rashes or unusual spots, itching, swelling, and bruising
• Complaints of not feeling well
• Symptoms of illness (coughing, sneezing, runny nose, eye or ear discharge, diarrhea, vomiting, etc.)
• Reported illness in child or family members315,316
Dental Hygiene
Dental hygiene is important to prevent Early Childhood Caries (ECC), which is a term used to describe tooth decay, including filled or extracted teeth due to decay, in the primary teeth (baby teeth). It is important to rethink the way we “treat” dental caries. Traditionally, we would wait until a child had a cavity and “treat” the cavity with a filling. In order to prevent ECC, we must intervene before the first cavity develops.317 Early care and education programs can teach children and families about dental hygiene and oral care as well as implement good dental hygiene practices. Here are some ideas:
• Use teaching practices that engage children and promoting thinking critically. Consider asking questions such as:
• How do you brush your teeth?
• Why do you brush your teeth?
• What else can you do to keep your mouth and teeth healthy?
• What happens if you don’t brush your teeth?
• Tell me about your last visit to the dentist.
• Integrate oral health into activities (in addition to tooth brushing). Some possibilities include:
• Having children separate pictures of foods that are good for oral health from pictures of foods that are high in sugar.
• Reading books with positive oral health messages to children.
• Having children pretend they are visiting a dental office.
• Singing songs about oral health
• Engage families in promoting oral health at home. Some ways to do this include:
• Working with families to find the best ways to position their child for tooth brushing. Remind families that young children cannot brush their teeth well until age 7 to 8. It is also important for a parent to brush their child’s teeth or help them with brushing.
• Asking families to take photographs of their child brushing his teeth and helping the child write stories about his experience.
• Helping families choose and prepare foods that promote good oral health.
• Encouraging families to ask their child what she learned about oral health in school that day.
• Offering families suggestions for at-home activities that support what children are learning about oral health at school.318
Classroom Tooth Brushing Steps
1. Sitting at a table in a circle, children brush teeth as a group activity every day.
2. Give each child a small paper cup, a paper towel, and a soft-bristled, child-sized toothbrush.
3. Put a small (pea-sized) dab of fluoride toothpaste on the inside rim of each cup, and have children use their toothbrushes to pick up the dabs of toothpaste.
4. Brush together for two minutes, using an egg timer or a song that lasts for about two minutes.
5. Brush your teeth with the children to set an example, and remind them to brush all of their teeth, on all sides.
6. When the two minutes are up, have the children spit any extra toothpaste into their cups, wipe their mouths and throw the cups and paper towels away.
7. Children can go to the sink in groups to rinse their toothbrushes and put the toothbrushes in holders to dry.319
Sleep Hygiene
It's important to get enough sleep. Sleep supports mind and body health. Getting enough sleep isn’t only about total hours of sleep. It’s also important to get good quality sleep on a regular schedule to feel rested upon waking.
Sleep is an important part of life! Young children spend around half of their time asleep.321
• Babies need to sleep between 12 and 16 hours a day (including naps).
• Toddlers need to sleep between 11 and 14 hours a day (including naps).
• Preschoolers need to sleep between 10 and 13 hours a day (including naps).
• School-aged children need 9 to 12 hours of sleep each night.322
We know how busy they are when they are awake, but what are they doing during all of those restful hours? Actually, sleep has many purposes.
• Growth: Growth hormone is released when children sleep (Berk 2002, 302). Young children are growing in their sleep, and since they have a lot of growing to do, they need all the sleep they can get.
• Restoration: Some sleep researchers have found that sleep is important for letting the brain relax and restore some of the hormones and nutrients it needs (Jenni & O’Conner 1995, 205).
• Memory: Sleep is also a time when the brain is figuring out what experiences from the day are important to remember (Jenni & O’Conner 1995, 205).
• Health: One study found that infants and toddlers need at least 12 hours of sleep in a 24 hour day. When infants and toddlers had less than 12 hours they were more likely to be obese by the age of 3 (Taveras et. al. 2008, 305).323
The Culture of Sleep and Child Care
Across the world people sleep in different ways. Some people sleep inside, some sleep outside. Some people sleep in beds, others in hammocks or on mats on the floor. Some people sleep alone, some sleep with a spouse or children or both. Some people sleep only at night, while others value a nap during the day. How, when, and where people choose to sleep has a lot to do with their culture, traditions, and customs. This can include where they live, how their family sleeps, even how many bedrooms are in their home. Teachers have a role in providing a sleep environment that is comfortable and safe for the children in their care, while honoring families’ cultural beliefs.
What can teachers do to help young children feel more “at home” when it is time for them to rest?
• Think of sleep and sleep routines as part of the child’s individualized curriculum.
• Classroom teachers should meet with a family before a child enters your care. This is an opportunity to find out about a child’s sleep habits before they join the classroom. When you know how a baby sleeps at home, you can use that information to plan for how they might sleep best in your care.
• Brainstorm ways to adapt your classroom to help a child feel “at home” during rest times. For example, a baby who is used to sleeping in a busy environment might nap better if you roll a crib into the classroom. Some mobile infants and toddlers might have a hard time sleeping in child care because they think they will miss something fun! These children benefit from having a very quiet place to fall asleep. When you have a positive relationship with a baby it will be easier to know what will help them relax into sleep.
• Encourage families to bring in “a little bit of home” to the program – like a stuffed animal or special blanket. A comfort item from home can help children feel connected to their families. They might want that comfort all day. The comfort item from home can also help children make the transition to sleep while in your care. Make sure that infants under one year of age do not have any extra toys or blankets in the crib with them.
• Share with families what you learn about their child. Use pick up and drop off times to ask questions about sleep at home. Families can share information that could make their child more comfortable in your care. You can be a resource for families about sleep and their child. Remember that families are the experts about their child.
Napping and Individual Differences
Have you noticed that some children will fall asleep every day at the same time no matter what else is going on? These kids could fall asleep into their lunch if it is served too late! Have you known children who seem to fall asleep easily some days and other times just can’t settle into sleep? These children might need a very stable routine. Some toddlers nap less and sleep more at night while others need to have a long sleep during the day.
Temperament and Sleep
Some of the different patterns in children’s sleep has to do with their temperament (Jenni & O’Connor 2005, 204). Temperament is like the personality we are born with. Some children are naturally easy-going and adapt to new situations while others really need a routine that is the same every day. One child might fall asleep easily just by putting her in her crib or cot when she is drifting off to sleep. Another child might fall asleep in your arms but startle awake the moment he realizes he has been laid down alone.
Circadian Rhythms and Sleep
Something else that can make nap time easy or difficult for young children has to do with their natural sleep cycles. Everyone has a kind of “clock” inside of their bodies that tells them when they are hungry or sleepy. The cycle of this clock is called circadian rhythms. Circadian rhythms are the patterns of sleeping, waking, eating, body temperature and even hormone releases in your body over a twenty-four hour period. How much children need to sleep, when they feel tired, and how easily they can fall asleep are all related to their circadian rhythms (Ferber 2006, 31).
Meeting Each Individual Child’s Sleep Needs
Thinking about the circadian rhythms and temperament reminds us how each child is different. That is why it is important to have nap times that meet the needs of all children in your care. Helping young children to learn to recognize their bodies’ needs and find ways to meet those needs is the very important skill of self-regulation.324
Individualizing Nap Schedules
Creating a space for sleepy children can allow them to relax or nap when their body tells them they are tired. It can take some creativity to figure out how to let a young child nap or rest when they are tired.
What do you do if a child won’t nap when others are? How does one child rest quietly in a busy classroom?
Two-and-a-half-year-old Henry is new to your classroom. His mother has shared with you that he does not nap during the day with her. When nap time comes around you can tell that Henry does not seem very tired.
What can you do for Henry, or other children like him, while the rest of the class sleeps?
• Do you have a “cozy corner” that could also be a one child nap area?
• Are there soft places to sit and relax with a book or stuffed animal?
• Are books or other quiet activities provided if a child isn’t able to rest or settle when other children are?
• Are children provided techniques and strategies for calming their bodies e.g. deep breathing, tensing and relaxing their bodies, feeling their heartbeat, etc?326
Developmental and Health Screenings
There are specific health conditions that impact learning and development, which can be identified and treated early. These conditions can be identified through early health screening.327
Screening is the first step in getting to know a child at the beginning of each enrollment year. This "baseline data" helps staff plan and individualize services. It also helps them identify "red flags" for further examination or evaluation. When concerns go unidentified, they can lead to bigger problems.328
Screening helps staff and families:
• Celebrate milestones: Every family looks forward to seeing a child’s first smile, first step, and first words. Regular screenings with early childhood professionals help raise awareness of a child’s development, making it easier to celebrate developmental milestones.
• Promote universal screening: All children need support in the early years to stay healthy and happy. Just like regular hearing and vision screenings can assure that children are able to hear and see clearly, developmental and behavioral screenings can assure that children are making progress in areas such as language, social, or motor development.
• Identify possible delays and concerns early: With regular screenings, families, teachers, and other professionals can assure that young children get the services and supports they need as early as possible to help them thrive.
• Enhance developmental supports: Families are children’s first and most important teachers. Tools, guidance, and tips recommended by experts, can help families support their children's development.329
Screening is part of a larger process professionals use to learn about children's health and development. In partnership with families, developmental monitoring (or surveillance), screening, and assessment keep children on track developmentally.
What is the Difference Between Screening, Assessment, and Evaluation
Screening
The screening process is the preliminary step to determine if sensory, behavioral, and development skills are progressing as expected. The screening itself does not determine a diagnosis or need for early intervention.
Assessment
Assessment is an on-going process to determine a child’s and family’s strengths and needs. The assessment process should be continued throughout a child’s eligibility and be used to determine strategies to support the development of the child in the classroom and at home. This can be both a formal or informal process.
Evaluation
A formal evaluation is performed by a qualified professional to identify or diagnose a developmental, sensory, or behavioral condition or disability requiring intervention. Only children who were identified through screening and ongoing assessment as possibly having a condition or disability might require intervention. The Early Intervention Part C agency or Local Education Agency in your community must be notified for a formal evaluation to determine his or her eligibility for early intervention, special education or other related services.330
A couple of important things to remember about screening:
• Children develop rapidly during the first three years of life, so keeping a watchful eye on health and development for infants and toddlers is critical.
• Most early childhood programs serve diverse families. Therefore, the best screening tools gather information in ways that respond to culture and language.331
• Developmental screening using research-based standardized developmental screening instruments that are valid and reliable for the population and purpose for which they will be used; age, developmentally, culturally, and linguistically appropriate, and appropriate for children with disabilities, as needed; and conducted by qualified and trained personnel. Currently, standardized screening instruments for children birth to age 5 are widely available in English and Spanish, but are virtually unavailable for children whose families speak other languages.332
Engaging Families in Screening and Follow-Up
Families can be your most powerful ally and asset throughout the screening process. They are the expert on their child and can provide meaningful and reliable information. Screenings are also an opportunity to support families to focus on their child and increase their understanding of their child’s development.
When families are active partners in the assessment (and intervention) process, staff and families are able to share an understanding of what is best for the child, the families ' priorities, and goals for the child’s learning and development.
You can engage families by:
• Discussing and explaining the screening process and results. Make sure to include an explanation of the tools you used and any relevant developmental, linguistic or cultural accommodations made for their child.
• Listening to parent feedback and concerns on the screening and assessment system. What was useful or confusing to them?
• Helping families navigate follow up. Does the child need a formal evaluation? If so, how can you help the parent begin this process?
• Engaging your Parent Committee to inform a program’s screening procedures. How can our program make this easier for families?
• Partnering with families to determine individual health services appropriate for their child.333
Developmental Monitoring and Screening
The first years of life are so important for a child’s development. Early experiences make a difference in how young children’s brains develop and can influence lifelong learning and health. Early childhood educators spend a great deal of time with young children and are instrumental in determining many of the kinds of experiences they will have. Developmental monitoring means observing and noting specific ways a child plays, learns, speaks, acts, and moves every day, in an ongoing way. Developmental monitoring often involves tracking a child’s development using a checklist of developmental milestones.
Teachers are in a unique position to monitor the development of each child in their care. They may be the first one to observe potential delays in a child’s development. Working with groups of same-aged children can help teachers recognize children who reach milestones early and late. Working with children of different ages can help teachers notice if a child’s skills are more similar to those of a younger or older child than to those of his or her same-aged peers. Because teachers spend their day teaching, playing with, and watching children, they may find themselves concerned that a child in their care is not reaching milestones that other children his or her age have, or they may have families ask them if they are concerned about their child’s development. 334
The first time I heard the term “developmental monitoring,” I was really intimidated and thought, “this sounds really complicated and time-consuming. How am I going to do that on top of everything else I have to do during the day?”
I was so relieved when I found out that “developmental monitoring” is just a fancy way of saying “watch, observe and record what the kids are doing to make sure they’re on track.” I just mark on a simple checklist when children meet milestones.
We observe children every day anyway. We watch what they’re doing when they play in the classroom or outside, when they eat, and so on. Monitoring is just that: watching and observing, and recording what you see. Making a check on a list when a child meets a milestone takes about two seconds, and it’s easier than just about anything else we do all day. It’s definitely easier than getting a room full of toddlers to sleep at naptime, and it’s a lot more fun than changing diapers!
And if that’s all it takes to really make sure each child is on track and to make sure I’m not missing anything in all the hubbub each day, I’m all over it!
-Ms. Carolyn (an early childhood educator)335
A complete list of developmental milestones for children from birth to age 8 is in Appendix I, but here are some examples of children birth to age 5 that showcase typical milestones for their age.
Pause to Reflect
Do you feel like you are less knowledgeable about or have less experience with a specific age of children (refer to Appendix I to see detailed milestones from 2 months through 12 years of age)? What can you do to improve your familiarity with the milestones for children that age? Why would this be important?
Developmental screening is a more formal process that uses a validated screening tool at specific ages to determine if a child's development is on track or whether he or she needs to be referred for further evaluation.337
Screening alone is not enough to identify a developmental concern. Rather, it helps staff and families decide whether to refer a child for more evaluation by a qualified professional. The earlier a possible delay is identified, the earlier a program can refer a child for further evaluation and additional supports and services.338
Most children with developmental delays are not identified early enough for them to benefit from early intervention services; early care and education programs can help change that. Although about 1 in 6 children has a developmental disability, less than half of these children are identified as having a problem before starting school.
Too often, adults don’t recognize the signs of a potential developmental disability, they are not sure if their concern is warranted, or they don’t have resources to help make their concern easier to talk about. But pinpointing concerns and talking about them is very important to get a child the help he or she might need.339
Developmental screening involves:
• Research-based, standardized developmental screening tools
• Information from family members, teachers, and other staff who know the child
• Written parental consent before starting the screening
• Communication with families in their home language
Appropriate Screening Tools
When searching for screening tools, keep the following in mind.
• Screening tools must be research-based and designed to be a brief measure of development that identifies if the child needs a more in-depth evaluation.
• Screening tools should be
• Age-appropriate
• Culturally appropriate
• Sensitive to the family's home language
• Used by trained and qualified personnel
• Valid for the intended results
• Reliable across users
• Clearly identified for use in screening
Programs need to make careful and informed decisions about whether to screen a child who is a dual language learner (DLL) in their home language, English, or both. Some skills may look different depending on the child's culture and background. Use a screening tool that considers the child's cultural context. When a culturally appropriate screening tool is not available, asking families about their child's typical behavior becomes even more critical. This information helps staff interpret screening results.
Timing
Programs should complete the first developmental screening in the first month or two of care. Programs may keep track of a child's development with an annual screening after that. Also, a child and family's primary health care provider may do developmental screening, autism spectrum disorder screening, and developmental surveillance.
After Screening
These are examples of the next steps a program might take based on the results of the screening.
Results: There are no concerns.
Action: The child participates in ongoing, individualized care. Staff do ongoing child assessments.
Results: The results are unclear or there may be additional concerns.
Action: The child participates in ongoing, individualized care. Staff do ongoing child assessments. The family and staff closely observe the child's development over time to decide if they should re-screen or evaluate the child.
Results: The screening or information collected from family members, teachers, and other program staff found some concerns.
Action: The child participates in ongoing, individualized care. Program staff work with the family to refer the child for a free evaluation. Infants and toddlers go to the appropriate Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Part C agency and preschool children go to the appropriate Part B agency, usually a school district. Families may need support to navigate the referral and evaluation process.340
If a delay or disability is diagnosed, early treatment is important. Speech therapy, physical therapy, and other services are available in every state for free or at low cost to families. However, if a developmental concern is not identified early, families can't take advantage of these services.341
Vision Screening
Families and early care and education staff cannot always tell when a child has trouble seeing. Observation alone isn’t enough. This is why implementing evidence-based vision screening throughout early childhood is important.
Timely vision screening (coupled with an eye examination2 when indicated) is an important step toward early detection of any possible vision problems. Early detection can lead to an effective intervention and help to restore proper vision. Young children rarely complain when they can’t see well because to them, it’s normal.
Engaging Families
It is easier for families to partner with early care and education staff and health care providers when they understand how vision influences their child’s development and learning. Preparing families about what to expect from a vision screening helps them know how to prepare their child. It is also important to talk about who will have access to their child’s screening results. One of the best ways to promote children’s vision health is by developing and implementing policies and procedures that both define and support ways for staff to collaborate with families.
Include questions on the program’s family health history form to identify children who may have a higher risk of vision problems. For example is there a family history of amblyopia, strabismus, or early and serious eye disease?
Provide resources to help families learn more about healthy eyes and the importance of early detection of vision problems. Do families know that it isn’t always possible to tell if children have a vision problem just by looking at their eyes? Or that young children seldom complain when they can’t see well?
In addition to assuring timely vision screening, programs can support children and families who have been given treatment recommendations from an eye specialist (such as wearing glasses or patching one eye for amblyopia), as well as reminding families of follow-up visits to the eye doctor whenever recommended.
Rescreening
Programs that perform vision screenings will need to determine when to rescreen children who do not pass. Some children may be unable to pay attention, cooperate or understand what they need to do during the first attempt at screening. This is especially true for visual acuity testing. These children may not have “failed” their vision screening. They may be considered “untestable.”
Research shows that preschool children who are “untestable” are almost twice as likely to have a vision problem as those who successfully pass a screening. They should be rescreened as soon as possible, but not longer than 6 months later. If a child fails or is untestable at the second attempt, consider referring the child for a full eye examination.
Ongoing Care
It is important to remember that screening only provides a vision assessment at one moment in time. Occasionally a family member or teacher will identify a new or different vision concern after a child has been previously screened. In addition, as children grow their eyes change and new signs of an eye problem or blurred vision can arise as they mature. Programs should address this new concern with the parent and the health care provider promptly.343
Hearing Screening
Families and early care and education staff cannot always tell when a child is deaf or hard of hearing. Observation alone isn’t enough. This is why implementing evidence-based hearing screening throughout early childhood is important.
Hearing helps us communicate with others and understand the world around us. However, about 2 to 3 of every 1,000 children in the United States are born deaf or hard of hearing. A child may also experience a decline in hearing ability at any time caused by illness, physical trauma, or environmental or genetic factors. It is estimated that the incidence of permanent hearing loss doubles by the time children enter school. A child may have difficulty hearing in one ear or both ears. The difficulty may be temporary or permanent. It may be mild or it may be a complete inability to hear spoken language and other important sounds.
Any inability to hear clearly can get in the way of a child’s speech, language, social and emotional development, and school readiness. Intervention may improve social and emotional and academic achievement when children who are deaf or hard of hearing are identified early.
An evidence-based hearing screening is a way to identify children who need an evaluation to determine if they are deaf or hard of hearing. Prior to discharge from the hospital, almost all newborns are screened and an evaluation is necessary for those who do not pass the screening.
Engaging Families
It is easier for families to partner with early care and education staff and health care providers when they understand how hearing influences their child’s speech and language development, socialization, and learning. Preparing families about what to expect from a hearing screening helps them know how to prepare their child. It is also important to talk about who will have access to their child’s screening results. When a child does not pass a hearing screening, programs can provide support to help families follow up with referrals and any recommended treatment. If a child is identified as deaf or hard of hearing, collaboration between the family, the early care and education program, and the child’s audiologist and other early intervention providers will be helpful. Share information with the family about the importance of hearing for children’s language development and communication. This supports a family’s health literacy, and it may help them complete the follow-up steps.
Rescreening
If your program performs a hearing screening and a child does not pass, it is important for you to collaborate with and support the family to complete all recommended follow-up steps.
• The child is typically screened a second time within about 2 weeks.
• If the child does not pass, the child should be referred to a health care provider for a middle ear evaluation. A health care provider can diagnose and treat common problems such as earwax buildup or middle ear infections. A third screening is necessary after the medical examination.
• If a child still does not pass, programs should recommend for a referral to a pediatric audiologist for a complete diagnostic evaluation.
It is also important for programs to support families to follow up if the program obtains results from the child’s health care provider indicating that the child did not pass a hearing screening.345
Pause to Reflect
Do you remember getting your vision or hearing screened during your childhood? If you were diagnosed with vision or hearing impairments, how was it discovered? At what age did that happen?
Lead Screening
Lead screening measures the level of lead in the blood. Lead is a poison that is very dangerous for young children because of their small size and rapid growth and development. It can cause anemia, learning difficulties, and other medical problems.
Children can inhale or swallow lead through exposure to:
• Home or child care environments, including those:
• Built before 1960 with peeling paint or renovation
• Located near a highway or lead industry
• Family members who work with lead or have been treated for lead poisoning
• Imported ceramic pottery for cooking, storing, or serving food
• Home remedies with lead
• Certain candies, which may contain high levels of lead in the wrapper or stick. Be cautious when providing imported candies to children.
• Eating paint chips or dirt
• Water pumped through lead-based pipes
Lead screening involves a blood lead test, from a finger stick or a venous blood draw. It is recommended at 12 months and 24 months of age. Children from 3 to 6 years of age should have their blood tested if they have not been tested
Symptoms of Lead Poisoning
Most children with lead poisoning show no symptoms. However, you might notice:
• Developmental delay
• Learning Difficulties
• Irritability
• Headaches
• Poor appetite or stomachache
• Weight loss
• Fatigue and sluggishness
• Slow growth and development
• Vomiting
• Constipation
• Hearing loss
Follow-Up to Lead Screening
New recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) state that if screening indicates a lead level of five micrograms per deciliter or more, the child should be referred to a health professional. 346
Lead has negative outcomes on a variety of things, including:
• Attention (easily distracted, challenges with sustained attention, hyperactivity)
• executive functions (problems with planning, impulse control, flexible thinking, etc.)
• visual-spatial skills (problems related to visual perception, memory, organization, and reasoning with visually presented information)
• social behavior (aggression, disruptive behavior, poor self-regulation)
• speech and language (problems with phonological and sentence processing and spoken word recognition)
• fine and gross motor skills (unsteadiness, clumsiness, and problems with coordination, visual-motor control, and dexterity)347
Depending on the effects of lead poisoning, early care and education programs can implement intervention services to support the child. Other treatments include:
• Nutrition counseling
• Iron supplements
• Medication to remove the lead from the blood
• Follow-up testing of the child's blood
• Referral for developmental testing348
Social and Emotional and Behavioral Screening
Young children are learning to get along with others and manage their own emotions. When a child enters a program, staff get to know what social and emotional skills children are working on. They can use social and emotional or behavioral screening tools to gather that information.349
support for children’s social and emotional health.350
Social and emotional health—the ability to form strong relationships, solve problems, and express and manage emotions—is critical for school readiness and lifelong success. Without it, young children are more likely to:
• Have difficulty experiencing or showing emotions, which may lead to withdrawal from social activities and maintaining distance from others
• Have trouble making friends and getting along with others
• Have behaviors, such as biting, hitting, using unkind words, or bullying—behaviors that often lead to difficulty with learning, suspension or expulsion, and later school dropout351
More information about this topic can be found in other parts of this book. Behavior has been addressed in Chapter 3 in the section on Interpersonal Safety and children’s mental health is the focus of Chapter 11.
Summary
By keeping accurate records, conducting daily health checks, supporting children’s development of good dental hygiene, and by providing for individual children’s sleep needs early care and education programs can help promote good health on a daily basis. When programs monitor and screen children, they can ensure that conditions or situations that might interfere with a child’s health or well-being can be identified and supports put in place to mitigate potential negative effects. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Health_Safety_and_Nutrition_(Paris)/Section_III%3A_Health/07%3A_Promoting_Good_Health_and_Wellness.txt |
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Describe each of the five ways illness is transmitted.
• Explain how immunization prevents illness.
• Identify standard precautions to prevent illness.
• Discuss practices to protect children from environmental hazards.
Licensing Regulations
Title 22 Regulations that relate to this chapter include:
101226.2 ISOLATION FOR ILLNESS
• A center shall be equipped to isolate and care for any child who becomes ill during the day.
• The child’s authorized representative shall be notified immediately when the child becomes ill enough to require isolation, and shall be asked to pick up the child as soon as possible.
• (from 101426.2) In addition to 101226.2, the isolation area for infants must have a crib, cot, mat or playpen for each ill infant. This isolation area must be under constant visual supervision by staff.
101231 SMOKING PROHIBITION
• Smoking is prohibited on the premises of a Child Care Center.
101238 BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS
• The center shall be clean, safe, sanitary and in good repair at all times.
101238.4 STORAGE SPACE
• Each child shall have an individual storage space for personal items.
101239.1 NAPPING EQUIPMENT
• Cots must be maintained in a safe condition.
• Floor mats used for napping must be at least ¾ inch thick, covered with vinyl or similar material that can be wiped, and marked to distinguish the sleeping side from the floor side.
• Bedding must be individually stored and kept clean
101428 INFANT CARE PERSONAL SERVICES
• There shall be a written toilet-training plan for each infant being toilet trained.
• Whenever a potty chair is used, it shall be placed on the floor and promptly emptied, cleaned and disinfected after each use.
• No child shall be left unattended while on a potty chair or seat.
• Each child shall receive instruction and assistance in hand washing after use of the toilet. The infant shall be kept clean and dry at all times.
• Soiled or wet clothing provided by the infant’s representative shall be placed in an airtight container and given to the representative at the end of the day.
