text
stringlengths 202
612k
| id
stringlengths 47
47
| metadata
dict | token_count
int64 54
146k
|
|---|---|---|---|
The poinsettia, with its brilliant red display, is the most popular holiday flower. Poinsettias were first sold in the United States around 1850 and now they are commercially grown in all 50 states, with California being the top-producing state.
Also known as the lobster flower or the flame leaf flower, the poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima) is a member of the spurge or Euphorbiaceae family that also includes the crown of thorns and castor bean. Many plants in this family ooze a milky sap.
The showy colored part of poinsettias or the “flowers” are actually large bunches of colored bracts, modified leaves. Poinsettias are perennial flowering shrubs that can grow 8 to 10 feet tall. Although red is the most popular color, poinsettias now are also available in cream, lemon, peach and pink colors as well as white and gold-splashed combinations
The history of this lovely plant is quite unusual. Native to southern Mexico and Central America, poinsettias flourished in a region near the present-day Taxco. To the ancient Aztecs, the beautiful red of the poinsettias symbolized purity. During the 14th to 16th centuries, the Aztecs cultivated these plants and used their “flowers” (bracts) to make a reddish-purple dye. They also used the milky white sap — today called latex — to make a medicine to treat fevers. Montezuma, the last of the Aztec kings, had poinsettia plants brought into what now is Mexico City for decorations.
Poinsettias could have remained a regional plant had it not been for Joel Roberts Poinsett (1779-1851), a statesman, Southern plantation owner and botanist who helped found the institution known today as the Smithsonian Institution. He introduced these plants to the United States in 1825 while he was serving as the first U.S. ambassador to Mexico. He took cuttings from the plants he found and brought them back to his greenhouses in South Carolina where they thrived. He later sent plants to botanical gardens around the world.
Even though Poinsett had an outstanding career as a U.S. congressman, ambassador and even secretary of war, he is most remembered for introducing the poinsettia plant to the United States. The plant was even named after Poinsett by William Prescott, a historian and horticulturist, around 1836. It had been assigned the name Euphorbia pulcherrima, meaning “very beautiful,” by German taxonomist and botanist Karl Ludwig Wilenow in 1833.
A Mrs. Enteman of Jersey City, N.J., started the modern era of poinsettia culture with her oak leaf cultivar in 1923. Other significant advances were made in the l950s and l960s. Today there are more than 100 poinsettia cultivars grown commercially. Poinsettias are found in more than 100 varieties and many colors and sizes, from minis to large specimen trees and every size in between. Of the more than 70 million plants sold nationwide each year, the favorite color is red.
In 1902, Albert Ecke immigrated from Germany to Southern California. Fascinated by the bright scarlet flowers blooming on the hillsides of Hollywood, the Ecke family began raising fields of poinsettias and selling them as fresh cut flowers. Eventually the family grew poinsettias in greenhouses and today, their location in Encinitas has made California the top poinsettia-producing state in the United States. The Eckes grow the starts for more than 50 percent of the flowering poinsettia plants in the world.
You can move your holiday poinsettia plant outdoors when all danger of frost has passed. Place it in a sunny location that will get moderate shade in the afternoon. They are very susceptible to many root diseases and should not be planted in garden soil but only in slightly acid, sterilized potting mix. Feed them with all-purpose fertilizer every other week. When grown outside, they can become leggy if not pruned every two months. Poinsettias like lots of heat and are very frost tender.
To get your poinsettia to bloom, you have to keep it in total darkness between 5 p.m. and 8 a.m. Start around Oct. 1 and continue until color shows on the bracts. Any little exposure to light can prevent flowering.
For information, call 909-798-9384.
Source: Joyce Dean, a member of the Redlands Horticultural and Improvement Society | <urn:uuid:b9fbe160-9d4d-4fb9-b733-cea4e610cb17> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2015-11",
"url": "http://www.redlandsdailyfacts.com/lifestyle/20131223/poinsettias-are-popular-christmas-plants",
"date": "2015-03-03T09:35:50",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-11/segments/1424936463165.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20150226074103-00114-ip-10-28-5-156.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9675047993659973,
"token_count": 987,
"score": 3.515625,
"int_score": 4
} | 987 |
You’ve probably heard this axiom before, that children remember…
10% of what they READ
20% of what they HEAR
30% of what they SEE
50% of what they SEE and HEAR
70% of what they SAY and WRITE
90% of what they DO.
Every brain is unique. Who, what, when, where, why, and how we remember is different for each of us. But there are some actions, practices, and strategies that help all of us to be able to better remember important things.
What do you do when you really want or need to remember something?
When I want to remember something I often write it down, use a memory-trigger, or employ some form of mindful-sensory repetition ‘til it sticks.
What practices do you use to help your children remember important things?
Multi-sensory learning creates stronger memory connections and retention. Depending on what needs to be remembered, we can apply different strategies. Here are some for example:
Math Facts: We pair-up and use flashcards, timed drills (oral and written), games, fact families, hands-on manipulative grouping, real-life applications, and lots of repetition.
Ball-handling/learning to play an instrument: We teach and model the basic techniques and then drill, practice, play, and perform to finesse skills.
Reading: We use sight word drills, teach phonics families, spell, read from texts about things that we want to know about. We listen to stories that we enjoy together. We read stories together. We read words wherever we go. We read, read, read every day.
History: We create timelines, use acronyms, feature important people or stories, memorize dates, sing songs, memorize quotations, identify locations on a globe or map, etc.
Here are 12 strategies for remembering important information:
To remember a list of facts, create acronyms or mnemonics.
An acronym is a word formed from the initial letters or groups of letters of words in a set phrase or series of words. For instance:
U.S.A. stands for The United States of America,
G.O.A.T. stands for The Greatest of All Time
V.I.P. stands for a very important person
A mnemonic is something intended to assist the memory, like a verse or formula. For instance, in order to remember the planets (in order) one mnemonic is the sentence: Mark’s Very Extravagant Mother Just Sent Us Nickels. The first letter in each word stands for a planet: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.
Make your own flashcards to remember math facts, vocabulary words and their definitions, or events and historical dates. Then quiz with them often until you’ve got it. Using Flash Cards to Remember Information
Use Music, Rhythm, and Rhyme:
Write words to go with a new or familiar melody. Example:
To the tune of Row, Row, Row Your Boat” learn your home address and sing it in repetition until you can’t forget it… Ninety-six, eighty-five Park Avenue, St. George, Utah, 8-4-7-9-1!
Create your own, or practice a well-known rhyming phrase or poem to help remember: For example
Study in partnerships: parent-child, sibling tutor, peers
Apply your study to real-world situations. Make it personally meaningful and applicable in everyday life.
Draw a dramatic or silly picture of the fact to make it particularly memorable.
In order to remember a larger number of facts, play the game of “Memory”.
To play, you need index cards, a pen or pencil, and 2 or more players.
Make the first card by putting a question on one side of it such as “Who was the first President of the United States?”
Make a second card with the answer to the question on it: “George Washington”.
Make enough pairs of cards to keep the game interesting.
Shuffle the cards and place them face down on a table or floor.
In order to play, each contestant picks up a card and tries to match it with its correct counterpart. If successful, the contestant keeps the pair of cards and continues taking turns until he/she can no longer make any matches.
The player that has the most cards in his/her possession at the end of the game wins.
This game works well with every subject: science topics, historic events, geographic locations, math applications, language lessons (spelling, parts of speech, vocabulary, etc.), and definitions.
The key to improving memory is to make it fun and to practice, repeat, practice, repeat, practice. For more memory strategies, please see:
https://canyongrove.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/remember.jpg263192infinitehttps://canyongrove.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/long-logo-10-1.pnginfinite2021-03-03 22:20:392021-03-03 22:48:47Helping Children Remember
588 W 3300 N Pleasant Grove, Utah 84062 Phone: | <urn:uuid:7276fcec-039e-41bc-a075-154c2fbe1fff> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2022-21",
"url": "https://canyongrove.com/how-to-remember-important-information/",
"date": "2022-05-16T13:02:09",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662510117.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20220516104933-20220516134933-00474.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8987168669700623,
"token_count": 1127,
"score": 3.78125,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,127 |
Instead, the concept is being organized, loosely, by a nonprofit organization established in November called the Moon Village Association. In , Jim Burke, of the International Space University in France, said people should plan to preserve humanity's culture in the event of a civilization-stopping asteroid impact with Earth. A Lunar Noah's Ark was proposed. Exploration of the lunar surface by spacecraft began in with the Soviet Union 's Luna program. This was mankind's first direct view of the far side. Additional missions to the Moon continued this exploration phase.
However, interest in further exploration of the Moon was beginning to wane among the American public. Instead, focus was turned to the Space Shuttle and crewed missions in near Earth orbit. In addition to its scientific returns, the Apollo program also provided valuable lessons about living and working in the lunar environment. The Soviet crewed lunar programs failed to send a crewed mission to the Moon. Besides the crewed landings, an abandoned Soviet Moon program included building the moonbase " Zvezda ", which was the first detailed project with developed mockups of expedition vehicles and surface modules.
In the decades following, interest in exploring the Moon faded considerably, and only a few dedicated enthusiasts supported a return. However, evidence of lunar ice at the poles gathered by NASA's Clementine and Lunar Prospector missions rekindled some discussion, as did the potential growth of a Chinese space program that contemplated its own mission to the Moon.
Log in to Wiley Online Library
Bush called for a plan to return crewed missions to the Moon by since cancelled — see Constellation program. The LCROSS mission was designed to acquire research information to assist with future lunar exploratory missions and was scheduled to conclude with a controlled collision of the craft on the lunar surface. In , due to reduced congressional NASA appropriations, President Barack Obama halted the Bush administration's earlier lunar exploration initiative and directed a generic focus on crewed missions to asteroids and Mars, as well as extending support for the International Space Station.
As of , Russia is planning to begin building a human colony on the Moon by Initially, the Moon base would be crewed by no more than four people, with their number later rising to maximum of 12 people. Billionaire Jeff Bezos has outlined his plans for a lunar base in the s . In March NASA unveiled the Artemis program 's mission to send a crewed mission to the Moon by , along with plans to establish an outpost in In August , the Open Lunar Foundation came out of stealth with an explicit plan to develop a collaborative and global open group to allow denizens of all nations to participate in building a peaceful and cooperative lunar settlement.
On the Moon, the feature is seen as a widely distributed absorption that appears strongest at cooler high latitudes and at several fresh feldspathic craters. The general lack of correlation of this feature in sunlit M 3 data with neutron spectrometer H abundance data suggests that the formation and retention of OH and H 2 O is an ongoing surficial process. The Moon Mineralogy Mapper M 3 , an imaging spectrometer, was one of the 11 instruments on board Chandrayaan-1, whose mission came to a premature end on 29 August Lunar scientists had discussed the possibility of water repositories for decades.
They are now increasingly "confident that the decades-long debate is over" a report says. That represents a proportion of ten parts per million, which is a lower water concentration than that found in the soil of the driest deserts of the Earth. Zubrin's computations are not a sound basis for estimating the percentage of water in the regolith at that site. Researchers with expertise in that area estimated that the regolith at the impact site contained 5. Hydrocarbons , material containing sulfur , carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide , methane and ammonia were present.
In March , researchers who had previously published reports on possible abundance of water on the Moon, reported new findings that refined their predictions substantially lower. In , it was announced that M 3 infrared data from Chandrayaan-1 had been re-analyzed to confirm the existence of water across wide expanses of the Moon's polar regions.
Placing a colony on a natural body would provide an ample source of material for construction and other uses in space, including shielding from cosmic radiation. The energy required to send objects from the Moon to space is much less than from Earth to space. This could allow the Moon to serve as a source of construction materials within cis-lunar space. Rockets launched from the Moon would require less locally produced propellant than rockets launched from Earth. Some proposals include using electric acceleration devices mass drivers to propel objects off the Moon without building rockets.
Others have proposed momentum exchange tethers see below. Furthermore, the Moon does have some gravity , which experience to date indicates may be vital for fetal development and long-term human health.
Colonization of the Moon - Wikipedia
In addition, the Moon is the closest large body in the Solar System to Earth. This proximity has several advantages:. Soviet astronomer Vladislav V. Shevchenko proposed in the following three criteria that a lunar outpost should meet: [ citation needed ]. While a colony might be located anywhere, potential locations for a lunar colony fall into three broad categories.
There are two reasons why the north pole and south pole of the Moon might be attractive locations for a human colony. First, there is evidence for the presence of water in some continuously shaded areas near the poles. Power collection stations could therefore be plausibly located so that at least one is exposed to sunlight at all times, thus making it possible to power polar colonies almost exclusively with solar energy. Solar power would be unavailable only during a lunar eclipse , but these events are relatively brief and absolutely predictable. Any such colony would therefore require a reserve energy supply that could temporarily sustain a colony during lunar eclipses or in the event of any incident or malfunction affecting solar power collection.
Hydrogen fuel cells would be ideal for this purpose, since the hydrogen needed could be sourced locally using the Moon's polar water and surplus solar power. Moreover, due to the Moon's uneven surface some sites have nearly continuous sunlight. For example, Malapert mountain , located near the Shackleton crater at the lunar south pole, offers several advantages as a site:. NASA chose to use a south-polar site for the lunar outpost reference design in the Exploration Systems Architecture Study chapter on lunar architecture.
At the north pole, the rim of Peary Crater has been proposed as a favorable location for a base. The interior of Peary Crater may also harbor hydrogen deposits. A bistatic radar experiment performed during the Clementine mission suggested the presence of water ice around the south pole. A potential limitation of the polar regions is that the inflow of solar wind can create an electrical charge on the leeward side of crater rims. The resulting voltage difference can affect electrical equipment, change surface chemistry, erode surfaces and levitate lunar dust.
The lunar equatorial regions are likely to have higher concentrations of helium-3 rare on Earth but much sought after for use in nuclear fusion research because the solar wind has a higher angle of incidence. Several probes have landed in the Oceanus Procellarum area. There are many areas and features that could be subject to long-term study, such as the Reiner Gamma anomaly and the dark-floored Grimaldi crater.
The lunar far side lacks direct communication with Earth, though a communication satellite at the L 2 Lagrangian point , or a network of orbiting satellites, could enable communication between the far side of the Moon and Earth. Scientists have estimated that the highest concentrations of helium-3 can be found in the maria on the far side, as well as near side areas containing concentrations of the titanium -based mineral ilmenite.
On the near side the Earth and its magnetic field partially shields the surface from the solar wind during each orbit. But the far side is fully exposed, and thus should receive a somewhat greater proportion of the ion stream. Lunar lava tubes are a potential location for constructing a lunar base. Any intact lava tube on the Moon could serve as a shelter from the severe environment of the lunar surface, with its frequent meteorite impacts, high-energy ultra-violet radiation and energetic particles, and extreme diurnal temperature variations.
Lava tubes provide ideal positions for shelter because of their access to nearby resources. They also have proven themselves as a reliable structure, having withstood the test of time for billions of years. An underground colony would escape the extreme of temperature on the Moon's surface.
- About this book.
- Moon: Resources, Future Development, and Settlement - PDF Free Download.
- Advanced Listening Comprehension: Developing Aural and Notetaking Skills?
One such lava tube was discovered in early There have been numerous proposals regarding habitat modules. The designs have evolved throughout the years as humankind's knowledge about the Moon has grown, and as the technological possibilities have changed. The proposed habitats range from the actual spacecraft landers or their used fuel tanks, to inflatable modules of various shapes. Some hazards of the lunar environment such as sharp temperature shifts, lack of atmosphere or magnetic field which means higher levels of radiation and micrometeoroids and long nights, were unknown early on.
- The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization: Text, Cases and Materials.
- Renegade: The Making of a President.
- The Moon, Resources, Future Development and Settlement by David Schrunk | | Booktopia.
Proposals have shifted as these hazards were recognized and taken into consideration. Some suggest building the lunar colony underground, which would give protection from radiation and micrometeoroids. This would also greatly reduce the risk of air leakage, as the colony would be fully sealed from the outside except for a few exits to the surface. The construction of an underground base would probably be more complex; one of the first machines from Earth might be a remote-controlled excavating machine.
Once created, some sort of hardening would be necessary to avoid collapse, possibly a spray-on concrete -like substance made from available materials. Inflatable self-sealing fabric habitats might then be put in place to retain air. Eventually an underground city can be constructed. Farms set up underground would need artificial sunlight. As an alternative to excavating, a lava tube could be covered and insulated, thus solving the problem of radiation exposure.
An alternative solution is studied in Europe by students to excavate a habitat in the ice-filled craters of the Moon. A possibly easier solution would be to build the lunar base on the surface, and cover the modules with lunar soil. The lunar soil is composed of a unique blend of silica and iron-containing compounds that may be fused into a glass-like solid using microwave energy. A lunar base built on the surface would need to be protected by improved radiation and micrometeoroid shielding. Building the lunar base inside a deep crater would provide at least partial shielding against radiation and micrometeoroids.
Artificial magnetic fields have been proposed as a means to provide radiation shielding for long range deep space crewed missions, and it might be possible to use similar technology on a lunar colony. Some regions on the Moon possess strong local magnetic fields that might partially mitigate exposure to charged solar and galactic particles. Overall, these habitats would require only ten percent of the structure mass to be transported from Earth, while using local lunar materials for the other 90 percent of the structure mass. Inside, a lightweight pressurized inflatable with the same dome shape would be the living environment for the first human Moon settlers.
Meet Phil Metzger…
In , The Moon Capital Competition offered a prize for a design of a lunar habitat intended to be an underground international commercial center capable of supporting a residential staff of 60 people and their families. The Moon Capital is intended to be self-sufficient with respect to food and other material required for life support. A nuclear fission reactor might fulfill most of a Moon base's power requirements. Radioisotope thermoelectric generators could be used as backup and emergency power sources for solar powered colonies.
- Return to the Moon Studies.
- The Moon: Resources, Future Development and Settlement - collectSPACE: Messages.
The FSP system concept uses conventional low-temperature stainless steel , liquid metal-cooled reactor technology coupled with Stirling power conversion. Helium-3 mining could be used to provide a substitute for tritium for potential production of fusion power in the future. Solar energy is a possible source of power for a lunar base. Many of the raw materials needed for solar panel production can be extracted on site. However, the long lunar night hours or This might be solved by building several power plants, so that at least one of them is always in daylight.
Another possibility would be to build such a power plant where there is constant or near-constant sunlight, such as at the Malapert mountain near the lunar south pole, or on the rim of Peary crater near the north pole. Since lunar regolith contains structural metals like iron and aluminum, solar panels could be mounted high up on locally-built towers that might rotate to follow the Sun. A third possibility would be to leave the panels in orbit , and beam the power down as microwaves. The solar energy converters need not be silicon solar panels.
It may be more advantageous to use the larger temperature difference between Sun and shade to run heat engine generators. Concentrated sunlight could also be relayed via mirrors and used in Stirling engines or solar trough generators, or it could be used directly for lighting, agriculture and process heat. The focused heat might also be employed in materials processing to extract various elements from lunar surface materials. Fuel cells on the Space Shuttle have operated reliably for up to 17 Earth days at a time. Fuel cells produce water directly as a waste product.
Current fuel cell technology is more advanced than the Shuttle's cells — PEM Proton Exchange Membrane cells produce considerably less heat though their waste heat would likely be useful during the lunar night and are lighter, not to mention the reduced mass of the smaller heat-dissipating radiators.
This makes PEMs more economical to launch from Earth than the shuttle's cells.
The Moon: Resources, Future Development, and Settlement
PEMs have not yet been proven in space. Even if lunar colonies could provide themselves access to a near-continuous source of solar energy, they would still need to maintain fuel cells or an alternate energy storage system to sustain themselves during lunar eclipses and emergency situations. Conventional rockets have been used for most lunar explorations to date. The construction workers, location finders, and other astronauts vital to building, would have been taken four at a time in NASA's Orion spacecraft.
Proposed concepts of Earth-Moon transportation are Space elevators. Lunar colonists would need the ability to transport cargo and people to and from modules and spacecraft, and to carry out scientific study of a larger area of the lunar surface for long periods of time. Proposed concepts include a variety of vehicle designs, from small open rovers to large pressurized modules with lab equipment, and also a few flying or hopping vehicles.
Rovers could be useful if the terrain is not too steep or hilly. The Soviet Union developed different rover concepts in the Lunokhod series and the L5 for possible use on future crewed missions to the Moon or Mars. These rover designs were all pressurized for longer sorties. If multiple bases were established on the lunar surface, they could be linked together by permanent railway systems. Both conventional and magnetic levitation Maglev systems have been proposed for the transport lines. Mag-Lev systems are particularly attractive as there is no atmosphere on the surface to slow down the train , so the vehicles could achieve velocities comparable to aircraft on the Earth.
One significant difference with lunar trains, however, is that the cars would need to be individually sealed and possess their own life support systems. For difficult areas, a flying vehicle may be more suitable. Experience so far indicates that launching human beings into space is much more expensive than launching cargo.
One way to get materials and products from the Moon to an interplanetary way station might be with a mass driver , a magnetically accelerated projectile launcher. Cargo would be picked up from orbit or an Earth-Moon Lagrangian point by a shuttle craft using ion propulsion , solar sails or other means and delivered to Earth orbit or other destinations such as near-Earth asteroids, Mars or other planets, perhaps using the Interplanetary Transport Network.
A lunar space elevator could transport people, raw materials and products to and from an orbital station at Lagrangian points L 1 or L 2. Chemical rockets would take a payload from Earth to the L 1 lunar Lagrange location. From there a tether would slowly lower the payload to a soft landing on the lunar surface. Other possibilities include a momentum exchange tether system. A cislunar transport system has been proposed using tethers to achieve momentum exchange.
For long-term sustainability, a space colony should be close to self-sufficient. Mining and refining the Moon's materials on-site — for use both on the Moon and elsewhere in the Solar System — could provide an advantage over deliveries from Earth, as they can be launched into space at a much lower energy cost than from Earth. It is possible that large amounts of cargo would need to be launched into space for interplanetary exploration in the 21st century, and the lower cost of providing goods from the Moon might be attractive. In the long term, the Moon will likely play an important role in supplying space-based construction facilities with raw materials.
On Earth, the gas bubbles rise and burst, but in a zero gravity environment, that does not happen. The annealing process requires large amounts of energy, as a material is kept very hot for an extended period of time. This allows the molecular structure to realign. Exporting material to Earth in trade from the Moon is more problematic due to the cost of transportation, which would vary greatly if the Moon is industrially developed see "Launch costs" above.
One suggested trade commodity is helium-3 3 He which is carried by the solar wind and accumulated on the Moon's surface over billions of years, but occurs only rarely on Earth. In the future 3 He harvested from the Moon may have a role as a fuel in thermonuclear fusion reactors. To reduce the cost of transport, the Moon could store propellants produced from lunar water at one or several depots between the Earth and the Moon, to resupply rockets or satellites in Earth orbit.
Gerard K. O'Neill , noting the problem of high launch costs in the early s, came up with the idea of building Solar Power Satellites in orbit with materials from the Moon. This proposal was based on the contemporary estimates of future launch costs of the Space Shuttle. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For other uses, see Moonbase disambiguation. Proposed establishment of a permanent human community or robotic industries on the Moon.
This box: view talk edit. Main article: Project Horizon. Main article: Lunex Project. Main articles: Exploration of the Moon and List of missions to the Moon. Main article: Lunar water. Play media. Further information: Space colonization. Further information: Geology of the Moon. Further information: Peak of eternal light. This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Small scale, tele-operated and autonomous robotic in-situ resource utilization ISRU projects are first, followed by electric power, communication, and transportation networks manufactured from lunar resources.
These infrastructure networks are field tested an commissioned in the polar regions of the Moon, and permanent human settlements are then established. Through several phases of development, the utility networks grow, and the number of permanently inhabited bases increases to inculde all areas of interest on the Moon. The book stresses that the envisioned "Planet Moon Project" will link the technological and cultural expertise of humanity to the virtually limitless resources of space. From that beginning, the people of the Earth reap substatntial benefits from space, and the human species will evolve into a spacefaring civilization.
From the reviews of the second edition:. This book Summing Up: Recommended. Upper-division undergraduates through professionals. The book The book has well-described ideas and illustrations for lunar development concepts. The scope includes discussion of robotics technology and its near-term application to lunar operations. Country of Publication: US Dimensions cm : Help Centre. My Wishlist Sign In Join. Cooper , Madhu Thangavelu. Be the first to write a review. Add to Wishlist. Ships in 15 business days.
Link Either by signing into your account or linking your membership details before your order is placed. Description Table of Contents Product Details Click on the cover image above to read some pages of this book! | <urn:uuid:529d52f1-2ff2-4a69-8f4c-7a7a625753fd> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2020-05",
"url": "https://licaxyzy.ga/superheroes/the-moon-resources-future-development-and-settlement-2nd-edition.php",
"date": "2020-01-26T19:01:34",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00359.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9459677338600159,
"token_count": 4311,
"score": 3.625,
"int_score": 4
} | 4,311 |
|Ancient Egypt and Archaeology Web Site|
During and following the New Kingdom, scarab amulets were often placed over the heart of the mummified deceased. These "heart scarabs" were meant to be weighed against the feather of truth during the final judgement. The amulets were often inscribed with a spell from the Book of the Dead which entreated the heart to, "do not stand as a witness against me." An alternative use for the scarab was as a ‘broad sheet’ carrying news and royal information to the regions, for example many of Amenhotep III’s scarabs with news of heroic events, marriages and even building lakes have been found throughout the Egypt’s neighbouring countries, the Mediterranean, and the Levant.
Several species of the dung beetle, most notably the species Scarabaeus Sacer (often referred to as the sacred scarab), enjoyed a sacred status among the Ancient Egyptians. Dung beetles live in many different habitats, including desert, farmland, forest, and grasslands. They do not like extremely cold or dry weather. They occur on all continents except Antarctica. Dung beetles eat dung excreted by herbivores and omnivores, and prefer that produced by the former. Many of them also feed on mushrooms and decaying leaves and fruits. They do not need to eat or drink anything else because the dung provides all the necessary nutrients. The larvae feeds on the undigested plant fibre in the dung, while the adults do not eat solid food at all. Instead they use their mouthparts to squeeze and suck the juice from the manure, a liquid full of micro-organisms and other nutrients (as well as the body fluids from some unlucky animals such as dung-feeding maggots that sometimes get trapped between their mandibles).
The hieroglyphic image of the beetle represents a trilateral phonetic that Egyptologists transliterate as Xpr and translate as "to come into being", "to become" or "to transform". The derivative term Xprw is variously translated as "form", "transformation", "happening", "mode of being" or "what has come into being", depending on the context. It may have existential, fictional, or ontologic significance.
Young scarab beetles emerged spontaneously from the burrow were they were born and Ancient Egyptian drew a parallel to the daily re-birth of Ra (the sun god) and they worshipped the beetle as "Khepera" (which translates to "he was came forth") the god of the rising sun. The creative aspect of the scarab was associated with the creator god Atum. The ray-like antenna on the beetle's head and its practice of dung-rolling caused the beetle to also carry solar symbolism. The scarab-beetle god Khepera was believed to push the setting sun along the sky in the same manner as the beetle with his ball of dung. In many artifacts, the scarab is depicted pushing the sun along its course in the sky. The ancients believed that the dung beetle was only male in gender, and reproduced by depositing semen into a dung ball. The supposed self-creation of the beetle resembles that of Khepri, who creates himself out of nothing. Moreover, the dung ball rolled by a dung beetle resembles the sun. Plutarch wrote:
The ancient Egyptians believed that Khepri renewed the sun every day before rolling it above the horizon, then carried it through the other world after sunset, only to renew it, again, the next day. Some New Kingdom royal tombs exhibit a threefold image of the sun god, with the beetle as symbol of the morning sun. The astronomical ceiling in the tomb of Ramesses VI portrays the nightly "death" and "rebirth" of the sun as being swallowed by Nut, goddess of the sky, and re-emerging from her womb as Khepri.
A scarab, depicted on the walls of Tomb KV6 in the Valley of the Kings. The image of the scarab, conveying ideas of transformation, renewal, and resurrection, is ubiquitous in ancient Egyptian religious and funerary art. Excavations of ancient Egyptian sites have yielded images of the scarab in bone, ivory, stone, Egyptian faience, and precious metals, dating from the Sixth Dynasty and up to the period of Roman rule. They are generally small, bored to allow stringing on a necklace, and the base bears a brief inscription or cartouche. Some have been used as seals. Pharaohs sometimes commissioned the manufacture of larger images with lengthy inscriptions, such as the commemorative scarab of Queen Tiye. Massive sculptures of scarabs can be seen at Karnak Temple, at the Serapeum in Alexandria, and elsewhere in Egypt.
The scarab was of prime significance in the funerary cult of ancient Egypt. Scarabs, generally, though not always, were cut from green stone, and placed on the chest of the deceased. Perhaps the most famous example of such "heart scarabs" is the yellow-green pectoral scarab found among the entombed provisions of Tutankhamen. It was carved from a large piece of Libyan desert glass. The purpose of the "heart scarab" was to ensure that the heart would not bear witness against the deceased at judgment in the Afterlife. Other possibilities are suggested by the "transformation spells" of the Coffin Texts, which affirm that the soul of the deceased may transform into a human being, a god, or a bird and reappear in the world of the living.
One scholar comments on other traits of the scarab connected with the theme of death and rebirth: | <urn:uuid:d1b67278-8e39-4d8b-9860-8a577e1ab90c> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2018-05",
"url": "http://ancient-egypt.co.uk/scarabs/pages/scarabs.htm",
"date": "2018-01-17T06:48:18",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-05/segments/1516084886830.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20180117063030-20180117083030-00459.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9670715928077698,
"token_count": 1174,
"score": 3.515625,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,174 |
Kitchen salt may help solar cells get cheaper to build, says S.Ananthanarayanan.
Solar cell technology has seen great strides and the cost has been steadily coming down. Solar cell use has become commonplace, moving from remote locations to rooftops, hand held devices, traffic signals and parking meters. The cost of installation is now down to less than Rs 40/- a watt and solar power is being seen on par with other sources as feeders to the power grid.
Apart from crystalline silicon, there are now other materials that are being used in solar cells. And cadmium telluride, which is one that can match and surpass silicon in the cost per unit electrical output, is set to be the market leader in solar cell materials. But the problem with cadmium telluride (CdTe) is that cadmium is toxic and the process uses cadmium as cadmium chloride (CdCl2), a form of cadmium that can leak into the environment, which calls for expensive precautions. At Euro Science Open Foum 2014, at Copenhagen, J. D. Major, R. E. Treharne, L. J. Phillips and K. Durose, of the Stephenson Institute of Renewable Energy, University of Liverpool said that they described in their paper in the journal, Nature, an alternative to cadmium chloride, which make CdTe solar cells much safer and cheaper to produce.
Solar Cells depend on the ability of some materials to throw out electrons from their atomic structure and create an electric charge, when light falls on them. Now, when there is an arrangement to prevent the electrons so freed from falling back to the atoms that released them, the electrons can be drawn off as an electric current, which is the solar cell. The arrangement to control the movement of electrons is through doping or modifying the nature of the crystals of the photo-material and creating a junction that allows electrons to flow only one way. This enables one side of the junction to collect electrons that get pumped out by the action of light and hence drive an electric current.
While solar cells were first made of blocks of silicon, they are now used as thin sheets of silicon, or the other materials developed, and the sheets, known as thin film solar cells, can be laid on flexible substrates. The sheets can then be used on roofs of building, small devices or even as a film on window panes, which cuts the glare and also generates electricity.
In the use of CdTe as the material, the junction is with cadmium sulphide (CdS). The efficiency of the junction is greatly increased in a process known as activation with the use of cadmium chloride, which allows chlorine and oxygen atoms to take part in the mechanism of the junction. Although cadmium is toxic, the forms of CdTe and CdS are stable and it has been shown that when used in thin film photovoltaic cells, as in sheets laid on rooftops, the materials do not escape the environment even if there is a fire. But this is not true of CdCl2, which is used in the manufacturing process. CdCl2 powder is water soluble and a positive hazard, both for the workers in the industry as well as to the environment. The control and retrieval of CdCl2 is thus a major element of cost in the manufacture of the CdTe solar cell. CdCl2 is also an expensive raw material, in any case.
But the use of CdCl2 in annealing the junction has made for raising its efficiency of converting solar energy to power from less than 2% to more than 10%, which makes it commercial. Laboratory trials have even touched 20% and there is every interest in cutting cost and risk in the use of CdCl2. The only alternative that was tried is a chlorofluorocarbon gas, which is related to CFC, the material of aerosols and refrigerants that leads to damage to the ozone layer. As use of CFCs is internationally controlled, this alternative of CdCl2 is not available and CdCl2 is still there in the commercial high efficiency CdTe solar cell programme.
The Liverpool team experimented with other low cost chlorides as possible replacements for CdCl2. The chlorides tried were of magnesium, sodium, potassium and manganese. Others, like chlorides of copper or zinc either have environment issues or high cost. Of the chlorides tried out, it was found that magnesium chloride, MgCl2, gave results almost the same as with CdCl2. Magnesium was found to be suitable, because even with CdCl2, there is magnesium that enters through the soda-lime glass substrate, and magnesium does not affect performance. This is found to be because of the magnesium ion being electrically inactive in CdTe, unlike ions of sodium, potassium, or manganese, whose use led to device performance being compromised.
In the case of magnesium chloride, the efficiency in fact, was 13.5%, compared to only 13.2% even with CdCl2, the traditional activation agent. The long term stability was also found to be the same, the degradation over six months being only that due to oxidation at the gold-CdTe contacts that are used. Magnesium chloride is also a low cost and commonly available salt. As some news reporters observe, it is an ingredient salt that is used in the bean curd, TOFU.
The discovery of the Liverpool team is thus that magnesium chloride can immediately replace cadmium chloride in the manufacture process and eliminate both the risk and the costly toxin control measures involved. The stage is hence set for development for industrial use and wider deployment of CdTe devices.
One factor that affected CdTe was the scarcity and limited reserves of Tellurium and this factor was considered as a serious limitation. But new reserves have been discovered in China, Mexico and Sweden. Interestingly, astrophysicists have also found that Tellurium is the most abundant of the heavier elements in the universe! Nearer home, rich reserves, more than we will ever need, have been found in undersea ridges and feasibility of recovery is being looked into, as other possible reserves. CdTe technology, now easier with MgCl2, appears to have found a place in the drive to increase the use of solar power.
Do respond to : [email protected] | <urn:uuid:0f02fde6-caae-4b20-b251-9021630e3a04> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2018-43",
"url": "http://simplescience.in/ScienceHTML/140709.CdTeSolarCells.html",
"date": "2018-10-15T14:46:58",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583509326.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20181015142752-20181015164252-00409.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9569879174232483,
"token_count": 1337,
"score": 3.53125,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,337 |
Evolution. Descent with Modification: A Darwinian View of Life. Evolution Defined . Evolution : gradual hereditary changes in groups of living organisms over time. . November 24, 1859. Lamarck’s Theory. Jean Baptiste de Lamarck , 1809
Descent with Modification: A Darwinian View of Life
Evolution: gradual hereditary changes in groups of living organisms over time.
November 24, 1859
Fossils: remains and traces left behind by organisms
-most direct evidence for evolution
-provides a record of ancient organisms that have existed
-able to generate a timeline
-ancestral descent and lineages can be generated
Types of Fossils: imprints, hair, nails, tissue, and other remains
Locations:sedimentary rock, ice, amber, tar, quicksand,
Types of Structures:
3. Struggle to Survive- members of a species compete for food, habitat, etc. (limits population)
4. Reproduction- individuals that are best adapted to their environment are likely to have many offspring that survive.
Natural selection- “survival of the fittest”- The species most fit for their environment will survive to pass on their traits.
Darwin’s Theory of Natural SelectionWhat Is Natural Selection? Darwin proposed the theory that evolution happens through a process that he called natural selection. Individuals that are betteradapted to their environment survive and reproduce more successfully than less well adapted individuals.
peppered moth activity | <urn:uuid:b751f86a-3427-46ad-8da8-f19bacd71537> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2017-04",
"url": "http://www.slideserve.com/long/evolution",
"date": "2017-01-24T18:46:11",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560285001.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095125-00232-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9066882133483887,
"token_count": 315,
"score": 3.921875,
"int_score": 4
} | 315 |
This activity is to be used after students have read chs. 29-34. Students will explore themes in the novel. They will begin by reviewing the theme of prejudice. They will then explore the themes of hope, friendship, and courage by developing a statement of theme, and supporting the theme with quotes and details from the novel. | <urn:uuid:501a307a-d84c-48dc-9626-fd7605a11ad8> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2017-43",
"url": "https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Product/The-Help-by-Kathryn-Stockett-Theme-Development-1387172",
"date": "2017-10-17T01:16:53",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-43/segments/1508187820487.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20171016233304-20171017013304-00600.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9492637515068054,
"token_count": 67,
"score": 3.828125,
"int_score": 4
} | 67 |
By 1995, condom availability programs were operating in at least 431 public schools, generally in conjunction with comprehensive sexuality education. 10 The programs have varied formats. Students in some schools may obtain condoms from a health counselor or from a basket; students in other schools may buy condoms from vending machines.
Comprehensive sexuality education programs in schools and communities have been found to improve academic performance, delay and reduce frequency of sexual intercourse, reduce number of sexual partners, increase use of condoms and other forms of contraception, and reduce negative health consequences (e.g., unintended pregnancy and STIs).
Comprehensive sexuality education is a medically accurate curriculum that provides young people with positive messages about sex and sexuality as natural, normal, healthy parts of life. Our educators emphasize information about abstinence as the best way to avoid sexually transmitted infections and unintended pregnancy.
Aug 11, 2019 · Over the past 20 years, numerous studies have consistently demonstrated that teaching comprehensive sex education in schools doesn't have the downside most people are afraid of. In other words, providing condoms in schools doesn't encourage adolescents to start having sex earlier, or even more often. | <urn:uuid:290c0a8b-122f-44b9-a476-82d2df6c28f5> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2020-10",
"url": "https://preisskat.info/sex09-2019-75/comprehensive-sex-education-providing-condoms-73.php",
"date": "2020-02-26T07:06:13",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-10/segments/1581875146187.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200226054316-20200226084316-00551.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.950107991695404,
"token_count": 224,
"score": 3.5,
"int_score": 4
} | 224 |
What Happened In Eastern Europe After Ww2
However germany was divided up into eastern and western germany.
What happened in eastern europe after ww2. As you can see every country in eastern europe has been conquered and a puppet government set up by the ussr save yugoslavia who would later break away. Allies during world war ii the us and the ussr became competitors on the world stage and engaged in the cold war so called because it never resulted in overt declared hot war. After world war ii ended in 1945 europe was divided into western europe and eastern europe by the iron curtain the physical barrier in the form of walls barbed wire or land mines that divided eastern europe and western europe during the cold war eastern europe fell under the influence of the soviet union and the region was separated from. After the german surrender great britain the united states france and the soviet union divided germany and austria into four occupation zones each to be administered by one of the victorious powers.
Many of the countries in the west returned to the same governments and borders they had prior to the war. This need led to the dependency of europe on two non european powers. This is a list of conflicts in europe ordered chronologically including wars between european states civil wars within european states wars between a european state and a non european state that took place within europe and global conflicts in which europe was a theatre of war. Continental europe emerged from german domination in 1945 shattered and transformed.
After a successful german advance in summer 1942 the battle for the city of stalingrad in late 1942 proved a turning point. America for western europe and the soviet union for eastern europe. Europe lay under german domination. As a result of world war 2 the nations eastern europe how could this possibly be the answer ugh fml.
Poland czechoslovakia and romania also got territory fr. The aftermath of world war ii was the beginning of a new era defined by the decline of all european colonial empires and simultaneous rise of two superpowers. Transitions of eastern europe after the cold war. Europe germany had occupied much of europe during world war ii.
Allied occupation of germany and austria. The soviet union controlled most of eastern europe. The eastern part was controlled by the ussr russia and the western part by the allies. This is eastern europe post wwii.
There are various definitions of europe and in particular there is a significant dispute about the eastern and. Soviet forces halted the german advance at stalingrad on the volga river and in the caucasus.
- Mars Kingdom Bikes Philippines
- Lucky Color This New Year 2020
- Master Lock Bike Lock Key
- Marketplace Bike Simulation Answers
- Mars Kingdom Folding Bike
- Marketplace Mountain Bike
- Love Bike Kitchen
- Largest Online Bike Store
- Mach Bike Vs Acro Bike Oras
- London Bike Kitchen
- Led Lights Bike Wheels
- Logos Scott Bike
- Manhattan Bike Path Map
- Marin Mountain Bike Review
- Marin Bike Reviews
- Lemond Spin Bike Review
- Lynskey Gravel Bike Review
- Mars Kingdom Bike Prices
- Mate X Bike Review 2019
- Mars Kingdom Mountain Bike | <urn:uuid:4f3dbd9d-15c2-4ae6-a5e4-7d0142fefd25> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2022-21",
"url": "https://how-to-bike-2.netlify.app/what-happened-in-eastern-europe-after-ww2.html",
"date": "2022-05-18T22:57:13",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662522556.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20220518215138-20220519005138-00071.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9409912824630737,
"token_count": 708,
"score": 3.5625,
"int_score": 4
} | 708 |
The first Earth Day was recognized on April 22, 1970, as a way to demonstrate support for environmental protection and eco-conscious decisions. Over 50 years ago, the main tenets of reducing air pollution, eliminating threats from toxic waste dumps, protecting endangered species, and reducing chemical hazards in commonly used materials. Back then, climate change wasn’t even a coined term in the common lexicon.
Fast-forward to today, and Earth Day is more important than ever to recognize, as the looming threat from climate change is shaping virtually every industry across the economy. Transportation is electrifying, factories are seeking more sustainable practices, customers are seeking out locally sourced foods, and more. But arguably no where else is a shift towards environmental consciousness that represents Earth Day happening more deliberately, thoughtfully, and urgently than in the energy sector.
Committing to reducing emissions in the name of preventing climate change has gone from fantasy at the turn of the century, when renewable energy sources made up 8% of the nation’s power generation (3/4 of which came from hydropower alone), to being closer to standard operating practice. Utilities are committing to 100% clean energy, states are mandating carbon reductions, and the pathway to a clean energy future is being paved by utilities today.
In recognition of Earth Day and all the positive progress being made by power producers thus far and the commitments to future action, we wanted to highlight some of the most major clean energy commitments across the U.S. utility sector—recognizing those who are going above and beyond for the future of our planet and the generations that will live on it!
1. First Major Utility to Commit to 100% Clean Energy: Xcel Energy
In December 2018, Xcel Energy made the commitment to go completely carbon free in its power generation by 2050. This announcement marked the first of major U.S. utilities (having nearly 4 million customers across its service area in the U.S. Midwest) making such a commitment, truly a watershed moment that represented the progress being sought after by Xcel as well as a sign of things to come across the power industry. And Xcel didn’t just make broad declarations without bringing action to back it up: the first pitstop the utility committed to towards this goal was being 80% carbon-free by 2030 and closing several coal-fired power plants 10 years before originally planned.
While Xcel gets well-deserved recognition for being the first major move towards complete clean energy commitment, they’ve also blazed a trail for others in the sector to follow suit.
2. Major Utility to Push Its Own Regulators to Enforce Greater Decarbonization: Dominion Energy
When Dominion Energy, the largest utility operator in the state of Virginia, set out its own net-zero goals in 2020, it did so on its own volition, recognizing the demand from customers and investors and the business sense it made to do so. In February of 2020, Dominion Energy announced their plans to go 100% net-zero emissions by 2050, upping it’s previous commitment of 80% emissions free by 2050 in its power sector and 80% methane-emissions free from natural gas by 2040. These commitments were huge from Dominion, and they reset what Virginians saw in their energy future. Where gas pipelines had previously been the major infrastructure of focus, these visions were replaced with hope that Virginia may become the offshore wind energy hub on the U.S. East Coast.
But Dominion’s commitment turned out to be just the first domino, as the Virginia State Legislature followed that up by passing the Clean Economy Act just weeks later that required a shut down of all carbon-emitting power plants by 2045. In this instance, the utility made the first move and then the state leaders upped the ante, showing that the state’s citizens will be the ultimate victors and both parties deserve praise for the commitments.
3. Impressive Plans to Walk the Walk on Clean Energy: Consumers Energy
From state legislatures to utility board rooms, the move to promise clean energy action has become expected and borderline routine. While that doesn’t take away from the impact of those commitments, it also means that looking at the concrete steps put into place by utilities is worth considering as well. One utility that has stood out in its tangible, concrete plants to make moves to fulfill its commitments is Consumers Energy in Michigan. In its Integrated Resources Plan published in 2019, Consumers Energy gained approval from state regulators to:
Shut down its major coal plant by 2023
Eliminate coal from its generation fleet entirely by 2040
Add 5 gigawatts (GW) of solar energy by 2030
Reduce emissions 90% by 2040
Having white papers promising what could happen is one thing, but Consumers Energy putting forth the plan and gaining necessary regulator approval is another one entirely. Consumers Energy gets an extra gold star for having its path well laid out.
4. Industry Recognized Leader in Major Utility Space: Southern California Edison
The utility industry is largely moving towards clean energy across the board, and as progress is made the leaders in this space are looking to their peers to see what lessons have been learned so they don’t have to reinvent the wheel. As such, looking at who the utility industry itself recognizes for progress towards clean energy provides some useful insights into where the rest of us should keep our eyes.
Recently, the Smart Electric Power Alliance (SEPA)—a non-profit organization working towards the clean energy future, which features over 700 utilities amongst its members—put out the results of the Utility Transformation Challenge that surveyed utility leaders and identified leaders who were facilitating the carbon-free utility of tomorrow. Given that, the utilities included in the top 10 list of the 2021 Utility Transformation Leaderboard should be considered especially valuable innovators towards clean energy—and among the major utility (in terms of size and prominence) honored by this leaderboard was Southern California Edison (SCE).
SCE should not be a surprising choice, given the utility has already achieved 50% of its 2045 carbon-free energy goals and is setting the pace when it comes to fostering transportation electrification in its service area, among other climate-focused initiatives.
5. Industry Recognized Leader in Municipal Utility Space: Seattle City Light
SEPA’s 2021 Utility Transformation Leaderboard did not just include major utilities, though, but it also highlighted some more local power providers who earned recognition and praise from their industry peers. Included in the top 10 list was Seattle City Light, a public municipal utility serving nearly 1 million in the city of Seattle and surrounding communities.
Despite being a municipal utility (albeit one of the larger ones in the United States), Seattle City Light still serves as a great example for many peer utilities. Seattle City Light was the first municipal utility in the country to own and operate a hydroelectric facility, and in fact it was the first power utility in the country to fully offset their carbon emissions—dating back to 2005. Carbon offsets are a band aid to provide climate benefits today, but long-term Seattle City Light has indeed shown unparalleled commitment and drive towards the clean energy transition.
6. Corporate Buyers Getting in on the Clean Energy Game: Amazon
Utilities are, of course, the main actors that have the agency to determine how pervasive clean energy is on their local grids, but that doesn’t mean other actors can’t have an impressive and outsized influence. In the corporate world, and increasing trend—particularly among tech giants—is to get involved with power purchase agreements (PPAs) for renewable energy. PPAs are an arrangement where third-party developers install, own, and operate an energy system that a private entity (whether corporations or otherwise) agrees to purchase the energy from for a pre-determined amount of time. PPAs, according to the U.S. Department of Energy, “allow the customer to receive stable and often low-cost electricity with no upfront cost, while also enabling the owner of the system to take advantage of tax credits and receive income from the sale of electricity.”
The benefit to the grid as a whole from PPAs is that they create a financial mechanism that encourages and enables more clean energy to be financed and built, reducing the overall carbon intensity of the grid. The amount of impact the private entity can have is directly proportional to the amount they have to spend on the PPA, and thus the entity with the deepest pockets is the one that can in fact do the most good to the market.
Enter Internet retail mammoth, Amazon. Just this week, Amazon announced that it’s investing in five utility-scale wind and solar generation projects across the country that are putting the titanic company on its dedicated path to be 100% renewable energy driven by 2025. If a company as large as Amazon can do it, it helps eliminate excuses from other corporations. Not only do Amazon’s actions directly lead to more renewables being built on the grid, but it sends a warning shot to the rest of the industry: the time for clean energy commitment is now.
7. State with the Most Aggressive Clean Energy Mandates: New York
Just as it’s fair to look at non-utility companies to recognize who’s doing the most for clean energy, so to is it valuable to look at the government bodies who are making the energy transition happen at a greater pace. While the federal government has typically been mired in legislative gridlock, a swinging pendulum of policies and priorities depending on the party in power, and a lack of a true and continued clean energy vision, state governments have largely been recognized as taking up the mantle for clean energy policy.
And when looking at the landscape of states and the actions towards clean energy, an argument can be made that New York is the true leader for the energy transition. In 2019, New York legislators passed what was deemed the most aggressive clean energy goals of any state, which mandated 70% of state electricity to be generated by renewables by 2030, up to 100% zero-emission generation by 2040 and economy-wide emissions dropping by 85% by 2050. And in the time since, New York has shown they mean it by investing in offshore wind energy, shuttering existing fossil fuel generation plants, and creating the type of clean energy jobs that will drive the green economy of tomorrow.
8. Utility Best Harnessing Energy Efficiency as a Clean Energy Tool: Eversource Energy
Earth Day, as mentioned, is more than just clean and renewable energy, rather it’s about every tool at our disposal towards environmental stewardship and eco-consciousness. In the world of utilities, that leads to the classic adage that a kilowatthour saved is just as valuable as a kilowatthour generated—but typically reduced energy use can be achieved for much cheaper than extra clean energy generation.
As such, it’s important to recognize the utilities who are best taking advantage of energy efficiency as well as clean energy. And according to the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, Eversource Massachusetts outranks all its peers in its policies and programs that put forth energy savings. The ACEEE study cites that Eversource has achieved 3.1% energy savings compared with just two years ago while offering a broad range of programs that reach a vast customer base and a diversity of energy end uses. Eversource’s actions include:
Converting streetlights to LEDs
Working with social services agencies to reach out to low-income groups to design programs to serve them
Energy efficiency incentives for customers using cold storage for COVID-19 vaccines
Residential rebates for energy efficiency upgrades
And many more innovative offerings for their customers
BrokerX is a software solution for energy brokers that eliminates manual tasks through automation, providing more time to sell and grow their businesses. To learn more about our energy broker software, call Matt, our VP of Sales at 312-725-0028, email [email protected] or click above to schedule a demo. | <urn:uuid:13358e2e-2c39-4cf1-9870-868495d9445e> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2022-33",
"url": "https://www.brokerxapp.com/post/celebrating-earth-day-2021-with-clean-energy-brokerx-review-of-8-major-clean-energy-commitments",
"date": "2022-08-14T21:31:08",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572077.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20220814204141-20220814234141-00550.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9517518281936646,
"token_count": 2467,
"score": 3.546875,
"int_score": 4
} | 2,467 |
A long time ago (300 million years) in a world far far away (well, Canada), a 10-foot-long shark called Orthacanthus was hungry and looking for its next meal.
That meal turned out to be another shark. A BABY shark. And most notably, a shark OF THE SAME SPECIES.
That's right, Orthacanthus–a top predator in its day–was a CANNIBAL.
The damning evidence–the earliest we have of sharks eating members of their own species–comes in the form of coprolites (fossilized poop) discovered in a coalfield in New Brunswick, Canada. Scientists found 300-million-year-old spiral-shaped feces that was "packed full" of the teeth of juvenile Orthacanthus.
How do we know this ancient waste belonged to Orthacanthus? Because the shark's distinctive corkscrew-shaped rectum produced equally distinctive corkscrew-shaped poop, which makes identification "easy."
The question remains WHY the eel-shaped prehistoric shark turned to eating its own kind instead of its usual diet of fish and amphibians.
In a press release about the findings, co-author Howard Falcon-Lang of Royal Holloway University of London said: "We don't know why Orthacanthus resorted to eating its own young. However, the Carboniferous Period was a time when marine fishes were starting to colonize freshwater swamps in large numbers. It's possible that Orthacanthus used inland waterways as protected nurseries to rear its babies, but then consumed them as food when other resources became scarce."
Adds Trinity College Dublin's Aodhan O'Gogain, who actually made the incredible discovery, "There is already evidence from fossilized stomach contents that ancient sharks like Orthacanthus preyed on amphibians and other fish, but this is the first evidence that these sharks also ate the young of their own species."
We suppose starvation is as good an excuse as any for a shark to turn to filial cannibalism. | <urn:uuid:fb6638d8-4911-44c5-82c2-856419092088> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2020-40",
"url": "https://www.discovery.com/nature/scientists-trace-back-shark-cannibalism-to-300-million-years-ago",
"date": "2020-09-20T21:27:42",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-40/segments/1600400198652.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200920192131-20200920222131-00346.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9618381857872009,
"token_count": 422,
"score": 3.890625,
"int_score": 4
} | 422 |
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) uses a focused electron beam to image a sample instead of light. While light microscopes have a resolution limit of about 500nm (dictated by the wavelength of light), a good SEM can image features approaching a few nanometers. The SEM reveals a whole new world of tiny features and shapes that are invisible to the light microscope world. Most of these samples are simple black powders to the eye and even when using a high-quality optical microscope, they are quite bland and simple structures. It is only when you get the focus and stigma perfect on a field emission scanning electron microscope that these beautiful features come alive. After working all week in the lab preparing samples and carefully coating nanometer thick coatings onto your substrates, it is magical to get to see the results of your work using SEM. As a materials scientist, it is through microscopy and surface analysis that we learn about mechanisms that impact the performance of our materials. Without the best tools we would be blind to what we are working towards. Having the highest resolution tools makes us powerful investigators and inventors. We believe that scientists should be using the highest resolution pressure sensors available to them for their experiments.
What if there is a whole new world of understanding that can be unlocked by using a better sensor with higher resolution? | <urn:uuid:8fbfc3c4-2377-41bb-8696-2e7ed9ef9ab5> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2022-33",
"url": "https://www.phasesensors.com/sem",
"date": "2022-08-08T04:57:50",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882570765.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20220808031623-20220808061623-00132.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9376689791679382,
"token_count": 268,
"score": 3.546875,
"int_score": 4
} | 268 |
Activity-Based Intervention Practices in Special Education
Özen, Arzu, Ergenekon, Yasemin, Kuram ve Uygulamada Egitim Bilimleri
Teaching practices in natural settings such as activity-based intervention (ABI) are suggested as alternatives to be used in effective early childhood education. As a multidisciplinary model, ABI consists of four components, which are choosing activities according to the child's interests; teaching generalizable goals embedded in routines and planned activities; and using before and after behavior stimuli which have natural and meaningful relations with behaviors. The benefits of using ABI within instructional settings include providing children with multiple-practice opportunities; teaching the target skill within the framework of daily routines without further need for any extra activity; focusing on children's interests and intrinsic motivation; and enhancing the level of success in educational settings. Considering these advantages and benefits, one can state that practices based on activity-based intervention can be used effectively for children with developmental disabilities from various age and disability groups. This article included descriptions and examples of activity-based intervention.
Children with Developmental Disabilities, Naturalistic Instruction, Activity-Based Intervention, Early Intervention.
There are many research findings on the effectiveness of techniques based on Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) such as direct instruction, errorless teaching, and discrete trial teaching to teach children with developmental disabilities (with mental retardation and/or autism) for various concept and skill teaching (Alberto & Troutman, 2006; Tekin & Kircaali-Iftar, 2004). Some of the targets for teaching children with developmental disabilities are teaching new skills, increasing or decreasing the acquired behaviors, and maintaining and generalizing the acquired behaviors (Kircaali-Iftar, 2007). However, research shows that in most of these ABA based techniques, learning usually happens during the acquisition (becoming able to do what could not before) phase. The lack effectiveness on the other phases of learning which are fluency (perform the behavior fast and easy), maintance (performing behavior after the instruction), and generalization (performing behavior in different circumstances) is apparent (Alberto & Troutman, 2006; Kerr & Nelson, 1998). By using ABA based techniques, skills are taught with adult guidance and within highly structured instructional arrangements. This is considered as the resource for the limitation that is mentioned above. In order to overcome this limitation, various techniques have recently been suggested in the literature that could be implemented in natural settings as an alternative for practitioners and researchers (Engelmann, 2003; Newman, Needelman, Reinecke & Robek, 2002; Schug, Tarver & Western, 2001; Wolery, Ault, & Doyle, 1992). In teaching techniques which are used in natural environments, teaching aims to be realized in the natural setting and to be systematic (Bricker, Preti-Frontczak, & McComas, 1998; Kurt & Tekin-Iftar, 2008; McBride & Schwartz, 2003). Besides, it is also mentioned that teaching techniques which are used in natural settings are more appropriate for inclusion environments and for parents to teach new skills to their children in their daily routines (Bricker, et al., 1998; Woods, Kashinath, & Goldstein, 2004).
Instructional techniques in natural settings are used more often for the education of individuals with developmental disabilities. Instructional techniques that are used in natural settings that are stated in the literature are incidental teaching, naturalistic time delay, mand-model, milieu teaching, transition-based teaching, and activity-based intervention (Allen & Cowan, 2008). In this study, ABI will be approached from the above instructional techniques that are used in natural settings.
Activity Based Intervention (ABI)
As a multidisciplinary model, ABI was first used by Diane Bricker and her colleagues at the University of Oregon (Bricker et al. … | <urn:uuid:5cf7b411-cc15-44e2-af7f-4f5992a07872> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2014-15",
"url": "http://www.questia.com/read/1P3-2316854231/activity-based-intervention-practices-in-special-education",
"date": "2014-04-19T16:17:08",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-15/segments/1397609537271.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20140416005217-00095-ip-10-147-4-33.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9311285018920898,
"token_count": 808,
"score": 3.640625,
"int_score": 4
} | 808 |
[Solution] week 4 discussion of cognitive psych
Perception illusions, or optical illusions, illustrate that our visual perception cannot be always trusted. Another is how we process information such as bottom-up or top-down.
- Research scholarly articles on optical illusions and explain what research has been done in this area. Explain why optical illusions occur, providing specific reasons.
- Research scholarly articles regarding bottom-up and top-down information processing and explain what research has been done in this area. Describe some examples of the two types.
Respond to at least two students response of the same discussion classmates. Participate in the discussion by asking a question, providing a statement of clarification, providing a point of view with a rationale, challenging an aspect of the discussion, or indicating a relationship between one or more lines of reasoning in the discussion. | <urn:uuid:260f15ae-bbf2-44fe-bfb0-42a19d39f76a> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2022-49",
"url": "https://www.brighteressays.com/solution-week-4-discussion-of-cognitive-psych/",
"date": "2022-12-06T07:06:34",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446711074.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20221206060908-20221206090908-00718.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9080473184585571,
"token_count": 170,
"score": 3.609375,
"int_score": 4
} | 170 |
Understanding which fats are good and which fats are bad has to be one of the most controversial topics of dietary health advice and even now some of the messages continue to be misleading. Fats are essential for our health, energy and metabolism. A fatty membrane surrounds every cell in our body and 60% of the dry weight of our brain is fat but not all fats are created equal. By understanding more about different fats, we can begin to identify those which are most essential and why.
Why is fat important
Fat serves as the transport mechanism for the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K. Fats also provide a concentrated source of energy, influence cell function and structure, contain anti-inflammatory properties, can protect the heart and are needed for hormone production.
The main types of dietary fats include saturated, monosaturated and polyunsaturated.
These fats are solid at room temperature and are found mainly in animal sources including butter, cheese, meat, lard and cream. Plant based sources include coconut oil and palm oil. Your body can also make saturated fat through consumption of excess sugar, which can be turned into fat. Recommendations suggest saturated fats should be consumed in moderation but if these fats are eaten in natural foods other important nutrients are also provided, so though it’s important to have a balanced diet saturated fats in natural foods shouldn’t be avoided.
At room temperature, these fats are liquid and include olive oil, rapeseed, nuts and seeds and some fruits and vegetables, such as avocados. Monosaturated fats are generally considered healthy and make up a huge proportion of the Mediterranean diet, which has been hailed as a diet for optimal health and longevity. This includes lots of fish, vegetables, fruits and olive oil.
These fats are liquid at room temperature and sources include vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, meat, dairy produce, eggs and fish. ‘Good’ polyunsaturated fats are the essential fatty acids omega-3 and omega-6, which we consume through our diet. Foods high in these essential fatty acids include nuts and seeds, vegetable oils, meat, fish, dairy products and eggs.
These fats are not natural fats and are created through processing or cooking at high temperatures and can have a detrimental impact on our health. These can be created from vegetable oils that have been manipulated by food manufacturing to produce a solid fat, which can be used in baked products, cakes, biscuits, crisps, fried food, take-aways and sauces. These fats are known as trans fat/hydrogenated fats and have been implicated in heart disease, cancer, diabetes and increased inflammation.
We can also create these trans fats whilst cooking when we heat monosaturated and polyunsaturated fats to high temperatures, which changes the molecular structure of the oil. For this reason, when using fats to cook/fry food at high temperatures, saturated fats such as coconut oil are most stable alongside extra virgin olive oil, as long as you don’t heat to smoke point.
What fats should we eat?
It’s important to consume fats through natural foods rather then highly processed, packaged alternatives. Examples include using olive oil as a salad dressing rather than ready-made salad dressings and opting for butter rather than margarine. Eating a range of animal products in moderation can provide our bodies with required nutrients. The importance of eating fish should not be underestimated as this provides essential omega-3’s, which have an important role in brain health, hormone balance, vision, immunity and heart health.
Helping children to understand the importance of consuming natural foods and fats for their growth and development is an important message. Fats shouldn’t be discussed as ‘good’ or ‘bad’ but focus should be on those, which are most beneficial for our health.
The Food Teacher, Katharine Tate, has worked as a teacher and education consultant internationally in primary and secondary schools for over 20 years.
Qualified as a registered nutritional therapist, Katharine, combines her unique education and nutrition expertise to offer schools, organisations and families advice, education programmes, practical workshops, and individual/family clinical consultations. She has also published 2 books: ‘Heat-Free & Healthy’ and ‘No Kitchen Cookery for Primary Schools’. | <urn:uuid:184ae71d-707e-4533-9b04-dd9121892189> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2017-30",
"url": "http://www.parenta.com/2016/07/02/good-and-bad-fats-explained/",
"date": "2017-07-24T18:52:32",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-30/segments/1500549424909.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20170724182233-20170724202233-00482.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9538317918777466,
"token_count": 880,
"score": 3.5,
"int_score": 4
} | 880 |
Glossary of Religion
Learn the definitions of religious terms and concepts with our extensive Glossary of Religion. Choose a letter above or explore the random terms below.
- One of the main Protestant groups that arose out of the 16th-century Reformation. Generally speaking, modern Presbyterian churches trace their origins to the Calvinist churches of the British Isles, the European counterparts of which came to be known by the more inclusive name of Reformed. The term presbyterian also denotes a collegiate type of church government led by pastors and lay leaders called elders or presbyters.
- Dalai Lama
- Head of the dominant school of Tibetan Buddhism, the Gelugpa (or Yellow Hats), and from 1642 to 1959, the spiritual and temporal leader of Tibet.
- Baha'i New Year, celebrated on the spring equinox (March 20 or 21)
- Jehovah's Witnesses
- Christian sect originally founded by Charles Taze Russell in the late 19th century. Russell's successor, Joseph Franklin Rutherford, adopted the name Jehovah's Witness in 1931. The sect believes that Jehovah (Yahweh) is the true God, and that Jesus Christ is the son of God. The sect's goal is to establish what they consider to be God's Kingdom, which they believe will emerge following an apocalyptic Armageddon.
- bhumisparsha mudra
- Buddhist hand gesture representing calling the earth to witness.
- Gospel of John
- The fourth gospel of the New Testament, written the latest and having the most unique material and developed theology.
- Originally, and in Catholic theology, this term refers to the belief that God creates a soul for each individual person at conception or birth, in contrast to the belief in a soul's pre-existence. In the Middle Ages it was thought that this occurred 40 days after conception for a male baby and 80 days after conception for a female baby. While Augustine thought creationism and original sin were contradictory, Aquinas held that not believing in this tenet constituted heresy.
- (Hebrew "teaching"). The Oral Torah: a collection of rabbinical writings that interpret, explain and apply the Torah scriptures. Consists of the Mishnah and the Gemara.
- (Arabic, "submission") Monotheistic faith based on the Qur'an and teachings of the Prophet Muhammad.
- Orthodox Judaism
- Designates the branch of Judaism that most staunchly adheres to traditional beliefs and practices, characterized by the belief in the immutability and supreme authority of the Written Law and Oral Law as the fundamental basis of religious observance, by resistance to modernization, by strict conformity to daily worship and dietary laws, by the regular study of the Torah, by the observance of the Sabbath, and by the separation of men and women in the synagogue.
- Rig Veda
- The oldest known literary work in India, a collection of hymns to the Vedic gods dating from c. 1500 BCE.
- Generally, geometric motifs, often circular and symbolic of the Universe, capable of innumerable variation and meaning in a variety of media.
- Eid Al-Fitr
- ("Feast of the Breaking of the Fast"). Holiday celebrated at the end of the month of Ramadan.
- The form of Buddhism practiced in the South Asian countries of Sri Lanka, Burma, Cambodia, Thailand, and Laos. Its doctrine, relatively unchanged since the 3rd century BCE, is based on the 'tipitaka' or Pali Canon and consists of a conservative interpretation of the Buddha's teachings. Theravada's main distinction from later Mahayana is its rejection of bodhisattvas. While the ultimate goal of Theravada is to become a 'perfected saint' or 'arhat,' lay believers cannot attain true enlightenment.
