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25,978,191	Chelsea on the Rocks	Chelsea on the Rocks is a documentary film directed by Abel Ferrara about the Hotel Chelsea. The film features Ferrara interviewing people who have and had lived at the hotel, intercut with dramatized footage of some famous events that took place there. During the film's interviews and docudrama Gaby Hoffmann, Dennis Hopper, Robert Crumb, Adam Goldberg and Bijou Phillips make appearances. The film premiered at the 2008 Cannes Film Festival out of competition, and opened in theatres on October 2, 2009.	Chelsea on the Rocks is a documentary film directed by Abel Ferrara about the Hotel Chelsea. The film features Ferrara interviewing people who have and had lived at the hotel, intercut with dramatized footage of some famous events that took place there. During the film's interviews and docudrama Gaby Hoffmann, Dennis Hopper, Robert Crumb, Adam Goldberg and Bijou Phillips make appearances. The film premiered at the 2008 Cannes Film Festival out of competition, and opened in theatres on October 2, 2009. Reception On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 71% based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 6.92/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "Abel Ferrara's loving portrait of New York's Chelsea Hotel is less interested in telling the story of its famous residents than in exploring the magic of the place that housed so many moments in rock history". References External links Official website Chelsea on the Rocks at IMDb Chelsea on the Rocks at Rotten Tomatoes	[ "Entertainment" ]
22,912,981	Tom Mercer	Tom Mercer (born November 10, 1964) is a former professional tennis player from the United States. Mercer enjoyed most of his tennis success while playing doubles. During his career, he made the finals in two doubles events. He achieved a career-high doubles ranking of World No. 112 in 1993.	Tom Mercer (born November 10, 1964) is a former professional tennis player from the United States. Mercer enjoyed most of his tennis success while playing doubles. During his career, he made the finals in two doubles events. He achieved a career-high doubles ranking of World No. 112 in 1993. Career finals Doubles (2 runner-ups) External links Tom Mercer at the Association of Tennis Professionals Tom Mercer at the International Tennis Federation	[ "Sports" ]
40,661,814	Esarhaddon's Treaty with Ba'al of Tyre	Esarhaddon's Treaty with Ba'al is an Assyrian clay tablet inscription describing a treaty between Esarhaddon (reigned 681 to 669 BC) and Ba'al of Tyre. It was found in the Library of Ashurbanipal. The first fragment published, K 3500, was published in the mid-nineteenth century. It was identified as a combined tablet by Hugo Winckler in his Altorientalische Forschungen, II ("Ancient Near Eastern Studies") in 1898.The treaty was part of a large two-column tablet containing an account of Esarhaddon's conquest of Eber Nari. Under the terms of the treaty, Esarhaddon entrusted Baal with several settlements, including Akko, Dor, and Byblos.	Esarhaddon's Treaty with Ba'al is an Assyrian clay tablet inscription describing a treaty between Esarhaddon (reigned 681 to 669 BC) and Ba'al of Tyre. It was found in the Library of Ashurbanipal. The first fragment published, K 3500, was published in the mid-nineteenth century. It was identified as a combined tablet by Hugo Winckler in his Altorientalische Forschungen, II ("Ancient Near Eastern Studies") in 1898.The treaty was part of a large two-column tablet containing an account of Esarhaddon's conquest of Eber Nari. Under the terms of the treaty, Esarhaddon entrusted Baal with several settlements, including Akko, Dor, and Byblos. The third column has received the most focus from scholars. The text is below: Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, these cities which... The royal deputy whom I have appointed over you, ... the elders of your country, ... the royal deputy ... with them ... the ships ... do not listen to him, do not ... without the royal deputy; nor must you open a letter which I send you without the presence of the royal deputy. If the royal deputy is absent, wait for him and then open it, do not... If a ship of Ba'al or of the people of Tyre (KUR.ṣur-ri) is shipwrecked off the coast of the land of Pilistu (KUR.pi-lis-ti) or anywhere on the borders of Assyrian territory, everything that is on the ship belongs to Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, but one must not do any harm to any person on board ship, they should list their names and inform the king of Assyria... These are the ports of trade and the trade roads which Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, granted to his servant Ba'al; toward Akko (URU.a-ku-u), Dor (URU.du-uʾ-ri), in the entire district of Pilistu (KUR.pi-lis-te), and in all the cities within Assyrian territory, on the seacoast, and in Byblos (URU.gu-ub-lu), across the Lebanon (KUR.lab-na-[na]), all the cities in the mountains, all the cities of Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, which Esarhaddon, king of Assyria gave to Ba'al ..., to the people of Tyre (KUR.ṣur-ri), in their ships or all those who cross over, in the towns of Ba'al, his towns, his manors, his wharves, which ..., to ..., as many as lie in the outlying regions, as in the past ... they..., nobody should harm their ships. Inland, in his district, in his manors... External links The Tablet in the British Museum The Assyrian Eponym Canon, George Smith, 1875, page 140 ANET, p533 State Archives of Assyria Online (SAAo) SAA02 005 https://books.google.com/books?id=1zi2i_C1aNkC&pg=PA222 https://www.academia.edu/829037/Did_Nehemiah_Own_Tyrian_Goods_Trade_between_Judea_and_Phoenicia_during_the_Achaemenid_Period https://archive.org/stream/jstor-1507593/1507593#page/n12/mode/1up https://www.jstor.org/stable/23283872 http://cdli.ucla.edu/P336126 == References ==	[ "Language" ]
46,337,286	American School of Tripoli	American School of Tripoli (AST) is an American international school in Tripoli, Libya. It serves grades Pre-Kindergarten through 12.	American School of Tripoli (AST) is an American international school in Tripoli, Libya. It serves grades Pre-Kindergarten through 12. History The school opened on September 18, 2005, with only 2 students. As of 2010 the school had 155 students. The school temporarily closed in 2012 due to the Libyan Crisis and the First Libyan Civil War; it had plans to reopen in 2013. == References ==	[ "Education" ]
23,014,107	Moreith ap Aidan	Moreith ap Aidan was king of Rhufoniog around 520. Nothing is known about his life, aside from rumour that he lived in Castle Greynus.	Moreith ap Aidan was king of Rhufoniog around 520. Nothing is known about his life, aside from rumour that he lived in Castle Greynus.	[ "History" ]
56,113,911	Prasophyllum robustum	Prasophyllum robustum, commonly known as the robust leek orchid, is a species of orchid endemic to Tasmania. It has a single tubular, green leaf and up to thirty greenish-brown flowers with a white labellum. It is only known from a single population of about fifty plants, its numbers having been reduced by land clearing.	Prasophyllum robustum, commonly known as the robust leek orchid, is a species of orchid endemic to Tasmania. It has a single tubular, green leaf and up to thirty greenish-brown flowers with a white labellum. It is only known from a single population of about fifty plants, its numbers having been reduced by land clearing. Description Prasophyllum robustum is a terrestrial, perennial, deciduous, herb with an underground tuber and a single tube-shaped leaf which is 300–850 mm (10–30 in) long and 5–6 mm (0.20–0.24 in) wide near its dark red to purple base. Between fifteen and thirty greenish-brown to brownish flowers are loosely arranged along a flowering spike which is 150–250 mm (6–10 in) long reaching to a height of 400–1,100 mm (20–40 in). The flowers are 15–20 mm (0.6–0.8 in) long and wide and as with other leek orchids, are inverted so that the labellum is above the column rather than below it. The dorsal sepal is lance-shaped to egg-shaped, about 9.5–11 mm (0.37–0.43 in) long, about 5 mm (0.2 in) wide and has about four dark brown striations. The lateral sepals are linear to lance-shaped, 10–12 mm (0.4–0.5 in) long, about 2.5 mm (0.1 in) wide and spread widely apart from each other. The petals are linear, 10–11 mm (0.39–0.43 in) long, about 2.5 mm (0.1 in) wide and whitish with a brown line along the centre. The labellum is white, egg-shaped to lance-shaped, 11–13 mm (0.4–0.5 in) long, about 6 mm (0.2 in) wide and turns sharply back on itself near its middle. The edges of the outer part of the labellum have crinkled or wavy edges and there is a raised, fleshy, green, channelled callus in its centre and extending to the bend. Flowering occurs in November and December. Taxonomy and naming The robust leek orchid was first formally described in 1940 by William Henry Nicholls who gave it the name Prasophyllum patens var. robustum from a specimen collected at Smithton. The description was published in The Victorian Naturalist. In 1998, Mark Clements and David Jones raised the variety to species status. The specific epithet (robustum) is a Latin word meaning "hard and strong like oak". Distribution and habitat Prasophyllum robustum grows with shrubs and grasses in forest. It is only known from a single population of about fifty plants and the Smithton population appears to be extinct. Other populations have been lost due to land clearing for agriculture. Conservation The only remaining population of P. robustum is on private property with the current owners taking steps to preserve the species. Potential threats include land clearing, grazing by horses and inappropriate fire regimes. References External links Data related to Prasophyllum robustum at Wikispecies	[ "Life" ]
46,370,143	Aaron Iba	Aaron Iba (born June 18, 1983) is an American computer programmer and entrepreneur. He is known for co-authoring Etherpad, co-founding AppJet, and for his work as a partner in Y Combinator. Iba graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 2005 with a degree in Mathematics.	Aaron Iba (born June 18, 1983) is an American computer programmer and entrepreneur. He is known for co-authoring Etherpad, co-founding AppJet, and for his work as a partner in Y Combinator. Iba graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 2005 with a degree in Mathematics. Background Iba grew up in Lexington, Massachusetts and then attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. It was there that he teamed up with David Greenspan to win the annual Battlecode programming competition in 2003. Iba and Greenspan would go on to attend the Y Combinator program, where they created AppJet and Etherpad. Iba would go on to become a partner in Y Combinator, and was named "one of the best hackers among the YC alumni".Iba is also an Angel investor in over 10 companies, including Meteor, PlanGrid, and Light Table. AppJet/Etherpad In 2007, Iba co-founded AppJet, a company providing JavaScript development and hosting tools. AppJet received funding from notable investors including Paul Graham, Paul Buchheit, Trevor Blackwell, Mitch Kapor and Scott Banister.AppJet failed to gain traction with developers, but in 2009 the company used its own tools to launch Etherpad, the first web-based realtime collaborative text editor.In 2009, AppJet was acquired by Google for an undisclosed sum. The Etherpad technology and team were merged into the Google wave project. Y Combinator In 2011, Iba became one of 6 full-time partners in Y Combinator, where he oversaw and participated in numerous investments in startup companies. In 2013, Iba left Y Combinator to found PayGarden, an alternative payments company borne out of insights he gleaned as an investor in various online merchants. == References ==	[ "Technology" ]