• Towels and washcloths used for cleaning infants shall not be shared and shall be washed after each use.
• The changing table shall be disinfected after each use.
101438.1 INFANT CARE GENERAL SANITATION
• All items used by pets and animals shall be kept out of the reach of infants.
• Each caregiver shall wash his/her hands with soap and water before feeding and after each diaper change.
• Areas that infants have access to shall be washed, cleared and sanitized as follows: floors shall be vacuumed or swept and mopped daily and as often as necessary. Carpeted floors shall be vacuumed daily and cleaned at least every 6 months. Walls shall be washed with disinfecting solution at least weekly.
• The diaper changing area shall be disinfected including walls and floors. After each diaper change, counter tops, sinks, drawers and cabinets near diaper changing area shall be washed.
• Objects that are used by infants that are mouthed shall be washed and disinfected.
• Only dispenser soap in an appropriate dispenser shall be used.
• Only disposable paper towels in an appropriate holder or dispenser shall be used for hand drying.
Healthy Schools Act
A California law called the Healthy Schools Act requires certain rules to be followed when anyone applies pesticides at the child care facility.352
Introduction
Science and experience tell us that infectious disease, especially gastrointestinal disease, which means vomiting and diarrhea, and respiratory disease, including coughs, colds, sore throats, and runny noses, are increased among children who are cared for in out-of-home group settings. In addition, such children may be at increased risk for certain other infections that may be transmitted by insects or by body fluids. It's also true that children who are cared for in group out-of-home settings are more likely to experience infectious illnesses that are more severe and more prolonged (although 90% of those infections are mild and self-limited, requiring no special treatment).
But there's good news, too. Infectious illnesses such as pneumonia and influenza, which together were the leading causes of death among U.S. children in the early 20th century, have declined 99.7 percent. Common childhood illnesses such as diphtheria, whooping cough, measles, mumps, and rubella are rare except in communities where immunization rates are low, and polio is unheard of in our country today.
Although younger children are more susceptible to infectious illness because their immune systems are immature, as they grow older, the incidents of infectious disease decreases as their immune systems mature. Furthermore, children who experience more infectious disease at an early age in group out-of-home care have a decreasing incidence of infectious disease as they grow older. In fact, they have less infectious illnesses in kindergarten than children who were taken care of exclusively at home. Illness also decreases with years of attendance in out-of-home early care and education settings.
There are negative consequences of childhood illness, including:
• It’s unpleasant to be sick (for children or the adults that may also become infected).
• Illnesses that are minor in children can be much more serious for adults and pregnant women.
• Some illnesses have severe effects (and can even be life-threatening).
• There are short-term medical costs.
• There may also be additional child care costs or lost wages for parents/caregivers of children that must be excluded from group care.
• Overuse of antibiotics in an effort to get children well contributes to antibiotic resistance among common bacteria.
To prevent illness we need to understand the different ways illness is spread, how immunizations protect children, and what universal precautions early care and education program staff can take to prevent the spread of illness.
How Illnesses are Transmitted
Bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites that cause illness can be transmitted in five ways, including through:
1. the respiratory route
2. the fecal-oral route
3. the direct contact route
4. the bodily fluid route (including blood, urine, vomit, and saliva)
5. the vector-borne route
Respiratory Transmission
Most respiratory germs stay in the nose, sinuses, mouth and throat, or possibly the middle ear. Upper respiratory illnesses (colds) are the most common and the most likely to be transmitted in early care and education settings.
The more common respiratory illnesses include:
• Sinusitis
• Sore throat
• Common cold
• Recurrent middle ear infection
• Strep throat
• RSV
• Pneumonia
• Bronchitis
Pneumonia and bronchitis are rarely the result of an infection picked up in an early education setting. We also have immunizations for many respiratory diseases that are rarely transmitted in early care and education settings today, including:
• Mumps
• Measles
• Bacterial meningitis
• Chicken pox
• Diphtheria
• Pertussis
• Pneumonia
• Seasonal flu
If we could actually see what comes out of a child's mouth along with a cough or a sneeze, we might appreciate the respiratory route of infectious disease transmission more.
The germs that are in this contaminated cloud of exhalation can wind up on surfaces and hands and be transmitted to others. Staff and children who are able to are encouraged to cough into their sleeves. Covering your mouth with your hand only transfers these germs to your hand. This will be addressed more in depth later in the chapter.
Fecal-Oral Transmission
When organisms that live in our intestines get into our mouths they can cause illness. Usually, this happens via someone's hands, usually our own. Fecal-oral routes diseases include:
• Hepatitis A
• diarrhea
• hand, foot, and mouth disease
• pinworms
• rotavirus
• norovirus
• giardia
• shigella
• cryptosporidiosis
That is why it is so important that everyone wash hands after using the bathroom, changing diapers, when preparing food, and before eating.
Food Poisoning
E. coli and salmonella are two of the germs that you may also have heard mentioned in the news when grocery stores send back fresh vegetables, meat, or poultry. These organisms originate with farm animals themselves and they can cause diarrhea and vomiting if children or staff eat contaminated food. Properly preparing and serving fresh produce, meat, and poultry is essential to prevent food poisoning.
Direct Contact Transmission
Direct contact with another person's skin (or hair) puts infants and children at risk of illnesses such as:
• cold sores
• conjunctivitis
• pink eye
• impetigo
• lice
• scabies
• ringworm (a fungus, not a worm).
Bodily Fluid Transmission
Bodily fluids, including saliva, urine, vomit, and blood, can cause illness, such as:
• Dental caries (by saliva)
• Cytomegalovirus or CMV (by urine)
• Hepatitis B (preventable by vaccine)
• Hepatitis C (rare in children)
• HIV (no cases of transmission in an early education setting)
Vector-Borne Transmission
A vector is a living thing that can transmit disease. We know, for example, that ticks can transmit Lyme disease and Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Fleas are known to transmit Bubonic plague and typhus. Mosquitoes can infect people with St. Louis encephalitis (SLE), dengue fever, Zika virus, and West Nile disease. Rats and mice can transmit leptospirosis, trichinosis, hantavirus, and bacterial food poisoning. Raccoons can spread raccoon roundworm.
While these illnesses are relatively uncommon, the risk reminds us of the importance of
• utilizing integrated pest management techniques to keep insects and rodents out of buildings (covered later in this chapter)
• using insect repellant specifically recommended for children during outdoor activities
• removing standing water in which mosquitoes can lay their eggs
• checking for and removing ticks (addressed in Figure 4.10) in centers when children come back in after playing in or near heavily wooded areas356
Pause to Reflect
Why is it important to understand how illnesses and diseases are spread?
Immunizations
Prevention of infectious disease starts with immunizations (or vaccines). Immunizations are considered the number one public health intervention of the 20th century and one of the top 10 interventions of the first decade of the 21st century.357
On-time vaccination throughout childhood is essential because it helps provide immunity before children are exposed to potentially life-threatening diseases. Vaccines are tested to ensure that they are safe and effective for children to receive at the recommended ages.358 See Figure 8.X for the current schedule of immunizations.
Fully vaccinated children in the U.S. are protected against sixteen potentially harmful diseases (see Figure 8.X). Vaccine-preventable diseases can be very serious, may require hospitalization, or even be deadly — especially in infants and young children.359
Here is the schedule from the CDC to ensure a child is fully vaccinated:
2
The current schedule of vaccines (see Figure 8.6) protects children from the illnesses listed in Table 8.1)
Table 8.1 – Vaccine-Preventable Diseases.361
Disease
Vaccine
Disease Spread By
Disease Symptoms
Disease Complications
Chick-pox
Varicella vaccine protects against chick pox
Air, direct contact
Rash, tiredness, headache, fever
Infected blisters, bleeding disorders, encephalitis (brain
swelling), pneumonia (infection in the lungs)
Diphtheria
DtaP* vaccine protects against diphtheria
Air, direct contact
Sore throat, mild fever, weakness, swollen
glands in neck
Swelling Of the heart muscle, heart failure, coma, Paralysis, death
HiB
Hib vaccine protects against Haemophilus
Influenza type b
Air, direct contact
May be no symptoms unless bacteria
enter the blood
Meningitis (infection of the covering around the brain
and spinal cord), intellectual disability. epiglottitis
(life-threatening infection that can block the windpipe
And lead to serious breathing problems), pneumonia
(infection in the lungs), death
Hepatitis A
HepA vaccine protects against hepatitis A.
Direct contact, contaminated
food or water
May be no symptoms - fever, stomach pain,
loss of appetite. Fatigue, vomiting, jaundice
(yellowing of skin and eyes). dark urine
Liver failure. arthralgia (joint pain), kidney, pancreatic,
and blood disorders
Hepatitis B
HepB vaccine protects against hepatitis B.
Contact With
body fluids
May be no symptoms fever, headache,
weakness, vomiting, jaundice (yellowing of
skin and eyes), joint pain
Chronic liver infection, liver failure, liver cancer
Influenza (Flu)
Flu vaccine protects against influenza.
Air, direct contact
Fever, muscle pain, sore throat, cough,
extreme fatigue
Pneumonia (infection in the lungs)
Measles
MMR* vaccine protects against measles.
Air, direct contact
Rash, fever, tough, runny nose, pinkeye
Encephalitis (brain swelling), pneumonia (infection in
the lungs). death
Mumps
MMR* vaccine protects against mumps.
Air, direct contact
Swollen salivary glands (under the jaw), fever,
headache, tiredness, muscle pain
Meningitis (infection of the covering around the brain
and spinal cord) , encephalitis (brain swelling), inflammation Of testes or ovaries, deafness
Pertussis
DTap* vaccine protects against pertussis
(whooping cough).
Air, direct contact
Severe cough, runny nose, apnea (a pause in
breathing in infants)
Pneumonia (infection in the lungs), death
Polio
IPV vaccine protects against polio.
Air. direct contact, through
the mouth
May be no symptoms, sore throat, fever,
nausea. headache
Paralysis, death
Pneumococcal
POII 3 vaccine protects against pneumococcus.
Air, direct contact
May be no symptoms -. pneumonia (infection
in the lungs)
Bacteremia (blood infection), meningitis (infection of
the covering around the brain and spinal cord). death
Rotavirus
RV vaccine protects against rotavirus.
Through the mouth
Diarrhea, fever, vomiting
Severe diarrhea, dehydration
Rubella
MMR* vaccine protects against rubella.
Air, direct contact
Children infected with rubella virus sometimes
have a rash, fever. swollen nodes
Very serious in pregnant women—can lead to miscarriages, stillbirth, premature delivery, birth defects
Tetanus
DTap* vaccine protects against tetanus.
Exposure through cuts in skin
Stiffness in neck and muscles,
difficulty swallowing, muscle spasms, fever
Broken bones, breathing difficulty, death
How Vaccines Work
The immune system helps the human body fight germs by producing substances to combat them. Once it does, the immune system “remembers” the germ and can fight it again. Vaccines contain germs that have been killed or weakened. When given to a healthy person, the vaccine triggers the immune system to respond and thus build immunity.
Before vaccines, people became immune only by actually getting a disease and surviving it. Immunizations are an easier and less risky way to become immune.
Vaccines are the best defense we have against serious, preventable, and sometimes deadly contagious diseases. Vaccines are some of the safest medical products available, but like any other medical product, there may be risks. Accurate information about the value of vaccines as well as their possible side effects helps people to make informed decisions about vaccination.
Potential Side Effects
Vaccines, like all medical products, may cause side effects in some people. Most of these side effects are minor, such as redness or swelling at the injection site. Read further to learn about possible side effects of vaccines.
Any vaccine can cause side effects. For the most part, these are minor (for example, a sore arm or low-grade fever) and go away within a few days.362 Serious side effects after vaccination, such as severe allergic reaction, are very rare.363
Remember, vaccines are continually monitored for safety, and like any medication, vaccines can cause side effects. However, a decision not to immunize a child also involves risk and could put the child and others who come into contact with him or her at risk of contracting a potentially deadly disease.
How Well Do Vaccines Work?
Vaccines work really well. No medicine is perfect, of course, but most childhood vaccines produce immunity about 90–100% of the time.
What about the argument made by some people that vaccines don’t work that well and that diseases would be going away on their own because of better hygiene or sanitation, even if there were no vaccines?
That simply isn’t true. Certainly better hygiene and sanitation can help prevent the spread of disease, but the germs that cause disease will still be around, and as long as they are they will continue to make people sick.
All vaccines must be licensed (approved) by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) before being used in the United States, and a vaccine must go through extensive testing to show that it works and that it is safe before the FDA will approve it. Among these tests are clinical trials, which compare groups of people who get a vaccine with groups of people who get a control. A vaccine is approved only if FDA makes the determination that it is safe and effective for its intended use.
If you look at the history of any vaccine-preventable disease, you will virtually always see that the number of cases of disease starts to drop when a vaccine is licensed. Vaccines are the most effective tool we have to prevent infectious diseases.
Opposition to Vaccines
In 2010, a pertussis (whooping cough) outbreak in California sickened 9,143 people and resulted in 10 infant deaths: the worst outbreak in 63 years (Centers for Disease Control 2011b). Researchers, suspecting that the primary cause of the outbreak was the waning strength of pertussis vaccines in older children, recommended a booster vaccination for 11–12-year-olds and also for pregnant women (Zacharyczuk 2011). Pertussis is most serious for babies; one in five needs to be hospitalized, and since they are too young for the vaccine themselves, it is crucial that people around them be immunized (Centers for Disease Control 2011b). Several states, including California, have been requiring the pertussis booster for older children in recent years with the hope of staving off another outbreak.
But what about people who do not want their children to have this vaccine, or any other? That question is at the heart of a debate that has been simmering for years. Vaccines are biological preparations that improve immunity against a certain disease. Vaccines have contributed to the eradication and weakening of numerous infectious diseases, including smallpox, polio, mumps, chickenpox, and meningitis.
However, many people express concern about the potential negative side effects of vaccines. These concerns range from fears about overloading the child’s immune system to controversial reports about devastating side effects of the vaccines.365
Although children continue to get several vaccines up to their second birthday, these vaccines do not overload the immune system. Every day, an infant’s healthy immune system successfully fights off thousands of antigens – the parts of germs that cause their immune system to respond. Even if your child receives several vaccines in one day, vaccines contain only a tiny amount of antigens compared to the antigens your baby encounters every day.
This is the case even if your child receives combination vaccines. Combination vaccines take two or more vaccines that could be given individually and put them into one shot. Children get the same protection as they do from individual vaccines given separately—but with fewer shots.366
One misapprehension is that the vaccine itself might cause the disease it is supposed to be immunizing against.367 Vaccines help develop immunity by imitating an infection, but this “imitation” infection does not cause illness. Instead, it causes the immune system to develop the same response as it does to a real infection so the body can recognize and fight the vaccine-preventable disease in the future. Sometimes, after getting a vaccine, the imitation infection can cause minor symptoms, such as fever. Such minor symptoms are normal and should be expected as the body builds immunity.368
Another commonly circulated concern is that vaccinations, specifically the MMR vaccine (MMR stands for measles, mumps, and rubella), are linked to autism. The autism connection has been particularly controversial. In 1998, a British physician named Andrew Wakefield published a study in Great Britain’s Lancet magazine that linked the MMR vaccine to autism. The report received a lot of media attention, resulting in British immunization rates decreasing from 91 percent in 1997 to almost 80 percent by 2003, accompanied by a subsequent rise in measles cases (Devlin 2008). A prolonged investigation by the British Medical Journal proved that not only was the link in the study nonexistent, but that Dr. Wakefield had falsified data in order to support his claims (CNN 2011). Dr. Wakefield was discredited and stripped of his license, but the doubt still lingers in many parents’ minds.
In the United States, many parents still believe in the now-discredited MMR-autism link and refuse to vaccinate their children. Other parents choose not to vaccinate for various reasons like religious or health beliefs. In one instance, a boy whose parents opted not to vaccinate returned home to the U.S. after a trip abroad; no one yet knew he was infected with measles. The boy exposed 839 people to the disease and caused 11 additional cases of measles, all in other unvaccinated children, including one infant who had to be hospitalized.
According to a study published in Pediatrics (2010), the outbreak cost the public sector \$10,376 per diagnosed case. The study further showed that the intentional non-vaccination of those infected occurred in students from private schools, public charter schools, and public schools in upper-socioeconomic areas (Sugerman et al. 2010).370
What about the Flu Vaccine?
There are many reasons to get an influenza (flu) vaccine each year. Below is a summary of the benefits of flu vaccination, and selected scientific studies that support these benefits.
• Flu vaccination can keep you from getting sick with flu.
• Flu vaccination can reduce the risk of flu-associated hospitalization.
• Flu vaccination is an important preventive tool for people with chronic health conditions.
• Flu vaccination helps protect women during and after pregnancy and helps protect the baby from flu for several months after birth.
• Flu vaccination can be life-saving in children.
• Flu vaccination has been shown in several studies to reduce the severity of illness in people who get vaccinated but still get sick.
• Getting vaccinated yourself may also protect people around you, including those who are more vulnerable to serious flu illness, like babies and young children, older people, and people with certain chronic health conditions.371
Pause to Reflect
Using the information that has been provided about immunizations, think of ways you could respond to the following:
1. “I don’t believe in giving all of the vaccines, like chicken pox. It’s better for children to just get the disease like we all did when we were kids.”
2. “Why do they have to give vaccines so early? It seems like it’s too much, too quickly.”
3. “I have heard that vaccines give some kids autism. And even if they don’t, the side effects are just too scary.”
Universal Precautions to Prevent the Spread of Illness
There are some standard practices that prevent, or reduce the risk of, the spread of illness in early care and education programs. These are modeled after practices in health care, where everyone is treated as being potentially infected with something that is contagious. Many illnesses are actually contagious before the infected person is symptomatic, so waiting until you see signs of illness is an ineffective way of preventing its spread. Child care providers can practice these four things to help control the spread of illness.
1. Hand washing
2. Use of disposable nonporous gloves when working with bodily fluids
3. Disinfecting potentially contaminated surfaces
4. Proper disposal of potentially contaminated waste373
Handwashing
Regular handwashing is an important step to minimizing the spread of germs. Hands pick up germs from all of the things they touch and then spread them from one place to another. Germs that are on hands can also enter the body when a person eats or when they touch their eyes, nose, mouth, or any area on the body where the skin is broken (because of a cut, rash, etc.).
All that is needed for handwashing is soap and clean, running water. Handwashing with soap and water removes visible dirt and hidden germs. Studies have demonstrated that handwashing reduced the number of diarrheal illnesses by 31 percent and respiratory illnesses by 21 percent.
Hands should be washed:
• before eating, feeding, or preparing food. This prevents germs from getting into the mouth from hands. (Hygiene practices related specifically to food safety will be addressed in Chapter 15.)
• after touching saliva (after feeding or eating), mucus (wiping a nose, using a tissue), bodily fluids (toileting, diapering), food, or animals
• when visibly dirty, after touching garbage, or after cleaning
The Center for Disease Control recommends the following handwashing steps:
1. “Wet your hands with clean, running water (warm or cold) and apply soap.”
2. “Rub your hands together to make a lather and scrub your hands well; be sure to scrub the backs of your hands, between your fingers, and under your nails.”
3. “Continue rubbing your hands for at least 20 seconds. Need a timer? Hum the “Happy Birthday” song from beginning to end twice.”
4. “Rinse your hands well under running water.”
5. “Dry your hands using a clean towel or air dry them.”
Infants and young children will need help with handwashing. Caring for Our Children recommends that caregivers:
• Safely cradle an infant in one arm to wash their hands at a sink.
• Provide assistance with handwashing for young children that cannot yet wash their hands independently.
• Offer a stepping stool to young children so they may safely reach the sink.375
Wearing Disposable Gloves
Teachers and caregivers should wear gloves when they anticipate coming into contact with any of the following (on a child’s body or a contaminated surface)
• Blood or bodily substances (i.e., fluids or solids)
• Mucous membranes (e.g., nasal, oral, genital area)
• Non-intact skin (e.g., rashes or cuts and scrapes)376
Once the gloves are soiled, it’s important to remove them carefully.
1. Using a gloved hand, grasp the palm area of the other gloved hand and peel off the first glove.
2. Hold the removed glove in the gloved hand.
3. Slide fingers of the ungloved hand under the remaining glove at the wrist and peel off the second glove over the first glove.
4. Discard the gloves in a waste container.377
After you remove your gloves you should wash your hands. “Do not reuse the gloves: this can spread germs from one child to another…Gloves provide added protection from communicable disease only if used correctly. If you use gloves incorrectly, you actually risk spreading more germs than if you don’t use gloves at all. Pay attention to your gloving technique so that you do not develop a false sense of security (and carelessness) when wearing gloves.”379
Cleaning and Disinfecting
Washing Surfaces Germs spread onto surfaces from hands and objects (tissues or mouthed toys) or from a sneeze or cough. It is important to clean all surfaces well, including toys and any surface that a young child puts in his mouth, because germs cannot be seen and it is easy to overlook surfaces that do not look soiled or dirty.
Toileting and diapering involve germs from bodily fluids and fecal material. These germs spread easily in a bathroom onto hands, flushers, and faucets. Routinely washing bathroom surfaces removes most germs and prevents them from spreading. The kitchen is another area of the home where it is important to clean surfaces well.
The terms “cleaning,” “sanitizing,” and “disinfecting” deserve close attention.
Cleaning removes visible soil, dirt, and germs. Soap and water will clean most surfaces.
Sanitizing reduces, but does not totally get rid of, germs to a level that is unlikely to cause disease. Sanitizers may be appropriate to use on surfaces where you eat (such as a table or high chair tray) and with toys that children place in their mouths. It is important to follow the instructions on the label, which may also include rinsing surfaces after using the sanitizing product.
Disinfecting destroys or inactivates infectious germs on surfaces. Disinfectants may be used on diaper-changing tables, toilets, and counter tops.380
Early care and education programs can create a bleach and water solution of one tablespoon household bleach to one quart water for surfaces that need to be sanitized or disinfected. To use effectively, the surface must be wetted with the solution and allowed to air dry. A fresh bleach solution should be made each day to maintain effectiveness, and stored in a clearly labeled spray bottle out of children’s reach. Research shows that other chemicals (e.g., ammonia, vinegar, baking soda, Borax) are not effective against some bacteria.381 “Items that can be washed in a dishwasher or hot cycle of a washing machine do not have to be disinfected because these machines use water that is hot enough for a long enough period of time to kill most germs.”382
Cleaning and disinfecting are essential. Studies have shown that some germs, including influenza virus, can survive on surfaces for two to eight hours; rotavirus can survive up to 10 days.383
Table 8.2 – Schedule for Cleaning and Disinfecting384
Surface/Item
Clean
Disinfect
Frequency
Countertops and Tabletops
X
X
Daily and when soiled
Food prep and service areas
X
X
Before and after use; between prep of raw and cooked food
Floors
X
X
Daily and when soiled
Door and cabinet handles
X
X
Daily and when soiled
Carpets and large rugs
X
Vacuum daily; clean monthly for infants, every 3 months for other ages and when soiled
Small rugs
X
Shake or vacuum daily; launder weekly
Utensils, surfaces, and toys that go in the mouth or have been in contact with bodily fluids
X
X
After each child’s use
Toys not contaminated with bodily fluids
X
Weekly
Dress up clothes not worn on the head
X
Weekly
Hats
X
After each child’s use
Sheets and pillowcases
X
Weekly and when visibly soiled
Blankets and sleeping bags
X
Monthly and when visibly soiled
Cubbies
X
Weekly
Cribs
X
Weekly
Handwashing sinks including faucet, soap dispenser, and surrounding area
X
X
Daily or when soiled
Toilet seats, handles, door knobs or handles in toileting area, floors
X
X
Daily and immediately is soiled
Toilet bowls
X
X
Daily
Changing tables
X
X
After each child’s use
Potty chairs (discouraged in child care because of contamination risks)
X
X
After each child’s use
Any surface contaminated with bodily fluids (saliva, mucus, vomit, urine, stool, or blood)
X
X
Immediately
Water containers
X
X
Daily
Disposal of Waste
Proper disposal and storage of garbage waste prevent the spread of disease, odors, and problems with pests. Disposable items (diapers, gloves, paper towels, and facial tissues) should be thrown away immediately in an appropriate container. Make sure the container is water and rodent-proof, operated with a foot pedal, is lined with a plastic bag, within reach of diaper changing area, handwashing sink, and food preparation areas, out-of-reach of and unable to be knocked over by infants and toddlers. The containers should be emptied, cleaned, and sanitized daily. 385
Diaper Changing
Diaper changing areas should be smooth and nonporous (such as a plastic-covered pad), have a raised edge to prevent children from falling, be near a sink, be out of reach from children, and away from food preparation areas.386
The following diaper changing procedure should be posted in the changing area and followed to protect the health and safety of children and staff:
Step 1: Before bringing the child to the diaper changing area, perform hand hygiene (including putting on gloves, if using) and bring supplies to the diaper changing area, and place a disposable liner on the changing area.
Step 2: Carry/bring the child to the changing table/surface, keeping soiled clothing away from you and any surfaces you cannot easily clean and sanitize after the change. Always keep a hand on the child.
Step 3: Remove the soiled diaper and clothing without contaminating any surface not already in contact with stool or urine. Put soiled diaper in covered waste container. Put any soiled clothing in a plastic bag that is securely closed to give to family.
Step 4: Clean the child's diaper area with disposable wipes and place soiled wipes into a covered waste container.
Step 5: Removed the disposable liner and gloves and place in waste container
Step 6: Use facial tissue to apply any creams or ointments. Slide clean diaper under the child and fasten it and dress the child.
Step 6: Wash the child's hands and return the child to a supervised area.
Step 7: Clean and disinfect the diaper-changing surface and any equipment or supplies that were touched (and any other area child soiled before changed).
Step 8: Perform hand hygiene and record the diaper change, diaper contents, and/or any problems.