- conch shell
- Symbol of the fame of the Buddha's teachings. | <urn:uuid:9f257180-9231-4f02-b057-c45dde77dbfa> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2021-31",
"url": "https://religionfacts.com/glossary",
"date": "2021-07-24T23:24:42",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-31/segments/1627046151531.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20210724223025-20210725013025-00388.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9183724522590637,
"token_count": 793,
"score": 3.59375,
"int_score": 4
} | 793 |
The Writing Skills section of the PSAT/NMSQT can present the largest challenge for students who have trouble with identifying grammatical errors or figuring out the best way to phrase a sentence. Whereas there are two Critical Reading and Math sections on every PSAT/NMSQT, there is only one Writing Skills section, but at half an hour long, it is five minutes longer than the other sections of the test. The section contains thirty-nine questions in a standard ratio: fourteen of these questions ask students to identify sentence errors, twenty ask students to improve sentences, and five ask them to improve paragraphs. Altogether, students are given about forty-five seconds per question, meaning that there is not much extra time provided during which one can deliberate about which answer choice sounds better or is more efficient. Perhaps surprising given the name of the section, nowhere on the Writing Skills section are you asked to compose an essay or provide an extended response. Nowhere on any of its sections does the PSAT/NMSQT ask students to compose a written response; it is entirely multiple-choice, which helps allow for the speedy processing of answer sheets.
Let’s take a look at each of the question types featured on the PSAT/NMSQT’s Writing Skills test to give you a better idea of what you will be up against on test day and which you may want to focus on based on your specific strengths and weaknesses. The first question type, Identifying Sentence Errors, provides you with a sentence, four parts of which are underlined and represented as answer choices. There is also a fifth answer choice, “No error.” For these questions, you need to pick out the part of the sentence that contains a grammatical error. If the sentence is correctly written, you choose “No error” to get the question correct. These questions may initially seem imposing, but remember: if an error is there, it is in one of the underlined portions, and you do not have to be able to name or describe the error whatsoever—you just have to be able to recognize it!
The second question type, Improving Sentences, shifts slightly from this model. Like the Identifying Sentence Error questions, an Improving Sentences question provides students a sentence; however, only one part of this sentence is underlined, and the answer choices provide four different ways to rephrase or change the underlined portion of the sentence. One of the answer choices makes no change whatsoever to the underlined portion. If you think there is an error in the underlined part of the sentence, choose the answer that corrects it. If the sentence is correct, pick the answer that makes no changes. While this may seem much more difficult a task than recognizing sentence errors, realize that if the sentence contains an error, it has to be underlined. If you are convinced the sentence is incorrectly written, make sure to take the time to read all of the answer choices and try them out in context. Rushing can make these questions especially difficult, as the answer choices will likely look very similar to one another. It’s best to slow down and consider each question carefully so as not to make avoidable mistakes.
The final question type, Improving Paragraphs, may be the most challenging because it has a focus quite different from the section’s two other question types. These questions may direct your attention to a specific part of a paragraph and ask about the best way to phrase it, or they may ask you to pick out the best transition between paragraphs, the best place to insert a sentence, or the best way to divide one sentence into two. The broader focus of these questions often asks students to make larger-scale editorial decisions that require them to have a good grasp of how a piece of writing is functioning at the level of sentences, at the level of paragraphs, and as a whole, as well as how a change made at one of these scales affects the others.
If you are worried that you are less prepared to face one of these question types than the others, or want some guidance on how to approach questions of a given type, Varsity Tutors can help. On our Learning Tools website, we offer PSAT Writing Skills help in the form of model questions complete with revealed answers and full explanations. You can choose to review PSAT Writing Skills content at the level of specificity that works best for you. Want to work on Improving Paragraphs questions? You can do that. Want to focus on Improving Sentence questions about fixing comma splices? You can do that as well. Sometimes all you need to make a breakthrough in your understanding of a grammatical concept is a good number of well-explained examples, and Varsity Tutors’ free PSAT Writing Skills help provides just that for each topic covered on the exam. | <urn:uuid:3c6c2a78-7ddc-41ca-8e64-1dfe8b318ce4> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2017-04",
"url": "http://www.varsitytutors.com/psat_writing-help",
"date": "2017-01-24T15:45:38",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560284429.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095124-00106-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9540541172027588,
"token_count": 996,
"score": 3.53125,
"int_score": 4
} | 996 |
Princeton stellarator threatened with closure.
A major US experiment that might open a more commercially attractive route to fusion is facing the prospect of closure after running into heavy cost overruns and scheduling delays.
On 15 September, a panel of independent scientists travelled to Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory in New Jersey to determine whether to shut down the National Compact Stellarator Experiment (NCSX). Raymond Orbach, the Department of Energy's undersecretary for science, called for the review after discovering that the project was nearly US$40 million over budget and two years behind schedule. ?Given the magnitude of the increases projected,? Orbach wrote in a 9 August letter to the panel, ?all options, including termination of the project, must be considered.?
Whereas nuclear fission derives its energy from the splitting of heavy nuclei such as uranium, fusion produces energy from the fusing of lightweight elements, usually hydrogen isotopes. The dream is to produce energy from abundant materials such as sea-water without generating long-lived radioactive waste. Most of the world's current efforts to show that fusion could be a feasible energy option is focused on ITER, a massive reactor now under construction in Cadarache, France, and slated to cost $6 billion in construction and $6 billion in operating costs until 2026. (See box)
Fusion only takes place when hydrogen is heated to hundreds of millions of degrees to form a plasma, and so fusion reactors must contain their hydrogen fuel inside a magnetic field. ITER's design, known as a tokamak, will generate that field by a combination of external superconducting magnets and an internal current through the core (see Nature 436, 318; 2005). This design is relatively simple to build, but the internal current can disrupt the confinement.
The Princeton experiment hopes to get round those problems using an alternative set-up called a stellarator. Unlike tokamaks, stellarators use only external magnets to confine the plasma. The lack of an internal current makes the plasma more stable and, in theory at least, allows stellarators to run for longer than tokamaks. Stellarators cannot yet operate at the temperatures and pressures of tokamaks, but the results of early experiments are impressive: a Japanese stellarator known as the Large Helical Device, in Toki City, has held its plasma for more than an hour. Current tokamaks, by contrast, can hold their plasmas for a few minutes at most.
But the promise of stability comes at a cost, says Thomas Klinger of the Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics in Greifswald, Germany. To hold plasma without an internal current requires much more complex magnetic-field geometry. That must be created with unusually shaped magnetic coils, which are difficult to manufacture. ?A stellarator is much simpler to operate, but much more difficult to build,? he says.
Construction seems to be at the core of the NCSX's woes. The project was originally budgeted at about $92 million with completion in 2009, but a review this July found that costs had ballooned to $130 million and completion date had been pushed back to 2011. ?As we came into the assembly phase, it turned out to be more complicated than we anticipated,? says Stewart Smith, dean of research at Princeton University, which oversees the lab and the experiment. Smith declined to comment further on the reasons for the delay, except to say that the cost underestimation was being taken ?very seriously?.
The review of the NCSX comes at a crucial time for the US fusion programme, according to Stephen Dean, the head of Fusion Power Associates, a non-profit group in Washington, Seattle, that advocates the development of fusion. The fusion-research community has long feared that US participation in ITER would starve other programmes of funds. As all planned fusion budget increases are to go towards the American contribution to ITER, that leaves no contingency for cost overruns in other programmes such as the NCSX, says Dean. ?I think there's a fair possibility that the Department of Energy will cancel the programme,? he says.
?In my opinion, that would be a sin,? says Klinger, who heads Wendelstein 7-X, a ?300-million ($416 million) German stellarator project under construction in Greifswald. Unlike the German reactor, the NCSX was to use a unique hybrid of stellarator and tokamak technology. If it worked, Klinger says, it could lead to tokamaks that could operate continuously, which would be far more commercially attractive than the ITER design. ?It is a very important experiment,? he says.
The fate of the programme will probably be determined after the current review is completed. The committee is expected to deliver its report at the end of October.
About this article
Cite this article
Brumfiel, G. Fusion project faces axe. Nature 449, 265 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1038/449264a | <urn:uuid:4cf7d5ed-ece0-4142-986b-9adaec93fac8> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2022-33",
"url": "https://www.nature.com/articles/449264a?error=cookies_not_supported&code=69659b29-447a-443e-be3c-0aca01025e5b",
"date": "2022-08-12T10:35:15",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882571597.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20220812075544-20220812105544-00036.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.943556010723114,
"token_count": 1037,
"score": 3.640625,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,037 |
When you get an assignment where you need to choose your own topic, begin by considering topics covered in your course and textbooks/readings that fit the assignment. Then do a some background research (covered on next page) on one or more of those topics to get a a bird's eye historical view. This will not only help you narrow your focus, but equip you with the necessary vocabulary (names of people, places and things related to the topic) to search the scholarly literature.
Let's look at a brief example of how this narrowing process might look on paper:
Starting idea: cyberbullying
What things would you need to find out in order to write about this topic? What people (high school, middle school, or college students?), places (U.S., NYS, or a comparison between places?) and related concepts (internet trolls, state and federal laws, school policies, social media platforms, statistics, such as number of people who experience or see it?) are connected to this idea?
Ideas for narrowing the topic (freeform brainstorm - look at aspects of the topic from above that appeal to you - put into the form of questions): Cyberbullying and child development? Cyberbullying and post-traumatic stress? Is there a connection between those who troll on the internet and those who engage in cyberbullying? What policies have been put in place in NYS (or my local school district) to combat cyberbullying? What is the relationship, if any, between economic and or ethnic status and cyberbullying?
Locate more information sources related to the topic (books, journal articles, government reports, etc.). Read or skim them and begin to formulate a more concrete direction for your research to take. Take notes. As your knowledge of the topic grows, ideas for what ultimate question(s) your paper will attempt to answer should start taking shape.
The following video explains how to find a balance between too broad and general, and too narrow. That way you are able to find enough research materials to write intelligently about, but aren't overwhelmed.
Research is a form of problem solving, and the first step in problem solving is always to identify the problem. In other words, what question do you hope to answer with your research?
Once you have your research question, the next step is to reformulate it as a thesis statement. The thesis statement answers your research question in such a way that it leads into the major points that you will make in your paper.
Please note: If you need to request accommodations with content linked to on this guide, on the basis of a disability, please contact Disability Services by emailing them at [email protected]. Requests for accommodations should be submitted as early as possible to allow for sufficient planning. If you have questions, please visit the disability services website http://www.esc.edu/disabilityservices. | <urn:uuid:d3596a79-cc06-4674-a53a-75557493fa0f> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2018-43",
"url": "http://subjectguides.esc.edu/researchskillstutorial/researchquestion",
"date": "2018-10-21T01:24:28",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583513548.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20181021010654-20181021032154-00247.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9511626362800598,
"token_count": 592,
"score": 3.65625,
"int_score": 4
} | 592 |
Eliza Assiya April 16, 2021 Worksheets
Learning about numbers includes recognizing written numbers as well as the quantity those numbers represent. Mathematics worksheets should provide a variety of fun activities that teach your child both numbers and quantity. Look for a variety of different ways to present the same concepts. This aids understanding and prevents boredom. Color-by-Numbers pictures are a fun way to learn about numbers and colors too. The next step is learning to write numbers, and this is where mathematics worksheets become almost a necessity. Unless you have great handwriting, lots of spare time and a fair amount of patience, writing worksheets will help you teach this valuable skill to your child. Dot-to-dot, tracing, following the lines and other writing exercises will help your child learn how to write numbers. A good set of worksheets will include practice sheets with various methods to help your child learn to write numbers.
The Worksheet Deactivate event is similar to the Worksheet Deactivate event; it also works on many different versions of Excel. This event is designed to run a script of code when a user selects any other worksheet. This event has no required or optional parameters. If the first worksheet is selected and someone selects another worksheet, than the first worksheet will run its Deactivate event. This can be used to hide unused worksheets after they are done be used. The Worksheet Before Double Click event will run a script of code when a user double clicks on that specific worksheet. This event will work on all versions of Excel. This can be useful if you want to run a macro for a certain cell every time you double click on that cell. You can also use this event to load a macro any time you double click anywhere in the worksheet.
It is important to learn letter first. The children must need to know how to write letters in printable form. After that, they can be taught how to write cursive. Writing cursives is not as easy as writing letters in printable form. Remember that kids put more attention on animation. They are more interested on having fun so it is best for a teacher to teach them write letters in a fun way. Teachers may have noticed that when children are just being told on what to do, they may not do it right out of lack of interest. Remember that with the so many worksheets available, choose one that is best suited for a certain lesson. Plan ahead what type of worksheet to use for a given day, depending on what you plan to teach. There are many free worksheets available, especially online, but still the best worksheet is one that you personally draft. This way, you are able to match the level of difficulty of the activity in accordance to the performance level of your own students.
Worksheets have been used in our day to day lives. More and more people use these to help in teaching and learning a certain task. There are many kinds or worksheets often used in schools nowadays. The common worksheets used in schools are for writing letters and numbers, and connect the dots activities. These are used to teach the students under kindergarten. The letter writing involves alphabets and words. These worksheets illustrate the different strokes that must be used to create a certain letter or number. Aside from this, such worksheets can also illustrate how to draw shapes, and distinguish them from one another. Teachers use printable writing paper sheets. They let their students trace the numbers, letters, words or dots as this is the perfect way for a child to practice the controlled movements of his fingers and wrist. With continued practice or tracing, he will soon be able to write more legibly and clearly.
Teachers and parents basically are the primary users of worksheets. It is an effective tool in helping children learn how to write. There are many types of writing worksheets. There is the cursive writing worksheets and the kindergarten worksheets. The latter is more on letter writing and number writing. This is typically given to kids of aged four to seven to first teach them how to write. Through these worksheets, they learn muscle control in their fingers and wrist by repeatedly following the strokes of writing each letter. These writing worksheets have traceable patterns of the different strokes of writing letters. By tracing these patterns, kids slowly learn how a letter is structured.
Microsoft Excel Worksheets have built-in events that can run visual basic code based on certain action taken by the user within that specific worksheet. These worksheet events allow the users of Microsoft Excel to run code after activating a worksheet or before deactivating a worksheet. These events also allow users the ability to run a code every time a user changes data within a cell or selects a new range of cells. Newer versions of Excel have even created events that allow code to be run when tables and pivot tables are updated or refreshed. The Worksheet Activate event is a Microsoft Excel event that works on many different versions of Excel. It designed to run a script of code every time the specific worksheet is activated. This event has no required or optional parameters. This event can be used to show a hidden a worksheet upon its activation or it can pop up a login or data form.
Tag Cloudidentifying simple compound complex and compound complex sentences worksheet math worksheet for kindergarten money solve equations with variables on both sides worksheet operations with rational expressions worksheet letter l sight words worksheet for kindergarten combining like terms worksheet pdf cheetah worksheet for kindergarten z score worksheet social studies worksheet greetings in spanish worksheet different body movement worksheet for kindergarten adverbs worksheet homophones worksheet powers of 10 worksheet simplifying square roots worksheet algebra worksheet dotted line alphabet worksheets label the heart worksheet count and match worksheet for kindergarten adding and subtracting negative numbers worksheet | <urn:uuid:73f51150-b6b8-4ce0-8552-4ed6ae303aeb> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2021-25",
"url": "https://spartagenxt.org/Zp6763Jy/",
"date": "2021-06-14T21:52:26",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-25/segments/1623487613453.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20210614201339-20210614231339-00532.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9339669346809387,
"token_count": 1211,
"score": 3.78125,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,211 |
This engaging, interactive activity simulates the ever important Paris Agreement. This is a perfect multi-day activity for a science classroom focusing on climate change and global policies.
First, students are asked to read The Paris Agreement text while answering a set of questions to gain a deeper understanding of its goals and layout. Next, students are assigned roles as representatives from various countries. They are to research climate change effects of their country while acting as that representative. The final steps involve a full climate change conference in which student come to a full agreement on various goals and logistics. As an assessment, students are to formally write The Climate Change Agreement based on the verbal agreements from the simulated conference.
Included are The Paris Agreement reading questions, student role sheet, guiding research questions, and brief requirements for the formal written assignment.
NOTE: You will need to download a copy of The Paris Agreement for student copies. It is free to download online.
This proved to be one of my most inspiring and engaging activities with my student all year. I hope that you have the same experience. Enjoy! | <urn:uuid:30a11571-c45b-42d3-8f4e-ba7531493e06> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2018-30",
"url": "https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Product/The-Climate-Change-Agreement-Paris-Agreement-Simulation-3336681",
"date": "2018-07-22T11:06:59",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-30/segments/1531676593208.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20180722100513-20180722120513-00204.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9588078856468201,
"token_count": 218,
"score": 3.78125,
"int_score": 4
} | 218 |
- 1. Was it a man face or a man playing flute?
This optical illusion is of ambiguous image, Ambiguous images exploit our middle vision, the step in the process of seeing an object where we are able to classify it as something particular. Since artist include different objects using the same elements we can swing back and forth in our middle vision all day long when viewing the painting.
- 2. Image is moving or still?
This static image appears to move as the result of illusory motion.
- Through the use of curvature, color and shape, images that are static give the appearance of motion, perhaps as the result of a cognitive interruption in the brain triggered by edges found between black and white (note the subtle use of black and white converging throughout this image) or perhaps the way our brains perceive the transition from light to dark as motion. Even more impressive, optical images like this one can move is different directions depending on the viewer at any given time.
- 3. What you see angry face on left and calm face on right? Move away from your screen and see again.
Both of the faces you see above are hybrids – each face is actually a combination of two faces. The left hand face shows an angry man in fine detail, but within the picture there is also coarse detail of the calm face. Move away, and you lose the fine (angry) detail, and just see the coarse (calm) detail.When we look at an object, we can normally see both fine detail and coarse detail. However when we are close, the fine detail will dominate, and when we are further away, we lose the fine detail, and see more of the coarse detail.
- 4. Does Lincoln’s face look normal when upside down?
Its quite normal when face is upside down but when you look at it upright the eyes look distorted.
It is because some neurons in the brain arespecialized in processing faces. Faces are usually seen upright. When presented upside down, the brain no longer recognizes a picture of a face as a face but rather as an object. Neurons processing objects are different from those processing faces and not as specialized. As a consequence these neurons do not respond to face distortions as well. This explains why we miss the weird eyes when the face is inverted.
- 5. Stare at the woman’s nose for about 10 seconds. Then look at a lighter surface, like a wall, and blink rapidly. Her face should now have color!
What you are experiencing is known as a negative afterimage. This happens when the photoreceptors, primarily the cone cells, in your eyes become overstimulated and fatigued causing them to lose sensitivity. In normal everyday life, you don’t notice this because tiny movements of your eyes keep the cone cells located at the back of your eyes from becoming overstimulated.
If, however, you look at a large image, the tiny movements in your eyes aren’t enough to reduce overstimulation. As a result, you experience what is known as a negative afterimage. As you shift your eyes to the white side of the image, the overstimulated cells continue to send out only a weak signal, so the affected colors remain muted. However, the surrounding photoreceptors are still fresh and so they send out strong signals that are the same as if we were looking at the opposite colors. The brain then interprets these signals as the opposite colors, essentially creating a full-color image from a negative photo.
By – Nursing Tutor – Mrs. Deepika
Department of Nursing
College Of Nursing UCBMSH
Uttaranchal (P.G.) College Of Bio-Medical Sciences & Hospital | <urn:uuid:991f58bd-c641-4885-92ba-2d316283f1f2> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2019-35",
"url": "https://www.collegeofnursingucbmsh.org/nursing/fantastic-optical-illusions-dont-believe-see",
"date": "2019-08-18T21:29:20",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-35/segments/1566027314130.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20190818205919-20190818231919-00525.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9424019455909729,
"token_count": 771,
"score": 3.59375,
"int_score": 4
} | 771 |
This news release is available in German.
In addition to neutrons, the fission reaction of nuclear fuels like plutonium or uranium releases antineutrinos. These are also electrically neutral, but can pass matter very easily, which is why they can be discerned only in huge detectors. Recently, however, detectors on the scale of only one cubic meter have been developed. They can measure antineutrinos from a reactor core, which has generated great interest at the IAEA.
Prototypes of these detectors already exist and collect data at distances of around 10 meters from a reactor core. Changes in the composition of nuclear fuels in the reactor – for example, when weapons-grade U-239 is removed – can be determined by analyzing the energy and rate of antineutrinos. This would free the IAEA from having to rely on representations of reactor operators.
Antineutrino spectrum of uranium 238 revealed
In the 1980s the antineutrino spectra of three main fuel isotopes, uranium 235, plutonium 239 and plutonium 241, were determined. However, the antineutrino spectrum of the fourth main nuclear fuel, uranium 238, which accounts for approximately 10 percent of the total antineutrino flux, remained unclear. It had only been estimated using inaccurate theoretical calculations and thus limited the accuracy of the antineutrino predictions.
Dr. Nils Haag from the Chair of Experimental Astroparticle Physics at TU München recently developed an experimental setup at the FRM II that allowed him to determine the missing spectrum of uranium 238. "I needed a high flux of fast neutrons to induce the fission of the U-238," says the physicist. This is why he located his experimental setup at the NECTAR radiography and tomography station of the FRM II – a source of fast neutrons.
Second detector allows background-free measurement
The neutrons induce nuclear fission in a film of U-238. The radioactive decay products then emit electrons and antineutrinos. The electrons were investigated using a scintillator – a block of plastics that converts the kinetic energy of the electrons into light. A photomultiplier then translates this into electrical signals.
The nuclear decay also generates gamma radiation that produces unwanted events in the scintillator. Therefore, Haag placed a second detector right in front of the scintillator: a so-called multi-wire proportional chamber. Since only charged particles like electrons trigger a signal in the gas detector, the researcher was able to determine and subtract the proportion of gamma radiation. Haag then inferred the antineutrino spectrum using this background-free measurement data.
Method allows better monitoring of reactor cores
The measurement of the antineutrino spectrum can be used to monitor the status, performance and even composition of reactor cores. "Our results open the door to predict with significantly higher accuracy the expected antineutrino spectrum emitted by a reactor running on a fuel composition reported by the operator," explains Dr. Nils Haag. "Deviations of antineutrino detector measurement data from expected reactor signals can thus be exposed."
The development of this methodology is embedded in basic research on the phenomenon of so-called "sterile" antineutrinos. Comparing previously made measurements and predictions of reactor antineutrino spectra gave rise to the assumption that some of the antineutrinos turned "sterile" after being produced. They were then no longer able to react with other matter. A better understanding of this effect would expand our knowledge of elementary physical processes.
This research was funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG) and the DFG Excellence Cluster "Origin and Structure of the Universe" at TUM.
Experimental Determination of the Antineutrino Spectrum of the Fission Products of U238, N. Haag, A. Gütlein, M. Hofmann, L. Oberauer, W. Potzel, K. Schreckenbach, and F. M. Wagner, Phys. Rev. Lett. 112, 122501 (2014), DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.112.122501, journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.112.122501
Download link for high resolution pictures: https://mediatum.ub.tum.de/?#1207662
Dr. Nils Haag Technische Universität München Chair for Experimental Physics and Astroparticle Physics Tel.: +49 89 289 12524E-mail: [email protected]
AAAS and EurekAlert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to EurekAlert! by contributing institutions or for the use of any information through the EurekAlert! system. | <urn:uuid:bbb6db06-bf34-424e-aaed-8602fd6baa28> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2014-42",
"url": "http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-04/tum-uat042414.php",
"date": "2014-10-22T13:58:36",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-42/segments/1413507447020.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20141017005727-00218-ip-10-16-133-185.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8900068402290344,
"token_count": 1013,
"score": 3.90625,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,013 |
Attachment theory was developed in the 1950’s by John Bowlby (1907-1990), an English psychologist and psychoanalyst, who had an interest in child development that came out of his own experiences as a child of his time. Although the theory is well established in psychology, it’s only recently that we have begun to understand the far-reaching effects of adverse childhood events on adult functioning.
Attachment is the fundamental bond that develops between infants and caregivers. It is necessary for wellbeing throughout life. Some of the consequences of children not having the environment that would result in a secure attachment are:
· Low self-esteem and lack of confidence
· Lack of self-control
· Relationship difficulties
· Aggression and violence
· Lack of empathy, compassion and remorse
So, attachment is a profound and continuing bond that is created between the child and caregiver together, in a reciprocal relationship, in the first few years of life. The quality of the bond influences every area of experience as humans: mind, body, emotions, relationships and morals.
The purpose of attaching to a protective and loving caregiver is to provide security, safety and support. It is a basic mammalian need, which has an adaptive, evolutionary function. If mammals didn’t attach to their caregivers, they wouldn’t survive – simple as that. So, attachment is instinctive. It happens naturally – babies instinctively seek the safety of a ‘secure base’, and parents instinctively protect and nurture their offspring. Attachment meets physiological, emotional, cognitive and social needs. This instinct to attach produces certain behaviours in both the baby and caregiver which are triggered by cues in each member of the dyad. Attachment therefore is not something that the caregiver does to the child. It is a ‘mutual regulatory system’, in which each affects the other over a period of time.
The primary developmental task of the first year of life is to create a secure attachment between the infant and the caregiver. In order for this emotional, communicative bond to develop, the caregiver has to be biologically and psychologically attuned to the needs, and to the emotional and mental state of the child. What has also been found is that although attunement is important, it’s not necessary to have this 100% of the time. Mis-attunement between the caregiver and child only result in difficulties when the mis-attunement fails to be repaired. Mis-attunement, followed by repair, can be advantageous to the child in the development of resilience.
Secure attachment, as well as providing safety and protection to the vulnerable infant, also provides the child with various abilities that are vital throughout life.
· To learn trust and reciprocity as a basis for future relationships.
· To feel safe and secure enough to explore the world, to enable social and cognitive development.
· To be able to self-soothe and self-regulate, which helps manage impulsiveness and emotions.
· To build a sense of self and identity that is confident, competent, has self-worth, and is able to be interdependent.
· To have empathy, compassion and a conscience which allows for healthy social interaction.
· To develop a core belief system that encompasses the ability to reflect on self, others, and life in general and to appraise the effect of self on others, and vice-versa.
· To develop resilience and resourcefulness which helps defend against stress and trauma.
So, the development of a secure attachment in childhood, in effect, ‘immunises’ us to the stresses of life, and provides us with resources that give us resilience to cope with the difficulties that life throws at us.
About the Author: Maggi
Maggi lives in a rural location in Lanarkshire with her German Shepherd, Solas. She enjoys nature, reading, dog training and sometimes having a duvet day cuddled up on the couch with Solas, enjoying chocolate (not for Solas though!) | <urn:uuid:33ba3c1a-06a0-42cf-9770-91f805326f52> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2020-40",
"url": "https://www.synchronicitytherapylanarkshire.co.uk/single-post/2017/07/30/Attachment---A-Forever-Bond",
"date": "2020-09-19T21:42:01",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-40/segments/1600400192887.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200919204805-20200919234805-00019.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9552255868911743,
"token_count": 830,
"score": 3.53125,
"int_score": 4
} | 830 |
|Online Judge||Problem Set||Authors||Online Contests||User|
A domino is a flat, thumbsized tile, the face of which is divided into two squares, each left blank or bearing from one to six dots. There is a row of dominoes laid out on a table:
The number of dots in the top line is 6+1+1+1=9 and the number of dots in the bottom line is 1+5+3+2=11. The gap between the top line and the bottom line is 2. The gap is the absolute value of difference between two sums.
Each domino can be turned by 180 degrees keeping its face always upwards.
What is the smallest number of turns needed to minimise the gap between the top line and the bottom line?
For the figure above it is sufficient to turn the last domino in the row in order to decrease the gap to 0. In this case the answer is 1.
Write a program that: computes the smallest number of turns needed to minimise the gap between the top line and the bottom line.
The first line of the input contains an integer n, 1 <= n <= 1000. This is the number of dominoes laid out on the table.
Each of the next n lines contains two integers a, b separated by a single space, 0 <= a, b <= 6. The integers a and b written in the line i + 1 of the input file, 1 <= i <= 1000, are the numbers of dots on the i-th domino in the row, respectively, in the top line and in the bottom one.
Output the smallest number of turns needed to minimise the gap between the top line and the bottom line.
4 6 1 1 5 1 3 1 2
[Submit] [Go Back] [Status] [Discuss]
Home Page Go Back To top
All Rights Reserved 2003-2013 Ying Fuchen,Xu Pengcheng,Xie Di
Any problem, Please Contact Administrator | <urn:uuid:538ec5ae-4d3b-43a8-913b-213081048385> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2017-26",
"url": "http://poj.org/problem?id=1717",
"date": "2017-06-28T22:35:25",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-26/segments/1498128323807.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20170628222452-20170629002452-00159.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.843994140625,
"token_count": 419,
"score": 4.03125,
"int_score": 4
} | 419 |
- Education and Science»
Plus and Minus Numbers
In Mathematics plus and minus numbers are called directed numbers. One of the biggest stumbling blocks for children in High School Mathematics is dealing with plus and minus numbers. They keep mixing up the rules for addition and multiplication of directed numbers.
I came up with a way to solve this problem when I was a boy and it is how I have taught my own children.
Adding Plus and Minus Numbers
In dealing with the addition of plus and minus numbers simply see numbers as belonging to either the plus army or the minus army. When two minus or two plus numbers meet they add to make their army bigger. When a plus meets a minus they kill each other.
1) -2 -3 = -5
2) -8 +2 = -6
Multiplying and Dividing plus and Minus Numbers
In dealing with the multiplication and division of plus and minus numbers the student must remember the following two rules:
1. When the signs are different the result is minus.
2. When the signs are the same the result is plus.
1) -3 x 2 = -6 ( Note that if there is no sign in front of a number it is a plus number)
2) -5 x -4 = 20
3) -12 / 3 = -4
4) -35/ -7 = 5
I have also written an article which is published in HubPages titled Life and Death Mathematics which goes into the addition of directed numbers in more detail. Following is a link to that - Life and Death Mathematics
Interactive Maths Tutor Program
I also developed an interactive computer program to teach my own children all the fundamentals of arithmetic, when they were in primary school, which include dealing with directed numbers and learning tables.
My main incentive for developing this program was for them to master the basics in a methodical and consistent way and regardless of who was teaching them in school. I could see how methodology in schools changed from one year to the next which has resulted in many children nowadays leaving school without knowing their tables or being able to do the most rudimentary calculations without a calculator. The program is also patient and non-critical so the child does not pick up all of the negative vibes that parents can give off unwittingly while doing their best for their children.
All of my children mastered the basics of arithmetic in this way and have excelled at the subject. The program is available commercially and can be purchased by contacting me. | <urn:uuid:fd49b237-4ef9-4103-b6f6-a02338a996b9> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2017-51",
"url": "https://hubpages.com/education/Positive-and-Negative-Numbers",
"date": "2017-12-12T20:07:19",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-51/segments/1512948517917.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20171212192750-20171212212750-00664.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9629760384559631,
"token_count": 512,
"score": 3.65625,
"int_score": 4
} | 512 |
Although bacteria have no sensory organs in the classical sense, they are still masters in perceiving their environment. A research group at the University of Basel’s Biozentrum has now discovered that bacteria not only respond to chemical signals, but also possess a sense of touch. In their recent publication in “Science”, the researchers demonstrate how bacteria recognize surfaces and respond to this mechanical stimulus within seconds. This mechanism is also used by pathogens to colonize and attack their host cells.
Be it through mucosa or the intestinal lining, different tissues and surfaces of our body are entry gates for bacterial pathogens. The first few seconds – the moment of touch – are often critical for successful infections.
Some pathogens use mechanical stimulation as a trigger to induce their virulence and to acquire the ability to damage host tissue. The research group led by Prof. Urs Jenal, at the Biozentrum of the University of Basel, has recently discovered how bacteria sense that they are on a surface and what exactly happens in these crucial first few seconds.
Research focused only on chemical signals
In recent decades, research has made enormous progress in exploring how bacteria perceive and process chemical signals. “However, we have little knowledge of how bacteria read out mechanical stimuli and how they change their behavior in response to these cues,” says Jenal.
“Using the non-pathogenic Caulobacter as a model, our group was able to show for the first time that bacteria have a ‘sense of touch’. This mechanism helps them to recognize surfaces and to induce the production of the cell's own instant adhesive.”
How bacteria recognize surfaces and adhere to them
Swimming Caulobacter bacteria have a rotating motor in their cell envelope with a long protrusion, the flagellum. The rotation of the flagellum enables the bacteria to move in liquids. Much to the surprise of the researchers, the rotor is also used as a mechano-sensing organ. Motor rotation is powered by proton flow into the cell via ion channels. When swimming cells touch surfaces, the motor is disturbed and the proton flux interrupted.
The researchers assume that this is the signal that sparks off the response: The bacterial cell now boosts the synthesis of a second messenger, which in turn stimulates the production of an adhesin that firmly anchors the bacteria on the surface within a few seconds. “This is an impressive example of how rapidly and specifically bacteria can change their behavior when they encounter surfaces,” says Jenal.
Better understanding of infectious diseases
“Even though Caulobacter is a harmless environmental bacterium, our findings are highly relevant for the understanding of infectious diseases. What we discovered in Caulobacter also applies to important human pathogens,” says Jenal. In order to better control and treat infections, it is mandatory to better understand processes that occur during these very first few seconds after surface contact.
Isabelle Hug, Siddharth Deshpande, Kathrin S. Sprecher, Thomas Pfohl, Urs Jenal
Second messenger-mediated tactile response by a bacterial rotary motor
Science (2017). doi: 10.1126/science.aan5353
Prof. Dr. Urs Jenal, University of Basel, Biozentrum, Tel. +41 61 207 21 35, email: [email protected]
Dr. Katrin Bühler, University of Basel, Biozentrum, Communications, Tel. +41 61 207 09 74, email: [email protected]
Dr. Katrin Bühler | Universität Basel
Scientists uncover the role of a protein in production & survival of myelin-forming cells
19.07.2018 | Advanced Science Research Center, GC/CUNY
NYSCF researchers develop novel bioengineering technique for personalized bone grafts
18.07.2018 | New York Stem Cell Foundation
A new manufacturing technique uses a process similar to newspaper printing to form smoother and more flexible metals for making ultrafast electronic devices.
The low-cost process, developed by Purdue University researchers, combines tools already used in industry for manufacturing metals on a large scale, but uses...
For the first time ever, scientists have determined the cosmic origin of highest-energy neutrinos. A research group led by IceCube scientist Elisa Resconi, spokesperson of the Collaborative Research Center SFB1258 at the Technical University of Munich (TUM), provides an important piece of evidence that the particles detected by the IceCube neutrino telescope at the South Pole originate from a galaxy four billion light-years away from Earth.
To rule out other origins with certainty, the team led by neutrino physicist Elisa Resconi from the Technical University of Munich and multi-wavelength...
For the first time a team of researchers have discovered two different phases of magnetic skyrmions in a single material. Physicists of the Technical Universities of Munich and Dresden and the University of Cologne can now better study and understand the properties of these magnetic structures, which are important for both basic research and applications.
Whirlpools are an everyday experience in a bath tub: When the water is drained a circular vortex is formed. Typically, such whirls are rather stable. Similar...
Physicists working with Roland Wester at the University of Innsbruck have investigated if and how chemical reactions can be influenced by targeted vibrational excitation of the reactants. They were able to demonstrate that excitation with a laser beam does not affect the efficiency of a chemical exchange reaction and that the excited molecular group acts only as a spectator in the reaction.
A frequently used reaction in organic chemistry is nucleophilic substitution. It plays, for example, an important role in in the synthesis of new chemical...
Optical spectroscopy allows investigating the energy structure and dynamic properties of complex quantum systems. Researchers from the University of Würzburg present two new approaches of coherent two-dimensional spectroscopy.
"Put an excitation into the system and observe how it evolves." According to physicist Professor Tobias Brixner, this is the credo of optical spectroscopy....
13.07.2018 | Event News
12.07.2018 | Event News
03.07.2018 | Event News
20.07.2018 | Power and Electrical Engineering
20.07.2018 | Information Technology
20.07.2018 | Materials Sciences | <urn:uuid:dca4ca9b-1a81-4fb4-a9b4-8368b5afb101> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2018-30",
"url": "https://www.innovations-report.com/html/reports/life-sciences/bacteria-have-a-sense-of-touch.html",
"date": "2018-07-21T14:07:41",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-30/segments/1531676592579.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20180721125703-20180721145703-00279.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9071477651596069,
"token_count": 1332,
"score": 3.765625,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,332 |
The Arab–Byzantine wars were a series of wars between the mostly Arab Muslims and the Byzantine Empire between the 7th and 11th centuries AD, started during the initial Muslim conquests under the expansionist Rashidun and Umayyad caliphs in the 7th century and continued by their successors until the mid-11th century.
The emergence of Muslim Arabs from Arabia in the 630s resulted in the rapid loss of Byzantium's southern provinces (Syria and Egypt) to the Arab Caliphate. Over the next fifty years, under the Umayyad caliphs, the Arabs would launch repeated raids into still-Byzantine Asia Minor, twice besiege the Byzantine capital of Constantinople, and conquer the Byzantine Exarchate of Africa. The situation did not stabilize until after the failure of the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople in 718, when the Taurus Mountains on the eastern rim of Asia Minor became established as the mutual, heavily fortified and largely depopulated frontier. Under the Abbasid Empire, relations became more normal, with embassies exchanged and even periods of truce, but conflict remained the norm, with almost annual raids and counter-raids, sponsored either by the Abbasid government or by local rulers, well into the 10th century.
During the first centuries, the Byzantines were usually on the defensive, and avoided open field battles, preferring to retreat to their fortified strongholds. Only after 740 did they begin to launch their raids in an attempt to combat the Arabs and take the lands they had lost, but still the Abbasid Empire was able to retaliate with often massive and destructive invasions of Asia Minor. With the decline and fragmentation of the Abbasid state after 861 and the concurrent strengthening of the Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty, the tide gradually turned. Over a period of fifty years from ca. 920 to 976, the Byzantines finally broke through the Muslim defences and restored their control over northern Syria and Greater Armenia. The last century of the Arab–Byzantine wars was dominated by frontier conflicts with the Fatimids in Syria, but the border remained stable until the appearance of a new people, the Seljuk Turks, after 1060.
The Arabs also took to the sea, and from the 650s on, the entire Mediterranean Sea became a battleground, with raids and counter-raids being launched against islands and the coastal settlements. Arab raids reached a peak in the 9th and early 10th centuries, after the conquests of Crete, Malta and Sicily, with their fleets reaching the coasts of France and Dalmatia and even the suburbs of Constantinople.
The prolonged and escalating Byzantine–Sassanid wars of the 6th and 7th centuries and the recurring outbreaks of bubonic plague (Plague of Justinian) left both empires exhausted and vulnerable in the face of the sudden emergence and expansion of the Arabs. The last of the wars between the Roman and Persian empires ended with victory for the Byzantines: Emperor Heraclius regained all lost territories, and restored the True Cross to Jerusalem in 629.
Nevertheless, neither empire was given any chance to recover, as within a few years they found themselves in conflict with the Arabs (newly united by Islam), which, according to Howard-Johnston, "can only be likened to a human tsunami". According to George Liska, the "unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine–Persian conflict opened the way for Islam".
In late 620s, the Islamic Prophet Muhammad had already managed to unify much of Arabia under Muslim rule via conquest as well as making alliances with neighboring tribes, and it was under his leadership that the first Muslim-Byzantine skirmishes took place. Just a few months after Emperor Heraclius and the Persian general Shahrbaraz agreed on terms for the withdrawal of Persian troops from occupied Byzantine eastern provinces in 629, Arab and Byzantine troops confronted each other at the Mu'tah in response to the murder of Muhammad's ambassador at the hands of the Ghassanids, a Byzantine vassal kingdom. Muhammad died in 632 and was succeeded by Abu Bakr, the first Caliph with undisputed control of the entire Arabian Peninsula after the successful Ridda Wars, which resulted in the consolidation of a powerful Muslim state throughout the peninsula. | <urn:uuid:caf33624-25aa-4c4e-baf5-62eeb7313980> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2019-39",
"url": "https://www.lua.ovh/mundo/en/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars",
"date": "2019-09-22T18:51:11",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-39/segments/1568514575627.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20190922180536-20190922202536-00067.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9677441120147705,
"token_count": 877,
"score": 3.78125,
"int_score": 4
} | 877 |
What exactly makes a decision ethical? The problem with ethics is that what may seem morally right (or ethical) to one person may seem appalling to another.
This Course will not provide you with an easy way to solve every ethical decision you will ever have to make. It will, however, help you define your ethical framework to make solving those ethical dilemmas easier. We’ll also look at some tools that you can use when you’re faced with an ethical decision. And, we’ll look at some techniques you can use so you don’t get stuck in an ethical quandary. Best of all, we’ll look at a lot of case studies so that you can practice making decisions in a safe environment.
What are Ethics?
Taking Your Moral Temperature, Part One
Why Bother with Ethics?
Kohlberg’s Six Stages
Some Objective Ways of Looking at the World
What Does Ethical Mean?
Avoiding Ethical Dilemmas
Pitfalls and Excuses
Developing an Office Code of Ethics
22 Keys to an Ethical Office
Basic Decision Making Tools
Ethical Decision Making Tools
Dilemmas with Company Policy
Dilemmas with Co-Workers
Dilemmas with Clients
Dilemmas and Supervisors
What to Do When You Make a Mistake
Taking Your Moral Temperature, Part Two | <urn:uuid:484f1b3d-f039-4f41-af6d-a5d7ba71bcef> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2017-51",
"url": "http://skillstrain.co.za/product/crs_bsnss_strtgy__ntrprnrshp_bsnss_thcs_fr_th_ffc",
"date": "2017-12-17T15:48:30",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-51/segments/1512948596115.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20171217152217-20171217174217-00727.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.873926043510437,
"token_count": 295,
"score": 3.796875,
"int_score": 4
} | 295 |
Carbon capture, use and storage technology is about to scale up, with projects already in operation around the world. By the latter part of this decade, we can expect millions of tonnes of carbon emissions to be captured by power generators and industry.
Read on for our introduction to carbon capture and storage.
What is carbon capture, use and storage?
Carbon capture, use and storage (CCUS) is a way to reduce the carbon emitted by certain activities, such as power generation or intensive industrial process like steel production. Around 90% of carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted by these processes can be captured.
Carbon capture happens in nature, as well as in artificial processes. Forests are a good example of carbon capture. Through photosynthesis trees absorb CO2 and use it to grow, storing carbon in wood.
How does carbon capture work?
There are two main ways of capturing carbon in industry.
Pre-combustion carbon capture occurs before a fuel is used and involves converting it into hydrogen and carbon dioxide. Emissions-free hydrogen can then be used to replace natural gas in power generation, heating and other industrial processes.
Post-combustion occurs at the point of use. When fuels are used to generate electricity, burning the fuel releases carbon dioxide and other gases. These emissions – called flue gases – can be captured using solvents and the carbon dioxide removed before it enters the atmosphere and contributes towards climate change.
Once the carbon is captured, it can either be used, displacing fossil fuels or transported and stored.
CO2 can be stored in disused salt mines, depleted oil and gas wells or natural saline aquifers.
Why is CCUS important in the fight against the climate crisis?
While renewable energy sources have proliferated over the last decade and the carbon intensity of electricity generation has fallen, the UK still faces challenges on the journey to a zero-carbon economy.
As electrification decarbonises transport, heating and other sectors of the economy, increased power demand will require flexible sources of power. CCUS and specifically bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) can generate power whatever the weather and at the same time provide negative emissions.
BECCS and other negative emissions technologies can also help to capture emissions from what are known as the ‘harder to abate’ sectors, such as industrial processes, aviation and agriculture. Capturing and storing these emissions will be an important part of mitigating climate change.
Europe’s first negative emissions project
Our parent company, Drax, is currently trialling BECCS in pioneering pilot schemes at its Yorkshire power station. By combining sustainable, low-carbon biomass electricity generation with carbon capture, Drax has an ambition to go beyond carbon neutrality and become carbon negative.
This European-first project is at the heart of the Zero Carbon Humber partnership. The Humber region is the most carbon-intensive industrial cluster in the UK. Decarbonising it while protecting jobs and growth is both a significant challenge and an opportunity. It could serve as a model to other industrial clusters around the world.
Carbon capture is being used successfully in Norway, the US, Canada and Australia; you can read case studies here.
The UK government’s scientific advisors are clear that without CCUS and specifically negative emissions technology such as BECCS, achieving net zero by 2050 not only becomes extremely hard but also, hugely expensive. That’s why coordination between government, businesses and investors is essential to make sure we can lead the world in carbon capture.
This is a promoted article. | <urn:uuid:1d722e69-362f-4ab0-a53d-c86690b073ee> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2020-34",
"url": "https://www.energylivenews.com/2020/04/29/carbon-capture-use-storage-everything-you-need-to-know/",
"date": "2020-08-11T09:47:57",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-34/segments/1596439738746.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200811090050-20200811120050-00382.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9192610383033752,
"token_count": 737,
"score": 3.90625,
"int_score": 4
} | 737 |
Study examines whether first Americans were descendants of original modern humans
O'Rourke is a co-author of the article "Beringia and the Global Dispersal of Modern Humans," published in the April issue of the journal Evolutionary Anthropology. The authors examined recent developments in anthropological genetics, archaeology and paleoecology and how these findings inform us about the original migration to the Americas, as well as the human occupation of the former land bridge between Alaska and Siberia, known as "Beringia."
Until recently, settlement of the Americas seemed to be largely separate from the out-of-Africa dispersal of modern humans that began at least 50,000 years ago. The earliest Americans were thought to descend from a small subset of Eurasians that migrated to the Western Hemisphere less than 15,000 years ago, O'Rourke said.
However, archaeological discoveries since 2000 have shown that Homo sapiens occupied Beringia prior to 30,000 years ago and during what is known as the Last Glacial Maximum, or LGM, he said, which is the last period in Earth's climate history when ice sheets were at their greatest extension.
"Linking the process of peopling near the time of the LGM brings the idea of 'refugia,' which we see for populations elsewhere at this time, into sharper focus as a possible mechanism for source populations in the Americas and the role that may play in structuring the genetic variation we see early in the record," O'Rourke said.
A 2007 model, known as the "Beringian Standstill Hypothesis," is based on analysis of mitochondrial DNA in samples taken from living Native American and Siberian people. The model suggests the isolated occupants of Beringia migrated at the end of the LGM to avoid inundation of the region as sea levels started to rise.
O'Rourke said the article points out many questions remain unanswered about the complicated movement of people and their genes into and out of Beringia. He said it would be key for researchers in the future to seek to obtain high-quality ancient DNA data from northeast Siberia from 15,000 to 30,000 years ago.
"Augmenting the paleoecological record across the Bering Sea basin, and expanding the archaeological record around the western and southwestern coasts of Alaska, would be quite useful," he said.
O'Rourke; Jennifer Raff, KU assistant professor of anthropology, and, postdoctoral researcher Justin Tackney were part of one such recent study. They co-authored a 2015 PNAS study that examined DNA of an infant and preterm fetus buried together in Central Alaska roughly 11,500 years ago. The analysis provided a clearer picture of the genetic diversity likely present in early Beringian populations.
In addition to DNA samples and new archaeological data, simulations and modeling of alternative demographic scenarios for how early migrants entered the Western hemisphere would also be helpful in testing alternative hypotheses to the standstill model, O'Rourke said.
As a KU alumnus, O'Rourke returned to the university in January from the University of Utah. He is considered one of the foremost experts in the United States for the use of ancient DNA to reconstruct human settlement to the Americas.
He is overseeing creation of a new state-of-the-art ancient DNA facility that will permit KU researchers to continue examining questions about ancient migrations in a variety of ways.
"Not only will we be able to analyze ancient human DNA as samples become available for study, but we are already using proxy organisms—from human prey species to human pathogens—to gain broader insights into the nature of human movement, behavior and adaptations in these early populations," O'Rourke said.
He said the KU research team believes the design of the new lab will afford the opportunity for higher throughput and allow more rapid progress in investigating patterns of genetic variation of the past.
Source: University of Kansas [April 18, 2016] | <urn:uuid:ea83b3db-cebe-416b-90e4-4c123a66835c> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2016-44",
"url": "https://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.com/2016/04/study-examines-whether-first-americans.html",
"date": "2016-10-27T00:59:56",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-44/segments/1476988721027.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20161020183841-00019-ip-10-171-6-4.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9561095833778381,
"token_count": 813,
"score": 3.59375,
"int_score": 4
} | 813 |
In mathematics, an irrational number is any real number that cannot be expressed as a ratio of integers i.e. a fraction. Irrational numbers cannot be written exactly as decimal numbers. For example, the number π starts with 3.14159265359 but an infinite number of digits would be required to represent it exactly. Irrational numbers are also not repeating decimals.
When the ratio of lengths of two line segments is irrational, the line segments are also described as being incommensurable, meaning they share no measure in common.
Numbers which are irrational include the ratio π of a circle's circumference to its diameter, Euler's number e, the golden ratio φ, and the square root of two; in fact all square roots of natural numbers, other than of perfect squares, are irrational.
The first proof of the existence of irrational numbers is usually attributed to a Pythagorean (possibly Hippasus of Metapontum), who probably discovered them while identifying sides of the pentagram.
The then-current Pythagorean method would have claimed that there must be some sufficiently small, indivisible unit that could fit evenly into one of these lengths as well as the other. However, Hippasus, in the 5th century BC, was able to deduce that there was in fact no common unit of measure, and that the assertion of such an existence was in fact a contradiction. He did this by demonstrating that if the hypotenuse of an isosceles right triangle was indeed commensurable with a leg, then that unit of measure must be both odd and even, which is impossible. His reasoning is as follows: | <urn:uuid:5b126da3-6e4a-4d3f-b6be-103972354d34> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2021-21",
"url": "https://wn.com/Irrational_number",
"date": "2021-05-11T11:14:12",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-21/segments/1620243991982.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20210511092245-20210511122245-00508.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9739488959312439,
"token_count": 338,
"score": 3.765625,
"int_score": 4
} | 338 |
G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) comprise a 7 transmembrane-spanning protein family and are the largest and most diverse group of receptors in the human genome. They play an important role in many physiological processes, such as: sensing light, taste and smell, neurotransmitters, metabolism regulators etc. GPCRs are also the target of the most developed drugs. GPCRs signal through multiple transducers (e.g. G- protein and β-arrestin); activating multiple pathways and providing different physiological actions. These pathways can be activated or inhibited by ligands; they can also be selectively activated via biased signalling for more accurate targeting or activation of one pathway over another. Biased signalling is the ability of a ligand to activate a certain signal transduction pathway. The evaluation of biased signalling is very important in the development of drugs. In recent years, many pharmaceutical companies have been developing ligands that have biased signalling ability, to allow for more targeted modulation of cell function and treatment of disease (1,2,3).
If you need assistance with writing your essay, our professional essay writing service is here to help!Find out more
Understanding the mechanisms of biased signalling is very important, since many drugs that target GPCR lack specificity and can, therefore, result in unwanted side effects. An understanding of the mechanisms involved is also important for the understanding of GPCR biology. Biased signalling gives a rise to a cellular response of biochemical reactions, which ensures the efficacy of a ligand required to activate a beneficial pathway, and override the activation of detrimental pathway; leading to a reduction in side effects. The mechanisms of biased signalling are not yet completely understood, but it is known that a biased agonist induces a unique conformational change to GPCRs that will favour one signalling pathway over another (e.g. the G-protein pathway vs the β-arrestin pathway). It is well known that the conformational state stabilized by GPCRs, at which G-protein is activated, is different to the one at which β-arrestin is activated (1,4). For example, a study of the activation of the arginine-vasopressin type 2 receptor (V2R) by biased and unbiased ligands, using a fluorescence-based method, has shown that the transmembrane helix 6- third intracellular loop region of the molecule is associated with the selective activation of a G-protein signalling pathway, while transmembrane helix 7 and 8 region is required for the activation of a β-arrestin pathway (1,4,5).
Biased signalling is induced by biased agonism, biased receptor or a biased system. Biased agonism (also known as ligand bias) is a situation in which a ligand induces a unique receptor conformation that results in differential coupling to the signal transduction cascade and a biased response. It is thought to be caused by stabilisation of distinct receptor conformational states that differentially activate the alternative signalling pathways. Alternatively, biased receptor is generated by modifying the receptor to change its binding ability with specific ligands. Biased receptors can occur through mutation or differential splicing; both causes can alter coupling to G-protein and β-arrestin. However, a biased system can be controlled by differential expression of transducer elements proximal to the receptor, for example β-arrestin - the receptor or GRK. Therefore, due to a biased system, it is difficult to predict the true signalling bias (5,6,7). Most pharmacological GPCR agonists target orthosteric binding sites, but recent experiments have identified multiple agonists that can target allosteric, or topographically distinct, binding sites on the receptors (6).
Favouring a G-protein signalling pathway, through biased signalling, is mostly observed in a μ-opioid receptor. It has been observed that there is a restriction in the expression of G-protein subunits in some tissues, which prevents some combinations from forming. Due to this restriction, there is the potential of cell-based biased signalling. This type of signalling bias might be important in drug therapy, due to differential activation of G-protein subunits that have shown some clinical benefits (8). For biased signalling to favour the β-arrestin pathway, it will enhance the phosphorylation of GPCRs by G protein receptor kinases (GRKs) and desensitize G-protein signalling pathways. Biased signalling via β-arrestin is very complex, since it has many consequential actions in the cell and also because there are many therapeutically activate pathways that can be explored. It is suggested that signalling mediated via β-arrestin has many beneficial outcomes, via many GPCRs, such as; promoting antipsychotic dopamine D2 receptor activity, and increasing cardio protection via the angiotensin II receptor. Some experiments have shown that biased signalling, via biased agonism, has the ability to recruit many different subtypes of β-arrestin within a signal receptor (9).
The discovery of new drugs that only target the primary ligand binding sites of GPCRs is becoming more and more difficult, because many of the developed and in development ligands that target GPCRs lack specify for a certain pathway and the interaction between ligand and GPCRs that results in receptor confirmation for a certain pathway is not fully understood. But, the promise of new therapeutic potential is brought by the production of biased signalling via a ligand. Also, biased signalling brings a challenge to the process of drug discovery, because the understanding of physiological responses which are due to G protein versus arrestin interactions is clearly known. So, in order to develop new drugs that act as biased ligand/agonists, a clear understanding of the physiological effects of biased signalling is required. Since biased agonism is expected to have different functional and physiological effects, as agonists only activate a selected pathway, it will also inhibit others. So, in order to develop ligands that produce a biased signalling effect for a specific pathway there must be evidence that the pathway that is being targeted will bring a clinically useful effect (10,11).
An example of how biased signalling is used in developing novel therapeutics is the discovery of μ-opioid receptor agonists that show a pain management effect. This shows that they mediate their analgesic effect via a G-protein signalling pathway, while the side effects are mediated by a β-arrestin signalling pathway. Biased agonism of μ-opioid receptors will act as an agonist through G-protein signalling pathway, while acting as an antagonist through the β-arrestin signalling pathway. Olicaeriden is one agent that shows this characteristic and has now reached the late stages of clinical development, with many more drugs of this nature being currently under preclinical development (12,13). Other drugs that induce biased signalling through G-protein pathways, are MCF14/18/57. They act as the agonist through G-protein mediated pathway, but as antagonist through β-arrestin mediated pathway. This reveals that the drug is shown to have many beneficial benefits in treating many renal diseases (14).
Our academic experts are ready and waiting to assist with any writing project you may have. From simple essay plans, through to full dissertations, you can guarantee we have a service perfectly matched to your needs.View our services
Carvedilol, another example, is a drug used in treatment of cardiovascular diseases. It is a β-adrenergic receptor antagonist and has the capacity to act as an agonist through the β-arrestin mediated pathway, while acting as the antagonist through a G-protein mediated pathway. It is a very effective treatment for heart failure. In addition to Carvedilol, a drug called TRV120027 which acts at the angiotensin II type 1 receptor, behaves in the same way as Carvedilol; being a β-arrestin biased ligand, it shows that causes a beneficial cardiorenal outcome, such as increasing survival rate of cardiomyocyte (15). Recent studies have found that Fenoterol a drug used to treat asthma induces biased signalling, through its action on the β2 adrenoreceptor. It acts, as an agonist on the G-protein signalling pathway while it acts as an antagonist on the β-arrestin pathway. These studies suggest that identifying ligand that only activates G-protein signalling pathways of β2-adrenoreceptor can provide a new therapy for treating asthma with a maintained efficacy by switching off the β-arrestin singling pathway. (16,17,18)
Despite current headway in the field of biased signalling, further studies are required to understand how the interaction between GPCRs, and ligands is translated into the receptor conformation state for a selected pathway (e.g. G-protein vs β-arrestin pathway). Also, a wider understanding of biased signalling via an agonist at the pharmacological and physiological level is required, in order to make progress in terms of developing new and promising, novel therapeutics. Such progress would move drug development process much closer to production of biased drugs that only activate a particular signalling pathway, with fewer side effects. Also, more research is required for further understanding of the roles of G-protein and β-arrestin signalling pathways in health and disease. Therefore, future studies should not only focus on developing new ligand with biased signalling but also focus on the physiological effect of these two signalling pathways. Also, biased signalling can be very important further the understanding cells intracellular signalling pathways.
- Bologna Z, Teoh J-P, Bayoumi AS, Tang Y, Kim I-M. Biased G Protein-Coupled Receptor Signaling: New Player in Modulating Physiology and Pathology. Biomolecules & therapeutics. The Korean Society of Applied Pharmacology; 2017
- Rahmeh R, Damian M, Cottet M, Orcel H, Mendre C, Durroux T, et al. Structural insights into biased G protein-coupled receptor signaling revealed by fluorescence spectroscopy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. National Academy of Sciences; 2012
- Smith JS, Lefkowitz RJ, Rajagopal S. Biased signalling: from simple switches to allosteric microprocessors. Nature reviews. Drug discovery. U.S. National Library of Medicine; 2018
- Butcher AJ, Prihandoko R, Kong KC, et al. Differential G-protein-coupled receptor phosphorylation provides evidence for a signaling bar code. J Biol Chem. 2011;286(13):11506–11518. doi:10.1074/jbc.M110.154526
- Rahmeh R, Damian M, Cottet M, et al. Structural insights into biased G protein-coupled receptor signaling revealed by fluorescence spectroscopy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012;109(17):6733–6738. doi:10.1073/pnas.1201093109
- Wisler JW, Rockman HA, Lefkowitz RJ. Biased G Protein–Coupled Receptor Signaling. Circulation. 2018;137(22):2315–7.
- Smith JS, Lefkowitz RJ, Rajagopal S. Biased signalling: from simple switches to allosteric microprocessors. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2018;17(4):243–260. doi:10.1038/nrd.2017.229
- Whalen EJ, Rajagopal S, Lefkowitz RJ. Therapeutic potential of β-arrestin- and G protein-biased agonists. Trends Mol Med. 2011;17(3):126–139.
- Carr R 3rd, Schilling J, Song J, et al. β-arrestin-biased signaling through the β2-adrenergic receptor promotes cardiomyocyte contraction. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2016;113(28):E4107–E4116. doi:10.1073/pnas.1606267113
- Rajagopal S, Rajagopal K, Lefkowitz RJ. Teaching old receptors new tricks: biasing seven-transmembrane receptors. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2010;9(5):373–386. doi:10.1038/nrd3024
- Dewire SM, Yamashita DS, Rominger DH, Liu G, Cowan CL, Graczyk TM, et al. A G Protein-Biased Ligand at the μ-Opioid Receptor Is Potently Analgesic with Reduced Gastrointestinal and Respiratory Dysfunction Compared with Morphine. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 2013Aug;344(3):708–17.
- Kelly E. Efficacy and ligand bias at the μ-opioid receptor. Br J Pharmacol. 2013;169(7):1430–1446.
- Raehal KM, Schmid CL, Groer CE, Bohn LM. Functional selectivity at the μ-opioid receptor: implications for understanding opioid analgesia and tolerance. Pharmacol Rev. 2011;63(4):1001–1019. doi:10.1124/pr.111.004598
- Jean-Alphonse F, Perkovska S, Frantz MC, et al. Biased agonist pharmacochaperones of the AVP V2 receptor may treat congenital nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009;20(10):2190–2203.
- Ilter M, Mansoor S, Sensoy O. Utilization of Biased G Protein-Coupled ReceptorSignaling towards Development of Safer andPersonalized Therapeutics. Molecules. 2019;24(11):2052. Published 2019 May 29. doi:10.3390/molecules24112052
- Xiao R-P, Zhang S-J, Chakir K, Avdonin P, Zhu W, Bond RA, et al. Enhanced G i Signaling Selectively Negates β 2 -Adrenergic Receptor (AR)– but Not β 1 -AR–Mediated Positive Inotropic Effect in Myocytes From Failing Rat Hearts. Circulation. 2003;108(13):1633–9.
- Woo AY-H, Wang T-B, Zeng X, Zhu W, Abernethy DR, Wainer IW, et al. Stereochemistry of an Agonist Determines Coupling Preference of β2-Adrenoceptor to Different G Proteins in Cardiomyocytes. Molecular Pharmacology. 2008Jun;75(1):158–65.
- Reinartz MT, Kälble S, Littmann T, Ozawa T, Dove S, Kaever V, et al. Structure-bias relationships for fenoterol stereoisomers in six molecular and cellular assays at the β2-adrenoceptor. Naunyn-Schmiedebergs Archives of Pharmacology. 2014;388(1):51–65.
Cite This Work
To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below:
Related ServicesView all
DMCA / Removal Request
If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have your work published on UKEssays.com then please: | <urn:uuid:4a32fd8c-c240-426b-abc3-a3f674bc4a38> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2021-17",
"url": "https://www.ukessays.com/essays/medical/mechanisms-and-therapeutic-potential-of-biased-signalling-through-gpcrs-2559.php",
"date": "2021-04-17T17:52:45",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-17/segments/1618038461619.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20210417162353-20210417192353-00018.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8927609324455261,
"token_count": 3266,
"score": 3.53125,
"int_score": 4
} | 3,266 |
Location: Istanbul, Lebanon, Iran and other Middle Eastern countries
Population: Total 350,000-400,000 (est.)
% of population: Lebanon 5%; elsewhere much smaller
Religion: Armenian Apostolic Church and other Christian churches
The Armenians are a distinctive people whose traditional homeland lies in eastern Anatolia straddling present day Turkey and the USSR. They have faced a series of genocidal massacres, most notably in 1895 and 1915, which has reduced them to a small minority in Turkey and scattered them throughout the Near East, western Europe and elsewhere. The core of the Armenian community today is in Soviet Armenia.
The Armenians are descended from ancient tribes who inhabited Eastern Anatolia for thousands of years and who from about 600 BC intermingled with an invading people called “Hayasa” from central Anatolia and adopted an Indo-European language. At the time of Julius Caesar the Armenians ruled a great independent kingdom, although this was later conquered by the Romans. Armenians became Christians from the third century AD, making them the oldest Christian nation, and the Armenian church proved of vital importance in preserving Armenian unity in the following centuries, which saw domination by the Byzantines, Seljuks and Ottomans. Throughout these centuries Armenians were deported or emigrated in great numbers, often establishing themselves in trade and banking.
Within the Ottoman Empire Armenians were organized into their own millet or semi-autonomous community, with the Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople at its head. In the mid-nineteenth century there were probably about 2.5 million Armenians in Turkey but they faced strong pressure from the neighbouring Kurds and later Muslims who had fled from Russian domination. Armenian nationalist sentiment grew during the nineteenth century; few however sought independence but rather administrative reforms and cultural and religious freedoms. After the disappointment of the Treaty of Berlin of 1878 (which promised protection to the Armenians by western powers but failed to give it) Armenian self-defence groups and armed revolutionary societies were formed and the first Armenian uprising, the Samsun rising of 1894, was suppressed with considerable ferocity by Ottoman troops. This led to a series of massacres of Armenians in the 1890s in which perhaps 300,000 Armenians died.
The Young Turk revolution of 1908 at first promised new reforms, but within a year there was a further massacre in which 30,000 Armenians were killed. The ideology of the ruling triumvirate was now pan-Turkism (or pan-Turanianism) which had as its goal the uniting of all Turkic peoples and the Turkicizing of the minorities. During World War I and despite the fact that 250,000 Armenian men were conscripted and fought loyally in the armies of the Ottoman Empire, the Turkish Ottoman government turned on the Armenians and from April 1915 began a series of systematic and genocidal massacres. In towns and villages in Turkish Armenia and Asia Minor the entire Armenian population was ordered out, the men shot and the women and children forced to walk southwards in huge convoys into the deserts of northern Syria; a journey in which most perished. The survivors were herded into large open-air concentration camps in Ottoman Syria where they were tortured and killed. The killing continued well into 1916 and beyond. The present Turkish government still refuses to concede either the scale of the killings or that it was a deliberate policy — despite evidence for both — maintaining that it was a civil war between armed bands. The number of Armenians killed was probably in the region of 1.5 million with another half a million refugees. From a population which had been over 2 million, 100,000 Armenians remained in Turkey.