38,867,333	Helen Morgenthau Fox	Helen Morgenthau Fox (May 27, 1884 – January 13, 1974) was an American botanist and author of popular gardening books.	Helen Morgenthau Fox (May 27, 1884 – January 13, 1974) was an American botanist and author of popular gardening books. Biography Helen Morgenthau Fox was born in New York City, New York. Her father was United States Ambassador to Turkey Henry Morgenthau Sr., and her brother was Henry Morgenthau Jr. In 1905, Fox graduated from Vassar College before studying at the New York Botanical Garden (NYBG) She married architect, banker, and landscape artist Mortimer J. Fox in 1906. During her adult life, she lived in Bedford, New York on a 20-acre property named High Low Farm.Fox wrote a variety of gardening books from 1927 to 1973 and wrote articles for The New York Times. In 1949, She translated French naturalist and missionary, Abbe David's journals from his trip to China in 1866 to 1869. In 1934, Fox helped design and guide the herb garden at The Cloisters in Manhattan. She lectured extensively on gardening around the world, speaking for the United States Department of Agriculture and at garden clubs and universities. Fox was also featured on radio and television programs.Fox died in Mount Kisco, New York. Selected publications Gardens and Gardening, a Selected List of Books (1927) Garden Cinderellas: How to Grow Lilies in the Garden (1928) Patio Gardens (1929) What Spain Can Teach Us About Gardening (1929) Jean C. N. Forestier (1931) Gardens to See in Travels Abroad (1931) More Gardens To See When Traveling Abroad' (1931) Gardens in Hawaii (1931) Gardening with Herbs for Flavor and Fragrance (1933) Low Growing Native American Flowering Trees (1944) The Aging Garden (1948) Abbe David's Diary (1949) A visit to California Gardens and Gardeners (1957) André Le Nôtre: Garden Architect to Kings (1962) Adventure in My Garden (1965) Gardening with Herbs (1970) Gardening for Good Eating (1973 reprint of 1943 edition) The Years in my Herb Garden (1953) == References ==	[ "Academic_disciplines" ]
880,668	Jiandao	Jiandao or Chientao, known in Korean as Gando or Kando (Korean: 간도), is a historical border region along the north bank of the Tumen River in Jilin Province, Northeast China that has a high population of ethnic Koreans. The word "Jiandao" , literally "Middle Island", originally referred to a shoal in Tumen River between today's Chuankou Village, Kaishantun in Longjing, Jilin, China and Chongsŏng, Onsong County in North Korea. The island was an important landmark for immigrants from the Korean Peninsula looking for settlements across the river. As the number of immigrants increased, the area covered by the name "Jiandao" gradually changed to reflect the areas of Korean settlement.In the early 20th century, an expanding Japanese Empire argued that ethnic Koreans living in this area should be placed under its jurisdiction. As one of its first set of attempts to annex northeast China and conquer other parts of mainland China, Imperial Japanese forces in Korea invaded Jiandao in 1907, but Japan withdrew its forces to Korea in 1909 and, under diplomatic pressure from China, recognized the border along Tumen River that had existed before the invasion.The Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture of present-day Jilin Province covers roughly the same region as historical Jiandao.	Jiandao or Chientao, known in Korean as Gando or Kando (Korean: 간도), is a historical border region along the north bank of the Tumen River in Jilin Province, Northeast China that has a high population of ethnic Koreans. The word "Jiandao" , literally "Middle Island", originally referred to a shoal in Tumen River between today's Chuankou Village, Kaishantun in Longjing, Jilin, China and Chongsŏng, Onsong County in North Korea. The island was an important landmark for immigrants from the Korean Peninsula looking for settlements across the river. As the number of immigrants increased, the area covered by the name "Jiandao" gradually changed to reflect the areas of Korean settlement.In the early 20th century, an expanding Japanese Empire argued that ethnic Koreans living in this area should be placed under its jurisdiction. As one of its first set of attempts to annex northeast China and conquer other parts of mainland China, Imperial Japanese forces in Korea invaded Jiandao in 1907, but Japan withdrew its forces to Korea in 1909 and, under diplomatic pressure from China, recognized the border along Tumen River that had existed before the invasion.The Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture of present-day Jilin Province covers roughly the same region as historical Jiandao. The prefecture is approximately 42,000 square kilometers in size and is home to about 810,000 ethnic Koreans.In China, Yanbian is the name used, and Jiandao is not used, due to its association with Japanese colonial occupation. Both North Korea and South Korea recognize the region as a part of the People's Republic of China, but there are some liberal and left-wing nationalist elements in South Korea that endorse the idea that the region should be a part of modern-day Korea. These groups claim what happened in Jiandao between 1907–1909 (Japan's invasion and subsequent withdrawal) was an illegal transfer of Korean territory between Japan and China. History Many different states and tribes succeeded each other in ruling the area during ancient times. These included Buyeo, Goguryeo and Goguryeo's successor state Balhae. Goguryeo was a country that controlled northern Korea and southern Manchuria, being widely regarded as one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Balhae was a state that existed in the area during the Tang dynasty in China and the Unified Silla Period in Korea. China emphasizes Balhae's temporary tributary relationship to the Tang, while Korea emphasizes that Balhae was a successor state and a cultural extension of Goguryeo. Balhae was destroyed by the Khitan Liao dynasty in 926, and was formally annexed in 936. Over the next nine to ten centuries the region was administered by the Liao (Khitans), Jin (Jurchens), Yuan (Mongols), Ming and then the Qing. In 1712, the border between Qing and Joseon was formally demarcated. For years, Qing officials did not allow people to move to Northeastern China, as it believed that should a Han majority government rise again in parts of China south of the Great Wall, the Manchus could retreat to their original homeland. Joseon officials also did not allow its subjects to move to Northeastern China. These governmental regulations, with the general marshy nature of the area, left these lands north of the Tumen River relatively undeveloped and the region was sparsely populated by Manchu tribes for a long time. Qing officials regularly inspected this region and occasional Korean intruders were detained and sent back to Korea. However, by the late 19th century, peasants in northern Korea were migrating to northeast China to flee famine and poverty. More arrived as refugees when Japan invaded Korea in 1894. From 1901, The Korean Empire prepared to take control of Jiandao. In 1901, Korean General Yi Hak-gyun, Diplomat Sands in Korea, and captain Payeur were sent to observe Jiandao. The French envoy, Victor Collin de Plancy, reported that Korean government would benefit by taxing Jiandao's inhabitants, and would increase jobs and influence by sending officials there. He also reported that the Russian legation opposed an invasion because this might cause the loss of Russian territory. In 1901, Korea deployed police in Jiandao, and this continued until 1906. The Korean Government sent Yi Beom-yun, who was not part of the Imperial Korean Army, as a Jiandao observer to invade Jiandao in 1903. In Jiandao, Yi established Sa-po dae, which was a militia consisting of both a righteous army, and Imperial Korean Army. This army fought against Japan during the Russo-Japanese War. In 1904, the Japanese embassy in Korea reported the Korean government as claiming that there was no document that explicitly recorded Jiandao as part of the Qing territory.After the Russo-Japanese War, Japan began the process that led to the formal annexation of Korea. In 1905, the Korean Empire became a protectorate of the Empire of Japan, effectively losing diplomatic rights, and became a part of the Imperial Japan in 1910. In the early 20th century, Korean immigration to Manchuria steadily increased, either from refugees fleeing Japanese rule, or from encouragement by the Japanese government of Korea of emigration to develop the land. Some local Chinese governments welcomed the Korean immigrants, as they were a source of labor and agricultural skill. In the meantime, Japan began to expand into northeast China. One of the regions the Japanese targeted was Jiandao (known in Korean as Gando). The Japanese claimed that Jiandao included territory of four counties (Yanji, Wangqing, Helong and Hunchun) of Jilin Province. The Japanese further claimed ethnic Koreans living in this region should be placed under the jurisdiction of Imperial Japan. The Japanese first infiltrated Jiandao in April 1907 to collect information and data. On August 7, 1907, Japanese troops invaded Jiandao and claimed that the "Jiandao Issue" was "unsettled" (see: Gando Massacre). In the Gando Convention of 1909, Japan affirmed territorial rights of the Qing over Jiandao after the Chinese foreign ministry issued a thirteen-point refutation statement asserting its rightful ownership. Japan agreed to withdraw its invading troops back to Korea in two months. The treaty also contained provisions for the protection and rights of ethnic Koreans under Chinese rule. Nevertheless, there were large Korean settlements and the area remained under significant Japanese influence. Despite the agreement, Koreans in Jiandao continued to be a source of friction between the Chinese and Japanese governments. Japan maintained that