Caregivers/teachers should never leave a child unattended on a table or countertop. A safety strap or harness should not be used on the diaper changing table/surface.387
If Using Potty Chairs
Due to being hard to clean and disinfect, potty chairs are not ideal in a child care environment. If they are used, they should be used in the bathroom only. After each use:
• Empty contents immediately into the toilet
• Rinse with water and dump water into the toilet
• Wash with soap and water (with a paper towel) and empty soapy water into the toilet
• Rinse again and empty into the toilet
• Spray with bleach solution
• Air dry
• Wash and disinfect sink
• Wash hands (child and adult)388
Pause to Reflect
You are at a job interview to become a teacher in an infant room and the director asks you what you would do to prevent the spread of illness in your classroom. What might you want to mention?
Environmental Health
Sometimes the threat to health comes from the environment itself. Air quality, chemical hazards, drinking water, mold, and pest management are all topics early care and education providers should be aware of.
Outdoor Air Quality
Children are more susceptible to the effects of contaminated air because they breathe in more oxygen relative to their body weight than adults.389 Therefore, they “can be exposed to a lot of pollution. Children should be kept inside when air quality is poor, or should at least be discouraged from intense outdoor activity. Educators and parents should be aware that nearby construction and traffic can increase pollution. Mowing school lawns should never occur during school hours since this can cause an allergy or asthma attack. Insecticides should never be sprayed while children are in care. Outdoor air can include odors, pollutants from vehicles, and fumes from stored trash, chemicals, and plumbing vents.”390
Indoor Air Quality
There are so many sources of indoor air pollution in childcare facilities that the air is considered to be two to five times more polluted than outdoor air. Common sources of indoor air pollution include combustion sources such as oil, gas, kerosene, coal, wood, and tobacco products; building materials and furnishings as diverse as deteriorated, asbestos-containing insulation, wet or damp carpet, and cabinetry or furniture made of certain pressed wood products; products for household cleaning and maintenance, personal care, or hobbies; central heating and cooling systems and humidification devices; and outdoor sources such as radon, pesticides, and outdoor air pollution.391
Environmental Tobacco Smoke & Dangers of E-Cigarettes
Scientists are still working to understand more fully the health effects and harmful doses of e-cigarette contents when they are heated and turned into an aerosol, both for active users who inhale from a device and for those who are exposed to the aerosol secondhand. Another risk to consider involves defective e-cigarette batteries that have been known to cause fires and explosions, some of which have resulted in serious injuries. Most of the explosions happened when the e-cigarette batteries were being charged.395
Mold
Mold is a fungus that thrives indoors when excessive moisture or water accumulates indoors or when moisture problems remain undiscovered or un-addressed. There are molds that can grow on wood, paper, carpet, and foods. There is no practical way to eliminate all mold and mold spores in the indoor environment. The way to control indoor mold growth is to control moisture.
Mold needs to be controlled in childcare settings to avoid possible health impacts for infants and children, including allergic reactions, asthma, and other respiratory issues.396
Integrated Pest Management
Exposure to pests such as cockroaches, rodents, ants, and stinging insects in childcare centers may place children at risk for disease, asthma attacks, bites, and stings. Improper use of pesticides can also place children at risk. A recent study of pesticide use in child care centers revealed that 75% of centers reported at least one pesticide application in the last year. Several factors increase both children's exposures and their vulnerability to these exposures compared to adults. Children spend more time on the floor, where residues can transfer to skin and be absorbed.
Young children also frequently place their hands and objects in their mouths, resulting in the non-dietary ingestion of pesticides. Children are less developed immunologically, physiologically, and neurologically, and therefore may be more susceptible to the adverse effects of chemicals and toxins. There is increasing evidence of adverse effects of pesticides on young children, particularly on neurodevelopment.397
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an effective and environmentally sensitive approach to pest management that relies on a combination of common-sense practices. IPM programs use current, comprehensive information on the life cycles of pests and their interaction with the environment.
Integrated Pest Management “(IPM) is a safer, more effective, longer-lasting method of pest control that emphasizes pest prevention by eliminating pests' access to food, water, and shelter. When using IPM, properly identify the pest and know why it's there so an appropriate combination of different pest control methods can be used for better effectiveness in controlling the pest.”398 This information, in combination with the last toxic available pest control methods, is used to manage pest damage by the most economical means, and with the least possible hazard to people, property, and the environment.399
with in order to take the most effective and least hazardous steps to get rid of them.400
Chemical Hazards
A child born today will grow up exposed to more chemicals than a child from any other generation in our nation's history. Of the 85,000 synthetic chemicals in commerce today, only a small fraction has been tested for toxicity on human health.
A 2005 study found 287 different chemicals in cord blood of 10 newborn babies - chemicals from pesticides, fast food packaging, coals, gasoline emissions, and trash incineration. Children are more vulnerable to toxic chemicals because their bodies are still growing and developing.401
Plastics in Child Care Settings
Certain types of plastics contain chemicals such as phthalates, bisphenol A (BPA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polystyrene that may be toxic to children. These plastics can be found in baby bottles, sippy cups, teething rings, pacifiers, and toys. When these items are in a child's mouth or when they are heated (such as in a microwave), children can be exposed to harmful chemicals that have the potential to mimic or suppress hormones and disrupt normal growth and development.402
Drinking Water
The United States has one of the safest public drinking water supplies in the world. Over 286 million Americans get their tap water from a community water system. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates drinking water quality in public water systems and sets maximum concentration levels for water chemicals and pollutants.
Sources of drinking water are subject to contamination and require appropriate treatment to remove disease-causing contaminants. Contamination of drinking water supplies can occur in the source water as well as in the distribution system after water treatment has already occurred. There are many sources of water contamination, including naturally occurring chemicals and minerals (for example, arsenic, radon, uranium), local land use practices (fertilizers, pesticides, concentrated feeding operations), manufacturing processes, and sewer overflows or wastewater releases.
The presence of contaminants in water can lead to adverse health effects, including gastrointestinal illness, reproductive problems, and neurological disorders.403 Young children are at particular risk for exposure to contaminants in drinking water because, pound for pound, they drink more water than adults (including water used to prepare formula), and because their immature body systems are less efficient at detoxification. Exposure to lead in drinking water is a serious health concern, especially for young children and infants since elevated lead levels in children may result in delays in physical or mental development, lower IQ, and even brain damage.404
Under the federal regulations of the Safe Drinking Water Act, all water suppliers must notify consumers quickly when there is a serious problem with water quality. Water systems serving the same people year-round must provide annual consumer confidence reports on the source and quality of their tap water. National drinking water standards are legally enforceable, which means that both U.S. EPA and states can take enforcement actions against water systems not meeting safety standards. 406
Pause to Reflect
What are five important things that early care and education programs should remember about environmental health to keep children healthy?
Summary
Understanding how illness is spread, helps early care and education programs prevent the spread of illness. Immunizations also play an important role in preventing illness. And when program staff use universal precautions, including handwashing, cleaning and disinfecting, and proper disposal of waste, they also prevent the spread of illness.
Programs must also be aware of environmental hazards that present a threat to children’s health. These include both indoor and outdoor air quality, mold, and chemicals. Programs should use integrated pest management and make sure that their drinking water is safe as well.
Engaging Families
Teachers can use the following strategies to help families to develop their children’s health habits:
• Provide families with concise, accurate information about ways to promote and develop good health habits in children; information should be presented in English and the families’ home languages. Capture their interest by addressing topics related to their children’s age and development, as well as topics related to common health risks for children, such as childhood obesity, asthma, and dental caries. Injury prevention and first-aid topics, such as treating burns, bleeding, and choking, are also relevant. Provide written informational materials that are brief and easy to read.
• Provide individualized information, as well as general health information, to all families through daily contact, workshops, and parent meetings. All information should be presented in English and in the families’ home languages. Accommodate family schedules by providing workshops and meetings at various times (e.g., morning, afternoon, evening), and arrange for child care during meetings.
• Show family members what the children are learning by sending home examples of work, encouraging families to visit the preschool and observe children in action, and sharing children’s portfolios during home visits. Reinforce children’s learning about health habits through take-home activities, lending libraries of read-aloud books in the languages of the families in the group, and displays of children’s work.
• As you introduce health routines (e.g., handwashing, tooth brushing), invite family members to participate and model. Encourage families to contribute ideas or materials to interest areas that reflect diverse health habits at home.
• Identify community resources related to health habits (e.g., handwashing, tooth brushing) and invite community personnel to participate in and bring resources to family workshops or parent meetings. Emphasize the role of home and family members in helping children to develop health habits, and inform all parents of the availability of free and low-cost community resources.
• Be sensitive to and respectful of different values or beliefs, as well as varying levels of access to health products and services. Gather information on available and accessible resources in the community, including those for children with special needs, and provide this information to all families, translated into their home languages. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Health_Safety_and_Nutrition_(Paris)/Section_III%3A_Health/08%3A_Prevention_of_Illness.txt |
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Identify symptoms of infectious disease that is common during early childhood.
• Outline criteria for exclusion from care for ill children and staff.
• Describe considerations programs must make regarding caring for children that are mildly ill.
• Recall licensing requirements for handling medication in early care and education programs.
• Explain the communication about illness that should happen between families and early care and education programs.
Licensing Regulations
Title 22 Regulations that relate to this chapter include:
101212 REPORTING REQUIREMENTS
• The licensee shall report specified illnesses to the local department of health
101226 HEALTH-RELATED SERVICES
• The licensee shall immediately notify the child’s authorized representative if the child becomes ill.
• The licensee shall make prompt arrangements for obtaining medical treatment for any child as necessary.
• In centers where the licensee chooses to handle medication:
• Medications must be kept inaccessible to children.
• Prescription medications must be administered in accordance with the label directions as prescribed by the child’s physician and there must be written approval and instructions from the child’s authorized representative before giving medication to the child.
• Nonprescription medications must be administered in accordance with the product label and there must be written approval and instructions from the child’s authorized representative before giving medication to the child.
101226.2 ISOLATION FOR ILLNESS
• A center shall be equipped to isolate and care for any child who becomes ill during the day.
• The child’s authorized representative shall be notified immediately when the child becomes ill enough to require isolation, and shall be asked to pick up the child as soon as possible.
• (from 101426.2) the isolation area for programs caring for infants must have a crib, cot, mat or playpen for each ill infant. This isolation area must be under constant visual supervision by staff.
Illness in Early Care and Education Programs
The most frequent infectious disease symptoms that are reported by early care and education settings are sore throat, runny nose, shortness of breath or cough, fever, vomiting and diarrhea (gastroenteritis), earaches, and rashes.
However, these are not the symptoms that necessarily lead to absences. In fact, although respiratory symptoms are most common, it's rashes and gastrointestinal disease that more often keep children from attending their early education programs. This is more a reflection of exclusion policies than real risk of serious illness.408
It’s important for early childhood programs to identify illness accurately and respond in ways that protect all children and staff health (whether it be to allow them to stay in care or to exclude them from care).
Identifying Infectious Disease
When you are familiar with different infectious diseases, it’s easier to identify them in children and know whether or not children (and staff) who are affected should be excluded from the early care and education program.
Common Cold
A child is sneezing and has a stuffy, runny nose. It’s quite likely that they have a common cold. As presented in Chapter 8, children get sick many times a year, probably between 4 and 12 times, depending on age and amount of time in child care. Many of these are likely due to the common cold. More than 200 viruses can cause a cold, but rhinoviruses are the most common type.
could cause post-nasal drip, headache, and a sore throat.410
Symptoms of a cold usually peak within 2 to 3 days and can include:
• Sneezing
• Stuffy nose
• Runny nose
• Sore throat
• Coughing
• Mucus dripping down your throat (post-nasal drip)
• Watery eyes
• Fever (although most people with colds do not have fever)
When viruses that cause colds first infect the nose and air-filled pockets in the face (sinuses), the nose makes clear mucus. This helps wash the viruses from the nose and sinuses. After 2 or 3 days, mucus may change to a white, yellow, or green color. This is normal and does not mean an antibiotic is needed. Some symptoms, particularly runny nose, stuffy nose, and cough, can last for up to 10 to 14 days, but those symptoms should be improving during that time.
There is no cure for a cold. It will get better on its own—without antibiotics. When a child with a cold is feeling well enough to participate and staff are able to provide adequate care for them and all of the other children, the child does not need to be excluded from care.
Because colds can have similar symptoms to flu, it can be difficult to tell the difference between the two illnesses based on symptoms alone. Flu and the common cold are both respiratory illnesses, but they are caused by different viruses.411
Influenza (Flu)
In general, flu is worse than a cold, and symptoms are more intense. People with colds are more likely to have a runny or stuffy nose. Colds generally do not result in serious health problems, such as pneumonia, bacterial infections, or hospitalizations. Flu can have very serious associated complications.412
Flu can cause mild to severe illness, and at times can lead to death. Flu usually comes on suddenly. People who have flu often feel some or all of these symptoms:
• Fever (common, but not always) or feeling feverish/chills
• cough
• sore throat
• runny or stuffy nose
• muscle or body aches
• headaches
• fatigue (tiredness)
• some people may have vomiting and diarrhea, though this is more common in children than adults.
Most people who get flu will recover in a few days to less than two weeks, but some people will develop complications (such as pneumonia) as a result of flu, some of which can be life-threatening and result in death.
Sinus and ear infections are examples of moderate complications from flu, while pneumonia is a serious flu complication that can result from either influenza virus infection alone or from co-infection of flu virus and bacteria. Other possible serious complications triggered by flu can include inflammation of the heart (myocarditis), brain (encephalitis) or muscle (myositis, rhabdomyolysis) tissues, and multi-organ failure (for example, respiratory and kidney failure). Flu virus infection of the respiratory tract can trigger an extreme inflammatory response in the body and can lead to sepsis, the body’s life-threatening response to infection. Flu also can make chronic medical problems worse. For example, people with asthma may experience asthma attacks while they have flu.414
A yearly flu vaccine is the first and most important step in protecting against influenza and its potentially serious complications for everyone 6 months and older. While there are many different flu viruses, flu vaccines protect against the 3 or 4 viruses that research suggests will be most common. Flu vaccination can reduce flu illnesses, doctors’ visits, missed school due to flu, prevent flu-related hospitalizations, and reduce the risk of dying from influenza. Also, there are data to suggest that even if someone gets sick after vaccination, their illness may be milder.415
Once a person has the flu, their health care provider may recommend antiviral drugs. When used for treatment, antiviral drugs can lessen symptoms and shorten the length of sickness by 1 or 2 days. They also can prevent serious flu complications, like pneumonia. For people at high risk of serious flu complications (including children), treatment with antiviral drugs can mean the difference between milder or more serious illness possibly resulting in a hospital stay. CDC recommends prompt treatment for people who have influenza infection or suspected influenza infection and who are at high risk of serious flu complications.416
As with a cold, a child with the flu does not need to be excluded if staff can care for them and all of the other children and they feel well enough to participate.
Avoiding Spreading Germs to Others
Early care and education programs should teach children and model good cough and sneeze etiquette. Always sneeze or cough into a tissue that is discarded after use. If a tissue is not available, use your upper sleeve, completely covering the mouth and nose. Always wash hands after coughing, sneezing, and blowing noses. 417
Sinusitis (Sinus Infection)
Sinus infections happen when fluid builds up in the air-filled pockets in the face (sinuses), which allows germs to grow. Viruses cause most sinus infections, but bacteria can cause some sinus infections.
Common symptoms of sinus infections include:
• Runny nose
• Stuffy nose
• Facial pain or pressure
• Headache
• Mucus dripping down the throat (post-nasal drip)
• Sore throat
• Cough
• Bad breath
Most sinus infections usually get better on their own without antibiotics.420 As with colds and flu, a child does not need to be automatically excluded from care for a sinus infection.
Pause to Reflect
What was your last experience with an upper respiratory infection (such as cold, flu, or sinus infection? If a child had the same symptoms as you, would they have needed to be excluded from care?
Sore Throat
A sore throat can make it painful to swallow. A sore throat can also feel dry and scratchy. Sore throat can be a symptom of the common cold, allergies, strep throat, or other upper respiratory tract illness. Strep throat is an infection in the throat and tonsils caused by bacteria called group A Streptococcus (also called Streptococcus pyogenes).
Infections from viruses are the most common cause of sore throats. The following symptoms suggest a virus is the cause of the illness instead of the bacteria called group A strep:
• Cough
• Runny nose
• Hoarseness (changes in your voice that makes it sound breathy, raspy, or strained)
• Conjunctivitis (also called pink eye)
The most common symptoms of strep throat include:
• Sore throat that can start very quickly
• Pain when swallowing
• Fever
• Red and swollen tonsils, sometimes with white patches or streaks of pus
• Tiny red spots on the roof of the mouth
• Swollen lymph nodes in the front of the neck
A doctor can determine the likely cause of a sore throat. If a sore throat is caused by a virus, antibiotics will not help. Most sore throats will get better on their own within one week and are not cause for exclusion from child care.
Since bacteria cause strep throat, antibiotics are needed to treat the infection and prevent rheumatic fever and other complications. A doctor cannot tell if someone has strep throat just by looking in the throat. If a doctor suspects strep throat, they may test to confirm diagnosis. A child with strep throat should be excluded from care until they no longer have fever AND have taken antibiotics for at least 24 hours.421
Ear Infection
There are different types of ear infections. Middle ear infection (acute otitis media) is an infection in the middle ear.
Another condition that affects the middle ear is called otitis media with effusion. It occurs when fluid builds up in the middle ear without being infected and without causing fever, ear pain, or pus build-up in the middle ear.
When the outer ear canal is infected, the condition is called swimmer’s ear, which is different from a middle ear infection.
middle, and inner ear, showing inflammation and fluid in the ear.422
Middle Ear Infection
A middle ear infection may be caused by:
• Bacteria, like Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenza (nontypeable)the two most common bacterial causes
• Viruses, like those that cause colds or flu
Common symptoms of middle ear infection in children can include:
• Ear pain
• Fever
• Fussiness or irritability
• Rubbing or tugging at an ear
• Difficulty sleeping
A can make the diagnosis of a middle ear infection by looking inside the child’s ear to examine the eardrum and see if there is pus in the middle ear. Antibiotics are often not needed for middle ear infections because the body’s immune system can fight off the infection on its own. However, sometimes antibiotics, such as amoxicillin, are needed to treat severe cases right away or cases that last longer than 2–3 days.423
Swimmer’s Ear
Ear infections can be caused by leaving contaminated water in the ear after swimming. This infection, known as “swimmer’s ear” or otitis externa, is not the same as the common childhood middle ear infection. The infection occurs in the outer ear canal and can cause pain and discomfort for swimmers of all ages.
Symptoms of swimmer’s ear usually appear within a few days of swimming and include:
• Itchiness inside the ear.
• Redness and swelling of the ear.
• Pain when the infected ear is tugged or when pressure is placed on the ear.
• Pus draining from the infected ear.
Although all age groups are affected by swimmer’s ear, it is more common in children and can be extremely painful. If swimmer’s ear is suspected, a healthcare provider should be consulted. Swimmer’s ear can be treated with antibiotic ear drops.424
Head Lice
Head lice are parasitic insects that live on the head. They survive by feeding on human blood. Lice infestations are spread most commonly by close person-to-person contact. Lice move by crawling; they cannot hop or fly.
Adult head lice are 2–3 mm in length. Head lice infest the head and neck and attach their eggs to the base of the hair shaft. Lice move by crawling; they cannot hop or fly.425
Symptoms of a head lice infestation include:
• Tickling feeling of something moving in the hair.
• Itching, caused by an allergic reaction to the bites of the head louse.
• Irritability and difficulty sleeping; head lice are most active in the dark.
• Sores on the head caused by scratching. These sores can sometimes become infected with bacteria found on the person’s skin.
Head-to-head contact with a person who already has an infestation is the most common way to get head lice. Head-to-head contact is common during play at school, at home, and elsewhere (sports activities, playground, slumber parties, camp).
Although uncommon, head lice can be spread by sharing clothing or belongings. This happens when lice crawl, or the nits that are attached to shed hair hatch, and get on the shared clothing or belongings. Examples include:
• Sharing clothing (hats, scarves, coats, sports uniforms) or articles (hair ribbons, barrettes, combs, brushes, towels, stuffed animals) recently worn or used by a person with an infestation;
• Or lying on a bed, couch, pillow, or carpet that has recently been in contact with a person with an infestation.
Dogs, cats, and other pets do not play a role in the spread of head lice.
The diagnosis of a head lice infestation is best made by finding a live nymph or adult louse on the scalp or hair of a person. Because nymphs and adult lice are very small, move quickly, and avoid light, they can be difficult to find. Use of a magnifying lens and a fine-toothed comb may be helpful to find live lice.
If crawling lice are not seen, finding nits firmly attached within a ¼ inch of base of the hair shafts strongly suggests, but does not confirm, that a person is infested and should be treated. Nits that are attached more than ¼ inch from the base of the hair shaft are almost always dead or already hatched. Nits are often confused with other things found in the hair such as dandruff, hair spray droplets, and dirt particles. If no live nymphs or adult lice are seen, and the only nits found are more than ¼-inch from the scalp, the infestation is probably old and no longer active and does not need to be treated.427
Treatment for head lice is recommended for persons diagnosed with an active infestation. All household members and other close contacts should be checked; those persons with evidence of an active infestation should be treated with an over-the-counter or prescription medication (following the provided instructions).
Hats, scarves, pillow cases, bedding, clothing, and towels worn or used by the person with the infestation in the 2-day period just before treatment is started can be machine washed and dried using the hot water and hot air cycles because lice and eggs are killed by exposure for 5 minutes to temperatures greater than 128.3°F. Items that cannot be laundered may be dry-cleaned or sealed in a plastic bag for two weeks. Items such as hats, grooming aids, and towels that come in contact with the hair of a person with an infestation should not be shared. Vacuuming furniture and floors can remove hairs that might have viable nits attached. Head lice do not survive long if they fall off a person and cannot feed.
After treatment, it’s important to check the hair and comb with a nit comb to remove nits and lice every 2–3 days which will decrease the chance of self–reinfestation. Checking for 2–3 weeks will ensure that all lice and nits are gone.429
No More “No Nits” Policies
Children diagnosed with live head lice do not need to be sent home early from early care and education programs or school; they can go home at the end of the day, be treated, and return to class after appropriate treatment has begun. Nits may persist after treatment, but successful treatment should kill crawling lice.
Head lice can be a nuisance but they have not been shown to spread disease. Personal hygiene or cleanliness in the home or school has nothing to do with getting head lice.
Both the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and the National Association of School Nurses (NASN) advocate that “no-nit” policies should be discontinued. “No-nit” policies that require a child to be free of nits before they can return to schools should be discontinued for the following reasons:
• Many nits are more than ¼ inch from the scalp. Such nits are usually not viable and very unlikely to hatch to become crawling lice, or may in fact be empty shells, also known as ‘casings’.
• Nits are cemented to hair shafts and are very unlikely to be transferred successfully to other people.
• The burden of unnecessary absenteeism to the students, families and communities far outweighs the risks associated with head lice.
• Misdiagnosis of nits is very common during nit checks conducted by nonmedical personnel.430
Pause to Reflect
What experience with or knowledge do you have about policies that specific early education and care program and schools have on head lice? Are (or were) those policies “no nits” or in line with the recommendations above?
Other Illnesses
To learn more about the following illnesses, go to Appendix J.
• Bronchitis
• Chickenpox
• Conjuctivitis (Pink Eye)
• Fifth Disease (Slapped Cheek)
• Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease
• Hepatitis A
• Impetigo
• Measles
• Meningitis
• Molluscum Contagiosum
• Mumps
• Norovirus
• Pertussis
• Pinworms
• Respiratory Syncytial Virus
• Ringworm
• Roseola
• Rotavirus
• Rubella (German Measles)
• Shigella
• Tuberculosis
Danger of Infectious Disease for Adults
Because early care and education program employees are around children who are at higher risk of infectious diseases and have limited understanding of hygiene practices, those employees are also at greater risk for getting sick.
While most illness that are spread in early care and education programs are not serious, some can be very dangerous. Knowledge about illness and how to prevent its spread helps. Being fully immunized (from childhood illness and or vaccines) protects adult health as well.
Employees that are or could become pregnant want to be especially careful because first time exposure to chickenpox, cytomegalovirus (CMV), Fifths disease, and Rubella can cause major damage to fetal health, birth defects, and even fetal death.431
Reportable Diseases
Some diseases are enough of a threat to the community that it is required that diagnosed cases are reported to the local health department. See Table 9.1 for which diseases must be reported, how, and how quickly.