On May 28, 1918 an independent Armenian nation was declared after victories by Armenian commanders in the vacuum left following the Soviet withdrawal from the Caucasus in 1917 and the defeat of the Ottomans. Thanks to initial British support the territory of independent Armenia grew considerably and included not only present-day Soviet Armenia but Kars and Ardahan in present day Turkey. Economic conditions were catastrophic, there was famine and privation in the winter of 1918-19, although there was a recognizable improvement by early 1920. But it was meaningful support from the great powers which was crucial, and this was not forthcoming. Although President Wilson of the USA delineated and gave legal recognition to an independent Armenia, none of the powers were prepared to back it by arms, especially in the face of a revived Turkey under Kemal Atatürk who reached an understanding with the USSR. Turks invaded Kars, the Soviets closed in from Azerbaijan and proclaimed a Soviet republic in Erevan (to which the independent Armenian government decided peacefully to accede) and the arrangement between the two was confirmed in the Treaty of Kars (October 1921). Independent Armenia ceased to exist. (For Soviet Armenia see USSR.)
After the war there were relatively few Armenians left within Turkey. In the early years of the State when Turkey was fighting to establish itself they, along with other minority groups, suffered badly; however for most of the inter-war years Armenians were able to live relatively unmolested lives, although mainly in Istanbul and a few other cities. Those who attempted to return and claim lands and properties were often attacked by local mobs. In 1939 a further 15,000 Armenians left the Alexandretta district of Syria which had been ceded to Turkey, and Armenians suffered from discriminatory taxes imposed on non-Muslim minorities during World War II. The main protection for all non-Muslim minorities in Turkey was the Treaty of Lausanne of July 1923, signed by a number of European and other powers and guaranteed by the League of Nations, most specifically Articles 38-44, which guaranteed the life, liberty, freedom of movement, religious tolerance, education and customs of the minorities by the Turkish state. Yet the provisions of this Treaty, which is still valid, have not in general been fulfilled by the Turkish government.
According to the Turkish census of 1960 there were 52,756 Armenian speakers in Turkey, the majority of whom (37,700) were in Istanbul. Today these numbers are probably smaller. Most Armenians have been able to live reasonably well, provided they kept a low profile and abstained from political activities. There were however riots against them (and the small Greek minority) in 1955, financial and property restrictions on the church, and educational restriction on community schools in the 1970s and onwards, and official harassment in the early 1980s in response to isolated incidents of Armenian terrorism (from Armenian groups outside Turkey). In addition scholars have protested against government neglect, destruction or misrepresentation of Armenian cultural monuments in Eastern Turkey. The Turkish government continues to deny charges of genocide of Armenians in 1915 although in 1989 it announced that it would open historical archives to scholars. It also continues to deny any Armenian historical presence and in December 1986 the publisher of a Turkish version of the Encyclopedia Britannica was facing prosecution because it contained an article on an Armenian state in Anatolia in the eleventh century.
Armenians have lived in Persia from the early seventeenth century, when Shah Abbas deported thousands from the plain of Ararat to his capital at Isfahan where they founded a colony at New Julfa. However most of Iran’s 180,000 Armenians now live in Tehran where the community has several churches and cultural institutions, including a newspaper. Before the overthrow of the Shah, Tehran Armenians owned many prosperous business concerns, including breweries. Current economic and political upheavals have proved serious to Armenian business interests and many have subsequently left Iran. Nevertheless the Armenian community is a recognized religious minority and thus has been accorded some protection by the authorities.
1 in international Jaw, since the UN has been proved to be the legitimate successor to the League of Nations in the case of Namibia.
After the massacres of 1915 Lebanon was the centre of the Armenian world (with Soviet Armenia). The Catholicos of the Great House of Cilicia, the Patriarch of the Armenian Catholics, and the President of the Union of Armenian Evangelical Churches in the Middle East have their headquarters in the Beirut area. The Armenian population of perhaps 175,000 (in the mid-1980s) constitutes 5% of the Lebanese population and are the seventh largest community. The majority live in Beirut and its suburbs. Before the outbreak of the civil war there were 60 Armenian schools, 20 Armenian churches and a dozen magazines and newspapers based there. There were three major Armenian political parties — the nationalist Dashnaks, the more conservative Ramgavars and the progressive Hunchaks. Armenians played an important role in the Lebanese business world.
The civil war has been disastrous for the Armenian community, even though it has sought to maintain a neutral stance. However by the end of 1986 an estimated 1,000 Armenians had been killed and many thousands wounded. The murderous 1989 bombardment and subsequent exodus from Beirut was only the final chapter in the flight of the Armenian community from the Lebanon often to sanctuary organized by the Armenian diaspora around the world. Large numbers are now trying to re-establish themselves in Nicosia, which will probably inherit the central role of Beirut.
Elsewhere in the Middle East (for Armenians in the USSR, see USSR)
The Armenian community in Cyprus suffered in the Turkish invasion of 1974 during which an Armenian High School was hit by a Turkish bomb. Armenians in the northern sector have been turned out of their homes and shops and Armenian churches and monuments destroyed by Turkish troops or settlers. There are smaller Armenian communities in Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Israel and Iraq. | <urn:uuid:700e6777-c118-4e9d-87c6-dbb10d8522b1> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2014-41",
"url": "http://www.faqs.org/minorities/Middle-East-and-North-Africa/Armenians-of-Turkey-and-the-Middle-East.html",
"date": "2014-09-23T11:27:35",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-41/segments/1410657138501.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20140914011218-00265-ip-10-234-18-248.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9775596857070923,
"token_count": 1945,
"score": 3.5,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,945 |
In the modern restless world, everyone is trying to fulfil their professional and personal targets and deadlines in a limited period, hence tend to miss a few essentials of daily routine. This is bringing changes in lifestyle, and eating patterns, leading to an increase in diseases and health complications.
One of the major alternations in meal patterns nowadays is, the omission or skipping of breakfast (B/F). Insufficient B/F contributes to dietary inadequacies and accompanying nutritional losses, which are rarely made up by other meals during the remainder of the day. Despite the health of benefits, studies have reported that a good number of people skip breakfast frequently. So it is of utmost importance to re-establish and renew the key health beneficial facts of eating B/F daily.
What is breakfast?
It is the first meal of the day that breaks the fast after the longest period of sleep and is consumed within 2 to 3 hours of waking. B/F intake is an important indicator of a healthy lifestyle. It makes a large contribution to daily micronutrient intake. Also bring changes in metabolism, leading to improved diet quality, better food choices, a positive impact on well-being and induce healthy habits throughout life.
The benefits of breakfast
- Ensures a balanced intake of all nutrients and food
- Encourages to eat more fresh fruits and vegetables
- Helps lead to having an orderly life and set appropriate wake-up and sleep time
- Improves sleep quality and reduces the risk of insomnia
- Augments mental health, performance, problem-solving ability and over-positive attitude
- Reduces negative feelings like stress, irritation, mood swings and depression
- Enhances physical fitness and strength
What is skipping breakfast?
It is defined as not having B/F at least 6 times a week, having B/F less than 2 days a week and rarely or never eating B/F. The body is regulated by circadian rhythms. Circadian rhythms are influenced by the light-dark cycle and food uptake, which is the metabolic signal. Inversely, circadian regulation of metabolic genes affects metabolic outcomes in the body, which signifies feeding. Time and the circadian clock are tightly intertwined. B/F is important to jumpstart daily metabolism. Studies showed that B/F skipping adversely affects circadian gene expression and correlates with increased postprandial glycemic response.
B/F skipping is an important determinant of an unhealthy lifestyle and other health-risk behaviours, including alcohol use, smoking, and sedentary lifestyle, as well as low educational attainment, mood changes, and depressive symptoms. It has also been associated with a lower quality of life and chronic stress which may, in turn, increase the lifetime risk of cardiometabolic disease.
B/F skipping and health effects
- High mortality rates and serum cholesterol levels
- Frequent health complications and infections
- Reduced satiety
- Increased food cravings and metabolic abnormalities
- Poor cognitive function and work performance
- Consume unhealthy foods and beverages and tend to overeat throughout the day
Reasons to skip breakfast
- Don’t feel hungry in the morning
- Could not get up early enough to have B/F at home
- Don’t have time to eat
- Not like to eat early
- Don’t like the food option present
- Not having anyone to prepare B/F
- Want to lose weight and following unhealthy weight management FAD diets and practices
- Don’t find ready food to eat available
- Long screen time and less sleep leading to frequent feeling of lethargy and less hungry in the morning
Effect of the home environment on breakfast consumption
- Parents skip B/F regularly, hence children learn the same
- Both parents out for work and lower B/F benefit awareness and motivation among children made them make poor food choices
- Parents are responsible for the availability of foods, setting the rules, and initiating family meal patterns.
- Parents not only influence their children’s decision to eat breakfast, but also the food they choose
How an ideal B/F should be?
A good quality breakfast should provide energy and essential nutrients balanced in proportion to daily needs, and meet individual tastes in a form that is accessible and affordable. Standard nutritional recommendations suggest that an ideal breakfast meal should contain 20 to 35% of daily energy derived from three food groups, including milk and milk derivatives, cereals (unrefined and whole grain) and fresh fruit or juice without added sugar
- Should make feel full for a longer time
- Include less starchy and more complex carbohydrates, so that glucose release into the bloodstream happens slowly. Add foods like whole wheat, ragi, oats, bajra, suji, poha etc
- Choose high-quality low-fat protein sources like soy, eggs, sprouts, boiled channa etc
- Avoid too much use of oil, saturated fat, butter, cheese, sugar and salt
- Have a glass of low-fat milk/less sugar tea or coffee/smoothie/milkshake
- Include a seasonal fruit
Easy tips to add B/F to the daily routine
- Parents should set an example for their children by following healthy B/F eating habits
- Have at least one meal together and holiday B/F with the whole family
- Set a specific time to have B/F together
- Plan, shop and prepare meal menu in advance
- Allocate dining duties to each family member to promote shared experience and bonding
- Turn off distractions like the TV, computer, tablets and phones during mealtimes
- Keep toys and books off the table, and talk to children while eating meals
- Get breakfast organized the night before
- In case of a busy morning schedule, choose simple food options instead of aiming for making difficult preparations
As the first meal of the day, breakfast plays an important role in supplying energy and nutrients. After sleeping through the night, the body needs to refresh and regain energy and nutrients in order to engage in the day’s activities. “B/F”, which is derived from the combination of “break” and “fast”, must provide sufficiently nutritious food options for optimal physiological health and physical and mental wellbeing of the body throughout the day.
A high-quality breakfast provides adequate energy and nutrients for working and learning activities. In contrast, a low-quality B/F or no B/F leads to lower work efficiency, a large compensatory increase in food intake at the next meal and an excessive burden on the gastrointestinal tract.
Many are not able to consume B/F consistently due to several reasons or obstacles. Continuous awareness should be focused and targeted toward resolving the root cause of B/F skipping rather than simply promoting the benefits of B/F. Emphasis should be on eating a healthy B/F to boost morning positive mood and maintain the right energy throughout the day.
- Public Health Nutrition,2007; 10(1):55–58
- BMC Nutrition (2021) 7:42
- Nutr Metab (Lond),2021;18:8:2-10
- Adv Nutr 2016;7(Suppl):590S–612S | <urn:uuid:042e92ab-79c5-4692-9111-fbdaade58fe8> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2022-40",
"url": "https://journomed.com/why-is-it-so-crucial-to-have-breakfast-everyday/",
"date": "2022-09-27T05:20:32",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-40/segments/1664030334987.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20220927033539-20220927063539-00425.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9444324374198914,
"token_count": 1480,
"score": 3.578125,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,480 |
Sepsis is an infection of the bloodstream. The infection tends to spread quickly and often is difficult to recognize. One of our roles as a nurse is that of patient advocate, and as such we are closest to the patient, placing us in a key position to identify any subtle changes at their earliest onset and prevent the spread of severe infection. Knowledge of the signs and symptoms of SIRS, sepsis, and septic shock is key to early recognition. Early recognition allows for appropriate treatment to begin sooner, decreasing the likelihood of septic shock and life-threatening organ failure. Once sepsis is diagnosed, early and aggressive treatment can begin, which greatly reduces mortality rates associated with sepsis.
sep•sis (ˈsep-sÉ™s) n. Sometimes called blood poisoning, sepsis is the body’s often deadly response to infection or injury (Merriam-Webster, 2011)
Sepsis is a potentially life-threatening condition caused by the immune system’s reaction to an
infection; it is the leading cause of death in intensive care units (Mayo Clinic Staff, Mayo Clinic
2010). It is defined by the presence of 2 or more SIRS (systemic inflammatory response
syndrome) criteria in the setting of a documented or presumed infection (Rivers, McIntyre,
Morro, Rivers, 2005 pg 1054). Chemicals that are released into the blood to fight infection
trigger widespread inflammation which explains why injury can occur to body tissues far from
the original infection. The body may develop the inflammatory response to microbes in the
blood, urine, lungs, skin and other tissues. Manifestations of the systemic inflammatory
response syndrome (SIRS) include abnormalities in temperature, heart, respiratory rates and
leukocyte counts. This is a severe sepsis that arises from a noninfectious cause. The condition
may manifest into severe sepsis or septic shock.
Severe sepsis is characterized by organ dysfunction, while septic shock results when blood
pressure decreases and the patient becomes extremely hypotensive, even with the administration
of fluid resuscitation (Lewis, Heitkemper, Dirksen, O’Brien and Bucher (2007), pg 1778). The
initial presentation of severe sepsis and septic shock is usually nonspecific. Patients admitted
with relatively benign infection can progress in a few hours to a more devastating form of the
disease. The transition usually occurs during the first 24 hours of hospitalization (Lewis, et al
2007, pg 1779). Severe sepsis is associated with acute organ dysfunction as inflammation may
result in organ damage (Mayo Clinic Staff, Mayo Clinic 2010). As severe sepsis progresses,
it begins to affect organ function and eventually can lead to septic shock; a sometimes fatal drop
in blood pressure.
People who are most at risk of developing sepsis include the very young and the very old,
individuals with compromised immune systems, very sick people in the hospital and those who
have invasive devices, such as urinary catheters or breathing tubes (Mayo Clinic Staff, Mayo
Clinic, 2010). Black people are more likely than are white people to get sepsis and black men
face the highest risk (Mayo Clinic Staff, Mayo Clinic 2010).
Severe sepsis is diagnosed if at least one of the following signs and symptoms, which indicate
organ dysfunction, are noted; areas of mottled skin, significantly decreased urine output, abrupt
change in mental status, decrease in platelet count, difficulty breathing and abnormal heart
function (Lewis et al, 2007 pg 1779). To be diagnosed with septic shock, a patient must have the
signs and symptoms of severe sepsis plus extremely low blood pressure (Mayo Clinic Staff,
Mayo Clinic 2010).
Sepsis is usually treated in the ICU with antibiotic therapy and intravenous fluids. These
patients require preventative measures for deep vein thrombosis, stress ulcer and pressure ulcers.
Hunter (2006) explains that the reason why sepsis is rarely given attention and popularized for
public information and attention is because it is not a disease in itself, but a reaction of the body
to a lowered immunological response.
Sepsis is the leading cause of death in non-coronary intensive care units (ICUs) and the 10th
leading cause of death in the United States overall (Slade, Tamber and Vincent, 2010, pg 2). The
incidence of severe sepsis in the United States is between 650,000 and 750,000 cases. Over 10
million cases of sepsis have been reported in the United States based on a 22-year period study
of discharge data from 750 million hospitalizations Annually, approximately 750,000 people
develop sepsis and more than 200,000 cases are fatal (Slade, et al 2010, pg 1). More than 70% of
these patients have underlying co-morbidities and more than 60% of these cases occur in those
aged 65 years and older (Slade, et al 2010, pg 1). When patients with human immunodeficiency
virus are excluded, the incidence of sepsis in men and women is similar. A greater number of
sepsis cases are caused by infection with gram-positive organisms than gram-negative
organisms, and fungal infections now account for 6% of cases (Slade, et al 2010, pg 1). After
adjusting for population size, the annualized incidence of sepsis is increasing by 8%. The
incidence of severe sepsis is increasing greatest in older adults and the nonwhite population. The
rise in the number of cases is believed to be caused by the increased use of invasive procedures
and immunosuppressive drugs, chemotherapy, transplantation, and prosthetic implants and
devices, as well as the increasing problem of antimicrobial resistance (Slade, et al 2010, pg 1).
Despite advances in critical care management, sepsis has a mortality rate of 30 to 50 percent and
is among the primary causes of death in intensive care units ((Brunn and Platt, 2006, 12: 10-6).
It is believed that the increasing incidence of severe sepsis is due to the growing population
among the elderly as a result of increasing longevity among people with chronic diseases and the
high prevalence of sepsis developing among patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome
(Slade, et al 2010, pg 1).
During an infection, the body’s defense system is activated to fight the attacking pathogens.
These invading pathogens, especially bacteria, possess receptive lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
coverings or release exotoxins and endotoxins that activate the T-cells and macrophages and
trigger the Toll-like receptors (TLR’s) to respond by releasing antibodies, eicosanoids and
cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukins. The antigens may also result in
the production of lysozymes and proteases, cationic proteins and lactoferrin that can recognize
and kill invading pathogens. Different microbes also induce various profiles of TNF and
interleukin to be released. These molecules results in a heightened inflammatory response of the
body and vascular dilation. The TLR’s also affect a different cascade that involves coagulation
pathways, which results in preventing the bleeding to occur at the area of infection. With too
much molecular responses and signals, the recognition of the molecules sometimes fails and
attacks even the body’s endothelial cells. These compounded immune and inflammatory actions
result in the development of the symptoms of sepsis (Hunter, 2006 pg 668; Van Amersfoort,
2001 pg 400). Brunn and Platt (2006) believes that events leading to breakdown of the tissue
such as injuries or infection, that naturally results in the activation of the immune system, is a
major event that causes sepsis. During host infection, the release of tumor necrosis factor and
interlekin-1 signals the dilation of the arteries and inflammation. These released cytokines also
activate the coagulation pathway to prevent fibrinolysis but an increase in the concentration of
these molecules may result in abnormalities in the host’s defense system (Gropper, 2004 pg 568).
The common belief that sepsis is caused by endotoxins released by pathogens has fully been
established but genomic advancements is shedding light on current insights that sepsis can also
occur without endotoxin triggers, that is even without microbial infections (Gropper, 2004 pg
Diagnosing sepsis can be difficult because its signs and symptoms can be caused by other
disorders. Doctors often order a battery of tests to try to pinpoint the underlying infection. Blood
tests and additional laboratory tests on fluids such as urine and cerebrospinal fluid to check for
bacteria and infections and wound secretions, if an open wound appears infected. In addition,
imaging tests to visualize problems such as x-ray, computerized tomography (ct), ultrasound and
magnetic resonance imaging (mri) to locate the source of an infection are also ordered. Early,
aggressive recognition boosts a patient’s chances of surviving sepsis.
Sepsis should be treated as a medical emergency. In other words, sepsis should be treated as
quickly and efficiently as possible as soon as it has been identified. This means rapid
administration of antibiotics and fluids. A 2006 study showed that the risk of death from sepsis
increases by 7.6% with every hour that passes before treatment begins. (Mayo Clinic Staff, Mayo
Clinic 2010). Early, aggressive treatment boosts the chances of surviving sepsis. People with
severe sepsis require close monitoring and treatment in a hospital intensive care unit. Lifesaving
measures may be needed to stabilize breathing and heart function. (Mayo Clinic Staff, Mayo
Clinic 2010). People with sepsis usually need to be in an intensive care unit (ICU). As soon as
sepsis is suspected, broad spectrum intravenous antibiotic therapy is begun. The number of
antibiotics may be decreased when blood tests reveal which particular bacteria are causing the
infection. The source of the infection should be discovered, if possible. This could mean more
testing. Infected intravenous lines or surgical drains should be removed, and any abscesses
should be surgically drained. Oxygen, intravenous fluids, and medications that increase blood
pressure may be needed. Dialysis may be necessary if there is kidney failure, and a breathing
machine (mechanical ventilation) if there is respiratory failure (Mayo Clinic Staff, Mayo Clinic,
While severe sepsis requires treatment in a critical care area, its recognition is often made
outside of the Intensive Care Unit (ICU). With nurses being at the side of a patient from
admission to discharge, this places them in an ideal position to be first to recognize sepsis.
Thorough assessments are crucial and being able to recognize even the most minimal changes in
a patient could be the difference between life and death.
Once severe sepsis is confirmed, key aspects of nursing care are related to providing
comprehensive treatment. Pain relief and sedation are important in promoting patients’ comfort.
Meeting the needs of patients’ families is also an essential component of care. Research on the
needs of patients’ families during critical illness supports provision of information as an
important aspect of family care (Gropper et al, 2004 pg. 569). Teaching patients and their
families is also essential to ensure that they understand various treatments and interventions
provided in severe sepsis.
Ultimately, prevention of sepsis may be the single most important measure for control
(Mayo Clinic Staff, Mayo Clinic, 2010). Hand washing remains the most effective way to
reduce the incidence of infection, especially the transmission of nosocomial infections in
hospitalized patients (Mayo Clinic Staff, Mayo Clinic, 2010. Good hand hygiene can be
achieved by using either a waterless, alcohol-based product or antibacterial soap and water with
adequate rinsing. Using universal precautions, adhering to infection control practices, and
instituting measures to prevent nosocomial infections can also help prevent sepsis (Lewis, et al
2007, pg 248). Nursing measures such as oral care, proper positioning, turning, and care of
invasive catheters are important in decreasing the risk for infection in critically ill patients
(Fourrier, Cau-Pottier, Boutigny, Roussel-Delvallez, Jourdain, Chopin, 2005 pg 1730). Newly
released guidelines on the prevention of catheter-related infections stress the use of surveillance,
cutaneous antisepsis during care of catheter sites, and catheter-site dressing regimens to
minimize the risk of infection (Fourrier, 2005 pg. 1731). Other aspects of nursing care such as
sending specimens for culture because of suspicious drainage or elevations in temperature,
monitoring the characteristics of wounds and drainage material, and using astute clinical
assessment to recognize patients at risk for sepsis can contribute to the early detection and
treatment of infection to minimize the risk for sepsis.
Critical care nurses are the healthcare providers most closely involved in the daily care of
critically ill patients and so have the opportunity to identify patients at risk for and to look for
signs and symptoms of severe sepsis (Kleinpell, Goyette, 2003 pg 120). In addition, critical care
nurses are also the ones who continually monitor patients with severe sepsis to assess the effects
of treatment and to detect adverse reactions to various therapeutic interventions. Use of an
intensivist-led multidisciplinary team is designated as the best-practice model for the intensive
care unit, and the value of team-led care has been shown (Kleinpell, et al 2003, pg 121). As key
members of intensivist-led multidisciplinary teams, critical care nurses play an important role in
the detection, monitoring, and treatment of sepsis and can affect outcomes in patients with severe
sepsis (Kleinpell, et al 2003, pg 121).
5 Priority Nursing Diagnosis
Diagnosis #1: Deficient fluid volume related to vasodilatation of peripheral vessels leaking of capillaries.
Intervention #1: Watch for early signs of hypovolemia, including restlessness, weakness, muscle cramps, headaches, inability to concentrate and postural hypotension. .
Rationale #1: Late signs include oliguria, abdominal or chest pain, cyanosis, cold clammy skin, and confusion (Kasper et al, 2005).
Intervention #2: Monitor for the existence of factors causing deficient fluid volume (e.g., vomiting, diarrhea, difficulty maintaining oral intake, fever, uncontrolled type 2 diabetes, diuretic therapy).
Rationale #2: Early identification of risk factors and early intervention can decrease the occurrence and severity of complications from deficient fluid volume. The gastrointestinal system is a common site of abnormal fluid loss (Metheny, 2000).
Intervention #3: Monitor daily weight for sudden decreases, especially in the presence of decreasing urine output or active fluid loss. Weigh the client on the same scale with the same type of clothing at same time of day, preferably before breakfast.
Rationale #3: Body weight changes reflect changes in body fluid volume (Kasper et al, 2005). Weight loss of 2.2 pounds is equal to fluid loss of 1 liter (Linton & Maebius, 2003).
Diagnosis #2: Imbalanced nutrition less than body requirements related to anorexia generalized weakness.
Intervention #1: Monitor for signs of malnutrition, including brittle hair that is easily plucked, bruise, dry skin, pale skin and conjunctiva, muscle wasting, smooth red tongue, cheilosis, “flaky paint rash” over lower extremities and disorientation (Kasper, 2005).
Rationale #1: Untreated malnutrition can result in death (Kasper, 2005).
Intervention #2: Recognize that severe protein calorie malnutrition can result in septicemia from impairment of the immune system or organ failure including heart failure, liver failure, respiratory dysfunction, especially in the critically ill client.
Rationale #2: Untreated malnutrition can result in death (Kasper, 2005)
Intervention #3: Note laboratory test results as available: serum albumin, prealbumin, serum total protein, serum ferritin, transferring, hemoglobin, hematocrit, and electrolytes.
Rationale #3: A serum albumin level of less than 3.5 g/100 milliliters is considered and indicator of risk of poor nutritional status (DiMaria-Ghalli & Amella, 2005). Prealbumin level was reliable in evaluating the existence of malnutrition (Devoto et al, 2006).
Diagnosis #3: Ineffective tissue perfusion related to decreased systemic vascular resistance.
Intervention #1: If the client has a period of syncope or other signs of a possible transient ischemic attack, assist the client to a resting position, perform a neurological assessment and report to the physician.
Rationale #1: Syncope may be caused by dysrhythmias, hypotension caused by decreased tone or volume, cerebrovascular disease, or anxiety. Unexplained recurrent syncope, especially if associated with structural heart disease, is associated with a high risk of death (Kasper et al, 2005).
Intervention#2: If the client experiences dizziness because of postural hypotension when getting up, teach methods to decrease dizziness, such as remaining seated for several minutes before standing, flexing feet upward several time while seated, rising slowly, sitting down immediately if feeling dizzy and trying to have someone present when standing.
Rationale #2: Postural hypotension can be detected in up to 30% of elderly clients. These methods can help prevent falls (Tinetti, 2003).
Intervention #3: If symptoms of a new cerebrovascular accident occur (e.g., slurred speech, change in vision, hemiparesis, hemiplegia, or dysphasia), notify a physician immediately.
Rationale #3: New onset of these neurological symptoms can signify a stroke. If the stroke is caused by a thrombus and the client receives thrombolytic treatment within 3 hours, effects can often be reversed and function improved, although there is an increased risk of intracranial hemorrhage (Wardlaw, et al, 2003)
Diagnosis #4: Ineffective thermoregulation related to infectious process, septic shock.
Intervention #1: Monitor temperature every 1 to 4 hours or use continuous temperature monitoring as appropriate.
Rationale #1: Normal adult temperature is usually identified as 98.6 degrees F (37 degrees C) but in actuality the normal temperature fluctuates throughout the day. In the early morning it may be as low as 96.4 degrees F (35.8 degrees C) and in the late afternoon or evening as high as 99.1 degrees F (37.3 degrees C). (Bickely & Szilagyj, 2007). Disease injury and pharmacological agents may impair regulation of body temperature (Kasper et al, 2005).
Intervention #2: Measure the temperature orally or rectally. Avoid using the axillary or tympanic site.
Rationale #2: Oral temperature measurement provides a more accurate temperature than tympanic measurement (Fisk & Arcona, 2001; Giuliano et al, 2000). Axillary temperatures are often inaccurate. The oral temperature is usually accurate even in an intubated clients (Fallis, 2000). The SolaTherm and DataTherm devices correlated strongly with core body temperatures obtained from a pulmonary artery catheter (Smith, 2004). A study performed in Turkey found that axillary and tympanic temperatures were less accurate than oral temperatures (Devrim, 2007).
Intervention #3: Take vital signs every 1 to 4 hours, noting changes associated with hypothermia; first, increased blood pressure, pulse and respirations; then decreased values as hypothermia progresses.
Rationale #3: Mild hypothermia activates the sympathetic nervous system, which can increase the levels of vital signs; as hypothermia progresses, the heart becomes suppress, with decreased cardiac output and lowering of vital sign readings (Ruffolo, 2002; Kaper et al, 2005).
Diagnosis #5: Risk for impaired skin integrity related to desquamation caused by disseminated intravascular coagulation.
Intervention #1: Monitor skin condition at least once a day for color or texture changes, dermatological conditions, or lesions. Determine whether the client is experiencing loss of sensation or pain.
Rationale #1: Systemic inspection can identify impending problems early (Ayello & Braden, 2002; Krasner, Rodeheaver & Sibbald, 2001).
Intervention #2: Identify clients at risk for impaired skin integrity as a result of immobility, chronological age, malnutrition, incontinence, compromised perfusion, immunocompromised status or chronic medical conditions such as diabetes mellitus, spinal cord injury or renal failure.
Rationale #2: These client populations are known to be at high risk for impaired skin integrity (Maklebust & Sieggreen, 2001: Stotts & Wipke-Tevis, 2001). Targeting variables (such as age and Braden Scale Risk Category) can focus assessment on particular risk factors (e.g., pressure) and help guide the plan of prevention and care (Young et al, 2002).
Intervention #3: Monitor the client’s skin care practices, noting type of soap or other cleansing agents used, temperature of water and frequency of skin cleansing.
Rationale #3: Individualize plan according to the client’s skin condition, needs, and preference (Baranoski, 2000).
As a nursing student with a strong interest in working with trauma patients, I am intrigued by
the fact that as to why some trauma patients are more susceptible to contracting sepsis than
others. Therefore my suggestion for future research would be to determine if there is an
underlying factor that we, as healthcare professionals are overlooking. Apparently, I am not
alone in my thinking and in performing additional reading on sepsis I was pleasantly surprised to
learn that an investigation into this matter is underway. Hinley (2010), a staff writer for Medical
News Today, reports how an emergency room nurse’s curiosity about why some trauma patients
develop sepsis while others don’t has led to an expanded career as a researcher studying the
same, burning question.
Dr. Beth NeSmith, assistant professor of physiological and technological nursing in the
Medical College of Georgia School of Nursing received a three-year, $281,000 National
Institutes of Health grant in September, 2010 to examine risk factors for sepsis and organ failure
following trauma. Based on her own research, Dr. NeSmith concluded that trauma kills more
than 13 million Americans annually and sepsis is the leading cause of in-hospital trauma deaths,
yet little data existed to explain differences in population vulnerability to these deadly outcomes.
NeSmith believes lifetime chronic stress may be the culprit and a simple test on hair may identify
those at risk. Her theory is that a person who grows up with chronic stress, such as socio-
economic stress or abuse, will have a different response to trauma in terms of their inflammation
profile,” NeSmith said. “Inflammation is a normal body response to trauma, but if it gets out of
hand it’s dangerous. The only care for it is supportive until – if – the body gets better.” (Hinley,
P., Medical News Today, 2010)
As the trauma clinical nurse specialist at MCG Health System from 1997-2003, NeSmith was
intrigued by the limited treatment options available for sepsis. Her grant will allow her to test the
theory that people with existing chronic stress respond differently physiologically to trauma than
non-stressed individuals. NeSmith spends three days a week in the lab working with basic
science research techniques.
Nurses play a critical role in improving outcomes for patients with sepsis. To save the lives of
those with sepsis, all nurses, no matter where they work, must develop their skills for
recognizing sepsis early and initiating appropriate therapy. With nurses dedicated to
understanding and stopping this deadly disorder, the goal of reducing mortality will be realized.
Cite This Work
To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below:
Related ServicesView all
Related ContentAll Tags
Content relating to: "sepsis"
Sometimes called blood poisoning, sepsis is the body’s often deadly response to infection or injury. Sepsis is a potentially life-threatening condition caused by the immune system’s reaction to an infection; it is the leading cause of death in intensive care units.
Examining the diagnosis and Treatment of Septic Shock
Disease Process and Disease Concept Septic shock is a serious condition caused by an infection that leads to low blood pressure, diffident tissue perfusion and oxygen delivery. Pathophysiology Septic ...
Pathophysiology of sepsis | Case Study
Thomas, a 70-year-old man, admitted to hospital with a five-day history of coughing with yellow-green sputum, pyrexia, rigors, poor appetite, mild chest pain and increasing difficulty of breathing. T...
DMCA / Removal Request
If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have your work published on the NursingAnswers.net website then please: | <urn:uuid:07b74330-2f0b-4790-b75c-8c3e0d10c1a1> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2023-40",
"url": "https://nursinganswers.net/essays/sepsis-an-overview-health-and-social-care-essay.php",
"date": "2023-09-21T11:40:35",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233506027.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20230921105806-20230921135806-00202.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8991799354553223,
"token_count": 5523,
"score": 3.65625,
"int_score": 4
} | 5,523 |
A geologist is studying an area where earthquakes are likely to occur. What might the geologist expect to see after an earthquake?
A sharp, jagged mountain becomes smoother over time. Which of these is most responsible for this change?
Which area most likely has the greatest number of fast, large-scale changes?
A mountain range is forming as a result of moving tectonic plates. In which of the Major Earth Systems are these formation taking place?
Which type of change best describes folded mountain belts that sometimes form at plate boundaries?
Which geologic evidence could be the result from an asteroid impact on Earth’s surface?
Early in the history of geology, scientists debated different views of how geologic processes worked. Which statement explains how scientists generally view geologic changes or processes today?
What make physical properties different from chemical properties
Which statement describes a chemical property?
A fault line in California receive a storm that shakes and breaks the city of Los Angeles.
The birth rate is greater than the death rate this causes?
Disease spread by ticks is
Blending into an animals surrounding is?
Water, rocks, sunlight are all part of the non-living ecosystem. They are said to be?
Which of these does not provide evidence that the continents drifted to their present locations?
Which processes are best explained by the theory of plate tectonics?
Which statement explains why tectonic plates move?
Which description is evidence for the theory of plate tectonics but does not suggest that the continents were once connected?
A rock was found along a beach. It was concluded that the rock was sedimentary. Pick the one that is why?
Granite forms when magma slowly cools with in the Earth's Crust. Basalt forms when lava cools on the earth. What type of rock are they?
Repeated temperature changes caused a rock to break down to smaller piece. Identify the process.
Two boundaries that are moving North and South of each other. An example of this type of boundary is California and the American plate
In sea-floor spreading, the middle lava is young land when it moves to the side and cools. The land that is spread farther out is?
Identify the Energy transfer. You burn your hand while touching a pan on the stove.
You are boiling water while cooking an egg.
Blueray, Microwave are examples of
Which of the following is the energy found in a loop ride of a roller coaster?
Which two of the following will a person who parachute feel when jumping out of a plane
If the motion of the toy is going right, what is going left? | <urn:uuid:23864126-e152-41ff-8d23-a47fd1e3a979> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2021-49",
"url": "https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5cbf0244dd1a01001a43749e/perez-final-test-2019",
"date": "2021-11-29T03:53:04",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964358685.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20211129014336-20211129044336-00287.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9520938396453857,
"token_count": 553,
"score": 3.734375,
"int_score": 4
} | 553 |
At Harry Gosling we aim to develop children’s scientific knowledge and conceptual understanding through the key areas of biology, chemistry and physics, as well as have a developed understanding of nature, different processes and methods of science through different enquiry types. These include: fair and comparative testing, sorting and classification, observing over time, pattern seeking and researching (through investigations or secondary sources). We strive to create scientists that are equipped with the scientific knowledge that is required to understand how the world works at present and in the future. We encourage children to take responsibility to express their thinking and understanding using scientific language.
How Science is taught:
Science is taught across the school by our class teachers. In both KS1 and KS2, we sequence the science learning in different ways so that it fits into the overall theme for that term. Because of the way our curriculum is designed, most units are sequenced and blocked within a term alongside other learning. Our sequencing of unit provides opportunities for pupils to access prior learned knowledge. We aim for our curriculum to develop both the knowledge of science as well as the practices so our children learn how to work like scientists. When developing our curriculum, we have worked hard to ensure that our children learn about scientific facts as well as the skills. Our lessons are as practical as possible so that children have many opportunities to work scientifically and revise these practices. It is important our children are given opportunities to make links and be immersed into topics fully. Where there are connections between topics or subjects, we treat these as further opportunities for children to recall their prior knowledge and deepen their understanding. Our teachers model the use of scientific language so children are confident in articulating scientific concepts clearly. We encourage our children to learn and ‘work’ in different ways – just like real scientist would – through reading, writing, talking and investigative science. We aspire for our children to leave Harry Gosling having built up both knowledge and skills to enable them to understand how science can be used to explain what is occurring around them, predict how things may behave and analyse causes. | <urn:uuid:fe2c62e9-387c-43ad-9cb9-4c1bce029061> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2023-50",
"url": "https://www.harrygoslingprimary.co.uk/curriculum/science-1",
"date": "2023-12-10T19:50:05",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679102637.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20231210190744-20231210220744-00715.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9640241861343384,
"token_count": 416,
"score": 4.125,
"int_score": 4
} | 416 |
Does Space Exploration Have a Sustainability Problem?
As space exploration from both the private sector and governments continues to grow, not only does the number of orbiting satellites increase, so too does the amount of space junk, or debris.
Every mission to space leaves a debris signature. For example, small fragments of paint are released as a natural consequence of the separation activities between a launcher and its payload. Some debris incursion is unavoidable, but debris mitigation is fast becoming a priority for regulators that license commercial activity.
We have already witnessed the incursion of pollution in general into the Earth’s oceans. Now is the time to take steps so that space does not suffer the same fate and remains sustainable.
What Is Sustainability in Space?
The proliferation of debris in space, which has virtually doubled in the past 10 years (see Figure 1), is the equivalent of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch — a collection of marine debris in the North Pacific Ocean. The Western Garbage Patch, located near Japan, and the Eastern Garbage Patch, located between Hawaii and California, are vortices of debris bound by the massive North Pacific Subtropical Gyre.
Figure 1: The Number of Objects in All Orbits Has Grown Significantly Between 1960 and 2020
Polluting the sea causes damage to marine life and the marine environment. For humans, this manifests itself in the food chain.
Space is different. Debris, which performs no function, is simply a hazard to another object that is intended to be in space. Orbital paths cross one another, and launching new satellites into space is similar to crossing a three-lane road. There needs to be a gap in each lane to be able to cross safely. If traffic increases significantly, crossing the road becomes difficult.
In simple terms, too much debris would spell the end of access to space.
Why Is Space Important?
The International Telecommunications Union describes space exploration as “the backbone of modern communication technologies.” Behind every phone call, internet search, remote financial transaction, and many other daily activities is space technology.
The presence of space debris may not lead to large hunks of metal falling from the skies. Still, it poses a significant threat to our day-to-day lives. Information from satellites provides our transport systems with global positioning, our banking systems with transaction timing, and our aircraft and shipping sectors with up-to-date and accurate positioning services. We rely significantly on satellites, and most of us engage with 20 to 30 satellites before we finish our morning coffee or send our first work email.
Further commercialization of space will bring even more benefits. There are a host of new applications, including environmental and crop monitoring, more accurate weather forecasting, and the manufacturing in space of industrial and pharmaceutical materials that cannot be manufactured on Earth. These will bring huge benefits to society.
What Is Being Done About the Debris Problem?
Space agencies regulate the activities of commercial actors that operate from their given state. Recently, we have seen increased focus on finding the best way to promote sustainability by mitigating the risk, managing the way space objects are dealt with, and removing debris.
Mitigating the Risk and Managing Existing Objects in Space
Ideally, operations should be conducted in a way that the mission produces minimal debris and leaves little, if anything, behind in space. Operators should be encouraged to commit to behaving as good citizens and construct their spacecraft in a way that reduces the debris signature during launch, operation, and at the end of the mission’s life. The ability for a satellite to be able to maneuver is an important consideration because it means it can avoid a collision. It also means the satellite can be moved to a safe graveyard orbit or deliberately de-orbited at the end of its life.
Keeping as much debris out of space as possible may necessitate coordinating activity to avoid collisions by using tracking and positioning equipment that can determine the precise location of objects. A number of commercial entities are now able to accurately locate the position of objects that are just 1 millimeter in size. This level of accuracy will help operators avoid collisions, which would otherwise increase the amount of debris in space.
The process of active debris removal entails seeking out known hazards, capturing them, and removing them from their orbits so that they no longer pose a hazard to other spacecraft. A live spacecraft connects to a defunct piece of debris and then transports it to a graveyard orbit. This type of mission is more suitable for low earth orbit activity. The debris is “dropped off” in a very low orbit, which causes it to enter the Earth’s atmosphere and burn up on re-entry.
Alternatively, debris can be stored in space. In this scenario, the debris is picked up and placed in a “safe” orbit to make a compact — and managed — debris cloud. Debris in the cloud may even be held in orbiting trash can-type structures. The debris can then be salvaged and materials recycled for manufacturing new hardware in space. While this may sound farfetched, and there are considerable legal challenges to overcome, it is a very real prospect.
The U.K. Space Agency is one of the global space agencies leading the way in these matters: The U.K.’s National Space Strategy sets out a bold vision for the sector, recognizing the need of making space safe and sustainable.
The Intersection of Sustainability and Financing
As we move toward greater commercial exploitation of space, with all of the benefits that it may bring, let us not forget one of the most fundamental aspects — funding. The space sector has a new breed of entrepreneurs who bring fresh ideas that will benefit society in ways that we have never imagined. They are in touch with their sustainability and environmental credentials and, therefore, expect more from their suppliers and partners and want the people they work with to share their values.
The prioritization of sustainability features strongly when it comes to accessing financing for space missions. Lenders and investors are today far more focused on environmental, social, and governance issues when it comes to deciding whether to participate in projects. With ambitious sustainability targets, lenders and venture capitalists need to demonstrate to their shareholders and investors that they are making strong ethical decisions.
Access to space is imperative to our day-to-day lives, underscoring the importance that it is protected. The good news is that those involved seem to be engaging with the issue in a more timely manner than we have when it came to protecting the High Seas. | <urn:uuid:c4aeb52f-e12a-4dfe-932c-a732c40602a8> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2022-49",
"url": "https://www.brinknews.com/space-debris-and-sustainability-in-space/",
"date": "2022-12-01T04:15:36",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446710789.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20221201021257-20221201051257-00274.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9419761896133423,
"token_count": 1328,
"score": 3.75,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,328 |
News & Blog
Draft Guidelines to Prevent Species from Becoming Threatened or Endangered
The Cartagena Convention is unique in the breadth of its multiple mandates to protect the environment of the Wider Caribbean.
From the web-site of the United Nations Environment Programme?s Caribbean Environment Programme (UNEP/CEP):
The Caribbean Environment Programme (CEP) is one of the UNEP administered Regional Seas Programmes. The CEP is managed by and for the countries of the Wider Caribbean Region through the Caribbean Action Plan (1981) outlining regional environmental challenges.
The Action Plan led to the 1983 adoption of the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention), which provides the legal framework. The Convention has been supplemented by three protocols addressing specific environmental issues namely, oil spills, specially protected areas and wildlife and land-based sources and activities or marine pollution. The CEP provides the programmatic framework for the Cartagena Convention.
The Caribbean Regional Co-ordinating Unit (CAR/RCU) located in Kingston, Jamaica was created in 1986 and serves as Secretariat to the CEP. The CEP has three main sub-programmes:
* Assessment and Management of Environment Pollution (AMEP).
* Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW).
* Communication, Education, Training and Awareness (CETA).
For more information on the various sub-programmes download the CEP Brochure (available in English and Spanish).
Within the context of the SPAW Protocol there are special provisions relating to ?Guidelines to Prevent Species
from becoming Endangered or Threatened? [Subtitle: Conservation of Ecosystems and Biological Diversity in the Wider Caribbean Region]. These Guidelines have been submitted in draft to the CEP and to the Regional Activity Centre in Guadeloupe, and can be downloaded for inspection and review here.
One response to “Draft Guidelines to Prevent Species from Becoming Threatened or Endangered”
- All Blog Posts
- Climate Change
- Coastal Zone Management
- Coral Reef
- Disaster Management
- Ecosystem Services
- Environmental Planning
- Environmental Profile
- Erosion and Sedimentation
- Institutional Development
- Jost van Dyke
- Multi-lateral Environmental Agreement
- Resource Protection
- Sandy Cay
- Sea Level Rise
- Virgin Gorda | <urn:uuid:a7c0b99a-909b-46de-a5ec-0d31a659b45b> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2021-43",
"url": "https://www.irf.org/draft-guidelines-to-prevent-species-from-becoming-threatened-or-endangered/",
"date": "2021-10-21T05:22:04",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585381.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20211021040342-20211021070342-00258.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8441444039344788,
"token_count": 498,
"score": 3.6875,
"int_score": 4
} | 498 |
Developmental Co-ordination Disorder (DCD) or Dyspraxia is a term used to describe a delay in development of, or difficulty co-ordinating motor skills in children that directly affects the child’s ability to perform common everyday activities. Everyday activities refers to the tasks that children complete on a daily basis, and include activities such as writing, playing, drawing, moving, balancing, running, getting dressed and tying shoelaces or completing other fine motor tasks.
An occupational therapist can develop these skills, and improve the motor co-ordination of a child with DCD or Dyspraxia. The occupational therapist would use occupations to enhance and develop the underlying skills that gross motor skills compose of.
Does your child have any of the following difficulties?
Often described as being clumsy or awkward, children with DCD or Dyspraxia have common difficulties in everyday tasks. A child with DCD or Dyspraxia has the following symptoms:
- Difficulty going downstairs
- Struggling to throw or catch
- Unable to/ struggling to run
- Difficulty navigating an obstacle course in P.E
- Difficulty traversing through forests or rough ground
- Poor balance
- Tying shoelaces
- Completing fine motor tasks
- Poor sentence formation
- Getting dressed
An occupational therapist can help with all of these problems (and others that are not listed) through the use of different treatment techniques. For example, a child who struggles to catch a ball can undergo therapy whereby the skills needed to complete this task are developed and improved through an array of similar tasks so that these developed skills will improve the child’s ability to catch a ball.
How can these difficulties impact function?
DCD can have a dramatic effect on function both at school and home. Children begin to pick up on who is more able to complete activities and who is behind; this could lead to social issues such as bullying and teasing. Some examples of how a child with DCD or Dyspraxia may struggle at home, in school or socially are listed below:
- Spilling drinks and difficulty carrying food
- Falling frequently and often bumps into walls
- Doesn’t like playing outside, or finds it difficult to catch/throw
- Struggling in P.E
- Difficulty catching or throwing
- Identified to be finding movements hard to complete
- Dislikes being trusted to carry objects from one place to another
- Poor balance
- Teased for their poor ability in lessons
- Difficulty competing at the same level of their peers
- Low confidence in movement activities
What exactly does DCD or Dyspraxia involve?
The exact cause of DCD or Dyspraxia is unknown, it can occur at any stage or development and for many reasons. Children constantly receive input from their senses regarding the outside world as they learn how to interact with it and its objects, a breakdown in communication between the senses on the body and the brain could lead to DCD or Dyspraxia. | <urn:uuid:87efb5be-6ac6-4d37-9c56-f6401aaed0cd> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2023-23",
"url": "https://gabriellacentre.or.tz/departments/dyspraxia-or-developmental-coordination-disorder/",
"date": "2023-06-02T22:16:50",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224648858.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20230602204755-20230602234755-00732.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9539918303489685,
"token_count": 622,
"score": 3.5,
"int_score": 4
} | 622 |
On August 7, 1782, George Washington created three new military badges that would honor the service of ordinary, common soldiers. As Washington explained, his motives were to honor acts of bravery amongst his regular soldiers, because "The road to glory in a patriot army and a free country is thus open to all." In his General Orders of August 7, 1782, Washington outlined the creation of both Honorary Badges of Distinction and a Badge of Military Merit.
The first Badge of Distinction was to be "conferred on the veteran Non commissioned officers and soldiers of the army who have served more than three years with bravery, fidelity and good conduct," and would consist of "a narrow piece of white cloth of an angular form…to be fixed to the left arm on the uniform Coat." Non-commissioned officers and soldiers worthy of honor who served more than six years were "to be distinguished by two pieces of cloth set in parallel to each other in a similar form."
In addition, Washington established the creation of a Badge of Military Merit because he was "ever desirous to cherish virtuous ambition in his soldiers. . ." The General Orders explained that "whenever any singularly meritorious action is performed, the author of it shall be permitted to wear on his facings over the left breast, the figure of a heart in purple cloth, or silk, edged with narrow lace or binding."1
Only three individuals are known to have received the Badge of Military Merit during the American Revolution. On May 3, 1783, Sergeant William Brown of the 5th Connecticut Regiment of the Connecticut Line, and Sergeant Elijah Churchill of the 2nd Continental Light Dragoons were awarded the Badge of Military Merit.2 A month later, on June 10, 1783, Sergeant Daniel Bissell of the 2nd Connecticut Regiment of the Connecticut Line was also awarded a Badge of Military Merit.3
With this order, Washington established a policy of formal recognition of the heroic contributions of regular soldiers, rather than just solely members of the officer class. In addition, Washington created the precedence for the eventual establishment of the Purple Heart, adopted by the army in 1932 at the behest of General Douglas MacArthur in conjunction with the two hundredth anniversary of Washington's birth.
1. George Washington, "7 August 1782, General Orders." The Writings of George Washington, ed. John C. Fitzpatrick (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office).
2. George Washington, "27 April 1783, General Orders." The Writings of George Washington, ed. John C. Fitzpatrick (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office).
3. George Washington, "8 June 1783, General Orders." The Writings of George Washington, ed. John C. Fitzpatrick (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office). | <urn:uuid:79c1e615-2de0-40cb-88b2-1824bdad594e> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2020-40",
"url": "https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/military-badges/",
"date": "2020-09-20T11:42:00",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-40/segments/1600400197946.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200920094130-20200920124130-00656.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.958403468132019,
"token_count": 577,
"score": 3.71875,
"int_score": 4
} | 577 |
Intussusception is a condition in which one segment of intestine "telescopes" inside of another, causing an intestinal obstruction. Although it can occur anywhere in the gastrointestinal tract, it usually occurs at the junction of the small and large intestines. The obstruction can cause swelling and inflammation that can lead to tearing of the intestines.
The exact cause of intussusception is unknown. In most cases, it is preceded by a virus that produces swelling of the lining of the intestine, which then slips into the intestine below. In some children, it is caused by a condition that the child is born with, such as a polyp or diverticulum.
What are the symptoms of intussusception?
The main signs and symptoms of intussusception are episodic, severe, crampy abdominal pain alternating with periods of lethargy (feeling tired). Small children may draw their knees up to their chest.
Other possible symptoms of intussusception include nausea, vomiting, and rectal bleeding (red jelly-like stools), sometimes mixed with mucus. These symptoms begin suddenly, usually one week after a non-specific viral illness.
How common is intussusception?
Intussusception occurs most commonly between the ages of 3 and 36 months, but may occur at any age. It is seen in approximately 1 in 1,200 children, and more often in boys. Intussusception occurs most frequently in the fall and winter months during viral season, but may occur at any time of the year.
How is intussusception diagnosed?
Intussusception can be felt as an abdominal mass during a physical examination. Ultrasonography is able to identify the mass with 100 percent accuracy and is the first radiologic test prescribed for patients with suspected intussusception. Two other radiologic tests--barium enema and air contrast enema--also are used to help diagnose intussusception.
How is intussusception treated?
Once intussusception is diagnosed, the next step is to attempt reduction (to push the intestine back) using a liquid contrast enema or air contrast enema (same test used for diagnosis). This is a radiologic procedure, not a surgical procedure, and the patient does not need anesthesia.
These procedures (liquid contrast enema and air contrast enema) have a 60 to 70 percent success rate, with a 6 percent to 10 percent rate of intussusception recurrence (return). They have a low risk of complications, as well. If hydrostatic reduction is unsuccessful, then the patient will need surgery. Surgery may also be done if there is significant infection, or if the patient is too ill for the radiologic procedure.
During the surgery
- The child is fully sedated by a pediatric anesthesiologist (a specialist in pain relief and sedation in children).
- If laparoscopy will be performed, small instruments and a camera will be inserted through small stab incisions (cuts) into the abdominal cavity.
- Alternatively, a small incision is made on the right side of the abdomen, and the intestine is pushed back into its normal position.
- If the intussusception cannot be reduced, then the surgeon will remove the involved segment of bowel.
After the surgery
Your child is given pain medication to keep him or her comfortable after the surgery. The child will require intravenous (in the vein) fluids for several days, because the intestines are temporarily slowed. Feedings are withheld during this period. Most children are able to resume eating in 1 to 3 days.
What to expect after discharge
Your child will be ready for discharge when he or she can eat a regular diet, has no fever or drainage from the incision, and has normal bowel function.
Most children will require a few days of rest at home before returning to school, and 2 to 4 weeks before returning to gym and sports.
When to call your child's health care provider
You may notice some minor swelling around the incision; this is normal. However, call your health care provider if your child develops:
- excessive swelling, redness, or drainage from the incision
- increasing pain
Follow-up office appointment
A follow-up outpatient visit will be scheduled for 4 weeks after your child's surgery. Your child's health care provider will examine the wound and evaluate his or her recovery.
© Copyright 1995-2013 The Cleveland Clinic Foundation. All rights reserved.
Can't find the health information you’re looking for?
This information is provided by the Cleveland Clinic and is not intended to replace the medical advice of your doctor or health care provider. Please consult your health care provider for advice about a specific medical condition. This document was last reviewed on: 6/12/2013…#10793 | <urn:uuid:990e5cfd-ccd9-4a53-a7a8-92382a4ad95e> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2015-32",
"url": "http://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases_conditions/hic_intussusception",
"date": "2015-07-31T13:31:50",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-32/segments/1438042988305.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20150728002308-00342-ip-10-236-191-2.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9213069081306458,
"token_count": 992,
"score": 3.625,
"int_score": 4
} | 992 |
Large blackouts can be particularly devastating and happen much more frequently than a normal distribution predicts.
The impact of a blackout exponentially increases with the duration of the blackout, and the duration of restoration decreases exponentially with the availability of initial sources of power. For several time-critical loads, quick restoration (minutes rather than hours or even days) is crucial. Blackstart generators, which can be started without any connection to the grid, are a key element in restoring service after a widespread outage. These initial sources of power include pump-storage hydropower, which can take 5-10 minutes to start, to certain types of combustion turbines, which take on the order of hours.
For a limited outage, restoration can be rapid, which will then allow sufficient time for repair to bring the system to full operability, although there may be a challenge for subsurface cables in metropolitan areas. On the other hand, in widespread outages, restoration itself may be a significant barrier, as was the case in the 1965 and 2003 Northeast blackouts. Natural disasters, however, can also lead to significant issues of repair—after Hurricanes Rita and Katrina, full repair of the electric power system took several years (NAS)
Restoring a system from a blackout required a very careful choreography of re-energizing transmission lines from generators that were still online inside the blacked-out area, from systems from outside the blacked-out area, restoring station power to off-line generating units so they could be restarted, synchronizing the generators to the interconnection, and then constantly balancing generation and demand as additional generating units and additional customer demands are restored to service.
Many may not realize it takes days to bring nuclear and coal fired power plants back on-line, so restoring power was done with gas-fired plants normally used for peak periods to cover baseload needs normally coal and nuclear-powered. The diversity of our energy systems proved invaluable (CR).
Restarting the grid after the 2003 power outage was especially difficult.
The blackout shutdown over 100 power plants, including 22 nuclear reactors, cutoff power for 50 million people in 8 states and Canada, including much of the Northeast corridor and the core of the American financial network, and showed just how vulnerable our tightly knit network of generators, transmission lines, and other critical infrastructure is.
The dependence of major infrastructural systems on the continued supply of electrical energy, and of oil and gas, is well recognized. Telecommunications, information technology, and the Internet, as well as food and water supplies, homes and worksites, are dependent on electricity; numerous commercial and transportation facilities are also dependent on natural gas and refined oil products.
NAS. 2012. Terrorism and the Electric Power Delivery System. National Academy of Science
NAS. 2013. The Resilience of the Electric Power Delivery System in Response to Terrorism and Natural Disasters. National Academy of Science
CR. September 4 & 23, 2003. Implications of power blackouts for the nation’s cybersecurity and critical infrastructure protection. Congressional Record, House of Representatives. Serial No. 108–23. Christopher Cox, California, Chairman select committee on homeland security | <urn:uuid:7cf790ed-7ca3-4d2c-a390-3c69c88071c2> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2017-22",
"url": "http://energyskeptic.com/2015/blackstarting-the-grid-after-a-power-outage/",
"date": "2017-05-25T18:12:36",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-22/segments/1495463608120.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20170525180025-20170525200025-00197.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9373077154159546,
"token_count": 641,
"score": 3.5,
"int_score": 4
} | 641 |
There are four life stages a mosquito goes through before reaching maturity. Gaining an understanding about these life stages can help you to effectively prepare for and prevent a mosquito problem within your home. The life cycle is the same for almost every mosquito, but there are a few variations depending on the species and other factors such as climate and water temperature.
Mosquitos lay hundreds of eggs every few days, usually after a blood feed. They usually do so at night and the eggs can be nearly impossible to see because they are dark in color. The most important factor when a mosquito lays a set of eggs is that there is a watery environment nearby.
This could be a swimming pool, bath tub, shower or pond. Typically, when a mosquito lays her eggs, the eggs attach themselves together to form ‘rafts’ which then float on water. These rafts are about ¼ inch long. There are, however, a few species of mosquito such as Ochlerotatus and Aedes that lay eggs one by one on wet soil or similar environments. Within 48 hours, the eggs hatch into larvae.
Larvae is what occurs after the eggs hatch and they are approximately 5mm in length. These are sometimes referred to as ‘wigglers’ due to the style of movement. Larva inhabits water, hanging upside down under the surface to breathe via their siphon tubes located within their tails. Anopheles larvae are devoid of a siphon, so lay just underneath the surface of the water to get an oxygen supply.
Coquillettidia and Mansonia larvae fix themselves to plants. They do this in order to gain an air supply through the plant. The larvae consume microorganisms and organic matter to survive. They are cold blooded, so rely on heat from the water to grow. The warmer the water, the more rapidly this stage develops. They shed their skin 4 times, and each time they increase in size. After the fourth shedding, the larva changes into a pupa. This is a good stage within the life cycle to use poisons and insect killers as they prevent the larvae from being able to breathe. The stage of the cycle lasts about 10 days.
The pupal stage is when a mosquito transforms into an adult. It is also referred to as the ‘resting stage’. The pupal are mobile, and respond to light and movement, but do not actively feed. Often they are referred to as ‘tumblers’ due to the way they fall into deep waters whenever a predator (such as a fish or bird) is nearby.
As they are lighter than water, the majority of their time is spent just above the surface of the water. They breathe through two tubes called ‘trumpets’. This stage of the life cycle takes about two days to complete, although it depends on the species and climate. After the resting stage, the pupal skin (or cocoon) comes apart and the adult mosquito emerges and goes to the surface of the water to sit for a while.
After the pupae have metamorphosed into an adult mosquito, it’ll rest on the surface of the water for a time allowing its skin to harden and dry out. Its wings will begin to spread and after a day or two, it’ll be able to fly and feed. Male mosquitos are able to breed as soon as their reproductive systems have developed, and die a few days after mating. From maturity to death, a male mosquito will only live about a week, with an aim to breed as much as possible. A female will live for over a month in ideal climates and will lay a batch of eggs after each blood feed.
It is important to have some awareness of the life cycle of a mosquito so that you can kill off a population before they reach maturity. It is usually during the larvae stage that effective extermination can take place. If you would like to learn more about our mosquito control services, contact us today! | <urn:uuid:50a41f3c-939a-4972-ad74-03c94e64e4f1> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2018-09",
"url": "https://dugaspestcontrol.com/the-lifecycle-of-the-mosquito/",
"date": "2018-02-23T02:39:07",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-09/segments/1518891814311.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20180223015726-20180223035726-00570.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9723725318908691,
"token_count": 818,
"score": 3.859375,
"int_score": 4
} | 818 |
About This Chapter
Today, indigenous individuals and communities work to reconcile their worldview, traditions, and aspirations for self-expression and autonomy with the political and social reality of twenty-first-century Canada. In this chapter, we will explore examples of leaders and activists who are advocating for indigenous rights and culture.
- Are individual rights enough to ensure freedom for all?
- What kinds of rights should a group have when its members seek to express themselves as a group, not just as individuals?
- Can the Canadian democracy accommodate Indigenous Peoples who argue that they are, in fact, a sovereign nation?
- sovereign sovereign: Sovereignty defines a state’s freedom to mind its own internal affairs and to govern its own people. Some notions of sovereignty are not exclusive: several notions of First Nations self-government can be (and in fact are) accommodated within the Canadian political system.
This chapter is from the Civic Choices section of Stolen Lives and includes:
- 4 readings
- Connection questions
The lives of the Indigenous Peoples of Canada are deeply intertwined with the colonial history of the country, during which they were robbed by the government and other agencies of rights afforded to them by legally binding treaties and of their land, which was illegally seized by the government and private developers. Today, indigenous individuals and communities work to reconcile their worldview, traditions, and aspirations for self-expression and autonomy with the political and social reality of twenty-first-century Canada. But a larger and more universal issue is bound up in this. What makes us members of a free society? In democratic societies, the fundamental assumption is that individual rights, equality before the law, and a measure of protection from government interference in individual choices would ensure the greatest freedom to all. Some would argue that those defenses are also the best protection against prejudice and discrimination.
The indigenous struggle challenges some of these assumptions and forces us to look more closely at the ideas behind our democracies. Specifically, it exposes the tensions between individual and group freedoms. The strain exists because in a democracy, a person’s religious, political, or ethnic associations are viewed as secondary to his or her membership in the national community. For example, the government and parliament, as representative of the nation as a whole, are the bodies that make decisions about policies and new laws. Religious groups, ethnic minorities, and political organizations cannot impose their views on the rest of the nation. In fact, citizenship is given to everybody regardless of religious, political, or ethnic affiliation. However, many indigenous groups in Canada claim rights not only for their members as individuals but also autonomy inside or, to an extent, alongside the nation of Canada. They claim the right to exercise their autonomy as people in control of their own destiny, both as individuals and as a group of people.
What does the struggle of First Nations , Métis , and Inuit for their pre-existing rights look like? What are activists and leaders hoping to achieve? The first part of this chapter explores the challenges we just discussed, and the second focuses on the Blue Quills First Nations College. In the last readings of this chapter, we will consider stories of how young people use their history and culture to build bridges to others and toward the future.
- indigenous indigenous: A generic term for communities of people who resided on territories before they were invaded and/or colonized (primarily by Europeans). Many descendants of these communities have a historical and cultural continuity with their pre-colonial ancestors. For some, the term indigenous is preferable to Aboriginal in reference to the First Nations, Métis, and Inuit in Canada.
- First Nations First Nations: First Nations have lived in North America for tens of thousands of years. Today, the term refers to some 617 different communities, traditionally composed of groups of 400 or so. These nations enjoy a richness and diversity of identity, culture, and customs. Many view North America as their traditional homeland and do not recognize aspects of US and Canadian sovereignty. Alongside the Métis and Inuit Peoples, First Nations are part of a larger grouping officially called the Aboriginal Peoples of Canada.
- Métis Métis: The term broadly describes descendants of mixed European and First Nations ancestry. In a narrow sense, Métis refers only to the descendants of First Nations people and French settlers in Manitoba. The history of the Métis reflects the intermingling of their different ways of life during the seventeenth- and eighteenth-century North American fur trade. Eventually, these descendants developed distinct language, culture, and traditions.
Inside this Chapter
How are you planning to use this resource?Tell Us More
Unlimited Access to Learning. More Added Every Month.
Facing History & Ourselves is designed for educators who want to help students explore identity, think critically, grow emotionally, act ethically, and participate in civic life. It’s hard work, so we’ve developed some go-to professional learning opportunities to help you along the way.
Exploring ELA Text Selection with Julia Torres
Working for Justice, Equity and Civic Agency in Our Schools: A Conversation with Clint Smith
Centering Student Voices to Build Community and Agency | <urn:uuid:840b731f-c427-417a-bd6d-a5ffabc2eeb7> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2023-14",
"url": "https://www.facinghistory.org/en-ca/resource-library/civic-choices",
"date": "2023-03-21T07:31:46",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296943637.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20230321064400-20230321094400-00367.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9524798393249512,
"token_count": 1055,
"score": 3.78125,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,055 |
Introduction to statistical methodology: statistics a science that deals with collecting data, describing/summarizing the data, comparing groups, fitting models, & making predictions. Sources of data: primary data collected by the experimenters themselves, experimental data data from random experiments, observational data data collected without experimental setup, secondary data data collected from secondary source. Statistical science encompasses a body of methods for obtaining & analyzing data. The methods can be divided into 3 groups: design. Deals with planning how to gather informative data for a research study to investigate questions of interest to us. It enables social scientists to select people to interview & construct the questionnaire to administer: description. Social scientists often us graphs & tables for this purpose. The purpose is to reduce the data to a simpler & more understandable form without distorting or losing much information: inference. Making statement about some characteristics of the study population by analyzing uncertainty in an objective manner. | <urn:uuid:efea80fb-9d06-44d8-bd93-f41270c6545e> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2022-05",
"url": "https://oneclass.com/study-guides/ca/utsc/sta-actb/stab-23h3/1931425-stab23h3-final.en.html",
"date": "2022-01-22T08:53:41",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-05/segments/1642320303779.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20220122073422-20220122103422-00038.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.860477864742279,
"token_count": 182,
"score": 3.703125,
"int_score": 4
} | 182 |
Bronchiolitis is a viral infection which is very contagious and affects about 30% of infants under 2 years old each year in Britain. In general, more than half of these children are under 6 months old. This infection is more common in boys, children who have not been breast fed and people living in crowded places.