all ethnic Koreans were Japanese nationals, subject to Japanese jurisdiction and law, and demanded rights to patrol and police the area. The Qing and subsequent local Chinese governments insisted on its territorial sovereignty over the region.After the Mukden Incident of 1931, the Japanese military (the Kwantung Army) invaded Manchuria. Between 1931 and 1945, Manchuria was under the control of Manchukuo, a Japanese puppet state. From 1934 the area formed a new Jiandao Province of Manchukuo after the old Jilin Province was split into Binjiang, Jiandao and a rump Jilin. This period initiated a new wave of Korean immigration, as the Japanese government actively encouraged (or forced) Korean settlement in order to colonize and develop the region. The Japanese also moved to suppress resistance in the region. Within three and half years (from September 1931 to March 1935), Japanese regular forces and police murdered 4520 people. During and after the 1930s, many ethnic Koreans in the region joined and participated in the Chinese Communist Party.In December 1938, a counterinsurgency unit called the Gando Special Force was organized by the Japanese Kwantung Army to combat communist guerrillas within the region. The top commander of this battalion-size force was Japanese. Historian Philip Jowett noted that during the Japanese occupation of Manchuria, the Gando Special Force had "earned a reputation for brutality and was reported to have laid waste to large areas which came under its rule."On 1 October 1943, Jiandao Province was incorporated as a district into the Dongman Consolidated Province but this district was itself abolished on 28 May 1945 and Jiandao was once again a province. After World War II and the liberation of Korea, many Korean expatriates in the region moved back to Korea, but a significant number remained in Manchuria; descendants of these people form much of the Korean ethnic minority in China today. The area was first nominally part of the Republic of China's new Songjiang Province but with the communist seizure of power in 1949, Sonjiang's borders were changed and Jiandao became part of Jilin. The area is now the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in Jilin. Boundary claims The claims by some of the Korean irredentists over Gando stem from what is perceived as an ambiguity in the original Sino-Korean boundary agreement. After several attempts by the Kangxi Emperor to negotiate the issue, in 1712, the Joseon of Korea and Qing of China agreed to delineate the boundaries of the two countries at the Yalu and Tumen Rivers. The Qing delegation was led by Mukedeng, and the Joseon delegation was led by Pak Kwon, and the two held a joint commission to survey and demarcate the boundaries between the two states. Efforts were taken to locate the sources of the Yalu and Tumen rivers at Baekdu Mountain. Owing to Pak's age, they agreed for Mukedeng's team to ascend the summit alone. Mukedeng's team quickly identified the source of the Yalu, but identification for the Tumen proved more complicated. At last a spot was decided, and a stele was erected as a boundary marker. Over the next year, a fence was built to demarcate the areas where the Tumen river ran underground. Pak Kwon was instructed by the Joseon government to retain all territory south of the Yalu and Tumen rivers, a goal he accomplished. However, some Korean officials lamented the loss of claims on areas north of the river and criticized Pak Kwon for not accompanying Mukedeng to the summit. The territorial claims stem from the territories held by Goguryeo and Balhae. Nonetheless, the border remained uncontentious for the next 150 years. Cross-border movements were forbidden, and was punishable by death after trespassers were detained and repatriated back to their respective countries. In the 1870s the Qing government reversed its policy of prohibiting entry to Manchuria, and began allowing Han Chinese settlers into the territory in response to growing Russian encroachment. The area around Gando was opened up to settlement in 1881, but Chinese settlers quickly discovered some Korean farming communities already settled in the area. It was apparent that despite the decreed punishment, severe droughts in northern Korea had motivated Korean farmers to seek new lands. The Jilin general-governor Ming-An's official response was to lodge a protest to the Joseon government and offer to allow the Korean population to stay if they agreed to become Qing subjects and adopt Qing customs and dress. Joseon's response was to encourage the farmers not to register as Qing subjects but to return to Korea within the year.The farmers, unwilling to abandon their homes, argued that because of the ambiguity in the naming of the Tumen river, they were actually already in Korean territory. The Yalu River boundary is of little dispute, but the interpretation of the Tumen River boundary 土門 (토문) causes problems. The name of the river itself originates from the Jurchen word tumen, meaning "ten thousand". The official boundary agreement in 1712 identified the Tumen river using the characters 土門 (Tǔmen) for the phonetic transcription. However, the modern Tumen River is written as 圖們 (Túmen) in modern Chinese and as 豆滿 in both modern Korean (두만 Duman) and Japanese (とまん Toman). Some Koreans hence claim that the "Tumen" referred to in the treaty is actually a tributary of the Songhua River. Under this interpretation, Gando (where the Koreans settled) would be part of Korean territory.This confusion arises as the two names sound identical, and neither name is of Chinese origin. The two rivers can be seen in the following map from the period. Korean claims are based on maps showing the border river as 土門 and the claim that this is a different river than the one used for the modern border. However, it is uncertain which modern river the Korean claim corresponds to, as there is no modern tributary of the Songhua River with that name: Satellite view of same location; Baekdu Mountain, Lake Tianchi, and the Tumen River are visible Satellite view of the Songhua river and Baekdu Mountain, for comparison purposesThis interpretation of the boundary gradually developed into Joseon official policy. O Yunjung, a Korean official appointed to review the claims made by the farmers and investigate the sources of the river, adopted the latter interpretation and declared that the region did not belong to China. Joseon and Qing officials met in 1885 and 1887 to resolve the dispute, but with little result. Korean officials suggested on starting from the stele and tracing the river downwards, while Qing officials proposed starting at the mouth of the Tumen River and moving upstream. From 1905 onwards, Korea came under the influence and control of Japan and was unable to effectively pursue these claims. After the liberation of Korea in 1945, some Koreans believed that Jiandao should be given to Korean rule, but the military control by United States of America in the south and Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in the north hindered any unified Korean claim to the territory. The chaos of the Korean War and the geopolitical situation of the Cold War effectively diminished any opportunity for Koreans to highlight the Gando issue. In 1962, North Korea and China signed the Sino–North Korean Border Treaty, which set the Korean border at Yalu and Tumen, effectively foregoing territorial claims to Gando. South Korea also recognizes this as the boundary between Korea and China. Today, none of the governments involved (North Korea, South Korea, China, or Japan) make the claim that Gando is Korean territory. In addition, there is very little enthusiasm for irredentism among the Korean minority in China. Although there are occasional arguments over historical interpretation, this issue arouses very little emotion or official interest on the part of any of the parties, and relations between China and both Koreas remain warm. In 2004 the South Korean government issued a statement to the effect that it believed that the Gando Convention was null and void. The resultant controversy and strong negative reaction from the PRC led to a retraction of the statement, along with an explanation that its issuance was an "administrative error." A small number of South Korean activists believe that under a unified Korea, the treaties signed by North Korea can be deemed null, allowing the unified Korea to actively seek regress for Gando. However, the current political situation makes this a faint possibility at best. Also, some scholars claim that China's efforts to incorporate the history of Goguryeo and Balhae into Chinese history is an effectively pre-emptive move to squash any territorial disputes that might arise regarding Gando before a unified Korea can claim such or the Korean ethnic minority in the Manchuria region claim to become part of Korea. Images The following maps, made by Korea from the 18th century to the 19th century, show Sino-Korean borders to be aligned along the Yalu and Tumen Rivers, essentially the same as those today (between China and North Korea): However there is an exception in the last map, as it shows the border visibly protruding north of the Tumen River. Some Korean claims to Gando are based on other maps. The following were made by western missionaries. However, the first is explicitly stated as a map of "Quan-Tong Province" (now Liaoning province, China) and Kau-li (Korea), and the second is stated as a map of the Chinese Tartary (la Tartarie Chinoise). Compared to the Korean-made maps above, the coastlines and rivers are also significantly less accurate, but the Sino-Korean border is not placed at the Yalu/Amnok River, which is quite clear in the following maps: Note that two almost identical versions of a first map exists, showing significant differences in the border. One shows the boundaries similar to modern-day province and country borders, while the other shows the Sino-Korean border significantly further north. See also Gando Convention Heaven Lake Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture References Citations Sources Hyun Ok Park (2000). "Korean Manchuria: The Racial Politics of Territorial Osmosis". The South Atlantic Quarterly. 99 (1): 193–215. doi:10.1215/00382876-99-1-193. S2CID 144058997. Andre Schmid (2000). "Looking North toward Manchuria". The South Atlantic Quarterly. 99 (1): 219–240. doi:10.1215/00382876-99-1-219. S2CID 144614553. Notes External links China shock for South Korea	[ "Military" ]