Table 9.1 – Diseases Reportable to Local Health Department
(required by Licensing in California) 432
How to Report
Disease
Report immediately by phone
• Anthrax
• Avian Influenza (human)
• Botulism (infant, foodborne or wound)
• Brucellosis
• Cholera
• Ciguatera Fish Poisoning
• Dengue
• Diarrhea of the Newborn (outbreak)
• Diphtheria
• Domoic Acid Poisoning (Amnestic Shellfish Poisoning)
• Escherichia coli: shiga toxin producing (STEC) including E.coli 0157
• Hantavirus infections
• Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome
• Meningococcal infections
• Paralytic shellfish poisoning
• Plague (human or animal)
• Rabies (human or animal)
• Scombroid fish poisoning
• Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)
• Shia toxin (detected in feces)
• Smallpox (Variola)
• Tularemia
• Viral hemorrhagic Fever (e.g. Crimean-Congo, Ebola, Lassa and Marburg Viruses)
• Yellow Fever
• Two or more cases or suspected cases of foodborne disease from separate households are suspected to have the same source of illness
• Occurrence of any unusual disease
• Outbreaks of any disease (Including diseases not listed here)
Report by fax, telephone, or mail within one (1) working day of identification
• Amebiasis
• Babesiosis
• Campylobacteriosis
• Chickenpox (only hospitalizations and deaths)
• Colorado Tick Fever
• Conjunctivitis, Acute Infectious of the Newborn
• Cryptosporidiosis
• Encephalitis—viral, bacterial, fungal, or parasitic
• Foodborne Disease
• Haemophilus influenzae invasive disease (report an incident less than 15 years of age)
• Hepatitis A
• Listeriosis
• Malaria
• Measles (Rubeola)
• Meningitis—viral, bacterial, fungal, parasitic
• Pertussis (whooping cough)
• Poliomyelitis, paralytic
• Psittacosis
• Q fever
• Relapsing Fever
• Salmonellosis
• Shigellosis
• Staphylococcus aureus infection (outbreaks of any type and individual cases in food handlers and dairy workers only)
• Syphilis
• Trichinosis
• Tuberculosis
• Typhoid Fever (cases and carriers)
• Vibrio infections
• Water-Associated Disease(e.g., Swimmer's Itch or Hot Tub Rash)
• West Nile Virus (WNV) Infection
• Yersiniosis
Report by fax, telephone, or mail within seven (7) calendar days of identification
• Chancroid
• Chlamydial Infections (including Lymphogranulom Venereum (LGV))
• Coccidioidomycosis
• Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) and other Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies (TSE)
• Cysticercosis or Taeniasis
• Ehrlichiosis
• Giardiasis Gonococcal infections
• Hepatitis, viral
• Hepatitis B (specify acute case or chronic)
• Hepatitis C (specify acute case or chronic)
• Hepatitis D (Delta)
• Hepatitis, other, acute
• Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
• Influenza deaths (report an incident of less than 18 years of age)
• Kawasaki Syndrome (Mucocutaneous Lymph Node Syndrome)
• Legionellosis
• Leprosy (Hansen’s disease)
• Leptospirosis
• Lyme disease
• Mumps
• Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)
• Rheumatic Fever, acute
• Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
• Rubella (German Measles)
• Rubella Syndrome, Congenital
• Tetanus
• Toxic Shock Syndrome
• Toxoplasmosis
• Typhus Fever
Exclusion Policies
Most children with mild illnesses can safely attend child care. “Many health policies concerning the care of ill children [including exclusion policies] have been based upon common misunderstandings about contagion, risks to ill children, and risks to other children and staff. Current research clearly shows that certain ill children do not pose a health threat. Also, the research shows that keeping certain other mildly ill children at home or isolated at the child care setting will not prevent other children from becoming ill.”433
But there are times when exclusion is the right answer. Licensing states that a child may be too sick to attend if:
• The child does not feel well enough to participate comfortably in the program's activities.
• The staff cannot adequately care for the sick child without compromising the care of the other children.
• The child has any of the following symptoms unless a health provider determines that the child is well enough to attend and that the illness is not contagious:
• Fever (above 100° F. axillary or above 101° F. orally) accompanied by behavior change and other signs or symptoms of illness (i.e., the child looks and acts sick)
• Signs or symptoms of possibly severe illness (e.g., persistent crying, extreme irritability, uncontrolled coughing, difficulty breathing, wheezing, lethargy)
• Diarrhea: Changes from the child's usual stool pattern--increased frequency of stools, looser/watery stools, stool runs out of the diaper, or child can't get to the bathroom in time.
• Vomiting more than once in the previous 24 hours
• Mouth sores with drooling
• Rash with a fever or behavior change
• The child has any of the following diagnoses from a health provider (until treated and/or no longer contagious):
• Infectious conjunctivitis/pink-eye (with eye discharge)-until 24 hours after treatment started
• Scabies, head lice, or other infestation-until 24 hours after treatment and free of nits
• Impetigo-until 24 hours after treatment started
• Strep throat, scarlet fever, or other strep infection-until 24 hours after treatment started and the child is free of fever
• Pertussis-until five days after treatment started
• Tuberculosis (TB)-until a health care provider determines that the disease is not contagious
• Chicken pox-until six days after start of rash or all sores have crusted over
• Mumps-until nine days after start of symptoms (swelling of "cheeks")
• Hepatitis A-until seven days after start of symptoms (e.g., jaundice)
• Measles-until six days after start of rash
• Rubella (German measles)-until six days after start of rash
• Oral herpes (if child is drooling or lesions cannot be covered)-until lesions heal
• Shingles (if lesions cannot be covered)-until lesions are dry434
If there is an outbreak of any reportable illness (See Table 9.X), a child or staff member who meets the following criteria as determined by the local health department or a health care provider to be:
• contributing to transmission of the illness
• not adequately immunized when the disease is vaccine-preventable
• at increased risk due to the pathogens being circulated.
They can be readmitted when the health department official or that health care provider decides that the risk of transmission is no longer present.435
What to do When a Child Requires Exclusion
When a child becomes ill enough to be excluded, they should be immediately isolated from other children. Early care and education programs are required to be equipped to isolate and care for any child who becomes ill during the day. The isolation area shall be located to afford easy supervision of children by center staff and equipped with a mat, cot, couch or bed for each ill child (or a crib if caring for infants).
The child's authorized representative shall be notified immediately when the child becomes ill enough to require isolation, and shall be asked to have the child picked up from the center as soon as possible.436
See Table 9.2 for a list of illnesses that require exclusion and when children who are diagnosed with those illnesses can return to care.
Table 9.2 – Conditions that Require Exclusion437
Condition
Exclusion Criteria
Chickenpox
Until 6 days after the beginning of the rash or once the sores have dried or crusted over.
Shingles
Only sores is cannot be covered with bandages or clothing. If not, until sores are dry and have crusted over.
Rash with fever or joint pain
Until 6 days after the beginning of the rash.
Measles and Rubella
Until diagnosed not be measles or rubella.
Pertussis
If two or more episodes in 24 hours or if accompanied by a fever, until vomiting resolves or is determined not be caused by contagious illness.
Mumps
Until 9 days after the glands begin to swell.
Diarrheal Illness
It three or more episodes in the past 24 hours or if accompanied by a fever, until diarrhea resolves.
Hepatitis A
As directed by health department.
Impetigo
Until 24 hours after treatment begins and lesions are not draining.
Active Tuberculosis
Until local health department approves the return to care.
Strep Throat (and other streptococcal infections)
Until 24 hours after treatment and fever is gone.
Head lice
Until after first treatment
Scabies
Until treatment is completed
Haemophilus Influenza Type b (Hib)
Until antibiotic treatment has begun.
Respiratory Illness
If the child is not well enough to participate and/or caring for the child limits the provider from caring for the other children or if it compromises the health and safety of the other children.
Herpes cold sores
Only if sores are not able to be covered (or kept from being touched).
Other conditions mandated by state public health law
As required by local health department.
Pause to Reflect
Consider the following situations. Should each child be excluded from care or not? If so, why and when should the child return? If not, what should the teacher/caregiver do?
1. Mario’s dad drops him off and let’s Ms. Michelle know that he is a little under the weather. He is not running a fever, but has a mild cough and a runny nose. But he ate a good breakfast and has a pretty typical level of energy.
2. About an hour into the day, Li vomits. Mr. Abraham checks and she has a fever of 101.3°. She looks a little pale and just wants to lay down. As he goes to call Li’s family, she vomits again.
3. When Latanya goes to change Daniel’s diaper she notices a rash on his stomach. She checks his temperature and he is not running a fever. He is not scratching at it or seemingly in any discomfort. She remembers that he has a history of eczema and contact dermatitis.
4. Apurva wakes up from naptime with discharge coming from a slightly swollen and bloodshot right eye. She tells Ms. Maria that her eye hurts and is “kind of itchy.”
Now, come up with your own examples of a child that should be excluded from care and that should not automatically be excluded.
Caring for Mildly Ill Children
Because young in early care and education programs have high incidence of illness and may have conditions (such as eczema and asthmas), providers should be prepared to care for mildly ill children, at least temporarily. And since we know that excluding most mildly ill children doesn’t prevent the spread of illness and can have negative effects on families, programs should consider whether they can care for children with mild symptoms (not meeting the exclusion policy). The California Childcare Health Program poses the following questions to consider:
• Are there sufficient staff (including volunteers) to provide minor modifications that a child might need (such as quiet activities or extra fluids)?
• Are staff willing and able to care for the child’s symptoms (such as wiping a runny nose and checking a fever) without neglecting the care of other children in the group?
• Is there a space where the mildly ill child can rest if needed?
• Are families able or willing to pay extra for sick care if other resources are not available, so that you can hire extra staff as needed?
• Have families made alternative arrangements for someone to pick up and care for their ill children if they cannot?”
It’s important that programs recognize the families have to weigh many things when trying to decide whether or not to send a child to child care. They must consider how the child feels (physically and emotionally), whether or not the program can provide care for the specific needs of the child, what alternative care arrangements are available, as well as the income they may lose if they have to stay home.438
Responding to Illness that Requires Medical Care
“Some conditions, require immediate medical help. If the parents can be reached, tell them to come right away and to notify their medical provider.
Call Emergency Medical services (9-1-1) immediately and also notify parents if any of the following things happen:
• You believe a child needs immediate medical assessment and treatment that cannot wait for parents to take the child for care.
• A child has a stiff neck (that limits his ability to put his chin to his chest) or severe headache and fever.
• A child has a seizure for the first time.
• A child who has a fever as well as difficulty breathing.
• A child looks or acts very ill, or seems to be getting worse quickly.
• [A child has s]kin or lips that look blue, purple or gray.
• A child is having difficulty breathing or breathes so fast or hard that he or she cannot play, talk, cry or drink.
• A child who is vomiting blood.
• A child complains of a headache or feeling nauseous, or is less alert or more confused, after a hard blow to the head.
• Multiple children have injuries or serious illness at the same time.
• A child has a large volume of blood in the stools.
• A child has a suddenly spreading blood-red or purple rash.
• A child acts unusually confused.
• [A child is u]nresponsive or [has] decreasing responsiveness.
Tell the parent to come right away, and get medical help immediately, when any of the following things happen. If the parent or the child’s medical provider is not immediately available, call 9-1-1 (EMS) for immediate help:
• A fever in any child who appears more than mildly ill.
• An infant under 2 months of age has an axillary (“armpit”) temperature above 100.4º F.
• An infant under four months of age has two or more forceful vomiting episodes (not the simple return of swallowed milk or spit-up) after eating.
• A child has neck pain when the head is moved or touched.
• A child has a severe stomach ache that causes the child to double up and scream.
• A child has a stomach ache without vomiting or diarrhea after a recent injury, blow to the abdomen or hard fall.
• A child has stools that are black or have blood mixed through them.
• A child has not urinated in more than eight hours, and the mouth and tongue look dry.
• A child has continuous, clear drainage from the nose after a hard blow to the head.
• A child has a medical condition outlined in his special care plan as requiring medical attention.
• [A child has a]n injury that may require medical treatment such as a cut that does not hold together after it is cleaned.”439
Administering Medications
Some children in your early care and education setting may need to take medications during the hours you provide care for them. It’s important that early care and education programs have a written policy for the use of prescription and nonprescription medication.440
According to licensing, programs that choose to handle medications must abide by the following:
• All prescription and nonprescription medications shall be centrally stored in a safe place inaccessible to children, with an unaltered label, and labeled with the child’s name and date
• A refrigerator shall be used to store any medication that requires refrigeration.
• Prescription medications may be administered with written permission by the child’s authorized representatives in accordance with the label instructions by the physician
• Nonprescription medications may be administered without approval or instructions from the child's physician with written approval and instructions from the child’s authorized representative and when administered in accordance with the product label directions.
Valid reasons for an early care and education program to consider administering medication.
• Some medication dosing cannot be adjusted to be taken before and after care (and keeping them out of care when otherwise well enough to attend, would be a hardship for families.
• Some children may have chronic conditions that may require urgent administration of medication (such as asthma and diabetes).442
Communication with Families
When children are excluded from care, it’s important to provide documentation for families of how the child meets the guidelines in your exclusion policy and what needs to happen before the child can return to care. See Appendix K for a possible form that programs could use.
Programs are also required to inform families when children are exposed to a communicable disease. See Appendix L for an example of a notice of exposure form you can provide to families so they know what signs of illness to watch for and to seek medical advice when necessary.443
Pause to Reflect
Why is it important for early care and education programs to communicate clearly with families regarding communicable illness?
Summary
Becoming familiar with infectious diseases that are common in early childhood enables early care and education program staff to identify illness and respond appropriately. This included knowing when children (and staff) should be excluded from care and what needs to happen before they should come back.
Programs must create policies on how they will handle children that are mildly ill (those that need care before they can be picked up from care and those that do not require exclusion) and children who have illness that requires medical care. Programs who choose to administer medication, must be familiar with the licensing regulations they must follow.
Open communication with families is important when a child becomes ill or is potentially exposed to an illness. Helping families understand and follow policies regarding exclusion is vital to keeping everyone in the program as healthy as possible.
Resources for Further Exploration | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Health_Safety_and_Nutrition_(Paris)/Section_III%3A_Health/09%3A_Supportive_Health_Care.txt |
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Relate family-centered care and individualized planning and care.
• Explain what individualized health planning is and who it is appropriate for.
• Describe some chronic health conditions that children in early care and education programs may have.
• Discuss what inclusion is and why it is beneficial.
Licensing Regulations
Title 22 Regulations that relate to this chapter include:
101223 PERSONAL RIGHTS
• The licensee shall ensure that each child is accorded the following personal rights:
• To receive safe, healthful and comfortable accommodations
101226 HEALTH-RELATED SERVICES
• In centers where the licensee chooses to handle medication:
• Medications must be kept inaccessible to children.
• Prescription medications must be administered in accordance with the label directions as prescribed by the child’s physician and there must be written approval and instructions from the child’s authorized representative before giving medication to the child.
Introduction
Children with special health care needs are defined as “. . . those who have or are at increased risk for a chronic physical, developmental, behavioral, or emotional condition and who also require health and related services of a type or amount beyond that required by children generally” (McPherson, 1998).
Any child who meets these criteria in an early care and education setting should have an up-to-date care plan, completed by their primary health care provider with input from parents/guardians, included in their on-site health record and readily accessible to those caring for the child.444
Individualized Planning for Health
What does it take to care for children with chronic conditions in an early care and education program? There's no single recipe for all situations. What it takes—more than any policy, list of services, or staffing plan—is a commitment to communication, collaboration, and creative problem-solving, and a determination to make it work. The essential principles that should guide the care of children with chronic conditions in early childhood education are: care should be family-centered, individualized, safe, and legal.
Family-Centered Care
Over the last 15 years, children's health care and the relationship between families and health professionals have changed significantly. The role of parents/caregivers has shifted from being patients to partners with the health care provider; and the "good patient" has changed from unquestioningly following advice to being a good partner who actively participates in decisions and advocates for services for their child.
"Family-centered care" involves providing the family health care and other services based on the family's needs, priorities, and convenience rather than those of the service providers or the child alone. Family-centered services are evidence of a program’s commitment to family partnerships and supporting child and family development.
10.1 – Family centered care relies on respect and collaboration.445
Services are family-centered when:
• The family is recognized as the child's most constant and important caregiver.
• The family and professionals collaborate as partners.
• Communication is open and honest, in both directions, between the family and professionals.
• Individual strengths and differences are respected among families.
• Services are flexible and responsive to the family's needs.
• Family-to-family support is encouraged.
• Children with chronic conditions and their families are treated like other children and families, and not defined by their condition.
Individualizing Care
Individualizing means recognizing the characteristics that make each child unique and planning a program that responds to these differences. Individualizing allows families and staff to respond to each child's built-in time clock for development, as well as culture, family, home language, life experiences, strengths, needs, skills, and abilities.
Early care and education programs can best meet the needs of children with chronic conditions by following a systematic process of Individualized Health Planning. For children who are eligible for an Individualized Education Program (IEP) or Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP), the IEP or IFSP may or may not include planning for the child's health care needs. In addition, many children with special health needs who are not eligible for an IEP or IFSP would, in fact, benefit from individualized health planning.
Individualized health planning for children with chronic conditions involves close communication and collaboration among families, the early care and education program staff, and health care and service providers. It is a process of collecting all the necessary information from screening and evaluations, developing plans for the child's routine and emergency care, conducting ongoing assessment, and revising the plans as needed. The plan should be documented in writing to serve as a clear guide for staff, families, and health care providers on meeting the child's health needs.
Who Should Have an Individualized Health Plan?
Children who would benefit from an Individualized Health Plan include any child who:
• Requires adaptations in daily activities because of a medical condition; daily activities to be considered include feeding, playing, sleeping, toileting
• Needs medication regularly
• Requires a specialized emergency plan
The decision to develop an Individualized Health Plan for a child should be made collaboratively by the family, health specialists, and classroom teacher.
What are the Benefits of an Individualized Health Plan?
• Health Promotion and Prevention of Complications: Children with chronic conditions remain healthiest when all possible measures are taken to promote their general health and manage the chronic condition closely.
• Communication and Collaboration: Optimal health care for children with chronic conditions requires close communication and coordination among families, Head Start, and health care providers.
• Training and Skills: An Individualized Health Plan identifies the specific procedures needed to care for a child with chronic conditions.
• Confidence: With an Individualized Health Plan, families and program staff can feel confident that they are doing everything possible to keep the child healthy on a routine and daily basis. Also, if health problems or emergencies occur, they can feel confident that they are prepared to manage them in the best way possible. Children with special medical needs feel more secure and able to learn when their caregivers know what to do.
can work together to make sure children with special health needs get the care they need.446
What should be Included in an Individualized Health Plan?
Caring for children with chronic conditions is a serious responsibility. Staff are commonly concerned about meeting the child's daily care needs: "How can I be sure to give him his medicine at the right time? Do we have enough staff to do his tracheostomy care while also supervising the other children? Will I have all his asthma supplies on the field trip?" Staff are also commonly concerned about emergencies: "What if I give her the wrong amount of medicine? What if she stops breathing? What if I can't reach her father on the phone?" The Individualized Health Plan should include the information necessary to respond to the most likely "what-ifs."
Many people are afraid to care for children with chronic conditions. It can raise anxieties to discuss and plan for the "what-if" situations. It is important to remember that anticipating and planning for a situation doesn't make it happen; it just allows you to be prepared if it does.
At minimum, an Individualized Health Plan should be a guide to:
• What accommodations in daily programming are needed, including meals and snacks, playing, sleeping, and toileting
• When and how to give medication, and who may give it
• When and how to perform any required medical procedures, and who may perform them
• What procedures to follow in the event of a medical emergency
The Individualized Health Plan should be developed with the participation of families, medical professionals, classroom staff, and any other program that may be involved in providing care. All parties should sign the form as an indication of agreement with and commitment to plan.447 See the example of a health plan in Appendix M.
Who are Children with Special Needs?
According to Data Resource Center for Child and Adolescent Health and shown in Figure 10.3, in 2017 over 20% of children 0-5 years, and over 40% of children 6-11 years, have one or more of the following current or lifelong health conditions:
• allergies (food, drug, insect or other)
• arthritis
• asthma
• blood disorders (such as sickle cell disease, thalassemia, or hemophilia)
• brain injury/concussion/head injury
• cerebral palsy
• cystic fibrosis
• diabetes
• Down Syndrome
• epilepsy or seizure disorder
• genetic or inherited condition
• heart condition
• frequent or severe headaches including migraine (3-17 years)
• Tourette Syndrome (3-17 years)
• anxiety problems (3-17 years)
• depression (3-17 years)
• behavioral and conduct problem (3-17 years)
• substance use disorder (6-17 years)
• developmental delay (3-17 years)
• intellectual disability (3-17 years)
• speech or other language disorder (3-17 years)
• learning disability (also known as mental retardation) (3-17 years)
• other mental health condition (3-17 years)
• Autism or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) (3-17 years)
• Attention Deficit Disorder or Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADD or ADHD) (3-17 years)
• hearing problems
• vision problems.448
Introduction to Chronic Health Conditions
Although no summary in a textbook will replace the knowledge families and their health care and service providers can provide about a child who has a chronic health condition, it can be helpful to have some familiarity with different conditions. Here is some introductory information on some of the chronic health conditions children in early care and education programs may have.
Allergies
An allergy is a reaction by the immune system to something that does not bother most other people. People who have allergies often are sensitive to more than one thing. Substances that often cause reactions are
• Pollen
• Dust mites
• Mold spores
• Pet dander
• Food
• Insect stings
• Medicines
Normally, the immune system fights germs. It is the body's defense system. In most allergic reactions, however, it is responding to a false alarm. Genes and the environment probably both play a role.
Allergies can cause a variety of symptoms such as a runny nose, sneezing, itching, rashes, swelling, or asthma. Allergies can range from minor to severe. Anaphylaxis is a severe reaction that can be life-threatening. Doctors use skin and blood tests to diagnose allergies. Treatments include medicines, allergy shots, and avoiding the substances that cause the reactions.451
Anaphylaxis
Anaphylaxis is a serious allergic reaction. It can begin very quickly, and symptoms may be life-threatening. The most common causes are reactions to foods (especially peanuts), medications, and stinging insects. Other causes include exercise and exposure to latex. Sometimes no cause can be found.
It can affect many organs:
• Skin - itching, hives, redness, swelling
• Nose - sneezing, stuffy nose, runny nose
• Mouth - itching, swelling of the lips or tongue
• Throat - itching, tightness, trouble swallowing, swelling of the back of the throat
• Chest - shortness of breath, coughing, wheezing, chest pain or tightness
• Heart - weak pulse, passing out, shock
• Gastrointestinal tract - vomiting, diarrhea, cramps
• Nervous system - dizziness or fainting
If child is having a serious allergic reaction, 911 should be called. If an auto-injector is available, give the injection right away.452
Arthritis
Arthritis in children is called childhood arthritis or juvenile arthritis. The most common type of childhood arthritis is juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA), also known as juvenile rheumatoid arthritis.
Childhood arthritis can cause permanent physical damage to joints. This damage can make it hard for the child to do everyday things like walking or dressing and can result in disability.
Symptoms may come and go over time. There may be times when symptoms get worse, known as flares, and times when symptoms get better, known as remission. Signs and symptoms include:
• Joint pain.
• Swelling.
• Fever.
• Stiffness.
• Rash.
• Fatigue (tiredness).
• Loss of appetite.
• Inflammation of the eye.
• Difficulty with daily living activities such as walking, dressing, and playing.
The exact cause of childhood arthritis is unknown. In childhood arthritis, the immune system may not work right which causes the inflammation in the joints and other body systems. Although there is no cure, some children with arthritis achieve permanent remission, which means the disease is no longer active. Any physical damage to the joint will remain.453
Asthma
Asthma is a disease that affects the lungs. In the United States, about 20 million people have asthma. Nearly 9 million of them are children. Children have smaller airways than adults, which makes asthma especially serious for them.454 It causes wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and coughing at night or early in the morning. If a person has asthma, they have it all the time, but they will have asthma attacks only when something bothers their lungs.
An asthma attack may include coughing, chest tightness, wheezing, and trouble breathing. The attack happens in the body’s airways, which are the paths that carry air to the lungs. As the air moves through the lungs, the airways become smaller, like the branches of a tree are smaller than the tree trunk. During an asthma attack, the sides of the airways in the lungs swell and the airways shrink. Less air gets in and out of the lungs, and mucous that the body makes clogs up the airways.
An asthma attack can happen when the person is exposed to asthma triggers. Your asthma triggers can be very different from someone else’s asthma triggers. It’s important for teacher to know about the triggers for any child in their care that has asthma, so they can help the child avoid them and watch for an attack when you can’t. 455 Triggers include:
• Allergens - mold, pollen, animals
• Irritants - cigarette smoke, air pollution
• Weather - cold air, changes in weather
• Exercise
• Infections - flu, common cold456
Asthma is treated with medication. There are quick-relief and long-term medications. Some are taken orally and some may be breathed it. It’s important to have accurate information in the health plan and in the child’s records about a child with asthma’s medication.457
Blood Disorders
There are several blood disorders that children in early care and education programs may have. Here is an introduction to hemophilia, sickle cell disease, and thalassemia.
Hemophilia
Hemophilia is usually an inherited bleeding disorder in which the blood does not clot properly. This can lead to spontaneous bleeding as well as bleeding following injuries or surgery. Blood contains many proteins called clotting factors that can help to stop bleeding. People with hemophilia have low levels of either factor VIII (8) or factor IX (9). The severity of hemophilia that a person has is determined by the amount of factor in the blood. The lower the amount of the factor, the more likely it is that bleeding will occur which can lead to serious health problems.
Hemophilia is caused by a mutation or change, in one of the genes, that provides instructions for making the clotting factor proteins needed to form a blood clot. This change or mutation can prevent the clotting protein from working properly or to be missing altogether. Hemophilia occurs in about 1 of every 5,000 male births. Females can also have hemophilia, but this is much rarer (and more often they are carriers). Hemophilia affects people from all racial and ethnic groups.
The best way to treat hemophilia is to replace the missing blood clotting factor so that the blood can clot properly. This is done by infusing (administering through a vein) commercially prepared factor concentrates.459 Hemophilia is a complex disorder. Good quality medical care from doctors and nurses who know a lot about the disorder can help people with hemophilia prevent some serious problems.460
Sickle Cell Disease
SCD is a group of inherited red blood cell disorders. Healthy red blood cells are round, and they move through small blood vessels to carry oxygen to all parts of the body. In someone who has SCD, the red blood cells become hard and sticky and look like a C-shaped farm tool called a “sickle”. The sickle cells die early, which causes a constant shortage of red blood cells. Also, when they travel through small blood vessels, they get stuck and clog the blood flow. This can cause pain and other serious problems such infection, acute chest syndrome and stroke.
SCD is a genetic condition that is present at birth. It is inherited when a child receives two sickle cell genes—one from each parent. People with SCD start to have signs of the disease during the first year of life, usually around 5 months of age. Symptoms and complications of SCD are different for each person and can range from mild to severe.
There is no single best treatment for all people with SCD. Treatment options are different for each person depending on the symptoms. The only cure for SCD is bone marrow or stem cell transplant.462
Thalassemia
Thalassemia is an inherited blood disorder caused when the body doesn’t make enough of a protein called hemoglobin, an important part of red blood cells. When there isn’t enough hemoglobin, the body’s red blood cells don’t function properly and they last shorter periods of time, so there are fewer healthy red blood cells traveling in the bloodstream.
Red blood cells carry oxygen to all the cells of the body. Oxygen is a sort of food that cells use to function. When there are not enough healthy red blood cells, there is also not enough oxygen delivered to all the other cells of the body, which may cause a person to feel tired, weak or short of breath. This is a condition called anemia.