What are the symptoms of bronchiolitis?
The respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is often the cause of this infection. It takes about 5 to 10 days to cure this infection which infects the tiny airways that lead to the lungs, called the bronchioles.
Here are some of the main symptoms of bronchiolitis:
- congested nose,
- episodes of dry and heavy coughing that get progressively worse,
- breathing difficulties, wheezing,
- moderate fever,
The cough can last two to three weeks if the child isn’t seen to quickly. If you notice symptoms appearing consult your doctor so that it can avoid any urgent breathing complications which could lead to urgent hospitalisation.
What advice should you follow?
If the child has bronchiolitis take the opportunity to air your child’s room when they are not there for 10 minutes per day. Wait until the temperature in the room has reached 19°C again before your baby returns to the room.
If one of the parents or children in your toddler/parent group has a nasal infection it is recommended that you wear a mask to avoid any transmission of the virus to an infant under the age of two.
You can also disinfect the infant’s nose with saline solution if it is clogged. You should also keep your child at home when they have infectious and contagious symptoms (fever, cough, diarrhea …) Watch their breathing, temperature and feces.
What treatments are there?
After a lung auscultation of the child and possible lung x-rays, the doctor will be able to make a diagnosis and establish a personalised prescription depending on the case.
Using saline solution is generally advised several times per day but antibiotics are rarely prescribed to an infant under the age of two. Respiratory physiotherapy can be prescribed to help the child breathe better. Nowadays this type of physiotherapy is the main mode to treat bronchiolitis because it allows bronchial secretions in the the baby’s body to evacuate through movements on the child’s rib cage and abdomen. | <urn:uuid:7a0c526d-d5df-4d74-b614-3d4c00e0a161> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2019-09",
"url": "https://healthnwellness.co.uk/infant-bronchiolitis-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/",
"date": "2019-02-21T01:59:52",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-09/segments/1550247497858.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20190221010932-20190221032932-00476.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9424642324447632,
"token_count": 504,
"score": 3.515625,
"int_score": 4
} | 504 |
Like a detective trying to pick up the trail of a killer by sifting through seemingly innocuous objects left at the scene of the crime, Jennifer McElwain these days is looking closely at old leaves she collected this summer in the frozen wastes of Greenland.
The deadly occurrence that McElwain is investigating happened 206 million years ago, when 95 percent of Earth's plant species and perhaps 40 percent of its land animals went extinct.
The suspected killer was a buildup of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere, the same culprit many biologists believe could trigger new extinctions over the next 100 years by way of global warming.
McElwain, 30, startled the world of paleobotany in 1999 when she ingeniously documented the 206-million-year-old global die-off with a precision no one had thought possible. Still a postgraduate student at England's Sheffield University at the time, she did it by studying plant fossils collected in Greenland in the 1920s.
In geological history, the extinctions McElwain is studying marked the end of the Triassic period and the beginning of the Jurassic period, when dinosaurs began to dominate.
The raw materials she studies are fossil leaves of plants that grew before, during and after the die-off of Triassic plants and animals. By counting changes in the number of tiny pores on the ancient leaf surfaces, she found evidence of a rapid surge of seven times the normal amount of CO (-2) in the atmosphere.
"CO (-2) is an important greenhouse gas," said McElwain, an English-born Irish woman the Field Museum eagerly hired 2 1/2 years ago. "It traps heat from the sun in the Earth's atmosphere. The more CO (-2) there is in the atmosphere, the more heat is trapped, which is why it is called the `greenhouse effect.'"
Heating things up
Global warming in the Triassic period caused by an increase in greenhouse gases caused the leaves of plants growing at that time to burn up, she said.
"If plants couldn't evade lethal heat, they went extinct. As the climate change resulted in major changes in vegetation, it may have contributed to species extinctions of animals that depended on those plants as food."
More than mere academic curiosity hovers over her research. CO (-2) levels today, fed by humanity's insatiable and growing use of fossil fuels, are rising at perhaps an even faster rate than during the so-called Triassic-Jurassic Boundary.
In 1900, the Earth's atmosphere contained 300 parts per million of CO (-2) . Today it is 360 parts per million and growing at a rate that will put it at 700 parts per million at the end of this century.
"The work Jenny is involved with is very important," said Paul Olsen, a mass extinctions expert at Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory in New Jersey.
"It will shed light on the mechanism of mass extinctions. Showing this massive increase in CO (-2) is a fascinating revelation. It is not obvious that CO (-2) is a cause or consequence of mass extinction, but there may have been a `super greenhouse' effect that was the killing mechanism."
Triassic-Jurassic fossils are found only in a few areas in the world, in rock deposits laid down between 200 and 206 million years ago--in Sweden, Greenland and geologic formations west of New York City, including the Palisades along the Hudson River.
The hardest to get to are in remote, frozen rock faces along the world's biggest fjord, Scoresby Sund, in northeast Greenland. They contain rich deposits prospected in the 1920s by British paleontologist Thomas Harris, who excavated the plant fossils McElwain used in her 1999 study.
"Harris built up a fantastic picture of 200 species of plants growing in Greenland 200 million years ago," McElwain said.
When paleontologists break open rocks containing fossilized plants, in many cases they also find, still intact, the "cuticle", the waxy polymer that coats the leaves of all land plants.
The cuticle is what most interests McElwain because they contain the perfect outlines of the tiny pores, called stomata, that pock the leaf surfaces.
Plants live by combining CO (-2) and water into nourishing sugars, a process powered by the energy of sunlight through photosynthesis. The CO (-2) is absorbed into the plant through the stomata on its leaves.
Researchers growing plants in atmospheres enriched with CO (-2) have noticed that the higher the CO (-2) content, the fewer stomata appear on the plant's leaves.
By tracking the number of stomata on the fossil plant cuticles, McElwain realized she could gauge the rise and fall of the world's atmospheric CO (-2) more than 200 million years ago.
The carbon dioxide trail
"We want to see how CO (-2) levels changed over time, and how the plants changed in that same time frame," she said. | <urn:uuid:4daf7bae-383b-4c8a-8cb9-6bf72cbeb638> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2018-26",
"url": "http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2002-12-09/news/0212090194_1_extinctions-global-warming-increase-in-greenhouse-gases",
"date": "2018-06-23T12:32:48",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-26/segments/1529267864958.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20180623113131-20180623133131-00388.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9513089060783386,
"token_count": 1048,
"score": 4.125,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,048 |
Egg whites and egg yolks are rich in protein. Protein, which is held together by weak hydrogen bonds, can be easily changed by heat.
Boiling water maintains a steady temperature of 212 degrees Fahrenheit (100 degrees Celsius), which is hot enough to change the physical form of proteins. It breaks down the weak hydrogen bonds.
The proteins in eggs occur naturally as loose balls, held together by those hydrogen bonds. Boiling causes the balls to unravel, then solidify in their longer form. That makes the consistency more solid, though it is in reality a firm gel.
The longer the duration of boiling, the more denaturing will occur. A three-minute egg ("soft boiled") is runny, because much of its proteins have not been denatured. A hard-boiled egg with a hard yolk is completely denatured.
An egg white contains mostly protein (and water), while a yolk contains protein, cholesterol, carbohydrates and fat (and water). This is why the two behave differently, and the white of an egg solidifies before the yolk.
No one has yet "unfried" an egg, which would reveal the complex chemical nature of proteins. Viruses such as the common cold are also proteins, which is part of the reason that viruses are difficult to manage, chemically.
- "Understanding Primary Science"; Martin Wenham; 2004
- US Department of Energy, "Ask a Scientist"
- Photo Credit Image by Flickr.com, courtesy of Rick Audet
Are Hard-Boiled Eggs a Good Source of Protein?
A hard-boiled, or hard-cooked, egg is an excellent source of protein, most of which is found in the white part. In fact,...
Chemical Reactions Involved in Baking a Cake
A cake can be one of many flavors and shapes, but all cake recipes have the same basic components: a base, such...
How to Boil an Egg
Boiling an egg to the desired consistency is not as simple as it may seem. A timer is essential in getting it...
Science Projects About Kitchen Chemistry
Though chemistry is not often considered fun, lessons in the kitchen can be an entertaining and creative way to teach some basic...
Raw Egg & Vinegar Experiments
Science experiments with raw eggs and vinegar can be a fun and interesting way for kids and students to learn about chemical... | <urn:uuid:e9eb6edb-d068-472c-989a-d522aeee01ac> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2016-50",
"url": "http://www.ehow.com/facts_5579397_chemical-reactions-involved-boiling-egg_.html",
"date": "2016-12-03T13:47:33",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-50/segments/1480698540932.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20161202170900-00235-ip-10-31-129-80.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9429447650909424,
"token_count": 492,
"score": 3.859375,
"int_score": 4
} | 492 |
Sigmoid Activation Function in Detail Explained
When it comes to artificial neural networks, the Sigmoid activation function is a real superstar! It might sound like a fancy term, but don’t worry; we’re going to break it down in a way that even your grandma would understand.
What’s the Buzz About Activation Functions?
Before we zoom in on the Sigmoid activation function, let’s understand the bigger picture. Imagine you’re training a neural network to classify between cute kittens and adorable puppies in pictures. Each neuron in your network collects information and decides whether the image it receives is a kitten or a puppy. But how does a neuron make such a decision? Well, that’s where activation functions come into play!
The Sigmoid Function: From Analog to Digital
Our journey starts in the 1940s when scientists and mathematicians were paving the way for modern computing. A brilliant mind named Warren McCulloch came up with the idea of mimicking the behavior of a biological neuron using mathematics. His work, alongside the great Walter Pitts, laid the foundation for artificial neural networks.
Fast forward to the 1950s, and the Sigmoid function enters the scene. The Sigmoid function, often denoted as σ(x), is a smooth, S-shaped curve that maps any real value to a range between 0 and 1. Its smoothness and continuous nature made it ideal for modeling the behavior of biological neurons, and it quickly became a favorite among researchers.
The Sigmoid activation function takes an input, let’s call it ‘x,’ and applies the following mathematical magic:
σ(x) = 1 / (1 + e^(-x))
Let’s decode this equation step-by-step. The ‘e’ represents Euler’s number (approximately equal to 2.71828), and the ‘x’ is the input to the function. When ‘x’ is a large positive number, e^(-x) becomes very close to zero, making the denominator in the equation almost equal to 1. As a result, σ(x) approaches 1, which means the neuron fires or gets activated!
On the other hand, when ‘x’ is a large negative number, e^(-x) becomes a large positive number, causing the denominator to grow significantly. As a result, σ(x) approaches 0, and the neuron remains dormant or not activated.
The Real-Life Scenario
Imagine you’re training a neural network to predict whether a passenger survived the Titanic disaster based on their age. You have a labeled dataset where each entry contains the passenger’s age and a binary value (0 or 1) indicating whether they survived or not. Your neural network will use the Sigmoid activation function for this binary classification task.
Let’s say the network has learned the optimal weight for the age input. When it receives the age of a new passenger, it multiplies the input (age) by the learned weight and passes it through the Sigmoid activation function. The output, which ranges from 0 to 1, can be interpreted as the probability of survival.
For example, if the Sigmoid output is 0.75, it means the network is 75% certain that the passenger survived, and if the output is 0.20, the network believes there’s only a 20% chance of survival.
Pros and Cons of the Sigmoid Activation Function
Like everything in life, the Sigmoid function comes with its fair share of pros and cons.
1 – Smooth and Differentiable: The smooth nature of the Sigmoid function allows for gentle changes in output with respect to changes in input. This property makes it easy to work with during the training process, where we use optimization algorithms to find the best weights for our neural network.
2 – Output in a Bounded Range: The Sigmoid function guarantees that the output is always between 0 and 1. This property is particularly useful for binary classification problems, where we want a clear-cut decision.
3 – Historical Significance: The Sigmoid function played a crucial role in the early days of neural networks, and its legacy can still be found in certain models and architectures.
1 – Vanishing Gradient Problem: One of the biggest downsides of the Sigmoid function is the vanishing gradient problem. As the output approaches 0 or 1, the gradient of the function becomes extremely small. When training deep neural networks, this can hinder the learning process and lead to slow convergence.
2 – Not Suitable for All Cases: The Sigmoid function might not be the best choice for certain tasks, especially those involving multi-class classification or regression problems.
ReLU and Beyond
As machine learning and deep learning research progressed, researchers started exploring new activation functions that could overcome the vanishing gradient problem and accelerate convergence. One such hero that emerged from the shadows is the Rectified Linear Unit (ReLU) activation function.
ReLU represented as f(x) = max(0, x), is simple yet powerful. It outputs the input value ‘x’ if it’s positive, and zero otherwise. ReLU’s non-linearity and ability to avoid the vanishing gradient problem made it the new favorite among deep learning practitioners.
The Sigmoid activation function has been a significant part of artificial neural networks’ history. It’s known for its smooth S-shaped curve. Although it encountered some difficulties, it opened doors for more advanced activation functions like ReLU. These newer functions are widely used in today’s modern deep-learning systems.
If you found this article helpful and insightful, I would greatly appreciate your support. You can show your appreciation by clicking on the button below. Thank you for taking the time to read this article.
- From Zero to Hero: The Ultimate PyTorch Tutorial for Machine Learning Enthusiasts
- Day 3: Deep Learning vs. Machine Learning: Key Differences Explained
- Retrieving Dictionary Keys and Values in Python
- Day 2: 14 Types of Neural Networks and their Applications | <urn:uuid:78fbba85-8caa-4ef5-a447-567113ea74f8> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2023-40",
"url": "https://www.nomidl.com/deep-learning/sigmoid-activation-function-in-detail-explained/",
"date": "2023-09-23T17:32:29",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233506528.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20230923162848-20230923192848-00066.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8919740319252014,
"token_count": 1288,
"score": 3.515625,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,288 |
If a picture can get a child to talk, why not use it?
Wordless picture books can reveal a great deal of information about a child’s oral language development. We can hear how they use words to convey meaning when describing something. We can observe how they retrieve words and connect them into phrases and/or sentences. We can note their diction, phrasing, and intonation. Much can be learned from asking a child to ‘read’ the pictures in a wordless book. I highly recommend using wordless books with falling readers in a variety of ways.
Wordless picture books can easily be divided into three main levels. Book levels are based on a combination of picture complexity, implications for meaning, sequence of events, objects and/or actions on each page, ‘story-line,’ picture support, and oral language requirements for clear understanding. By understanding the characteristics of each level, you can select appropriate and effective wordless books for use with kids at school and at home.
A description of each level is as follows:
Level A: ‘Small Talk’ WORDLESS Books
• One or two pictures on each page
• Limited story plots (if any)
• Interaction involves mainly ‘point and say’
• Familiar objects, animals, colors, and shapes
• Large pictures; sometimes using both left and right pages for one scene
• Details within pictures tend to be large and simple
• Book titles and cover pictures are simple and ‘to the point’
• Limited inference and prediction needed to gain meaning.
• Early concepts about print can be reinforced easily
Level B: ‘More Talk’ WORDLESS Books
• Fairly detailed pictures on EACH page
• Greater opportunities for predicting plots in sequential order
• Several objects and/or scenes on each page
• Include concepts such as shapes, colors, school, curiosity, mischief, eating out
• Story titles require more inference about the main idea
• Detailed cover pictures, requiring greater prediction and more complex vocabulary
• Picture layout includes pictures on left and right pages with NEW events and/or objects on each
• Requires that students make predictions, draw conclusions, search for details within scenes, analyze cause and effect relationships, and interact more with the book in order to draw meaning
Level C: ‘Big Talk’ WORDLESS Books
• Requires greater attention to details, event sequences, complex predictions, and more descriptive vocabulary
• Pictures are filled with details and clues that call upon critical thinking and problem solving skills
• Pictures include artistic details that reveal facial expressions and body language; more complicated and detailed then easier levels
• Multi-snapshot scenes that resemble hand-drawn filmstrips, offering opportunities for reinforcing directional movements, return sweep, voice/print match, and sequencing of events
• Offer more opportunities for fluent oral phrasing, vocal expression, oral sentence structure, and diction
• Serve as a writing prompts for stories that can be written to accompany these books
Here are a few suggestions for engaging kids with wordless picture books:
Discuss the title and cover picture. As, “What is this story about? How do you know? What do you notice in the cover picture? Tell me more!”
Begin ‘reading’ the story by modeling complete oral sentences. For example, “One day, a bird was sitting on a tree and he saw a big, red apple fall off of a branch.”
Let the child tell the story, using the pictures for support and meaning. Encourage him/her to speak in complete sentences. Take turns doing this if it is difficult for the child. Encourage descriptive talk such as, “What color is it? Where is it? What else can we say about this dog? Is he happy, sad, small, or big?”
As the child open-ended, ‘prediction’ questions in between pages: “What do you think might happen next? What makes you think so? Can you guess what they might do on the next page? Do you think they are happy? How do you know?”
As the child to reread the whole story, this time without questions or interruptions.
Encourage the child to dictate a sentence to you about the story and/or write their own sentence to go with a picture in the story. You can write the dictated sentence on paper and then ask him/or to draw a picture to go with it.
The use of wordless picture books as an assessment tool can help us learn more about the ways in which children use oral language to convey meaning. We are able to learn a great deal about what the child brings to early literacy development. Wordless books not only serve as great oral language tools, but they also provide wonderful writing prompts for students who just often say, “I can’t think of anything to write!”
Remember, a picture speaks a thousand words . . . got wordless books? Catch some soon!
Guest Blogger: Dr. Connie Hebert, National Literacy Consultant & Author
Dr. Connie Hebert is dedicated to catching falling readers by motivating, teaching, and inspiring educators around the world. She has presented literacy seminars, district trainings, and keynote addresses in 47 states and at national, state, European IRA, NAESP, and RRCNA reading conferences. She is the mother of 3 amazing children, a nationally acclaimed teacher of teachers, reading specialist, and motivational speaker. Published works include her books, Catch a Falling Reader, Catch a Falling Writer, and Catch a Falling Teacher, along with 4 sets of Sight Word Phrases. For more information and her Catch a Blog, please visit: www.conniehebert.com
Dr. Connie is also an expert at helping parents engage with their kids at home. Her upcoming book, The Teachable Minute: The Secret to Raising Smart & Appreciative Kids, offer lots of suggestions for what to SHOW, ASK, & TEACH kids in 77 common places. Watch for it…coming this February, 2013.
Facebook: Connie Hebert | <urn:uuid:be611c24-91b7-4e75-b6e6-12ce491038f6> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2022-21",
"url": "https://www.mytowntutors.com/catch-the-power-of-wordless-books/",
"date": "2022-05-29T11:15:28",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662644142.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20220529103854-20220529133854-00137.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9265459179878235,
"token_count": 1275,
"score": 4.09375,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,275 |
"How can concrete even float?!"
"Any object, wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object."
-Archimedes, Greek Mathematician and Engineer
Archimedes' Principle, developed in 250 B.C.E by the famous engineer, holds true no less today than in antiquity. Ships have been constructed of steel, fiberglass, and other materials more dense than water for hundreds of years. Displaced water exerts a force on the boat, which keeps it afloat if the material is shaped properly. This allows for all manner and sizes of vessels to float - regardless of construction material!
However, for safety purposes we use concrete that is less dense than water. This means that in the event of capsizing, our canoe will remain safely above water level and will not pose a safety or navigational hazard. (The Titanic should have taken notes!) We accomplish this through the use of glass bead aggregates instead of the rock or gravel used in standard concrete. This reduces the density of the overall canoe to less than that of water, so it floats even when filled with water and paddlers!
Our year is divided into separate segments: Design, analysis & testing, construction, quality control, and finishing. Members are encouraged to contribute whenever they can to any phase of the project that interests them – as much or as little time as you want to!
Interesting in finding how you can get involved? Find where you fall below!
- Experience in a huge industry with the most common construction material in civil engineering - concrete!
- Real world experience in project management, testing, and the development of an exceptional final product
- Get involved with American Society of Civil Engineers competitions with your defending 2013 Great Lakes Regionals Champions!
- Experience with chemical compounds present in concrete and cementitious materials
- Balance stoichiometric formulas to obtain optimum concrete ratios
- Show you can do industry-specific blending of mixes outside of a controlled lab environment
- Draw conclusions from actual test results (ie, addition of excess lime contributes what to the end concrete strength/density?) and show that this data can be incorporated into future batches.
- Experience with batch processing and iterative testing procedure - core concept for all R&D Testing
- Model stresses on a static and dynamic system using cutting-edge 3D software
- Get familiar with aspects of using computer modeling before learning in the classroom - step ahead of the rest!
- Gain experience in project management, problem solving, and scheduling of a project!
- Learn what it’s like to work alongside different types of engineers, and use your particular skills to accomplish tasks!
- Apply Mechanics of Materials
- Strain gauge electrical voltage measurement system for pre-stressing steel cables
- Process improvement on an established system.
- Apply industrial safety standards to a working lab and ensure air filtration systems are always keeping us safe while working!
- Gain experience dealing with fluidized rock-gravel-sand-silica beds in specific packing arrangements
- Plan for adhesion of layers to each other; avoid stratification that is seen in geological processes. | <urn:uuid:159c70c6-db04-4908-9ef9-4f2623d1b5d3> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2014-23",
"url": "http://canoe.slc.engr.wisc.edu/about.html",
"date": "2014-07-25T18:16:09",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-23/segments/1405997894473.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20140722025814-00100-ip-10-33-131-23.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9129540324211121,
"token_count": 653,
"score": 3.75,
"int_score": 4
} | 653 |
This is a project in Chemistry. The students research a particular element on the periodic table and create an element flipbook, which is placed in its proper place on the classroom wall for an interactive periodic table display. The element flipbook must have certain information included, such as the element’s electron configuration, valence electrons, highest-occupied atomic orbital, atomic radius, and etc. The students also create a Flash version of their element flipbook for the web.
Finally, in groups, students must create an element flipbook for an undiscovered element. Using periodic trends, they deduce some of the physical, chemical, and electronic properties of that element.
- Periodic Table Project website, with student work samples | <urn:uuid:add6ff18-1416-432f-b255-030969944683> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2019-26",
"url": "https://mrchiou.wordpress.com/periodic-table-project/",
"date": "2019-06-24T11:24:54",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627999482.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20190624104413-20190624130413-00075.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8650185465812683,
"token_count": 146,
"score": 4.25,
"int_score": 4
} | 146 |
The Bipolar Brain
Treatments & Alternative Views
By Zur Institute
View a complete list of Clinical Updates.
Bipolar is described by the DSM as a disorder, and is also known as bipolar affective disorder or manic depression. Like diabetes or heart disease, bipolar is a long-term condition that must be carefully managed throughout a person's life. It is a disorder that brings up the question, "Is it possible to have too much of a good thing?" The experience of mania raises interesting questions about whether positive emotions, such as joy or exuberance, can be pushed to extremes where they lose their adaptive or prosocial qualities. Intriguingly, bipolar is linked with exceptional creativity during periods of good functioning. Dr. Jamison, in An Unquiet Mind, called it "an illness that is unique in conferring advantage and pleasure, yet one that brings in its wake almost unendurable suffering..."
Bipolar -- Recap:
- Bipolar, also known as manic-depressive illness, causes unusual shifts in a person's mood, energy and ability to function.
- People on the "high" side of bipolar may feel on top of things, productive, sociable and self-confident. Many people have described the "high" of hypomania as feeling better than at any other time in their lives, but the feelings are exaggerated. They often cannot understand why anyone would call their experience abnormal or part of a disorder.
- There is no cure for bipolar, and the best pharmacological treatments often are not very effective because of problems with adherence and compliance.
- Different from the normal ups and downs that everyone goes through, the symptoms of bipolar are severe. They can result in damaged relationships, poor job or school performance, and even suicide.
- Like other mental illnesses, bipolar cannot yet be identified physiologically, for example, through a blood test or a brain scan. Therefore, a diagnosis of bipolar is made on the basis of symptoms, course of illness and history.
- Bipolar can be treated, and people with this illness can lead full and productive lives.
- Medications are considered mood stabilizers if they have two properties: They provide relief from acute episodes of mania or depression or prevent them from occurring; and they do not worsen depression or mania or lead to increased cycling. Lithium and Depakote have been shown to fulfill this definition. Other meds were originally developed as anticonvulsants for the control of epilepsy. Other available medications that are undergoing research as promising mood stabilizers include several new anticonvulsants and the newer, "atypical" antipsychotics.
- More than 2 million Americans in any given year have bipolar.
- Bipolar typically develops in late adolescence or early adulthood. More than half of adults affected with bipolar had their mood disorder begin at age 16 or younger. It is often not recognized as an illness, and people may suffer for years before it is properly diagnosed and treated.
- Bipolar I refers to a condition in which people have experienced one or more episodes of mania. Though an episode of depression is not necessary for a diagnosis of bipolar I, most people who have bipolar I will have episodes of both mania and depression. Bipolar II refers to a condition in which people have had at least one hypomanic episode.
- The diagnosis in general and the rate of the disorder for children, as with ADHD, is highly debatable.
- Signs and symptoms of mania (or a manic episode) include: increased energy, activity and restlessness; excessively high, overly good, euphoric mood; extreme irritability; racing thoughts and talking very fast, jumping from one idea to another; distractibility, can't concentrate; little sleep needed; unrealistic beliefs in one's abilities and powers; poor judgment; spending sprees; increased sexual drive; abuse of drugs, particularly cocaine, alcohol and sleeping medications; provocative, intrusive or aggressive behavior; denial that anything is wrong.
- A mild to moderate level of mania is called hypomania. This may feel good to the person who experiences it and may even be associated with good functioning and enhanced productivity. Thus, even when family and friends learn to recognize the mood swings as possible bipolar, the person may deny that anything is wrong. Without proper treatment hypomania can become severe mania in some people or can switch into depression.
- Episodes of mania and depression typically recur across the life span. Between episodes most people with bipolar are free of symptoms, but as many as one-third have some residual symptoms.
- "Pills do not come with skills," and psychoeducation and psychotherapy are important ways of building positive skills to improve relationships, promote academic and vocational success, and produce better coping mechanisms and quality of life.
- Cognitive behavioral therapy helps people with bipolar learn to change inappropriate or negative thought patterns and behaviors associated with the illness.
- Psychoeducation involves teaching people with bipolar about the illness, its treatment and how to recognize signs of relapse so that early intervention can be sought before a full-blown episode occurs. Psychoeducation is often helpful for family members.
- Family therapy uses strategies to reduce the level of distress within the family that may either contribute to or result from the ill person's symptoms. | <urn:uuid:1ea0f373-75ab-490b-8d93-373f33f583b7> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2017-04",
"url": "http://zurinstitute.com/bipolar_clinicalupdate.html",
"date": "2017-01-16T17:12:31",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560279224.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095119-00340-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9603664875030518,
"token_count": 1084,
"score": 3.5,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,084 |
NASA scientists and engineers are working now to lay the groundwork for the Aerosol-Cloud-Ecosystem (ACE) mission, a satellite that "will dramatically change what we can do from space to learn about clouds and aerosols," said ACE science lead David Starr of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md.
The brightness, or "intensity," and polarization of reflected light provide different information about the elements that make up a scene, apparent in this set of images collected by the Airborne Multiangle SpectroPolarimetric Imager (AirMSPI) during its maiden flight on Oct. 7, 2010, on the ER-2 over Palmdale, Calif. AirMSPI is one of three prototype polarimeters being tested this month during PODEX. Credit: JPL/Caltech, AirMSPI Team
How should the satellite's instruments be designed, and how can the data be turned into useful information for research? To find out, three teams have each developed prototype instruments that will be put to the test this month during the Polarimeter Definition Experiment (PODEX) in Southern California.
For three weeks starting Jan. 16, instrument teams will collect data during seven flights on the ER-2 – a high-altitude aircraft based at NASA's Dryden Aircraft Operations Facility in Palmdale, Calif. By virtue of its ability to operate at altitudes up to 70,000 feet above the ground, the aircraft simulates the view from space.
The instruments flying on the ER-2 are a new class of polarimeters, an instrument that can give increasingly detailed information about aerosols and clouds. Aerosols are tiny airborne particles from a variety of sources – such as from the tail pipe of a car to dust and sea spray lifted up by the wind. They can stay in the atmosphere for up to a week where they affect human health, cloud formation, precipitation and Earth's radiation budget. But the complex nature of aerosols and clouds poses challenges in deciphering their influence on climate.
As the instrument teams have demonstrated, however, there's more than one way to build a polarimeter. Testing the technology this month are three instrument teams led by: Brian Cairns, of NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York, principal investigator for the Research Scanning Polarimeter (RSP); David Diner, of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif., principal investigator of the Airborne Multiangle SpectroPolarimetric Imager (AirMSPI); and J. Vanderlei Martins, of University of Maryland Baltimore County, principal investigator of the Passive Aerosol and Cloud Suite (PACS) polarimeter.
Starr, who has worked in the field leading airborne science campaigns since 1986, will oversee the polarimeter instrument teams as PODEX project scientist. He spoke with NASA's Earth Science News Team's Kathryn Hansen about the experiment and how it could reshape the next generation of atmospheric science.
Answer (A):Traditional radiometers measure radiation intensity over a particular range of wavelengths, which are converted into products such as images of Earth's surface, clouds and aerosols. Launch of radiometers aboard NASA's Terra satellite in 1999 is, in part, what got people jazzed up about aerosols – we realized how they're blowing around the planet, then we realized the potential significance of their impact on health, clouds, Earth's radiation budget and precipitation.
Polarimeters – sensors that detect the polarization of light – work in a similar way, but have the potential to provide more information about particles, such as shape and size.Q: Why does this approach work?
Incoming sunlight is unpolarized, which means that the planes of vibration of the light waves are randomly oriented. When the sunlight interacts with Earth’s atmosphere or surface, the light waves can vibrate in preferred orientations. For example, interaction with highly structured particles or objects – things like industrial soot particles, dust, vegetation, or ice crystals in a cloud – can dramatically change the polarization of reflected sunlight.Q: What can polarimetry tell us about aerosols?
In the case of aerosols, polarimetry provides a way to estimate their composition from space, which has not previously been possible. With measurements that discriminate the types of aerosols that are present, we eliminate a significant source of uncertainty.Q: What can polarimetry tell us about clouds?
For clouds composed of liquid droplets, the size and quantity of the drops determine how much solar radiation they will reflect. For example, low-level stratocumulus clouds cover vast areas of the ocean and strongly regulate the heating of the ocean by blocking solar radiation before it gets to the ocean surface. Polarimetry measurements from various angles offer the promise of more robust measurements of droplet size, which can range in diameter from about 10-30 micrometers or more. Even relatively small differences can be significant for climate.
For clouds composed of ice crystals, the radiative properties of the clouds are quite sensitive to crystal size, quantity and also shape. We learned from previous fieldwork that the size of particles in ice clouds is quite variable, spanning a large range compared to liquid clouds. Cirrus clouds, for example, can be composed of ice crystals ranging from a few microns to 1 millimeter, or greater. Consequently, different cirrus clouds may look very different to the eye. Crystal shape is also quite variable and can be complex. Because of the structure ice crystals, it has long been known that polarimetry has a lot of promise for remote sensing of cirrus clouds and their properties.Q: Is this new technology?
The PODEX experiment is about developing an area of technology and remote sensing and getting it ready for space. If you look back two to six years before Terra, NASA flew simulators for the purpose of preparing for the MODIS instrument and to work on algorithm development for MODIS data. We're now trying to do that for the next generation of technology that we plan to fly in the early 2020s. We're not simply re-flying Terra or Aqua. This is a major step toward new technology to reduce errors and uncertainties in aerosol and cloud observations from space.Q: Why fly three polarimeters?
Progress toward this goal will result in data we can use to address a number of key design questions for a spaceborne polarimeter. For example, how accurate do the radiance and polarization measurements need to be to achieve specified goals in accuracy for the derived geophysical parameters? How can we best achieve that accuracy? Similarly, what spatial resolution can we achieve? How many angles should be observed? How many spectral channels should be polarization capable? Which ones are optimal?
While there are strong opinions as to the likely answers to such questions, we do not have sufficient observational basis to adequately confirm or deny the theoretical arguments. PODEX seeks to push this enterprise forward and ultimately enable the optimal cost-effective design of such an instrument for the ACE mission.
At some point we turn a corner and start building something to fly in space. What's the design? What's the impact of that design on algorithm development and data products? Right now that's all on paper.Kathryn Hansen
Kathryn Hansen | EurekAlert!
CO2 can be stored underground for 10 times the length needed to avoid climatic impact
28.07.2016 | University of Cambridge
Keep a lid on it: Utah State University geologists probe geological carbon storage
28.07.2016 | Utah State University
Transparent electronics devices are present in today’s thin film displays, solar cells, and touchscreens. The future will bring flexible versions of such devices. Their production requires printable materials that are transparent and remain highly conductive even when deformed. Researchers at INM – Leibniz Institute for New Materials have combined a new self-assembling nano ink with an imprint process to create flexible conductive grids with a resolution below one micrometer.
To print the grids, an ink of gold nanowires is applied to a substrate. A structured stamp is pressed on the substrate and forces the ink into a pattern. “The...
A new Fraunhofer MEVIS method conveys medical interrelationships quickly and intuitively with innovative visualization technology
On the monitor, a brain spins slowly and can be examined from every angle. Suddenly, some sections start glowing, first on the side and then the entire back of...
Researchers at the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) Ames Laboratory have discovered an unusual property of purple bronze that may point to new ways to achieve high temperature superconductivity.
While studying purple bronze, a molybdenum oxide, researchers discovered an unconventional charge density wave on its surface.
Munich Physicists have developed a novel electron microscope that can visualize electromagnetic fields oscillating at frequencies of billions of cycles per second.
Temporally varying electromagnetic fields are the driving force behind the whole of electronics. Their polarities can change at mind-bogglingly fast rates, and...
Breakup of continents with two speed: Continents initially stretch very slowly along the future splitting zone, but then move apart very quickly before the onset of rupture. The final speed can be up to 20 times faster than in the first, slow extension phase.phases
Present-day continents were shaped hundreds of millions of years ago as the supercontinent Pangaea broke apart. Derived from Pangaea’s main fragments Gondwana...
15.07.2016 | Event News
15.07.2016 | Event News
11.07.2016 | Event News
28.07.2016 | Information Technology
28.07.2016 | Materials Sciences
28.07.2016 | Earth Sciences | <urn:uuid:1e11a14b-0e58-480d-b8f7-87f153ecee27> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2016-30",
"url": "http://www.innovations-report.com/html/reports/earth-sciences/podex-experiment-reshape-future-atmospheric-208170.html",
"date": "2016-07-29T05:52:33",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-30/segments/1469257829972.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160723071029-00124-ip-10-185-27-174.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8991039395332336,
"token_count": 2016,
"score": 3.640625,
"int_score": 4
} | 2,016 |
in order for function to have a maximum at a given 0.2 conditions must be met. The first that the first derivative, evaluated at a given point, is equal to zero the second that the second new evidence evaluated at the given point is less than zero. So if we look at a given function at the 0.1 comma too, your first see but two given that is the why is equal to a Times X, which is one squared plus b times X, just one. And now if we look at the first derivative a crime of X but evaluated at X equals one, we see that it is equal to two a times X, which is one plus b. So if we want to solve these two equations, we see that too is equal to a plus B. We also know because this isn't maximum zero is equal to two a plus B. So if we solve these equations, we see that B is equal to negative to a. Thus, two is equal to a plus. Negative to a and A is equal to negative two. If a is equal to negative too. If we look at this first equation we see that therefore be is equal to four given a which gives us values for A and B and just toe double. Check these answers. If we look at the second derivative, a double prime of X, which is equal to two A well to A is equal to two times negative two, which is equal to negative full, which is indeed less than zero. And thus we see that the values for A and B negative two and four respective. | <urn:uuid:fb65e6ed-1da6-4608-b761-6f3f9452e202> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2020-29",
"url": "https://www.numerade.com/questions/determine-the-values-of-constants-a-and-b-so-that-fxa-x2b-x-has-an-absolute-maximum-at-the-point-12/",
"date": "2020-07-06T06:45:38",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-29/segments/1593655890105.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200706042111-20200706072111-00138.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9650385975837708,
"token_count": 317,
"score": 3.734375,
"int_score": 4
} | 317 |
Dragonfly mating is a fascinating aspect of the life cycle of these amazing insects. Dragonflies belong to the order Odonata and are known for their unique flying abilities and striking colors and patterns. Mating in dragonflies is a complex process that allows them to propagate their species and pass on their genes. In this article, we will take a closer look at the different aspects of dragonfly mating and try to unravel the mystery behind this fascinating behavior.
Understanding dragonfly mating
Before we look at mating, it is important to understand how dragonflies reproduce. Dragonflies go through a complete metamorphosis process, similar to butterflies. They begin their lives as eggs, which are laid by females in bodies of water. Larvae, known as nymphs, hatch from the eggs. These nymphs spend most of their life under water and feed on small insects and other aquatic organisms. After a certain time, the nymphs moult and turn into adult dragonflies that can fly.
The mating behavior of dragonflies
Dragonflies mating is a spectacular sight that can often be observed near bodies of water. The male flies above the water and puts on an impressive flight show to attract the female. This courtship behavior is an important part of the mating ritual in dragonflies. The male shows off his flying skills by performing impressive flight maneuvers, changing direction quickly and even flying backwards. This flight show serves to impress the female and attract her attention.
Once the female has accepted the male, the pair flies in a characteristic position known as the "mating wheel". The male grasps the female with the so-called "mating pincers" on his abdomen. These pincers are specially designed to hold the female and enable successful mating. The female then lays her eggs in the water while the male continues to hold her. As soon as the egg-laying is complete, the two separate and go their separate ways.
Courtship rituals in dragonflies
The mating rituals of dragonflies are extremely diverse and can vary depending on the species and region. Some species perform impressive flight shows, while others show off their colors and patterns. In some species, males may also fight to impress the female and get her attention. These courtship rituals serve to test the female's willingness to mate and ensure that only the strongest and fittest males are successful.
The colors and patterns on the dragonflies' wings and bodies also play an important role in mating. Male dragonflies are often more striking and colorful than the females. These colors and patterns serve to attract the female and attract her attention. They can also serve to deter rivals and show that the male is strong and healthy. The variety of colors and patterns in dragonflies is remarkable and makes them a fascinating sight.
The dragonfly mating season
The mating season of dragonflies varies depending on the species and region. In temperate climates, mating usually takes place in spring and summer, when temperatures are warmer and conditions are optimal for reproduction. In tropical regions, dragonflies can mate all year round as temperatures are constantly high.
The mating season is a crucial phase in the life cycle of dragonflies. During this time, they must mate and lay their eggs in order to propagate their species. The mating season is also a time of intense competition between males as they fight for the attention of females. Those males that are successful have the opportunity to pass on their genes and ensure the continuation of their species.
Dragonfly mating strategies
Dragonflies have developed a variety of mating strategies to maximize their reproductive success. One common strategy is polyandry, where a female mates with several males. This allows her to select the best genes for her offspring and increase genetic diversity. On the other hand, some males opt for monogamy and try to mate exclusively with a single female. This strategy increases the chances of males passing on their genes, but is associated with a higher risk, as competition between males is more intense.
Some dragonfly species have also developed unique mating strategies. For example, there are species in which the male transfers sperm into the female's body in the form of a "sperm handle". This sperm handle is retained in the female's body and can be used to fertilize the eggs when the female is ready to lay eggs. This strategy ensures that the male can successfully pass on his genes, even if the female later chooses another partner.
Challenges and threats during dragonfly mating
Dragonfly mating is not without its challenges and threats. During the mating process, dragonflies are particularly vulnerable to predators as they are distracted and less able to fly during this time. Birds, fish and other insects can easily attack and eat the dragonflies. In addition, environmental changes and habitat destruction can reduce the number and diversity of dragonfly species, limiting their mating opportunities.
Another problem is the pollution of waters where dragonflies lay their eggs. Chemicals and pollutants can impair the development of eggs and nymphs and endanger the reproduction of dragonflies. It is therefore important to maintain and improve water quality to ensure the survival of these fascinating insects.
Dragonfly mating is an amazing aspect of the life cycle of these fascinating insects. The courtship rituals, the colors and patterns, the mating strategies and the challenges during mating make it a fascinating subject. Dragonfly mating is not only an important part of the reproductive process, but also a natural act of beauty to be admired. By educating ourselves about dragonfly mating and advocating for the protection of these fascinating insects, we can help secure their future and preserve their beauty.
Question: When does the dragonfly mating take place?
Response: Dragonfly mating takes place at different times depending on the species and region. In temperate climates, the mating season is usually in spring and summer, while in tropical regions mating takes place all year round.
Question: How long does it take dragonflies to mate?
Response: Mating in dragonflies usually only takes a few minutes to an hour.
Question: How many eggs do dragonflies lay?
Response: The number of eggs that dragonflies lay varies depending on the species. Some species only lay a few dozen eggs, while others can lay hundreds or even thousands of eggs.
Question: Are all dragonfly species the same during the mating season?
Response: No, different dragonfly species have different mating rituals and strategies. Some species put on impressive flight shows, while others show off their colors and patterns.
Question: How can dragonflies be protected during mating?
Response: To protect dragonflies during mating, it is important to preserve and improve their habitat. This includes protecting water bodies, maintaining water quality and reducing pollution. | <urn:uuid:57333a9b-b7b9-4471-932b-12517cefd5a5> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2023-50",
"url": "https://tier-im-garten.de/en/dragonfly-mating/",
"date": "2023-12-01T07:28:01",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100276.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20231201053039-20231201083039-00441.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9552558660507202,
"token_count": 1356,
"score": 3.671875,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,356 |
On this day in history, Martin Luther King, Jr., along with dozens of others, was arrested during a sit-in at “The Magnolia Room” in Rich’s Department Store in Atlanta, Georgia. At Rich’s, African Americans could purchase items from the store but they were not allowed to try on clothing or sit at a table in the Magnolia Room. Because Rich’s was an Atlanta institution, Atlanta’s African-American students made the Magnolia Room the center of their struggle for integration. This sit-in took place eight months after the famous sit-in at the F.W. Woolworth Co. lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina. Since that time, several southern cities had integrated its lunch counters, and students in Atlanta wanted to do the same for their city.
On this day, 52 protestors, including King, were arrested for violating legislation which allowed individuals to be charged with a misdemeanor if they refused to leave private property when asked. Charges against sixteen of the group were dismissed, and another 35 were released on bond. But King was kept in jail because of a previous 12-month probationary sentence on a charge of driving without a valid Georgia license (based on an “anti-trespass” law enacted to curb lunch counter sit-ins). He was now transferred to Reidsville State Prison, where he was then sentenced to four months in a Georgia public works camp.
King’s attorneys filed an appeal, and intervention by then presidential candidate John Kennedy and his brother Robert Kennedy convinced a judge to grand bond. King was released on October 27, two days after he was sentenced and one day after he arrived at the Georgia State Prison. | <urn:uuid:ded96f2d-2c9a-4773-8908-5a007eb9ebcf> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2017-13",
"url": "https://legallegacy.wordpress.com/2016/10/19/october-19-1960-martin-luther-king-jr-arrested-at-a-sit-in-in-atlanta-georgia/",
"date": "2017-03-28T13:44:49",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-13/segments/1490218189771.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20170322212949-00381-ip-10-233-31-227.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9808077812194824,
"token_count": 352,
"score": 3.53125,
"int_score": 4
} | 352 |
In the symphony of modern technology, where data flows like a river and information is currency, analog circuits stand as the guardians of signal amplification and processing. These intricate systems possess the power to breathe life into feeble whispers of electrical impulses, transforming them into robust waves capable of carrying vital information.
From the delicate dance of oscillators to the meticulous artistry of filters and feedback systems, analog circuits hold the key to unlocking a world brimming with possibilities.
Join us on this journey as we delve into the realm of analog circuitry, exploring its techniques, advancements, and innovations that empower signals to soar with freedom.
Amplification plays a crucial role in analog circuits as it increases the strength of signals, allowing for improved processing and accurate transmission of information. In analog circuits, signals are represented by continuous voltage or current levels, and amplification is necessary to boost these signals to desired levels for further processing. The process involves using electronic components such as transistors or operational amplifiers (op-amps) to increase the amplitude of the input signal without introducing significant distortion.
Amplification not only enhances weak signals but also allows for precise control over signal gain, enabling accurate manipulation and analysis of analog data. Understanding how to design and implement effective amplification strategies is essential in signal processing applications, particularly when it comes to understanding oscillator design in signal processing.
Oscillators generate periodic waveforms used in various applications like audio synthesis, radio transmission, or clock generation.
To effectively design an oscillator for signal processing, it is crucial to have a thorough understanding of its principles and characteristics.
An oscillator is a circuit that generates a periodic waveform without an input signal. It plays a vital role in various applications, including communication systems, audio devices, and frequency synthesis.
The fundamental principle behind an oscillator is positive feedback, where the output signal is fed back to the input to sustain oscillation.
The characteristics of an oscillator are determined by factors such as its frequency stability, amplitude control, and phase noise performance.
Designing an oscillator involves selecting appropriate active devices like transistors or operational amplifiers and configuring passive components such as capacitors and inductors.
Filters play a critical role in refining and enhancing the quality of signals for various applications in signal processing. They are essential components in analog circuits that enable the manipulation, amplification, and shaping of signals. Filters are designed to selectively allow certain frequencies to pass through while attenuating others, thus improving the overall clarity and fidelity of the signal.
Depending on their specific characteristics, filters can be used to remove unwanted noise or interference from a signal, extract specific frequency bands, or modify the amplitude or phase response of a signal. This flexibility makes filters indispensable in numerous applications such as audio systems, telecommunications, radar systems, medical devices, and many more.
Common types of filters include:
Exploring feedback systems in analog circuitry is crucial for understanding the benefits and stability they provide.
Feedback loops play a significant role in achieving desired performance characteristics, such as signal amplification and processing accuracy, while minimizing distortion and noise.
The utilization of feedback loops in analog circuits offers numerous advantages, such as improved stability and reduced distortion. This is achieved by feeding a portion of the output signal back to the input, which allows for precise control and regulation of the circuit's behavior.
Here are four key benefits of incorporating feedback loops into analog circuits:
Stability enhancement: Feedback loops help stabilize the circuit by automatically compensating for variations in components, temperature, or power supply voltage.
Distortion reduction: By continuously comparing the output with the desired input signal, feedback loops can correct any deviations and minimize distortion.
Increased bandwidth: Feedback amplifiers have wider frequency response due to their ability to compensate for changes in component characteristics.
Improved linearity: Feedback loops can linearize nonlinear elements within a circuit, resulting in more accurate amplification and processing.
Overall, feedback loops play a crucial role in optimizing analog circuits' performance and ensuring reliable operation with minimal signal degradation.
Stability in circuits is a crucial aspect when designing and analyzing analog systems. It refers to the ability of a circuit to maintain its desired performance over time, despite variations in component values or external conditions. Achieving stability ensures reliable and accurate signal amplification and processing.
In analog circuits, stability is closely related to the concept of feedback. Feedback helps regulate the output by comparing it with the desired input, creating a closed-loop system that can compensate for changes or disturbances. Unstable circuits may exhibit oscillations or instability due to excessive positive feedback, leading to unpredictable behavior.
To ensure stability, engineers employ various techniques such as proper component selection, compensation methods like pole splitting or frequency compensation, and careful consideration of gain and phase margins. By addressing these factors accurately during circuit design, stability can be achieved while maintaining freedom for signal amplification and processing in analog systems.
Signal processing in analog circuits involves various techniques that enhance, manipulate, and extract valuable information from the input signals. These techniques play a crucial role in achieving accurate and reliable signal amplification and processing.
Here are four important techniques used in analog signal processing:
Filtering: This technique removes unwanted noise or frequency components from the input signal, allowing only the desired frequencies to pass through.
Modulation: Modulating the input signal enables it to be easily transmitted over long distances or transferred to different mediums.
Amplification: Analog circuits use amplifiers to increase the strength of weak signals without distorting their original waveform.
Demodulation: Demodulating the modulated signal helps recover the original information by extracting it from carrier waves.
These techniques form the foundation for advancements and innovations in analog signal amplification and processing, which have led to significant improvements in communication systems, audio equipment, and other applications.
In recent years, several advancements have been made in analog circuit design that allow for more efficient and precise signal amplification and processing. These include improved amplifier designs with higher gain bandwidth products, lower noise figures, and better linearity characteristics. Additionally, innovative digital-to-analog converters (DACs) with higher resolution and faster sampling rates have been developed, enabling more accurate conversion of digital signals into analog waveforms.
Overall, these advancements have paved the way for enhanced performance and functionality of analog circuits across various industries such as telecommunications, audio engineering, medical devices, and many others.
Advancements in the design of analog circuitry have led to more efficient and precise amplification and processing of electrical signals. These innovations have revolutionized various industries that rely on analog signal amplification, such as telecommunications, audio systems, and medical devices.
One notable advancement is the development of high-gain operational amplifiers (op-amps) with low noise levels and wide bandwidths. These op-amps provide accurate amplification without introducing significant distortion or interference into the signal.
Additionally, improvements in transistor technology have resulted in faster switching speeds and lower power consumption, enabling higher performance analog circuits.
Furthermore, advancements in integrated circuit manufacturing techniques have allowed for the integration of multiple functions within a single chip, reducing component count and improving overall system efficiency.
Overall, these advancements have empowered engineers to design analog circuits that offer greater freedom in terms of performance, reliability, and flexibility.
Analog signal amplification and processing have numerous applications across various industries. These include audio amplification in music systems, sensor signal conditioning for industrial automation, and medical devices for amplifying physiological signals.
Analog signal processing differs from digital signal processing in that it deals with continuous signals, while the latter handles discrete signals. It involves amplifying and manipulating analog signals using various circuits and components to achieve desired outcomes.
Designing analog circuits for signal amplification poses several challenges. These include managing noise, maintaining linearity, achieving high gain, and ensuring stability. Precise component selection and careful circuit layout are critical to overcome these obstacles and achieve optimal performance.
Analog signal amplification and processing play a crucial role in wireless communication systems, allowing for the transmission of information over long distances with minimal distortion. These techniques enable reliable and efficient communication in a variety of applications.
The accuracy and precision of analog signal amplification and processing techniques can be limited by factors such as noise, distortion, and component tolerances. These limitations must be carefully considered in order to achieve desired performance in analog circuits. | <urn:uuid:073dffe1-091e-45c2-abca-59028d377253> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2023-50",
"url": "https://electroviz.com/circuit-design-basics/analog-circuits-how-are-signals-amplified-and-processed",
"date": "2023-12-10T13:55:58",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679102469.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20231210123756-20231210153756-00656.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9052331447601318,
"token_count": 1683,
"score": 4.0625,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,683 |
Professional and related occupations
- Registered nurses constitute the largest health care occupation, with 2.5 million jobs.
- About 59 percent of jobs are in hospitals.
- The three major educational paths to registered nursing are a bachelor’s degree, an associate degree, and a diploma from an approved nursing program.
- Registered nurses are projected to generate about 587,000 new jobs over the 2006-16 period, one of the largest numbers among all occupations; overall job opportunities are expected to be excellent, but may vary by employment setting.
Nature of Work
Registered nurses (RNs), regardless of specialty or work setting, treat patients, educate patients and the public about various medical conditions, and provide advice and emotional support to patients’ family members. RNs record patients’ medical histories and symptoms, help perform diagnostic tests and analyze results, operate medical machinery, administer treatment and medications, and help with patient follow-up and rehabilitation.
RNs teach patients and their families how to manage their illness or injury, explaining post-treatment home care needs; diet, nutrition, and exercise programs; and self-administration of medication and physical therapy. Some RNs work to promote general health by educating the public on warning signs and symptoms of disease. RNs also might run general health screening or immunization clinics, blood drives, and public seminars on various conditions.
When caring for patients, RNs establish a plan of care or contribute to an existing plan. Plans may include numerous activities, such as administering medication, including careful checking of dosages and avoiding interactions; starting, maintaining, and discontinuing intravenous (IV) lines for fluid, medication, blood, and blood products; administering therapies and treatments; observing the patient and recording those observations; and consulting with physicians and other health care clinicians. Some RNs provide direction to licensed practical nurses and nursing aids regarding patient care. RNs with advanced educational preparation and training may perform diagnostic and therapeutic procedures and may have prescriptive authority.
RNs can specialize in one or more areas of patient care. There generally are four ways to specialize. RNs can choose a particular work setting or type of treatment, such as perioperative nurses, who work in operating rooms and assist surgeons. RNs also may choose to specialize in specific health conditions, as do diabetes management nurses, who assist patients to manage diabetes. Other RNs specialize in working with one or more organs or body system types, such as dermatology nurses, who work with patients who have skin disorders. RNs also can choose to work with a well-defined population, such as geriatric nurses, who work with the elderly. Some RNs may combine specialties. For example, pediatric oncology nurses deal with children and adolescents who have cancer.
There are many options for RNs who specialize in a work setting or type of treatment. Ambulatory care nurses provide preventive care and treat patients with a variety of illnesses and injuries in physicians’ offices or in clinics. Some ambulatory care nurses are involved in telehealth, providing care and advice through electronic communications media such as videoconferencing, the Internet, or by telephone. Critical care nurses provide care to patients with serious, complex, and acute illnesses or injuries that require very close monitoring and extensive medication protocols and therapies. Critical care nurses often work in critical or intensive care hospital units. Emergency, or trauma, nurses work in hospital or stand-alone emergency departments, providing initial assessments and care for patients with life-threatening conditions. Some emergency nurses may become qualified to serve as transport nurses, who provide medical care to patients who are transported by helicopter or airplane to the nearest medical facility. Holistic nurses provide care such as acupuncture, massage and aroma therapy, and biofeedback, which are meant to treat patients’ mental and spiritual health in addition to their physical health. Home health care nurses provide at-home nursing care for patients, often as follow-up care after discharge from a hospital or from a rehabilitation, long-term care, or skilled nursing facility. Hospice and palliative care nurses provide care, most often in home or hospice settings, focused on maintaining quality of life for terminally ill patients. Infusion nurses administer medications, fluids, and blood to patients through injections into patients’ veins. Long- term care nurses provide health care services on a recurring basis to patients with chronic physical or mental disorders, often in long-term care or skilled nursing facilities. Medical-surgical nurses provide health promotion and basic medical care to patients with various medical and surgical diagnoses. Occupational health nurses seek to prevent job-related injuries and illnesses, provide monitoring and emergency care services, and help employers implement health and safety standards. Perianesthesia nurses provide preoperative and postoperative care to patients undergoing anesthesia during surgery or other procedure. Perioperative nurses assist surgeons by selecting and handling instruments, controlling bleeding, and suturing incisions. Some of these nurses also can specialize in plastic and reconstructive surgery. Psychiatric-mental health nurses treat patients with personality and mood disorders. Radiology nurses provide care to patients undergoing diagnostic radiation procedures such as ultrasounds, magnetic resonance imaging, and radiation therapy for oncology diagnoses. Rehabilitation nurses care for patients with temporary and permanent disabilities. Transplant nurses care for both transplant recipients and living donors and monitor signs of organ rejection.
RNs specializing in a particular disease, ailment, or health care condition are employed in virtually all work settings, including physicians’ offices, outpatient treatment facilities, home health care agencies, and hospitals. Addictions nurses care for patients seeking help with alcohol, drug, tobacco, and other addictions. Intellectual and developmental disabilities nurses provide care for patients with physical, mental, or behavioral disabilities; care may include help with feeding, controlling bodily functions, sitting or standing independently, and speaking or other communication. Diabetes management nurses help diabetics to manage their disease by teaching them proper nutrition and showing them how to test blood sugar levels and administer insulin injections. Genetics nurses provide early detection screenings, counseling, and treatment of patients with genetic disorders, including cystic fibrosis and Huntington’s disease. HIV/AIDS nurses care for patients diagnosed with HIV and AIDS. Oncology nurses care for patients with various types of cancer and may assist in the administration of radiation and chemotherapies and follow-up monitoring. Wound, ostomy, and continence nurses treat patients with wounds caused by traumatic injury, ulcers, or arterial disease; provide postoperative care for patients with openings that allow for alternative methods of bodily waste elimination; and treat patients with urinary and fecal incontinence.
RNs specializing in treatment of a particular organ or body system usually are employed in hospital specialty or critical care units, specialty clinics, and outpatient care facilities. Cardiovascular nurses treat patients with coronary heart disease and those who have had heart surgery, providing services such as postoperative rehabilitation. Dermatology nurses treat patients with disorders of the skin, such as skin cancer and psoriasis. Gastroenterology nurses treat patients with digestive and intestinal disorders, including ulcers, acid reflux disease, and abdominal bleeding. Some nurses in this field also assist in specialized procedures such as endoscopies, which look inside the gastrointestinal tract using a tube equipped with a light and a camera that can capture images of diseased tissue. Gynecology nurses provide care to women with disorders of the reproductive system, including endometriosis, cancer, and sexually transmitted diseases. Nephrology nurses care for patients with kidney disease caused by diabetes, hypertension, or substance abuse. Neuroscience nurses care for patients with dysfunctions of the nervous system, including brain and spinal cord injuries and seizures. Ophthalmic nurses provide care to patients with disorders of the eyes, including blindness and glaucoma, and to patients undergoing eye surgery. Orthopedic nurses care for patients with muscular and skeletal problems, including arthritis, bone fractures, and muscular dystrophy. Otorhinolaryngology nurses care for patients with ear, nose, and throat disorders, such as cleft palates, allergies, and sinus disorders. Respiratory nurses provide care to patients with respiratory disorders such as asthma, tuberculosis, and cystic fibrosis. Urology nurses care for patients with disorders of the kidneys, urinary tract, and male reproductive organs, including infections, kidney and bladder stones, and cancers.
RNs who specialize by population provide preventive and acute care in all health care settings to the segment of the population in which they specialize, including newborns (neonatology), children and adolescents (pediatrics), adults, and the elderly (gerontology or geriatrics). RNs also may provide basic health care to patients outside of health care settings in such venues as including correctional facilities, schools, summer camps, and the military. Some RNs travel around the United States and abroad providing care to patients in areas with shortages of health care workers.
Most RNs work as staff nurses as members of a team providing critical health care . However, some RNs choose to become advanced practice nurses, who work independently or in collaboration with physicians, and may focus on the provision of primary care services. Clinical nurse specialists provide direct patient care and expert consultations in one of many nursing specialties, such as psychiatric-mental health. Nurse anesthetists provide anesthesia and related care before and after surgical, therapeutic, diagnostic and obstetrical procedures. They also provide pain management and emergency services, such as airway management. Nurse-midwives provide primary care to women, including gynecological exams, family planning advice, prenatal care, assistance in labor and delivery, and neonatal care. Nurse practitioners serve as primary and specialty care providers, providing a blend of nursing and health care services to patients and families. The most common specialty areas for nurse practitioners are family practice, adult practice, women’s health, pediatrics, acute care, and geriatrics. However, there are a variety of other specialties that nurse practitioners can choose, including neonatology and mental health. Advanced practice nurses can prescribe medications in all States and in the District of Columbia.
Some nurses have jobs that require little or no direct patient care, but still require an active RN license. Case managers ensure that all of the medical needs of patients with severe injuries and severe or chronic illnesses are met. Forensics nurses participate in the scientific investigation and treatment of abuse victims, violence, criminal activity, and traumatic accident. Infection control nurses identify, track, and control infectious outbreaks in health care facilities and develop programs for outbreak prevention and response to biological terrorism. Legal nurse consultants assist lawyers in medical cases by interviewing patients and witnesses, organizing medical records, determining damages and costs, locating evidence, and educating lawyers about medical issues. Nurse administrators supervise nursing staff, establish work schedules and budgets, maintain medical supply inventories, and manage resources to ensure high-quality care. Nurse educators plan, develop, implement, and evaluate educational programs and curricula for the professional development of student nurses and RNs. Nurse informaticists manage and communicate nursing data and information to improve decision making by consumers, patients, nurses, and other health care providers. RNs also may work as health care consultants, public policy advisors, pharmaceutical and medical supply researchers and salespersons, and medical writers and editors.
Work environment. Most RNs work in well-lighted, comfortable health care facilities. Home health and public health nurses travel to patients’ homes, schools, community centers, and other sites. RNs may spend considerable time walking, bending, stretching, and standing. Patients in hospitals and nursing care facilities require 24-hour care; consequently, nurses in these institutions may work nights, weekends, and holidays. RNs also may be on callavailable to work on short notice. Nurses who work in offices, schools, and other settings that do not provide 24-hour care are more likely to work regular business hours. About 21 percent of RNs worked part time in 2006, and 7 percent held more than one job.
Nursing has its hazards, especially in hospitals, nursing care facilities, and clinics, where nurses may be in close contact with individuals who have infectious diseases and with toxic, harmful, or potentially hazardous compounds, solutions, and medications. RNs must observe rigid, standardized guidelines to guard against disease and other dangers, such as those posed by radiation, accidental needle sticks, chemicals used to sterilize instruments, and anesthetics. In addition, they are vulnerable to back injury when moving patients, shocks from electrical equipment, and hazards posed by compressed gases. RNs also may suffer emotional strain from caring for patients suffering unrelieved intense pain, close personal contact with patients’ families, the need to make critical decisions, and ethical dilemmas and concerns.
The three major educational paths to registered nursing are a bachelor’s degree, an associate degree, and a diploma from an approved nursing program. Nurses most commonly enter the occupation by completing an associate degree or bachelor’s degree program. Individuals then must complete a national licensing examination in order to obtain a nursing license. Further training or education can qualify nurses to work in specialty areas, and may help improve advancement opportunities.
Education and training. There are three major educational paths to registered nursinga bachelor’s of science degree in nursing (BSN), an associate degree in nursing (ADN), and a diploma. BSN programs, offered by colleges and universities, take about 4 years to complete. In 2006, 709 nursing programs offered degrees at the bachelor’s level. ADN programs, offered by community and junior colleges, take about 2 to 3 years to complete. About 850 RN programs granted associate degrees. Diploma programs, administered in hospitals, last about 3 years. Only about 70 programs offered diplomas. Generally, licensed graduates of any of the three types of educational programs qualify for entry-level positions.
Many RNs with an ADN or diploma later enter bachelor’s programs to prepare for a broader scope of nursing practice. Often, they can find an entry-level position and then take advantage of tuition reimbursement benefits to work toward a BSN by completing an RN-to-BSN program. In 2006, there were 629 RN-to-BSN programs in the United States. Accelerated master’s degree in nursing (MSN) programs also are available by combining 1 year of an accelerated BSN program with 2 years of graduate study. In 2006, there were 149 RN-to-MSN programs.
Accelerated BSN programs also are available for individuals who have a bachelor’s or higher degree in another field and who are interested in moving into nursing. In 2006, 197 of these programs were available. Accelerated BSN programs last 12 to 18 months and provide the fastest route to a BSN for individuals who already hold a degree. MSN programs also are available for individuals who hold a bachelor’s or higher degree in another field.
Individuals considering nursing should carefully weigh the advantages and disadvantages of enrolling in a BSN or MSN program because, if they do, their advancement opportunities usually are broader. In fact, some career paths are open only to nurses with a bachelor’s or master’s degree. A bachelor’s degree often is necessary for administrative positions and is a prerequisite for admission to graduate nursing programs in research, consulting, and teaching, and all four advanced practice nursing specialtiesclinical nurse specialists, nurse anesthetists, nurse-midwives, and nurse practitioners. Individuals who complete a bachelor’s receive more training in areas such as communication, leadership, and critical thinking, all of which are becoming more important as nursing care becomes more complex. Additionally, bachelor’s degree programs offer more clinical experience in nonhospital settings. Education beyond a bachelor’s degree can also help students looking to enter certain fields or increase advancement opportunities. In 2006, 448 nursing schools offered master’s degrees, 108 offered doctoral degrees, and 58 offered accelerated BSN-to-doctoral programs.
All four advanced practice nursing specialties require at least a master’s degree. Most programs include about 2 years of full-time study and require a BSN degree for entry; some programs require at least 1 to 2 years of clinical experience as an RN for admission. In 2006, there were 342 master’s and post-master’s programs offered for nurse practitioners, 230 master’s and post-master’s programs for clinical nurse specialists, 106 programs for nurse anesthetists, and 39 programs for nurse-midwives.
All nursing education programs include classroom instruction and supervised clinical experience in hospitals and other health care facilities. Students take courses in anatomy, physiology, microbiology, chemistry, nutrition, psychology and other behavioral sciences, and nursing. Coursework also includes the liberal arts for ADN and BSN students.
Supervised clinical experience is provided in hospital departments such as pediatrics, psychiatry, maternity, and surgery. A growing number of programs include clinical experience in nursing care facilities, public health departments, home health agencies, and ambulatory clinics.
Licensure and certification. In all States, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories, students must graduate from an approved nursing program and pass a national licensing examination, known as the NCLEX-RN, in order to obtain a nursing license. Nurses may be licensed in more than one State, either by examination or by the endorsement of a license issued by another State. The Nurse Licensure Compact Agreement allows a nurse who is licensed and permanently resides in one of the member States to practice in the other member States without obtaining additional licensure. In 2006, 20 states were members of the Compact, while 2 more were pending membership. All States require periodic renewal of licenses, which may require continuing education.
Certification is common, and sometimes required, for the four advanced practice nursing specialtiesclinical nurse specialists, nurse anesthetists, nurse-midwives, and nurse practitioners. Upon completion of their educational programs, most advanced practice nurses become nationally certified in their area of specialty. Certification also is available in specialty areas for all nurses. In some States, certification in a specialty is required in order to practice that specialty.