42,774,993	Marc B. Nathanson	Marc B. Nathanson (born May 12, 1945) is an American entrepreneur who has served as the United States ambassador to Norway since 2022. He is best known for his founding of Falcon Cable, which he sold in 1999 for $3.7 billion. He is a member of the Cable TV Hall of Fame, awarded with Inc.s Entrepreneur of the Year and a former chairman of the Broadcasting Board of Governors. In 2008, his net worth was listed as $1.1 billion by Forbes Magazine in their annual The World's Billionaires listing; as of 2021, he no longer made the list.	Marc B. Nathanson (born May 12, 1945) is an American entrepreneur who has served as the United States ambassador to Norway since 2022. He is best known for his founding of Falcon Cable, which he sold in 1999 for $3.7 billion. He is a member of the Cable TV Hall of Fame, awarded with Inc.s Entrepreneur of the Year and a former chairman of the Broadcasting Board of Governors. In 2008, his net worth was listed as $1.1 billion by Forbes Magazine in their annual The World's Billionaires listing; as of 2021, he no longer made the list. Early life and education Nathanson was born in Los Angeles and raised in Glencoe, Illinois and Highland Park, Illinois. His father, Don Paul "D.P." Nathanson was an investor in the radio and cable industry, operated an advertising agency, and was the publisher of Radio Showmanship, a magazine that focused on how to use radio for advertising. His great uncle was Nathan Nathanson, the founder of Famous Players, a Canadian-based film exhibitor and cable television service provider. Nathanson graduated from Highland Park High School and graduated from the University of Denver in 1967. In 1969, he earned a Master of Arts in political science from the University of California, Santa Barbara. Career His first job was as a door-to-door salesman selling cable to people in their homes. In 1969, he took a job with Cypress Communications Corporation (owned by Harriscope Broadcasting) in Los Angeles, California, where he became head of marketing (Cypress was eventually sold to Warner Cable in 1973).After Cypress Communications, Nathanson became vice-president of marketing and programming for TelePrompTer Corporation. In 1973, he left to start his own firm, Falcon Cable, with a self-investment of $25,000. He received a $2 million investment from his father and father-in-law, and $6 million from a bank loan. The first cable systems he ran were in Gilroy, Porterville. Altadena, and San Luis Obispo, California. The umbrella corporation for the cable company and Nathanson's other ventures was Falcon Holding Group, which Nathanson served as president for until 1999. The corporation included Falcon International Communications and Falcon International. He also served as the company's CEO from 1975 until its sale in 1999. From 1988 to 1999 he also served as chief executive officer and president of Enstar Communications Corp, and as chairman of the board for each of the companies.According to the Los Angeles Times, "while many larger cable TV companies have scrambled to wire major metropolitan areas with flashy, 75-channel, state-of-the-art cable TV systems, Falcon has found success in operating no-frills systems in areas that get poor TV reception."The Falcon Group formed in 1984 with Nathanson co-owner of the cable company. According to the Los Angeles Times, the company was formed with other co-owners, including the Mutual Life Insurance of New York, following a $50 million deal for 18 cable systems in seven states that were owned jointly by Warner Communications and American Express. Nathanson was a part of larger mergers between cable entities during the 1990s as well. In 1998 Tele-Communications Inc. took a 47 percent stake in Falcon, and the following year the company was sold to Paul Allen's Charter Communications for $3.7 (initial reports pegged the price closer to $3.6 billion). The deal provided Nathanson with the second largest stock holding among the Charter shareholders. According to the St. Louis Business Journal, the deal made "Charter the fourth-largest cable TV operator in the country, with 5.5 million customers." In 1994, he was Inc. Magazine's Entrepreneur of the Year.Nathanson invested the profits from the sale into his investment firms Mapleton Investments and Mapleton/RDS Real Estate Group, which has investments in industries ranging from radio to real estate to waterless urinal companies with Falcon Waterfree Technologies, which he first invested with in 2000. He is currently chairman of each firm. Falcon Waterfree Technologies is the largest manufacturer of waterless urinals in the world.Nathanson became vice-chairman of Charter Communications upon the sale of Falcon and a director of the board, until 2008. He also served as director of the National Cable & Telecommunications Association and a trustee of the Aspen Institute. He had also previously served as president of the California Cable Television Association, as a member of Cable Pioneers, and founded both the Cable Television Administration and Marketing Society (CTAM) and the Southern California Cable Television Association. In addition he is co-chair of the Pacific Council on International Policy, a member of the Council on Foreign Relations, the World Affairs Council, and several charity boards in Southern California. He is also a member of the board of directors for the Los Angeles Philharmonic. Politics President Bill Clinton appointed Nathanson to a three-year term on the board of governors of international broadcasting of the United States Information Agency in 1998. He served as chairman of the Broadcasting Board of Governors during the Clinton and Bush administrations, is a member of the American Democracy Institute, the U.S. Institute of Peace's International Advisory Council, and the USC Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism. His tenure as chairman of the Broadcasting Board of Governors lasted from 1995 to 2002 and included leading the Broadcasting Board of Governors through its international response to the September 11 attacks. In 2012, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton named Nathanson as her representative to the board of the East–West Center in Honolulu, Hawaii. He is also the vice-chair of the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs and was founding chair of the Homeland Security Advisory Council for Los Angeles." Nathanson was an early supporter of Barack Obama during his 2008 presidential nomination campaign. Ambassador to Norway On October 29, 2021, President Joe Biden nominated Nathanson to be the US Ambassador to Norway. Hearings on his nomination were held before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on April 7, 2022. The committee favorably reported his nomination to the Senate floor on May 4, 2022. The entire Senate confirmed Nathanson via voice vote on May 5, 2022. He presented his credentials to King Harald V on June 16, 2022. Philanthropy Nathanson bequeathed the endowment for the Marc Nathanson Fellowship program at the University of Denver, Nathanson's alma mater; it provides an award to a second-year MA student at the Josef Korbel School of International Studies He also endowed an award known as Nathanson Fellowship at USC.Following a $10 million donation of art to the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the museum named a gallery for him and his wife. He has also served as a trustee for the UCLA Foundation and UCLA Anderson School of Management and USC Annenberg School of Communication. In 2006 they also financed the purchase of a series of prints by Edward Ruscha for LACMA. He has also been a patron and sponsor for exhibitions at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles.The Jane and Marc Nathanson Family Foundation invests charitably and sponsors scientific studies into environmental problems like water shortages and usage efficiency. They are also known for being early supporters of AIDS victims during the early years of the epidemic. At UCLA an endowment produced their namesake Jane and Marc Nathanson Family Professor in Psychiatry chair.On January 20, 2015, LACMA received eight pieces of modern and contemporary art from Nathanson and his wife, Jane (who is also a LACMA trustee and a founder and trustee of the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles); the gift was estimated at over $50 million. The works include Andy Warhol's Two Marilyns silkscreen, James Rosenquist's Portrait of the Scull Family, George Segal's Laundromat, Gilbert and George's Falling, Frank Stella's La Columba Ladra, Julian Schnabel's Fox Farm Painting X, Roy Lichtenstein's Interior with Three Hanging Lamps, Damien Hirst's And Death Will Have His Day and 10 gelatin silver prints. Recognition Nathanson is a member of the Cable TV Hall of Fame and in 1994 he was Inc. Magazine's Entrepreneur of the Year. According to the Milken Institute, "Nathanson is a recipient of Global Green's Millennium Award and the Environmental Media Association's Lifetime Achievement Award for his environmental work." Personal life In 1967, Nathanson married Jane Falleck, a psychologist and philanthropist, whom he met in college. They have two sons, Adam and David, and a daughter, Nicole. Adam is married to Lauren Waisbren in 2010 and is the founder of radio station owner and operator Mapleton Communications. They also have a son named Henry in 2011. David is head of business development for Fox Sports and is married to Sabina Spigel. They had a daughter named Nina in 2010. References External links Appearances on C-SPAN	[ "Economy" ]
193,889	Frank James	Alexander Franklin James (January 10, 1843 – February 18, 1915) was a Confederate soldier and guerrilla; in the post-Civil War period, he was an outlaw. The older brother of outlaw Jesse James, Frank was also part of the James–Younger Gang.	