People with thalassemia may have mild or severe anemia. Severe anemia can damage organs and lead to death. People with moderate and severe forms of thalassemia usually find out about their condition in childhood, since they have symptoms of severe anemia early in life.463 Symptoms of anemia include:
• Dizziness
• Shortness of breath
• A fast heart beat
• Headache
• Leg cramps
• Difficulty concentrating
• Pale skin
The type of treatment a person receives depends on how severe the thalassemia is. The more severe the thalassemia, the less hemoglobin the body has, and the more severe the anemia may be. One way to treat anemia is to provide the body with more red blood cells to carry oxygen. This can be done through a blood transfusion, a safe, common procedure in which the person receives blood through a small plastic tube inserted into one of their blood vessels.464
Cerebral Palsy
Cerebral palsy (CP) is a group of disorders that affect a person’s ability to move and maintain balance and posture. CP is the most common motor disability in childhood. Cerebral means having to do with the brain. Palsy means weakness or problems with using the muscles. CP is caused by abnormal brain development or damage to the developing brain that affects a person’s ability to control his or her muscles.
The symptoms of CP vary from person to person. A child with severe CP might need to use special equipment to be able to walk, or might not be able to walk at all and might need lifelong care. A child with mild CP, on the other hand, might walk a little awkwardly, but might not need any special help. CP does not get worse over time, though the exact symptoms can change over a person’s lifetime.
All people with CP have problems with movement and posture. Many also have related conditions such as intellectual disability; seizures; problems with vision, hearing, or speech; changes in the spine (such as scoliosis); or joint problems (such as contractures).
Doctors classify CP according to the main type of movement disorder involved. Depending on which areas of the brain are affected, one or more of the following movement disorders can occur:
• Stiff muscles (spasticity)
• Uncontrollable movements (dyskinesia)
• Poor balance and coordination (ataxia)
There is no cure for CP, but treatment can improve the lives of those who have the condition. It is important to begin a treatment program as early as possible.
After a CP diagnosis is made, a team of health professionals works with the child and family to develop a plan to help the child reach his or her full potential. Common treatments include medicines; surgery; braces; and physical, occupational, and speech therapy. No single treatment is the best one for all children with CP.466
Cystic Fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an inherited disease of the mucus and sweat glands. It affects mostly the lungs, pancreas, liver, intestines, sinuses, and sex organs. CF causes mucus to be thick and sticky. The mucus clogs the lungs, causing breathing problems and making it easy for bacteria to grow. This can lead to repeated lung infections and lung damage.467 It is one of the most common chronic lung diseases in children and young adults. It is a life-threatening disorder.
The symptoms and severity of CF can vary. Some people have serious problems from birth. Others have a milder version of the disease that doesn't show up until they are teens or young adults.
CF is diagnosed through various tests, such as gene, blood, and sweat tests. There is no cure for CF, but treatments have improved greatly in recent years. In the past, most deaths from CF were in children and teenagers. Today, with improved treatments, some people who have CF are living into their forties, fifties, or older. Treatments may include chest physical therapy, nutritional and respiratory therapies, medicines, and exercise.469
Diabetes
Until recently, the common type of diabetes in children and teens was type 1. It was called juvenile diabetes. With Type 1 diabetes, the pancreas does not make insulin. Insulin is a hormone that helps glucose, or sugar, get into your cells to give them energy. Without insulin, too much sugar stays in the blood.
Now younger people are also getting type 2 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes used to be called adult-onset diabetes. But now it is becoming more common in children and teens, due to more obesity. With Type 2 diabetes, the body does not make or use insulin well.
Children have a higher risk of type 2 diabetes if they are overweight or have obesity, have a family history of diabetes, or are not active. Children who are African American, Hispanic, Native American/Alaska Native, Asian American, or Pacific Islander also have a higher risk. To lower the risk of type 2 diabetes in children
• Have them maintain a healthy weight
• Be sure they are physically active
• Have them eat smaller portions of healthy foods
• Limit time with the TV, computer, and video
Children and teens with type 1 diabetes may need to take insulin. Type 2 diabetes may be controlled with diet and exercise. If not, patients will need to take oral diabetes medicines or insulin.470
When a child in an early care and education program has type 1 diabetes, staff will be involved in diabetes care on a day-to-day basis, from serving healthy foods to giving insulin injections to watching for and treating hypoglycemia (low blood sugar). 472
Hypoglycemia
Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) can happen quickly and needs to be treated immediately. It’s most often caused by too much insulin, waiting too long for a meal or snack, not eating enough, or getting extra physical activity. Hypoglycemia symptoms are different from person to person; make sure you know your specific symptoms, which could include:
• Shakiness
• Nervousness or anxiety
• Sweating, chills, or clamminess
• Irritability or impatience
• Dizziness and difficulty concentrating
• Hunger or nausea
• Blurred vision
• Weakness or fatigue
• Anger, stubbornness, or sadness473
Down Syndrome
Down syndrome is a condition in which a person has an extra chromosome. Chromosomes are small “packages” of genes in the body. They determine how a baby’s body forms during pregnancy and how the baby’s body functions as it grows in the womb and after birth. Typically, a baby is born with 46 chromosomes. Babies with Down syndrome have an extra copy of one of these chromosomes, chromosome 21. A medical term for having an extra copy of a chromosome is ‘trisomy.’ Down syndrome is also referred to as Trisomy 21. This extra copy changes how the baby’s body and brain develop, which can cause both mental and physical challenges for the baby.
Even though people with Down syndrome might act and look similar, each person has different abilities. People with Down syndrome usually have an IQ (a measure of intelligence) in the mildly-to-moderately low range and are slower to speak than other children.
Some common physical features of Down syndrome include:
• A flattened face, especially the bridge of the nose
• Almond-shaped eyes that slant up
• A short neck
• Small ears
• A tongue that tends to stick out of the mouth
• Tiny white spots on the iris (colored part) of the eye
• Small hands and feet
• A single line across the palm of the hand (palmar crease)
• Small pinky fingers that sometimes curve toward the thumb
• Poor muscle tone or loose joints
• Shorter in height as children and adults
Many people with Down syndrome have the common facial features and no other major birth defects. However, some people with Down syndrome might have one or more major birth defects or other medical problems. Some of the more common health problems among children with Down syndrome are listed below.
• Hearing loss
• Obstructive sleep apnea, which is a condition where the person’s breathing temporarily stops while asleep
• Ear infections
• Eye diseases
• Heart defects present at birth
Down syndrome is a lifelong condition. Services early in life will often help babies and children with Down syndrome to improve their physical and intellectual abilities. Most of these services focus on helping children with Down syndrome develop to their full potential. These services include speech, occupational, and physical therapy, and they are typically offered through early intervention programs in each state. Children with Down syndrome may also need extra help or attention in early care and education programs and school, although many children are included in classrooms with children that do not have special needs.475
Epilepsy
Epilepsy is a broad term used for a brain disorder that causes seizures. There are many different types of epilepsy. There are also different kinds of seizures.476 A seizure is a short change in normal brain activity. Seizures are the main sign of epilepsy. Some seizures can look like staring spells. Other seizures cause a person to fall, shake, and lose awareness of what’s going on around them. 477
Most seizures end in a few minutes. If a child has a seizure the teacher should:
• Stay with the child until the seizure ends and he or she is fully awake. Once they are alert and able to communicate, tell them what happened in very simple terms.
• Comfort the person and speak calmly.
• Keep yourself and other people calm.
• Follow the directions in the Health Care Plan (which likely will include calling the family)
Teacher should never do any of the following things:
• Do not hold the child down or try to stop their movements.
• Do not put anything in the child’s mouth. This can injure teeth or the jaw. A person having a seizure cannot swallow his or her tongue.
• Do not try to give mouth-to-mouth breaths (like CPR). People usually start breathing again on their own after a seizure.
• Do not offer the person water or food until he or she is fully alert.478
Nationwide, about 470,000 children have epilepsy. For many children, epilepsy is easily controlled with medicine. These children can do what other kids can do, and perform as well in school. For others, it can be more challenging.480
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
ADHD is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood. It is usually first diagnosed in childhood and often lasts into adulthood. Children with ADHD may have trouble paying attention, controlling impulsive behaviors (may act without thinking about what the result will be), or be overly active.
It is normal for children to have trouble focusing and behaving at one time or another. However, children with ADHD do not just grow out of these behaviors. The symptoms continue, can be severe, and can cause difficulty at school, at home, or with friends.
A child with ADHD might:
• daydream a lot
• forget or lose things a lot
• squirm or fidget
• talk too much
• make careless mistakes or take unnecessary risks
• have a hard time resisting temptation
• have trouble taking turns
• have difficulty getting along with others
There are three different types of ADHD, depending on which types of symptoms are strongest in the individual. Because symptoms can change over time, the presentation may change over time as well.
Predominantly Inattentive Presentation: It is hard for the individual to organize or finish a task, to pay attention to details, or to follow instructions or conversations. The person is easily distracted or forgets details of daily routines.
Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Presentation: The person fidgets and talks a lot. It is hard to sit still for long (e.g., for a meal or while doing homework). Smaller children may run, jump or climb constantly. The individual feels restless and has trouble with impulsivity. Someone who is impulsive may interrupt others a lot, grab things from people, or speak at inappropriate times. It is hard for the person to wait their turn or listen to directions. A person with impulsiveness may have more accidents and injuries than others.
Combined Presentation: Symptoms of the above two types are equally present in the person.
The cause(s) and risk factors for ADHD are unknown, but current research shows that genetics plays an important role. Recent studies of twins link genes with ADHD. In addition to genetics, scientists are studying other possible causes and risk factors including:
• Brain injury
• Exposure to environmental (e.g., lead) during pregnancy or at a young age
• Alcohol and tobacco use during pregnancy
• Premature delivery
• Low birth weight
Research does not support the popularly held views that ADHD is caused by eating too much sugar, watching too much television, parenting, or social and environmental factors such as poverty or family chaos.
For preschool-aged children (4-5 years of age) with ADHD, behavior therapy, particularly training for parents, is recommended as the first line of treatment before medication is tried. What works best can depend on the child and family. Good treatment plans will include close monitoring, follow-ups, and making changes, if needed, along the way.482
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disability that can cause significant social, communication and behavioral challenges. There is often nothing about how people with ASD look that sets them apart from other people, but people with ASD may communicate, interact, behave, and learn in ways that are different from most other people. A diagnosis of ASD now includes several conditions that used to be diagnosed separately: autistic disorder, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), and Asperger syndrome. These conditions are now all called autism spectrum disorder.
The learning, thinking, and problem-solving abilities of people with ASD can range from gifted to severely challenged. Some people with ASD need a lot of help in their daily lives; others need less. People with ASD might repeat certain behaviors and might not want change in their daily activities. Many people with ASD also have different ways of learning, paying attention, or reacting to things. Signs of ASD begin during early childhood and typically last throughout a person’s life.
Children or adults with ASD might:
• not point at objects to show interest (for example, not point at an airplane flying over)
• not look at objects when another person points at them
• have trouble relating to others or not have an interest in other people at all
• avoid eye contact and want to be alone
• have trouble understanding other people’s feelings or talking about their own feelings
• prefer not to be held or cuddled, or might cuddle only when they want to
• appear to be unaware when people talk to them, but respond to other sounds
• be very interested in people, but not know how to talk, play, or relate to them
• repeat or echo words or phrases said to them, or repeat words or phrases in place of normal language
• have trouble expressing their needs using typical words or motions
• not play “pretend” games (for example, not pretend to “feed” a doll)
• repeat actions over and over again
• have trouble adapting when a routine changes
• have unusual reactions to the way things smell, taste, look, feel, or sound
• lose skills they once had (for example, stop saying words they were using)
We do not know all of the causes of ASD. However, we have learned that there are likely many causes for multiple types of ASD. There may be many different factors that make a child more likely to have an ASD, including environmental, biologic and genetic factors. ASD occurs in all racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups, but is about 4 times more common among boys than among girls.
Research shows that early intervention treatment services can improve a child’s development. Services can help the child meet developmental milestones and interact with others. There is no cure for ASD.484 But not everyone believes that autism is a condition or disorder or that it needs to be cured.
Neurodiversity
“Neurodiversity is a concept that’s been around for a while. In a nutshell, it means that brain differences are just that: differences. So conditions like ADHD and [ASD] aren’t “abnormal.” They’re simply variations of the human brain.
For kids with learning and thinking differences, the idea of neurodiversity has real benefits. It can help kids (and their parents) frame their challenges as differences, rather than as deficits. It can also shed light on instructional approaches that might help to highlight particular strengths kids have.”485
Hearing Problems
Hearing loss can happen when any part of the ear is not working in the usual way. This includes the outer ear, middle ear, inner ear, hearing (acoustic) nerve, and auditory system.
• The outer ear is made up of:
• the part we see on the sides of our heads, known as pinna
• the ear canal
• the eardrum, sometimes called the tympanic membrane, which separates the outer and middle ear
• The middle ear is made up of:
• the eardrum
• three small bones called ossicles that send the movement of the eardrum to the inner ear
• The inner ear is made up of:
• the snail shaped organ for hearing known as the cochlea
• the semicircular canals that help with balance
• the nerves that go to the brain
• The auditory (ear) nerve sends sound information from the ear to the brain.
• The auditory (hearing) system processes sound information as it travels from the ear to the brain so that our brain pathways are part of our hearing.
There are four types of hearing loss:
• Conductive Hearing Loss: Hearing loss caused by something that stops sounds from getting through the outer or middle ear. This type of hearing loss can often be treated with medicine or surgery.
• Sensorineural Hearing Loss : Hearing loss that occurs when there is a problem in the way the inner ear or hearing nerve works.
• Mixed Hearing Loss: Hearing loss that includes both a conductive and a sensorineural hearing loss.
• Auditory Neuropathy Spectrum Disorder: Hearing loss that occurs when sound enters the ear normally, but because of damage to the inner ear or the hearing nerve, sound isn’t organized in a way that the brain can understand.
The degree of hearing loss can range from mild to profound:
• Mild Hearing Loss: A person with a mild hearing loss may hear some speech sounds but soft sounds are hard to hear.
• Moderate Hearing Loss: A person with a moderate hearing loss may hear almost no speech when another person is talking at a normal level.
• Severe Hearing Loss: A person with severe hearing loss will hear no speech when a person is talking at a normal level and only some loud sounds.
• Profound Hearing Loss: A person with a profound hearing loss will not hear any speech and only very loud sounds. 487
Hearing loss can happen any time during life – from before birth to adulthood. Following are some of the things that can increase the chance that a child will have hearing loss:
• A genetic cause: About 1 out of 2 cases of hearing loss in babies is due to genetic causes.
• 1 out of 4 cases of hearing loss in babies is due to maternal infections during pregnancy, complications after birth, and head trauma.
• For about 1 out of 4 babies born with hearing loss, the cause is unknown.
Hearing loss can affect a child’s ability to develop speech, language, and social skills. The earlier children with hearing loss start getting services, the more likely they are to reach their full potential.488 Screening for hearing loss was covered in Chapter 7.
Vision Problems
In the United States, the most prevalent disabling childhood conditions are vision disorders including amblyopia, strabismus, and significant refractive errors. Early detection increases the likelihood of effective treatment; however, less than 15% of all preschool children receive an eye exam, and less than 22% of preschool children receive some type of vision screening. 489 Vision screening was also addressed in Chapter 7.
Amblyopia
Amblyopia, also referred to as “lazy eye,” is the most common cause of vision impairment in children. Amblyopia is the medical term used when the vision in one of the eyes is reduced because the eye and the brain are not working together properly. The eye itself looks normal, but it is not being used normally because the brain is favoring the other eye. Conditions leading to amblyopia include strabismus, an imbalance in the positioning of the two eyes, being more nearsighted, farsighted, or astigmatic in one eye than the other eye, and rarely, other eye conditions, such as cataracts.
Unless it is successfully treated in early childhood amblyopia usually persists into adulthood, and is the most common cause of permanent one-eye vision impairment among children and young and middle-aged adults. An estimated 2%–3% of the population suffer from amblyopia.
Strabismus
Strabismus involves an imbalance in the positioning of the two eyes. Strabismus can cause the eyes to cross in (esotropia) or turn out (exotropia). Strabismus is caused by a lack of coordination between the eyes. As a result, the eyes look in different directions and do not focus simultaneously on a single point. In most cases of strabismus in children, the cause is unknown. In more than half of these cases, the problem is present at or shortly after birth (congenital strabismus). When the two eyes fail to focus on the same image, there is reduced or absent depth perception and the brain may learn to ignore the input from one eye, causing permanent vision loss in that eye (one type of amblyopia).
Refractive Errors
Refractive errors in children include myopia (near-sightedness), hyperopia (farsightedness), and astigmatism (distorted vision at all distances), can be corrected by eyeglasses, contact lenses, or in some cases surgery.491
Other Eye Diseases
Other eye diseases affecting this age group include retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), congenital defects, diabetic retinopathy (DR), and cancers such as retinoblastoma.493
Pause to Reflect
Do you have experiences with any of the special needs discussed in this section? How does this affect how you feel about that particular need?
Did you find yourself feeling more concerned about potentially caring for a child with any of these? If so, why? What can you do to address those concerns?
Are there any you feel more comfortable and/or qualified to handle? Why or why not?
Children with Special Needs
Children in early care and education programs may have special needs that are not directly related to their health. The number of children enrolled in Special Education according to the California Department of Education, in the 2018-2019 academic year is provided by disability in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1 Special Education Enrollment by Age and Disability494
Age
Intellectual Disability
Hard of Hearing
Deaf
Speech or Language Impairment
Visual Impairment
Emotional Disturbance
Orthopedic Impairment
Other Health Impairment
Specific Learning Disability
Deaf - Blindness
Multiple Disability
Autism
Traumatic Brain Injury
0
53
334
62
12
23
0
63
288
0
-
28
0
-
1
115
605
93
178
72
0
171
764
0
-
79
-
-
2
134
589
89
860
97
0
137
1091
-
-
112
83
0
3
805
419
136
13028
67
-
351
997
26
-
252
6100
17
4
1016
414
114
18404
96
16
443
1274
51
-
270
7976
20
5
1362
418
148
20533
110
83
430
1742
524
-
321
8437
34
6
1777
167
167
23784
140
265
526
3075
2339
-
349
9078
40
7
1924
170
170
22053
160
580
549
4676
7174
-
345
9024
68
8
2228
188
188
17871
191
879
879
6035
14717
-
394
8685-
70
These children and their families need a partnership with early care and education staff and other service providers as early as possible because it creates a solid foundation to support optimal development and can reduce the prevalence of ongoing and future challenges.495
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is the federal law that makes available a free appropriate public education to eligible children with disabilities throughout the nation and ensures special education and related services to those children.
The IDEA governs how states and public agencies provide early intervention, special education, and related services to more than 6.5 million eligible infants, toddlers, children, and youth with disabilities.496
For children birth to 3 years, Part C of IDEA Provides early intervention services to children from birth to 3 with special needs. And Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) is a written document outlining:
• The early intervention services a child and family will receive
• The child's needs; the family's strengths and choices; and the Early Intervention team's recommendations
Once children turn 3, Part B of IDEA (Section 619), provides special education services through the public school system. An Individualized Education Program (IEP) is a written plan that describes:
• The child's educational goals
• Services and supports in a school setting497
her to participate in her inclusive early care and education program 498
Inclusion
In IDEA, the word appropriate, refers to providing that educational experience in the least restrictive environment (LRE). LRE requires a continuum of placement options be available to best meet the diverse needs of children with disabilities, and presumes that the first placement option considered for each child with a disability is the regular classroom the child would attend if he or she did not have a disability.499 The full and active participation of children with disabilities or other special needs in community activities, services, and programs designed for children without disabilities, including child care, is referred to as inclusion. In an inclusive program, if support, accommodations, or modifications are needed to ensure the child’s full, active participation, they are provided appropriately. The participation results in an authentic sense of belonging for the child and family.
Teachers may be reassured to know that:
• Child care providers can successfully include children with disabilities or other special needs in the program while promoting belonging for all children.
• Major modifications to their program or facility probably will not be needed in order to include children with disabilities or other special needs.
• Assistance and support for more significant changes in their program or facility may be available.
• An inclusive child care program is rewarding for all the children, families, and staff in child care programs.500
Individualizing Care and Education
When serving an individual child, the provider should focus on the child’s needs, not the disability or its label. Working with the family and the service providers, teachers can provide individualized care and education for the child’s unique needs and strengths, just as they should be doing for each and every child in their classroom.
As each child is unique, so is each child care program. There is no magic formula for making inclusion work beyond the creativity, energy, and interest that most child care providers already bring to their work. Their uniqueness notwithstanding, every program is able to successfully include children with disabilities. And each makes it work child by child, day by day.
Some children need small changes to the curriculum or minor supports in order to get the most out of certain activities. These sorts of things may consist of fairly simple accommodations, such as providing a special place or quiet activity for a child who is unable to participate in large-group activities or making available a special snack for a child who needs to eat more frequently than the typical meal or snack schedule. Other children may require more specific adaptations that might not be readily apparent. A variety of community resources can be helpful in determining what those might be. The family, for example, is always the first and most important guide for what a child might need; after that, an area specialist or a local workshop might be. Beyond the immediate community, a world of literature in books, periodicals, and Web sites devoted to disabilities and inclusion can inform a child care provider about appropriate adaptations for a child with a particular condition or need.
Programs that begin with a high-quality, developmentally appropriate foundation; a positive attitude on the part of the care provider; appropriate adult–child ratios; supportive administrators; and adequate training for the provider will be in a good position to creatively solve problems for a child with disabilities or other special needs, exactly as it does for children who are typically developing. If a child already has an established diagnosis, trained intervention personnel may be available to assist in this process.
One of the biggest roles for a care provider is to facilitate a sense of belonging and inclusion. Several helpful strategies are as follows:
• Start with the assumption that all children are competent.
• Adapt the environment so that it is developmentally appropriate, challenging, and fits the needs and interests of each child.
• While there may be a need to support a child’s mastery of a specific skill, keep the whole child in mind, particularly the child’s social-emotional experience.502
Common Modifications, Adaptations, and Supports
Each child is an individual, and modifications, adaptations, accommodations, and supports should be designed with a single child in mind. However, researchers from the Early Childhood Research Institute on Inclusion (ECRII) have found that many changes can be grouped into categories of modifications, summarized in Table 10.2.503
Table 10.2 – Common Modifications, Adaptations, and Supports504
Category of Support
Description
Examples
Environmental Support
Alter the physical, social, or temporal environment to promote participation, engagement, and learning
• Use a photo, picture, or object to signal the next activity.
• Make boundaries for activities (e.g., mark sections of the floor with tape, provide a tray or box lid for art activities).
• Free surfaces of bumps or smooth them with “lips” and ramps.
Materials Adaptation
Modify materials to promote independence
• Add knobs to wooden puzzles.
• Use fabric self-adhesive closures on dress-up clothes.
• Place “no-slip” placemats under dishes when children eat or serve themselves.
Activity Simplification
Simplify a complicated task by breaking it into smaller parts or reducing the number of steps
• Give a child the materials for a task one piece at a time.
• Prepare materials for easier use.
• Replace materials that may be difficult to use with ones that are simpler and can serve the same function.
Child Preferences
Capitalize on a child’s favorite activities
• Observe a child’s interests and then provide additional materials or toys that match them.
• Use the child’s preferred activities, such as music, to support efforts to learn other skills.
• Find ways to build on a child’s preferred activities when introducing new ideas.
Special Equipment
Use adaptive devices to facilitate participation
• Ensure that providers know the proper use of adaptive or medical equipment, such as hearing aids, glasses, or nebulizers
• Allow all children to participate in activities by providing appropriate seating or other equipment
• Use picture cards or electronic switch-activated speaking devices for children who cannot speak.
Adult Support
Employ direct adult intervention to support a child’s efforts
• Assign a primary caregiver to a child so that the assigned adult is able to know the unique needs of the child and ways to support them.
• Provide direct instruction or guidance to a child while he/she is learning or practicing tasks.
• Learn specific ways of interacting or communicating with a child, such as sign language.
Peer Support
Use classmates as models to help children learn
• Pair a child with a certain disability with a child who does not have that disability during certain activities, ensuring that the child with special needs is sometimes the helper and not always the one being helped.
• Facilitate children’s interactions and observations of one another in small groups.
• Teach children specific ways to engage and interact with a child with special needs.
Invisible Support
Arrange naturally occurring events to assist inclusion
• Stock the dress-up center or kitchen corner with sufficient items so more children can participate in a popular activity without competition.
• Assign roles during children’s play, such as having a child with limited mobility be in charge of “pumping gas” as the children riding bikes go by.
• Comment on children’s play in ways that encourage further interaction
Pause to Reflect
How might you explain what inclusion is and why it is good for children and families to the following:
• Someone who thinks they want to be a teacher but doesn’t believe they can handle teaching in an inclusive classroom.
• The family of a child with special needs.
• The family of a child that is having a hard time with changes in the classroom after a child that has a special need joined the class.
Did your explanations differ? Why or why not?
Summary
All children and their families deserve access to and full inclusion in high-quality early care and education programs. This includes children with special health care and other special needs. Working with families and the health care and service providers, programs can meet each child’s individualized needs. This takes knowledge, planning, and partnership. Inclusive programs are beneficial to everyone, the children with the special needs and their families, the children that do not have the special needs, and the program staff. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Health_Safety_and_Nutrition_(Paris)/Section_III%3A_Health/10%3A_Children_with_Special_Health_Care_Needs.txt |
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Discuss what mental health is and what that looks like during early childhood.
• Explain how mental health practices should begin during infancy.
• Describe mental health problems that young children may experience.
• Examine the impact of adverse childhood experiences, trauma, and stress on your children.
• Reflect on how to support young children’s resilience and social and emotional competence.
• Outline ways early care and education programs should be supporting young children’s mental health (including engaging families).
• Explain what trauma-informed care is.