Foreign-educated and foreign-born nurses wishing to work in the United States must obtain a work visa. To obtain the visa, nurses must undergo a federal screening program to ensure that their education and licensure are comparable to that of a U.S. educated nurse, that they have proficiency in written and spoken English, and that they have passed either the Commission on Graduates of Foreign Nursing Schools (CGFNS) Qualifying Examination or the NCLEX-RN. CGFNS administers the VisaScreen Program. (The Commission is an immigration-neutral, nonprofit organization that is recognized internationally as an authority on credentials evaluation in the health care field.) Nurses educated in Australia, Canada (except Quebec), Ireland, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom, or foreign-born nurses who were educated in the United States, are exempt from the language proficiency testing. In addition to these national requirements, foreign-born nurses must obtain state licensure in order to practice in the United States. Each State has its own requirements for licensure.
Other qualifications. Nurses should be caring, sympathetic, responsible, and detail oriented. They must be able to direct or supervise others, correctly assess patients’ conditions, and determine when consultation is required. They need emotional stability to cope with human suffering, emergencies, and other stresses.
Advancement. Some RNs start their careers as licensed practical nurses or nursing aides, and then go back to school to receive their RN degree. Most RNs begin as staff nurses in hospitals, and with experience and good performance often move to other settings or are promoted to more responsible positions. In management, nurses can advance from assistant unit manger or head nurse to more senior-level administrative roles of assistant director, director, vice president, or chief nurse. Increasingly, management-level nursing positions require a graduate or an advanced degree in nursing or health services administration. Administrative positions require leadership, communication and negotiation skills, and good judgment.
Some nurses move into the business side of health care. Their nursing expertise and experience on a health care team equip them to manage ambulatory, acute, home-based, and chronic care. Employersincluding hospitals, insurance companies, pharmaceutical manufacturers, and managed care organizations, among othersneed RNs for health planning and development, marketing, consulting, policy development, and quality assurance. Other nurses work as college and university faculty or conduct research.
As the largest health care occupation, registered nurses held about 2.5 million jobs in 2006. Hospitals employed the majority of RNs, with 59 percent of jobs. Other industries also employed large shares of workers. About 8 percent of jobs were in offices of physicians, 5 percent in home health care services, 5 percent in nursing care facilities, 4 percent in employment services, and 3 percent in outpatient care centers. The remainder worked mostly in government agencies, social assistance agencies, and educational services. About 21 percent of RNs worked part time.
Overall job opportunities for registered nurses are expected to be excellent, but may vary by employment and geographic setting. Employment of RNs is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2016 and, because the occupation is very large, many new jobs will result. In fact, registered nurses are projected to generate 587,000 new jobs, among the largest number of new jobs for any occupation. Additionally, hundreds of thousands of job openings will result from the need to replace experienced nurses who leave the occupation.
Employment change. Employment of registered nurses is expected to grow 23 percent from 2006 to 2016, much faster than the average for all occupations. Growth will be driven by technological advances in patient care, which permit a greater number of health problems to be treated, and by an increasing emphasis on preventive care. In addition, the number of older people, who are much more likely than younger people to need nursing care, is projected to grow rapidly.
However, employment of RNs will not grow at the same rate in every industry. The projected growth rates for RNs in the industries with the highest employment of these workers are:
Projections data from the National Employment Matrix
|Occupational title ||SOC Code ||Employment, 2006 ||Projected |
|Change, 2006-16 ||Detailed statistics |
|Number ||Percent |
|29-1111 ||2,505,000 ||3,092,000 ||587,000 ||23 ||PDF ||zipped XLS |
Median annual earnings of registered nurses were $57,280 in May 2006. The middle 50 percent earned between $47,710 and $69,850. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $40,250, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $83,440. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of registered nurses in May 2006 were:
|General medical and surgical hospitals||58,550|
|Home health care services||54,190|
|Offices of physicians||53,800|
|Nursing care facilities||52,490|
Many employers offer flexible work schedules, child care, educational benefits, and bonuses.
Because of the number of specialties for registered nurses, and the variety of responsibilities and duties, many other health care occupations are similar in some aspect of the job. Other occupations that deal directly with patients when providing care include licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses, physicians and surgeons, athletic trainers, respiratory therapists, massage therapists, dietitians and nutritionists, occupational therapists, physical therapists, and emergency medical technicians and paramedics. Other occupations that use advanced medical equipment to treat patients include cardiovascular technologists and technicians, diagnostic medical sonographers, radiologic technologists and technicians, radiation therapists, and surgical technologists. Workers who also assist other health care professionals in providing care include nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides; physician assistants; and dental hygienists. Some nurses take on a management role, similar to medical and health services managers.
Sources of Additional Information
For information on a career as a registered nurse and nursing education, contact:
- National League for Nursing, 61 Broadway, New York, NY 10006. Internet: http://www.nln.org
For information on baccalaureate and graduate nursing education, nursing career options, and financial aid, contact:
- American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 1 Dupont Circle NW., Suite 530, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.aacn.nche.edu
For additional information on registered nurses, including credentialing, contact:
- American Nurses Association, 8515 Georgia Ave., Suite 400, Silver Spring, MD 20910. Internet: http://nursingworld.org
For information on the NCLEX-RN exam and a list of individual State boards of nursing, contact:
- National Council of State Boards of Nursing, 111 E. Wacker Dr., Suite 2900, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ncsbn.org
For information on the nursing population, including workforce shortage facts, contact:
- Bureau of Health Professions, 5600 Fishers Lane, Room 8-05, Rockville, MD 20857. Internet: http://bhpr.hrsa.gov
For information on obtaining U.S. certification and work visas for foreign-educated nurses, contact:
- Commission on Graduates of Foreign Nursing Schools, 3600 Market St., Suite 400, Philadelphia, PA 19104. Internet: http://www.cgfns.org
For a list of accredited clinical nurse specialist programs, contact:
- National Association of Clinical Nurse Specialists, 2090 Linglestown Rd., Suite 107, Harrisburg, PA 17110. Internet: http://www.nacns.org
For information on nurse anesthetists, including a list of accredited programs, contact:
- American Association of Nurse Anesthetists, 222 Prospect Ave., Park Ridge, IL 60068.
For information on nurse-midwives, including a list of accredited programs, contact:
- American College of Nurse-Midwives, 8403 Colesville Rd., Suite 1550, Silver Spring, MD 20910. Internet: http://www.midwife.org
For information on nurse practitioners, including a list of accredited programs, contact:
- American Academy of Nurse Practitioners, P.O. Box 12846, Austin, TX 78711. Internet: http://www.aanp.org
For information on nurse practitioners education, contact:
- National Organization of Nurse Practitioner Faculties, 1522 K St. NW., Suite 702, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.nonpf.org
For information on critical care nurses, contact:
- American Association of Critical-Care Nurses, 101 Columbia, Aliso Viejo, CA 92656. Internet: http://www.aacn.org
For additional information on registered nurses in all fields and specialties, contact:
- American Society of Registered Nurses, 1001 Bridgeway, Suite 411, Sausalito, CA 94965. Internet: http://www.asrn.org
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Outlook Handbook | <urn:uuid:5707b19f-b1df-4114-a73e-f5ff388a1e73> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2016-44",
"url": "http://www.comparetopschools.com/occupations/registered-nurses.aspx",
"date": "2016-10-24T07:01:33",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-44/segments/1476988719542.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20161020183839-00318-ip-10-171-6-4.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9437764883041382,
"token_count": 5628,
"score": 3.5,
"int_score": 4
} | 5,628 |
Write a 750-1000 word essay about a topic in which you argue for the existence of a particular phenomenon by stating a generalization about the topic. Then you will support that generalization (in the form of a thesis statement) by choosing to write a single-example illustration essay or a multiple-example illustration essay (see Unit V, Lesson 2). The essay should be written in the style and form described within Unit V.
Purpose: Throughout Unit V, we have discussed the conventions of the illustration essay. The purpose of this assignment is to measure your mastery of those conventions by putting your knowledge to practice. In a larger context, the purpose of writing an illustration essay is to convey an idea to the reader by providing illustrations (examples) that will solidify the existence of a topic.
Process: For the illustration essay, you will complete the following steps:
Choose a topic: See the methods for developing a topic and the suggested list of topics in Unit V, Lesson 3.
Decide if you want to write a single-example or multiple-example essay: See Unit V, Lesson 2, for more instruction on the differences between single-example and multiple-example essays.
Collect illustrations: See Unit V, Lesson 1, for more information about different kinds of illustrations. See Unit V, Lesson 4, for more information about how to gather illustrations.
Craft your thesis statement: See Unit V, Lesson 5, for more information on how to write a thesis. Note that you want to craft your thesis according to whether you choose to write a single-example or a multiple-example essay.
Draft the essay: For each section of the essay, see the following: Unit V, Lesson 6, for the introduction; Unit V, Lesson 7, for the body paragraphs; and Unit V, Lesson 8, for the conclusion.
Stylistic details: All essays must meet the following requirements:
Write in Times New Roman, 12 pt. font.
Include one-inch margins on all sides.
Use double spacing (top-to-bottom every page, to include above and below titles and centered words).
Include an APA title page (for all essays) and reference list that includes all of the sources used in the essay.
Include a header.
Include page numbers (upper-right corner only).
Adhere to APA convention and documentation style (See the CSU citation guide for assistance.).
At least one source is required. All sources used must be cited.
The following document will assist you in creating this assignment:
Illustrations essay example
Information about accessing the grading rubric for this assignment is provided below.
Why Choose Us
At Myhomeworkwriters.com, we always aim at 100% customer satisfaction. As such, we never compromise the quality of our essay services. Our essay helpers ensure that they craft each paper carefully to match the requirements in the instruction form.
Professional Academic Writers
With Myhomeworkwriters.com, every student is guaranteed high-quality, professionally written papers. We ensure that we hire individuals with high academic qualifications who can maintain our quality policy. These writers undergo further training to sharpen their writing skills, making them more competent in writing academic papers.
Our company maintains a fair pricing system for all paper writing services to ensure affordability. Our pricing system generates quotations based on the properties of individual papers.
MyHomeworkWriters guarantees all students of swift delivery of papers. We understand that time is an essential factor in the academic world. Therefore, we ensure that we deliver the paper on or before the agreed date to give students ample time for reviewing.
Myhomeworkwriters.com maintains a zero-plagiarism policy. As such, MyHomeworkWriters ensure that they use the students’ instructions to deliver plagiarism-free papers. We are very keen on avoiding any chance of similarities with previous papers.
Customer Support 24/7
Our customer support works around the clock to provide students with assistance or guidance at any time of the day. Students can always communicate with us through our live chat system or our email and receive instant responses. Feel free to contact us via the Chat window or support email: [email protected].
Try it now!
How it works?
Follow these simple steps to get your paper done
Place your order
Fill in the order form and provide all details of your assignment.
Proceed with the payment
Choose the payment system that suits you most.
Receive the final file
Once your paper is ready, we will email it to you.
Our writers complete papers strictly according to your instructions and needs, no matter what university, college, or high school you study in.
Our Essay Writing Services
MyHomeworkWriters holds a reputation for being a platform that provides high-quality academic services. All you need to do is provide us with all the necessary requirements and wait for quality results.
At MyHomeworkWriters, we have highly qualified academic gurus who will offer great assistance towards completing your essays. Our essay help service providers are well-versed with all the aspects of developing high-quality and relevant essays.
Admission and Business Papers
With Myhomeworkwriters.com, we will help you secure a position at your desired institution. Our essay writing services include the crafting of admissions papers. We will still help you climb your career ladder by helping you write the official papers that will help you secure a job. We will guide you on how to write an outstanding portfolio or resume.
Editing and Proofreading
Myhomeworkwriters.com has a professional editorial team that will help you organize your paper, paraphrase it, and eliminate any possible mistakes. Also, we will help you check on plagiarism to ensure that your final paper posses quality and originality.
My Homework Writers harbors professional academic writers from diverse academic disciplines. As such, we can develop essay help services in all academic areas. The simplicity or complexity of the paper does not affect the quality of essay writing services. | <urn:uuid:a2dd59ae-0546-478e-8de1-d52c9eb94807> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2021-39",
"url": "https://myhomeworkwriters.com/illustration-essay-assignment-homework-for-you/",
"date": "2021-09-26T21:46:37",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-39/segments/1631780057973.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20210926205414-20210926235414-00198.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9015754461288452,
"token_count": 1257,
"score": 3.515625,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,257 |
The equation for cellular respiration is usually simplified to:
glucose + oxygen react to form carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)
But in fact respiration is a complex metabolic pathway, comprising at least 30 separate steps. To understand respiration in detail we can break it up into 3 stages:
Before we look at these stages in detail, there are a few points from the above summary:
The different stages of respiration take place in different parts of the cell. This allows the cell to keep the various metabolites separate, and to control the stages more easily.
The energy released by respiration is in the form of ATP.
Since this summarises so many separate steps (often involving H+ and OH- ions from the solvent water), it is meaningless to try to balance the summary equation.
The release of carbon dioxide takes place before oxygen is involved. It is therefore not true to say that respiration turns oxygen into carbon dioxide; it is more correct to say that respiration turns glucose into carbon dioxide, and oxygen into water.
Stage 1 (glycolysis) is anaerobic respiration, while stages 2 and 3 are the aerobic stages.
Much of respiration takes place in the mitochondria. Mitochondria have a double membrane: the outer membrane contains many protein channels, which let almost any small molecule through; while the inner membrane is more normal and is impermeable to most materials. The inner membrane is highly folded into folds called cristae, giving a larger surface area. The electron microscope reveals blobs on the inner membrane, which were originally called stalked particles. These have now been identified as the enzyme complex that synthesises ATP, are is more correctly called ATP synthase. the space inside the inner membrane is called the matrix, and is where the Krebs cycle takes place (the matrix also contains DNA and some genes are replicated and expressed here).
Details of Respiration
Glucose enters cells from the tissue fluid by facilitated diffusion using a specific glucose carrier protein. This carrier can be controlled (gated) by hormones such as insulin, so that uptake of glucose can be regulated.
The first step is the phosphorylation of glucose to form glucose phosphate, using phosphate from ATP. Glucose phosphate no longer fits the membrane carrier, so it can’t leave the cell. This ensures that pure glucose is kept at a very low concentration inside the cell, so it will always diffuse down its concentration gradient from the tissue fluid into the cell. Glucose phosphate is also the starting material for the synthesis of glycogen.
Glucose is phosphorylated again (using another ATP) and split into two triose phosphate (3 carbon) sugars. From now on everything happens twice per original glucose molecule.
The triose sugar is changed over several steps to form pyruvate, a 3-carbon compound. In these steps some energy is released to form ATP (the only ATP formed in glycolysis), and a hydrogen atom is also released. This hydrogen atom is very important as it stores energy, which is later used by the respiratory chain to make more ATP. The hydrogen atom is taken up and carried to the respiratory chain by the coenzyme NAD, which becomes reduced in the process.
(oxidised form Õ) NAD + H Õ NADH (← reduced form)
Note: rather than write NADH examiners often simply refer to it as reduced NAD or reduced coenzyme
Pyruvate marks the end of glycolysis, the first stage of respiration. In the presence of oxygen pyruvate enters the mitochondrial matrix to proceed with aerobic respiration, but in the absence of oxygen it is converted into lactate (in animals and bacteria) or ethanol (in plants and fungi). These are both examples of anaerobic respiration.
Once pyruvate has entered the inside of the mitochondria (the matrix), it is converted to a compound called acetyl CoA. Since this step is between glycolysis and the Krebs Cycle, it is referred to as the link reaction. In this reaction pyruvate loses a CO2 and a hydrogen to form a 2-carbon acetyl compound, which is temporarily attached to another coenzyme called coenzyme A (or just coA), so the product is called acetyl coA. The CO2 diffuses through the mitochondrial and cell membranes by lipid diffusion, out into the tissue fluid and into the blood, where it is carried to the lungs for removal. The hydrogen is taken up by NAD again.
The acetyl CoA then enters the Krebs Cycle. It is one of several cyclic metabolic pathways, and is also known as the citric acid cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle. The 2-carbon acetyl is transferred from acetyl coA to a 4-carbon intermediate (oxaloacetate) to form a 6-carbon intermediate (citrate). Citrate is then gradually broken down in several steps to re-form the 4-carbon intermediate (oxaloacetate), producing carbon dioxide and hydrogen in the process. As before, the CO2 diffuses out the cell and the hydrogen is taken up by NAD, or by an alternative hydrogen carrier called FAD. These hydrogens are carried to the inner mitochondrial membrane for the final part of respiration.
The Respiratory Chain
The respiratory chain (or electron transport chain) is an unusual metabolic pathway in that it takes place within the inner mitochondrial membrane, using integral membrane proteins. These proteins form four huge trans-membrane complexes. In the respiratory chain the hydrogen atoms from NADH gradually release all their energy to form ATP, and are finally combined with oxygen to form water.
NADH molecules bind to Complex I and release their hydrogen atoms as protons (H+) and electrons (e-). The NAD molecules then returns to the Krebs Cycle to collect more hydrogen. FADH binds to complex II rather than complex I to release its hydrogen.
The electrons are passed down the chain of proteins complexes, each complex binding electrons more tightly than the previous one. In complexes I, II and IV the electrons give up some of their energy, which is then used to pump protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane by active transport through the complexes.
In complex IV the electrons are combined with protons and molecular oxygen to form water, the final end-product of respiration. The oxygen diffused in from the tissue fluid, crossing the cell and mitochondrial membranes by lipid diffusion. Oxygen is only involved at the very last stage of respiration as the final electron acceptor, but without the whole respiratory chain stops.
The energy of the electrons is now stored in the form of a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. It’s a bit like using energy to pump water uphill into a high reservoir, where it is stored as potential energy. And just as the potential energy in the water can be used to generate electricity in a hydroelectric power station, so the energy in the proton gradient can be used to generate ATP in the ATP synthase enzyme. The ATP synthase enzyme has a proton channel through it, and as the protons "fall down" this channel their energy is used to make ATP, spinning the globular head as they go.
This method of storing energy by creating a protons gradient across a membrane is called chemiosmosis. Some poisons act by making proton channels in mitochondrial membranes, so giving an alternative route for protons and stopping the synthesis of ATP. This also happens naturally in the brown fat tissue of new-born babies and hibernating mammals: respiration takes place, but no ATP is made, with the energy being turned into heat instead.
How Much ATP is Made in Respiration?
We can now summarise respiration and see how much ATP is made from each glucose molecule. ATP is made in two different ways:
Some ATP molecules are made directly by the enzymes in glycolysis or the Krebs cycle. This is called substrate level phosphorylation (since ADP is being phosphorylated to form ATP).
Most of the ATP molecules are made by the ATP synthase enzyme in the respiratory chain. Since this requires oxygen it is called oxidative phosphorylation. Scientists don’t yet know exactly how many protons are pumped in the respiratory chain, but the current estimates are: 10 protons are pumped by NADH; 6 by FADH; and 4 protons are needed by ATP synthase to make one ATP molecule. This means that each NADH can make 2.5 ATPs (10/4) and each FADH can make 1.5 ATPs (6/4). Previous estimates were 3 ATPs for NADH and 2 ATPs for FADH, and these numbers still appear in most textbooks, although they are now know to be wrong. (you don't need to know any numbers anyway so don't worry)
Two ATP molecules are used at the start of glycolysis to phosphorylate the glucose, and these must be subtracted from the total.
The table below is an "ATP account" for aerobic respiration, and shows that 32 molecules of ATP are made for each molecule of glucose used in aerobic respiration. This is the maximum possible yield; often less ATP is made, depending on the circumstances. Note that anaerobic respiration (glycolysis) only produces 2 molecules of ATP.
MOLECULES PRODUCED PER GLUCOSE
FINAL ATP YIELD OLD METHOD (INTEREST ONLY)
FINAL ATP YIELD NEW METHOD (INTEREST ONLY)
2 ATP used
4 ATP produced (2 per triose phosphate)
2 NADH produced (1 per triose phosphate)
2 NADH produced (1 per pyruvate)
2 ATP produced (1 per acetyl coA)
6 NADH produced (3 per acetyl coA)
2 FADH produced (1 per acetyl coA)
Other substances can also be used to make ATP. Triglycerides are broken down to fatty acids and glycerol, both of which enter the Krebs Cycle. A typical triglyceride might make 50 acetyl CoA molecules, yielding 500 ATP molecules. Fats are a very good energy store, yielding 2.5 times as much ATP per g dry mass as carbohydrates. Proteins are not normally used to make ATP, but in times of starvation they can be broken down and used in respiration. They are first broken down to amino acids, which are converted into pyruvate and Krebs Cycle metabolites and then used to make ATP.
We are not affiliated with, nor endorsed by, the New York State Education Department.
The information contained in this website is for general information purposes only. The information is provided by "Technology Strategies for Success" and while we strive to keep the information up-to-date and correct, we make no representations or warranties of any kind, express or implied, about the completeness, accuracy, reliability, suitability or availability with respect to the website or the information, products, services, or related graphics contained on the website for any purpose. Any reliance you place on such information is therefore strictly at your own risk. | <urn:uuid:3225a2df-d1b2-453e-a845-990e951443aa> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20",
"url": "http://nyslivingenvironment.net/regents-questions.html",
"date": "2013-05-18T10:53:20",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382261/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00054-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.934204638004303,
"token_count": 2333,
"score": 4.125,
"int_score": 4
} | 2,333 |
Engineering Entrance exams such as JEE Main, Advanced and BITSAT has questions from various topic. One such important topic is the Resolution of Vectors. In this article, we are covering all the details about the resolution of vectors and provide related FAQs. Go through these notes to ace your Engineering Entrance exam.
Physical quantities are commonly categorized as scalar and vector quantities. Scalar quantities only have magnitude. However, vector quantities have magnitude as well as a direction. Since vector quantities tell the direction, then we can add them with special methods like the triangle method and the parallelogram method, or the component method. Using these methods will help us find the resultant.
The process of splitting a vector into various parts is called the resolution of vectors. These parts of a vector act in different directions and are called “components of vector“. We can resolve a vector into many components.
Generally, there are three components of the vector which are as follows:
Component along x-axis
Component along y-axis
Component along z-axis
We will here discuss only two components x-component & y-component which are perpendicular to each other. These components are known as rectangular components of the vector.
Method of Resolving a Vector into Rectangular Components
Consider a vector v acting at a point that makes an angle q with the positive x-axis. Vector v is represented by a line OA. Draw a perpendicular AB from point A on the x-axis. Suppose OB and BA represent two vectors. Vector OA is parallel to the x-axis and vector BA is parallel to the y-axis. The magnitude of these vectors is Vx and Vy respectively. We notice that the sum of these vectors is equal to vector v. Thus the rectangular components of the vector are Vx and Vy.
The magnitude of the horizontal component
Consider the above right-angled triangle OAB
The magnitude of the vertical component
Consider the above right-angled triangle OAB
Get Unlimited Access to Test Series for 780+ Exams and much more.
Triangle law of vector addition states that when two vectors are represented by two sides of a triangle in magnitude and direction taken in the same order then the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the vectors is represented by the third side of the triangle.
Parallelogram law of vector addition states that if two vectors are represented by the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the resultant of two vectors is given by the vector which is a diagonal passing through the joining point of two vectors.
Horizontal Component Definition
The x -component, or the horizontal component, of a vector, is the size of the vector in the x -direction. It is given by \(=vcos\theta\)
Vertical Component Definition
The 𝑦-component, or the vertical component, of a vector, is the size of the vector in the
𝑦-direction. It is given by \(y=vsin\theta.\)
Trigonometric Method of Vector Resolution
The trigonometric method of vector resolve entails using trigonometric functions to ascertain the elements of the vector. It explained how to use trigonometric functions to determine a vector’s direction. Trigonometric functions will be used to identify the elements of a single vector. Trigonometric functions are used to determine the relationship between the side lengths of a right triangle and the sharp angle’s value. Trigonometric functions can therefore be used to determine the length of the sides of a right triangle if an angle sign and the length of one side are known.
This relationship can be used to find out the value of the vector.
Solved Examples of Resolution of vectors
Here are some examples of the resolution of vectors.
Solved Example 1: There are two friends pushing a box. They exert two perpendicular pressures on each other. One of the friends is exerting 3 Newtons of force (F1) in the east, and the other is exerting 4 Newtons of force (F2) in the north. For the overall force being applied to the box, determine the resultant vector.
The magnitude of F is equivalent to the hypotenuse of the triangle that these vectors form because two forces, F1 and F2, are perpendicular to one another.
Solved Example 2: A ball is thrown at a 35° angle to the horizontal with a starting velocity of 70 feet per second. Determine the velocity’s vertical and horizontal components.
Let v represent the velocity and use the given information to write v in unit vector form:
v ≈ 57.34i+40.15j
Therefore, the horizontal component is 57.34 feet per second and the vertical component is 40.15 feet per second.
So, this is all about the Resolution of Vectors. Get some practice of the same on our free Testbook App. Download Now!
If you are checking this Physics article, also check the other Physics articles in the table below: | <urn:uuid:3b6a9882-dcc4-4151-befe-582f39bc6eb4> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2023-40",
"url": "https://testbook.com/physics/resolution-of-vectors",
"date": "2023-09-30T02:07:08",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233510575.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20230930014147-20230930044147-00602.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9085283875465393,
"token_count": 1041,
"score": 4.3125,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,041 |
Friday, July 20, 2012
Primary 5: Unit 3 Singing in Parts
Listen to this song, at first there is only 1 voice (solo).
Later (around 1 minute), you will hear another voice. That is the mixed-part singing that we will discuss from pg30-33.
Our text book only show part of this song, a traditional Canadian song.
Please practice to use your recorder to play the song, sing the song with you group members and prepare for the assessment next week.
This is the recorder tutorial, but the starting note is B and it use the High E, you may choose to play this version or follow the text book which use the starting note, A.
This is another version, from 1 minute onwards, listen carefully for the 3 part canon.
The lady use 2 songs, My Paddle and Land of the Silver Birch, but the tune is similar and it sounds beautiful.
All 3 voices belong to the same lady, she recorded 3 times using Audacity.
Check to find out how to use Audacity to record your song/ voice.
This is the 4 part canon for recorder, but use another key, the starting note is not A , it is B.
They are Grade 4 pupils.
This version shows you the picture related to the lyrics. | <urn:uuid:67dcb4bc-1fdc-408d-93ad-566dd19f4228> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2017-51",
"url": "http://choirsvps.blogspot.com/2012/07/primary-5-unit-3-singing-in-parts.html",
"date": "2017-12-18T16:39:09",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-51/segments/1512948618633.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20171218161254-20171218183254-00273.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8838106989860535,
"token_count": 272,
"score": 3.515625,
"int_score": 4
} | 272 |
Everyone is looking for different ways to teach STEM, why not teach STEM integrating current environmental problems? The aim of the project is to engage participants in E-STEM also called as GREEN STEM which focuses on providing in depth science, technology, engineering and mathematics.
Therefore, the project aims to lead the students solve local community challenges. Integrating environmental education into STEM learning and transfrorming it E-STEM makes the project different from the other project that were done before. This will lead students to learn, experience, and help solve local community challenges through a combination of environmental education, environmental science topics and issues, citizen science activities.
While building suspension bridges using simple or recycled materials or drawbridges with Lego pieces and a motor, the students will develop a set of thinking reasoning and creative skills. Making original mechanisms like gripper, projectile launcher or walker leg ,they will focus on basic principles of physics, structural, and mechanical engineering.
Watch for the complete description of these projects here
This is the main code to program our mechanisms and sensors: | <urn:uuid:8baf56f6-7b12-4279-95a6-f352bcff955c> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2020-34",
"url": "https://twinspace.etwinning.net/74454/pages/page/481032",
"date": "2020-08-06T07:00:50",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-34/segments/1596439736883.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200806061804-20200806091804-00239.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9269727468490601,
"token_count": 213,
"score": 3.921875,
"int_score": 4
} | 213 |
The Angolan flag is a vertical bicolour with in the center the national emblem. The used colors in the flag are red, yellow, black. The proportion of the Angolan flag is 2:3. The Flag of Angola was adopted in 1975. The first use of the current flag design was in 1975. The last change to the current Angolan flag design was in 1975.
he Angolan flag is based on the flag of the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), which fought Portuguese colonial rule and emerged as the ruling party of Angola following the Angolan Civil War. The MPLA flag is similar to the flag of Angola but features a star in place of the central emblem.
The National Flag of the Republic of Angola has two horizontal bands of red and black with the Machete and Gear Emblem in gold in the center consisted of a five pointed-star within a half gear wheel crossed by a machete (resembling the hammer and sickle used on the Soviet flag). As outlined in the Constitution of Angola, the red half of the flag signifies bloodshed – during Angola’s colonial period, independence struggle, and in defense of the country. The black half symbolizes Africa. In the central emblem, the gear represents industrial workers and production, the machete represents peasantry, agricultural production and the armed struggle and the star, shaped like the red star, symbolizes international solidarity and progress. The yellow color of the emblem symbolizes the country’s wealth. The Constitution of 1975 described the red stripe as symbolizing bloodshed during the colonial period, national liberation and a revolution – and reference to revolution was replaced with “defense of the country” in the constitution of 1992. In other changes of wording between the 1975 and 1992 versions, the machete was changed from a symbol of “internationalism” to “international solidarity,” and references to “working class” and “peasant class” were replaced with “workers” and “peasants”
Was this article helpful? | <urn:uuid:2e40ec3c-0917-485a-85bf-19f5f0379336> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2022-40",
"url": "https://www.nyongesasande.com/flag-of-angola/",
"date": "2022-09-25T07:49:17",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-40/segments/1664030334515.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20220925070216-20220925100216-00120.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9290164709091187,
"token_count": 426,
"score": 3.515625,
"int_score": 4
} | 426 |
When your child is creative and curious, she can come up with answers to the problems she encounters—like how to keep the block tower from falling. Creativity helps your child become a thoughtful, inquisitive, and confident learner later on, when she starts school. One of the most important ways that your toddler is tuning in to her creativity is by experimenting with art materials. As she grabs that chunky crayon and gets to work, you will see her art and writing change and become more controlled and complex as she grows.
The first board is blank on one side and ruled to guide the placement of letters on the other side. The second board has one side ruled in squares and the other ruled in horizontal lines.
This work is done parallel to work with the Sorting Letters. Preparatory Exercice Invite one child to come and work with you. You and the child choose one sandpaper letter and bring it to the table.
Then go and get the tray of sand and place it to the right of the sandpaper letter. Trace the sandpaper letter. Repeat two to three times. Then tell the child that you are going to trace the letter in the tray. Move the tablet over to the left.
Slide the tray in front of you and trace the same letter as the sandpaper letter into the sand. Show the child that you have made the same letter. Have the child trace the sandpaper letter and then make the letter in the sand.
The child can continue making the letter in the sand. Once he is comfortable tracing the letter in the sand, he can then work with the stylus.
Once he is comfortable with using the stylus and writes a few of the letters in the sand, he is ready to begin with the Chalkboard work. Blank Board - Blank board and chalk tray - Sandpaper letters Invite one child to come and work with you.
Tell him that you will be using something to help us to write. Introduce the child to the chalkboard and have him carry it to the table. Then have him bring the box with the eraser, etc. Then have the child choose a sandpaper letter. Then have the child sit to your left.
Take out all of the material and place it above the chalkboard. Then place the tray also above the chalkboard. Trace the sandpaper letter a few times. Use the chalk and write the sandpaper letter multiple times on the board in a straight, horizontal line.
Erase the letters written in an up to down, left to right manner. Use the dust cloth hold as in Practical Life and wipe board. Take the terry cloth and clean your hands.
Move everything over so the child can write the same sandpaper letter. Suggest to the child that they may keep writing this letter. If the child seems very comfortable writing this letter, you may show them another letter. If not, wait for a future time.
Once done, show the child how to put away the material. If the clothes are dirty, you will need to change them. Encourage the child to continue practicing from time to time. Exercice This game is to be done in a group.
The directress would have the children sit in a circle around a mat. She would then hand out the material for example one cube of the Pink Tower to each child.Chalkboard Lettering Alphabet, Hand Lettering, Chalkboard Stencils, Chalkboard Designs, Lettering Styles, Creative Lettering, Calligraphy Letters, Lettering Design, Chalkboard Fabric Find this Pin and more on Süssigkeiten by Dani Fish.
Thanks for previewing this demo version of Chalk Hand Lettering Shaded. For the real When you subscribe to our Love Letters e-mail you get 13 free Chalkboard Frame graphics with the trademark Fonts Café curvy, curly, vintage, blackboard chalk look (see samples below.) The Chalk Hand Lettering 3-font savings bundle includes the PRO.
Oct 31, · about the chalk art how to make chalk into alphabet (a) try,try untill it made it is easy to make it so comment in the comment in the comment box about the video the good news is that.
Use the chalk and write the sandpaper letter multiple times on the board in a straight, horizontal line. Erase the letters written in an up to down, left to right manner.
Use the dust cloth (hold as in Practical Life) and wipe board. Cute white letters that you can apply directly to a chalkboard to create your own weekly meal menu. Chalk & Letters, Redondo Beach, California. likes. I am a local Los Angeles chalkboarder wanting to create chalk and chalkboard art for parties. | <urn:uuid:b8e9011e-69bf-456d-9a2c-7c0571947d77> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2020-40",
"url": "https://poxovubujypy.timberdesignmag.com/chalk-writing-alphabets-7654jv.html",
"date": "2020-09-29T20:15:34",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-40/segments/1600402088830.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200929190110-20200929220110-00163.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9292896389961243,
"token_count": 986,
"score": 3.9375,
"int_score": 4
} | 986 |
Scientists at the University of Nagoya in Japan have shown how DNA-like molecules could have come together as precursors to the origins of life. The findings, published in the journal Nature Communications, not only suggest how life might have started, but also have implications for the development of artificial life and biotechnology applications.
“The RNA world is believed to be a stage in the origin of life,” says Nagoya University biomolecular engineer Keiji Murayama.
“Before this stage, the pre-RNA world may have been based on molecules called xenonucleic acids (XNAs). However, unlike RNA, XNA replication probably did not require enzymes. We were able to synthesize an XNA without enzymes, which strongly supports the hypothesis that an XNA world could have existed before the RNA world. “
XNAs are made up of linked nucleotide chains, similar to DNA and RNA, but with a different sugar structure. XNAs can carry genetic code very stably because the human body cannot break them down. Some researchers have reported that XNAs that contain specific sequences can act as enzymes and bind to proteins. This makes XNAs interesting in the field of synthetic genetics, with possible applications in biotechnology and molecular medicine.
Murayama, Hiroyuki Asanuma, and their colleagues wanted to find out whether conditions likely present on early Earth could have led to the formation of the XNA chain. They synthesized acyclic (non-circular) L-threoninol (L-aTNA) nucleic acid fragments, a molecule believed to have existed before RNA existed. They also made a longer L-aTNA with a nucleobase sequence that complemented the sequences of the fragments, similar to how DNA strands match.
When placed together in a temperature controlled test tube, the shorter L-aTNA fragments pooled and bound together in the longer L-aTNA template.
Critically, this happened in the presence of a compound, called N-cyanoimidazole, and a metal ion, such as manganese, both of which were possibly present on early Earth. Fragments become entangled when a phosphate at the end of one is chemically attached to a hydroxyl group at the end of its neighbor, without the help of an enzyme.
“To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of enzyme-free, template-driven extension of acyclic XNA from a pool of random fragments, generating phosphodiester linkages,” says Murayama.
The team also showed that L-aTNA fragments could interconnect into DNA and RNA templates. This suggests that the genetic code could be transferred from DNA and RNA to L-aTNA and vice versa.
“Our strategy is an attractive system to experiment with the construction of artificial life and the development of highly functional biological tools composed of acyclic XNA,” says Murayama. “The data also indicate that L-aTNA could have been a precursor to RNA.”
The team plans to continue their research to clarify whether L-aTNA could have been synthesized in the “pre-life” conditions of early Earth and to examine its potential to develop advanced biological tools.
Lands Beyond Beyond – extrasolar planets – news and science
Life beyond Earth
We need your help. The SpaceDaily news network continues to grow, but revenue has never been so difficult to maintain.
With the rise of Facebook and ad blockers, our traditional revenue streams through quality network advertising continue to decline. And unlike many other news sites, we don’t have a paywall, with those pesky usernames and passwords.
Our news coverage requires time and effort to run 365 days a year.
If you find our news sites informative and useful, consider becoming a regular contributor or, for now, make a one-time contribution.
Monthly contributor to SpaceDaily
$ 5 + billed monthly
$ 5 billed one time
credit card or paypal
Photosynthesis could be as old as life itself
London, UK (SPX) March 29, 2021
The researchers find that the first bacteria had the tools to perform a crucial step in photosynthesis, changing the way we think life on Earth evolved. The finding also challenges expectations about how life might have evolved on other planets. The evolution of oxygen-producing photosynthesis is believed to be the key factor in the eventual emergence of complex life. This was thought to take several billion years to evolve, but if, indeed, earlier life could, then other planets may have evo … read more | <urn:uuid:4bed978b-4f9a-45d1-99b2-321ee7009c03> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2021-17",
"url": "https://technofeed.net/the-origins-of-life-could-have-started-with-dna-like-xnas",
"date": "2021-04-11T06:49:25",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-17/segments/1618038061562.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20210411055903-20210411085903-00148.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9520506858825684,
"token_count": 964,
"score": 4.1875,
"int_score": 4
} | 964 |
Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas
The Supreme Court, led by Chief Justice Earl Warren, ruled unanimously
that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. The court argued
that segregation hurt both black and white students by instilling in each
group false feelings of inferiority and superiority, respectively. The
court added that the damage segregation did to blacks was "likely never
to be undone." This ruling opened the floodgates of civil rights activity
and led to more than a decade of protest against inequality and injustice
in other areas of American life.
on the play button to hear the following excerpt.
Total time: 1 minute, 11 seconds
And in the meantime, the white children had school buses. They
had school buses. They could pass by us on the school bus while we were
walking. And they had much better heating. Better schooling, too. Because
they had better heat and everything. A lot of times we had to go to school
and make a fire. Cold. Whew. Froze and walking. You know, it was really
cold. Yeah, and it's cold there too. You know, your feet's cold, hands
cold, little children you know, and you got to go ahead and make a fire.
Didn't have nobody, no janitor or nobody to make it. I figured it was necessary
to go and integrate ‘cause you get the better facilities and everything.
Now, you take when, before they integrated it, they always said we gonna
keep'em separate but equal. But it's separate, but it wasn't equal. But
they didn't have equal facilities like that. So to get the facilities,
it would become necessary to go over there and integrate with them. That's
the reason I'd love if I could go ahead and integrate, because, you know,
to get all the facilities. But if they got equal, if they got equal facilities,
I'd have rather kept it segregated.
-- Bilbo Rodgers, a native of Louisville, Mississippi, was an
active participant in the movement on the Gulf Coast.
Click on the play button to hear the following excerpt.
Total time: 46 seconds
We had a terrible idea that it was sinful to be black, that
God only loved white people. You know, we kind of felt that way about it.
And then we found out that "all of God's creation was good" so He said,
and it was just in my mind, which didn't mean a thing, that people are
good and bad. People white, black, yellow, whatever color you want, the
rich and poor.
-- Amzie Moore, prominent civil rights activist who grew up
in poverty in rural Mississippi.
He was an active leader and one-time president of the Mississippi NAACP.
He helped to organize and direct the activities of Freedom Summer, started
head start programs, and encouraged blacks to become economically self-sufficient. | <urn:uuid:64c65c21-e62e-40a1-a141-2f98c7002942> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2014-35",
"url": "http://www.usm.edu/crdp/html/cd/brown.htm",
"date": "2014-08-28T11:25:03",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-35/segments/1408500830746.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20140820021350-00055-ip-10-180-136-8.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9746071100234985,
"token_count": 621,
"score": 3.5,
"int_score": 4
} | 621 |
Focus: Students learn about the planets in our solar system, as well as celestial objects such as asteroids, meteoroids, and comets. They are also introduced to galaxies, the Big Bang theory, and key people involved in the study and exploration of space.
Number of Lessons: 10
Lesson Time: 70 minutes each. Each lesson may be divided into shorter segments.
Additional Search Terms: nonfiction • constellations • gravity • Copernicus • Mae Jemison • eclipse • physical science | <urn:uuid:a6b1af6a-6b5b-4299-a2f2-9d44b4417a64> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2018-09",
"url": "https://www.coreknowledge.org/free-resource/ckla-domain-07-astronomy-solar-system-beyond/",
"date": "2018-02-25T21:45:07",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-09/segments/1518891817437.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20180225205820-20180225225820-00411.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.904125452041626,
"token_count": 102,
"score": 3.765625,
"int_score": 4
} | 102 |
Air pollution and high energy consumption are issues affecting densely populated cities worldwide. The need to develop solutions to curb these banes of urban living have inspired the design of building infrastructure that can react and adapt to changing environmental conditions.
Unlike conventional, static building materials, smart materials possess this dynamic functionality, which can help to increase energy efficiency and support the development of decentralized energy infrastructure. For example, “biohybrid” buildings that incorporate living materials into their architecture have the potential to not only remove carbon dioxide from the air but to serve as a biological source of energy.
The biohybrid building concept is not a new one. The world’s first algae-powered building, Hamburg’s BIQ (“Bio-Intelligent Quotient”) apartment complex, was completed in 2013. Two of the building’s façades are composed of bioreactors that sustain algae growth and photosynthesis, providing heat and hot water to its residents and contributing to significant energy savings (the building’s electricity is not provided by the bioreactors). Moreover, the algae biomass is periodically harvested and converted into methane at a nearby biogas plant.
However, the upfront cost of this bioreactor façade design is high due to the novelty of the technology. Therefore, developing the technology to make it more amenable to scale-up is necessary in order for living architecture to become more widespread.
A potential alternative to the BIQ’s design is to immobilize whole algal cells in a 3D matrix, such as hydrogels, instead of relying on bioreactors to cultivate algae. Using this approach, researchers from University College London have devised a large-scale, robotic printing technique for custom fabrication of alginate‐based hydrogels.
Hydrogels are water-based polymeric materials that can support cell proliferation and have been widely used in biomedical and tissue engineering applications for this reason. Hydrogel scaffolds can be generated through additive manufacturing, which allows for multimaterial, layer-by-layer fabrication on a large scale.
Each hydrogel formulation investigated by the researchers included Chlorella sorokiniana algal cells with different polymers as rheology modifiers and varying water percentages. Based on rheological testing, they determined that the sample containing methylcellulose and carrageenan was the best candidate for extrusion-based printing, where the hydrogel is delivered through a nozzle under applied pressure.
Their custom-built, pneumatic extrusion system can generate different patterns and geometries according to computational simulations, including a 1000 × 500 mm panel having three separate hydrogel layers with different resolutions. Algal cells within the alginate–methylcellulose hydrogel consisting of 85–90% water are able to survive for 21 days after printing, demonstrating that extrusion does not affect cell growth.
Aside from living architecture, these green hydrogels may also find application in bioremediation and wastewater treatment given algae’s absorption capabilities. | <urn:uuid:100c1537-17bb-4d59-8c55-ce75282c4e27> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2021-04",
"url": "https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/algae-laden-hydrogels-could-bring-buildings-to-life/",
"date": "2021-01-16T06:43:44",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-04/segments/1610703500028.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20210116044418-20210116074418-00286.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9297704100608826,
"token_count": 629,
"score": 3.6875,
"int_score": 4
} | 629 |
Social Emotional Learning
Social and emotional learning (SEL) at Wornick provides children with the necessary knowledge, attitudes and skills for self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills and responsible decision-making. This means that children learn to understand and to manage emotions, to feel and to show empathy for others, to establish and to maintain positive relationships, and to make responsible decisions.
SEL is approached both by direct instruction and by modeling supportive, respectful relationships. Our program uses The Responsive Classroom approach for morning meetings and for respectful communication throughout the day. The advisory class for middle school students, which meets every morning, is the primary vehicle for Social Emotional Learning.
A unique way that we build a respectful community for the entire school is through our Chavurah program. Chavurah means a group of friends in Hebrew, and this program provides leadership opportunities for older children and a way for younger children to create meaningful connections with older students. The entire school is divided into twenty-two chavurot (friendship groups) each containing a representative from each grade (K-8) and a teacher. Children remain in their same chavurah throughout their years at Wornick. Each month, the groups meet to work together on a design challenge or service learning opportunity. | <urn:uuid:2f347901-ffa0-4037-89c4-65eacfd05a53> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2017-43",
"url": "http://www.wornickjds.org/page.cfm?p=508",
"date": "2017-10-17T20:24:43",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-43/segments/1508187822488.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20171017200905-20171017220905-00213.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9581152200698853,
"token_count": 269,
"score": 3.65625,
"int_score": 4
} | 269 |
After Lunch we will be continuing with the second part of today’s lesson.
1:00 – 5:00
This part’s featured artist is:
Edward Hopper (1882 – 1967)
Edward Hopper was a prominent American realist painter and printmaker. While he was most popularly known for his oil paintings, he was equally proficient as a watercolorist and printmaker in etching.
Still Life Value Studies
This section will now move towards creating multiple sketches and a finished watercolor painting of a still life which will be set up in front of you.
The history of still lives goes back thousands of years and was a stark contrast to the religious imagery which commonly dominated painting. The benefits of still lives were many. For one, the subjects didn’t move so they could be carefully studied. By having small objects which could be easily moved around also gave the artist the ability to play around with composition. So as we proceed through this lesson we will first be looking at how composition plays a role in the creation of painting.
The most important thing to remember is that when we are painting we are painting within a certain shape (generally a rectangle) which has limits and boundaries. Somewhere usually in our teenage years it becomes common to ignore the edges of a painting and still lives take up the center of the page/canvas, since we generally believe that since this is the subject, it should therefore be placed in the center. However, as we look over the rules of composition we can see that there are a multitude of ways to draw attention to certain areas of a composition. We can take a look at this PDF for a quick guide to how we can think about composition.
Jan Brueghel the Elder (1568–1625),Bouquet (1599), Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. Some of the earliest examples of still life were paintings of flowers by Northern Renaissance, Dutch, and Flemish painters.
First we will start off with pencil and paper and begin working on what are called reductive drawings. It is best to use a softer ( 2b) pencil for this task. The same exercise can be done with toned (grey) paper and both white and black charcoal pencils, however the goal remains the same, and that is to create a study/sketch of how are values are working on our objects in preparation for the next stage which will be to paint these values utilizing the same values we used in the last assignment.
A value sketch can be something as simple as what you see below. There’s no need for too much detail, here we are focusing on compositional elements, value, and form. An example of what a quick sketch of a still life subject should look like can be seen below in the drawing of the shoe.
Watercolor painting of a shoe | <urn:uuid:b0b0127d-a3de-42a5-9540-532a859e9640> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2017-34",
"url": "http://23gallery.com/tag/painting-holiday/",
"date": "2017-08-20T02:08:16",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-34/segments/1502886105961.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20170820015021-20170820035021-00415.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9693391919136047,
"token_count": 590,
"score": 3.984375,
"int_score": 4
} | 590 |
A prototype aircraft powered solely by a ground-based laser has flown through test flights at NASA’s Dryden Flight Research Center in California.
The plane, which has a wingspan of 1.5 metres and weighs just 300 grams, uses photovoltaic cells to convert the energy from the infrared beam into electricity to power a propeller.
The aim of the research is to develop aircraft that can fly at high altitude for indefinite periods. “The craft could keep flying as long as the energy source, in this case the laser beam, is uninterrupted,” says Robert Burdine, at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center, who was laser project manager for the test.
“The aircraft could be used for everything from relaying cell phone calls to cable television or internet connections,” says David Bushman, project manager for beamed power at Dryden. It could also be used for remote sensing of the Earth’s surface or to monitor the atmosphere.
There are numerous projects developing long duration, high altitude aircraft, including balloons and solar-powered planes. But spokesman Jerry Berg, at Marshall, points out that solar-powered craft need to carry heavy batteries to remain aloft at night, while balloons are more difficult than airplanes to hold in one location.
One potential problem for a plane powered by a ground-based laser is an interruption of the beam by another aircraft or its attenuation by clouds. Berg told New Scientist that this can be prevented by deploying multiple lasers on the ground, meaning if one is blocked the others can maintain the supply of power.
Such a distributed system would also mean that each individual laser could be less powerful, reducing any possible danger from the beams to other aircraft or birds.
The researchers switched off the laser beam during the indoor test flights, upon which the plane glided down to land. Berg says a laser-powered plane could offer the long duration benefits of a satellite, while also being easily recoverable for repairs or upgrading. It could also fly closer to the Earth the lowest feasible satellite orbit.
The next step for the team, which includes members from the University of Alabama in Huntsville, is to begin scaling up the plane. The prototype was created with weight in mind, being constructed from balsa wood and carbon fibre tubing and covered with cellophane-like film.
Missiles and satellites
Using lasers, or other energy beams, to power planes, missiles or even to launch satellites has been discussed for many decades. But it has not been until recently that the first tests were attempted.
In October 2000, a small elliptical projectile, the size of a softball was fired 70 metres into the air using a carbon dioxide laser. The test was conducted by the US military at the White Sands missile range in New Mexico.
And in June 2002, researchers from the Tokyo Institute for Technology, Japan, announced that they had used a laser to evaporate water off a tiny paper plane, forcing it forward. | <urn:uuid:34573e52-a8dc-4a6b-96ee-826e7ba692e4> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2018-22",
"url": "https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn4260-laser-powered-aircraft-shines-in-tests/",
"date": "2018-05-28T08:04:38",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-22/segments/1526794872114.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20180528072218-20180528092218-00360.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.963002622127533,
"token_count": 608,
"score": 3.921875,
"int_score": 4
} | 608 |
HATE CRIME RESOURCE INFO
What are Hate Crimes?
Hate crimes are criminal acts--such as vandalism, arson, assault, or murder--committed against someone because of his or her race, religion, sexual orientation, ethnicity, disability, age, or gender. In a hate crime, the person is selected because of a characteristic that he or she cannot change. Hate incidents are actions motivated by prejudice that aren't necessarily crimes, but are harmful nonetheless.
Distinguishing between what is legal and illegal can be confusing. Why? Because we also know that our Constitution protects our freedom of speech, expression, and thought. No one wants to punish people for their beliefs or for what they say. But we do want to ensure the civil rights of all individuals and punish behavior that violates these rights.
Hate crimes and hate incidents are major issues for all police because of their unique impact on victims as well as the community.
As someone living in the United States, we all have basic civil rights
· We have the right to attend school without being the victim of violence, threats of harm, intimidation, or damage to your belongings
· We have the right to be ourself and to be free from being harassed, discriminated against, or attacked for who we are
· We have the right to be free from violence motivated by prejudice or hatred
There are laws to protect these rights. There are people who can help you when these laws are being violated.
Dealing with Victim and Community Aftermath
To respond to the backlash and all crimes committed that target Sikhs and any group based upon race ethnicity, religion, etc., through the use of education, outreach, community resources and criminal justice system.
Hate Crimes vs. Hate Incidents
A hate incident is any act, whether consisting of conduct, speech, or expression, to which a bias motive is evident as a contributing factor, without regard for whether the act constitutes a crime.
Hate incidents involve behaviors that, though motivated by bias against a victim's race, religion, ethnic/national origin, gender, age, are not necessarily criminal acts. Hostile or hateful speech, for example may be motivated by bias but is not illegal. They become crimes only when they directly incite perpetrators to commit violence against persons or property, or if they place a victim in reasonable fear of physical injury. Officers should thoroughly document evidence in all bias-motivated incidents. Law enforcement can help to defuse potentially dangerous situations and prevent bias-motivated criminal behavior by responding to and documenting bias-motivated speech or behavior even if it does not rise to the level of a criminal offense.
When a hate crime or bias related incident occurs, many individual's and group's feelings of fear, outrage or alienation are intensified. When this happens it is important that the victims know what type of resources within the community are available for them. This is important not only for the victims, but also for the larger community.
Dealing with victim and community aftermath of a hate crime needs to involve a multi-step process. First, the response by the police needs to be professional as well as sensitive to the victim's emotions. Each police department should have a civil rights officer in place who is able to meet the needs of the victims of bias crime. Policies should also be implemented with respect to the victim's and community concerns. It is also essential that the initial response is rapid. Secondly, "sanctions against bigotry and hatred are very effective when coming from the neighbors, friends and relatives of the perpetrators of hate crimes."
The community needs to recognize problems which may have precipitated an incident, and if so, address what steps can be taken to rectify the situation. It also needs to assess community resources which are interested in addressing issues of racial/ethnic intolerance. This can be done through the implementation of a community action committee.
A community-based coalition could be made up of local government and state officials, clergy, law enforcement, and community residents. This group should be put in place ahead of time. "When a community-based coalition is ready to respond with an immediate and strong statement of condemnation of intergroup violence, it lets the targeted population know that the community stands ready to oppose the forces that promote intergroup conflict"
The criminal justice system's response should also address the situation with great sensitivity to the victims and yet maintain professionalism in cases where there is much racial/ethnic tension. A community based coalition working along with local law enforcement and government can be extremely effective in working through the critical issues faced when confronted with a hate crime. Bigotry, fear and violence are both a community problem, as well as a larger societal sickness.
Steps to address the issues described above:
1. Local community leaders should take a strong stand against intergroup violence.
2. Sanctions against bigotry and violence are very effective when coming from family, neighbors, and peers.
3. United voice coalitions can come from different groups within the community.
4. Building a community-based coalition against bias crimes and incidents. This entails the: a)enlisting of well-known leaders in gaining credibility, and b)demonstrating that a problem exists.
5. Assessing community resources.
6. Assess hate/bias crime laws in your state, county, and city.
7. Tapping into local human relations commissions.
8. Assessing the role of local criminal justice agencies and victims assistance programs.
Prior to Saptember 11, 2001 - in the last half century major strides have been made in the nation's struggle to address issues that create racial conflict. The judicial system has affirmed constitutional guarantees for equal rights and equal protection for all people.
Other advancements include the enactment of federal civil rights laws, the establishment of Federal agencies to enforce and protect civil rights, the increasingly active role of states and municipalities to protect civil rights and resolve racial conflict, and a general increase in tolerance on the part of the average American citizen.
Despite these changes since the attack on America and over the past several decades, racial and ethnic tension still arises. When it does, it undermines the strength and unity of the affected community.
The Community Relations Service of the U.S. Department of Justice, has been charged by the Congress to be the principal Federal agency to address racial and ethnic conflict in the United States. Over the past three decades the Community Relations Service has been the Federal government's racial troubleshooter, devoting its energies and resources to providing assistance to communities and individuals in resolving disputes, disagreements, or difficulties relating to discrimination based on race, color, or national origin. The Community Relations Service focuses on preventing and/or resolving interracial confrontation and hate violence by assisting local jurisdictions in responding to riots, demonstrations, or civil disorder and assisting local law enforcement agencies to improve their service and relations with minority communities.
The main difference between a hate crime and other crimes is that a perpetrator of a hate crime is motivated by bias. To evaluate a perpetrator's motives, you should consider several bias indicators. Bias indicators are objective facts, circumstances, or patterns attending a criminal act(s) which, standing alone or in conjunction with other facts or circumstances, suggest that the offender's actions were motivated in whole or in part, by any form of bias.
· perceptions of the victim(s) and witnesses about the crime
· the perpetrator's comments, gestures or written statements that reflect bias, including graffiti or other symbols
· any differences between perpetrator and victim, whether actual or perceived by the perpetrator
· similar incidents in the same location or neighborhood to determine whether a pattern exists
· whether the victim was engaged in activities promoting his/her group or community--for example, by clothing or conduct
· whether the incident coincided with a holiday or data of particular significance
· involvement of organized hate groups or their members
· absence of any other motive such as economic gain
The presence of any of these factors does not necessarily confirm that the incident was a hate offense but may indicate the need for further investigation into motive. A victim's perception is an important factor to consider, but be aware that victims may not recognize the crime as motivated by bias. Victims should not be asked directly whether they believe they were the victim of a hate crime, but it is appropriate to ask if they have any idea why they might have been victimized. Victims and perpetrators may appear to be from the same race, ethnicity/nationality, or religion, but it is the perpetrator's perception of difference (whether accurate or not) motivating his or her criminal behavior that would constitute a hate crime.
Impact of Bias Crimes
Hate crimes are unique. Victims of hate crimes are targeted because of a core characteristic of their identity. These attributes cannot be changed. Victims often feel degraded, frightened, vulnerable and suspicious. This may be one of the most traumatic experiences of their lives. Community members who share with victims the characteristics that made them targets of hate (race, religion, ethnic/national origin, gender, or disability) may also feel vulnerable, fearful, and powerless. In this emotional atmosphere, a swift and strong law enforcement response can help stabilize and calm the community, while aiding the victim's recovery.
Because the basis for the attack is the victim's identity, victim(s) may suffer:
· Deep personal crisis
· Increased vulnerability to repeat attack
· Sense of community/system betrayal
· Acute shock and disbelief
· Extreme fear of certain groups
· Anger/desire for revenge
· Shame and humiliation
Hate crimes victimize the entire community and may involve:
· Victimization projected to all community members
· Sense of group vulnerability
· Community tension/fear
· Possibility of reactive crimes or copycat incidents
· Community polarization
· Redirection of law enforcement resources
· Loss of trust in criminal justice institutions
· Public damage, i.e. buildings such as churches/synagogues
The Role of the Police Officer and Police Agency
Police officers and their agencies can accomplish much by working in partnership with citizens to implement the American vision of diverse and tolerant communities that offer freedom, safety and dignity for all.
Patrol Officer's Responsibilities
When an officer at the scene of an incident believes that it may have been motivated by [citizenship, race, religion, ethnic/national origin, handicap, or gender] bias, the officer shall take any preliminary actions necessary, such as:
· Determining whether any offenders are present and, if so, taking appropriate enforcement measures
· Restoring order to the crime scene and taking any necessary actions to gain control of the situation
· Responding in a courteous, respectful, and professional manner to the feelings and needs of the victim. A police officer's calm and helpful attitude is critical to controlling the scene and the emotions of those present
· Identifying any injured parties and taking steps to provide medical assistance
· Identifying any witnesses or others who have knowledge of the crime
· Protecting the crime scene, determining if police photographs of the scene or victims are required, and taking steps to obtain them if needed
· Summoning a patrol supervisor to the scene and assuring the victim of careful review and investigation
· Conducting the preliminary investigation of the incident and filing a complete and detailed report noting specific language used by the offender, including specific markings or graffiti according to departmental procedures (Note specifically in the title of the report that the incident appears to be a possible bias crime)
· At the earliest time identify needed additional resources (i.e., translators)
· Notify victim advocate of crime
Patrol Supervisors Responsibilities
The patrol supervisor shall respond immediately to the scene of the incident and shall:
· Confer with the initial responding officer
· Take measures to ensure that all necessary preliminary actions have been taken and inform his immediate supervisor of the incident
· Request any appropriate additional personnel necessary to complete the preliminary investigation and begin the follow-up investigation
· Provide immediate assistance to the crime victim, allowing him/her a period in which to express their feelings and concerns
· Reassure the victim that the department will take appropriate action
· Assist the victim in identifying or contacting individuals or agencies that may provide support and/or assistance: family members, friends, clergy, and/or community service agencies
· Provide security and precautionary advice to the victim and refer him/her to the Department of Civil Rights Office for assistance
· Supervise the preliminary investigation to include preliminary interviews of the victim and any witnesses to the incident
· Ensure that all relevant facts are documented on the incident and/or arrest report, and make an initial determination as to whether the incident should be classified as a bias crime
Strategies for Effective Investigations
· Because the attack was based on the victim's identity, be prepared for an emotional response from the victim, family, and targeted group
· Victim may be reluctant to cooperate in the investigation due to fear of retaliation, cultural or language barriers or fear of being "outed"
· Tell the victim that law enforcement takes this very seriously and that you are sorry the incident happened
· Allow the victim to use his or her own words. Use interpreter, if necessary
· Call a supervisor, if appropriate
· If possible, interview away from public scrutiny
· Keep questions simple (victim may be distraught)
· Reassure them that every effort will be made to protect their anonymity during the investigation
· Make certain victim is aware of next steps to be initiated
· Inform them of what efforts can be made to enhance their safety
· Suggest to the victim and the victim's group that they can seek support and comfort from a number of community-based organizations. Have names and telephone numbers of victim assistance organizations available.
· Being abrupt or rushed
· Making assumptions or jumping to conclusions - particularly about the victim's culture, religion, or lifestyle choices
· Allowing personal value judgements about the victim's behavior, lifestyle or culture to affect your objectivity
· Using stereotyped or biased terms
· Telling victim(s) that you know how they feel
· Minimizing the victim's feelings or the seriousness of the incident, particularly if the perpetrator was a juvenile
· Asking them whether they think this was a bias or hate crime - Rather, ask them if they have any idea why this happened to them
· Criticizing the victim's behavior | <urn:uuid:7fffb2c5-b488-4b60-96f9-3f10f12c726b> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2016-18",
"url": "http://fateh.sikhnet.com/s/HateCrimeInfo",
"date": "2016-04-29T21:38:23",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-18/segments/1461860111455.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20160428161511-00179-ip-10-239-7-51.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9425942301750183,
"token_count": 2947,
"score": 3.53125,
"int_score": 4
} | 2,947 |
Bayes' Rule (Bayes' Theorem)
“Bayesian inference is important because it provides a normative and general-purpose procedure for reasoning under uncertainty.”Inductive Reasoning: Experimental, Developmental, and Computational Approaches, edited by Aidan Feeney and Evan Heit
Bayes' rule or Bayes’ theorem relates the conditional and marginal probabilities of events A and B (provided that the probability of B is not equal to zero). More specifically, Bayes' rule allows calculating the conditional probability of event A given event B with the inverse conditional probability of event B given event A.
is the conditional probability of event A given event B. It is also called the "posterior" probability because it depends on knowledge of event B. This is the probability of interest.
Note that referring to "posterior" should not be interpreted in a temporal sense, i.e., it does not imply a temporal order between the events A and B.
is the prior probability (or “unconditional” or “marginal” probability) of event A. The unconditional probability P(A) was first called “a priori” by Sir Ronald A. Fisher. It is a “prior” probability because it does not consider any information about event B.
is the prior or marginal probability of event B.
Note that "prior," just like "posterior," does not imply a temporal order.
is the Bayes factor or likelihood ratio. | <urn:uuid:08a8212c-1d5b-4e4b-861d-5faae0a23802> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2023-40",
"url": "https://www.bayesia.com/bayesia/bayesialab/key-concepts/bayes-rule-bayes-theorem",
"date": "2023-09-24T13:41:43",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233506646.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20230924123403-20230924153403-00369.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9302553534507751,
"token_count": 318,
"score": 4.1875,
"int_score": 4
} | 318 |
This robot can identify objects by sight and touch, thanks to AI
The robot can produce an image and figure out the shape and material of an object.
Researchers at MIT's Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) have come up with predictive artificial intelligence (AI) that can learn to see by touching and feel by seeing the official release notes.
From a dataset of more than 3 million visual/tactile-paired images of objects such as tools, household products, and fabrics, the model is able to imagine the feeling of touching to encode details about the objects and the environment. For instance, the robotic arm is fed tactile data on a shoe, it could produce an image and figure out the shape and material of contact position. | <urn:uuid:c022dbb6-0e95-46d4-a43e-4672f4fbf0d3> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2019-39",
"url": "https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/this-robot-can-identify-objects-by-sight-and-touch-thanks-to-ai/articleshow/69842055.cms",
"date": "2019-09-20T00:10:30",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-39/segments/1568514573759.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20190919224954-20190920010954-00545.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9300930500030518,
"token_count": 153,
"score": 3.609375,
"int_score": 4
} | 153 |
What is Ecosystem?
An ecosystem is a natural system that encompasses all the interrelationships between living organisms and the physical environment where they live. Ecosystems bring together both the biotic elements of a space zone and the abiotic ones. Basically there are two types of ecosystem, Aquatic ecosystem, and the Terrestrial ecosystem.
The concept was developed in the 1930s thanks to the work of botanist Roy Clapham and ecologist Arthur Tansley. This concept allowed the full development of ecology within the field of biology.
An ecosystem is a unit made up of food chains, which express the transmission of energy and matter throughout the species of the ecosystem and between them and their physical environment.
These chains show the interdependence of organisms with each other, which implies that ecosystems have a balance that can be broken both by natural factors and by human intervention. The characteristics of each ecosystem determine the type of life that can exist in it, as well as the possibilities of evolution.
Elements of ecosystems
There are several elements of the utmost importance to understand the natural functioning of ecosystems:
- Biomes: they are ecologically similar areas that present the same climatic, geological and biological conditions. Biomes determine the variety and type of animal and plant organisms that can survive in them, as well as their geographical distribution.
- Habitat: implies a specific physical place that offers natural conditions (food, shelter) for the species to survive and reproduce. Similar habitats may exist distributed along the Earth’s surface, extremely distant from each other.
- Biodiversity: it is another important element: it refers to thequantity and variety of species (both microorganisms and plants and animals) that exist in an ecosystem. Biodiversity can be higher or lower depending on variables such as humidity, water availability, vegetation, temperature, etc.
- Ecological niches: these are the positions that each species occupies in relation to abiotic and biotic factors, which allow it to survive. If more than one species occupies the same ecological niche, then both compete evolutionarily. The totality of all ecological niches makes up the balance of the ecosystem, which can vary after long periods of time.