Alexander Franklin James (January 10, 1843 – February 18, 1915) was a Confederate soldier and guerrilla; in the post-Civil War period, he was an outlaw. The older brother of outlaw Jesse James, Frank was also part of the James–Younger Gang. Childhood James was born in Kearney, Missouri, to Baptist minister Reverend Robert Sallee James and his wife Zerelda (Cole) James. The couple came from Kentucky. He was of English, Welsh and Scottish descent. Frank was the oldest of three children. His father died in 1850 and his mother remarried Benjamin Simms in 1852. After his death, she married a third time to Dr. Reuben Samuel in 1855, when Frank was 13 years old. As a child, James showed interest in his late father's sizable library, especially the works of William Shakespeare. Census records show that James attended school regularly, and he reportedly wanted to become a teacher. Civil War The American Civil War began in 1861, when James was eighteen years old. The secessionists in Missouri, including Governor Claiborne Fox Jackson, attempted to drive the Union army out of the state, but were eventually defeated. The James family was from the heavily Confederate western portion of the state. On September 13, 1861, the Missouri State Guard, including private Frank James, besieged Lexington, Missouri. James fell ill and was left behind when the Confederate forces retreated. He surrendered to the Union troops, was paroled, and was allowed to return home. On his arrival, however, he was arrested by the local pro-Union militia and was forced to sign an oath of allegiance to the Union. After the withdrawal of regular Confederate troops in the fall of 1861, a bitter guerrilla conflict soon began between bands of pro-Confederate irregulars (commonly known as bushwhackers) and the Union homeguards. By early 1863, Frank, ignoring his parole and oath of allegiance, had joined the guerrilla band of Fernando Scott, a former saddler. He soon switched to the more active command led by William Clarke Quantrill. Union militiamen searching for Fernando Scott raided the Samuel farm and hanged Dr. Reuben Samuel (though not fatally), Frank's stepfather, torturing him to reveal the location of the guerrillas. Shortly afterward, Frank took part with Quantrill's company in the August 21, 1863, Lawrence Massacre where approximately 200 mostly unarmed civilians were killed. Frank James was paroled July 27, 1865 in Nelson County, Kentucky. There is a report that after his parole, Frank was involved in a gunfight in Brandenburg, Kentucky with four soldiers that resulted in two soldiers killed, one wounded, and Frank wounded in the hip. However, there is an alternative account that claims in the autumn of 1865, Frank, who was in Kentucky going to Missouri, was suspected of stealing horses in Ohio and that Frank shot two members of a posse and escaped. Outlaw/criminal years and retirement During his years as a bandit, James was involved in at least four robberies between 1868 and 1876 that resulted in the deaths of bank employees or citizens. The most famous incident was the disastrous Northfield, Minnesota, raid on September 7, 1876, that ended with the death or capture of most of the gang. Five months after the killing of his brother Jesse in 1882, Frank James boarded a train to Jefferson City, Missouri, where he had an appointment with the governor in the state capitol. Placing his holster in Governor Crittenden's hands, he explained, 'I have been hunted for twenty-one years, have literally lived in the saddle, have never known a day of perfect peace. It was one long, anxious, inexorable, eternal vigil.' He then ended his statement by saying, 'Governor, I haven't let another man touch my gun since 1861.' Accounts say that James surrendered with the understanding that he would not be extradited to Northfield, Minnesota.He was tried for only two of the robberies/murders: one in Gallatin, Missouri, for the July 15, 1881, robbery of the Rock Island Line train at Winston, Missouri, in which the train engineer and a passenger were killed, and the other in Huntsville, Alabama, for the March 11, 1881, robbery of a United States Army Corps of Engineers payroll at Muscle Shoals, Alabama. Among others, former Confederate General Joseph Orville Shelby testified on James's behalf in the Missouri trial. He was acquitted in both Missouri and Alabama. Missouri accepted legal jurisdiction over him for other charges, but they never came to trial. He was never extradited to Minnesota for his connection with the Northfield Raid. His New York Times obituary summarized his arrest and acquittal: In 1882 ... Frank James surrendered in Jefferson City, Missouri. After his surrender James was taken to Independence, Missouri, where he was held in jail three weeks, and later to Gallatin, where he remained in jail a year awaiting trial. Finally James was acquitted and went to Oklahoma to live with his mother. He never was in the penitentiary and never was convicted of any of the charges against him. In the last thirty years of his life, James worked a variety of jobs, including shoe salesman in Nevada, Missouri and then burlesque theater ticket taker in St. Louis. One of the theater's spins to attract patrons was their use of the phrase "Come get your ticket punched by the legendary Frank James." He also served as an AT&T telegraph operator in St. Joseph, Missouri. James took up the lecture circuit, while residing in Sherman, Texas. In 1902, former Missourian Sam Hildreth, a leading thoroughbred horse trainer and owner, hired James as the betting commissioner at the Fair Grounds Race Track, in New Orleans. He returned to the North Texas area where he was a shoe salesman at Sanger Brothers in Dallas. The Tacoma Times reported in July, 1914, that he was picking berries at a local ranch in Washington state, and planned to buy a farm nearby. He was also part of a Chicago investment group which purchased the Fletcher Terrell's Buckskin Bill's Wild West Show, third in size after the Buffalo Bill and Pawnee Bill shows.In his final years, James returned to the James Farm, giving tours for the sum of 25 cents. He died there at age 72 on February 18, 1915. He left behind his wife Annie Ralston James and one son. Portrayals References Further reading Copland, Aaron and Perlis, Vivian: Copland - 1900 Through 1942, St. Martin's/Marek, 1984. Settle, William A., Jr.: Jesse James Was His Name, or, Fact and Fiction Concerning the Careers of the Notorious James Brothers of Missouri, University of Nebraska Press, 1977 Yeatman, Ted P.: Frank and Jesse James: The Story Behind the Legend, Cumberland House, 2001 Stiles, T.J.: Jesse James: Last Rebel of the Civil War, Alfred A. Knopf, 2002 Wellman, Paul I. A Dynasty of Western Outlaws. 1961; 1986. External links Official website for the Family of Frank & Jesse James: Stray Leaves, A James Family in America Since 1650 Archived February 28, 2019, at the Wayback Machine John Koblas, author of several Jesse James books A short profile of the James brothers Biographical information for the James Family The James brothers' familiar connection to other notorious outlaws An examination of the James Legend Summary of the Battle of Wilson's Creek where Frank fought Summary of the Battle of Lexington where Frank fought A history of Missouri during the Civil War A site devoted to the Missouri Partisan Rangers and their history A description of the raid at Lawrence, Kansas	[ "Human_behavior" ]
18,665,993	Corrosion engineering	Corrosion engineering is an engineering specialty that applies scientific, technical, engineering skills, and knowledge of natural laws and physical resources to design and implement materials, structures, devices, systems, and procedures to manage corrosion. From a holistic perspective, corrosion is the phenomenon of metals returning to the state they are found in nature. The driving force that causes metals to corrode is a consequence of their temporary existence in metallic form. To produce metals starting from naturally occurring minerals and ores, it is necessary to provide a certain amount of energy, e.g. Iron ore in a blast furnace.	Corrosion engineering is an engineering specialty that applies scientific, technical, engineering skills, and knowledge of natural laws and physical resources to design and implement materials, structures, devices, systems, and procedures to manage corrosion. From a holistic perspective, corrosion is the phenomenon of metals returning to the state they are found in nature. The driving force that causes metals to corrode is a consequence of their temporary existence in metallic form. To produce metals starting from naturally occurring minerals and ores, it is necessary to provide a certain amount of energy, e.g. Iron ore in a blast furnace. It is therefore thermodynamically inevitable that these metals when exposed to various environments would revert to their state found in nature. Corrosion and corrosion engineering thus involves a study of chemical kinetics, thermodynamics, electrochemistry and materials science. General background Generally related to metallurgy or materials science, corrosion engineering also relates to non-metallics including ceramics, cement, composite material, and conductive materials such as carbon and graphite. Corrosion engineers often manage other not-strictly-corrosion processes including (but not restricted to) cracking, brittle fracture, crazing, fretting, erosion, and more typically categorized as Infrastructure asset management. In the 1990s, Imperial College London even offered a Master of Science degree entitled "The Corrosion of Engineering Materials". UMIST – University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology and now part of the University of Manchester also offered a similar course. Corrosion Engineering master's degree courses are available worldwide and the curricula contain study material about the control and understanding of corrosion. Ohio State University has a corrosion center named after one of the more well known corrosion engineers Mars G Fontana. Corrosion costs In the year 1995, it was reported that the costs of corrosion nationwide in the USA were nearly $300 billion per year. This confirmed earlier reports of damage to the world economy caused by corrosion. Zaki Ahmad, in his book Principles of corrosion engineering and corrosion control, states that "Corrosion engineering is the application of the principles evolved from corrosion science to minimize or prevent corrosion". Shreir et al. suggest likewise in their large, two volume work entitled Corrosion. Corrosion engineering involves designing of corrosion prevention schemes and implementation of specific codes and practices. Corrosion prevention measures, including Cathodic protection, designing to prevent corrosion and coating of structures fall within the regime of corrosion engineering. However, corrosion science and engineering go hand-in-hand and they cannot be separated: it is a permanent marriage to produce new and better methods of protection from time to time. This may include the use of Corrosion inhibitors. In the Handbook of corrosion engineering, the author Pierre R. Roberge states "Corrosion is the destructive attack of a material by reaction with its environment. The serious consequences of the corrosion process have become a problem of worldwide significance."Costs are not only monetary. There is a financial cost and also a waste of natural resources. In 1988 it was estimated that one tonne of metal was converted completely to rust every ninety seconds in the United Kingdom. There is also the cost of human lives. Failure whether catastrophic or otherwise due to corrosion has cost human lives. Corrosion engineering and corrosion societies and associations Corrosion engineering groups have formed around the world to educate, prevent, slow, and manage corrosion. These include the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE), the European Federation of Corrosion (EFC), The Institute of Corrosion in the UK and the Australasian Corrosion Association. The corrosion engineer's main task is to economically and safely manage the effects of corrosion of materials. Notable contributors to the field Some of the most notable contributors to the Corrosion Engineering discipline include among others: Michael Faraday (1791–1867) Marcel Pourbaix (1904–1998) Herbert H. Uhlig (1907–1993) Ulick Richardson Evans (1889–1980) Mars Guy Fontana (1910–1988) Melvin Romanoff ( -1970) Types of corrosion situations Corrosion engineers and consultants tend to specialize in Internal or External corrosion scenarios. In both, they may provide corrosion control recommendations, failure analysis investigations, sell corrosion control products, or provide installation or design of corrosion control and monitoring systems. Every material has its weakness. Aluminum, galvanized/zinc coatings, brass, and copper do not survive well in very alkaline or very acidic pH environments. Copper and brasses do not survive well in high nitrate or ammonia environments. Carbon steels and iron do not survive well in low soil resistivity and high chloride environments. High chloride environments can even overcome and attack steel encased in normally protective concrete. Concrete does not survive well in high sulfate and acidic environments. And nothing survives well in high sulfide and low redox potential environments with corrosive bacteria. This is called Biogenic sulfide corrosion. External corrosion Underground soil side corrosion Underground corrosion control engineers collect soil samples to test soil chemistry for corrosive factors such as pH, minimum soil resistivity, chlorides, sulfates, ammonia, nitrates, sulfide, and redox potential. They collect samples from the depth that infrastructure will occupy, because soil properties may change from strata to strata. The minimum test of in-situ soil resistivity is measured using the Wenner four pin method if often performed to judge a site's corrosivity. However, during a dry period, the test may not show actual corrosivity, since underground condensation can leave soil in contact with buried metal surfaces more moist. This is why measuring a soil's minimum or saturated resistivity is important. Soil resistivity testing alone does not identify corrosive elements. Corrosion engineers can investigate locations experiencing active corrosion using above ground survey methods and design corrosion control systems such as cathodic protection to stop or reduce the rate of corrosion.Geotechnical engineers typically do not practice corrosion engineering, and refer clients to a corrosion engineer if soil resistivity is below 3,000 ohm-cm or less, depending the soil corrosivity categorization table they read. Unfortunately, an old dairy farm can have soil resistivities above 3,000 ohm-cm and still contain corrosive ammonia and nitrate levels that corrode copper piping or grounding rods. A general saying about corrosion is, "If the soil is great for farming, it is great for corrosion." Underwater external corrosion Underwater corrosion engineers apply the same principals used in underground corrosion control but use specially trained and certified scuba divers for condition assessment, and corrosion control system installation and commissioning. The main difference being in the type of reference cells used to collect voltage readings. Corrosion of piles and the legs of oil and gas rigs are of particular concern. This includes rigs in the North Sea off the coast of the United Kingdom and the Gulf of Mexico. Atmospheric corrosion Atmospheric corrosion generally refers to general corrosion in a non-specific environment. Prevention of atmospheric corrosion is typically handled by use of materials selection and coatings specifications. The use of zinc coatings also known as galvanization on steel structures is a form of cathodic protection where the zinc acts as a sacrificial anode and also a form of coating. Small scratches are expected to occur in the galvanized coating over time. The zinc being more active in the galvanic series corrodes in preference to the underlying steel and the corrosion products fil the scratch preventing further corrosion. As long as the scratches are fine, condensation moisture should not corrode the underlying steel as long as both the zinc and steel are in contact. As long as there is moisture, the zinc corrodes and eventually disappears. Impressed current cathodic protection is also used. Splash zone and water spray corrosion The usual definition of a splash zone is the area just above and just below the average water level of a body of water. It also includes areas that may be subject to water spray and mist.A significant amount of corrosion of fences is due to landscaper tools scratching fence coatings and irrigation sprinklers spraying these damaged fences. Recycled water typically has a higher salt content than potable drinking water, meaning that it is more corrosive than regular tap water. The same risk from damage and water spray exists for above ground piping and backflow preventers. Fiberglass covers, cages, and concrete footings have worked well to keep tools at an arm's length. Even the location where a roof drain splashes down can matter. Drainage from a home's roof valley can fall directly down onto a gas meter causing its piping to corrode at an accelerated rate reaching 50% wall thickness within 4 years. It is the same effect as a splash zone in the ocean, or in a pool with lot of oxygen and agitation that removes material as it corrodes.Tanks or structural tubing such as bench seat supports or amusement park rides can accumulate water and moisture if the structure does not allow for drainage. This humid environment can then lead to internal corrosion of the structure affecting the structural integrity. The same can happen in tropical environments leading to external corrosion. This would include Corrosion in ballast tanks on ships. Pipeline corrosion Hazardous materials are often carried in pipelines and thus their structural integrity is of paramount importance. Corrosion of a pipeline can thus have grave consequences. One of the methods used to control pipeline corrosion is by the use of Fusion bonded epoxy coatings. DCVG is used to monitor it. Impressed current cathodic protection is also used. Corrosion in the petrochemical industry The Petrochemical industry typically encounters aggressive corrosive media. These include sulfides and high temperatures. Corrosion control and solutions are thus necessary for the world economy. Scale formation in injection water presents its own problems with regard to corrosion and thus for the corrosion engineer. Corrosion in ballast tanks Ballast tanks on ships contain the fuels for corrosion. Water is one and air is usually present too and the water can become stagnant. Structural integrity is important for safety and to avoid marine pollution. Coatings have become the solution of choice to reduce the amount of corrosion in ballast tanks. Impressed current cathodic protection has also been used. Likewise sacrificial anode cathodic protection is also used. Since chlorides vastly accelerate corrosion, ballast tanks of marine vessels are particularly susceptible. Corrosion in the railway industry It has been stated that one of the biggest challenges in the United Kingdom railway industry is corrosion. The biggest problem is that corrosion can affect the structural integrity of passenger carrying railway carriages thus affecting their crashworthiness. Other railway structures and assets can also affected. The Permanent Way Institution give lectures on the subject periodically. In January 2018 corrosion of a metal structure caused the emergency closure of Liverpool Lime Street railway station. Galvanic corrosion Galvanic corrosion (also called bimetallic corrosion) is an electrochemical process in which one metal (more active one) corrodes preferentially when it is in electrical contact with another dissimilar metal, in the presence of an electrolyte. A similar galvanic reaction is exploited in primary cells to generate a useful electrical voltage to power portable devices – a classic example being a cell with zinc and copper electrodes. Galvanic corrosion is also exploited when a sacrificial metal is used in cathodic protection. Galvanic corrosion happens when there are an active metal and a more noble metal in contact in the presence of electrolyte. Pitting corrosion Pitting corrosion, or pitting, is extremely localized corrosion that leads to the creation of small holes in the material – nearly always a metal. The failures resulting from this form of corrosion can be catastrophic. With general corrosion it is easier to predict the amount of material that will be lost over time and this can be designed into the engineered structure. Pitting, like crevice corrosion can cause a catastrophic failure with very little loss of material. Pitting corrosion happens for passive materials. The classic reaction mechanism has been ascribed to Ulick Richardson Evans. Crevice corrosion Crevice corrosion is a type of localized corrosion with a very similar mechanism to pitting corrosion. Stress corrosion cracking Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the growth of a crack in a corrosive environment. It requires three conditions to take place: 1)corrosive environment 2)stress 3)susceptible material. SCC can lead to unexpected sudden and hence catastrophic failure of normally ductile metals under tensile stress. This is usually exacerbated at elevated temperature. SCC is highly chemically specific in that certain alloys are likely to undergo SCC only when exposed to a small number of chemical environments. It is common for SCC to go undetected prior to failure. SCC usually quite progresses rapidly after initial crack initiation, and is seen more often in alloys as opposed to pure metals. The corrosion engineer thus must be aware of this phenomenon. Filiform Corrosion Filiform corrosion may be considered as a type of crevice corrosion and is sometimes seen on metals coated with an organic coating (paint). Filiform corrosion is unusual in that it does not weaken or destroy the integrity of the metal but only affects the surface appearance. Corrosion fatigue This form of corrosion is usually caused by a combination of corrosion and cyclic stress. Measuring and controlling this is difficult because of the many factors at play including the nature or form of the stress cycle. The stress cycles cause localized work hardening. So avoiding stress concentrators such as holes etc would be good corrosion engineering design. Selective leaching This form of corrosion occurs principally in metal alloys. The less noble metal of the alloy, is selectively leached from the alloy. Removal of zinc from brass is a more common example. Microbial corrosion Biocorrosion, biofouling and corrosion caused by living organisms are now known to have an electrochemistry foundation. Other marine creatures such as mussels, worms and even sponges have been known to degrade engineering materials. Hydrogen damage Hydrogen damage is caused by hydrogen atoms (as opposed to hydrogen molecules in the gaseous state), interacting with metal. Erosion corrosion Erosion corrosion is a form of corrosion damage usually on a metal surface caused by