Licensing Regulations
Title 22 Regulations that relate to this chapter include:
101223 PERSONAL RIGHTS
• The licensee shall ensure that each child is accorded the following personal rights:
• To receive safe, healthful, and comfortable accommodations
Introduction
Mental health in childhood means reaching developmental and emotional milestones, and learning healthy social skills and how to cope when there are problems. Mentally healthy children have a positive quality of life and can function well at home, in early care and education programs and school, and in their communities.505
Mental health is an important part of overall health and well-being. Mental health includes emotional, psychological, and social well-being. It affects how people think, feel, and act. It also helps determine how people handle stress, relate to others, and make healthy choices. Mental health is important at every stage of life, from childhood and adolescence through adulthood.506 When early educators and families know more about early childhood mental health, they are better able to support children’s learning and development.507
Foundation for Mental Health
Beginning at birth, children need positive relationships with the adults who care for them. When children learn to recognize and share their feelings with trusted adults, they feel good about themselves. These relationships help them develop the confidence to learn new skills. Children thrive when adults support their strengths and needs. Responsive adults help children feel safe and valued and learn how to get along well with others.
Children who can manage their feelings can learn and play with peers. They are better able to plan, monitor and control their behavior. They can also adjust to changes in schedules and routines. Children who get along with adults learn to work together and follow rules. They can also show concern for, and share, take turns and compromise with other children.508
Mental Health from the Beginning
Infant mental health practice applies knowledge of relationships to support and enhance healthy social and emotional development and to prevent and treat mental health disorders. The following definition of infant mental health was developed by a group of experts with the common understanding that observing young children’s interactions with parents and other significant people is key for the assessment of emotional well-being.
In addition, experts also suggest keeping in mind the infants’ underlying biology that could include temperament and compromises to resilience from early trauma. Infant mental health is the developing capacity of the child from birth to three to: experience, regulate, and express emotions; form close and secure interpersonal relationships; and explore the environment and learn—all in the context of family, community, and cultural expectations for young children. Infant mental health is synonymous with healthy social and emotional development. (ZERO TO THREE Infant Mental Health Task Force, December, 2001) The mental and physical health of infants and toddlers is critically influenced by the daily behaviors of their caregivers.
The following sections describe key concepts related to the mental health of infants. These concepts enhance what is included in the previous definition:
• “Developing capacity” highlights the extraordinarily rapid pace of growth and change in the first 3 years. Although newborns experience intense feelings and are active partners in their relationships with adults, the differentiation and complexity of a young child’s emotional and social development increases markedly over time.
• Infants and toddlers initially depend heavily on adults to help them experience, regulate, and express emotions. Infants’ cries and coos evoke strong reactions in their caregivers. An infant’s ability to master feelings develops through give and take.
• Through relationships with parents and other caregivers, infants and toddlers learn what people expect of them and what they can expect of other people. Infants and toddlers learn through what they experience within relationships and what they observe in adult’s interactions with one another.
• Infants and toddlers share and communicate feelings and experiences with significant caregivers and other children. Infants and toddlers interact with one another in emotionally meaningful ways. Parents and caregivers help young children name the feelings and understand their effect on others.
• The drive to explore and master one’s environment is inborn in humans. An essential component of infants’ and toddlers’ well-being is the self-esteem that grows out of mastering their bodies and the environment as well as sharing that mastery with parents and significant caregivers.
• Every child is a unique blend of characteristics; infants’ and toddlers’ developmental pathways will reflect not only their individual constitutional differences but also the contributions of their caregiving environments. Temperament, or the way an individual approaches the world, influences how tentatively or vigorously an infant might engage with a new person, toy, or situation.
• The state of adults’ emotional well-being and life circumstances profoundly affects the quality of infant-caregiver relationships as well as infant and toddler mental health. Parents and other significant caregivers bring their own temperament and past experiences to relationships.
• Culture influences every aspect of human development. This broad influence affects the way that infant mental health is understood; the goals and expectations adults have for young children’s development; and the childrearing practices that parents and caregivers use to promote, protect, or restore infants’ and toddlers’ mental health.510
Pause to Reflect
How does this toddler’s exploration relate to his self-esteem?
Mental Health in Early Childhood
Early childhood mental health (birth to 5 years) is a child’s growing capacity to do these things, all in the cultural context of family and community (adapted from ZERO TO THREE):
• Experience, regulate, and express emotions
• Develop close, secure, relationships
• Explore the surroundings and learn.
Early childhood mental health is the same as social emotional development.512 Social and emotional development is important to early learning. Many social-emotional qualities—such as curiosity; self-confidence as a learner; self-control of attention, thinking, and impulses; and initiative in developing new ideas—are essential to learning at any age. Learning, problem solving, and creativity rely on these social-emotional and motivational qualities as well as basic cognitive skills.
When learning occurs in groups, such as in preschool classrooms or family child care programs, the social environment significantly influences how learning occurs. When young children enjoy interacting with adults and other children, they are more enthusiastic about activities and participate more. Furthermore, the interest and enthusiasm of others fuels the child’s own excitement about learning, and children are also motivated by others’ acknowledgment of the child’s accomplishments.513
It is important because it affects a child’s ability to:
• Express their needs
• Pay attention
• Solve problems
• Get along with others
• Follow directions
• Persist when challenged
• Manage their emotions
• Take initiative
• Be curious and interested in learning514
Interviews with preschool and kindergarten teachers indicate that children who have the greatest difficulties in learning are hindered by the lack of these social-emotional qualities more than by the inability to identify letters or numbers. Children who are delayed or impaired in developing these social-emotional and motivational qualities:
• may have difficulty controlling their emotions or behavior,
• may not readily work independently or in a group,
• often appear to lack curiosity or be uninterested in learning, and
• may have difficulties getting along with others, which may undermine the learning environment for all children515
Children’s mental health is critical to their later school success as well. Children who
• are able to follow directions and pay attention are able to focus on learning.
• can express their feelings are able to get help when they need it.
• learn to persist when frustrated can overcome challenges.
• feel good about themselves are able to work on their own.
• can control their behavior are able to stay on task.516
Finally, the importance of social-emotional development to early learning is consistent with the research on brain science. The developing brain is not neatly divided into separate areas governing learning, thinking, and emotions. Instead, it is a highly interconnected organ with different regions influencing, and being affected by, the others. This means, for example, that young children who experience emotional challenges (perhaps because of stress) are less ready for learning because brain regions related to memory are being affected by other regions governing emotion. This conclusion from brain research is, of course, consistent with the everyday experience of teachers of children whose stressful lives often lead to emotional, behavioral, and learning difficulties.517
Childhoods Mental Health Issues
There are two types of mental health issues this chapter is going to address. The first is diagnosable mental problems. The second is the result of Adverse Childhood Experiences and childhood trauma.
Mental Health Problems
Mental health problems, which the CDC refers to as mental disorders, among children are described as serious changes in the way children typically learn, behave, or handle their emotions, which cause distress and problems getting through the day.
Among the more common mental health problems that can be diagnosed in childhood are attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD, which has already been addressed in Chapter 10), anxiety, and behavior disorders.518
Anxiety and Depression
Many children have fears and worries, and may feel sad and hopeless from time to time. Strong fears may appear at different times during development. For example, toddlers are often very distressed about being away from their parents, even if they are safe and cared for. Although fears and worries are typical in children, persistent or extreme forms of fear and sadness could be due to anxiety or depression. Because the symptoms primarily involve thoughts and feelings, they are called internalizing disorders.
Anxiety
When children do not outgrow the fears and worries that are typical in young children, or when there are so many fears and worries that they interfere with school, home, or play activities, the child may be diagnosed with an anxiety disorder. Examples of different types of anxiety disorders include
• Being very afraid when away from parents (separation anxiety)
• Having extreme fear about a specific thing or situation, such as dogs, insects, or going to the doctor (phobias)
• Being very afraid of school and other places where there are people (social anxiety)
• Being very worried about the future and about bad things happening (general anxiety)
• Having repeated episodes of sudden, unexpected, intense fear that come with symptoms like heart pounding, having trouble breathing, or feeling dizzy, shaky, or sweaty (panic disorder)
Anxiety may present as fear or worry, but can also make children irritable and angry. Anxiety symptoms can also include trouble sleeping, as well as physical symptoms like fatigue, headaches, or stomachaches. Some anxious children keep their worries to themselves and, thus, the symptoms can be missed.
Depression
Occasionally being sad or feeling hopeless is a part of every child’s life. However, some children feel sad or uninterested in things that they used to enjoy, or feel helpless or hopeless in situations they are able to change. When children feel persistent sadness and hopelessness, they may be diagnosed with depression.
Examples of behaviors often seen in children with depression include
• Feeling sad, hopeless, or irritable a lot of the time
• Not wanting to do or enjoy doing fun things
• Showing changes in eating patterns – eating a lot more or a lot less than usual
• Showing changes in sleep patterns – sleeping a lot more or a lot less than normal
• Showing changes in energy – being tired and sluggish or tense and restless a lot of the time
• Having a hard time paying attention
• Feeling worthless, useless, or guilty
• Showing self-injury and self-destructive behavior
Extreme depression can lead a child to think about suicide or plan for suicide. While less common in early childhood, for youth ages 10-24 years, suicide is among the leading causes of death.
Some children may not talk about their helpless and hopeless thoughts, and may not appear sad. Depression might also cause a child to make trouble or act unmotivated, causing others not to notice that the child is depressed or to incorrectly label the child as a trouble-maker or lazy. 519
Behavior or Conduct Problems
Children sometimes argue, are aggressive, or act angry or defiant around adults. A behavior disorder may be diagnosed when these disruptive behaviors are uncommon for the child’s age at the time, persist over time, or are severe. Because disruptive behavior disorders involve acting out and showing unwanted behavior towards others they are often called externalizing disorders.
Oppositional Defiant Disorder
When children act out persistently so that it causes serious problems at home, in school, or with peers, they may be diagnosed with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). ODD usually starts before 8 years of age, but no later than by about 12 years of age. Children with ODD are more likely to act oppositional or defiant around people they know well, such as family members, a regular care provider, or a teacher. Children with ODD show these behaviors more often than other children their age.
Examples of ODD behaviors include:
• Often being angry or losing one’s temper
• Often arguing with adults or refusing to comply with adults’ rules or requests
• Often resentful or spiteful
• Deliberately annoying others or becoming annoyed with others
• Often blaming other people for one’s own mistakes or misbehavior
Conduct Disorder
Conduct Disorder (CD) is diagnosed when children show an ongoing pattern of aggression toward others, and serious violations of rules and social norms at home, in school, and with peers. In older children, these rule violations may involve breaking the law and result in arrest. Children with CD are more likely to get injured and may have difficulties getting along with peers.
Examples of CD behaviors include:
• Breaking serious rules, such as running away, or for older children staying out at night when told not to or skipping school
• Being aggressive in a way that causes harm, such as bullying, fighting, or being cruel to animals
• Lying, stealing, or damaging other people’s property on purpose521
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Many children occasionally have thoughts that bother them, and they might feel like they have to do something about those thoughts, even if their actions don’t actually make sense. For example, they might worry about having bad luck if they don’t wear a favorite piece of clothing. For some children, the thoughts and the urges to perform certain actions persist, even if they try to ignore them or make them go away. Children may have an obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) when unwanted thoughts, and the behaviors they feel they must do because of the thoughts, happen frequently, take up a lot of time (more than an hour a day), interfere with their activities, or make them very upset. The thoughts are called obsessions. The behaviors are called compulsions.
Having OCD means having obsessions, compulsions, or both.
Examples of obsessive or compulsive behaviors include:
• Having unwanted thoughts, impulses, or images that occur over and over and which cause anxiety or distress.
• Having to think about or say something over and over (for example, counting, or repeating words over and over silently or out loud)
• Having to do something over and over (for example, handwashing, placing things in a specific order, or checking the same things over and over, like whether a door is locked)
• Having to do something over and over according to certain rules that must be followed exactly in order to make an obsession go away.
Children do these behaviors because they have the feeling that the behaviors will prevent bad things from happening or will make them feel better. However, the behavior is not typically connected to actual danger of something bad happening, or the behavior is extreme, such as washing hands multiple times per hour.
A common myth is that OCD means being really neat and orderly. Sometimes, OCD behaviors may involve cleaning, but many times someone with OCD is too focused on one thing that must be done over and over, rather than on being organized. Obsessions and compulsions can also change over time.522
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
All children may experience very stressful events that affect how they think and feel. Most of the time, children recover quickly and well. However, sometimes children who experience severe stress, such as from an injury, from the death or threatened death of a close family member or friend, or from violence, will be affected long-term. The child could experience this trauma directly or could witness it happening to someone else. When children develop long term symptoms (longer than one month) from such stress, which are upsetting or interfere with their relationships and activities, they may be diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Examples of PTSD symptoms include:
• Reliving the event over and over in thought or in play
• Nightmares and sleep problems
• Becoming very upset when something causes memories of the event
• Lack of positive emotions
• Intense ongoing fear or sadness
• Irritability and angry outbursts
• Constantly looking for possible threats, being easily startled
• Acting helpless, hopeless or withdrawn
• Denying that the event happened or feeling numb
• Avoiding places or people associated with the event
Because children who have experienced traumatic stress may seem restless, fidgety, or have trouble paying attention and staying organized, the symptoms of traumatic stress can be confused with symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Examples of events that could cause PTSD include:
• Physical, sexual, or emotional maltreatment
• Being a victim or witness to violence or crime
• Serious illness or death of a close family member or friend
• Natural or manmade disasters
• Severe car accidents524
Diagnosis and Treatment of Mental Health Problems in Childhood
Symptoms of mental health problems change over time as a child grows, and may include difficulties with how a child plays, learns, speaks, and acts or how the child handles their emotions. Symptoms often start in early childhood, although some disorders may develop during the teenage years. The diagnosis is often made in the school years and sometimes earlier. However, some children with a mental disorder may not be recognized or diagnosed as having one.
Figure 11.5 – Mental health problems in childhood.525
Childhood mental health problems can, and should, be treated and managed. There are many treatment options based on the best and most current medical evidence, so families and doctors should work closely with everyone involved in the child’s treatment — teachers, coaches, therapists, and other service providers. Taking advantage of all the resources available will help parents, health professionals, and educators guide the child towards success. Early diagnosis and appropriate services for children and their families can make a difference in the lives of children with mental disorders and their families.526
Adverse Childhood Experiences and Trauma
The childhood years, from the prenatal period to late adolescence, are the “building block” years that help set the stage for adult relationships, behaviors, health, and social outcomes.527 The occurrence of Adverse Childhood Experiences and childhood trauma can damage those building blocks. Early care and education programs can help children develop resilience to combat the negative effects of those.
Adverse Childhood Experiences
Adverse Childhood Experiences, or ACEs, are potentially traumatic events that occur in childhood (0-17 years) such as experiencing violence, abuse, or neglect; witnessing violence in the home; and having a family member attempt or die by suicide. Also included are aspects of the child’s environment that can undermine their sense of safety, stability, and bonding such as growing up in a household with substance misuse, mental health problems, or instability due to parental separation or incarceration of a parent, sibling or other member of the household.
Traumatic events in childhood can be emotionally painful or distressing and can have effects that persist for years. Factors such as the nature, frequency and seriousness of the traumatic event, prior history of trauma, and available family and community supports can shape a child’s response to trauma.528
Adverse Childhood Experiences and associated conditions such as living in under-resourced or racially segregated neighborhoods, frequently moving, experiencing food insecurity, and other instability can cause toxic stress (i.e., prolonged activation of the stress-response system). Some children may face further exposure to toxic stress from historical and ongoing traumas due to systemic racism or the impacts of multigenerational poverty resulting from limited educational and economic opportunities.
A large and growing body of research indicates that toxic stress during childhood can harm the most basic levels of the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems, and that such exposures can even alter the physical structure of DNA (epigenetic effects). Changes to the brain from toxic stress can affect such things as attention, impulsive behavior, decision-making, learning, emotion, and response to stress. Absent factors that can prevent or reduce toxic stress, children growing up under these conditions often struggle to learn and complete schooling. They are at increased risk of becoming involved in crime and violence, using alcohol or drugs, and engaging in other health-risk behaviors (e.g., early initiation of sexual activity; unprotected sex; and suicide attempts). They are susceptible to disease, illness, and mental health challenges over their lifetime. Children growing up with toxic stress may have difficulty forming healthy and stable relationships. They may also have unstable work histories as adults and struggle with finances, family, jobs, and depression throughout life—the effects of which can be passed on to their own children. 530
Pause to Reflect
If it feels safe to you, find your own ACE score using the assessment at https://www.ncjfcj.org/wp-content/uploads/2006/10/Finding-Your-Ace-Score.pdf. What impact do you think this had and/or still has on you? What might this mean for you when you care for young children who have the own ACEs and trauma?
Childhood Trauma
Childhood trauma occurs when a child experiences an actual or threatened negative event, series of events, or set of circumstances that cause emotional pain and overwhelm the child’s ability to cope. Childhood trauma is widespread and can take many forms. Common types of childhood trauma include:
• Abuse and neglect
• Family violence
• Community violence
• School violence
• Life-threatening accidents and injuries
• Frightening or painful medical procedures
• Serious and untreated parental mental illness
• Loss of or separation from a parent or other loved one
• Natural or manmade disasters
• War or terrorist attack
• Forced displacement or refugee status
• Discrimination
• Extreme poverty
Trauma exposure often begins early in life. Young children are at the highest risk for exposure to trauma and are most vulnerable to its adverse effects. An estimated half of all children in the United States—approximately 35 million—are exposed to at least one type of trauma prior to their eighth birthday. For example, child abuse and neglect are most common among children younger than age 3. Children under age 5 are most likely to incur injuries from falls, choking, and poisoning, and represent the majority of children who witness domestic violence. Children from certain racial and ethnic groups also are more likely to experience adversities that can cause trauma. For example, exposure to childhood adversity is more common among black and Hispanic children than among white children, even when accounting for the role of income.
Childhood trauma is strongly linked to mental and physical health problems over the lifespan. It negatively impacts brain development, cognitive development, learning, social-emotional development, the ability to develop secure attachments to others, and physical health; it is also associated with a shortened lifespan. A considerable body of research demonstrates that children suffer the most severe, long-lasting, and harmful effects when trauma exposure begins early in life, takes multiple forms, is severe and pervasive, and involves harm by a parent or other primary caregiver—often referred to as complex trauma.
Childhood trauma is more likely to lead to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) than trauma that occurs in adulthood. Children exposed to several different forms of trauma are more likely to exhibit PTSD (e.g., anxiety, depression, anger, aggression, dissociation) than children with chronic exposure to a single type of trauma. Children and youth with PTSD may re-experience the traumatic event through intrusive memories, nightmares, and flashbacks; avoid situations or people that remind them of the trauma; and feel intense anxiety that disrupts their everyday lives. In addition, they may engage in aggressive, self-destructive, or reckless behavior; have trouble sleeping; or remain in a state of hypervigilance, an exaggerated state of awareness and reactivity to their environments. However, there is no typical reaction to trauma. The vast majority of children show distress immediately following a traumatic event, but most return to their prior level of functioning.
Generally, children’s reactions to trauma differ based on the nature of the trauma; the child’s individual, family, and neighborhood characteristics; and the overall balance of risk and protective factors in their lives. It also depends on their age and developmental stage.
Young children who experience trauma may:
• Have difficulties forming an attachment to caregivers
• Experience excessive fear of strangers or separation anxiety
• Have trouble eating and sleeping
• Be especially fussy
• Show regression after reaching a developmental milestone (e.g., sleeping through the night, toilet training)
School-age children who experience trauma may:
• Engage in aggressive behavior
• Become withdrawn
• Fixate on their own safety or the safety of others
• Re-enact the traumatic event through play
• Have frequent nightmares
• Exhibit difficulty concentrating in school
Table 11.9 – Childhood trauma has many effects. 532
Domain
Impacts
Brain Development
• Smaller brain size
• Less efficient processing
• Impaired stress response
• Changes in gene expression
Cognition
• Impaired readiness to learn
• Difficulty problem-solving
• Language delays
• Problems with concentration
• Poor academic achievement
Physical Health
• Sleep disorders
• Eating disorders
• Poor immune system functioning
• Cardiovascular disease
• Shorter life span
Emotions
• Difficulty controlling emotions
• Trouble recognizing emotions
• Limited coping skills
• Increased sensitivity to stress
• Shame and guilt
• Excessive worry, hopelessness
• Feelings of helplessness/lack of self-efficacy
Relationships
• Attachment problems/disorders
• Poor understanding of social interactions
• Difficulty forming relationships with peers
• Problems in romantic relationships
• Intergenerational cycles of abuse and neglect
Mental Health
• Depression
• Anxiety
• Negative self-image/low self-esteem
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
• Suicidality
Behavior
• Poor self-regulation
• Social withdrawal
• Aggression
• Poor impulse control
• Risk-taking/illegal activity
• Sexual acting out
• Adolescent pregnancy
• Drug and alcohol misuse
Resilience to Childhood Trauma
When parents, service providers, and programs employ a resilience framework to childhood trauma, they understand there are always opportunities to support positive developmental trajectories among children, even if they have experienced trauma. Resilience has been defined as “a dynamic process encompassing positive adaptation within the context of significant adversity.” Resilience is not a personal trait that individuals do or do not possess (thus, the term “resiliency” is best avoided because it connotes an individual characteristic), but rather a product of interacting factors—biological, psychological, social, and cultural—that determine how a child responds to traumatic events.
Resilience to trauma can be defined in several ways: positive child outcomes despite exposure to trauma, prevention of trauma recurrence despite high risk for further exposure, or avoidance of traumatic experiences altogether in the face of significant risk. All three of these conceptualizations of resilience are based on an ecological approach.
Using an ecological approach to promote resilience in development among children who experience trauma is useful because it assumes that there are multiple levels of influence on a child’s development—the individual, parent, family, school, community, and culture—which may increase or decrease a child’s risk for and response to experiencing trauma. These various influences are often referred to as risk and protective factors.
Risk factors are circumstances, characteristics, conditions, events, or traits at the individual, family, community, or cultural level that may increase the likelihood a person will experience adversity (e.g., childhood trauma, re-traumatization, or negative outcomes due to trauma). Risk factors for specific types of trauma may vary, but commonly include living in poverty, a lack of social supports, and prior history of trauma. Additionally, children who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or queer (LGBTQ) and children in military families are at an increased risk for experiencing trauma. However, the presence of risk factors or membership in a high-risk group does not necessarily mean that a child will experience trauma or its most adverse effects. Protective factors can buffer children from risk and improve the odds of resilient functioning.
Protective factors are characteristics, conditions, or events that promote healthy development and minimize the risk or likelihood a person will experience a particular illness or event, or its related negative outcomes. Research shows that the strongest protective factor linked with resilience to childhood trauma is the reliable presence of a sensitive, nurturing, and responsive adult. The presence of such a figure can help children by restoring a sense of safety, predictability, and control; giving them the feeling of safety; providing them a way to process traumatic events; protecting them from re-traumatization; supporting their development of self-regulation; and helping them heal.
In addition, the National Child Traumatic Stress Network highlights the following protective factors that promote resilience to childhood trauma:
• Support from family, friends, people at school, and members of the community
• A sense of safety at home, at school, and in the community
• High self-esteem and positive sense of self-worth
• Self-efficacy
• Spiritual or cultural beliefs, goals, or dreams for the future that provide a sense of meaning to a child’s life
• A talent or skill in a particular area (e.g., excelling in school or in a sport)
• Coping skills that can be applied to varying situations
Finally, resilience to childhood trauma depends largely on the supports available to a child and his or her family. Family members, teachers, mental health providers, child welfare workers, and other community service providers can work together to ensure that children and families receive the emotional and concrete supports (e.g., food, shelter, financial stability) they need. This system of care approach is also a cornerstone of TIC. 533
Pause to Reflect
What risk factors did you encounter in your own childhood? What protective factors did you experience? How did/does this effect your resilience?
Early Care and Education’s Role in Children’s Mental Health
Many practices of high-quality early care and education programs promote mental health and well-being including:
• Screening and assessment of infants’ and toddlers’ social and emotional well-being support the functions of promotion, prevention, and intervention.
• integrating curriculum and individualization.
• A well-designed space is comfortable for infants and toddlers with different temperaments as well as for their teachers and parents.
• Poorly designed environments are stressful. Teachers are concerned about the safety and well-being of children, and their saying “no” occupies a great deal of teacher energy and attention. The time teachers spend monitoring keeps them from interacting with an infant or toddler in ways that build self-esteem.
• Having partnerships with community resources that families can be referred to.
• Reciprocal communication with families. 534
Mental health services in early care and education programs can address:
• Promotion—helping all children to feel good about themselves, to get along with others and to manage their behavior.
• Prevention—reducing the likelihood that children will develop mental health problems and reducing the impact of mental health problems that do exist.
• Early Identification—paying attention to mental health problems early on.
• Treatment—helping connect families with appropriate help for children with mental health problems. 535
Table 11.1 – Nine Things Early Care and Education Programs Should Know 536
Nine Things Early Care and Education Programs Should Know
1. Mental health is an essential part of health.
1. The mental health of young children is linked to the wellbeing of the people who care for them.
1. Promoting the mental health of infants and young children can make a positive difference for years to come.
1. Positive relationships support positive mental health.
1. Culture plays an important role in young children’s mental health and in how families view mental health and behavior.
1. The more staff and families know about mental health the better they are able to support it.
1. Addressing mental health concerns when children are young is more effective than waiting until they are older.
1. Mental health must be an integral part of early care and education programs.
1. Programs that focus on mental health are able to design services that improve children’s behavior.
Infant and Early Childhood Mental Health Consultation
Infant and Early Childhood Mental Health Consultation (IECMHC) a prevention-based service that pairs a mental health consultant with families and adults who work with infants and young children in the different settings where they learn and grow, such as child care, preschool, and their home. The aim is to build adults’ capacity to strengthen and support the healthy social and emotional development of children―early and before intervention is needed.
IECMHC has been shown to improve children’s social skills and emotional functioning, promote healthy relationships, reduce challenging behaviors, reduce the number of suspensions and expulsions, improve classroom quality, and reduce provider stress, burnout, and turnover. 537
Increasing Children’s Opportunities to Practice Social Skills and Emotional Competencies
Everyday activities in the classroom can be planned and implemented to help children’s social and emotional development (which, as mentioned, is the same as their mental health).
Teaching Children About Emotions
There are many things that teachers can do to help support children’s understanding emotions. Here are some ideas:
• Make faces expressing different emotions and have children guess what you might be feeling.