Within the various classification modalities, the most common distinguishes ecosystems according to the area on which they are based:
1. Aquatic ecosystems are natural systems that comprise bodies of water, such as rivers, lakes, seas, and oceans. They cover all the aquatic life that proliferates in them and the relationships they establish with each other. There are two types of aquatic ecosystems: freshwater ecosystems, studied by limnology, and marine ecosystems, studied by oceanography.
- The Freshwater Ecosystems can be lentic, standing water, as in the case of a lake or a pool of rain; lotics, where there is moving water, such as in a river or in a waterfall; or underground.
- The marine ecosystems are ecosystems taking place in saltwater areas, and can be either photic (where photosynthesis occurs, generally shallow) or aphotic (where the process does not occur photosynthesis and energy must be obtained from another source, such as underwater hydrothermal vents).
2. Terrestrial ecosystems are natural systems that take place on Earth or underground. This type of ecosystem can include a huge variety of habitats, from forests and jungles to deserts and tundras. | <urn:uuid:aef5f2f5-169f-46ea-b6db-fc83f81ec6f6> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2021-17",
"url": "http://oxscience.com/types-of-ecosystem/",
"date": "2021-04-19T12:44:07",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-17/segments/1618038879374.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20210419111510-20210419141510-00543.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9389384984970093,
"token_count": 697,
"score": 3.640625,
"int_score": 4
} | 697 |
Reducing child poverty has the potential to improve incomes and health for both present and future generations and, thereby, break the inter generational transmission of poverty that affects lives and livelihoods. For several decades evidence has shown the considerable impact of social protection programmes on human development outcomes for children. However, the impact varies across countries and depends critically on context, including availability of other services, as well as design and implementation of programmes. To maximize the impact on children it is essential to take a child-lens to the design and implementation of social protection systems, which comprise programmes to address risks across the life-cycle. This article will outline how child-sensitive social protection programmes impact on children and assess the extent and coverage in developing countries. The article will then outline principles of child-sensitive social protection and key aspects to improve impact on children, using examples from a number of social protection programmes globally. Lastly, the article will outline lessons on what works for children in social protection and will provide policy recommendations for policymakers and other actors, including civil society, that support social protection systems. | <urn:uuid:cfb58464-e001-4b45-983a-c885555d5af2> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2023-50",
"url": "https://practicalactionpublishing.com/article-author/2835/katherine-richards",
"date": "2023-12-02T12:43:16",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100399.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20231202105028-20231202135028-00124.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9073693752288818,
"token_count": 214,
"score": 3.5,
"int_score": 4
} | 214 |
Read and understand the article. If you may have any difficult words to pronounce and words you cannot understand, always ask your teacher.
*Teachers will divide the article into 2-3 paragraphs to help you understand and check the pronunciation of the difficult words.
*Read the words carefully.
- go-between /ˈgoʊbəˌtwi:n/ (n.) a person who talks to people or groups who disagree in order to help deal with or end the disagreement
- illegally /ɪˈli:gəl/ (adj.) not allowed by the law : not legal
- trick /ˈtrɪk/ (v.)to deceive (someone)
- misdeed /ˌmɪsˈdi:d/ (n.) a morally wrong or illegal act
- federal /ˈfɛdərəl/ (adj.) of or relating to a form of government in which power is shared between a central government and individual states, provinces, etc.
* Read the text below
(1)Different people have different ways of saying things — their own special expressions.
(2) Each week we tell about some popular American expressions.
(3) The bag is one of the most simple and useful things in the world. It is a container made of paper or cloth. It has given the world many strange expressions that are not very simple. Some of them are used in the United States today.
(4) One is “bagman.” It describes a go-between. The go-between sees to it that money is passed — often illegally — from one person to another.
(5) Another widely-used expression is to “let the cat out of the bag.” It is used when someone tells something that was supposed to be secret. No one can explain how the cat got into the bag. But there is an old story about it…
(6) Long ago tradesmen sold things in large cloth bags. One day a woman asked for a pig. The tradesman held up a cloth bag with something moving inside it. He said it was a live pig. The woman asked to see it. When the dishonest tradesman opened the bag, out jumped a cat — not a pig. The tradesman’s secret was out. He was trying to trick her. And now everybody knew it.
(7) The phrase to be “left holding the bag” is as widely-used as the expression to “let the cat out of the bag.”
(8) This expression makes the person left holding the bag responsible for an action — often a crime or misdeed. That person is the one who is punished. The others involved in the act escape.
(9) Where the expression came from is not clear. Some say that General George Washington used it during the American Revolutionary War.
(10) One of Washington’s officers, Royall Taylor, used the expression in a play about Daniel Shay’s rebellion. The play was in 1781, after Taylor helped to put down Shay’s rebellion.
(11) Shays led a thousand war veterans in an attack on a federal building in Springfield, Massachusetts. Guns were in the building. Some of the protesters were farmers who had no money to buy seed. Some had been put in prison for not paying their debts. They were men who fought one war against the King of England, and were now prepared to fight against their own government. Most of the rebels were captured. Shays and some of the officers escaped.
(12) In his play, Taylor describes Shays as disappearing, giving others “the bag to hold.”
(13) A bag is useful in many ways. Just be careful not to “let the cat out of the bag,” or someone may leave you “holding the bag.”
*Let’s talk about the article base on the questions below
- Do you like cats? What kind of pets do you like to have? Please explain your answer.
- Can you keep a secret? Why do you think it is important to keep a secret?
- What is the most important thing that is always inside your bag? Why do you always bring it with you? | <urn:uuid:8f176491-22c7-429c-965e-6425a26811f4> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2017-13",
"url": "http://eslmaterials.langrich.com/dont-let-the-cat-out-of-the-bag/",
"date": "2017-03-29T03:22:53",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-13/segments/1490218190181.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20170322212950-00020-ip-10-233-31-227.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9693205952644348,
"token_count": 900,
"score": 3.734375,
"int_score": 4
} | 900 |
What is monkeypox, is it deadly, how do you catch it and what are the usual signs, symptoms and treatments of the disease?
MONKEYPOX is a rare disease with most cases found in Africa but there have been a small number of cases in the UK.
In most cases it is a mild illness that can get better with time, however serious symptoms can arise with the patient needing treatment in a specialist hospital.
What is monkeypox?
Monkeypox is an infectious disease caused by the monkeypox virus.
This virus is a rare zoonosis – transmitted to humans from animals – and occurs primarily in remote parts of central and west Africa, near tropical rainforests.
It isn't easily spread between people, with transfer usually only possible through close physical contact.
Health Secretary Matt Hancock announced there had been an outbreak of the monkeypox virus in June 2021, although few details were given.
The Sun has been told there are two cases in North Wales.
The cases would be only the fifth and sixth cases ever recorded in the UK.
Monkeypox has been seen just four times in the past, with cases dating back to 2018 and always in travellers from other countries.
However an NHS nurse once caught the virus in 2018 while changing the bedsheets of a patient in hospital, blaming "pathetically small" protective gloves.
The most recent case was seen in South West England in December 2019 in someone who had visited Nigeria.
Is it deadly?
According to WHO, the monkeypox virus is similar to human smallpox.
Although monkeypox is much milder than smallpox, it can be fatal.
It has a mortality rate of between one and 10 per cent, with most deaths occurring in younger age groups.
How do you catch it?
Infection usually occurs after direct contact with the blood, bodily fluids or skin lesions of an infected animal.
In Africa, human infections have been documented through the handling of infected monkeys, Gambian giant rats and squirrels.
Eating the inadequately cooked meat of an infected animal is a risk.
Human-to-human transmission can result from close contact with the skin lesions of an infected person, or objects recently contaminated by the patient.
This generally requires prolonged face-to-face contact, putting loved ones at greater risk.
Transmission can also occur via the placenta, known as congenital monkeypox.
What are the common signs and symptoms?
Initial symptoms include:
- muscle aches
- swollen lymph nodes
A painful rash and open sores can then develop, usually starting on the face.
If the rash spreads to the eyes it can cause blindness.
Symptoms generally last from 14 to 21 days, with severe cases relating to age, extent of virus exposure, the patient's health and the severity of complications.
What are the treatments of the disease?
There are no specific treatments or vaccines available, but outbreaks can be controlled.
Vaccination against smallpox has been proven to be 85 per cent effective in preventing monkeypox.
However, the vaccine is no longer available to the general public, as it was discontinued after global smallpox eradication.
Source: Read Full Article | <urn:uuid:a8bec7bf-67ed-45f0-b2d7-aa49bb1e2025> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2021-25",
"url": "https://wcoinnews.com/world-news/what-is-monkeypox-is-it-deadly-how-do-you-catch-it-and-what-are-the-usual-signs-symptoms-and-treatments-of-the-disease/",
"date": "2021-06-16T19:24:24",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-25/segments/1623487626008.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20210616190205-20210616220205-00395.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9581191539764404,
"token_count": 661,
"score": 3.609375,
"int_score": 4
} | 661 |
Genome-wide markers redeem the lost identity of a heavily managed gamebird. Forcina, G., Tang, Q., Cros., E., Guerrini, M., Rheindt, F.E. & Barbanera, F. 2021 Proceedings of the Royal Society Series B: Biological Sciences. DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.0285 VIEW
The Red-legged Partridge (Alectoris rufa Linnaeus, 1758) is a medium-sized galliform occurring in southwestern Europe with two traditionally recognised subspecies ranging from the Iberian Peninsula (A. r. hispanica and A. r. intercedens in the North West and its remaining portion, respectively) and the nominate one across central and southern France to a portion of northwestern Italy. This species also inhabits the Balearics, Corsica, and part of the Tuscan Archipelago (Madge and McGowan 2002). Harvested and reared by millions every year for game purposes and meat production (Blanco-Aguiar et al. 2008), the Red-legged Partridge forms the base of several dishes of western Mediterranean regional gastronomy (Martinez-Carrasco et al. 2005) and is referred to as one of the most socioeconomically valuable gamebirds in Europe (Martínez-Fresno et al. 2008). This species has experienced a sharp global decline over the last decades due to habitat loss, pesticide use, agricultural mechanisation and overhunting (Vargas et al. 2006; Buenestado et al. 2009; Casas and Viñuela 2010; López-Antia et al. 2015). Already included in both the Habitat Directive and Bern Convention, the Red-legged Partridge qualifies as a Species of European Conservation Concern (category 2: BirdLife International 2004), and its conservation status has been upgraded (2020) to Near Threatened by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (see here).
Figure 1 Red-legged Partridge females fighting for a male, Andalusia, Spain © Juan José Negro
Starting from the second half of the last century onwards, the Red-legged Partridge has been increasingly suffering from human-mediated hybridisation with the Chukar Partridge (Alectoris chukar), a closely related species naturally ranging from Greece to China across a vast portion of the eastern Palaearctic (Negro et al. 2001; Baratti et al. 2004; Barbanera et al. 2009; Barilani et al. 2007; Guerrini and Barbanera 2009). The enactment of this practice, aimed at producing high numbers of captive-bred birds for restocking purposes and thus cutting the overall costs for both farmers and hunters, has been accompanied by the massive release of fertile hybrids (banned in the UK since the mid 1990s and in the countries falling within the species’ native range at the beginning of 2000s) into the wild. The latter, although less viable than their parental species, produce larger egg clutches which compensate this gap, and are hence able to establish and spread their gene introgression to native populations (Casas et al. 2012). To make things even worse, translocations irrespective of subspecies affinity have been carried out for decades, causing a widespread genetic homogenisation (sensu Olden and Rooney 2006), which possibly jeopardised even further the persistence of locally adapted genotypes, raising serious concern about the survival of native populations in the long run (Potts 1989, Barbanera et al. 2005, 2010; Rodríguez-García and Galián 2014).
Over the last two decades, the genetic consequences of this faunal reshuffling were unveiled in a number of studies employing single mitochondrial DNA loci (e.g. Forcina et al. 2020) and/or a limited number of microsatellite (e.g. Barbanera et al. 2011; Negri et al. 2013), Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNPs) (e.g. Sevane et al. 2010) and Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA loci (Negro et al. 2001; Barbanera et al. 2005, 2010, 2015). Specifically, these works have evidenced the occurrence of maternal A. chukar lineages across the entirety of the A. rufa range, including in the population introduced to the United Kingdom in the second half of the 18th century (Barbanera et al. 2015). Nevertheless, no genome-wide investigations to address the genetic structure and introgression issues had been carried out on this species until now.
Figure 2 Left: Head of A. rufa (note the straw ear coverts and the streaked necklace): Right: head of A. chukar (note the bright reddish ear coverts and the continuous strongly demarcated necklace) © Filippo Barbanera
A study recently published in Proceedings of the Royal Society Series B and led by the University of Pisa (Italy), where the Red-legged Partridge is the focus of a well-established research line since the early 2000s, and the National University of Singapore (Singapore), has surprisingly evidenced that, when based on a robust dataset of genome-wide loci (>168.000 SNPs), the degree of A. chukar introgression within A. rufa populations was in reality way lower than expected, and the extent of this phenomenon varied greatly across the species’ range. Moreover, the Red-legged Partridge, characterised by a limited dispersal ability, turned out to display a still marked intraspecific genetic structure in contrast with that suggested by most previous studies. Specifically, in the eastern portion of the species’ range, A. r. rufa populations inhabiting Corsica turned out to be best preserved, while the western counterpart A. r. hispanica from Castilla-Léon and Asturias, in Spain, is the most genomically distinctive subspecies.
It is likely that previous estimates of introgression based on the comparatively low number of loci were inflated due to their location within “islands” of A. chukar DNA, while their inferential impact is negligible when a much larger portion of the A. rufa genome is taken into account. In other words, this suggests that the vast majority of the species’ gene pool (including adaptive loci as opposed to the neutral loci mostly used until now) has remained intact, possibly as a consequence of negative selection against maladaptive A. chukar traits (Casas et al. 2012). However, if previous claims about the loss of the species genomic uniqueness and its subspecies’ distinctiveness (Tejedor et al. 2007) were somehow too alarmist, this does not justify continuation of the thoughtless management (including the crossbreeding of captive stocks of different or even unknown geographic origin with the subsequent release of farm-reared individuals) that the Red-legged Partridge has been subjected to. Rather, these results tell us that we are still on time to preserve both the genomic identity and intraspecific structure of this iconic European species, and that current management practices should not ignore or disregard these recommendations.
An ongoing project involving the same partner institutions is aiming to produce the first genome assembly for the Red-legged Partridge, thus offering new insightful tools for studies addressing local adaptation and evolution in this species.
Baratti, M., Ammannati, M., Magnelli, C. & Dessì-Fulgheri, F. 2005. Introgression of chukar genes into a reintroduced red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) population in central Italy. Animal Genetics 36: 29-35. VIEW
Barbanera, F., Negro, J.J., Di Giuseppe, G., Bertoncini, F., Cappelli, F. & Dini, F. 2005. Analysis of the genetic structure of red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa, Galliformes) populations by means of mitochondrial DNA and RAPD markers: a study from central Italy. Biological Conservation 122: 275-287. VIEW
Barbanera, F., Guerrini, M., Khan, A.A., Panayides, P., Hadjigerou, P., Sokos, C., Gombobaatar, S., Samadi, S., Khan, B.Y., Tofanelli, S., Paoli, G. & Dini, F. 2009. Human-mediated introgression of exotic chukar (Alectoris chukar, Galliformes) genes from East Asia into native Mediterranean partridges. Biological Invasions 11: 333-348. VIEW
Barbanera, F., Pergams, O.R.W., Guerrini, M., Forcina, G., Panayides, P. & Dini, F. 2010. Genetic consequences of intensive management in game birds. Biological Conservation 143: 1259-1268. VIEW
Barbanera, F., Forcina, G., Guerrini, M. & Dini, F. 2011. Molecular phylogeny and diversity of Corsican red-legged partridge: hybridization and management issues. Journal of Zoology 285: 56-65. VIEW
Barbanera, F., Forcina, G., Cappello, A., Guerrini, M., van Grouw, H. & Aebischer, N.J. 2015. Introductions over introductions: the genomic adulteration of an early genetically valuable alien species in the United Kingdom. Biological Invasions 17: 409-422. VIEW
Barilani, M., Bernard-Laurent, A., Mucci, N., Tabarroni, C., Kark, S., Garrido, J.P. & Randi, E. 2007. Hybridisation with introduced chukars (Alectoris chukar) threatens the gene pool integrity of native rock (A. graeca) and red-legged (A. rufa) partridge populations. Biological Conservation 137: 57-69. VIEW
BirdLife International. 2004. Birds in Europe: Population Estimates, Trends and Conservation Status. BirdLife Conservation Series vol. 12, pp. 1-374. Wageningen, The Netherlands: BirdLife International.
Blanco-Aguiar, J.A., Gonzalez-Jara, P., Ferrero, M.E., Sánchez-Barbudo, I., Virgós, E., Villafuerte, R. & Dávila, J.A. 2008. Assessment of game restocking contributions to anthropogenic hybridization: the case of the Iberian red-legged partridge. Animal Conservation 11: 535-545. VIEW
Buenestado, F.J., Ferreras, P., Blanco-Aguiar, J.A., Tortosa, F.S. & Villafuerte, R. 2009. Survival and causes of mortality among wild Red-legged Partridges Alectoris rufa in southern Spain: Implications for conservation. IBIS 151: 720-730. VIEW
Casas, F., Mougeot, F., Sánchez-Barbudo, I., Dávila, J.A. & Viñuela, J. 2012. Fitness consequences of anthropogenic hybridization in wild red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa, Phasianidae) populations. Biological Invasions 14: 295-305. VIEW
Casas, F. & Viñuela, J. 2010. Agricultural practices or game management: which is the key to improve red-legged partridge nesting success in agricultural landscapes? Environmental Conservation 37:177-186. VIEW
Forcina, G., Guerrini, M. & Barbanera, F. 2020. Non-native and hybrid in a changing environment: conservation perspectives for the last Italian red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) population with long natural history. Zoology 138: 125740. VIEW
Guerrini, M. & Barbanera, F. 2009. Noninvasive genotyping of the red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa, Phasianidae): Semi-nested PCR of mitochondrial DNA from feces. Biochemical Genetics 47: 873-883. VIEW
López-Antia, A., Ortiz-Santaliestra, M.E., García-de Blas, E., Camarero, P.R., Mougeot, F. & Mateo, R. 2015. Adverse effects of thiram-treated seed ingestion on the reproductive performance and the offspring immune function of the red-legged partridge. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 34: 1320-1329. VIEW
Madge, S. & McGowan, P. 2002. Pheasants, partridges and grouse. A and C Black Publishers Ltd. London, UK.
Martínez-Carrasco, C., Bernabé, A., Ortiz, J.M. & Alonso, F.D. 2005. Experimental toxoplasmosis in red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa) fed Toxoplasma gondii oocysts. Veterinary Parasitology 130: 55-60. VIEW
Martínez-Fresno, M., Henriques-Gil, N. & Arana, P. 2008. Mitochondrial DNA sequence variability in red-legged partridge, Alectoris rufa, Spanish populations and the origins of genetic contamination from A. chukar. Conservation Genetics 9: 1223-1231. VIEW
Negri, A., Pellegrino, I., Mucci, N., Randi, E., Tizzani, P., Meneguz, P.G. & Malacarne, G. 2013. Mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite markers evidence a different pattern of hybridization in red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) populations from NW Italy. European Journal of Wildlife Research 59: 407-419. VIEW
Negro, J.J., Torres, M.J. & Godoy, J.A. 2001. RAPD analysis for detection and eradication of hybrid partridges (Alectoris rufa x A. graeca) in Spain. Biological Conservation 9: 19-24. VIEW
Olden J.D. & Rooney T.P. 2006. On defining and quantifying biotic homogenization. Global Ecology and Biogeography 15: 113-120.
Potts, G.R. 1989. The impact of releasing hybrid partridges on wild red-legged populations. Game Conservancy Annual Review 20: 81-85.
Rodríguez-García, M.J. & Galián, J. 2014. Lack of mitochondrial genetic structure in the red-legged partridge Alectoris rufa (Phasianidae). Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research 52: 59-64. VIEW
Sevane, N., Cortés, O., García, D., Cañón, J. & Dunner, S. 2010. New single nucleotide polymorphisms in Alectoris identified using chicken genome information allow Alectoris introgression detection. Molecular Ecology Resources 10: 205-213. VIEW
Vargas, J.M., Guerrero, J.C., Farfán, M.A., Barbosa, A.M. & Real, R. 2006. Land use and environmental factors affecting red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) hunting yields in southern Spain. European Journal of Wildlife Research 52:188-195. VIEW
Top right: Red-legged Partridge Alectoris rufa emitting an alarm call, Andalusia, Spain. © Juan José Negro | <urn:uuid:c2a7f051-0ee9-4ac5-86b4-2ff23a1d6d18> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2023-50",
"url": "https://bou.org.uk/blog-forcina-hope-never-dies/",
"date": "2023-11-28T19:21:26",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679099942.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20231128183116-20231128213116-00183.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.802464485168457,
"token_count": 3364,
"score": 3.625,
"int_score": 4
} | 3,364 |
The Case for Allowing Jurors to Submit Written Questions
Lucci, Eugene A., Judicature
Juror questioning of witnesses is neither a new nor an innovative concept in the common law and American jurisprudence.1 Jurors have questioned witnesses in England since the eighteenth century, and the practice has existed in America since 1825.2
At common law, those charged with capital crimes were not afforded counsel unless lesfal issues needed debating. The judge and jury were authorized to ask questions. With the lack of counsel and few procedural and evidentiary rules, criminal trials were solely in the hands of judges. As the English court system evolved, more emphasis was placed on fair procedure. Defense counsel played an increasing role, while the role of jurors as active participants diminished. The emphasis on the quality of evidence, shaped by examination by counsel, relegated the juror to the role of passive, neutral observer.3
The practice of juror questioning of witnesses in federal courts dates back as far as 1954.4 By allowing juror questioning, courts sought to promote clarification of facts and the discovery of truth. At least 30 states and the District of Columbia permit jurors to question witnesses. A few states prohibit the practice.5 Every federal circuit that has addressed the issue of juror questioning of witnesses agrees that it is a practice that should be left entirely within the court's discretion.6 In most military hearings, members of court-martial panels have the opportunity to question witnesses.7
The first American court to address the validity of jury questioning of witnesses, in 1895, asserted that the practice was not prejudicial to either party in the suit and emphasized that it was a commendable practice since it helped the jury to "properly determine the case before them."8
Originally, juror questioning was known as "juror outbursts," which gives some idea as to the formality of the procedure. If a juror had a question, the juror would simply blurt it out in open court. During the 1950s and 1960s, courts began establishing more formal procedures. The earliest case in which a court created formal procedures for juror questioning was decided in 1926.9
Controlling the process
Certain procedural safeguards can reduce or eliminate the risks of jury questioning of witnesses. The demeanor of the judge and how the judge addresses the issue make the difference. The judge decides whether a witness should be asked questions posed by jurors. This applies to both civil and criminal cases. The judge should give preliminary limiting instructions about the procedure being available, what questions will be allowed, and the technical rules involved. He or she should explain that questions are not encouraged but are to be sparingly used. Jurors should be told that they are not advocates, and must remain neutral. They should also be told that they are not to draw any inference if their question is not asked, because the rules of evidence and rulings by the judge in the case will limit even the parties' questioning, and that they are not to reveal any unasked question to the other jurors.
Jurors should be told that the judge is the "gatekeeper" and determines which questions will be asked, and in what format. Juror questions should be limited to matters attested to during direct and cross-examination, and to clarifying information already presented. The questions should be of the type that a factfinder, and not an advocate, would ask. They should be factual, not argumentative. Questions should not be asked to express views on the case or to argue with a witness. The juror questions should come only after the witness is finished testifying, but before that witness leaves the stand.
Questions should be in writing, collected by the bailiff and submitted directly to thejudge, and never to the witness. Questions should not be discussed with the other jurors and should not be signed. The parties should be given the opportunity to object to the questions, outside the hearing of the jurors, and the questions should be made a part of the record. … | <urn:uuid:03b0da5d-ac87-40ad-9c9e-b856363e8d15> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2015-32",
"url": "https://www.questia.com/read/1P3-895506491/the-case-for-allowing-jurors-to-submit-written-questions",
"date": "2015-07-30T01:17:05",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-32/segments/1438042986806.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20150728002306-00017-ip-10-236-191-2.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9700584411621094,
"token_count": 819,
"score": 3.515625,
"int_score": 4
} | 819 |
Atmosphere • Gases and liquids flow freely. Both are fluids • Just like liquids, gases have pressure as well and is measured in PSI
Atmosphere • Atmospheric pressure: Live in it, don’t feel it • Divided into zones • Exosphere – 600 miles & up. Temps to –4040 F on sun-side of object. • Ionosphere – 50-600 miles. Ions and free electrons present. Aurora Borealis
Atmosphere • Stratosphere – 10 to 50 or 60 miles. Ozone layer 12 to 30 miles up. At 63000 ft blood boils at 98.6 F due to lower surrounding pressure. 50 miles: fry on one side and freeze on the other without protective suit. • Troposphere – surface to 4 miles at poles, to 11 miles at equator.
Troposphere • Temp from 7 to 20 miles constant –70 F (or –55 C). • 50% of air by weight below 1800 ft (3.5 mi) • 78% Nitrogen • 21% Oxygen • 0.9% other gases (neon, argon, krypton, etc) • 0.1% water vapor and carbon dioxide
Troposphere • Of primary interest because most of weather occurs here. • Clouds, wind, vertical air currents, storms, fog, rain, snow, temp changes. • Most pilots fly in this region
Atmospheric Pressure • Column of air 1 sq in at base from the surface to top of ionosphere weighs 14.7 lbs • As altitude increases, pressure increases • Increase of 1 PSI per 2343 ft or 1 in of mercury per 1000 ft
Absolute pressure vs Gage pressure • Gage pressure registers 0 PSI at surface. • Gage pressure is a relative scale. • PSIA = PSIG + 14.7 • PSIG = PSIA –14.7 • 29.92” Hg = 14.7 PSIA • Convert to Hg: PSIA x 2.03 • Convert to PSIA: Hg/2.03
Instruments that use pressure • Gage Pressure: Engine instruments: oil pressure, fuel pressure, hydraulic pressure, manifold pressure • Difference pressure: Airspeed indicator and some stall warning systems • Aneroid Barometer – Altimeter • Aneroid = “without liquid” • Sealed, corrugated box with most of air removed. • Variation in air densisty causes box to move through system of levers and pointers
Instruments that use pressure • Aircraft use altimeters. • Only problem: Barometric pressure may be different at landing area. Pilot needs current barometric pressure to adjust • Cabin Pressure expressed in terms of equivalent altitude above sea level • Cabin pressure of 6000ft means pressure inside same as atmospheric pressure at altitude of 6000ft • 8000ft passengers +crew can ride in relative comfort without any special oxygen supply.
Advantage to flying at high altitude • At 8000ft, air pressure is 10.92 PSI • Suppose we fly at 40000 ft where pressure is 2.73 psi • Difference in pressure = 8.19 psi • Lear 24D, pressurized area is 45000 sq in • Bursting force = A x pressure=368550# • Safety factor 1.33 - 368550 x 1.33=490172# = 245 tons • Aircraft must be constructed with ultimate strength of 245 tons
Standard Atmosphere • If performance of aircraft is completed through a flight test or wind tunnel test, a standard reference condition must be set first. • Standard Atmosphere = 40 deg. Lat and sea level • P = 29.92” hg (76 cm Hg), T=59 F (15 C) and g=32.174 ft/sec/sec (gravity)
Standard Atmosphere • Temp and Pressure decrease with altitude • Would appear density of atmosphere would remain same or fairly constant with increase of altitude – NOT TRUE • Pressure drops more rapidly than temp • Results in density decrease with increase altitude • Moisture in air also affects density • This moisture is called HUMIDITY.
Humidity • Two forms • Absolute Humidity is the actual amount of water vapor in a mixture of air and water. • Relative Humidity is the ratio of the amount of water present in atmosphere to the amount that would be present if the air were saturated • Temp drop and absolute humidity remains constant, relative humidity increases. Less water vapor is required to saturate the air at lower temp..
Humidity • Dew Point is the temp to which humid air is cooled to become saturated. If temp drops below dew point, condensation occurs. • Humid air is less dense than dry air. Take off performance is reduced since engine output is reduced. • Less air in fuel/air mixture results in an excessively rich mixture.
Bernoulli’s Principle • Originally stated to explain the action of a liquid flowing through the varying cross-sectional areas of tubes. • Works with air since air is a liquid. • “When the speed of a fluid increases, pressure in the fluid decreases.” • Hold a sheet of paper in front of mouth and blow across the top surface, the paper rises.
Bernoulli’s Principle • Used to make a wing provide lift. • Relative wind: direction of wind with respect to wing and is opposite to path of flight. • Angle of attack: angle between relative wind and chord • Critical angle of attack: air flow from the wing separates
Air Flow • Formula for lift and drag: • s= wing area of both wings- one surface only • C is the coefficient of lift. Depends on wing shape and angle of attack.
Air Flow • Drag Equation: • Airfoils have a NACA xxxxx Number (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) • Example: Aircraft with 600 sq ft of wing surface, flying at altitude of 10000 ft with an angle of attack of 6 degrees and airspeed of 286 mph. • What is the lift?
Aircraft in a Banked Turn • What happens to lift in a turn? • To overcome the the loss of straight level lift in a turn, a pilot must increase airspeed or increase elevator back press. Otherwise, the aircraft will lose altitude. | <urn:uuid:4b529de2-99fd-4826-84d2-0ed0e70324ca> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2020-24",
"url": "https://www.slideserve.com/ostinmannual/atmosphere",
"date": "2020-06-03T19:16:38",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-24/segments/1590347435987.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200603175139-20200603205139-00411.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8605928421020508,
"token_count": 1288,
"score": 3.5,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,288 |
What is an SSL certificate?
SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) and its successor TLS (Transport Layer Security) are standard security protocols that are used to establish secure communication between a server and a browser. Implementing an SSL certificate ensures that all the data passed between a client (browser) and a web server remains private and its integrity has not been compromised. This is especially important when a website collects sensitive personal information such as passwords, credit card numbers, phone numbers, emails etc. Nowadays, most websites requesting personal information have an SSL certificate, on modern browsers it usually shows up as a closed lock icon and the address will begin with HTTPS instead of HTTP.
How Does an SSL certificate work?
In order to understand the works behind SSL certificates, we need to first explain what type of encryption is used to secure the data being passed between two channels. SSL protocol uses both symmetric and asymmetric encryption. In symmetric encryption there is only one key which is used to encrypt and decrypt data. In asymmetric encryption a pair of keys is generated, one is called a private key and the other is public. Data encrypted with a public key can only be decrypted with a private key and vice versa. The public key can be freely shared with anyone and it is already embedded in the SSL certificate, while the private key must be kept secure and well, private. The math used in asymmetric encryption to generate the key pair makes it impossible for anyone to derive a private key from a public key.
To explain in simple terms, when you go to visit a secure website this is what happens:
Your browser sends a request to the server of a secure website.
The server sends a response with the SSL certificate.
The browser checks if the certificate is valid and encrypts a string of numbers (known as pre-master secret) with the server’s public key and forwards it to the server.
The server receives the encrypted pre-master secret and decrypts it using its private key.
The browser and server generate the master secret encryption key.
Secure communication has been established. The browser and server exchange messages back and forth using the encryption key.
Steps 1 to 5 are referred to as an SSL handshake, during that process an asymmetric encryption is being used. After the secure session has been established, symmetric encryption is performed for all communication between a browser and a server.
A question that is often asked is what stops someone from generating their own SSL certificate? The answer is they could, but in that case your browser would give off a warning that a certificate should not be trusted. Certificates are issues by what are called Certificate Authorities (CA), most modern browsers already come preloaded with a list of CA that they trust. This list is called Trusted Root Certificate Store, in order to get on this list, a CA has to be audited and comply by established security and authentication standards. Upon issuing a certificate, Certificate Authorities sign it with their own private key which can be verified by using their public key.
Why install an SSL certificate?
Installing an SSL certificate offers a number of advantages from security to SEO. Let’s take a look at all of them individually.
As already mentioned the main purpose of SSL is to provide a secure channel between a client and the server by encrypting any data passing through. This is crucial for websites that collect sensitive information such as credit card details, social security numbers, login credentials and some also include email addresses in this category. Most of the websites that deal with that sort of personal information are either e-commerce businesses or government authorities. However, any website that sells a service or a product needs to have an SSL certificate. For example if you have a blog about web design and you sell your tutorials or web design elements through your own website. The internet is essentially numerous computers interconnected with each other and data travels from one source to the next before reaching its targeted destination. If the data is not encrypted it can potentially be intercepted or tampered with by attackers. Encrypting information ensures that only the intended parties would be able to read it since only they have the keys to decrypt it. So even if the information ends up falling into the wrong hands attackers won’t be able to interpret it.
Nowadays more and more people are educated on internet security, even if it’s just the most basic of things. An SSL certificate will assure customers that their purchase will be secure. More often than not, lacking an SSL certificate is enough to turn a customer away.
How do you know that the website you visit does in fact belong to whom it says it does? That’s where the SSL certificate comes into play. The server of the website sends your browser its SSL certificate as if saying “I am indeed who I say I am and this domain belongs to me”, your browser validates the certificate and if everything checks out proceeds to do the SSL handshake and open a session.
This is extremely important, as it helps prevent the man-in-the-middle attack and makes sure sensitive personal information travels to its intended recipient.
There are different types of SSL certificates which differ in verification depth and trust level.
Domain validation (DV). The most basic type of a certificate issued and the least verified. The CA registers the domain under the entity who requests the certificate. In other words, verifies that the domain belongs to the person who requested the certificate.
Organization validation (OV). CA verifies that the organization is a legal entity and the person who requests the certificate has the authority to act on behalf of the organization. To put simply, CA checks if the organization does in fact exist. This type of a certificate will contain the company’s name and address by default.
Extended validation (EV). This certificate provides the highest level of trust. Only legal employees who have the authority to sign both the subscriber agreement and the certificate request can apply for EV certificate, those are usually CEOs, VPs, Officers etc. The company has to have legally existed for more than 3 years prior to the request. As well as the above, a CA will verify the company’s phone number, business address and the requester. Just like with OV certificate, information about the certificate holder will be embedded into the certificate. This is the only certificate that will provide a green bar with the company’s name next to the domain address.
Search Engine Ranking
In 2014 Google rolled out a new ranking algorithm that prioritizes HTTPS websites. A year later, they stated that when choosing between two similar websites, but one has an SSL certificate and the other doesn’t, they would rank the secure website higher. Google has been promoting websites to implement SSL certificates. Not to mention, when people see websites in their search results they are more likely to click on the secure website seeing it as more trustworthy over a non-secure website. Consequently, improving website’s traffic.
How to Get an SSL certificate?
If you’ve decided that you need an SSL certificate after all, I’ll shortly cover what you’ll need and guide you in the right direction to obtain one.
Here’s a list of things you’ll need before getting a certificate:
Dedicated IP address. Because of how SSL works, you need to have a unique IP address to your server. This is important, since if your website is hosted on a shared web server you won’t be able to acquire an SSL certificate.
Certificate Signing Request (CSR). You will need to generate a CSR on your web server before ordering the certificate. CA use information contained in the CSR (domain name, public key, organization name etc) to create the certificate.
Domain Validation Rights (DVR). The CA will validate your DVR by checking if the information is correct on your WHOIS record. Typically, for the most basic domain validation process you will need to have an admin email access for the listed email. The higher the validation level of the certificate, the more information a CA will verify. If you wish to obtain an EV or OV certificate be prepared to submit legal papers to establish ownership of the website.
Choose a Certificate Authority
There is wide variety of Certificate Authorities to choose from. Of course, the most important thing is for you to be comfortable with the features the CA has to offer and their pricing. However, these are the factors you need to take into consideration:
Root Certificate Program.
The CA has to be a member of the Root Certificate Program. This will ensure that your certificate will be trusted by most modern browsers and other software. Majority of CA will be members of the root programs and will guarantee to be trusted by almost all the browsers, however it will never hurt to check. Both Apple and Microsoft for example have a list of trusted CA.
Make sure that a CA offers the certificate type that you want. Here is a quick rundown of different types:
Single Domain. Pretty self-explanatory, this is a certificate issued only to a single domain e.g. example.com. Keep in mind that it does not include www.example.com.
Wildcard. Issued for a domain and all of its subdomains, e.g www.example.com, shop.example.com etc.
Multiple Domain. Issued to multiple domains as well as subdomain. E.g example.com, www.example.com and example.org.
Another type of a categorization you will encounter is the different levels of validation that were covered above (DV, OV, EV).
It’s a competitive market out there for Certificate Authorities, so to stand out they offer additional features, for example an easier automatic installation process. Weigh in your options carefully before making a purchase.
Mari Koval is a content writer at WebHostingGeeks.com. She has written for various online publications and blogs. With an equal passion for both technology and educating people, she strives to produce content that is informative yet easy to understand. | <urn:uuid:08e1e46c-e0bc-41a4-abb9-32e0c542ce29> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2019-18",
"url": "https://www.ssdindia.in/blog/page/2/",
"date": "2019-04-20T12:20:21",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-18/segments/1555578529813.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20190420120902-20190420142902-00262.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9416074156761169,
"token_count": 2077,
"score": 4.15625,
"int_score": 4
} | 2,077 |
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome is a group of inherited disorders marked by extremely loose joints, hyperelastic skin that bruises easily, and/or easily damaged blood vessels. It is caused by a genetic mutation in which the body creates less collagen.
There are 6 types of EDS:
- Classical type affects about one in 20,000. In additionan to hypermobility the patient has significant skin manifestations such as easy bruising and very hyperelastic skin.
- Hypermobile type affects more than one in 10,000 and results in frequent dislocations, subluxations and less skin involvement than Classical type.
- Vascular type is very rare and only affects one in 100,000. Vascular patients are typically have large eyes, small chin, sunken cheeks, thin nose and lips and lobeless ears. Veins and organs are fragile making this the most serious form.
- Kyphoscoliosis type is exceptionally rare with only 60 reported cases worldwide. The main symptoms are progressive curvature of the spine (scoliosis), fragile eyes, and severe muscle weakness.
- Arthrochalasia type is even rarer with only 30 known cases. It's an extreme version of the hypermobile type with very loose joints and frequent dislocations of the hips.
- Dermatosparaxis type is the most rare with only 10 reported cases. It's an extreme form for classical type with sagging and extremely fragile skin.
All types have common symptoms such as some of the classical and hypermobile features and even some vascular features such as skin and organ hyperelasticity including severe pain, joint hypermobility, skin issues, gastrintestinal problems, fatigue, heart problems and a resistance to local anaestetics and painkillers. Overall it's currently estimated about one in 5,000 have some form of EDS, however many of the more minor versions of hypermobile and classical type are often undiagnosed or is misdiagnosed.
For most people living with this disorder, lifespan is normal. For a few, even, they are in little pain and have merely double-jointedness and stretchy skin. Many experience pain that greatly interferes with their life on a day-to-day basis and need to take very strong opiate/opiod painkillers. However, those with the rare vascular type of EDS are at significantly increased risk for rupture of a major organ or blood vessel. Average life expectancy of these individuals is 48 years. These individuals, therefore, have a high risk of sudden death. Intelligence is normal. Most people with this disorder look "normal" although they typically retain a slightly youthful look and have softer skin. | <urn:uuid:e7775899-9c45-4325-a1f9-7c589e8594c6> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2017-26",
"url": "http://house.wikia.com/wiki/Ehlers-Danlos_Syndrome",
"date": "2017-06-22T12:13:27",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-26/segments/1498128319265.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20170622114718-20170622134718-00086.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9492397904396057,
"token_count": 547,
"score": 3.53125,
"int_score": 4
} | 547 |
PCR is Polymerase Chain Reaction. It is used to amplify the DNA that is make multiple copies of the desired DNA 'in vitro' using DNA polymerase and two sets of primers.
Three main steps of PCR are-
1. Denaturation- where the DNA strands are heated so that the two strands separate and form single strands to which primer can attach.
2. Primer annealing - in this step the primer attach to the complementary strands on the single stranded DNA.
3. Extension of primers- DNA polymerase extends the primers and forms double stranded DNA.
The three steps of PCR:
2. Primer annealing
3. Extension of primers.
2. Insertion of the isolated gene in a suitable vector.
3. Introduction of vector into a suitable organism / host cell.
4. Selection of transformed host cells.
5. Multiplication or cloning of the introduced gene in the host organism.
List the features required in vectors that facilitate cloning . With a suitable diagram show the E.coli cloning vector with restriction sites.
Features required in vectors that facilitate cloning are :
1. Origin of replication (Ori) which helps in autonomous replication and also controls the copy number.
2. Selectable marker which helps in isolation of transformed cell.
3. Cloning sites which provide sites at which foreign DNA can be inserted . These sites also help in selection of recombinants.
4. Vectors like Agrobacterium tumefaciens ( in plants) and retroviruses (in animals) can be made non pathogenic and be used to fascilitate cloning.
Fig. 7.4. E. coli Cloning Vector pBR322 showing restriction sites (Hindlll, EcoRI, BamHI, Sal I, Pvu II, Pst I, Cla l), oriV and antibiotic resistance genes (ampR and tetR). Rop codes for the proteins involved in the replication of the plasmid.
1. The bacterial cells are made competent to take up recombinant DNA by treating them with a specific concentration of calcium, that increases the efficiency with which DNA enters the cell through the pores in its cell wall.
2. Microinjection is a method in which the recombinant DNA is directly injected into the nucleus-of the animal cell with the help of mirco-needles or micropipettes.
3. Gene gun or biolistics is a method suitable for plant cells, where plant cells are bombarded with high-velocity microparticles of gold or tungsten coated with DNA.
4. Disarmed pathogens can be allowed to infect the host cell, which then transfer the recombinant DNA into the host.
5. Electroporation in which electricity is applied to create transient pores in the host cell so that it takes up Recombinant DNA with ease.
What is genetic engineering? Explain briefly the distinct steps common to all genetic engineering technology.
With the help of diagrams show the different steps in the formation of recombinant DNA by action of restriction endonuclease.
Genetic engineering is a technique for artificially and deliberately modifying DNA (genes) to suit human needs. It includes techniques like creating recombinant , gene cloning and gene transfer.
Steps in genetic engineering:
1. Identification and isolation of genetic material.
2. Cutting of the DNA at specific locations using restriction enzymes.
3. Amplification of the desired gene using Polymerase Chain reaction.
4. Introduction of gene of interest into host cell or organism.
5.The gene is cloned and the desired gene product the recombinant protein is obtained.
6. Downstream processing is done which includes processing like and separation purification
Fig. Diagram showing Various steps involved in DNA recombinant technology for the production of a recombinant protein. | <urn:uuid:52d9a862-6807-43f9-85c5-728849afa1db> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2019-43",
"url": "https://www.zigya.com/study/book?class=12&board=cbse&subject=Biology&book=Biology&chapter=Biotechnology+%3A+Principles+and+Processes&q_type=&q_topic=Principles+Of+Biotechnology&q_category=Z&question_id=BIEN12005940",
"date": "2019-10-16T04:17:37",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570986664662.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20191016041344-20191016064844-00478.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8878915905952454,
"token_count": 799,
"score": 4.0625,
"int_score": 4
} | 799 |
Before the advent of modern precision tools for
cranial surgery, it was desirable, and even essential to survival, for surgeons
to have a steady hand. It is with a frisson of fascination that we look at pictures
of trepanned skulls with one or more holes drilled into them. The holes were
deliberately made and it is hard to believe that anyone survived the procedure.
And yet the bone has clearly healed around the fringes of the hole or holes,
indicating that the patient did indeed survive. Such holes have soft, rounded
edges, and the healing process is first visible after about two weeks. It was
essential that the surgeon caused no damage to the cerebral membrane or major
blood vessels, and there must have been a serious risk of infection. The
anatomical collection at the Medical History and Heritage Unit houses at least
two trepanned skulls, one from Peru and one from Egypt.
Tools and methods – how many survived?
The scraping method was common in Europe, in particular England, while the preferred tools in South America were the drill and saw. Initially, surgeons used scrapers made of obsidian, flint or other kind of mineral, but eventually moved on to metal. Spade-shaped metal knives called tumis, an image of which features nowadays in the emblem of the Peruvian surgeons’ association In Peru, have been dug up by archaeologists from graves in Peru.
Trepanations were often performed on the left side of the scull and very rarely over a suture. The Greek physician Hippocrates and other writers recommended avoiding the sutures to eliminate the risk of damaging a major blood vessel. The left side of the skull is more prone to trauma caused by violence because attackers are usually right handed. Perhaps the left-hand bias of trepanation is because most injuries (and haematomas) occur on that side. It is also possibly due to the surgeon being right-handed. Apart from the anguish and fear that the patients must have felt, the most painful part of the procedure was the removal of the soft tissue or the scalp. Damage to the skull itself is not particularly painful and it is thought that alcohol, opium, henbane and mandrake were used as anaesthetics. Some type of covering must have been used after surgery. Either the skin was folded back over or the surgeon applied a lid, perhaps made of vegetable matter such as the bark, coconut shells or banana leaves found in later historical contexts.
The earliest discovered trepanations date back to the Neolithic era (c. 3,000 BCE) and were performed with flint blades. The scrape method worked better than punching holes through the bone, probably because the trepanners could proceed slowly and retain a certain degree of precision. There are many examples from France and South America, but the method was once practised the world over. Trepanners in Bolivia and Peru seem to have been the most successful and had the highest survival rate. There are skulls that carry traces of half a dozen or so healed holes! One study shows that over 50% of 214 skulls from Peru exhibit signs of healing, and according to analyses, 73% of trepanations there were performed on men, 24.6% on women and 2.4% on children, figures that tally with the high incidence of violence-related cranial trauma. Other studies suggest that the healing frequency increased between 400 BCE and 1532 CE.
Written sources and different techniques
The first written source describing trepanation is Hippocrates (c. 460-370 BCE), and the most successful operations have been found amongst the Inca people. There are different theories about why trepanations were performed. Some say it was done to relieve pressure caused by internal bleeding (there is sometimes evidence of another skull trauma that can have occasioned the procedure); others suggest that it was to cure severe migraine, epilepsy or mental illness. Some trepanned skulls, including that of one individual who had had two healed and one unhealed trepanations, show traces of severe sinus infection that had spread to other parts of the skull. There is another example of an adult who had suffered a brain tumour and a child who had probably had scurvy. But many diseases, such as mental illness, leave no skeletal traces. French surgeon Paul Broca (1824-1880) was the first modern-age scientist to accurately describe the practice, which he did in a monograph from 1867 on a Peruvian skull with a healed trepanation, the result, he concluded, of successful prehistoric surgery.
Carl Fürst wrote in Fornvännen (Sweden’s oldest journal of antiquarian research) back in 1917 that it could be more difficult to confirm unhealed trepanation since it can resemble postmortal damage and have taphonomic causes (the decaying processes that fossilise organic material after death). This issue has been addressed by numerous authors, including John Verano, who raises other differential diagnoses, such as congenital defects or disorders, diseases and trauma.
In his article, Carl Fürst noted that while Sweden was
littered with examples of trepanation from the early and late Iron Age, most of
them came from Alvastra. Anders and Gustaf Retzius both researched and wrote
about the early trepanation finds from Sweden, including the Alvastra skulls.
Scientists have identified five different ways of making the hole. 1) Scraping (recognisable by the chamfered edges); 2) Excavation; 3) Drilling and sawing (the surgeon drills several small holes in a circle and then uses a saw to connect them); 4.) Sawing (the surgeon saws out a square of bone that can then be lifted out); 5) Gouging. In this last procedure, the surgeon made a hole with a tool called a trepan, a hollow, serrated cylinder that was described already in the writings of Hippocrates. By the time of Roman physician Celsus (25 BCE – 50 CE) the trepan had acquired an extractable guide pin and a transverse handle, not unlike that of a modern corkscrew.
This tool became the standard during the Middle Ages and was still in use in some countries well into the modern era. Some versions of the trepan have a support device. The use of a trepan was illustrated in a book from 1542 that is now housed in the Hagströmer Library. Called Feldtbuch der Wundartzney it was written by the German army surgeon Hans von Gersdorff. The French surgeon Ambroise Paré (1510-1590) made improvements in the tools for head surgery and trepanning, while in Renaissance Italy, glass shards were still the instruments of choice.
The development of trepanation
Swedish doctor Karl Petter Dahlgren (1864-1924) enlisted the help of instrument-maker Max Stille to invent a pair of trepanation forceps in 1896. The problems he was trying to solve were that the trepanation procedure was too slow and the surgeon tended to shake too much when chiselling out the skull. After trials using a rotary saw on a corpse, they managed to construct an ingenious tool. The new forceps sliced through the cranium from the inside out and took just a few minutes to excise a removable piece of bone. They were also easy to sterilise. Their forceps were modified in 1909 to be operable with both hands so that more force could be applied when cutting through thick bone. This model was further developed by American neurosurgeon William Henry Hudson (1862-1917). In 1897, Italian gynaecologist Leonardo Gigli (1863-1908) invented a wire saw that was first used to saw into hip bones but became the standard implement for craniotomies. According to an article on trepanation from the 1800s, inflammation was still the greatest risk when performing trepanation, primarily caused by a lack of personal hygiene, dirty homes and the insalubrious urban environment that was a breeding ground for secondary infections.
The roof of the skull and the brain itself have different magical beliefs attached to them in many cultures, and amulets have been found made of pieces of cranial vault. In the 1990s, a theory was put forward that people might have believed a patient was dead, when he or she was merely unconscious. During trepanation, such a person might have miraculously woken up during the procedure (hence occasional evidence of half-completed operations), so the unhealed holes would represent the patients who were genuinely dead. Otherwise, this way of “raising the dead” could have been something that surgeons tried to repeat.
Trepanation is still performed in some developing countries, while a burgeoning interest for instructions on the Internet has prompted doctors to issue a warning in The British Medical Journal against do-it-yourself trepanations at home.
Ann Gustavsson, 23 February 2017
Arnott et. Al. (eds). Trepanation - History, Discovery, Theory. Lisse. 2003.
Auderheide, A.C, Rodriguez-Martin, C, Langsjoen, O. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology. Cambridge. 2011. 31-34.
Danielsson, S. Karl Petter Dahlgren och hans trepanationstång. Nordisk medicinhistorisk årsbok. Södertälje. 1986. 127-135.
Fürst, C. M. Några nyfunna trepanerade svenska fornkranier. Fornvännen. 1917.
Ganz, J. C. Trepanation and surgical infection in the 18th century. Achta Neurochir. 2014. 156, 615-623.
Gross, C. G. A hole in the head. More tales in the history of neuroscience. Cambridge. 2012.
Larsen, C. S. Bioarcheology. Interpreting behavior from the human skeleton. Cambridge. 1997. 153.
Retzius, G. Om trepanation av hufvudskålen, såsom folksed i forna och nyare tider. Ymer, tidskrift utgifven af Svenska sällskapet för antropologi och geografi. Årg. 1901, H. I.
Roberts, C. & Manchester, K. The archaeology of disease. Gloucestershire. 2010. 124-128.
Verano, J.W. Differential diagnosis: Trepanation. International Journal of Paleopathology. 14. 2016. 1-9.
Verano, J.W. Holes in the head. The art and archaeology of trepanation in Ancient Peru. Washington D.C. 2016.
Uddenberg, N. Lidande & läkedom II. Medicinens historia från 1800 till 1950. Stockholm. 2015. 332.
Ann Gustavsson is an archivist/curator at Karolinska Institutet’s Medical History and Heritage Unit. She has a master’s degree in archaeology and another in osteoarcheology. With a background in cultural studies, she went on to read ancient history and archival science. Her speciality is pathological lesions in bone. Ms Gustavsson is currently inventorying, analysing and digitalising Karolinska Institutet’s anatomical skull collection.
Photo: Ann Gustavsson
BISKOP PEDER WINSTRUP - renässansmänniska och en av Europas bäst bevarade mumier.
Biskop Peder Winstrups långa och händelserika liv skedde i skuggan av två kämpande stormakter; Sverige och Danmark. Hans karriär var omfattande; han var teolog, poet, professor i fysik, arkitekt, fornforskare, boktryckare, papperstillverkare, kunglig hovpredikant, biskop och initiativtagare till Lunds universitet. Undersökningen av Peder Winstrups kista och välbevarade mumie avslöjar många detaljer om hälsa, levnadsvillkor, kläd- och begravningsskick under 1600-talet.
PER KARSTEN är fil. dr i arkeologi och chef på Historiska museet vid Lunds universitet. När han 2015 visade upp den välbevarade mumien på Historiska museet kom 3500 besökare - under en och samma dag - och världens blickar riktades mot Lund. För att ha initierat räddandet av kvarlevorna från 1600-talsbiskopen och gjort dessa tillgängliga för såväl forskning som för allmän beskådan tilldelades han nyligen utmärkelsen "Årets Lundensare".
ONSDAGEN 15 MARS 2017 KL. 18.00
HAGSTRÖMERBIBLIOTEKET HAGA TINGSHUS
Buss 57 (Sveavägen) Buss 515 (Odenplan)
Hållplats: Haga Södra
Anmälan före 10 mars
Telefon: 08- 5248 6548
Medlemmar inträde 130 kr
Icke medlemmar 180 kr
Foto: Gunnar Menander & Per Karsten
The Hagströmer Library’s new tote bag features a drawing by Wilhelm von Wright that depicts dentinal tubules in the molar of a horse. It was originally published in Anders Retzius, Mikroskopiska undersökningar av Tändernes, särdeles Tandbenets struktur [Microscopic Study of the Structure of Teeth, Particularly Dentin], Stockholm: The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 1837.
(Purchase bag here)
In the summer of 1835, Anders Retzius went to Karolinska Institutet’s anatomy museum to collect teeth. When he began work as professor of anatomy at Karolinska Institutet in 1824, Retzius labored to increase the number of specimens in the museum. By the mid-1830s the museum consisted of three halls, and the osteological section contained skeletons of humans and animals from Sweden and many distant locations. So, when Retzius began a comparative study of teeth, all he had to do was go to his museum and pull teeth from skeletons, like books from library shelves. He assembled teeth from Swedish wild and domestic mammals and fish, a pale-throated sloth, an African elephant, a rhinoceros, a walrus, a dolphin, a caiman, an alligator, a Porbeagle shark, and several varieties of tropical fish. All the while, he took great care not to ruin the specimens, pulling mostly posterior molars that wouldn’t be visible to museum visitors. He also had free and easy access to human teeth from the cadavers that came to Karolinska Institutet’s anatomy department from hospitals and poorhouses in Stockholm.
Retzius came up with the idea of studying thin slices of teeth under the microscope at a conference held in Breslau (now Wroclaw) in 1833, when physiologist Jan Purkinje demonstrated sections of skin and botanist Robert Brown showed thin, transparent slivers of petrified wood. Purkinje taught Retzius how to use a newly manufactured, achromatic compound microscope, which he had bought from Viennese instrument maker Georg Simon Plössl. The powerful microscope provided the resolution and depth of field that made it possible to study tissues with a novel precision, down to the cellular level. Retzius desired to purchase a similar microscope for his own department of anatomy at Karolinska Institutet, and ordered one from Plössl as soon as he found funding for it. When the microscope arrived in the summer of 1835, Retzius set out to use it to study animal tissue, and especially teeth.
It was technically challenging to deal with hard dental material, and there were few precedents to rely upon, so Retzius was forced to devise his own methods. In his treatise, The Microscopic Study of the Structure of Teeth, Particularly Dentin, he explains how he prepared the specimens by macerating the teeth in acid to separate the dentin from the jawbone and connective tissues, and then sliced the dentin. Maceration made it possible to slice the teeth thinly with sharp instruments without causing them to crack. This was tricky, so Retzius enlisted a particularly dexterous dentist by the name of Bichlier to assist him. Retzius’s treatise goes on to describe what the specimens looked like under a number of different viewing conditions, under different lights, on white or black surfaces, and using different methods of magnification. Altering these variables brought out new features in the specimens. He was able to study and describe the structure of cementum and discovered growth lines in enamel, still known today as “striae of Retzius.”
excited him most, however, was the finding that dentin was perforated by minute
tubes, in patterns that varied from species to species. The surface of dentin
appeared iridescent, and was traversed by thin stripes, which could be seen
even without magnification. But, studying the slices through his microscope,
Retzius saw that these stripes were in fact tubes extending between the pulp
and the surface of the tooth. He found these thin, branching tubules “beautiful
The beauty of the specimens was captured by the artist and scientific draftsman Wilhelm von Wright. Originally from Finland, von Wright had often collaborated with scientists at the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences. His plates in Scandinavian Fish (1836-38) and Swedish Birds (1828-38) are celebrated works of art. For Retzius’s work on teeth, von Wright made pencil drawings from which he produced the engraved first plate, and a series of delicate gouache (opaque watercolor) paintings in white and blue on a black background, some of which were reproduced on the lithographic second plate. Von Wright worked closely with Retzius, using the microscope to look at the specimens prepared by the anatomist. To convey Retzius’s research results, the artist had to merge his view with the anatomist’s and fix it on paper.
“The Structure of Teeth” was the most extensive and accurate study of the microscopic anatomy of teeth when it was published in 1837, and it was soon translated into German and English. The treatise consists of eighty-eight pages of text, with eighteen figures on two fold-out plates. These images are fine examples of the type of visualizations that regularly accompanied articles in scientific periodicals of the period. The observational practices were, however, cutting edge. And the processes of observation and image-making were intertwined. Specimens and visualizations of them were, according to Retzius, more important than the descriptive text. The images not only illustrated the result of the scientific study—they were the result.
Eva Åhrén, 26 January 2017
Hagströmer Medico-Historical Library
Anders Retzius, Mikroskopiska undersökningar av Tändernes, särdeles Tandbenets struktur [Microscopic study of the structure of teeth, particularly dentin] Stockholm: The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 1837.
Eva Åhrén, “Figuring things out: Visualizations in the work of Swedish anatomists Anders and Gustaf Retzius, 1829-1921,” Nuncius: Journal of the Material and Visual History of Science [forthcoming, 2017].
---, “Making space for specimens: The museums of the Karolinska Institute, Stockholm,” in Medical Museums: Past, Present, Future, edited by Samuel J.M.M. Alberti & Elizabeth Hallam (London: The Royal College of Surgeons of England, 2013).
During the mid and latter half of the nineteenth century, the life sciences became increasingly embroiled in debates involving experiments on animals. Regardless of the nature of these experiments, they were most generally referred to as “vivisections”, referring generally to all experiments on animals, attracting both criticism and ire from both scientists and laypersons alike. Typically seen as having a negative effect on the moral character of practitioners, those critical and outright negative to vivisection pushed for it to be forbidden, or at the very least, heavily restricted. In 1875 a Royal Commission began, attempting to establish political stance on the practice, and, if necessary, enact legislation based on the commission’s findings. This eventually lead to the Cruelty to Animals Act, which was passed in 1876, and introduced limitations and licencing for those wanting to carry out vivisections.
As one of the primary arguments used by opponents of vivisection called the moral sensibilities of practitioners and supporters of this method in to question, a counter-argument presented by proponents revolved around their qualities as gentlemen. Hagströmer Library has several interesting titles which serve as argumentative books and pamphlets lifting the positives of vivisection as a method of research, and outlining, at least in part, the “gentlemanliness” of those medical men who experiment on animals. One such being the anonymously written, but attributed to Frances Heatherley, Physiological Cruelty, or, Fact v. Fancy: An Inquiry into the Vivisection Question from 1883. Physiological Cruelty presents a somewhat ambiguous title, leaving some uncertainty at first glance how the “vivisection question” will be presented and discussed. In spite of this, the book is a positive representation of the alleged benefits of the method, where the “pseudo-scientific” arguments of the anti-vivisection movement are thoroughly criticised, whilst simultaneously trying to win over members of the public undecided in the matter to side with “true science”, and underlining the pious and humane nature of physiologists. Texts such as these were not uncommon during this period, in part because of the aforementioned First Royal Commission on the Practice of Submitting Live Animals to Experiments for Scientific Purposes (often referred to simply as the Royal Commission on Vivisection), and in part because of the frequent discussions regarding animal welfare and rights lifted in some of the more well-to-do circles in Britain at the time. Neither was it unusual that the book was written anonymously: anonymity allowed for greater leeway in what one could and could not say without damaging collegial relationships and one’s career. Heatherley/Philanthropos’ book offers insight into some common arguments, at least amongst the proponents of vivisection, in long-form.
Some of these arguments included underlining the importance of practical experience over merely theorising in the case of physiology, equating theorising to “groping in the dark”. The dismissal of experimentation on animals as a practical means of gaining knowledge was akin to practicing pseudo-science, and the author is clear that the utilisation of vivisection is the way forward for medical research, “always advancing, and always gaining increased power to cure sickness and soothe pain”. One would be mistaken, however, to assume that the author advocates for experiments as the only righteous form of medical practice: rather, he underlines the importance of vivisection as a way to “advance” medicine, presumably to bolster its scientific standing, and build upon, correct, and fine-tune an already-established body of knowledge. Though experiments were to be used alongside other methods of medical and scientific practice, their worth is valued higher than, for example, theory, as experiments were able to confirm through practical experience whether a theory corresponded to nature under certain conditions, or not.
Physiological Cruelty was written in a climate where vivisection was somewhat of a hot topic, particularly for those conducting, or interested in, research in the life sciences. Experimental physiology in Great Britain had some difficulty establishing itself and developing at the same rate as it had in France and Germany. Less than a decade prior to Physiological Cruelty, the Royal Commission on Vivisection had taken place, which lead to recommendations made to parliament on legislation on experiments on animals. The Cruelty to Animals Act was passed in 1876, and prohibited, for example, experiments presumed to be painful unless certain requirements were met (e.g. using anaesthesia), and required those practicing vivisections to hold a license, among other things. Intertwined with these events, was a growing, and vocal, early animal rights movement, that, although with internal differences on the question of vivisection, was generally positive to restrictions on the practice, and warned against the development of scientists lacking morality, hardened by inflicting unnecessary pain on animals.
Working against a traditionally conservative educational system where physiology had only begun to offer part-time research opportunities in the latter half of the 1800s, British physiologists interested in experimentalism and the teachings of French physiologist Claude Bernard were keen to help the method grow educationally and practically with a particularly British sentiment. Although experiments on animals were confessed to be, at times, painful, the physiologist, based on his (physiologists being exclusively men at this time) character, social standing, and education, possessed an inclination to limit pain whenever possible, as well as balance the measure of “necessary” suffering of the animal, with the potential benefits the experiment may have. These were qualities particularly bestowed on the British researcher, attuned to such sensitive matters in ways continental researchers were not. Because of this, exceptions to the practice were troubling, as they not only called into question the moral standing of physiologists and others practicing vivisection, but risked shuttling science back into the “dark ages”. In this regard, British physiologists could lead the way, utilising vivisection to develop the profession to the same levels of the often-referenced continental schools in France and Germany, but with greater sensitivity towards pain, to pointing out the sensitivity of British physiologists, and their exoneration from practicing needless cruelty during the Royal Commission. Interestingly, this sensibility is both a blessing and a curse for gentlemen of British heritage. In the case of the physiologists, according to Heatherley and other proponents, this meant their experiments were less inclined to be needlessly cruel. On the other hand, compassion and sensitivity to the suffering of “lesser creatures” was at least partially to blame for viewing vivisection negatively, and indeed the Cruelty to Animals Act.
Heatherley’s book serves as both a testament to the desire of some to bolster experimental medical science in Great Britain; but, also as a paradoxical account of the British gentleman as sensitively inclined, but overly sentimental depending on the situation.
Kittelsen, Theodor, Har dyrene sjael?, 1915.
Boddice, Rob. “Species of Compassion: Aesthetics, Anaesthetics, and Pain in the Physiological Laboratory”. In 19: Interdisciplinary Studies in the Long Nineteenth Century, 15
(2012): 1-22. doi: http://doi.org/10.16995/ntn.628
French, Richard D. Antivivisection and Medical Science in Victorian Society. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975.
Halverson, Kristin. Physiological Cruelty? Discussing and Developing Vivisection in Great Britian, 1875-1901. Södertörn University, 2016.
Philanthropos. [Heatherley, Francis] Physiological Cruelty: or Fact v. Fancy. An Inquiry into the Vivisection Question. London: Tinsley Bros., 1883.
Sidensvans och domherre (waxwing and bullfinch).
Anders Sparrman, Svensk ornithologie med efter naturen colorerade tekningar, Stockholm, 1806.
Varför inte ge bort en affisch i julklapp?
I Hagströmerbibliotekets nätshop (klicka här)
kan du välja mellan åtta olika intressanta och vackra motiv, som alla kommer från böcker i våra samlingar.
A onetime employee of the Hagströmer Library, Tomas Jansson is one of the people who has put his special mark on the library, not at least with his strong and colourful personality. Sadly, he passed away in the morning of October 26, 2016. The irony of it is that it was the disease that he had been fighting to save people from most of his professional life that claimed him. Tomas was a medical doctor specialized in Oncology, and as a doctor he worked wholeheartedly and with great empathy for his patients. But he had several loves, all of which he embraced with enthusiasm, and among these his love of old books and fondness for Esperanto stand out. In 1993 Carolina Böcker & Konst, a small antiquarian book store close to the University Library of Uppsala (Carolina Rediviva), opened its doors for the first time. Here Tomas found an outlet for his passion for books. Not surprisingly the book shop specialized in medical literature of historical significance and this is rare among antiquarian booksellers. During my tenure at Redins antikvariat, a couple of blocks away, I always sent customers offering that kind of books along to Carolina Böcker & Konst. This love of books eventually led him to the Hagströmer Medico-Historical Library where he started to work part-time in 2010 and also serving as acting Head for a time. This post ended in 2013. I have been acquainted with Tomas since the 1990s and thanks to him I also started to work at the library in 2010. This gave me the chance to get to know him quite intimately. Tomas was kindhearted and loyal and had a subtle (and sometimes not so subtle …) sense of humour. His company was never boring and we shared many a joke, sometimes over a Czech beer.