turbulence of a liquid or solid containing liquid and the metal surface. Aluminum can be particularly susceptible due to the fact that the aluminum oxide layer which affords corrosion protection to the underlying metal is eroded away. Hydrogen embrittlement This phenomenon describes damage to the metal (nearly always iron or steel) at low temperature by diffusible hydrogen. Hydrogen can embrittle a number of metals and steel is one of them. It tends to happen to harder and higher tensile steels. Hydrogen cam also embrittle aluminum at high temperatures.). Titanium metal and alloys are also susceptible. High temperature corrosion High-temperature corrosion typically occurs in environments that have heat and chemical such as hydrocarbon fuel sources but also other chemicals enable this form of corrosion. Thus it can occur in boilers, automotive engines driven by diesel or gasoline, metal production furnaces and flare stacks from oil and gas production. High temperature oxidation of metals would also be included. Internal corrosion Internal corrosion is occasioned by the combined effects and severity of four modes of material deterioration, namely: general corrosion, pitting corrosion, microbial corrosion, and fluid corrosivity. The same principals of external corrosion control can be applied to internal corrosion but due to accessibility, the approaches can be different. Thus special instruments for internal corrosion control and inspection are used that are not used in external corrosion control. Video scoping of pipes and high tech smart pigs are used for internal inspections. The smart pigs can be inserted into a pipe system at one point and "caught" far down the line. The use of corrosion inhibitors, material selection, and internal coatings are mainly used to control corrosion in piping while anodes along with coatings are used to control corrosion in tanks. Internal corrosion challenges apply to the following amongst others: Water pipes; Gas pipes; Oil pipes and Water tank reservoirs. Good design to prevent corrosion situations Corrosion engineering involves good design. Using a rounded edge rather than an acute edge reduces corrosion. Also not coupling by welding or other joining method, two dissimilar metals to avoid galvanic corrosion is best practice. Avoiding having a small anode (or anodic material) next to a large cathode (or cathodic material) is good practice. As an example, weld material should always be more noble than the surrounding material. Corrosion in ballast tanks on marine vessels can be an issue if good design is not undertaken. Other examples include simple design such as material thickness. In a known corrosion situation the material can just be made thicker so it will take much longer to corrode. Material selection to prevent corrosion situations Correct selection of the material by the design engineer affects the design life of a structure. Sometimes stainless steel is not the correct choice and carbon steel would be better. There is a misconception that stainless steel has excellent corrosion resistance and will not corrode. This is not always the case and should not be used to handle deoxygenated solutions for example, as the stainless steel relies on oxygen to maintain passivation and is also susceptible to crevice corrosion.Galvanizing or hot-dip galvanizing is used to coat steel with a layer of metallic zinc. Lead or antimony are often added to the molten zinc bath, and also other metals have been studied. Controlling the environment to prevent corrosion situations One example of controlling the environment to prevent or reduce corrosion is the practice of storing aircraft in deserts. These storage places are usually called aircraft boneyards. The climate is usually arid so this and other factors make it an ideal environment. Use of corrosion inhibitors to prevent corrosion An inhibitor is usually a material added in a small quantity to a particular environment that reduces the rate of corrosion. They may be classified a number of ways but are usually 1) Oxidizing; 2) Scavenging; 3) Vapor-phase inhibitors; Sometimes they are called Volatile corrosion inhibitor 4) Adsorption inhibitors; 5) Hydrogen-evolution retarder. Another way to classify them is chemically. As there is more concern for the environment and people are more keen to use Renewable resources, there is ongoing research to modify these materials so they may be used as corrosion inhibitors. Use of coatings to prevent corrosion A coating or paint is usually a fluid applied covering applied to a surface in contact with a corrosive situation such as the atmosphere. The surface is usually called the substrate. In corrosion prevention applications the purpose of applying the coating is mainly functional rather than decorative. Paints and lacquers are coatings that have dual uses of protecting the substrate and being decorative, but paint on large industrial pipes as well as preventing corrosion is also used for identification e.g. red for fire-fighting control etc. Functional coatings may be applied to change the surface properties of the substrate, such as adhesion, wettability, corrosion resistance, or wear resistance. In the automotive industry, coatings are used to control corrosion but also for aesthetic reasons. Coatings are also extensively used in marine environments to control corrosion in an oceanic environment. Corrosion will eventually breakthrough a coating and so have a design life before maintenance. See also References Further reading Ahmad, Zaki (2006). Principles of corrosion engineering and corrosion control. Institution of Chemical Engineers (1st ed.). Boston, MA: Elsevier/BH. ISBN 978-0-08-048033-6. OCLC 147962712. Madkour, Loutfy H. INDUSTRIAL CORROSION AND CORROSION CONTROL TECHNOLOGY. Brett CMA, Brett AMO, ELECTROCHEMISTRY, Principles, methods, and applications, Oxford University Press, (1993) ISBN 0-19-855389-7 Jones, Denny A. (1996). Principles and prevention of corrosion. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-359993-0. OCLC 32664979. Fontana, Mars G (2005). Corrosion engineering (3rd ed.). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill. p. 278-280. ISBN 0070607443. OCLC 225414435. P. E., Philip A. Schweitzer (2009). "Fundamentals of Corrosion". Corrosion Technology: 5. C. L. Page; P. B. Bamforth; J. W. Figg, eds. (1996). Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete construction. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, Information Services. ISBN 0-85404-731-X. OCLC 35233292. Papers presented at the Fourth International Symposium on 'Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete Construction', held at Robinson College, Cambridge, UK, 1-4 July 1996. Materials science. J. C. Anderson (4th ed.). London: Chapman and Hall. 1990. ISBN 0-412-34150-6. OCLC 22361400.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link) Corrosion - 2nd Edition (elsevier.com) Volume 1and 2; Editor: L L Shreir ISBN 9781483164106 A.W. Peabody, Peabody's Control of Pipeline Corrosion, 2nd Ed., 2001, NACE International. ISBN 1-57590-092-0 Ashworth V., Corrosion Vol. 2, 3rd Ed., 1994, ISBN 0-7506-1077-8 Baeckmann, Schwenck & Prinz, Handbook of Cathodic Corrosion Protection, 3rd Edition 1997. ISBN 0-88415-056-9 Roberge, Pierre R, Handbook of Corrosion Engineering 1999 ISBN 0-07-076516-2 Gummow, RA, Corrosion Control of Municipal Infrastructure Using Cathodic Protection. NACE Conference Oct 1999, NACE Materials Performance Feb 2000 Schweitzer, Philip A. (2007). Corrosion engineering handbook. Fundamentals of metallic corrosion: atmospheric and media corrosion of metals (2nd ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-8244-4. OCLC 137248972. Schweitzer, Philip A. (2007). Corrosion engineering handbook. Corrosion of polymers and elastomers (2nd ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-8246-8. OCLC 137248977. Schweitzer, Philip A. (2007). Corrosion engineering handbook. Corrosion of linings and coatings: cathodic and inhibitor protection and corrosion monitoring (2nd ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-8248-2. OCLC 137248981. Yongchang Huang; Jianqi Zhang (2018). Materials corrosion and protection. Shanghai. ISBN 978-3-11-038295-2. OCLC 1024052058.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)	[ "Engineering" ]
8,376,001	G-Police: Weapons of Justice	G-Police: Weapons of Justice is a combat flight simulation video game and sequel to G-Police, developed by Psygnosis exclusively for PlayStation.	G-Police: Weapons of Justice is a combat flight simulation video game and sequel to G-Police, developed by Psygnosis exclusively for PlayStation. Plot After the corporation wars of the first game, Slater is now a veteran pilot within the G-Police. However, the gangs that lay dormant during the battles between Nanosoft and G-Police have now emerged once again, and the weakened G-Police are struggling to contain them. The United Earth Marine Corps has sent units to assist in enforcing peace upon Callisto, but until they arrive Slater has to do his best to fight the tide. And when the Marines do arrive, the trouble is only just beginning... After initially aiding the G-Police in their battles against the gangs, the Marines suddenly turn against them. Commander Grice of the Marines, now in control of his own army, attempts to quickly crush the G-Police and take over Callisto, and then move to attack Earth itself. Slater and the G-Police manage to resist and, with the help of Earth-loyal Marine defectors, then beat back his revolution. Grice sabotages the communication devices that allow the colony to communicate with Earth. Grice retreats from Callisto and heads for the safety of space, but Slater leads the assault of a small force of space-capable vessels, Corsairs stolen from the Marine bases, and attempts to destroy Grice's fleet as it retreats. However, despite capturing the Barrosa and using it to cripple the Talavera, G-Police are simply too few to prevent Grice from escaping on his third battleship, the Excelsior. The Marine force continue to head towards Earth - and the G-Police have no way of warning the homeworld in time. Despite the odds, Slater and his crew prepare to follow Grice and hope to delay or outrun him as they both race for Earth. Gameplay For the most part, the game handles only slightly differently from the original: the controls have been changed slightly to allow vehicles to strafe and fire two weapons at once, although they can no longer lock on to enemy craft, retreat and bombard them with missiles from afar. Missions are once again linear - they must be completed in a certain order, and key objectives must be achieved or the mission is failed. They are accompanied by secondary missions which are optional. The greatest change comes in the form of the three new vehicles: as well as the Havoc and Venom gunships, there is the Rhino (an armed car, which was playable in a training level for G-Police but lacked the armament that it boasts in Weapons of Justice), the Raptor (a heavily armed and armoured bipedal tank, capable of jumping and gliding) and the Corsair (a Marine spaceship, used in the final levels to pursue Grice's armada beyond the atmosphere). The mission dictates which vehicle must be used - the player cannot decide for themselves. The game has 25 weapons, the majority of which are unique to specific vehicles. The vehicles primary cannon can be fired with the Square button and has an infinite amount of ammunition, although they do need to recharge after extended periods of use. The Circle button uses the ships secondary weapons, such as bombs, missiles (both guided and unguided), rockets or an electronic jammer. Throughout the game, the player is often accompanied by a wingman or an armoured ground team. These can be used as a weapon by locking on to targets and pressing the secondary fire button. The game also has 35 different types of enemy vehicle to engage. They come in different forms, such as SAM systems, corsairs, armoured APCs, droids and large Gunboats. 