• Throughout the day, help children learn to label their own emotions (e.g., "It looks like you are feeling mad that we can't go outside; what can we do to help you feel better?").
• While reading stories to children, have children guess how the characters in the story are feeling. Ask questions like, "How can you tell that the character is feeling that way? Can you make a face that shows that feeling?"
• Use puppets to act out different situations; for example, one puppet takes a toy from another puppet. Ask the children what emotion(s) the puppets might be feeling.
• Frequently direct children to look at each other's faces and think about how they are feeling.
• Listen to some different types of music, such as rock or classical, and let the children dance to the music. Ask children how the song made the children feel.
Teaching Children about Friendship
Being in an environment with many same-aged peers that are all learning about how to express themselves, work with others, and regulate their behaviors provides a great place to help children learn about friendships. Here are some ideas:
• Model asking others for help. If you have a task to do in the classroom, involve another child.
• Whenever children have to take turns, have the child who just finished call someone to go next.
• Have children help during routines such as putting out cots or mats for naptime.
• Talk about your own social behaviors. You can say things like, "I said 'thank you' to Ms. Tanya because she passed me the milk," or "I think I'll hold the door open for Jamal because his hands are full."
• Identify certain items in centers that require children to help each other, like taking a dollhouse off a shelf, moving the car garage, or feeding the class pet. Explain to children that it takes two friends to do these things.
• Provide toys and play games that require two or more people, like a wagon or toss and catch game.
• Make a "Friendship Board" on a bulletin board in your classroom. Take pictures when children are working together on something or playing together and put them on the wall.
Teaching Children about Problem-Solving
Everyday life presents many opportunities for children to engage in identifying problems and generating and trying out solutions. Here are some ideas for in the classroom:
• Use naturally occurring opportunities to work problem-solving words into the classroom vocabulary. When there aren't enough glue sticks or too many people wanting to go in a certain center, say things like, "We have a problem. What can we do to fix it?"
• Use naturally occurring problems in small groups to brainstorm possible solutions. Talk about that problem and come up with some ideas that could work to solve the problem.
• Use puppets to act out problem situations during group time. Ask the children to come up with a solution for the problem.
• When a child asks for help, take the opportunity to involve another child in solving the problem. You can say, "Let's look and see if one of your friends can help you. Marne, Sheila needs a glue stick and there are no more. Can you help her solve her problem?"
• Encourage the children while they are working through a problem and provide them with recognition when they solve it. You can use a situation that ended well as an example to discuss in large group.
• Discuss the problems that characters are having in the books you are reading. Brainstorm some possible solutions and guess what they are going to do.
• Make up a song about what to do when children have a problem. For example, to the Row, Row, Row Your Boat tune: "Problem, problem, problem, oh what can we do? Stop and think of something new. I'll try it out with you."
• If similar solutions keep coming up during discussions of problem-solving, start a "Solution Board" that shows the different solutions with an image to represent it. Children can use it to help think of solutions as problems arise, and the teacher can prompt a child to go look at it.
Teaching Children about Handling Disappointment and Difficult Emotions
Handling intense emotions and the disappointment when things don’t go their way are challenging for young children (and even adults!) to navigate. But teachers can help children develop techniques to handle difficult emotions. Here are some ideas:
• Throughout the day, model labeling your own emotions. For example, "I feel frustrated because I cannot open this jar of paint."
• Help children learn to label their emotions when they have conflict with other children: "Bobby, it looks like you are feeling angry because Terrence took away your toy. Can you tell Terrence how it makes you feel when he takes your toy away?"
• When children cry, identify their feelings, and yours too. "I know that was really scary falling off the slide. I was worried about you. I am glad you are okay. Is there something I can do to help you until you feel better?"
• Help children learn how to take deep breaths by "smelling the flowers" and "blowing out the birthday candles." Knowing how to breathe deeply is an important part of learning how to calm down when angry or upset.
• Give children materials to use to get out their anger. They can use a toy hammer, squeeze playdough, or run laps at recess. Let them know that it is okay to be angry and that there are safe ways to express anger.
• Act out the difference between feeling tense (like a robot or statue) and relaxed (like a rag doll or stuffed animal). Have children act it out, too, so they begin to learn to identify when they are becoming wound up.
• Help children learn to label their own emotions. You can say, "It looks like you are really frustrated over here. What is the problem?"
• Give children different situations, such as "A child is very sad because he misses his mom," and let them act it out. Talk about the emotion and some things the child might do to feel better.
• Children's storybooks have lots of opportunities to talk about dealing with certain emotions. Point out characters' simple emotions like happy, sad, mad, and excited, and look for opportunities to label more complex ones like disappointed, frustrated, surprised, and embarrassed. See what the characters do to deal with those emotions and whether or not the children think it was a good way. Brainstorm other things that could have been done when the characters were feeling that way.
• If children are feeling sad at drop-off, have them "write" a letter or draw a picture to show their caregivers at pick-up time. Talk about how it is ok to feel sad, but that their caregiver will come back at the end of the day. 540
Engaging Families in Supporting Children’s Social-Emotional Development
There are many things you can do to give families ideas of how to support their children’s social and emotional development at home too. You can
• Incorporate the emotion words the children have been practicing or have identified during the day into notes or newsletters for parents. This may help to encourage discussion of emotion words in the home setting as well.
• Include a note about a situation that arose at school and how it was solved when reporting to parents. Encourage the parents to ask the children about it.
• Encourage families to use meals and end of day routes to discuss the day with their children.
• Share some of the things you do throughout the day. Many of those things can be done at home too.
Some specific ideas you can give parents include the following:
• During bathroom routines, have children look in the mirror and practice making mad, sad, and happy faces.
• In the morning, discuss things you are excited about for the upcoming day.
• When leaving the house, ask the child to help you carry things. Afterward, thank them for helping.
• Throughout daily routines outside of the house, talk about the different ways the people you see help (police officers, bus drivers, cashiers). Emphasize the helping nature of these jobs.
• Use meal preparation as a chance to practice and talk about social skills. Have children get out ingredients, set the table, or stir food. Discuss how important it is to help and how much the help is appreciated.
• Create a solution kit that can be used at home when your child has a problem. Add solutions such as asking a sibling or parent for help, choosing a different toy, or going outside to play. Post them on the fridge for easy access!
• Model techniques to use when dealing with anger and frustration. Show breathing techniques, counting, or whatever works to calm you down.541
Supporting Children Under Stress
Supporting children’s mental health also extends to helping children deal with the stress that they may encounter. One of the most important things teachers can do is provide the child with a predictable, safe haven where children can feel secure. Teachers can create a comfortable and comforting everyday routine that is child-centered, individualized, responsive, and helpfully structured to give young children a sense of control and predictability that may be lacking in other aspects of the child’s life. Central to these efforts is providing children with supportive adult relationships that are reliable and helpful. This may be more difficult than one would expect because young children under stress often test these relationships to see whether teachers and other adults will remain responsive to them even when children act defiantly or negatively.
In some circumstances, it can be helpful for teachers to obtain the advice of an early childhood mental health consultant who can observe the child in the classroom, talk with the teacher about the child’s behavior, and suggest strategies for providing supportive assistance. Early childhood mental health consultants can be valuable resources to an early childhood education program. They can help teachers provide much-needed support to young children who may not have other such sources of support elsewhere in their lives.542
Trauma-Informed Care
As mentioned, children who are exposed to traumatic life events are at significant risk for developing serious and long-lasting problems across multiple areas of development. However, children are far more likely to exhibit resilience to childhood trauma when child-serving programs, institutions, and service systems understand the impact of childhood trauma, share common ways to talk and think about trauma, and thoroughly integrate effective practices and policies to address it—an approach often referred to as trauma-informed care (TIC).
The context in which children live, learn, and grow shapes both their immediate and long-term well-being. Accordingly, children who experience trauma are more likely to exhibit resilience when their environments are responsive to their specific needs. Families, schools, community-based programs and services, and the individuals caring for children can increase the chances of resilience following childhood trauma when they become aware of the impact of childhood trauma, provide a sense of safety and predictability, protect children from further adversity, and offer pathways for their recovery. In other words, children benefit when these entities provide them with trauma-informed care (TIC).
Despite its focus on trauma, TIC is inherently a strengths-based perspective that emphasizes resilience instead of pathology. TIC has been defined and implemented in a number of ways, but the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration has identified four key elements—the Four Rs (see Figure 11.12)
Applying TIC to real-world settings begins with a child’s first contact with a program, institution, or service system. It requires a comprehensive and multi-pronged effort involving the many adults in children’s lives. For example, in a school or afterschool program, TIC means increasing trauma-related knowledge and skills among program facilitators, school administrators, bus drivers, food service workers, classroom assistants, administrative staff, volunteers, teachers, leadership, special education professionals, school social workers and psychologists, families, and anyone else who comes into contact with children. However, increasing trauma knowledge is only one aspect of TIC, which also means that the individuals who care for children must be able to:
1. Realize the widespread nature of childhood trauma and how it impacts the child’s emotional, social, behavioral, cognitive, brain, and physical development, as well as their mental health. In addition, adults must be aware of the influence of trauma on family members, first responders, service providers, and others who may experience secondary stress (trauma-related reactions to exposure to another person’s traumatic experience). In some instances, adults endure the same traumatic events or circumstances as the child (e.g., a natural disaster, community violence, death of a community member) and may benefit from similar supports.
2. Recognize the symptoms of trauma, including how trauma reactions (i.e., symptoms of posttraumatic stress) vary by gender, age, type of trauma, or setting. In addition, the adults in children’s lives must understand that a child’s challenging behaviors are normal, self-protective, and adaptive reactions to highly stressful situations, rather than viewing that child as intentionally misbehaving. Children’s trauma reactions are understood to be adaptive efforts to protect themselves in response to traumatic events. For example, a child may be hypervigilant to an adult’s anger or disapproval because, in the past, he or she experienced physical abuse by a parent. Or, a child may disassociate or daydream as a learned response that enables them to avoid feeling or thinking about a traumatic experience. In addition, TIC means recognizing that trauma may influence a child’s engagement in activities and services, interactions with peers and adults, and responsiveness to rules and guidelines.
3. Respond by making necessary adjustments, in their own language and behavior, to the child’s environment; and to policies, procedures, and practices to support the child’s recovery and resilience to trauma.
4. Resist re-traumatization by actively shaping children’s environments to avoid triggers (sounds, sights, smells, objects, places, or people that remind an individual of the original trauma) and protect children from further trauma, which can exacerbate the negative impacts of trauma and interfere with the healing process.
Training and Professional Development on Child Trauma
Providing adults (staff, leadership, families, and community partners) with training and professional development on childhood trauma is an important component of implementing TIC. It is essential that adults become aware of the prevalence and impact of trauma, and learn to apply a “trauma lens” (i.e., gain the capacity to view children’s difficulties in behavior, learning, and relationships as natural reactions to trauma that warrant understanding and sensitive care). In addition, adults can learn key strategies to manage trauma-related problems in childhood. These include:
• creating environments that feel physically and emotionally safe.
• teaching children self-regulation, language and communication skills, and how to build healthy relationships.
• learning each child’s trauma triggers and how both the child and adults can limit, anticipate, and cope with them.
• supporting the development of healthy attachments with parents and other caregivers, as well as positive relationships with peers.
Evaluations of TIC initiatives also indicate that when parents, service providers, and programs share a common language and view of trauma, they are better able to work together to meet children’s needs.
Training and professional development opportunities are also important for increasing the capacity of adults to attend to other aspects of TIC, including:
• family engagement.
• practices that are responsive to culture, gender, and sexual orientation.
• collaboration with community service providers (e.g., mental health providers who can screen for childhood trauma and provide evidence-based treatment).
• developing and integrating emergency and crisis response protocols.
• and establishing trauma-informed policies that support positive youth development despite exposure to trauma.
Building capacity and maintaining an ongoing commitment to TIC efforts are critical to sustainability. However, although it is a critical component of TIC, training staff and parents on the impact of childhood trauma is not sufficient and does not in and of itself constitute TIC. TIC must also include comprehensive, ongoing professional development and education for parents, families, school staff, out-of-school program staff, and community service providers on jointly addressing childhood trauma.
Secondary Traumatic Stress
TIC also means attending to the psychological and physical safety and well-being of the adults who care for children who have experienced trauma. Professionals, parents, and other caregiving adults may suffer secondary traumatic stress (trauma-related reactions to exposure to another person’s traumatic experience). The National Child Traumatic Stress Network recommends the following strategies to combat secondary traumatic stress and reduce related staff burnout and turnover:
• Provide high-quality, reflective supervision
• Maintain trauma workload balance
• Support workplace self-care groups
• Enhance the physical safety of staff
• Provide training to both staff and leadership to increase awareness about secondary traumatic stress and how to address it effectively
• Develop opportunities for staff and leadership to learn about and engage in self-care practices.
• Create external partnerships with secondary traumatic stress experts.
• Regularly assess the vulnerability and resilience of staff and leadership to second traumatic stress
• Create a buddy system for self-care accountability.544
Pause to Reflect
What are key take-aways for you about how teachers can support children’s mental health? What are some ways that you can stay mentally healthy as well?
Summary
Children’s mental health (their social and emotional development) must be intentionally supported from the beginning. Children with mental health problems (both diagnosed and that may go undiagnosed) and children who experience adverse childhood experiences, trauma, and stress may need additional mental health support. Early care and education programs should practice trauma informed care and recognize their role in helping children, and their families, to develop resilience. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Health_Safety_and_Nutrition_(Paris)/Section_III%3A_Health/11%3A_Childrens_Mental_Health.txt |
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Define and explain the function of each macronutrient and type of micronutrient.
• Examine factors that affect the quality of food.
• Discuss influences on food choice.
• Outline how to achieve a healthy diet.
• Describe programs that support nutrition in early care and education programs.
• Identify ways to assess the quality of meals and snacks in early care and education programs.
Licensing Regulations
Title 22 Regulations that relate to this chapter include:
101227 FOOD SERVICE
• Food selection, storage preparation and service shall be safe and healthful and of the quality and quantity necessary to meet the needs of children.
Additional Laws
Licensed child care providers must
• follow the Federal Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP) meal plan requirements.
• have completed 16 hours of approved Preventive Health and Safety Training (including one hour on nutrition).
• follow the Healthy Beverages in Child Care Act.
Introduction
In order to plan, prepare, and serve nutritious foods to children in early care and education programs it’s important to have a basic understanding of nutrition and the programs and resources available to support meeting children’s nutrition needs.
What are Nutrients?
The foods we eat contain nutrients. Nutrients are substances required by the body to perform its basic functions. Nutrients must be obtained from our diet, since the human body does not synthesize or produce them. Nutrients have one or more of three basic functions: they provide energy, contribute to body structure, and/or regulate chemical processes in the body. These basic functions allow us to detect and respond to environmental surroundings, move, excrete wastes, respire (breathe), grow, and reproduce. There are six classes of nutrients required for the body to function and maintain overall health. These are carbohydrates, fats, proteins, water, vitamins, and minerals. Foods also contain non-nutrients that may be harmful (such as natural toxins common in plant foods and additives like some dyes and preservatives) or beneficial (such as antioxidants).
Macronutrients
Nutrients that are needed in large amounts are called macronutrients. There are three classes of macronutrients: carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. These can be metabolically processed into cellular energy, allowing our bodies to conduct their basic functions. A unit of measurement of food energy is the calorie. Water is also a macronutrient in the sense that you require a large amount of it, but unlike the other macronutrients, it does not yield calories.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The major food sources of carbohydrates are grains, milk, fruits, and starchy vegetables, like potatoes. Non-starchy vegetables also contain carbohydrates, but in lesser quantities. Carbohydrates are broadly classified into two forms based on their chemical structure: simple carbohydrates, often called simple sugars; and complex carbohydrates.
Simple carbohydrates consist of one or two basic units. Examples of simple sugars include sucrose, the type of sugar you would have in a bowl on the breakfast table, and glucose, the type of sugar that circulates in your blood.
Complex carbohydrates are long chains of simple. During digestion, the body breaks down digestible complex carbohydrates to simple sugars, mostly glucose. Glucose is then transported to all our cells where it is stored, used to make energy, or used to build macromolecules. Fiber is also a complex carbohydrate, but it cannot be broken down by digestive enzymes in the human intestine. As a result, it passes through the digestive tract undigested unless the bacteria that inhabit the colon or large intestine break it down.
One gram of digestible carbohydrates yields four kilocalories of energy for the cells in the body to perform work. In addition to providing energy and serving as building blocks for bigger macromolecules, carbohydrates are essential for proper functioning of the nervous system, heart, and kidneys. As mentioned, glucose can be stored in the body for future use.
Fats
Fat (officially called lipids) are also a family of molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but unlike carbohydrates, they are insoluble in water. Fats are found predominantly in butter, oils, meats, dairy products, nuts, and seeds, and in many processed foods. The main job of fats is to provide or store energy. Fats provide more energy per gram than carbohydrates (nine kilocalories per gram of fats versus four kilocalories per gram of carbohydrates). In addition to energy storage, fats serve as a major component of cell membranes, surround and protect organs (in fat-storing tissues), provide insulation to aid in temperature regulation, and regulate many other functions in the body.
Proteins
Proteins are macromolecules composed of chains of subunits called amino acids. Amino acids are simple subunits composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Food sources of proteins include meats, dairy products, seafood, and a variety of different plant-based foods, most notably soy. The word protein comes from a Greek word meaning “of primary importance,” which is an apt description of these macronutrients; they are also known colloquially as the “workhorses” of life. Proteins provide four kilocalories of energy per gram; however providing energy is not protein’s most important function. Proteins provide structure to bones, muscles and skin, and play a role in conducting most of the chemical reactions that take place in the body. Scientists estimate that more than one-hundred thousand different proteins exist within the human body. The genetic codes in DNA are basically protein recipes that determine the order in which 20 different amino acids are bound together to make thousands of specific proteins.
Water
There is one other nutrient that we must have in large quantities: water. Water does not contain carbon, but is composed of two hydrogens and one oxygen per molecule of water. More than 60 percent of your total body weight is water. Without it, nothing could be transported in or out of the body, chemical reactions would not occur, organs would not be cushioned, and body temperature would fluctuate widely.
Protein
Carbohydrates
Fats
Water
Figure 12.1 – The Macronutrients: Carbohydrates, Fats, Protein, and Water545
Micronutrients
Micronutrients are nutrients required by the body in lesser amounts, but are still essential for carrying out bodily functions. Micronutrients include all the essential minerals and vitamins. There are sixteen essential minerals and thirteen vitamins (See Table 12.1 “Minerals and Their Major Functions” and Table 12.2 “Vitamins and Their Major Functions” for a complete list and their major functions). In contrast to carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, micronutrients are not sources of energy (calories), but they assist in the process as components of enzymes. Enzymes are proteins that cause chemical reactions in the body and are involved in all aspects of body functions from producing energy, to digesting nutrients, to building macromolecules. Micronutrients play many essential roles in the body.
Minerals
Minerals are solid inorganic substances that form crystals and are classified depending on how much of them we need. Trace minerals, such as molybdenum, selenium, zinc, iron, and iodine, are only required in a few milligrams or less. Macrominerals, such as calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and phosphorus, are required in hundreds of milligrams. Many minerals are critical for enzyme function, others are used to maintain fluid balance, build bone tissue, synthesize hormones, transmit nerve impulses, contract and relax muscles, and protect against harmful free radicals in the body that can cause health problems such as cancer.
Table 12.1 – Minerals and Their Major Functions546
Macrominerals
Mineral
Major Function
Sodium
Fluid balance, nerve transmission, muscle contraction
Chloride
Fluid balance, stomach acid production
Potassium
Fluid balance, nerve transmission, muscle contraction
Calcium
Bone and teeth health maintenance, nerve transmission, muscle contraction, blood clotting
Phosphorus
Bone and teeth health maintenance, acid-base balance
Magnesium
Protein production, nerve transmission, muscle contraction
Sulfur
Protein production
Trace Minerals
Mineral
Major Function
Iron
Carries oxygen, assists in energy production
Zinc
Protein and DNA production, wound healing, growth, immune system function
Iodine
Thyroid hormone production, growth, metabolism
Selenium
Antioxidant
Copper
Coenzyme, iron metabolism
Manganese
Coenzyme
Fluoride
Bone and teeth health maintenance, tooth decay prevention
Chromium
Assists insulin in glucose metabolism
Molybdenum
Coenzyme
Vitamins
The thirteen vitamins are categorized as either water-soluble or fat-soluble. The water-soluble vitamins are vitamin C and all the B vitamins, which include thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, biotin, folate and cobalamin. Unneeded water soluble vitamins are excreted from the body. The fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E, and K. Vitamins are required to perform many functions in the body such as making red blood cells, synthesizing bone tissue, and playing a role in normal vision, nervous system function, and immune system function. Fat soluble vitamins are stored in the body in fat (and can become toxic when too much is consumed, almost always from supplements).
Table 12.2 – Vitamins and Their Major Functions547
Water Soluble
Vitamin
Major Function
Thiamin (B1)
Coenzyme, energy metabolism assistance
Riboflavin (B2 )
Coenzyme, energy metabolism assistance
Niacin (B3)
Coenzyme, energy metabolism assistance
Pantothenic acid (B5)
Coenzyme, energy metabolism assistance
Pyridoxine (B6)
Coenzyme, amino acid synthesis assistance
Biotin (B7)
Coenzyme, amino acid and fatty acid metabolism
Folate (B9)
Coenzyme, essential for growth
Cobalamin (B12)
Coenzyme, red blood cell synthesis
C (ascorbic acid)
Collagen synthesis, antioxidant
Fat Soluble
Vitamin
Major Function
A
Vision, reproduction, immune system function
D
Bone and teeth health maintenance, immune system function
E
Antioxidant, cell membrane protection
K
Bone and teeth health maintenance, blood clotting
Vitamin deficiencies can cause severe health problems and even death. Some vitamins have been found to prevent certain disorders and diseases such as scurvy (vitamin C), night blindness (vitamin A), and rickets (vitamin D).548
Table 12.3 – Summary of the Functions of Nutrients549
Name of Stage
Description of Stage
Protein
Necessary for tissue formation, cell reparation, and hormone and enzyme production. It is essential for building strong muscles and a healthy immune system.
Carbohydrates
Provide a ready source of energy for the body and provide structural constituents for the formation of cells.
Fat
Provides stored energy for the body, functions as structural components of cells and also as signaling molecules for proper cellular communication. It provides insulation to vital organs and works to maintain body temperature.
Vitamins
Regulate body processes and promote normal body-system functions.
Minerals
Regulate body processes, are necessary for proper cellular function, and comprise body tissue.
Water
Transports essential nutrients to all body parts, transports waste products for disposal, and aids with body temperature maintenance.
Quality of Food
One measurement of food quality is the amount of nutrients it contains relative to the amount of energy it provides. High-quality foods are nutrient dense, meaning they contain significant amounts of one or more essential nutrients relative to the amount of calories they provide. Nutrient-dense foods are the opposite of “empty-calorie” foods such as carbonated sugary soft drinks, which provide many calories and very little, if any, other nutrients. Food quality is additionally associated with its taste, texture, appearance, microbial content, and how much consumers like it. 550
Food: A Better Source of Nutrients
It is better to get all your micronutrients from the foods you eat as opposed to from supplements. Supplements contain only what is listed on the label, but foods contain many more macronutrients, micronutrients, and other chemicals, like antioxidants, that benefit health. While vitamins, multivitamins, and supplements are a \$20 billion industry in the United States, and more than 50 percent of Americans purchase and use them daily, there is no consistent evidence that they are better than food in promoting health and preventing disease.551
Food Additives
People have been using food additives for thousands of years. Today more than 3000 substances are used as food additives. Salt, sugar, and corn syrup are by far the most widely used additives in food in this country. How this might affect the quality (including nutritional value) of food will depend on the additive.
Figure 12.2 – Food Additives
Salt552
Sugar553
Food coloring554
"Food additive" is defined by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as any substance that—directly or indirectly—becomes a component or otherwise affects the characteristics of any food. This definition includes any substance used in the production, processing, treatment, packaging, transportation or storage of food.
Additives are used to maintain or improve safety, freshness, nutritional value, taste, texture and appearance. The use of food additives has become more prominent in recent years due to the increased production of prepared, processed, and convenience foods.
According to the FDA, “Direct food additives are those that are added to a food for a specific purpose in that food.” For example, using phosphates in meat and poultry products to retain moisture and protect the flavor.
“Indirect food additives are those that become part of the food in trace amounts due to its packaging, storage or other handling,” according to the FDA. For instance, minute amounts of packaging substances may find their way into foods during storage. Food packaging manufacturers must prove to the FDA that all materials coming in contact with food are safe before they are permitted for use in such a manner.
FDA defines a color additive as any dye, pigment, or substance which—when added or applied to a food, drug, or cosmetic, or to the human body—is capable (alone or through reactions with other substances) of imparting color. FDA is responsible for regulating all color additives to ensure that foods containing color additives are safe to eat, contain only approved ingredients, and are accurately labeled.
Color additives are used in foods for many reasons: 1) to offset color loss due to exposure to light, air, temperature extremes, moisture, and storage conditions; 2) to correct natural variations in color; 3) to enhance colors that occur naturally; and 4) to provide color to colorless and "fun" foods. Without color additives, colas wouldn't be brown, margarine wouldn't be yellow, and mint ice cream wouldn't be green. Color additives are now recognized as an important part of practically all processed foods we eat.
Today, food and color additives are more strictly studied, regulated, and monitored than at any other time in history. FDA has the primary legal responsibility for determining their safe use. To market a new food or color additive (or before using an additive already approved for one use in another manner not yet approved), a manufacturer or other sponsor must first petition FDA for its approval. These petitions must provide evidence that the substance is safe for the ways in which it will be used.
Before any substance can be added to food, its safety must be assessed in a stringent approval process. The Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) shares responsibility with FDA for the safety of food additives used in meat, poultry, and egg products. All additives are initially evaluated for safety by FDA.
When an additive is proposed for use in a meat, poultry, or egg product, its safety, technical function, and conditions of use must also be evaluated by the Risk, Innovations and Management Staff of FSIS, as provided in the Federal Meat Inspection Act, the Poultry Products Inspection Act, the Egg Products Inspection Act, and related regulations.