Tomas Jansson was interested in many things, and his general knowledge on various subjects was quite extraordinary. The third great passion mentioned above was Esperanto; when he was 14 years old he started practicing this constructed language and through the years he participated in several international conferences. He also was a member of the board of quite a few Esperanto organizations. The announcement by his daughters making his demise public has the first part of the Esperanto anthem by L. L. Zamenhof in it. It reads in English translation:
Into the world came a new feeling,
through the world goes a powerful call;
by means of wings of a gentle wind
now let it fly from place to place.
Tomas giving his daughter Astrid and her husband Maxine a private viewing of the Hagströmer Library in 2011.
Dan Jibréus, 21 November 2016
Peter Forsskål (1732–1763) var en av Linnés mer
egensinniga och mångfacetterade lärjungar. Han disputerade i
filosofi i Göttingen, blev docent i ekonomi i Uppsala, studerade
naturalhistoria för Linné, lärde sig flytande arabiska och hebreiska. Hans liv ändades
i dagens Jemen under en forskningsexpedition bekostad av den danske kungen. I
dag är han mest känd som författare till Tankar om borgerliga
friheten, ett liberalt manifest med plädering för stärkta
civila rättigheter som han smusslade genom censuren. Som förkämpe för
yttrandefrihet bidrog Forsskål till att bana väg för den första svenska
tryckfrihetsförordningen som i år firar 250 år.
JONAS NORDIN, docent i historia, Kungliga biblioteket, berättar om ett
kort men rikt och fascinerande levnadsöde.
TISDAGEN 15 NOVEMBER 2016 KL. 18.00
HAGSTRÖMERBIBLIOTEKET HAGA TINGSHUS
Buss 57 (Sveavägen) Buss 515 (Odenplan)
Hållplats: Haga Södra
Anmälan före 10 november
Telefon: 08 5248 6548
Medlemmar inträde 100 kr
Icke medlemmar 150 kr
In early December 1920, the Swedish daily newspaper Svenska Dagbladet had an announcement to make: ”The Book-collection of Gustaf Retzius to ’Karolinska.’ – Generous Donation to the Library of the Institute. – At Present the Library only has Room for a Third.”
As is well known, Gustaf Retzius was one of Sweden’s most prominent scientists in the late 1800s and the first years of the 20th century. He worked in several fields: histology, neurology, anatomy, physiology, to name the most important. He also did research in physical anthropology, and that has been the reason for more or less well founded criticism in later years. Retzius died in 1919, and a year later his widow Anna Hierta Retzius donated his books to Karolinska Institutet. The news article goes on to say that it is a gift ”that in value puts all former donations to shame … an estimated 150 shelf meters … completely outstanding … cannot be valued in money.” The lion’s share of the collection is now housed in the Hagströmer Library and is still of great importance to scientists and scholars of today. A select few of the books will for instance shortly be part of an exhibition, History Unfolds, at The Swedish History Museum. Regrettably the books are not kept as a separate unit of its own, but are found spread throughout the Hagströmer Library, arranged according to subject.
A large part of the collection has been inscribed personally to Gustaf Retzius and the collection of signatures is like a Who’s Who of the international scientific community at the time. Which leads me to the second part of this small essay. Anna Retzius was very much devoted to the work of her husband and you can find notes here and there in her hand explaining how she (and Gustaf) wanted the legacy to be handled. This is true not just of the books but just about everything. A German translation of the several volumes strong Natural History of Man by James Prichard; Naturgeschichte des Menschengeschlechts. Nach der dritten Auflage des englischen Originals mit Anmerkungen und Zusätzen hereausgegeben von Rudolph Wagner & Friedrich Will, Leipzig, Leopold Voss, 1840–1848, is to be found in the Retzius collection. In volume 3:1 Anna has written: ”This book has belonged to my beloved husband Gustaf Retzius’ dear father Anders Adolf Retzius, who in my youth was my good friend and bestowed me his valuable collection of autographs. Anna Hierta-Retzius, June 12, 1923.” Besides contributing interesting provenance information, the inscription makes you wonder. Whatever happened to the collection of autographs?
Back to the article in Svenska Dagbladet. It eerily foretells the conditions found also today; ”… it is necessary that additional staff can be made available, since the present staff is already under ordinary conditions not sufficient …”
Dan Jibréus, 19 October 2016
The ever diligent scholar Nils Uddenberg happened to see the above text and gave me a strange look. “Anna’s statement isn’t quite true,” he informed me. While recently doing research in the archives of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stockholm, he had come across a couple of letters from Anna to Gustaf where the autograph collection is mentioned. Nils was kind enough to copy the letters for me. They are written in April 1876, that is, seven months before they got married the same year. There is a definite undertone of yearning in the language Anna uses. In the first letter she states how happy she is to have been given Anders Retzius’ collection of letters/autographs, but that she will always look upon it as belonging to Gustaf. Apparently Gustaf misinterpreted this as some sort of clandestine ungratefulness, and in the second letter Anna hastens to emphasize how happy she is with the gift, and that she will treasure it the rest of her life! Thus Anders Retzius’ collection was given to Anna by Gustaf, not by her father-in-law Anders, and it happened 16 years after Anders’ death. Anna’s memory might well have clouded a bit over the years. By the way – this collection is safely kept at the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
One of the Retzius family bookcases. Photograph from around 1920.
Anna Retzius-Hierta's comment concerning Anders Retzius' autograph collection.
A few years ago, the Hagströmer Library was entrusted with an extremely rare collection of odontological pictures and objects from the Department of Dental Medicine at Karolinska Institutet. It had originally belonged to John Wessler (1864-1927), who assembled the collection himself in the early 1900s. As one of the foremost dentists in Stockholm at the time, Wessler was interested in most aspects of odontology: for instance, he was a champion of the modernisation of dentistry programmes, co-founder of the Institute of Dentistry in 1898, an advocate of “social dentistry” and secretary of the Swedish Dental Society. He was also noted in Sweden and abroad as a writer of numerous books and articles as well as a leading chemist who made and sold his own formulae of dental amalgam and dental powder. It was partly thanks to his income from this venture that he was able to finance his love of art. Maybe someone recognises the toothbrush he designed and marketed in 1895?
Wessler travelled widely, and was in contact with art dealers and dentists in Europe and the US. A hundred or so letters from cities like Berlin, Paris, London, Rome and New York relating to his purchases survive. From 1911 up to his death in 1927 he collected almost 800 pictures and artefacts dating from about 1400 to 1920. His collection includes over 500 prints and oil paintings, divided roughly equally into depictions of St Apollonia, the patron saint of dentistry, and dental practitioners and their patients. There are also a large number of gold, silver, iron and ivory toothpicks, miscellaneous dental implements (some more alarming than others), amulets, medals and photographs. He donated the collection to the Institute of Dentistry, now the Department of Dental Medicine, in 1923.
C O Henrikson, professor of odontological radiodiagnostics at KI between 1974 and 1990, was long the curator of the collection. Apart from maintaining, sorting and cataloguing the items, he published many articles on John Wessler and his collection, and arranged exhibitions. One such exhibition was at the Nordic Medical History Congress in Stockholm in 1997, where selected items were put on display. He finally consigned the collection to the custody of the Hagströmer Library in 2011. The Wessler collection is unique, and its pictures and objects spanning over five centuries give us a fascinating look at the evolution of dentistry. How many people today, for example, know what a dental pelican is? Or what links Tsar Peter the Great of Russia with dentistry?
Anna Lantz, 12 October 2016
The banner of the Munich Guild of Bath-Keepers, oil on canvas, ca 1750. Wessler collection.
Letter to Dr. John Wessler from Bremer Kunst-Antiquariat und Verlag Alfred Kock, 1921. Wessler collection.
Bohman, Nils (red.), ”Wessler, John Adrian”. Svenska män och kvinnor. Biografisk uppslagsbok 8. Stockholm, 1955.
Henriksson, Carl O, ”S:ta Apollonia, martyr och skyddshelgon”. Svensk medicinhistorisk tidskrift, vol. 1, suppl. I (1997), 143-151.
Henriksson, Carl O, ”John Adrian Wessler – hängiven odontolog och samlare”. Svensk medicinhistorisk tidskrift, vol. 7 (2003), 197-216.
Wessler, John, Beskrivande förteckning över Tandläkarinstitutets i Stockholm Apollonia-samling. Stockholm, 1923.
Translation: Neil Betteridge
Dr STAFFAN MÜLLER-WILLE, Ass. Professor, University of Exeter, Devon, U.K. är idag en av våra främsta experter på Linnaeus. Han talar svenska men håller sitt föredrag på engelska:
What today would be an obvious crime, was common practice in eighteenth-century natural history: books by Linnaeus and other authors where routinely annotated by their possessors in order to record new discoveries and observations, to catalogue one´s own collection, or for sheer entertainment. I will present three examples of this widespread practice: 1) Linnaeus's personal copy of Genera plantarum (Leiden: Wishoff, 1737), which he used to complete a manuscript of Species plantarum; 2) Michel Adanson's copy of the same publication, which he took with him on his trip to Senegal (1748–1754) but only used to record "errors"; and 3) Johann Reinhold Forster's Catalogue of British Insects (Warrington: William Eyres, 1770), which the author published to recruit collectors, and then annotated to keep track of his own collection. By these examples in detail, I will try to make two points: first, that the publications in question were designed to be annotated; and, second, that this design, and its use, shaped new ideas of the order of nature.
TORSDAGEN 20 OKTOBER 2016 KL. 18.00
HAGSTRÖMERBIBLIOTEKET HAGA TINGSHUS
Buss 57 (Sveavägen) Buss 515 (Odenplan)
Hållplats: Haga Södra
Anmälan före 14 oktober
Telefon: 08 5248 6548
Medlemmar inträde 100 kr
Icke medlemmar 150 kr
For most of us, summer holidays are over and autumn is approaching sooner than we’d like. The apple season is already on its way, led by the ephemeral White Transparent apple, with its delicate, greenish-white skin and tender juicy pulp. Let’s seize the opportunity to take a look at the Malus domestica, (Borkh., Rosaceae), or common apple.
The wild apple originated in Central Asia, and spread westward along the Silk Road. The number of apple varieties have since increased greatly, both spontaneously and due to intentional selection and inoculation. Pliny the Elder, back in Roman times, discussed the art of grafting and mentions some 20 different varieties of apples. Parkinson (1640) described 58. By the nineteenth century the number reached more than 600, and today we have about 7,500 cultivars worldwide.
Apples have long been associated with love and fertility, as well as with sovereignty, seen, for example, in the symbolic Imperial Apple, Globus cruciger. According to another common belief, the apple is valued for its health-bringing properties, a topic to which I will return below.
Myths and legends
The apple is one of the most legendary fruits, allegedly making its first appearance as the fruit of the Tree of Wisdom in the Garden of Eden. This interpretation was influenced by the Latin homonyms malus (evil) and malus (apple tree, a word borrowed from the Greek me:lon). Various commentators to the Torah, identified the fruit mentioned there as figs, grapes, nuts, citrons, or even wheat.
Greek mythographers spoke of the Golden Apple in the story of Paris and Helena. At the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, the Goddess of Discord, Eris, peeved at not having been invited, tossed in an apple with the inscription “to the most beautiful one.” Athena, Aphrodite, and Hera fought over the title, and the mortal prince Paris was asked to make the decision. Having been bribed, Paris chose Aphrodite, and this dispute eventually led to the Trojan War as depicted in Homer’s Iliad.
A Nordic legend describes how the Aesir gods received their perpetual youthfulness from the apples of Idun. Snorri Sturlasson tells us in the Prose Edda how Idun was abducted from Asgard, at which point the other gods started ageing and were compelled to bring her back again.
Lastly, we have an anecdote that is at least somewhat closer to the truth. Sir Isaac Newton supposedly had an apple fall on his head, and from this experience, derived the brilliant idea of how planets remain in orbit due to gravity. Although Newton never wrote about his brainstorm, a contemporary witness, William Stukeley, recounts it in his memoirs of Newton (The Royal Society, MS 142), but apparently omits the detail of the apple colliding with his head. That part of our anecdote seems to have been plucked out of thin air.
The curative properties of apples
If we turn to the field of medicine, apples have a long tradition here, as well, although many contentions have not been scientifically proven. Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179) was an abbess as well as a writer of theological, botanical, and medicinal texts. In her role as a medical practitioner, she drew on ancient Greco-Roman wisdom, dietetics, and herbal remedies. In addition to various therapies she presented, she included apples in her most important dish – a porridge based on spelt semolina, apples, and honey. From this multi-talented woman’s achievements, we now proceed to a source a bit closer to our time, but definitely less reliable.
Albertus Magnus (c. 1200–1280) – a saint, friar, and bishop – is a man about whom many tales have emerged, due to his fame as a natural scientist and commentator of the writings of Aristotle, and as reported later, his vaunted skills in alchemy and magic. A publication which definitely had nothing to do with him is the Albertus Magnus Redivivus or The Book of Secrets. The copy kept in the Hagströmer Library is from 1845, but the book was circulated in several versions and editions, and retained its popularity all the way into the early twentieth century. Here we find the apple presented as a means of alleviating many ailments, such as warts, icterus, constipation, a means of purging, and finally, as a love potion, and I quote (translation my own):
Cures for warts
Cut, at a waning moon, a cross in the calyx of a Borsdorfer apple, press it against the wart and then bury the apple in a cemetery. When the apple has decayed, the wart will be gone.
Cut, at a waning moon, a firm apple in four equal parts and rub the warts vigorously with these parts, until they bleed, if possible. Then tie the apple parts together, three times crosswise, with a woolen yarn secretly stolen. Bury them under a roof gutter, or, throw them into a stream. When the apple decomposes, the warts will disappear.
A peeled Borsdorfer apple grated upwards toward the flower will cause purging when you eat it; if you grate it downwards toward the shaft, it will relieve diarrhea.
A cure for icterus
Take an unripe apple, cut a slice and scoop out a pocket in the apple. Fill the hole with saffron and put the slice on as a lid. Tie a yellow silken thread around it, fry it over the flames, and give it to the ailing person to eat.
A cure for constipation
Fine sour milk, buttermilk, boiled apples, boiled plums, and boiled red or brown cabbage, taken one at a time, are useful remedies for constipation. Ripe Borsdorfer apples, plentifully eaten, will relieve the most persistent constipation.
A potion for obtaining a woman’s love
There are secret methods that the cabbalists call love apples. They are to be used as follows: At dawn on a Friday, go to an orchard and pick the most beautiful apple. Write your name in blood on a piece of white paper, and add the name of the person you wish to be loved by. Get three strands of her hair and tie them together with three strands of your own. These are to be used for securing this paper with another one, on which you should write only the word “Scheva,” also with your own blood. Split the apple in two, take out the seeds and put in the papers secured with the hair. Use pointed needles of myrtle to press the halves together, and dry the apple in the oven to make it hard and parched. Then, enfold it with leaves of bay and myrtle; put it surreptitiously under the woman’s pillow, and before long she will be declaring her love for you.
The last potion actually does seem to go back to ancient times and cabbalistic tradition, though not with apples in it: “To make yourself irresistible: take elecampane root, an orange and ambergris. While mixing these together add in a piece of paper with the word ‘Sheva’ on it” (in Swedish the ingredients are ålandsrot, apelsin, och valrav). The magic word Sheva might refer back to the wise Queen of Sheba. Strange how tales circulate!
A modern prescription
The most well-known apple-related prescription of today is the one that we have all heard, at least as children: “An apple a day keeps the doctor away.” In order to verify the accuracy of this prescription, a serious and well-justified study was carried out last year by scientists at The Dartmouth Institute in Massachusetts. Published in the highly regarded medical journal, JAMA Internal Medicine, it affirmed a correlation between American adults eating an apple a day and their use of fewer prescription medications. I cite the conclusion:
While the empirical evaluation of medical proverbs may allow us to profit from the wisdom of our predecessors, we were surprised to find a paucity of prior investigations of popular aphorisms. Our investigation has allowed us to update the well-known proverb to clarify that, if anything, apple eating may help keep the pharmacist away. Were this borne out, it certainly could have health policy implications.
The first appearance in print of the aphorism is found in the February 1866 edition of Notes and Queries Magazine: “A Pembrokeshire proverb: ait a happle avore gwain to bed, An’ you'll make the doctor beg his bread.” Now, in solidarity with all our colleagues at the Karolinska University Hospital, and elsewhere in the realm of healthcare, there is good reason not to spread this proverb further. We certainly wouldn’t want our physicians breadless, would we? On the other hand, there is another Swedish proverb with the wording “better breadless than clueless.” I certainly prefer my doctors to have a clue of what’s going on, ergo, perhaps we should yet again consider whether apple eating isn’t the better diet prescription, after all.
Eva Nyström, 21 September 2016
References and literature:
Albertus Magnus, Albertus Magnus redivivus, eller Hemligheternas Bok. En samling af mer än twåhundrade, till större delen bepröfwade, Sympathi- och Huskurer, till botande af en mängd sjukdomar … och Magiska Konster, till winnande af olika ändamål, såsom lycka i kärlek, fiske, jagt, o.s.w. 2nd ed. Göteborg, 1845.
Davis, M.A., Bynum, J. P., and Sirovich, B. E., “Association Between Apple Consumption and Physician Visits: Appealing the Conventional Wisdom that an Apple a Day Keeps the Doctor Away.” JAMA Intern Med. 175:5 (2015): 777–783. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.5466
Elzebroek, T. & Wind, K., Guide to Cultivated Plants. Wallingford, 2008.
Grillot de Givry, E. A., Witchcraft, Magic & Alchemy. New York, 1971.
Knoop, J. H., Pomologia, das ist Beschryvingen en Afbeeldingen van de beste zoorten van Appels en Peeren, welke in Neder- en Hoog-Diutschland, Frankryk, Engeland en elders geakt zyn, en tot dien einde gecultiveert worden. Leeuwarden, s.d. . [The plates above are selected from this work.]
Parkinson, J., Theatrum Botanicum: The Theater of Plants. Or, An Herball of a Large Extent: Containing therein a more ample and exact History and Declaration of the Physicall Herbs and Plants . . . with the chiefe notes of Dr. Lobel, Dr. Bonham, and others inserted therein. London 1640. [At the Hagströmer Library the volume is included in the collection obtained from the Swedish Pharmaceutical Society.]
Phillips, J. P. “A Pembrokeshire proverb.” Notes and Queries, 3rd series vol. 9 (February 1866) 153.
Pliny the Elder, Historia Naturalis XV: 15.
Eva Nyström is a Rare book librarian at the Hagströmer Medico-Historical Library. She has a background in Classics and holds a PhD in Classical Greek. She has devoted most of her research to Medieval and Early modern manuscripts, bookbindings, and Early printed books. Presently, she divides her time between librarianship and a research and digitization project, concerning Old Swedish manuscripts held at Uppsala University Library and the Royal Library in Stockholm.
The Nordic Encyklopedia (Nordisk familjebok) published in 1905 stated that for a long period of time Christofer Carlander was the centre around which medical science in Sweden moved. At the same time he was one of the most experienced physicians. For 20 years, 1793-1814, he practised medicine in Gothenburg, and kept records of his 6000 patients. In all they comprise 2200 pages in folio, giving details of the diseases, the treatment and the outcome for each case. Many patients were followed for over ten years with new complaints. The document is unique in Sweden, if not in the world.
The patients were of all social classes, from the bishop’s wife to prostitutes, but servants and craftsmen predominated. Many details give ethnological evidence of life in the city. Carlander could be summoned at any time and went to see the same person up to five times a day if he saw the need. Only in the summer could he be free and leave the city for about three weeks, visiting friends and relatives in western Sweden, but some years he could not find anyone to replace him and from the summer of 1807 he was in constant service for three years.
He was well aware of the limitations of medical science of his time. His correspondence with his collegue and friend in Stockholm, Jonas Gistrén, which has also been preserved, reveals his concern. Positioned in Gothenburg he had the opportunity to import modern medical literature from London, for his own education as well as that of Gistrén, professor Pehr Afzelius in Uppsala and a couple of other prominent physicians who shared his eagerness to learn. A list of orders from 1801 contains 21 items for himself, among them ”Bell’s Engravings”, ”Haggarth on Fever”, ”Whately on Strictures” and ”Willan’s Diseas of London”.
Carlander dealt with all kinds of morbidity, even contributions by surgeons were recorded, including two cases of breast cancer. Specific diagnoses unknown at the time can be identified through his careful descriptions, e.g. a case of lung embolism during pregnancy and a myocardial infarction.
He was a skillful obstetrician, in many instances delivering babies with thongs. The local midwives were independent and proud of their methods, some very competent and involved in the care of women and small children in general. They cooperated well with Carlander, while others were reluctant to call for him, and still others were clearly incompetent.
Sometimes he had to find solutions to specific problems, such as rings in various sizes made of cork covered by wax for women with prolapse of the womb. An instrument to ligate the stalk of a benign polyp of the womb was manufactured by a local silversmith according to a design Carlander found in a German book printed i Jena in 1787. With that he prevented bleedings from being lethal in several cases.
Many patients were children with infectious diseases, worst of all smallpox, for which Carlander introduced vaccination in 1802. Within a couple of years he and his collegues carried out a programme that covered the whole Gothenburg population.
Among children and adults tuberculosis was frequent, the various forms called scrofula, comsumption or hectic disease. Numerous patients suffered from involvement of the hips or vertebras with resulting collapse and deformation.
Syphilis was another threat, often treated by quacks with mercury compounds on the mere suspicion or fear, but Carlander’s use of this remedy was more restricted. The disease was shameful, and he could not be sure that his records were not read by others, so in some cases he used witty synonyms for their names.
The texts were his private records and contain notes such as ”stubborn as hell”, ”big cow” and ”sweet child”.
Although in general Carlander made efforts to help in any illness, problems with sight and hearing in elderly patients were exceptions: ”Cannot be made young again”.
Death was constantly present in this society and Carlander took a special interest in the death process, keen that it should be calm and smooth, the patient prepared to leave, to say good-bye. He came to see patients even when death was close, to comfort them, and to prescribe valeriana, opium, jelly, and drinks soothed by salep.
In 1814, he retired to Stockholm, inaccessible to the many patients who never let him rest. There, he was mainly involved with administration and served as a referee of medical literature for The Swedish Society of Medicine. His vast collection of medical science books, which includes many copies of valuable ancient works, is now kept in the Hagströmer Library.
Gudrun Nyberg, 14 September 2016
Carlander’s medical records, 2200 pages in folio, are kept at the National Archives in Stockholm.
One of Carlander’s books on scrofula (tb) was Edward Ford’s Observations on the Disease of the Hip Joint, London 1794.
Nyberg, Gudrun. Doktor Carlanders Göteborg – folkliv, sjukdom och död 1793-2014. Stockholm, 2007.
Nyberg, Gudrun. Doktor Carlander i praktiken – läkekonst 1793-1814. Stockholm, 2009.
In addition to skeletal samples gathered during archaeological excavations, various anatomical collections are housed in museums and institutions worldwide. In many cases, the acquirement of these samples may be questionable from an ethical point of view, and so the reason for upholding this practice has been questioned. Obviously, there is an ongoing important debate regarding ethics, reburials and the housing of human remains in different institutes, but that is a whole other story.
Osteologists (bone experts) and biological anthropologists (specializing in human skeletal remains) work with bones on a day-to-day basis. Unlike physicians, we examine the remains of people whose soft tissues decomposed a long time ago. We inspect the shape, appearance and size of the bones. We measure them: lengthwise, widthwise, girthwise. And from these observations, we assess age at death, sex and stature of people from long ago. In addition to this, chemical analyses of skeletal remains, such as DNA, isotopes and trace element analysis shed further light on past populations regarding genetic relationships, diet and much more.
Anthropologists spend hours on end starring into a pair of hollow eye sockets asking questions: Who are you? How can I get to know you, and the life you lived? What happened to you?
We then embark on the journey to find the answers to these, one might argue, impossible questions. In our efforts to do so, skeletal traits or anomalies caused by severe living conditions, disease or trauma are examined, recorded and scrutinized in detail. The next step is to analyze and interpret the findings. How far you choose to go in your interpretations is entirely up to you and your scientific conscience.
My professional interests recently shifted from prehistoric life-ways to injuries inflicted through criminal actions. This transition started a few years back, just before I began my two-year training at the Police Academy in Stockholm, when a colleague at the Archaeology Department of Stockholm University introduced me to a unique “case”: A man who lived and died around 2500 years ago during the Swedish late Bronze Age. His remains were discovered and exhumed 130 years ago during peat digging in southern Sweden. His bones exhibited no less than 700 various injuries, including blunt and sharp force trauma. For me, this undertaking was to become a natural progression from archaeology into the world of forensics.
As a scientist, I established that his injuries were inflicted in a certain order of events, manner of execution and possible technique(s) used. On a more personal level, I might venture more spectacular conclusions. Yet, as this is not the forum for vivid descriptions of his wounds, it suffices to say: He died a gruesome and painful death.
He had received several blows to the head causing some very specific injuries: three nearly identical circular fractures. I and several experienced colleagues were puzzled by their appearance and regularity. Just prior to this, I had recorded and documented remains from an anatomical collection (now kept by the Medical History and Heritage Unit at Karolinska Institutet), that were stored at Stockholm University at the time. I remembered two skulls from the collection that both had very similar rounded injuries. Attached to those two skulls were two pieces of paper with writing in black marker and the same handwriting: “Murder” and “Blow with hammer” as well as the same case number.
The comparisons with the wounds found on the remains from the anatomical collection kept by the Medical History and Heritage Unit, thus provided a plausible interpretation of the shape of the implement used, and the manner of in which the circular fractures were inflicted to the Bronze Age man.
So, it is evident that the anatomical collection comprises a very valuable source of information, and a clearer image of what happened to that man many years ago emerges. Now new questions arise: What ultimately killed him? What implements were used? Who killed him? And why was he killed? I can’t shake the feeling that he himself might not have been completely innocent. The questions remain unanswered, but will always be open for exploration, discussion and interpretation.
And ultimately, there is a significant difference between archaeology and forensics: In archaeology, we don’t have to worry that our interpretations are responsible for condemning an innocent for a crime (?) committed more than 2000 years ago.
Petra Molnar, 6 September 2016
Still-life with a skull, oilpainting, Philippe de Champaigne 1644. Tessé Museum. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Philippe_de_Champaigne_Still-Life_with_a_Skull.JPG?uselang=s... (accessed 2016-09-06).
Petra Molnar earned her PhD in Osteoarchaeology from Stockholm University in 2008 and graduated from the Swedish Police Academy in 2014. She recently participated in the Visiting Scientist Program offered by the Forensic Anthropology Unit at the Office of the Chief Medical Examiner’s Office in New York City. She is currently working as a Crime Scene Investigator and Forensic Anthropologist at the Swedish Police Authority in Stockholm, Sweden.
In 2007 the Hagströmer Library started a series of publications, now numbering 21. However, ten years before the library was officially established in 1997, five richly illustrated and annotated catalogues had already been published. These catalogues had paved the way for the establishment of the special medico-historical library that was named after Anders Johan Hagströmer (1753–1830). Hagströmer was the first Inspector of Karolinska Institutet, and the one who can be said to have founded its library by taking over the entire book collection of the old medical society, Collegium Medicum (1663–1812). The first catalogue, Rare and Important Medical Books in the Library of the Swedish Society of Medicine, was published in 1989 and was followed by The Womans Booke in 1990. Soon after I was commissioned by Karolinska Institutet to produce a similar catalogue, Rare and Important Medical Books in the Library of the Karolinska Institute (1992). The books were also exhibited at the Royal Library in Stockholm with an accompanying illustrated catalogue in Swedish, Iconographica anatomica (1991).
Four more catalogues were published: Kinetic Jottings. Rare and Curious Books in the Library of the Old Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics (1995); Old and Rare Books on Materia Medica in the Library of the Swedish Pharmaceutical Society (1997); and finally Ars medica Svecana 1571–1921 (2008), presenting rare and famous Swedish medical books in the Hagströmer Library. The second most recent catalogue is Odontologia (2015) with important and early printed books on dentistry in the library of the Swedish Dental Society. All books described in the above catalogues, with the exception of the ones described in Kinetic Jottings, are now assembled under one roof in the Hagströmer Library.
The Hagströmer Library has an outstanding collection of some 500 books written by or about Carl von Linné (Linnaeus, 1707-1778) and his pupils. Among them is a Swedish national treasure – Linnaeus’ own annotated copy of the first edition of his Systema Naturae (Leiden, 1735), maybe the most celebrated and most important book ever published by a Swede. The first edition is by itself a legendary rarity, but this copy is even rarer than usual. A very scarce plate is inserted illustrating Linnaeus’ taxonomy and description of plant reproductive systems depicting stamens and pistils of the 24 classes, drawn, engraved and hand-coloured by Georg Dionysius Ehret (1708–1770), a great flower-painter of the eighteenth century. This plate, famous in the history of botany, has been plagiarized in various publications and is often reproduced, however, the original is hitherto known in five copies only including the one in Linnaeus’ own copy of Systema Naturae.
The most successful of the Hagströmer Library publications was a new edition of Ehret’s plate. The task of engraving and printing a new plate exactly duplicating Ehret’s original was undertaken by Ateljé Larsen in Helsingborg, who had a copper plate printing press. The reproduction was printed on fine handmade paper (Hahnemühle 350 gr), the 24 figures were coloured by hand by Per Wendel and Björn Dal, and mounted with tissue guard in cream-coloured cardboard (1200 g from the Urshult paper-mill). The edition was strictly limited to 100 numbered copies. The last copy, number 100, was presented to Akihito, Emperor of Japan, during the Linnaeus Tercentenary in 2007 at the National Museum in Tokyo, when I had the honour of showing Linnaeus’ copy of his Systema Naturae for the Japanese Emperor and the King of Sweden. The reproduced plate was accompanied by a 32-page pamphlet about Ehret and his plate, for which our graphic designer, Lars Paulsrud, was awarded a diploma for one of the most beautiful prints in the year 2000.
For one week the Systema Naturae was on display at the National Museum in Tokyo. As a pendant a modern version, inspired by Ehret’s plate, of the 24 classes of Linnaeus’ sexual system was exhibited. It consisted of extremely detailed macro-photographs by Helene Schmitz. Her beautiful photographs were also reproduced in the book which became the official Linnaeus Jubilee book System och passion. Nils Uddenberg, who recently had published his work on the history of biology, Idéer om livet, wrote the text and the descriptions of the 24 classes in the Linnaeus system.
Sponsored by Sven Hagströmer, Chairman of the Friends of the Hagströmer Library, the unique copy of the Systema Naturae went on a worldwide tour during the jubilee year starting at the National Museum in Stockholm, with the book as the centerpiece in a wonderful exhibition of flower paintings and colour plate books, some from the Hagströmer Library, to celebrate the so called King of Flowers. This also resulted in an illustrated catalogue, Blomsterspråk (2007). After the exhibition in Tokyo, the work went on to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Amsterdam, and thereafter to four famous libraries and museums in USA. The tour ended in the safe Treasury normally holding the so called Devil’s Bible (Codex Gigas), another unique book, in the Royal Library in Stockholm. A special exhibition of interesting provenances in books by Linnaeus was also shown and is described by Olof Kåhrström in Linnaeus’ Network, a catalogue with both an English and a Swedish version, numbers 3 and 4 in the Hagströmer Library series of publications.
Some of the most important contributions published during the Linnaeus Tercentenary in 2007 appeared in the Hagströmer Library series as follows:
The first ever publication in the Hagströmer Library Series was, however indirectly, a work by Linneaus himself. In the 1740s Linnaeus held a series of lectures based on his rather short work Fundamenta botanica (Amsterdam, 1736). Here he goes into deeper detail to explain the contents of the 36 pages and in 1748 a diligent student, probably Pehr Osbeck, made careful notes of what was being said. This is the basis for Om botanikens grunder (2007), edited by Lars Bergquist and Carin Nynäs. Including comments and notes the work now consists of 502 pages.
Number three in the series is another heavy volume, edited by me, collecting all the material concerning and by Linnaeus published in the periodical Lärda Tidningar (2007). It contains, among other things, a number of reviews of books by Linnaeus – in all probability written by Linnaeus himself! Many rare texts are made available here and the book, whose full title is Herr archiatern och riddaren Linnaeus i Lärda Tidningar 1745-1780, met with critical acclaim and Professor Gunnar Eriksson of Uppsala University called it a “gold mine”.
A very handsome volume in the series is number 11, Ur regnskogens skugga. Daniel Rolander och resan till Surinam (2010). This is a translation of a large part of Daniel Rolander’s report from his journey to Surinam in 1755-1756. Besides Arne Jönsson’s translation from the Latin of the original manuscript, it has an essential essay by James Dobreff and photographs by Helene Schmitz.
Issued as number 12 was a biography of the prominent physician Abraham Bäck (1713-1795) who was a close friend of Linnaeus. The book is titled Abraham Bäck (2010) and the author, Thomas Ihre, is a direct descendant of Bäck. Much of the unique source material he used in writing about his ancestor is in the holdings of the Hagströmer Library.
Linnaeus is best remembered for his ordering of the species of plants and animals into a coherent system. But since he was a trained physician he also tried to apply similar systems of ordering to diseases. The abovementioned student Pehr Osbeck took notes at Linnaeus series of lectures 1746-1747 on the subject, Systema morborum, and these are preserved in the manuscript collection of the Hagströmer Library. There is a longer section that concerns mental illnesses, Morbi mentales, and this part has been edited (with notes and an extensive commentary) by Nils Uddenberg in Linné och mentalsjukdomarna (2012) as number 13 in the series.
I am pleased to have been acquainted with Birger Strandell (1901–1993), whose collection of Linnaeana was the largest outside of Uppsala and which was acquired by the Hunt Botanical Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, in 1968. The Strandell Collection contains a complete set of Linnaeus’ 186 dissertations, all accessible online today. I was also instrumental when two other great Linnaean collectors started to build their collections: Sven-Erik Sandermann Olsen in Copenhagen, whose collection (Bibliotheca Linnaeana Danica, ca 5000 items) is housed in The Danish National Library of Science and Medicine since 1989. The other collector was Torbjörn Lenskog whose Linnaean Collection now is one of the treasures in the Chiba Natural History Museum in Japan.
In more recent times Lars Bergquist, former Swedish ambassador in Peking and the Vatican and known for his studies of the mystic Emanuel Swedenborg, has turned his interest to Linnaeus and built a fine collection. Lars and I often discussed the possibilities to fill the gaps in his collection of Linnaeus’ dissertations. I told him of the plan I once hatched with Lenskog to compile an illustrated and annotated catalogue of all the 186 Latin dissertations, with bibliographical descriptions and comments in English, a project, however, which at the time came to nothing. We agreed that a contemporary edition presenting all the dissertations was necessary. After almost six years of work Lars Bergquist and Carina Nynäs now have provided a portrait of Linnaeus as viewed through his scientific works together with that of his students. In the form of short essays they have opened the doors to the diverse and thrilling scientific world of the eighteenth century. These kaleidoscopic glimpses might bring Linnaeus closer to contemporary readers. I have encouraged them from the very beginning of the project and up to the pending publication of A Linnaean Kaleidoscope. Linnaeus and his 186 Dissertations (2016). The two volumes, with altogether 890 pages, illustrated with all the engravings and all the title-pages to the original dissertations, are beautifully designed by Lars Paulsrud and the great work is published by Fri Tanke as the Hagströmer Library series of publications No. 21.
This work is a treasure trove for everyone interested in natural history and the history of medicine, botany, zoology, geology, mineralogy, ornithology, entomology, herpetology, food and drink, and so on. It may well become a standard work.
Ove Hagelin, 31 August 2016
The Swedish 18th century scientist Carl von Linné (sometimes Carolus or Carl Linnaeus) has had an immense influence on the way we understand the natural world we live in. In two installments of the Hagströmer Library blog Linné will be treated starting today. A Linnaean Kaleidoscope I-II, now published as number 21 in the Hagströmerbibliotekets skriftserie, is introduced by its two authors Carina Nynäs and Lars Bergquist. Next week Ove Hagelin, who also has been instrumental in the creation of this work, will present an essay called The Hagströmer Library Series of Publications and Important Linnaeana, which details earlier publications in the series concerned with Linné. (Dan Jibréus).
Linnaeus mirrored through his 186 dissertations
The Swedish botanist, zoologist and physician Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) profoundly and forever changed the way we think of nature and science.
Carl Linnaeus was captivated by the creed of life in God’s creation, where he himself, Linnaeus, persistently unearthed and arranged the divine order, putting the hidden system, previously wrapped up in inscrutable mystery, in a completely new context. He was able to see an eternity in each plant and to search for the significance of small shivering, shimmering insects and humble, living beings.
A Linnaean Kaleidoscope I-II, the first expanded introduction in English of all the 186 Linnaean dissertations, is not written only to bring forth the botanical, medical, zoological, geological, mineralogical and other contents important to him. As historians and biographers, theologians and philosophers of religion, we have also intended to reflect both Linnaeus and his theses in their cultural context, as well as the history of ideas and natural sciences, highlighting also the reverberations emanating from the Linnaean scientific workshop.
In theory, dissertations should be written by the students. Some did write their texts, but content and language had, as professor Bo Lindberg states, to be controlled by their professors, and in the 18th century that control was rationalized to the extent that the professors more or less wrote the dissertations themselves, for some remuneration.
The 186 dissertations, practically formulated by Linnaeus and defended under his presidency, usually present new knowledge, claiming to contribute to the advancement of natural history and medicine. Furthermore they have an international touch, reporting findings from exotic parts of the world, and sometimes being defended by disciples from other European countries.
A Linnaean Kaleidoscope, includes all 186 dissertations, reflecting imported theses as well as Linnaeus’ own domain of interest. The dissertations, written in Latin, have been available since the end of the 18th century in brief English summaries, translated by Richard Pulteney in A General View of Linnaeus’ Writings (1789, 1805).
In 1939, Gustaf Drake af Hagelsrum published a brief Swedish survey of the Linnaean theses: Linnés disputationer. Approximately half of the dissertations have been translated into Swedish as part of an ongoing project, initiated about one hundred years ago and edited by Svenska Linnésällskapet. From 1921 up to the present, 84 dissertations have been translated into Swedish in the Svenska Linnésällskapets Årsskrift.
Thus, for over two hundred years the necessity of an updated and enlarged volume in English has become increasingly obvious. We have for almost ten years been working with A Linnaean Kaleidoscope to fill that gap.
Our work is intended for readers interested in the history of science, popular history, the world of ideas of the 18th century, and, of course, Carl Linnaeus’ personality, his way of thinking and intellectual development. As both of us have formerly been engaged in biographical studies, we regard our finished work also partly as a kind of scientific biography.
In the form of short essays we have wanted to open doors to the diverse and thrilling scientific world of the 18th century. Bones of contention in the world of the learned have therefore particularly captured our interest – as well as today less discussed Linnaean themes, such as his focus on dietetics, women’s and children’s health and pharmaceutical issues. The form we have chosen, the essay, generously allows space for the immense indigenous literature concerning Linnaeus and his scientific themes.
We have focused on the incredibly rich literature regarding Linnaeus’ world of ideas, as well as interpretations and comments on the different dissertations, instead of translating the Linnaean dissertations verbatim. Thanks to the Swedish researchers and their meticulous efforts we have obtained an immense source material, enabling us to approach Linnaeus and his dissertations from important angles.
Our ambition has also been to enlighten general questions, connections and contexts, typical of the period, and to understand Linnaeus’ dissertations in relation to both previous scientific results and sometimes even later development.
With our book we have strived to find our place between Richard Pulteney’s brief overviews and a hopefully forthcoming modern complete translation with scientific comments, made by experts from the different scientific fields.
Also Linnaeus’ relation to God and the relation between modern science and the belief in God as Creator are treated in A Linnaean Kaleidoscope. Within the frames of modern and postmodern theology Linnaeus’ physico-theological approach seems to have become extinct. The images of God and nature are also more elusive and complex than the adherents of Enlightenment believed. But the rapturous wonder Linnaeus brought about in his botanical and zoological perspectives, his impetus and zeal, his unconditional admiration and love for nature are not yet outdated.
The Linnaean Kaleidoscope I-II is beautifully illustrated with original plates and frontispieces.
Carina Nynäs & Lars Bergquist, 24 August 2016
The Irish Giant.
The Tall Lapp Girl Kristina Katarina Larsdotter, who featured in an earlier blog, is not the only known case of gigantism. Charles Byrne was born in 1761 in the Irish village of Littlebridge, Co. Derry. He was of normal size at birth, but soon began to grow at an astonishing rate and to an astonishing size. As was the case with the Tall Lapp Girl, an explanation was sought. It was said that he had been conceived in a hayloft – hence his height. As a child he would dribble and spit copiously, which made his friends keep their distance. It has been suggested that he might have had a slight mental retardation. He suffered serious growing pains. Byrne was discovered, just like Stor-Stina, by a manager, Joe Vance, who saw in him a lucrative source of income. At first, public interest exceeded expectations, and they travelled through Scotland and Northern England on their way to London. By the time they arrived in the capital in 1782, Byrne was a celebrity and posters advertising his exhibition were everywhere. He was also the subject of much gossip and was introduced to the royal family and other aristocratic personages. It was said that he was so tall that he could light his pipe straight from the street lanterns. His income was such that he was able to buy a fine apartment, where he would receive visitors.
Gradually, however, the market for this type of spectacle became saturated, as more “giants”, we well as dwarves, were exhibited at other places, forcing Byrne to drop his price. He developed serious drink problems and was robbed of a banker’s draft that he had bought with all his savings. He also probably suffered from tuberculosis, which exacerbated his failing health.
Doctor and surgeon John Hunter was working in London at this time. He operated on patients and collected different anatomical samples and bodies both human and non-human. He was feared, since people knew that if his operations failed and the patients died, they could end up in one of his cabinets. He was particularly interested in animals and humans with morbid lesions and distinctive features, so he was naturally drawn to Byrne, especially when it turned out he was dying.
Byrne had other ideas than the Tall Lapp Girl concerning his body after death, and under no circumstances wished to end up as part of Hunter’s collection. So he paid one of his friends to make sure he was buried in a lead coffin and dumped in the sea. But this was not to be. Byrne passed away in 1783, a year after his arrival in England, at the age of only 22 and a height of 2.31 m (7 feet 7 inches). However, there was a great deal speculation about what had become of the body, as few people believed that it had been in the coffin. Either it had been removed by caretakers bribed by Hunter, who had had an accomplice stationed on the same street as Byrne’s apartment to inform him as soon as Byrne died, or simply stolen and the coffin filled with rocks before being lowered beneath the waves. Hunter then cleaned the skeleton, adding it to his collection four years later when interest in the circumstances surrounding the Irish Giant’s death had waned. Byrne’s skeleton can still be seen in the Hunterian Museum (founded in 1813), where it is one of the main attractions, despite the debate over whether it ought to be buried in accordance with his final wishes. The directors of the museum and others believe that is should be preserved for science. Already in 1909, US surgeon Harvey Cushing was able to announce by cutting open the cranium that Byrne had had a pituitary adenoma. In 2006, tissue was extracted for a DNA test from Byrne’s molars, from which scientists discovered the rare AIP mutation, leading them to draw conclusions about its heredity. Apart from the successful research that has already been done and that can help contemporary relatives and coming generations, scientists want to be able to continue using his remains for research. Another suggestion is for a replica to be made of his skeleton for exhibiting in the museum. This illustrates the predicament in which many museums now find themselves: should they preserve the remains that are possibly their greatest public attractions or return them for burial? There are countless mummies and other kinds of human remains at different museums and institutions, and such ethical issues ought to be balanced against the knowledge that can be gleaned from the research conducted on them. DNA techniques are becoming more and more refined, and it has become easier to examine trace elements, isotopes etc. in the laboratory. Nowadays, such analyses of bone samples can radically change current ideas of kinship, disease, diet, habitat and so on. The remains of indigenous peoples are often removed from institutions to be repatriated, and this applies as much to Karolinska Institutet as anywhere else; in the case of Charles Byrne, however, there is a medical aspect to take into consideration that is of much value for people living with gigantism today.
What causes such growth?
The pituitary gland, or hypophysis, secretes a number of different hormones. While it was discovered in antiquity, its function was long a mystery. Greek physician Galen (c. 129-199 A.D.) thought its purpose was to supply the nose with mucous (!). A pituitary tumour is the most common cause of gigantism/acromegaly. Descriptions of exceptionally tall people can be found far back in human history, but it was not until the second half of the 19th century that the disease was linked to pituitary tumours. In 1886, French neurologist Pierre Marie (1853-1940) described a disease involving the abnormal growth of the bones of the face, hands and feet. Acromegaly, as it is called, derives from the Greek akros (extremity) and megalos (large), and unlike gigantism only affects adults between the ages of 30 and 50, who, since already fully grown, are generally only affected in the extremities and the face. Nowadays, a combination of drugs, surgery and radiotherapy is available for patients with such tumours, and there are ways to contain the size of the tumours along with the hormone secretion that causes the abnormal growth, making it possible to slightly reduce the size of the extremities. There are also cases in which one or more of a patient’s ancestors had the same condition.
As puberty is also delayed by several years for people with gigantism, they have time to grow even more than normally growing individuals. When scientists examined Byrne’s skeleton they found that the epiphyses had not yet fused, which means that he was still not fully grown at the time of his death at 22 years old. Only about 30% of people with the AIP mutation develop a tumour, and only about 5% have a tumour that produces symptoms. The tumour, which is benign, grows very slowly and almost never spreads to other parts of the body. The symptoms can be very distressing, and include a bulging forehead, abnormally large jaw, hand and feet, and chronic headaches and perspiration. They can also suffer from disorders of the menstrual cycle and libido, while the pressure exerted by the tumour against the optic nerve can also cause visual disorders. The strangest symptom is that some men can start to produce breast milk, since the tumour secretes an activating hormone: prolactin. The disease is especially common amongst several families living in Northern Ireland. Scientists have discovered that the gene mutation sits on the 11th chromosome and traced it back to a common ancestor some 1,500 years, or approximately 66 generations, ago. If left untreated, gigantism or acromegaly can lead to an increase in mortality of 30% or so owing to problems that arise with the circulatory system and heart, and most of those who do not receive treatment die at a very young age. Scientists are still probing the diseases, researching, for instance, different functions between cells and proteins in order to learn how this mutation arises. If doctors know in advance who has this mutation, they will be able to X-ray their patients and operate before the tumour grows too large. This would not only avoid much unnecessary physical and mental pain but also make treatment much easier.
Ann Gustavsson, 17 August 2016
Watch BBC Documentary about Charles Byrne
Read about the Hunterian Museum
Hunterian museum, Woodcut engraving, Sheperd and Radclyffe 1853. From Dr. Nuno Carvalho de Sousa Private Collections – Lisbon. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1853_-_Hunterian_Museum.jpg?uselang=sv (accessed 2016-08-15).
Harvinder, S et al. "AIP mutation in pituitary adenomas in the 18th century and today". The New England Journal of Medicine, 2011, Vol. 364 (1):43-50.
Alberti, S. "The organic museum. The Hunterian and other collections at the Royal College of Surgeons of England". Medical museums – past, present, future. London, 2013, 19.
Collata, G. "In a giants´s story, a new chapter writ by His DNA". The New York Times, January 5, 2011.
Dalrymple, T. "Why the Irish giant´s skeleton remains a bone of contention". The Telepraph, December 22, 2011.
Mantel, H. The giant O´Brien. New York, 1998.
Moore, W. The knife man. London, 2006, 397ff.
"Royal College of Surgeons rejects call to bury skeleton of” Irish giant”. The Guardian, December 22, 2011.
Uddenberg, N. Lidande & läkedom II. Medicinens historia från 1800 till 1950. Stockholm, 2015, 109.
Åberg, H. m.fl. Bonniers Läkarbok; hormonsjukdomar. Stockholm, 2000, 151f.
Transcription of the lecture “A tall story: unravelling the genetics behind Charles Byrne – ‘the Irish giant’” by Professor Márta Korbonits and Brendan Holland at the Hunterian Museum November 23, 2011.
The year of 1793: Napoleon is doing well, sending his troops far and wide in Europe and beyond. Still, enormous numbers of casualties, of wounded soldiers. What to do? How to help them? One solution was to develop better means of transport, to try and get them medical care as soon as the battle ended. Stretchers, litters, and horse-driven carts and wagons (ambulances volantes) came in handy. In Egypt, Napoleon’s chief army surgeon, Baron Dominique Larrey, even included camel litters in the truss.
Warfare has, sadly enough one might say, been a promoter of technical and scientific innovations. This counts for many areas in medicine, and very much so in the case of ambulance care. The term ‘ambulance’ can be traced back to the fifteenth century, when Queen Isabel of Spain introduced a form of field hospitals. These ambulantias were not really vehicles, more like movable tents with surgical and medical supplies that could serve the army during her campaigns. Even so, however soon the soldiers got under care, much grace from God was needed for anyone badly wounded to survive.
Fortunately, this is no longer the case, at least in times of peace. The ambulances of today are well-equipped, nurses and other professionals are expertly trained, and hospitals are usually close by. Speedy assistance is nevertheless crucial. If a cardiac arrest occurs, an early 112 emergency call, chest compressions, and preferably also defibrillation, increase the chances of survival significantly. The first ten minutes from cardiac arrest to initiating CPR are absolutely vital; with each minute the survival prospects diminish with ten percent. Now, this is something we all can assist in whether we are medical pros or not. Take a CPR course – if you already did that but feel a bit rusty, take another. Find out where there are defibrillators in the vicinity. Who knows, maybe you will be the one who can save somebody’s life.
A factor that we, as individuals, have less influence over is the emergency transport. We can make that emergency call straight away, but apart from that it is more up to the healthcare system and community service to ensure that competence and resources are at hand and efficiently used. How to shorten the response time is one of many factors that researchers at the Centre for Resuscitation Science are exploring right now.
If, in the above scenario, we count the minutes, then obviously it is quite another reality than the one where “ambulance care” was first invented. The need for transport of patients is old and worldwide. Already in Antiquity, there were regulations to move the leprosy patients and other terminally ill to places more remote. A couple of thousand years later, when civilian ambulances were introduced, the situation was not very different: in London in the 1830s they were used to swiftly carry cholera patients to hospitals, in order to reduce spread of the disease.
The next stage of development, after horse carriages, was the introduction of railroad and steamboat ambulances. Not least did the founder of the American Red Cross, Clara Barton, advocate that treatment of the wounded during the Civil War begin already in the battlefield. And so we finally end up with the twentieth century airborne transport of today. We should be grateful that most of us won’t need to recourse to camel-dhoolies, such as the ones Thomas Longmore described in 1869. But should you find yourself in crisis without a camel, it is good to know that the technique works equally well with an elephant.
Eva Nyström, 10 August 2016
Wittelhöfer, L., Die freiwillige Hilfe im Kriege und das Militär-Sanitäts-Wesen auf der Wiener-Weltausstellung 1873. Wien, 1873. / This photography portfolio in large format is a rare documentation of ambulances as they were constructed and used in the latter half of the 19th century. It was composed for the 1873 World Exhibition in Vienna. The copy owned by the Hagströmer Medico-Historical Library has an inscription to King Oscar II of Sweden.
Longmore, Thomas, A Treatise on the Transport of Sick and Wounded Troops. London, . / The Hagströmer copy of this book was previously owned by Dr. Vincent Lundberg (1816–1891). He became a student of Anders Retzius at the Karolinska Medico-Surgical Institute, and was later engaged in improving the healthcare of the Swedish Army. As Royal Physician to King Charles XV, he accompanied the king on his travels.
Barkley, Katherine Traver, The Ambulance. The Story of Emergency Transportation of Sick and Wounded Through the Centuries. Hicksville, N.Y., 1978.
Hedlund, Fredrik, ”Hjärtstopp – en kamp mot tiden” (first published in Medicinsk Vetenskap nr 1, 2016).
Larrey, D. J., Mémoires de chirurgie militaire, et campagnes. Tome I –IV. Paris, 1812–1817.
Longmore, Thomas, A Treatise on the Transport of Sick and Wounded Troops. London, .
Read more about cardiac arrest here!
We are back!
Look out for the coming announcement of exciting activities at the Hagströmer Library this fall!
(Hieronymus Bock, Kreutterbuch, Strassburg, 1580)
Have a nice summer vacation!
The Hagströmer Library will be closed during the month of July.
(August Johann Rösel von Rosenhof, Historia Naturalis Ranarum, Nürnberg, 1758) | <urn:uuid:91cd29a7-8676-47af-ad44-59bfc13cb757> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2017-09",
"url": "https://hagstromerlibrary.ki.se/news",
"date": "2017-02-25T20:46:06",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-09/segments/1487501171834.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20170219104611-00165-ip-10-171-10-108.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.940518856048584,
"token_count": 21297,
"score": 4.28125,
"int_score": 4
} | 21,297 |
Presentation on theme: "Chapter 12 Gaseous Chemical Equilibrium. The Concept of Equilibrium Chemical equilibrium occurs when a reaction and its reverse reaction proceed at the."— Presentation transcript:
Chapter 12 Gaseous Chemical Equilibrium
The Concept of Equilibrium Chemical equilibrium occurs when a reaction and its reverse reaction proceed at the same rate.
The Concept of Equilibrium As a system approaches equilibrium, both the forward and reverse reactions are occurring. At equilibrium, the forward and reverse reactions are proceeding at the same rate.
A System at Equilibrium Once equilibrium is achieved, the amount of each reactant and product remains constant.
Depicting Equilibrium In a system at equilibrium, both the forward and reverse reactions are being carried out; as a result, we write its equation with a double arrow N 2 O 4 (g) 2 NO 2 (g)
The Equilibrium Constant Consider the reaction The equilibrium expression for this reaction would be K c = [C] c [D] d [A] a [B] b aA + bBcC + dD
What Are the Equilibrium Expressions for These Equilibria?
The Equilibrium Constant Because pressure is proportional to concentration for gases in a closed system, the equilibrium expression can also be written K p = (P C ) c (P D ) d (P A ) a (P B ) b
Relationship between K c and K p From the ideal gas law we know that Rearranging it, we get PV = nRT P = RT nVnV
Relationship between K c and K p Plugging this into the expression for K p for each substance, the relationship between K c and K p becomes Where K p = K c (RT) n n = (moles of gaseous product) − (moles of gaseous reactant)
Equilibrium Can Be Reached from Either Direction As you can see, the ratio of [NO 2 ] 2 to [N 2 O 4 ] remains constant at this temperature no matter what the initial concentrations of NO 2 and N 2 O 4 are.
Equilibrium Can Be Reached from Either Direction This is the data from the last two trials from the table on the previous slide.
Equilibrium Can Be Reached from Either Direction It does not matter whether we start with N 2 and H 2 or whether we start with NH 3. We will have the same proportions of all three substances at equilibrium.
What Does the Value of K Mean? If K >> 1, the reaction is product-favored; product predominates at equilibrium.
What Does the Value of K Mean? If K >> 1, the reaction is product-favored; product predominates at equilibrium. If K << 1, the reaction is reactant-favored; reactant predominates at equilibrium.
Manipulating Equilibrium Constants The equilibrium constant of a reaction in the reverse reaction is the reciprocal of the equilibrium constant of the forward reaction = K c = = at 100 C [NO 2 ] 2 [N 2 O 4 ] N2O4 (g)N2O4 (g) 2 NO 2 (g) K c = = 4.72 at 100 C [N 2 O 4 ] [NO 2 ] 2 N2O4 (g)N2O4 (g) 2 NO 2 (g)
Manipulating Equilibrium Constants The equilibrium constant of a reaction that has been multiplied by a number is the equilibrium constant raised to a power that is equal to that number. K c = = at 100 C [NO 2 ] 2 [N 2 O 4 ] N2O4 (g)N2O4 (g) 2 NO 2 (g) K c = = (0.212) 2 at 100 C [NO 2 ] 4 [N 2 O 4 ] 2 2 N 2 O 4 (g) 4 NO 2 (g)
Manipulating Equilibrium Constants The equilibrium constant for a net reaction made up of two or more steps is the product of the equilibrium constants for the individual steps. See EC15.23, page 662 A + B CK = 1.9 x C + D E + AK = 8.5 x 10 5 B + D EK =
The Concentrations of Solids and Liquids Are Essentially Constant Both can be obtained by dividing the density of the substance by its molar mass—and both of these are constants at constant temperature.
The Concentrations of Solids and Liquids Are Essentially Constant Therefore, the concentrations of solids and liquids do not appear in the equilibrium expression K c = [Pb 2+ ] [Cl − ] 2 PbCl 2 (s) Pb 2+ (aq) + 2 Cl − (aq)
As long as some CaCO 3 or CaO remain in the system, the amount of CO 2 above the solid will remain the same. CaCO 3 (s) CO 2 (g) + CaO (s)
What Are the Equilibrium Expressions for These Equilibria?
A closed system initially containing x 10 −3 M H 2 and x 10 −3 M I 2 At 448 C is allowed to reach equilibrium. Analysis of the equilibrium mixture shows that the concentration of HI is 1.87 x 10 −3 M. Calculate K c at 448 C for the reaction taking place, which is H 2 (g) + I 2 (g) 2 HI (g)
What Do We Know? [H 2 ], M[I 2 ], M[HI], M Initially1.000 x x Change At equilibrium 1.87 x 10 -3
[HI] Increases by 1.87 x M [H 2 ], M[I 2 ], M[HI], M Initially1.000 x x Change+1.87 x At equilibrium 1.87 x 10 -3
Stoichiometry tells us [H 2 ] and [I 2 ] decrease by half as much [H 2 ], M[I 2 ], M[HI], M Initially1.000 x x Change-9.35 x x At equilibrium 1.87 x 10 -3
We can now calculate the equilibrium concentrations of all three compounds… [H 2 ], M[I 2 ], M[HI], M Initially1.000 x x Change-9.35 x x At equilibrium 6.5 x x x 10 -3
…and, therefore, the equilibrium constant Kc =Kc = [HI] 2 [H 2 ] [I 2 ] = 51 = (1.87 x ) 2 (6.5 x )(1.065 x )
The Reaction Quotient (Q) To calculate Q, one substitutes the initial concentrations on reactants and products into the equilibrium expression. Q gives the same ratio the equilibrium expression gives, but for a system that is not at equilibrium.
Only given Initial Concentrations and the value of K
If Q = K, the system is at equilibrium.
If Q > K, there is too much product and the equilibrium shifts to the left.
If Q < K, there is too much reactant, and the equilibrium shifts to the right.
Le Châtelier’s Principle
“If a system at equilibrium is disturbed by a change in temperature, pressure, or the concentration of one of the components, the system will shift its equilibrium position so as to counteract the effect of the disturbance.”
What Happens When More of a Reactant Is Added to a System?
The Haber Process The transformation of nitrogen and hydrogen into ammonia (NH 3 ) is of tremendous significance in agriculture, where ammonia-based fertilizers are of utmost importance.
The Haber Process If H 2 is added to the system, N 2 will be consumed and the two reagents will form more NH 3.
The Haber Process This apparatus helps push the equilibrium to the right by removing the ammonia (NH 3 ) from the system as a liquid.
The Effect of Changes in Pressure
The Effect of Changes in Temperature Co(H 2 O) 6 2+ (aq) + 4 Cl (aq) CoCl 4 (aq) + 6 H 2 O (l)
The Effect of Changes in Temperature
Catalysts increase the rate of both the forward and reverse reactions.
Equilibrium is achieved faster, but the equilibrium composition remains unaltered. | <urn:uuid:503dceef-a5a9-41c2-9c1c-e2a4f01a616d> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2016-50",
"url": "http://slideplayer.com/slide/4216633/",
"date": "2016-12-09T10:25:01",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-50/segments/1480698542693.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20161202170902-00309-ip-10-31-129-80.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8633185029029846,
"token_count": 1716,
"score": 4.28125,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,716 |
Statistics and probability
Explore what probability means and why it's useful.
Probability is simply how likely something is to happen.
Whenever we’re unsure about the outcome of an event, we can talk about the probabilities of certain outcomes—how likely they are. The analysis of events governed by probability is called statistics.
The best example for understanding probability is flipping a coin:
There are two possible outcomes—heads or tails.
What’s the probability of the coin landing on Heads? We can find out using the equation
.You might intuitively know that the likelihood is half/half, or 50%. But how do we work that out? Probability =
In this case:
Probability of an event = (# of ways it can happen) / (total number of outcomes)
P(A) = (# of ways A can happen) / (Total number of outcomes)
There are six different outcomes.
What’s the probability of rolling a one?
What’s the probability of rolling a one or a six?
Using the formula from above:
What’s the probability of rolling an even number (i.e., rolling a two, four or a six)?
- The probability of an event can only be between 0 and 1 and can also be written as a percentage.
- The probability of event
is often written as .
, then event has a higher chance of occurring than event .
, then events and are equally likely to occur.
Want to join the conversation?
- If two standard dice are rolled. What is the probability that the total of two dice is less than 6?(25 votes)
- less than 6 would not include 6 so
| 1-1 2-1 3-1 4-1 |
| 1-2 2-2 3-2 |
| 1-3 2-3 |
| 1-4 |
⁂ p()=10/36(10 votes)
- A card is drawn from a standard deck of 52 cards. Find the probability that is
a.) a heart or a face card.
b.) a jack or an ace card
c.) a 10 or a spade.(11 votes)
- I am just warning you, I don't know much about cards that much, so my numbers may be off.
a. there are 13 heart cards and 12 face cards (aces aren't faces, right?), of which 3 are repeated, so 13+12-3 = 22/52 = 11/26
b. there are 4 jacks and 4 aces, so 4+4 = 8/52 = 4/26 = 2/13
c. there are 4 tens and 13 spades, and one 10 is repeated, so 4+13-1 = 16/52 = 8/26 = 4/13
I hope that helps!(27 votes)
- im hungry 🍞(6 votes)
- Can't you multiply the possibility(fraction) with the the same numerator or denominator to get a different but equivalent answer?
Example: 3/4 chance times 3/3(numerator) equals 9/12. At my school, they say you can multiply fractions with the same numerator/denominator, but I haven't taken probability yet in my grade.(4 votes)
- Yes you can multiply probabilities with fractions that are equal to one. We usually want the fraction in the simpliest form though.(5 votes)
- does probability always have to be written like a fraction? How do you know when to write it as a percentage?(2 votes)
- Usually, the question concerning probability should specify if they want either fractions or percentages. Here on KA, you can tell if they're asking for a percentage if you see a % sign by the answer box, while for fractions / decimals a small dialogue box will pop up after you click on the answer box telling you which form to put it in. (I've also seen them state which form to use in italics right after the question.)
Hope this helps!😀(7 votes)
- If there were 3 black dogs,4 brown dogs,and 2 white dog what would happen if You took 2 brown dogs away.(2 votes)
- Um...there would be 7 dogs instead of 9. And there would only be 2 brown dogs now. Which is equal to the number of white dogs. Or is there a more complex reason to this? I don't know. Anyway I hope this helps.(4 votes)
- Ok, I think I get it. So, would the probability of picking a yellow marble be 37.5%? I got 37.5% by turning 3/8 into a percentage. If I'm correct, this is a lot easier than I thought.(2 votes)
- Heres is a question I am stuck on that's on my study guide:
If a balanced tetrahedron with faces 1,2,3,4 is rolled twice, find the probability that the Sum is prime.
It also asks to find the probability that a 3 is rolled on at least one of the rolls and I think I got the correct answer, but I'm not sure can you help me double-check?(2 votes)
- 3 red marbles and 3 blue marbles. do not replace first marble in bag before picking again. probability that both marbles are blue(1 vote)
- There are 6 marbles in total, and 3 of them are blue, so the probability that the first marble is blue is 3∕6 = 1∕2
Given that the first marble was blue, there are now 5 marbles left in the bag and 2 of them are blue, and the probability that the second marble is blue as well is 2∕5
So, the probability that both marbles are blue is 1∕2 ∙ 2∕5 = 1∕5(3 votes)
- The mall has a merry-go-round with 12 horses on the outside ring. If 12 people randomly choose those horses, what is the probability they are seated in alphabetical order? I've been stuck on this problem for so long and I have no clue to what is the right way to solve this problem?(2 votes) | <urn:uuid:2bed6af2-9500-49ee-b3b0-96c6731640da> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2023-50",
"url": "https://en.khanacademy.org/math/statistics-probability/probability-library/basic-theoretical-probability/a/probability-the-basics",
"date": "2023-12-06T17:46:50",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100602.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20231206162528-20231206192528-00538.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9509485960006714,
"token_count": 1314,
"score": 4.34375,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,314 |
Submitted by: Angela Watson
In this lesson plan, which is adaptable for grades 3-12, students use BrainPOP resources to identify parts of speech and how each contributes to clear communication. Students then create review activities to help other students understand and practice using various parts of speech.