Although FDA has overriding authority regarding additive safety, FSIS may apply even stricter standards that take into account the unique characteristics of meat, poultry, and egg products. Several years ago, for instance, permission was sought to use sorbic acid in meat salads. Although sorbic acid was an approved food additive, permission for use in meat salad was denied because such usage could mask spoilage caused by organisms that cause foodborne illness.
Additives are never given permanent approval. FDA and FSIS continually review the safety of approved additives, based on the best scientific knowledge, to determine if approvals should be modified or withdrawn.
The statutes and regulations to enforce the statutes require certain information on labels of meat and poultry products so consumers will have complete information about a product. In all cases, ingredients must be listed on the product label in the ingredients statement in order by weight, from the greatest amount to the least.
Substances such as spices and spice extractives may be declared as "natural flavors," "flavors," or "natural flavoring" on meat and poultry labels without naming each one. This is because they are used primarily for their flavor contribution and not their nutritional contribution.
Substances such as dried meat, poultry stock, meat extracts, or hydrolyzed protein must be listed on the label by their common or usual name because their primary purpose is not flavor. They may be used as flavor enhancers, binders, or emulsifiers. They must be labeled using the species of origin of the additive, for example, dried beef, chicken stock, pork extract, or hydrolyzed wheat protein.
Color additives must be declared by their common or usual names on labels (for example, FD&C Yellow 5 or annatto extract), not collectively as colorings. These labeling requirements help consumers make choices about the foods they eat. 555
Artificial Sweeteners
Artificial sweeteners, also called sugar substitutes, are substances that are used instead of sucrose (table sugar) to sweeten foods and beverages. Because artificial sweeteners are many times sweeter than table sugar, much smaller amounts (200 to 20,000 times less) are needed to create the same level of sweetness.
Artificial sweeteners are regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Approved artificial sweeteners include:
• Aspartame, distributed under several trade names (e.g., NutraSweet® and Equal®),
• Sucralose, marketed under the trade name Splenda®
• Acesulfame potassium (also known as ACK, Sweet One®, and Sunett®)
• Neotame, which is similar to aspartame
• Advantame, which is also similar to aspartame
Questions about artificial sweeteners and cancer arose when early studies showed that cyclamate in combination with saccharin caused bladder cancer in laboratory animals. However, results from subsequent carcinogenicity studies (studies that examine whether a substance can cause cancer) of these sweeteners have not provided clear evidence of an association with cancer in humans. Similarly, studies of other FDA-approved sweeteners have not demonstrated clear evidence of an association with cancer in humans.557
The Challenge of Choosing Foods
There are other factors besides environment and lifestyle that influence the foods you choose to eat. Different foods affect energy level, mood, how much is eaten, how long before you eat again, and if cravings are satisfied. We have talked about some of the physical effects of food on your body, but there are other effects too.
Food regulates your appetite and how you feel. Multiple studies have demonstrated that some high fiber foods and high-protein foods decrease appetite by slowing the digestive process and prolonging the feeling of being full or satiety. The effects of individual foods and nutrients on mood are not backed by consistent scientific evidence, but in general, most studies support that healthier diets are associated with a decrease in depression and improved well-being. To date, science has not been able to track the exact path in the brain that occurs in response to eating a particular food, but it is quite clear that foods, in general, stimulate emotional responses in people.
Food also has psychological, cultural, and religious significance, so your personal choices of food affect your mind, as well as your body. The social implications of food have a great deal to do with what people eat, as well as how and when. Special events in individual lives—from birthdays to funerals—are commemorated with equally special foods. Being aware of these forces can help people make healthier food choices—and still honor the traditions and ties they hold dear.
Typically, eating kosher food means a person is Jewish; eating fish on Fridays during Lent means a person is Catholic; fasting during the ninth month of the Islamic calendar means a person is Muslim. On New Year’s Day, Japanese take part in an annual tradition of Mochitsuki also known as Mochi pounding in hopes of gaining good fortune over the coming year. Several hundred miles away in Hawai‘i, people eat poi made from pounded taro root with great significance in the Hawaiian culture, as it represents Hāloa, the ancestor of chiefs and kanaka maoli (Native Hawaiians). National food traditions are carried to other countries when people immigrate.
Factors that Drive Food Choices
Along with these influences, a number of other factors affect the dietary choices individuals make, including:
• Taste, texture, and appearance. Individuals have a wide range of tastes which influence their food choices, leading some to dislike milk and others to hate raw vegetables. Some foods that are very healthy, such as tofu, may be unappealing at first to many people. However, creative cooks can adapt healthy foods to meet most people’s taste.
• Economics. Access to fresh fruits and vegetables may be scant, particularly for those who live in economically disadvantaged or remote areas, where cheaper food options are limited to convenience stores and fast food.
• Early food experiences. People who were not exposed to different foods as children, or who were forced to swallow every last bite of overcooked vegetables, may make limited food choices as adults.
• Habits. It’s common to establish eating routines, which can work both for and against optimal health. Habitually grabbing a fast food sandwich for breakfast can seem convenient, but might not offer substantial nutrition. Yet getting in the habit of drinking an ample amount of water each day can yield multiple benefits.
• Culture. The culture in which one grows up affects how one sees food in daily life and on special occasions.
• Geography. Where a person lives influences food choices. For instance, people who live in Midwestern US states have less access to seafood than those living along the coasts.
• Advertising. The media greatly influences food choice by persuading consumers to eat certain foods.
• Social factors. Any school lunchroom observer can testify to the impact of peer pressure on eating habits, and this influence lasts through adulthood. People make food choices based on how they see others and want others to see them. For example, individuals who are surrounded by others who consume fast food are more likely to do the same.
• Health concerns. Some people have significant food allergies, to peanuts for example, and need to avoid those foods. Others may have developed health issues which require them to follow a low salt diet. In addition, people who have never worried about their weight have a very different approach to eating than those who have long struggled with excess weight.
• Emotions. There is a wide range in how emotional issues affect eating habits. When faced with a great deal of stress, some people tend to overeat, while others find it hard to eat at all.
• Green food/Sustainability choices. Based on a growing understanding of diet as a public and personal issue, more and more people are starting to make food choices based on their environmental impact. Realizing that their food choices help shape the world, many individuals are opting for a vegetarian diet, or, if they do eat animal products, striving to find the most “cruelty-free” options possible. Purchasing local and organic food products and items grown through sustainable products also help shrink the size of one’s dietary footprint.558
Pause to Reflect
Think of your last meal or snack. What are some of the factors listed above that led you to choose to eat what you did?
Vegetarian Diet
People choose a vegetarian diet for various reasons, including religious doctrines, health concerns, ecological and animal welfare concerns, or simply because they dislike the taste of meat. There are different types of vegetarians, but a common theme is that vegetarians do not eat meat. Four common forms of vegetarianism are:
1. Lacto-ovo vegetarian. This is the most common form. This type of vegetarian diet includes the animal foods eggs and dairy products.
2. Lacto-vegetarian. This type of vegetarian diet includes dairy products but not eggs.
3. Ovo-vegetarian. This type of vegetarian diet includes eggs but not dairy products.
4. Vegan. This type of vegetarian diet does not include dairy, eggs, or any type of animal product or animal by-product. 559
Preparing vegetarian meals will be addressed further in Chapter 15.
Achieving a Healthy Diet
Achieving a healthy diet is a matter of balancing the quality and quantity of food that is eaten. There are five key factors that make up a healthful diet:
1. A diet must be adequate, by providing sufficient amounts of each essential nutrient, as well as fiber and adequate calories.
2. A balanced diet results when you do not consume one nutrient at the expense of another, but rather get appropriate amounts of all nutrients.
3. Calorie control is necessary so that the amount of energy you get from the nutrients you consume equals the amount of energy you expend during your day’s activities.
4. Moderation means not eating to the extremes, neither too much nor too little.
5. Variety refers to consuming different foods from within each of the food groups on a regular basis.
A healthy diet is one that favors whole foods. As an alternative to modern processed foods, a healthy diet focuses on “real” fresh whole foods that have been sustaining people for generations. Whole foods supply the needed vitamins, minerals, protein, carbohydrates, fats, and fiber that are essential to good health. Commercially prepared and fast foods are often lacking nutrients and often contain inordinate amounts of sugar, salt, saturated and trans fats, all of which are associated with the development of diseases such as atherosclerosis, heart disease, stroke, cancer, obesity, diabetes, and other illnesses. A balanced diet is a mix of food from the different food groups (vegetables, legumes, fruits, grains, protein foods, and dairy).
Adequacy
An adequate diet is one that favors nutrient-dense foods. Nutrient-dense foods are defined as foods that contain many essential nutrients per calorie. Nutrient-dense foods are the opposite of “empty-calorie” foods, such as sugary carbonated beverages, which are also called “nutrient-poor.” Nutrient-dense foods include fruits and vegetables, lean meats, poultry, fish, low-fat dairy products, and whole grains. Choosing more nutrient-dense foods will facilitate weight loss, while simultaneously providing all necessary nutrients.
Balance
Balance the foods in your diet. Achieving balance in your diet entails not consuming one nutrient at the expense of another. For example, calcium is essential for healthy teeth and bones, but too much calcium will interfere with iron absorption. Most foods that are good sources of iron are poor sources of calcium, so in order to get the necessary amounts of calcium and iron from your diet, a proper balance between food choices is critical. Another example is that while sodium is an essential nutrient, excessive intake may contribute to congestive heart failure and chronic kidney disease in some people. Remember, everything must be consumed in the proper amounts.
Moderation
Eat in moderation. Moderation is crucial for optimal health and survival. Eating nutrient-poor foods each night for dinner will lead to health complications. But as part of an otherwise healthful diet and consumed only on a weekly basis, this should not significantly impact overall health. It’s important to remember that eating is, in part, about enjoyment and indulging with a spirit of moderation. This fits within a healthy diet.
Monitor food portions. For optimum weight maintenance, it is important to ensure that energy consumed from foods meets the energy expenditures required for body functions and activity. If not, the excess energy contributes to gradual, steady accumulation of stored body fat and weight gain. In order to lose body fat, you need to ensure that more calories are burned than consumed. Likewise, in order to gain weight, calories must be eaten in excess of what is expended daily.
Variety
Variety involves eating different foods from all the food groups. Eating a varied diet helps to ensure that you consume and absorb adequate amounts of all essential nutrients required for health. One of the major drawbacks of a monotonous diet is the risk of consuming too much of some nutrients and not enough of others. Trying new foods can also be a source of pleasure—you never know what foods you might like until you try them.
Developing a healthful diet can be rewarding, but be mindful that all of the principles presented must be followed to derive maximal health benefits. For instance, introducing variety in your diet can still result in the consumption of too many high-calorie, nutrient poor foods and inadequate nutrient intake if you do not also employ moderation and calorie control. Using all of these principles together will promote lasting health benefits.561
Pause to Reflect
Think back to your childhood, how do you think your diet did with regards to adequacy, balance, moderation, and variety? What about your diet now?
Nutrition in Early Care and Education Programs
There are many different programs that can support early care and education programs in providing nutritious meals and snacks for children. Let’s explore a few of these.
Child and Adult Care Food Program
The Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP) is a federal program that provides reimbursements for nutritious meals and snacks to eligible children and adults who are enrolled for care at participating child care centers, day care homes, and adult day care centers. Eligible public or private nonprofit child care centers, outside-school-hours care centers, Head Start programs, and other institutions which are licensed or approved to provide day care services may participate in CACFP, independently or as sponsored centers.562 Over 2 billion meals are served in the CACFP.563
Even if a program chooses not to participate in (or is ineligible for) the CACFP, they are required by licensing to its meal plan requirements. 564 (See Tables 12.4 and 12.5) The CACFP nutrition standards for meals and snacks served in the CACFP are based on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, science-based recommendations made by the National Academy of Medicine, cost and practical considerations, and stakeholder’s input. Under these standards, meals and snacks served include a greater variety of vegetables and fruit, more whole grains, and less added sugar and saturated fat.565 (See Table 12.6)
Table 12.4 – Infant Meal Patterns566
Meal or snack
0-5 Months
6-11 Months
Breakfast
4-6 fl oz breastmilk or formula
6-8 fl oz breastmilk or formula
0-4 tbsp infant cereal, meat, fish, poultry, whole eggs, cooked dry beans or peas; or 0-2 oz cheese; or 0-4 oz (volume) cottage cheese; or 0-4 oz yogurt; or a combination*
0-2 tbsp vegetable, fruit or both*
Lunch or Supper
4-6 fl oz breastmilk or formula
6-8 fl oz breastmilk or formula
0-4 tbsp infant cereal, meat, fish, poultry, whole eggs, cooked dry beans or peas; or 0-2 oz cheese; or 0-4 oz (volume) cottage cheese; or 0-4 oz yogurt; or a combination*
0-2 tbsp vegetable, fruit or both*
Snack
4-6 fl oz breastmilk or formula
2-4 fl oz breastmilk or formula
0-½ bread slice; or 0-2 crackers; or 0-4 tbsp infant cereal or readyto-eat cereal*
0-2 tbsp vegetable, fruit or both*
Solid foods are required when infant is ready. All serving sizes are minimum quantities of the food components that are required to be served
Table 12.5 – Meal Pattern for Children567
Breakfast
Meal or snack
Food Item
1-2 Years
3-5 Years
6-18 Years
Breakfast
Milk
½ cup whole
¾ cup low-fat or fat-free
1 cup low-fat or fat-free
Vegetables, fruit, or both
¼ cup
½ cup
½ cup
Grains
½ ounce equivalent
½ ounce equivalent
1 ounce equivalent
Lunch or Supper
Meal or snack
Food Item
1-2 Years
3-5 Years
6-18 Years
Lunch or Supper
Milk
½ cup whole
¾ cup low-fat or fat-free
1 cup low-fat or fat-free
Meat and meat alternative
1 ounce
1½ ounces
2 ounces
Vegetables
1/8 cup
¼ cup
½ cup
Fruits
1/8 cup
¼ cup
¼ cup
Grains
½ ounce equivalent
½ ounce equivalent
1 ounce equivalent
Snack (choose 2 of the options)
Meal or snack
Food Item
1-2 Years
3-5 Years
6-18 Years
Snack
(choose 2 of the options)
Milk
½ cup whole
½ cup low-fat or fat-free
1 cup low-fat or fat-free
Meat and meat alternative
½ ounce
½ ounce
1 ounce
Vegetables
½ cup
½ cup
¾ cup
Fruits
½ cup
½ cup
¾ cup
Grains
½ ounce equivalent
½ ounce equivalent
1 ounce equivalent
Table 12.6 – CACFP Best Practices568,569
Category
Best Practices
Vegetables and Fruit
• Make at least one of the two required components of snack a vegetable or fruit
• Serve a variety of fruit and choose whole fruits
• Juice is limited to once a day
• Provide at least one serving each of dark green leafy vegetables, red and orange vegetables, beans and peas (legumes), starchy vegetables, and other vegetables each week
Grains
• Provide at least two servings of whole grains per day (at least one is required)
Meat and Meat Alternatives
• Serve only lean meats, nuts, and legumes.
• Limit serving processed meats to no more than one serving per week.
• Serve only natural cheeses and choose low-fat or reduced fat-cheeses.
Milk
• Serve only unflavored milk
• Nondairy milk substitutes that are nutritionally equivalent to milk may be served in place of milk to children with medical or special dietary needs
Sugar
• Yogurt must contain no more than 23 grams per 6 ounces
• Breakfast cereals must contain no more than 6 grams of sugar per dry ounce
• Avoid serving non-creditable foods that are sources of added sugars, such as sweet toppings (honey, jam, syrup), mix-in ingredients sold with yogurt, and sugar sweetened beverages
Miscellaneous
• Frying is not allowed as a way of preparing foods on-site
• Limit serving purchased pre-fired foods to no more than one serving per week
• Incorporate seasonal and local produced foods into meals
Healthy Beverages in Child Care Act
“And all licensed child care providers…must follow the Healthy Beverages in Child Care Act. The four key messages in the Healthy Beverages in Child Care Act are:
1. Only unflavored, unsweetened, non-fat (fat free, skim, 0%) or low fat (1%) milk can be served to children 2 years of age or older.
2. No beverages with added sweeteners, natural or artificial, can be served, including sports drinks, sweet teas, juice drinks with added sugars, flavored milk, soda, and diet drinks.
3. A maximum of one serving of 100% juice is allowed per day.
4. Clean and safe drinking water must be readily available at all times; indoors and outdoors and with meals and snacks.” 570
Dietary Guidelines for Americans
The Dietary Guidelines for Americans provides evidence-based nutrition information and advice for people ages two and older to help Americans make healthy choices about food and beverages in their daily lives. The Guidelines also serve as the basis for federal food and nutrition education programs, like the MyPlate campaign.
The Dietary Guidelines for Americans, produced by HHS and the U.S. Department of Agriculture every five years, analyze the latest research to help Americans make smart choices about food and physical activity so they can live healthier lives.
The 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans focuses on making small shifts in your daily eating habits to improve your health over the long run. They also emphasize the importance of “eating patterns,” which refer to the combination of ALL foods and beverages a person consumes regularly over time, rather than focusing on individual nutrients or foods in isolation. Healthy eating patterns, along with regular physical activity, have been shown in a large body of current science to help people reach and maintain good health while reducing risks of chronic disease throughout their lives. Additionally, healthy eating patterns can be adapted to an individual’s budget, taste preferences, traditions, and culture.
The core recommendations for these healthy eating patterns are unchanged from previous editions of the Guidelines, and continue to encourage Americans to consume more healthy foods like vegetables, fruits, whole grains, fat-free and low-fat dairy products, lean meats, seafood, other protein foods, and oils. They also recommend limiting sodium, saturated and trans fats, and added sugars.
There are five overarching guidelines in this eighth edition:
• Follow a healthy eating pattern across the lifespan. Eating patterns are the combination of foods and drinks that a person eats over time.
• A variety of vegetables: dark green, red and orange, legumes (beans and peas), starchy and other vegetables.
• Fruits, especially whole fruit.
• Grains, at least half of which are whole grain.
• Fat-free or low-fat dairy, including milk, yogurt, cheese, and/or fortified soy beverages.
• A variety of protein foods, including seafood, lean meats and poultry, eggs, legumes (beans and peas), soy products, and nuts and seeds.
• Oils, including those from plants: canola, corn, olive, peanut, safflower, soybean, and sunflower. Oils also are naturally present in nuts, seeds, seafood, olives, and avocados.
• Focus on variety, nutrient-dense foods, and amount.
• Limit calories from added sugars and saturated fats, and reduce sodium intake.
• Children younger than 14 should consume less than 2.300 mg of sodium per day.
• Less than 10% of daily calories should come from saturated fats.
• Less than 10% of daily calories should come from added sugars
• Shift to healthier food and beverage choices.
• Support healthy eating patterns for all.571
Physical Guidelines for Americans
The second edition of the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans issued by the Department of Health and Human Services provides science-based guidance to help people ages 3 years and older improve their health through participation in regular physical activity. Key guidelines include:
Preschool-Aged Children
Preschool-aged children (ages 3 through 5 years) should be physically active throughout the day to enhance growth and development. Adult caregivers of preschool-aged children should encourage active play that includes a variety of activity types.
Children and Adolescents
It is important to provide young people opportunities and encouragement to participate in physical activities that are appropriate for their age, that are enjoyable, and that offer variety. Children and adolescents ages 6 through 17 years should do 60 minutes (1 hour) or more of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity daily that includes activity that is aerobic, muscle-strengthening, and bone-strengthening.572
Physical activity will be addressed further in Chapter 13.
MyPlate
MyPlate is the United States Department of Agriculture’s food guidance program to help Americans eat healthy and is based on the Dietary Guidelines for America. It replaces MyPyramid (which had replaced the classic Food Guide Pyramid).
The visual for MyPlate is a familiar mealtime symbol, the plate. It gives easy visual reference to remind people to create balanced meals. The main messages of MyPlate include:
• Make half the plate fruits and vegetables
• Focus on whole fruits.
• Vary your veggies.
• Make half the grains whole grains.
• Move to low-fat or fat-free milk or yogurt.
• Vary the sources of protein.573
1992: Food Guide Pyramid
2005: MyPyramid Food Guidance System
2011: MyPlate
12.5 – The most recent Food Guides from the USDA.574
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI)
Issued by the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, the DRI is the general term for a set of reference values used to plan and assess nutrient intakes of healthy people. These values, which vary by age and sex, include:
• Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA): average daily level of intake sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97%-98%) healthy people.
• Adequate Intake (AI): established when evidence is insufficient to develop an RDA and is set at a level assumed to ensure nutritional adequacy.
• Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL): maximum daily intake unlikely to cause adverse health effects.575
That information is used to create nutrition fact labels.
Nutrition Facts Labels
The information in the main or top section (see #1-4) of the sample nutrition label (below) can vary with each food and beverage product; it contains product-specific information (serving size, calories, and nutrient information). The bottom section contains a footnote that explains the % Daily Value and gives the number of calories used for general nutrition advice.
In the following Nutrition Facts label certain sections have been colored to help focus on those areas that will be explained in detail. Note that these colored sections are not on the actual food labels of products you purchase.
12.6 – A color-coded example nutrition label for lasagna.576
1. Serving Information
When looking at the Nutrition Facts label, first take a look at the number of servings in the package (servings per container) and the serving size. Serving sizes are standardized to make it easier to compare similar foods; they are provided in familiar units, such as cups or pieces, followed by the metric amount, e.g., the number of grams (g). The serving size reflects the amount that people typically eat or drink. It is not a recommendation of how much you should eat or drink.
12.7 – The serving information portion of the example nutrition label for lasagna.577
It’s important to realize that all the nutrient amounts shown on the label, including the number of calories, refer to the size of the serving. Pay attention to the serving size, especially how many servings there are in the food package. For example, you might ask yourself if you are consuming ½ serving, 1 serving, or more.
2. Calories
Calories provide a measure of how much energy you get from a serving of this food.
12.8 – The calories per serving portion of the example nutrition label for lasagna.578
In the example, there are 280 calories in one serving of lasagna. What if you ate the entire package? Then, you would consume 4 servings, or 1,120 calories.
3. Nutrients
12.9 – The portion of the example nutrition label for lasagna that details nutrients.579
Look at section 3 in the sample label (shown in Table 12.9). It shows you some key nutrients that impact your health. Two key facts about the nutrients:
• Nutrients to get less of: Saturated Fat, Sodium, and Added Sugars.
• Nutrients to get more of: Dietary Fiber, Vitamin D, Calcium, Iron, and Potassium.
4. The Percent Daily Value (%DV)
The % Daily Value (%DV) is the percentage of the Daily Value for each nutrient in a serving of the food. The Daily Values are reference amounts (expressed in grams, milligrams, or micrograms) of nutrients to consume or not to exceed each day.
12.10 – The portion of the example nutrition label that details the percent daily value of the nutrients.580
The %DV shows how much a nutrient in a serving of a food contributes to a total daily diet for adults. The %DV helps you determine if a serving of food is high or low in a nutrient.581
Pause to Reflect
Find a food that is marketed to young children (that has a food label). Looking at the label, how do you think it rates a healthy choice? Why?
Child Nutrition Programs for Schools
The federal government provides federal assistance to schools to provide nutritious meals to children. With the exception of the Special Milk Program, early care and education programs will not qualify for these programs. But they are included in this chapter as they are important sources of nutrition for many children in the U.S., for reference for those that may work within the school system, and they may provide resources that early care and education programs may find useful when planning healthy meals and snacks and purchasing foods.
National School Lunch Program
The National School Lunch Program (NSLP) is a federally assisted meal program operating in public and nonprofit private schools and residential child care institutions. It provides nutritionally balanced, low-cost or no-cost lunches to children each school day. The program was established under the Richard B. Russell National School Lunch Act, signed into law by President Harry Truman in 1946. 30.4 million children participated in the program in 2016.582
School Breakfast Program
The School Breakfast Program (SBP) is a federally assisted meal program operating in public and non-profit private schools and residential child care institutions. The SBP started in 1966 as a pilot project, and was made a permanent entitlement program by Congress in 1975. Participation in the SBP has slowly but steadily grown over the years and in 2016, 14.57 million children participated in the program.584
Special Milk Program
The Special Milk Program provides milk to children in schools, child care program and eligible camps that do not participate in other federal child nutrition meal service programs. The program reimburses schools and institutions for the milk they serve. In 2011, 3,848 schools and residential child care institutions participated, along with 782 summer camps and 527 non‐residential child care institutions. Schools in the National School Lunch or School Breakfast Programs may also participate in the Special Milk Program to provide milk to children in half‐day pre‐kindergarten and kindergarten programs where children do not have access to the school meal programs.585
Summer Food Service Program
The Summer Food Service Program (SFSP) provides free meals and snacks when school is not in session. The seasonal nature of SFSP, and the diversity of sponsors and site operators, make it unique. State agencies, sponsors, and community organizations need flexibility to operate the SFSP in a manner that is responsive to local conditions and allows operators to focus on ensuring children in need can access food when school is not in session. In the summer of 2018 over 145 million meals were served to over 2.6 million children.586
Assessing Quality of Meal and Snack Times
Just like with safety and health (and many other things), early care and education programs should assess how well they are meeting children’s nutritional needs with the meals and snacks they are providing for children. An assessment, such as one in Appendix N can be used to help programs do this. You will notice that providing a positive eating environment takes more than just giving children healthy food. Chapter 14 will look more at this by age.
Summary
Providing nutritious meals and snacks to children in early care and education programs requires a basic understanding of nutrition. Program staff should also have an understanding of what a complete and healthy diet includes and how to address factors that influence food choices, to ensure that they provide healthy food and beverages that children will enjoy eating. Being aware of the programs available to support doing so is also valuable. Children that have high-quality meal and snack times will have the fuel their bodies need to sustain optimal growth and development. | textbooks/socialsci/Early_Childhood_Education/Book%3A_Health_Safety_and_Nutrition_(Paris)/Section_IV%3A_Nutrition/12%3A_Basic_Nutrition_for_Children.txt |
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