Lesson Plan Common Core State Standards Alignments
Log in with your BrainPOP Educators account to view the Lesson.LOG IN | <urn:uuid:499cc43c-da91-4fe0-b8e8-ed1bd9c21549> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-48",
"url": "http://www.brainpop.com/educators/community/lesson-plan/parts-of-speech-lesson-plan-student-created-review-activities/?bp-topic=parts-of-speech",
"date": "2013-12-11T13:33:02",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-48/segments/1386164036943/warc/CC-MAIN-20131204133356-00005-ip-10-33-133-15.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8949230909347534,
"token_count": 89,
"score": 4.375,
"int_score": 4
} | 89 |
Reading has stiff competition, as books continually lose out to computers, TVs, video games, even texting.
Indeed, the National Endowment for the Arts found that the percentage of 13- to 17-year-olds reading for pleasure stood at 31% in 1984, 22% in 2004, and is in free-fall today. Your schools are working hard, though, to buck that trend. You should, too.
On the home front, reading should take center stage. With Reading at Risk finding that less than 50% of adults consider themselves readers, first and foremost, be a book-loving role model.
Then put these reading tips to work for you:
- Create a cozy reading corner in your home, making it well-lit, quiet, comfortable, and inviting. That and a good book make an unbeatable combination.
- Get your child a library card and be frequent library visitors. You help instill a life-long love of reading by signing out books together.
- Ask teachers and librarians for book suggestions. They’ll share with you the best old and new offerings, matched to your child’s interests.
- Talk, talk, and then talk some more with your child. Conversation bolsters vocabulary, which is one of the best predictors of reading ability.
- Allow your child to swap one book for another if, after 20 pages or so, there’s still no liking it. Leisure reading should be a pleasure, not a chore.
- Make newspapers, magazines, and news magazines available in your home. Load shelves with good fiction and other genre, such as biography. Wide reading enlarges a child’s world and builds background knowledge.
- Check the back cover or copyright page for a book’s reading level (R.L.). Leisure reading should be written below a child’s actual grade level to avoid confusion and frustration.
- Give your child the five-finger test when in doubt about a book’s reading level. As a randomly chosen page is read silently, one finger is raised whenever an unfamiliar word is encountered. Five unknowns suggest that particular book might be too difficult for the time being.
- Persuade your child to always carry a book, thus having it available when waiting in such places as doctors’ offices. Otherwise, promote reading by poring over magazines together, looking out for interesting articles and recipes.
- Track the amount of time your child spends reading, watching TV, computing, instant messages, texting, talking on the phone, and playing video games. Keep reading as the start attraction.
Carol Josel is a learning specialist who worked with middle school children and their parents at the Methacton School District in Pennsylvania for more than 25 years and now supervises student teachers at Gwynedd-Mercy College. Along with the booklet, 149 Parenting School-Wise Tips: Intermediate Grades & Up, and numerous articles in such publications as Teaching Pre-K-8 and Curious Parents, she has authored three successful learning guidebooks: Getting School-Wise: A Student Guidebook, Other-Wise and School-Wise: A Parent Guidebook, and ESL Activities for Every Month of the School Year. Go to http://www.schoolwisebooks.com for more information about how to hook your kids on reading books. | <urn:uuid:41470eec-ff05-4257-82f1-6b1243ab3f8b> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2021-17",
"url": "https://www.howtolearn.com/2011/02/how-to-hook-your-kids-on-books/",
"date": "2021-04-19T10:24:16",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-17/segments/1618038879305.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20210419080654-20210419110654-00384.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9307183623313904,
"token_count": 693,
"score": 3.5625,
"int_score": 4
} | 693 |
Latinos and Latinas: Overview
Abstract and Keywords
This entry emphasizes diversity among Latinos/Hispanics with reference to national origin group, geographical distribution, language use, racial identity, family life, sexual orientation, immigration and immigration status, and socioeconomic circumstances. It also calls attention to the special dilemmas confronted by Mexican and Central American immigrants and their children.
By 2005, Hispanics approached 42 million people, making them the largest minority population in the United States. This is a significant increase over the 22 million recorded in 1990 and 35 million recorded in 2000 (Ramirez, 2004). Forty percent of Hispanics were foreign-born (Fry & Hakimzadeh, 2007), with an estimated 25% of the Hispanic population entering as unauthorized immigrants since 1990 (Passel, 2006).
Hispanics trace their origins to a large number of Spanish-speaking nations (Table 1). Those of Mexican origin comprise about 64% of the aggregate, a percentage that has remained stable over the past decades. Over 15% of Hispanics trace their origins to Caribbean countries and another 13% trace their origins to Central and South American nations. Using 2005 U.S. census data, the Pew Hispanic Center (PHC) found that 7.2% identified themselves simply as Hispanic without naming a country of origin.
It was not until the 1970 census that these disparate national groups, each with its proud and unique history, culture, and complexity, began to be treated as a single American community. Prior to 1970, the U.S. census counted each national group separately. In 1970, the census made, for the first time, a single count using categories like “Spanish-surname” or “Spanish-speaking.” In 1980, respondents were allowed to self-identify in terms of “Hispanic” ethnicity (Grieco & Cassidy, 2000) and for the first time the groups had a name. In the 2000 census, the name was expanded to “Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino” (Ramirez, 2004).
Although many accept a pan-Latino identity, immigrants generally identify with their national origin groups rather than as Hispanic. Among second generation, the preferred identity often shifts to Hispanic while among the third generation and the most common identity accepted is that of “American” (PHC, 2004). The Cultural Access Group (2007), however, found that many Latino youth preferred to be identified with their national origin group.
There are also differences among those that accept a pan-Hispanic identity. Some do not like to call themselves Hispanic since it is not a Spanish word and feels imposed by American society. Latino is the most acceptable term today especially among intellectuals and those committed to the struggle for justice. Since it is a Spanish word, it also promotes the visibility of women as it allows for the use of Latina(s) and Latino(s) (for women and men as individuals and as a collective). Since both terms are commonly used in research and everyday interaction, they will be used interchangeably in this essay. For the present, social workers should refrain from assuming a pan-Hispanic identity. Cultural competence requires letting colleagues and clients take the lead in defining their identity.
The Latino Diaspora
The rapid growth in the Latino population is being felt throughout the United States. In 1980, 64% lived in just three states: California, Texas, and New York. By 2000, Latinos were living in every state but the location and rate of that growth varied considerably. Suro and Singer (2002) examined the 100 largest standard metropolitan areas and found that 77% live in the “Hispanic Heartland” and its “fast growing hubs,” which are located in California, Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, and Colorado in the Southwest; New York, New Jersey, and Florida along the east coast; and Illinois in the Midwest. They also identify “new Latino destinations” that have shown a 303% increase since 1980, making Hispanics visible throughout the Southeast, Northeast, Mid-Atlantic, Midwest and Central states, and Western and Pacific states. “Small Latino areas” are visible throughout the nation but have realized modest growth since 1980.
Table 1 Hispanic Origin: 2005
Country of origin
Central America Origin
Other Central American
South American Origin
Other South America
All other Spanish/Hispanic/ Latino
From A statistical portrait of Hispanics at mid decade, by R. Fry & S. Hakimzadeh, 2007, retrieved April 5, 2007, from http://pewhispanic.org/reports/middecade/. Copyright 2007 by the Pew Hispanic Center. Adapted with permission.
Diversity in the Hispanic/Latino Population
Hispanics are diverse not only in national origin, identity preference, and residence but also in language, race, religion, family life, sexual orientation, modes and time of immigration, and socioeconomic status.
Through its conquests, Spain left behind its language. Among immigrants, however, the binds to Spanish have begun to loosen. When Latinos were asked whether immigrants must speak English to say they are part of American society, a majority of foreign- and native-born agreed as did 64% of Latino Republicans and 52% of Latino Democrats (PHC, 2006).
Table 2 shows that Latinos vary in their degree of Spanish and English language proficiency and that this varies by national origin group. Almost 60% of Latinos speak English exclusively or well, while Spanish proficiency is reported by almost 80% (Ramirez, 2004). Fry and Hakimzadeh (2007) report that although the majority of foreign-born Latinos speak English well, they are less likely to speak it well (46%) than do the native-born (14.8%) Latinos.
Research on Latino youth can help us assess the degree to which Latinos are adapting to the United States (Portes, 2004). The Cultural Access Group (2007) surveyed Latino youth in Los Angeles, Miami, and New York using both quantitative and qualitative methods. They found the following:
• The great majority felt pride in being Latino and in being bilingual. They were family-oriented and, rather than being called Latino, preferred being identified with their unique heritage.
• In spite of their pride, most indicated a strong preference for English. This was less true for youth in Miami, however.
• Most indicated that their households were bilingual with a skew toward English in New York and Miami.
• Most were proficient in speaking but less proficient in reading and writing Spanish. New York youth were the least proficient.
• Over 70% of youth indicated they spoke Spanglish, a mixture of Spanish and English.
• A clear majority of youth preferred tuning into English language television and Internet sites and listening to American music at least most of the time.
Table 2 Languages Spoken (5 Years or Older) by Hispanic Origin: 2000 Census
Only English at home
Spanish at Home or English “very well”
Spanish at Home or English less than “very well”
From We the People: Hispanics in the United States. Census 2000 Special Report, by R. Ramirez, 2004, retrieved April 4, 2007, from http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/censr-18.pdf. U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC.
Catholicism, another legacy from Spain, has been the dominant religion in Latin America. For Hispanic Americans it is still the dominant religion, although how dominant is unclear. Among recent studies, estimates range from 57% to 70% of Hispanic Americans being Catholic (Perl, Greely, & Gray, 2006; Suro, Escobar, Livingstone, & Hakimzadeh, 2007). The percentage of Hispanics identifying as Protestant varies between 20% and 25%, a figure that has been stable since at least 1990 (Keysar, Kosmin, & Mayer, 2001). Between 8% and 13% of people identify with no religion. Ninety-nine percent of all of them identified with a religion are either Catholic or Protestant, and 39% of them define themselves as “born again” or evangelical. The following profiles of religious and socioeconomic status are drawn from Keysar et al. and Suro et al.
Catholic Latinos now make up close to a third of all Catholics in the United States, with more than half identifying as charismatic. (Charismatics emphasize a belief in the holy spirit and often participate in energetic services, healing, and speaking in tongues.) Two-thirds are foreign-born and Spanish is their primary language; 42% have not graduated from high school and 46% have an annual household income of under $30,000.
Evangelical Protestants also tend to be foreign-born but 63% say English is their primary language or that they are bilingual while 64% have a high school diploma and 61% have a household income of over $30,000.
Mainline Protestants, such as Episcopalians and Methodists, constitute only about 5% of Latinos. They are the most likely to be native-born and 45% say English is their primary language. They have the highest socioeconomic standing with 70% having a high school diploma and 71% having an annual household income of over $30,000.
Nonreligious Latinos tend to be younger, male, and foreign-born. Although the foreign-born are less likely to be a member of a church, believe in God or miracles, or believe “God helps me” than other Latinos, they are more likely to do or believe these things than other Americans. Seventy-six percent of the nonreligious Latinos had considered themselves Catholic or Protestant in the past. The nonreligious also had the highest full-time employment level and the lowest level of unemployment.
In addition to language and religion, Spain left its mark on the phenotypes of Latin Americans. Because of Catholicism, both the indigenous people and the slaves that followed later were considered souls, that is, full human beings in the eyes of God; therefore, intermarriage between Spanish and indigenous or African was common if not altogether acceptable. Although the Spanish invented a cumbersome system of racial categories to distinguish among all possible mixtures, the system eventually fell apart from it own weight (Wolfe, 1959). An important element of that system continuing today in that race in most Latino nations is viewed on a continuum. People of mixed ancestry are neither White nor non-White. Thus, most racially mixed people in Spanish speaking nations think of themselves as White or as some intermediary designation such as mestizo (European or Indigenous) or mulatto, trigeno, and moreno (variations on African or European ancestry). This is in clear contrast to the common practice in the United States of perceiving individuals as belonging to one race only.
According to the U.S. census, Hispanics are an ethnic group whose members may be of any race. Respondents are asked to indicate their Hispanic ethnicity and, separately, their race (for example, White or Black). Given specific choices, Hispanics often mark “some other race” and write in designators like “Latino” or “Hispanic” (Logan, 2003; Tafoya, 2003). However, Tafoya also notes that if not given the option to choose an alternative racial category, as in the 1990 and 2000 supplemental census surveys, Latinos are likely to define themselves as White as indicated in Table 3 below.
Logan (2003) and Tafoya (2004) have uncovered interesting differences among Hispanic Hispanics (HH), Hispanic Blacks (HB), and Hispanic Whites (HW) as laid out below. We should read these differences knowing that if not given a choice, many Hispanic Hispanics would call themselves White.
• Hispanic Blacks (HB): 13% of Dominicans, 8% of Puerto Ricans, and 4% of Central Americans identify as Black. Although a higher percent were likely to speak English and have completed high school, HB had the highest rates of unemployment and poverty and the lowest median household income. Of the major Hispanic cities, New York had the highest percentage of HB.
• Hispanics Whites (HW) had the highest median household income and the lowest unemployment and poverty rates. About 85% of Cuban, 76% of Spanish, and 61% of South Americans claimed a White identity. Of the major metropolitan areas, 86% of Hispanics living in Miami, 77% living in El Paso, 64% living in San Antonio, 57% living in Albuquerque, and 54% living in Houston identified as White.
• Hispanic Hispanics (HH) are most likely to be foreign-born. They had the lowest levels of education but tended to be in the middle of the Hispanic distribution when it came to median household income, unemployment, and poverty. Around 63% of Dominicans, 54% of Central Americans, 50% of Mexicans, and 43% of Puerto Ricans identified as HH. Around 54% of HH lived in Southern California with about 49% living in New York and Chicago.
Table 3 Racial Composition of Hispanic Population in the United States: 1980–2000
Hispanic Hispanics (%)
Hispanic Blacks (%)
Hispanic Whites (%)
Total Hispanics (%)
From How race counts for Hispanic Americans, by J. Logan, 2003, University of Albany, Lewis Mumford Center for Comparative Urban and Regional Research. Retrieved May 1, 2007, from Educational Resources Information Center, ED479962, http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/1b/55/bc.pdf.
Focusing on racial differences presents a dilemma, namely, whether Latinos will be allowed to be a multiracial group. The same society that invented the term Latinos may, with its one of two choices racial system, might as easily separate them into White and Black Since Americans think in terms of one of two choices, the likelihood of imposing racial dichotomies on Hispanics is real. Rodriguez (1985) pointed out that Puerto Ricans were being forced into a Black–White dichotomy in their interactions with other Americans. Along these lines, Scherer (2003) reports on the consternation experienced by newspapers in telling the story that Hispanics were now the largest minority. They reasoned, if Hispanics are Black, should not they be counted as African Americans rather than as Hispanics? Thus, many newspapers hedged on proclaiming Hispanics the largest minority. It is also interesting that Scherer, along with Logan (2003), uses the term “Black Hispanics,” thus making race more important than ethnicity.
Racism in the Latino population might also work to separate out not only “Black” but darker skinned Hispanics. Montalvo (1991) reported that darker Mexican Americans were acutely aware of their skin color and the negative influence it played in their lives. Massey and Denton (1992) found that suburbanization of male Mexican Americans was associated with higher income, having a White spouse, and choosing “White” as one's race. Given the either-or approach to race in the United States and racism among Latinos, will it be possible for Hispanic Blacks to sustain a Hispanic identity?
Diversity in Family
Hispanic tradition emphasizes a commitment to strong family attachments or familismo (Santiago-Rivera, 2003; Vasquez, 2005). Family life ideals often espouse male-headed, tightly knit, extended heterosexual units. According to tradition, male and female roles are strictly divided and positive value given to responsible male authority and female devotion to home, children, and husband. Latino men aim to be macho, that is, to take on responsibility for providing financial support and security in return for extramarital freedoms. Latina mothers respect the authority of their husbands and work to maintain emotional balance in the household. Children show respect for parental authority and abide by the will of responsible fathers and devoted mothers.
This commitment to family life is seen as a source of strength by many and there is indeed evidence that Latinos place more emphasis on family life than non-Hispanics. They are more likely than other Americans to live in family households (Ramirez, 2004). Likewise, 27% of Latinos live in families of more than five people compared with 10% of White non-Hispanic families (Fry & Hakimzadeh, 2007). Fertility rates are also somewhat higher and, following from this, the median age of Hispanics is 26 compared with 35 for the total American population (Ramirez).
There is also evidence that family life ideals are not always reached. There is a great deal of heterogeneity among Hispanic families, both within and across Hispanic ethnic groups. The harsh external realities confronted by many Hispanic families—including unemployment and poverty, and problems resulting from unauthorized immigration—often act as a spur to change. The rise of the women's and the gay and lesbian movements has also forced the Latino to face some of the inequalities inherent in traditional family life. As a result, the modern Hispanic family resembles the modern non-Hispanic family in many particulars.
Many aspects of contemporary Hispanic family life do not conform to traditional family ideals. For instance, in 2005, marriage between Hispanic couples (51%) was lower than White not-Hispanic couples (57%). Although the percentage of divorced and separated people was lower among Hispanics (12%) than White non-Hispanics (13%), the difference was small. Similarly, although Latinos are more likely than White non-Hispanics to live in family households, the percentage of two parent family households is fairly comparable across both groups (Ramirez, 2004). Furthermore, the percentage of female single-parent householder was somewhat higher among Latinas than in the total American population (Fry & Hakimzadeh, 2007). In terms of children living with parents, White children are more likely to live with at least one parent (92.1%) than Hispanic children (85.3%).
Writings on Hispanic American families often assume the ethnic homogeneity of family life. Yet in the 2000 U.S. census, about 27% of those reporting multiple-race identities were Hispanic children, husbands, or wives (Lee & Edmonston, 2005). Since 1970, Hispanic to non-Hispanic marriages have held fairly stable at around 14%. Puerto Ricans, however, have the highest intermarriage rates, increasing from 10% in 1970 to 21% in 2000. Other Hispanics had the highest out-marriage in 1970 (21%) but decreased by 1990 to 17%. Lee and EdmOnston (2006) believe these rates are likely to rise in the future, especially if immigration slows. They add that since many Hispanics define their race as White or Hispanic, the barrier to out-marriage with non-Hispanic Americans is lowered.
Hispanic Gays and Lesbians
The intense emphasis on heterosexual, private family life forced traditional Latinos interested in same sex relations to either conform to gender role ideals or risk being ostracized from family (Hidalgo, 1995; Molloy & McKee-Irwin, 1998; Murray, 1987; Ramos, 2004) as a result, some Latinos ascribe homosexuality only to flamboyant men and cross-dressing women living on the edges of traditional family life. Gender conforming men and the women who had sex with them, often abusing them (Molloy & McKee-Irwin, 1998; Zamora-Hernandez & Paterson 1996), did not think of themselves as homosexuals. Thus, health care services today often use the term “men who have sex with men” as a way of respecting traditional thinking.
Although many still adhere to these norms, they are clearly breaking down especially among educated and acculturated Latinos. In a survey of 92 self-identified Latina lesbians, those with a higher occupational status, education, and income were committed to a lesbian identity (Alquijay, 1997). Openly gay and lesbian Latinos have been out and active since before the Stonewall uprising of 1968 (Roque-Ramírez, 2005). They recognize the strong homophobia embedded in their culture and have organized for change.
The pull of family remains strong among many lesbians and gays and their families, and so it is a mistake to assume that Hispanic families will automatically reject their gay and lesbian children. Bonilla and Porter (1990) found that Latinos were just as tolerant as Whites about homosexuality. Marsiglia (1998) notes that many find supportive families once they come out. As Zamora-Hernandez and Paterson (1996) suggest, family ties can be strengthened by promoting the inclusion of lesbians and gay members.
Not all Hispanics are recent immigrants and many have a long ancestry in the United States. Some Hispanic Americans trace their origins to the colonial southwest where they lived under the Spanish and Mexican flags, before the area was incorporated into the United States in 1848. As early as 1860, laborers from Mexico, Chile, and Peru were working in the mines and railroads of the West (Edmonston & Passel, 1994). Immigration from Latin America rivaled immigration from Europe throughout the 20th century (Massey, 1995). Immigration before 1966 was dominated by Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, and Cubans. The first large wave came as a result of the Mexican Revolution of 1910 (Gibson, 1987) and continued through World War II and the Korean War. Between 1942 and 1964, some 4 million Mexican braceros or legal farm workers migrated and helped to transform American agriculture into the industry it is today (Weaver, 2001).
Puerto Rico was annexed by the United States as a result of the Spanish American War in 1898. Immigrants were coming by the 1920s but the “Great Migration,” of Puerto Ricans began after World War II (Delgado, 1987). Since the mid-1960s, a “revolving door” or back and forth migration between the Mainland the Island has been common.
Large waves of Cuban refugees came to the United States beginning in 1959, when a revolution brought Fidel Castro to power. The first wave of Cubans tended to be educated professionals from the upper and middle classes, but successive waves drew on Cubans of more modest backgrounds. To help ease their adjustment, 1966 Congressional legislature granted Cuban refugees $1.2 billion in direct assistance, public assistance, Medicare, free English classes, scholarships, and low-interest college loans (Cuban American Adjustment Act, 1966).
Immigration Since 1966
Prior to 1966, Latinos who had the desire and wherewithal could enter the United States legally. U.S. immigration policy, which restricted immigration from other parts of the world, did not restrict people from the Western hemisphere. Since that time, Latinos enter under the same national quota policies as other immigrants. For this reason, 1966 becomes a pivotal year in the migration of Latinos.
Latino immigration remained at about 50% of the total immigration between 1960 and 1990. During this time, the Mexican American population remained at about 62% of all Hispanics, while Hispanics from Central and South America increased their share of the Hispanic population. By 1994, about 1 million immigrants were entering annually. In 1994, the number of immigrants began to increase rapidly, spiking at a million and a half a year in 2000 and then declining to early 1990 levels. In 2004, the numbers started to rise again (Passel & Suro, 2005). Although these data are not broken down by nation, Passel and Suro (2005) report that migration out of Mexico followed the same trend and held relatively steady at around 33% of the overall migration.
Unauthorized and Illegal Immigration
The history of illegal immigration begins with the end of the bracero project in 1964 and especially with the enactment of the Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1986. The former shut off a legal channel for immigration and the later led to the requirement of a Permanent Resident or “green” Card to remain legally in the U.S. Using 2005 census data, researchers (Passel, 2006; Passel & Suro, 2005) estimate that there were nearly 12 million unauthorized immigrants living in the United States, most of whom are Latino.
To discourage illegal immigration, Congress enacted The Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) of 1986, which granted amnesty to undocumented immigrants who could demonstrate they had lived in the United States for at least 4 years. Over 92% of those granted amnesty were Latino. This new policy failed to stop illegal immigration. In the mid-1990s, the federal government quintupled border enforcement expenditures and introduced fortified checkpoints, high-tech surveillance techniques, and increased the number of border patrol agents (Rubio-Goldsmith, McCormick, Martinez, & Duarte, 2007). These draconian policies also failed. Fear of terrorism recently has led to increased crack downs on illegal border. However, the Immigration Policy Center (2007) reports that 99.8% of all apprehensions were from people of Mexico and Central and South America. Increased surveillance along the Mexico border has also led to the deaths of many would-be immigrants. Examining corpses found along the border with Arizona, Rubio-Goldsmith et al. found that the number of corpses found each year rose from 14 in 1966 to over 200 in 2005.
On average, there is wide variation in income and educational attainment among the different Hispanic subgroups (Table 4). With regard to median family income, people from Spain do very well in comparison with the total population, and those from South America and Cuba do better than all other Hispanics. Except for Spaniards, however, all other Hispanics fall significantly below income figures for the total U.S. population. The median family income for South American Hispanics is, on average, 86% of what is earned by the total population. At the other extreme, median family income among Dominicans is only 57% of the total American population.
In terms of per capita income, we see similar variability with all Hispanic groups, except Spaniards earning less than the U.S. population as a whole. Latinas come closer to male incomes than American women do. Mexican women earn on average 87.5% of what Mexican men earn. Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central American, and Dominican women earn on average ∼83% of what their male peers earn. Non-Hispanic women earn on average only 73% only of their male counterparts. One could conjecture that at the lower end of the income pyramid, the earnings of men and women become more comparable.
With respect to educational attainment, over 80% of non-Hispanic Americans complete High School and 24% complete college. Only Spaniards, South Americans, and Cubans approach or surpass these achievements. Educational attainment is particularly problematic for Mexican and Central Americans as only about 46% have completed high school and less than 10% college.
Labor force participation measures the proportion of the population 16 and older that is either employed or seeking employment. Hispanic labor force participation varies by Hispanic sub-group. Mexican and Central and South American men participated at a higher rate than the American population as a whole. Cuban, other Hispanic, Puerto Rican, and Dominican men participated significantly less (see table 5). By 2006, Hispanic unemployment had reached an historic low of 5.2%, bringing the gap between Latino and non-Latino unemployment to just 0.06% points (Kochhar, 2006). Kochhar also notes that the foreign-born dominate the labor market gaining about 8 in every 10 jobs landed by Latinos in 2005–2006.
Table 4 Income and Education by Hispanic Origin: 2000
Median Family Income
Median Per Capita Earnings
% HS Diploma or more
% BA Diploma or More
From We the People: Hispanics in the United States. Census 2000 Special Report, by R. Ramirez, R., 2004, retrieved April 4, 2007, from http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/censr-18.pdf. U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC.
Table 5 Labor Force Participation by Hispanic Origin: 2000
National Origin Groups
% Labor Force Participation
From We the People: Hispanics in the United States. Census 2000 Special Report, by R. Ramirez, R., 2004, retrieved April 4, 2007, from http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/censr-18.pdf. U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC.
Labor force growth, which is critical to economic growth, increases as a function of the number of people working or seeking work. Since the birth rate among Americans has remained stable at just enough to replace the existing population, the economy can only grow through immigration (Paral, Siciliano, Johnson, Ewing, & Chittendon, 2005). In particular, the economy is expanding in the low-skilled sectors where the number of young, relatively uneducated, native-born Americans is declining. Recent unauthorized immigrants from Mexico and Central America easily find their niche in these less skilled, physically demanding jobs. In 2004, immigrants made up more than 25% of all 25- to 34-year-old workers with a high school diploma or less. This situation is expected to remain the same through 2010 (Paral et al., 2005). Many Americans believe that illegal immigrants are taking jobs away from Americans eager to have them (NPR/Kaiser Family Foundation/Kennedy School, 2004). Far from stealing jobs, a robust U.S. economy now depends on low-wage foreign immigrants. The healthy economy for Hispanic workers has been driven largely by the demands of the construction industry. This industry added almost half a million jobs in 2005 and 2006, the majority of them filled by foreign-born Latinos (PHC, 2007). In addition to construction, a wide range of service industries looking for cheap labor encourage immigration by Mexican and Central American laborers (Portes, 2004).
Prospects for the Future
Looked at through the prism of recent and continuing immigration and low skilled, menial employment, these socioeconomic data are what might be expected. Although Hispanic labor force participation is presently good, too many occupations are in the lowest wage brackets, bringing the average income for Hispanics as a total population down. A lack of opportunity, discrimination, and difficulties in educational advancement suggests that it will be very difficult for low-income, less-educated Latinos to move ahead.
Today, darker-skinned Hispanics and their children are more easily stigmatized as “other.” Even with education, their access to American society can feel constrained. Portes found that two-thirds of Mexican youth reported experiencing discrimination regardless of how much education they had.
The intense debate over immigration in America hangs as a weight on all Hispanics, especially second generation Hispanics. A study of American attitudes found that 41% of nonimmigrant Americans believed that legal immigration should be decreased (NPR/Kaiser Family Foundation/Kennedy School, 2004). More than 50% expressed fear that immigrants were changing American culture and values for the worse, taking jobs from Americans, and not paying their fair share of taxes. Even more negative attitudes are held about illegal immigrants. In spite of overwhelming contrary evidence, nearly 60% of native-born Americans believed that illegal immigration has hurt the national economy.
Education is central to success in the American economy and it is education that many Latinos lack. A large percentage of the most recent immigrants from Mexico and Central America have less than 9 years of education (PHC, 2007). Additionally, young immigrants who have done poorly in school before immigrating have a higher likelihood of dropping out or even not enrolling once in the United States (Fry, 2005).
The education of native-born Latinos presents a mixed picture. On the bright side, native-born Hispanics are more likely to complete high school than their immigrant counterparts. Yet, high school completion rates are significantly lower for native Hispanics than for native non-Hispanic Whites. By age 9, Latinos are on average two grades behind their White peers. Hispanics are also less likely to attend pre- and nursery school programs. The majority of Latino youth are enrolled in overcrowded, underfunded, central city schools. Sixteen percent of the teachers in such schools are not fully credentialed (PHC, 2002).
At the college level there is an even wider disparity between Hispanics and Whites (Fry, 2005). Although native-born Latinos are more likely to go to college than their foreign peers, native-born Latinos are less likely to go on to college than their White counterparts (PHC, 2002). Furthermore, the pathways taken suggest their educational potential will not be fully realized. Many Latino youth go to community colleges where they are half as likely to finish their programs as non-Hispanic Whites. Those who complete college are likely to have attended an “open door” or other less-selective institutions with low BA completion rates (Fry, 2005).
In his longitudinal study of 17-year-old second-generation teens, Portes (2004) found that Mexicans had the lowest educational aspirations. Cubans who attended Catholic private high schools were the most likely to aspire (85%) to an advanced degree. Nicaraguan, nonprivate school Cubans, and Columbians followed behind. Only 48% of second generation Mexican aspired to an advanced degree. By age 24, only 38% of these same Mexican youth had completed High School, the lowest rate among second-generation Hispanics. Clearly the children of poorly educated, unskilled laborers are having a hard time adapting to the United States.
Portes (2004) concludes that integration into American society is likely to follow three different paths. For immigrants with high levels of education—Spaniards, South Americans, and Cubans—the future looks bright. Their children can generally expect to integrate smoothly into society at the same level as other Americans (Portes, 2004). Hispanics in the middle—Puerto Ricans and Dominicans—are likely to have a tougher time, but largely because they are no longer growing as a population, their children should scratch their way up using family and community as resources. For Mexicans and Central Americans, those with the lowest educational attainment, the future looks bleak. Children of Mexican and Central American immigrants must make the leap from the poor education of their parents to the high school and college education their parents likely never dreamed of. Some will overcome these obstacles and over the generations manage to work their way up the socioeconomic ladder. Unless educational attainment can be markedly increased, many will fall prey to a lack of resources for positive development.
Implications for Practice
In addition to the educational needs discussed above, we call attention to child welfare, criminal justice, and mental health needs. Latino children and their families represent the fastest growing group in the child welfare system (Rivera, 2002). The percentage of Latino children in foster care in the United States increased more than double from 8% in 1990 to 17% in 1999 (Gonzalez, 2004). In 2005, 18% of the children in foster care were Latino. Thirty-five percent of Latino children placed in foster care are less than 1 year in age (Community for Hispanic Children and Families, 2004).
Latino youth, with nowhere to go, easily succumb to the lure of crime, drugs, depression, and suicidal ideation. Since 1985, Latinos have been the fastest growing population in the criminal justice system. Incarceration rates for Latino men are more than double the rates for White males (Rumbaut, 2005). Latinos are also disproportionately represented in the juvenile justice system (Building Blocks for Youth Report, 2002).
Although suicide rates are lower for Latino youth, they are more likely to attempt suicide (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2004) and just as likely to experience depression as their White non-Latino peers (Organista, 2000; Zhang & Snowden 1999). Vega et al. (1998) found that long-term residence in the United States significantly increased the likelihood of mental disorders among adults, with particularly marked increases in substance abuse. In a study of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban and “other” Latinos, English-proficient, third generation Latinos had higher rates of psychiatric disorders (Alegría et al., 2007). The problem of mental health care is exacerbated since many Latinos seek help in the general medical sector (Alegría et al., 2007; Vega and Alegría, 2001). Reasons for this include lack of familiarity with mental health services and a tendency to sommaticize emotional and behavioral difficulties.
Policies and programs should aim to enhance educational and occupational opportunities, especially formiddle and lower socioeconomic Latinos. Evidence-based practice (EBP) approaches are promising, especially with respect to depression and anxiety (Miranda et al., 2005; Schraufnagel, Wagner, Miranda, & Roy-Byrne, 2006). However, few EBPs have been developed with Latinos in mind; clinical trials rarely include Latinos either as researchers or clients and rarely use outcome measures relevant to Latinos (National Implementation Research Network, 2003).
To work, evidence-based approaches should not force Hispanics to adapt to research protocols, rather they should be infused with cultural competence. The issues raised in this entry should help in this regard. In particular, social workers should avoid stereotyping by recognizing diversity among Latinos in national origin, language preference, religion, racial identification, family organization, sexual orientation, immigration status and generation, and socioeconomic status. In particular, social workers should
• support and respect Latino diversity in national origin, racial identity, religious beliefs, sexual orientation, time in the United States, and cultural pride;
• serve Latinos according to their language preferences;
• recognize the centrality of family as it evolves in American society;
• build on family and community strengths to promote achievement for all Latinos.
• develop policies and services to fully integrate unskilled immigrants and their children into occupational and educational opportunities.
Alegría, M., Mulvaney-Day, N., Torres, M., Polo, A., Cao, Z., & Canino, G. (2007). Prevalence of psychiatric disorders across Latino subgroups in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 97, 68–75.Find this resource:
Alquijay, M. A. (1997). The relationship among self-esteem, acculturation, and lesbian identity formation. In B. Greene (Ed.), Ethnic and cultural diversity among lexbians and gay men (pp. 249–265). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Find this resource:
Bonilla, G. J., & Porter, J. (1990). A comparison of Latino, Black and non-Hispanic White attitudes toward homosexuality. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Science, 12, 437–452.Find this resource:
Building Blocks for Youth Report. (2002). Dónde Está La Justicia? A Call for Action on Behalf of Latino and Latina Youth in the U.S. Justice System.Find this resource:
Community for Hispanic Children and Families. (2004). Creating a Latino child welfare agenda: A strategic framework for change. New York: Author.Find this resource:
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2004). Suicide among Hispanics—United States, 1997—2001. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 53, 478–481.Find this resource:
Cuban American Adjustment Act, Pub. L. No. 89–732, 80 Stat. 1161 (1966). Retrieved December 1, 2007, from http://heinonline.org.
Cultural Access Group. (2007). U.S. Latino youth: A tale of two cultures. Received via correspondence from Central Access Group, Figueroa Street, Los Angeles, CA.Find this resource:
Delgado, M. (1987). Puerto Ricans. Encyclopedia of Social Work (18th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 426–434). Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers.Find this resource:
Edmonston, B., and Passel, J. S. (Eds.). (1994). Ethnic demography: U.S. immigration and ethnic variations. In Immigration and ethnicity. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.Find this resource:
Fry, R. (2005). The higher dropout rate of foreign born teens: The role of schooling abroad. Retrieved April 25, 2007, from http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=55.
Fry, R., & Hakimzadeh, S. (2007). A statistical portrait of Hispanics at mid-decade. Retrieved April 5, 2007, from http://pewhispanic.org/reports/middecade/.
Gibson, G. (1987). Mexican Americans. In Encyclopedia of Social Work. (18th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 135–148). Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers.Find this resource:
Gonzalez, L. P. S. (2004). Five commentaries: Looking to the future. Commentary 5. Children, Families, and Foster Care, 14, 184–189.Find this resource:
Grieco, E. M., & Cassidy, R. C. (2000). Overview of race and Hispanic origin. Retrieved May 1, 2007, from http://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/cenbr01-1.pdf.
Hidalgo, H. (Ed.). (1995). The norms of conduct in social service agencies. A threat to the mental health of Puerto Rican lesbians. In Lesbians of color: Social and human services (pp. 23–42). New York: Haworth.Find this resource:
Immigration Policy Center. (2007). The myth of immigrant criminality and the paradox of assimilation: Incarceration rates among native- and foreign-born men. Retrieved April 25, 2007, from http://www.ailf.org/ipc/special_report/pr_feb07.html.
Keysar, A., Kosmin, B. A., & Mayer, E. (2001). Religious identification among Hispanics in the United States. Unpublished manuscript, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York and Brooklyn College, NY. Retrieved May 1, 2007, from http://depthome.brooklyn.cuny.edu/risc/ARISHispanicfinal%20Dec112002.pdf.Find this resource:
Kochhar, R. (2006, September). Latino Labor Report, 2006: Strong gains in employment. Retrieved April 25, 2007, from http://pewhispanic.org/files/reports/70.pdf.
Lee, S. M., & Edmonston, B. (2005, June). New marriages, new families: U.S. racial and Hispanic intermarriage. Population Bulletin, 60(2). Retrieved April 25, 2007, from https://www.prb.org/Template.cfm?Section=PRB&template=/Content/ContentGroups/Population_Bulletin/New_Marriages,_New_Families__U_S__Racial_and_Hispanic_Intermarriage.htm.Find this resource:
Logan, J. (2003, July). How race counts for Hispanic Americans. University of Albany, Lewis Mumford Center for Comparative Urban and Regional Research. Retrieved October 30, 2007, from Educational Resources Information Center, ED479962, http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/1b/55/bc.pdf.Find this resource:
Marsiglia, F. F. (1998). Homosexuality and Latinos/as: Toward an integration of identities. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 10(4), 1–18.Find this resource:
Massey, D. S. (1995). The new immigration and ethnicity in the United States. Population and Development Review, 26(4), 631–652.Find this resource:
Massey, D. S., & Denton, N. A. (1992). Racial identity and the spatial assimilation of Mexicans in the United States. Social Science Research, 21, 235–260.Find this resource:
Miranda, J., Bernal, G., Lau, A., Kohn, L., Hwang, W. C., & LaFromboise, T. (2005). State of the science on psychosocial interventions for ethnic minorities. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 113–142.Find this resource:
Molloy, S., & McKee-Irwin, R. (1998). Hispanisms and homosexualities. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Find this resource:
Montalvo, F. F. (1991). Phenotyping, acculturation, and biracial assimilation of Mexican Americans. In M. Sotomayor (Ed.), Empowering Hispanic families: A critical issue for the '90s (pp. 97–120). Milwaukee, WI: Family Service of America.Find this resource:
Murray, S. O. (1987). The family as an obstacle to the growth of a gay subculture in Latin America. In S. O. Murray (Ed.), Male homosexuality in Central and South America (pp. 118–129). New York: Gay Academic Union.Find this resource:
National Implementation Research Network, the Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute. (2003). Consensus statement on evidence based programs and cultural competence. Tampa, FL. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from: http://www.epp.networkofcare.org/uploads/Consensus6230512.pdf.Find this resource:
NPR/Kaiser Family Foundation/Kennedy School, Harvard University. (2004). Immigration In America Survey 2004. Retrieved April 27, 2007, from http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4062605.
Organista, K. C. (2000). Cognitive-behavioral group psychotherapy with Latinos. In A. Freeman & J. R. White (Eds.), Handbook of group cognitive behavioral psychotherapy (pp. 281–303). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Find this resource:
Paral, P., Siciliano, D., Johnson, B., Ewing, W., & Chittendon, H. (2005, November). Economic growth and immigration: Bridging the demographic divide. Immigration Policy Center. Retrieved April 24, 2007, from http://www.ailf.org/ipc/special_report/2005_bridging.pdf.
Passel, J. S. (2006). Size and characteristics of the unauthorized migrant population in the U.S.: Estimates based on March 2005 Current Population Survey. Retrieved April 25, 2007, from http://pewhispanic.org/files/reports/61.pdf.
Passel, J. S., & Suro, R. (2005). Rise, peak and decline: Trends in U.S. immigration 1992–2004. Retrieved April 23, 2007, from http://pewhispanic.org/files/reports/53.pdf.
Perl, P., Greely, J. Z., & Gray, M. M. (2006). What proportion of adult Hispanics are Catholic? A review of survey data and methodology. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 45, 419–436.Find this resource:
Pew Hispanic Center. (2002). Educational attainment: Better than meets the eye, but large challenges remain. Retrieved April 22, 2007, from http://pewhispanic.org/factsheets/factsheet.php?FactsheetID=3.
Pew Hispanic Center. (2006, June). Hispanic attitudes toward leaning English: Fact Sheet. Retrieved April 15, 2007, from http://pewhispanic.org/files/factsheets/20.pdf.
Pew Hispanic Center. (2007, March). Construction jobs expand for Latinos despite slump in housing market: Fact sheet. Retrieved April 25, 2007, from http://pewhispanic.org/files/factsheets/28.pdf.
Portes, A. (2004, February). The new Latino nation: Immigration and the Hispanic population in the United States. The Center for Migration and Development: Working Paper 04–02. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University.Find this resource:
Raijman, R., & Tienda, M. (1999). Immigrants' socioeconomic progress post-1965: Forging mobility or survival. In C. Hirschman, P. Kasinitz, & J. De Wind (Eds.), The handbook of international migration: The American experience (pp. 239–256). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Find this resource:
Ramirez, R. R. (2004). We the people: Hispanics in the United States. Census 2000 Special Report. Retrieved April 4, 2007, from http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/censr-18.pdf.
Ramos, J. (Ed.). (2004). Compañeras: Latina Lesbians (An Anthology) (3rd ed.). Latina Lesbian History Project, New York. New York: Routledge, Chapman and Hall.Find this resource:
Rivera, H. P. (2002). Developing collaborations between child welfare agencies and Latino communities. Child Welfare, 81, 371–384.Find this resource:
Roque-Ramírez, H. N. (2005). Latina/Latino Americans. In GLBTQ: Encyclopedia of gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender and queer culture. Retrieved October 29, 2007, from http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/latina_latino_americans.html.
Rodriguez, C. (1985). Puerto Ricans: Born in the USA. Boston: Unwin Hyman.Find this resource:
Rubio-Goldsmith, R. M., McCormick, M., Martinez, D., & Duarte, I. M. (2007). A Humanitarian crisis at the border: New estimates of deaths among unauthorized immigrants. Immigration Policy Center. Retrieved April 23, 2007, from http://www.ailf.org/ipc/policybrief/policybrief_020607.shtml.
Rumbaut, R. G. (2005). Turning points in the transition to adulthood: Determinants of educational attainment, incarceration, and early childbearing among children of immigrants. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 28, 1041–1086.Find this resource:
Santiago-Rivera, A. (2003, February). Latino values and family transition: Practical considerations for counseling. Counseling and Human Development, 5, pp. 1, 4–18. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3934/is_200302/ai_n9198342.Find this resource:
Scherer, M. (2003, January/February). Census confusion: Have Hispanics surpassed Blacks as the largest minority in America? Columbia Journalism Review. Retrieved May 1, 2007, from http://www.projectrace.com/inthenews/archive/inthenews-022703.php.
Schraufnagel, T. J., Wagner, A. W., Miranda, J., & Roy-Byrne, P. P. (2006). Treating minority patients with depression and anxiety: What does the evidence tell use? General Hospital Pyschiatry, 28, 27–36.Find this resource:
Suro, R., & Singer, A. (2002). Latino growth in metropolitan America: Changing patterns, new locations. The Brookings Institution, Survey Series, Census 2000. Retrieved April 13, 2007, from http://www.brookings.edu/metro/publications/surosingerexsum.htm.
Suro, F., Escobar, G., Livingstone, G., & Hakimzadeh, S. (2007). Changing faiths: Latinos and the transformation of American religion. Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. Retrieved May 3, 2007, from http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=75.
Tafoya, S. (2003). Latinos and racial identification in California. California Counts: Population Trends and Profiles, 4(4), 1–15. Retrieved May 3, 2007, from http://www.ppic.org/content/pubs/cacounts/CC_503STCC.pdf.Find this resource:
Tafoya, S. (2004, December). Shades of belonging. Retrieved May 3, 2007, from http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=35.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2002). AFCARS, Report 8. Washington, DC: Author.Find this resource:
Vasquez, C. (2005, Summer). An interview with Dr. Carmen Vasquez. Salud Mental, 1(3), pp. 1, 18–22. http://www.mhnews-latino.org/back_issues/saludsummer2005.pdf.Find this resource:
Vega, W., & Alegría, M. (2001). Latino mental health and treatment in the United States. In M. Aguirre-Molina, C. Molina, & R. Zambrana (Eds.), Health issues in the Latino community (pp. 179–208). New York: Jossey-Bass.Find this resource:
Vega, W. A., Kolody, B., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alderete, E., Catalano, R., & Caraveo-Anduaga, J. (1998). Lifetime prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders among urban and rural Mexican Americans in California. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 771–778.Find this resource:
Weaver, T. (2001). Time, space and articulation in the economic development of the U.S.—Mexico border region from 1940–2000. Human Organization, 60(2). Retrieved April 24, 2007, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3800/is_200107/ai_n8955786.Find this resource:
Wolfe, E. (1959). Sons of the shaking earth. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Find this resource:
Zamora-Hernandez, C. E., & Patterson, D. G. (1996). Homosexually active Latino men: Issues for social work practice. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 5, 69–92.Find this resource:
Zhang, A. Y., & Snowden, L. R. (1999). Ethnic characteristics of mental disorders in five U.S. communities. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 5, 134–146.Find this resource: | <urn:uuid:5b784032-b105-41dd-b148-0fec7e254342> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2020-45",
"url": "https://oxfordre.com/socialwork/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.001.0001/acrefore-9780199975839-e-574",
"date": "2020-10-26T01:51:10",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107890108.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20201026002022-20201026032022-00143.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9217770099639893,
"token_count": 11370,
"score": 3.796875,
"int_score": 4
} | 11,370 |
In order to understand more about how meteorologists predict the weather, you should learn more about the messages the clouds carry regarding the future forecast. Even though they differentiate the clouds into three distinctive families, meteorologists also include other details in the clouds' names to ensure that the forecast is as accurate as possible. For instance, the cumulus mediocris refers to a cloud formation, part of the cumulus family and can usually be found at a lower to medium level height in the atmosphere.
How do cumulus mediocris clouds look like?
Because they are part of the cumulus category, you can recognize these clouds as the inflated formations of white with different shades of grey. Even though they sometimes include shades of grey, there are few chances that these clouds will bring precipitations. The puffy appearance of these clouds can be explained by the fact that they are as big upright as they are wide. While their vertical height cannot be correctly appreciated by a ground observer, most people will recognize them as the clouds with an even looking base.
What height are the cumulus mediocris clouds found?
The mediocris clouds can usually be found around two thousand to four thousand feet high in the troposphere. However, since the altitude variation depends on the amount of humidity that can be found in the air, they can also be located at fifteen hundred and ten thousand feet high in the atmosphere. It is important to note that these clouds are considered the link between the water vapor saturated lower clouds and the ones found at very high altitudes.
How common are cumulus mediocris clouds?
Since they are very common for warm climates and season, they are mostly formed due to convection. Consequentially, during the day these clouds will be noticed in the morning and in the afternoon. However, in windy areas they seem to break up in smaller formations, a variation of the mediocris clouds known as fractus. The other adaptations from the cumulus mediocris that can form according to the weather conditions include:
- Cumulus congestus
- Cumulus praecipitatio
- Cumulus humilis
How are the cumulus mediocris clouds formed?
Similar to most clouds, the mediocris clouds form due to warm air rising, a process known as convection. Overall, in order for them to form they need large areas that emanate hot air which rises in the atmosphere in a shape of a bubble. As the hot bubbles of air lift up higher and higher in the atmosphere, they will start to cool down gradually at a rate of about ten degrees per kilometer of ascent. On a side note, these clouds can transform into cumulus congestus only when there is enough moisture in the air. Therefore, this phenomenon is not very common in deserts or arid areas of the globe.
Where can I see cumulus mediocris clouds?
Usually, these clouds appear in any region of the world, they form anywhere they can find the right aforementioned weather conditions. The only area that does not have enough warm air to promote these clouds formation is the South Pole. | <urn:uuid:12a25e55-9527-4679-9150-dc8f05e88f48> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2017-17",
"url": "http://namesofclouds.com/cumulus/cumulus-mediocris.html",
"date": "2017-04-23T15:51:18",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-17/segments/1492917118713.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20170423031158-00122-ip-10-145-167-34.ec2.internal.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9541926980018616,
"token_count": 634,
"score": 3.921875,
"int_score": 4
} | 634 |
Rome wasn't built in a day. Rome known as the Eternal City was the first in the ancient world to reach 1 Million residents. Ancient Rome was the capital of an empire of ~70 millions inhabitants, but little is known about the ancestral origins of ancient Romans and expansion of Roman empire across ancient Europe, Asia and the Mediterranean region. Contemporary accounts and archaeological evidence indicated that with the expansion of empire, tight connections between Rome and other parts of the empire built through trade, military campaigns, new roads and slavery. However, those records provide limited information about the genetic constituents of the population. Ancient skeleton’s DNA samples and next generation sequencing technologies have been used previously to fill gaps in other regions of the world related to human history. Rome presented an interesting opportunity to use the same ancient DNA techniques and sequencing technologies to fill in details related to human history. Using ancient DNA and next generation sequencing technologies, an international team from US, Austria and Italy studied the genetic ancestry of individuals migrated through Rome since the Mesolithic period. In just few centuries the Roman Empire had expanded west to Britain, south into North Africa and east into Syria and Iraq. The study, published in Science, involved the sequencing of genomes of ancient individuals from various archaeological sites in Rome and other parts of central Italy spanning the past 12000 years. The investigators observed two major prehistoric ancestry transitions, one with the introduction of farming and other prior to the Iron Age. The sequencing data revealed individuals with ancestry from other parts of Europe, the Near East, North Africa, coinciding with trade and an increased movement of populations. Data also revealed a major shift in the Neolithic between hunter gatherers and farmers. Before founding of Rome, the genetic composition of the region approximated that of modern Mediterranean populations. During the Imperial period, there was net immigration from the Near East, followed by an increase in genetic contributions from Europe.
To accomplish the research goals and to find out what the genetic makeup looked like, investigators extracted DNA from the 127 powdered petrous bone samples. The bone samples were collected from 29 archaeological sites in Rome and central Italy and dated a few hundred years to 12000 years old between the Stone Age and medieval times. The isolated DNA samples were processed and sequenced using next generation sequencing technologies. The ancient individuals represented Mesolithic, Neolithic, Copper Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age period. The individuals also represented the Roman Republic, Imperial Rome, Late Antiquity, and Medieval Period. The DNA sequencing was done at an average depth of just over 1-fold. The analysis of sequencing data resulted in broad genetic clusters aligning up with hunter-gatherers, early farmers, and post-Bronze Age individuals. Highly variable ancestries were observed for Iron Age individuals suggesting migration from multiple places into the region during this period. Data analysis revealed that Iron Age individuals genetically resemble modern European and Mediterranean individuals and display diverse ancestries as central Italy becomes increasingly connected to distant communities through new networks of trade, colonization, and conflict. The investigators also detected ancestry from Near Eastern populations and migration from other parts of Europe. Genetic changes reflected the gene flow from across the Mediterranean, Europe and North Africa. The authors state that "These high levels of ancestry diversity began prior to the founding of Rome and continued through the rise and fall of the empire, demonstrating Rome's position as a genetic crossroads of peoples from Europe and the Mediterranean". In future, the researchers plan to expand the geographic range of ancient DNA samples that would allow them to answer how ancient populations mixed and moved around. The team also plan to study the evolution of traits like height, lactose tolerance and resistance to diseases such as malaria. | <urn:uuid:d6d9ecaf-4385-4d78-a561-a898178ebf14> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2021-43",
"url": "https://mrdnalab.com/genetic-history-of-rome.html",
"date": "2021-10-27T04:19:36",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323588053.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20211027022823-20211027052823-00540.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9446027874946594,
"token_count": 736,
"score": 4.0625,
"int_score": 4
} | 736 |
Presentation on theme: "ROLE OF STANDARDS IN FOOD SAFETY Dr. R. K. Bajaj Bureau of Indian Standards."— Presentation transcript:
ROLE OF STANDARDS IN FOOD SAFETY Dr. R. K. Bajaj Bureau of Indian Standards
IMPORTANCE OF FOOD "God comes to the hungry in the form of food” – Mahatma Gandhi. Food is essential to nourish any living being. Our physical and mental health also depends on the food we eat. Access to good quality and safe food has been man's main endeavour from the earliest days of human existence.
FOOD SAFETY FOOD SAFETY is non-negotiable basic requirement of food quality.
FOOD SAFETY By definition, Food Safety is the condition that ensures that food will not cause any harm to the consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use. It implies absence or acceptable and safe levels of contaminants, adulterants, naturally occurring toxins or any other substance that may make food injurious to health.
GRAVITY OF SITUATION Since, every person eats food, every person is at risk of foodborne illness. As per a UNICEF report, in India an estimated 4,00,000 children below five years age die each year due to diarrhoea. Several millions more suffer from multiple episodes of diarrhoea. Still others fall ill on account of hepatitis A, enteric fever, etc. As per a WHO report, diarrhoeal diseases alone, a considerable proportion of which is foodborne, kill 1.9 million children every year most of these deaths occur in developing countries. A large proportion of these cases are attributed to poor hygiene and contamination of food and drinking water.
WTO-SPS AGREEMENT Agreement on Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) relating to protection of human, animal and plant health and life is extremely relevant to food safety and quality issues in international trade. The SPS Agreement covers all relevant laws, decrees, regulations; testing, inspection certification and approval procedures; packaging and labelling requirements directly related to food safety and encourages use of standards where they exist.
ROLE OF STANDARDS The main objectives behind formulation of standards include: Promoting public health by reducing the risk of food borne illness; Protecting consumers from unsanitary, unwholesome, mislabelled or adulterated food; and Providing a sound regulatory foundation for domestic and international trade in food.
ROLE OF STANDARDS Standardization results in harmonization of working procedures. Standardization provides benefits to manufacturer’s, consumers and service providers alike in various ways such as sustainable development, safety of products and services delivered.
ROLE OF STANDARDS The current legislative requirements have put tremendous emphasis on food hygiene, Good Manufacturing Practices, Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), Food Safety Management Systems (FSMS) and nutritional labeling.
BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS (BIS) National Standards body of India Constituted under the Bureau of Indian Standards Act, 1986 as a statutory body and works under the aegis of Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution, Govt. of India. Objectives Harmonious development of the activities of Standardization, Quality and Certification
Some Statistics for Food & Agriculture Department (as on 1 st April 2012) Total Number of Standards in Force 1870 Standards with Eco-Requirement 88 Total IS harmonized with ISO 222 Total IS harmonized with Codex 104 Total Standards under BIS Certification 172
Product Standards – 1187 Tests Methods – 363 Code of Practices – 156 Terminology – 39 Dimension – 1 Symbols – 4 Others – 120 TOTAL– 1870 Some Statistics for Food & Agriculture Department (as on 1 st April 2012)
CONCLUSION Food Safety is a complex process. Requires involvement of all stakeholders. A majority of our food businesses small and cottage scale units are grey area. Standards have immense potential to safeguard public health and also promote the confidence of the consumer on entire gamut of food industry, if implemented efficiently. Implementation of these standards can give rise to exceptional improvements in food safety performance, but requires high level of commitment and full functional involvement of all stakeholders, particularly the industry. | <urn:uuid:0b7e6655-ef68-428f-bc19-6a4efdd07734> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2020-34",
"url": "https://slideplayer.com/slide/4404320/",
"date": "2020-08-12T04:09:09",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-34/segments/1596439738864.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200812024530-20200812054530-00362.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8947926759719849,
"token_count": 879,
"score": 3.53125,
"int_score": 4
} | 879 |
77 rows · Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common behavioral disorder diagnosed in roughly 10 percent of school-aged children and adolescents. There are three main subgroups of ADHD: Predominantly inattentive ADHD: inattention is the main characteristic, daydreaming is common. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder is a mental health disorder that is usually diagnosed during xvibrator.xyzing to The American Psychiatric Association, 5% of children in the U.S. have ADHD, although studies have reported rates as high as 11%. Childhood ADHD persists into adulthood ADHD for about 50% of individuals. Adults with ADHD may have symptoms of restlessness, inattention, and.
rows · Below is a list of common medications used to treat or reduce the symptoms of attention . Jul 06, · Explore information on Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), including signs and symptoms, treatment, current science, and clinical trials. These medications take longer to start working than stimulants, but can also improve focus, attention, and impulsivity in a person with ADHD. a program of Children and Adults with. | <urn:uuid:748ca9d3-3f66-4c94-9e68-5ac31bae4b7a> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2021-25",
"url": "http://xvibrator.xyz/adult/attention-deficit-disorder-adult-medications-55.php",
"date": "2021-06-17T03:04:39",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-25/segments/1623487626465.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20210617011001-20210617041001-00264.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9441741704940796,
"token_count": 230,
"score": 3.640625,
"int_score": 4
} | 230 |
Distributives: each, every, either, neither, another, other. We use a distributive determiner to refer to each element or individual of a group or class, and not to a group or class collectively.
Each and every
These two words have about the same meaning. We use each when we think of people or things seen as separate individuals, and every when we mean every one that together make up the group.
- She wears a ring on each finger except the thumbs.
- Police arrested every member of the armed gang for robbery.
We can use each and every only before a singular countable noun.
- Police questioned each/every member of the family for possible involvement in the murder.
We can use each and every to mean more than two.
- Each /every member at the meeting received a copy of the report.
We can use each to mean two and every to mean three or more.
- Each player in the singles final has a different style of play. (= two players)
- There were cars parked along the sides of every street in town. (= all the streets)
We can use every with uncountable nouns.
He gave me every advice before I went for the climb.
Either and neither
As determiner, either is used to mean one or the other of two people or things, while neither indicates not the one nor the other of two people or things.
- Either parent is going to look for their son’s bully.
- He received injuries on either side of his head from a fight.
- Neither boxer was able to knock the other out.
- Neither one would give in until the other apologized.
Another and other
- The tribal chief has five wives already, and now he wants another one.
- They defused a bomb but didn’t know there’s another one nearby going to explode.
- There are other ways of eliminating rats besides drowning them.
- It’s no use having only one shoe. I don’t know where the other one is. | <urn:uuid:f94db49b-057b-41cb-bf03-6a1046d7de71> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2017-22",
"url": "http://myenglishgrammar.com/lesson-19-determiners-and-quantifiers/4-distributives.html",
"date": "2017-05-24T21:20:46",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-22/segments/1495463607862.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20170524211702-20170524231702-00237.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9633449912071228,
"token_count": 433,
"score": 3.5,
"int_score": 4
} | 433 |
Wireless Networking Protocols Explained
Wireless networks are computer networks that use electromagnetic waves instead of wires to transport signals across the network. Wireless networks that run on top of other wireless networks frequently rely on lower layer networks for security and encryption. Stand-alone wireless networks either provide their own security and encryption or rely on VPNs (Virtual Private Networks) to do so. Multiple layers of security and encryption may be desirable in many cases.
Protocols for Wireless Networking
TCP/IP is a collection of protocols, each with its own set of functions or purposes. These protocols were developed by international standards bodies and are now used in almost all platforms around the world to ensure that all internet devices can communicate successfully. The 802.11 wireless networking protocols have gone through several iterations, with each one outperforming the previous one in terms of capability and speed.
Because not all equipment is compatible with every protocol version, it is critical to understand which protocol version your equipment employs. In general, newer equipment supports the most recent protocol versions, whereas older equipment may not. In most cases, equipment can support multiple protocols. For example, 802.11ac/n/g equipment is compatible with three protocols.
Protocol 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6)
The most recent release of the 802.11 protocols is 802.11ax, also called Wi-Fi 6. It accommodates a growing number of devices and applications by increasing network efficiency to meet mobile and IoT devices.
Wi-Fi 6 features orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA) and is equipped for multiuser multiple-input, multiuser multiple-output (MU-MIMO), which allows more devices to connect simultaneously.
802.11ax delivers greater efficiency and security than previous versions of the protocol. Its theoretical maximum transfer speed is about 10 Gbps—30 percent faster than Wi-Fi 5. 802.11ax is backward compatible with the other protocol versions.
Protocol 802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5)
802.11ac, also known as Wi-Fi 5, now includes Dual Band support in its toolbox. It can use both the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands at the same time. 802.11ac is roughly three times as fast as 802.11n. This protocol supports eight streams, compared to four in 802.11n. Only the 5 GHz band is used by 802.11ac.
Protocol 802.11n (Wi-Fi 4)
802.11n employs multiple-input/multiple-output (MIMO) technology and a wider radio frequency channel than previous generations. It increases the speed and reliability of a wireless local area network (WLAN). Operating at 600 Mbps, it offers 10 times the speed of 802.11g and uses both the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands.
The 802.11g standard improves on the 802.11b standard. It operates on the same crowded 2.4 GHz band as other common household wireless devices, but 802.11g is faster and can transmit data at speeds of up to 54 Mbps. 802.11g equipment can still communicate with 802.11b equipment. However, combining the two standards is not usually advised.
The frequency range used by the 802.11a standard is different. 802.11a devices face less competition and interference from household devices because they only broadcast at 5 GHz. 802.11a, like the 802.11g standard, can support transmission speeds of up to 54 Mbps.
The 802.11b wireless standard was the first to be widely adopted in homes and businesses. Its introduction is attributed to the increased popularity of hotspots and staying connected while travelling. 802.11b equipment was relatively inexpensive and was built into many laptops.
The unregulated 2.4 GHz frequency range is used by the 802.11b wireless communication standard. Unfortunately, many other devices, such as cordless phones and baby monitors, can cause wireless network traffic to be disrupted.
The maximum speed for 802.11b communications is 11 Mbps, which has been far exceeded in newer versions of the protocol.
Frequently Asked Questions About Wireless Network.
What is a wireless LAN?
A WLAN is a type of Local Area Network (LAN) that communicates and transmits data via high-frequency radio waves rather than wires. It is a versatile data communication system that can be used as an extension or replacement for a wired LAN.
What is IEEE 802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11a?
IEEE 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11a, 802.11n, 802.11ac wave 1 and 802.11ac wave 2 are industry standard specifications issued by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). These specifications define the proper operation of Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs).
What data rates are available with a WLAN network connection?
802.11b WLANs operate at speeds up to 11 Mbps. 802.11a and 802.11g WLANs operate at speeds up to 54Mbps. 802.11n WLANs can operate up to 600Mbps. 802.11ac WLANs can operate up to 6.77 Gbps.
Will the wired network provide better speed?
Yes, whenever you can you should use the wired network to do your work.
How fast is a wireless connection to the campus network?
The 802.11b standard will no longer be supported by CCRI. With the current 802.11ac wave1 standard installed and configured, the maximum bandwidth any one device can achieve is 600Mbps at most (i.e. if you’re right next to the access point and the only user). However, you almost never reach your top speed. This is due to a variety of factors. Some of these factors include: the type of device you are using, the number of users connected to the AP you are connected to, the signal strength you are currently using, and the number of streams your device can handle with your current AP. Because all users within range of an access point share that bandwidth, you’ll only get the fastest speed if you’re the only one in range. Furthermore, as you move away from the access point and the signal weakens, the system will automatically slow down to provide more dependable data transfer (sort of like speaking slower so people will understand you better).
Will WLANs receive interference from other wireless devices or other WLANs?
Because radio-based wireless LANs are unlicensed, other products (for example, 2.4 GHz cordless phones, microwave ovens, garage door openers, and Bluetooth devices) that transmit energy in the same frequency spectrum as a WLAN system can potentially interfere with it. Although older microwave ovens pose a risk, most WLAN manufacturers design their products to accommodate microwave interference. When two WLANs are in close proximity to each other, RF interference can occur. This problem is usually solved by assigning each WLAN to a different RF channel within the allowed frequency range.
What is a MAC address?
The Wireless Ethernet Adapter’s Media Access Control (MAC) address is a unique serial number assigned to the device by the manufacturer. Every network device, whether wired or wireless, has a unique MAC address.
Will I need an account to connect?
Yes, faculty, staff, and students can connect to the wireless network by using their MyCCRI username and password. The Public can connect to the CCRI_Guest wireless network and use the self-service sign in process to get connected for the day.
Is a Router or Switch required to set up a wireless LAN that does not connect to the internet but instead uses an Access Point?
Access Points are classified into two types. Both have the same goal: to convert wireless frames, known as 802.11 frames, that travel over the air as wireless packets into Ethernet 802.3 frames and send them on their way over the wired network.
What else the device can do distinguishes an Enterprise-Class access point from a SoHo-Class access point. The Access Point in an Enterprise AP always drops packets directly onto the wired network, and other devices on the wired network move the packets around the network, including to the Internet.
They have added functionality to a SoHo Access Point. So these types of home office devices also convert from 802.11 to 802.3, but they also have other networking features, such as a small internal switch with 4-5 additional Ethernet ports. They may also include an internal Router for routing packets from a local area network or the Internet. Other services, such as DHCP to assign IP addresses and DNS to help devices find things on the network, are usually available.
Because they have more features, you might expect ‘all-in-one’ devices to be more expensive. However, the opposite is true. Home devices are very cheap and can do a lot of things… but only for a few client devices. They are designed for a limited number of users. Enterprise access points, on the other hand, are designed to do one thing for hundreds of client devices. Other features of enterprise access points include manageability, the ability to collaborate with other Access Points to improve the RF environment, and so on. These are 4-10 times the price of SoHo APs. | <urn:uuid:0845f4ce-864d-438a-a876-97ed05f24d95> | {
"dump": "CC-MAIN-2022-27",
"url": "https://download.zone/wireless-networking-protocols/",
"date": "2022-07-03T08:13:08",
"file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656104215805.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20220703073750-20220703103750-00331.warc.gz",
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.925693690776825,
"token_count": 1937,
"score": 3.890625,
"int_score": 4
} | 1,937 |
Subsets and Splits