30 missions are included in the game, all of which must be completed in a linear order. They vary greatly from patrolling the domes of Callisto, protecting important assets, carrying out bombing raids or simply engaging and destroying enemy forces. Weapons of Justice also includes new training and special missions, unrelated to the game's plot (with several exceptions which act as bonus material between the main missions), as well as bonus artwork and features which are unlocked by progressing through the game and fulfilling secondary missions. Reception The game received above-average reviews according to the review aggregation website GameRankings. Rick Sanchez, writing for IGN, praised the design and production values. Joe Fielder of GameSpot was more critical, citing repetitive and slow gameplay. However, Jeffrey Adam Young of NextGen said, "It seems G-Police: Weapons of Justice was designed to be a very complex and full game, but in the process, the designers forgot to make the game playable as well."Four-Eyed Dragon of GamePro said of the game in one review, "Fans of the original G-Police might want to rent the game for a night; otherwise, Weapons of Justice isn't even worth a badge of commendation." However, iBot said in another review, "This G-Police brings nothing new to the action genre, and with almost no dramatic storyline or character interaction, there is nothing really compelling enough to make you pick up the Weapons of Justice." Notes References External links G-Police: Weapons of Justice at MobyGames	[ "Universe", "Mathematics" ]
17,139,973	Order of battle: Hundred Regiments Offensive	Hundred Regiments Offensive Aug 20 – Dec 5, 1940	Hundred Regiments Offensive Aug 20 – Dec 5, 1940 China 18th Group Army – Deputy Commander Peng Dehuai 129th Division 47 regiments 120th Division 22 regiments 115th Division 46 regimentsTotal: 115 Regiments, variously estimated between 70,000 and 300,000 men. Actual communist strike regiments exerted to the campaign would total about 22 regiments. Japan Japanese Northern China Area Army – Lieutenant General Hayao Tada 15th Independent Mixed Brigade [ Hebei, Peiking area] 27th Division [ Hebei, Tientsin area] 7th Independent Mixed Brigade [ Shandong, Huimin area] 110th Division [Hebei, Baoding area] 8th Independent Mixed Brigade [Hebei, Shijiazhuang area] - Major General Mizuhara 1st Independent Mixed Brigade [Hebei, Handan area] Mongolian Army [HQ: Chahar, Zhangjiakou] 26th Division [ Suiyuan, Datong area] 2nd Independent Mixed Brigade [Chahar, Zhangjiakou area] 1st Army [ Shanxi, Taiyuan] 36th Division [Shanxi, Lu'an area] 3rd Independent Mixed Brigade [Shanxi, Shanheng (山亨) county area] 4th Independent Mixed Brigade [Shanxi, Yangquan area] - Lieutenant General Katayama 9th Independent Mixed Brigade [Shanxi, Taiyuan area] 41st Division [Shanxi, Linfen area]Collaborationist Chinese forces ? Notes Sources Tetsuya Kataoka, Resistance and Revolution in China, The Communists and the Second United Front, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS, Berkeley, Los Angeles, Oxford The Battle of One Hundred Regiments [2] 抗日战争时期的侵华日军序列沿革 (Order of battle of the Japanese army that invaded China during the Sino Japanese War) [3] RESISTANCE WARS: Hundred Regiment Campaign	[ "Military" ]
49,879,306	Nisha Ayub	Nisha Ayub (born April 5, 1979) is a Malaysian transgender rights activist. Ayub is the co-founder of the community-run SEED Foundation and transgender grassroots campaign Justice for Sisters and she was awarded the prestigious International Women of Courage Award in 2016.	Nisha Ayub (born April 5, 1979) is a Malaysian transgender rights activist. Ayub is the co-founder of the community-run SEED Foundation and transgender grassroots campaign Justice for Sisters and she was awarded the prestigious International Women of Courage Award in 2016. Early life Nisha Ayub was born in Malacca, Malaysia, on April 5, 1979. She is of mixed maternal Indian, Ceylonese and paternal Malay descent. Nisha has memories of when she was a child and used to wear a “selendang” (shawl) while dancing to Bollywood songs. Nisha was raised by her mother Christian family after her father's death when she was six years old. Her mother is a Muslim convert. At nine years old, Nisha participated in a fancy dress competition, as a ballerina wearing a black dress and a wig. At the time, she realized that was the real Nisha. Biography As a transgender woman, Nisha has faced law enforcement where Islamic sharia laws are enforced. Under a provision of Sharia (Islamic law) a male person is prohibited from dressing or behaving like a woman and appearing in public that way. Violation of this is punishable by a fine of 1,000 ringgit (approximately US$257) and a jail term for period of six months to a year. Sharia law is enforced by the state Islamic religious departments. Under this law, Ayub was imprisoned for three months in 2000. While Nisha was imprisoned in a male prison, the warden and other prisoners sexually assaulted her. Ayub said of her time in the prison: "They asked me to strip naked in front of everyone. They made fun of me, because my body doesn’t conform to what men and women are supposed to be.”Ayub, through non-governmental organizations, counsels people, provides training to develop professional careers, addresses their health and welfare issues and provides them legal support. Legacy Nisha Ayub was honored with Human Rights Watch's Alison Des Forges Award for Extraordinary Activism in 2015 for her bold action opposing the Malaysian laws that were detrimental to the interest of people to live in peace without being harmed and oppressed. She also received the International Women of Courage Award in 2016, becoming the first openly transgender woman to receive that award.In 2016, San Diego declared April 5 to be Nisha Ayub Day in the US city. In the proclamation, San Diego mayor Kevin L. Faulconer said: "Nisha Ayub continues to fight for the equality and protection of all people in her country and beyond its borders."In 2018, a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Agriculture of University Putra Malaysia, Leena Wong alongside lead study author Patrick Krug from California State University, Los Angeles, discovered a new species of sea slug that camouflages itself as seaweed, and upon confirmation that it was indeed a new species, named it Sacoproteus nishae after Nisha. The sea slug was named so due to its ability to camouflage itself after seaweed calling "it the best example of an animal masquerading as a plant". In 2019, Nisha became the only Malaysian on the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) 100 Women of 2019 list. She was recognised by BBC for her work in assisting the local transgender community. Awards and accolades References External links Justice for Sisters official website The SEED Foundation Official Website	[ "Concepts" ]
9,121,541	List of airports in Namibia	This is a list of airports in Namibia, sorted by location.	This is a list of airports in Namibia, sorted by location. List of airports Airport names shown in bold indicate the airport has scheduled service on commercial airlines. See also Transport in Namibia List of airports by ICAO code: F#FY – Namibia Wikipedia: WikiProject Aviation/Airline destination lists: Africa#Namibia References "ICAO Location Indicators by State" (PDF). International Civil Aviation Organization. 2006-01-12."UN Location Codes: Namibia] [includes IATA codes". UN/LOCODE 2006-2. UNECE. 2007-04-30. External links Namibia Airports Company Great Circle Mapper	[ "Lists" ]
34,993,036	Samuel Foster Haven	Samuel Forster Haven (May 28, 1806 – September 5, 1881) was an American archeologist and anthropologist.	Samuel Forster Haven (May 28, 1806 – September 5, 1881) was an American archeologist and anthropologist. Biography Haven was born to Judge Samuel and Betsy Haven in Dedham, Massachusetts on May 28, 1806. He took a degree from Amherst College, then studied law at Harvard Law School, and then commenced a legal practice in Dedham and Lowell, Massachusetts.Haven had a keen interest in the history of New England before the Revolution, and began publishing papers in 1836. His interest then turned towards the archeology of the Americas. In September 1837 he was appointed librarian of the American Antiquarian Society, located in Worcester, Massachusetts. He began his duties as librarian in April 1838, and in October of that same year, he was elected a member of the society. Haven became one of the society's longest serving librarians from 1838 to 1881, and also served on its board of councilors from 1855 to 1881. Haven was particularly interested in research of the indigenous people of North America, including those referred to as the Mound Builders.He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1865.The Smithsonian Institution commissioned Haven to write a consolidation of then current archeological knowledge. The Institution published Haven's Archaeology of the United States in 1855. It was his only book. The result of his travels and studies, it proposed an ancient origin of the native peoples of the Americas and of their migration from Siberia. Haven died in Worcester on September 5, 1881. == References ==	[ "Humanities" ]
482,863	Free-tailed bat	The Molossidae, or free-tailed bats, are a family of bats within the order Chiroptera. The Molossidae is the fourth-largest family of bats, containing about 110 species as of 2012. They are generally quite robust, and consist of many strong-flying forms with relatively long and narrow wings with wrinkled lips shared through their genus. Their strong flying form allows them to fly 60 miles per hour using tail winds and at altitudes over 10,000 feet. This makes them unique among bats, as they are the only bat family that withstands the elevation.	The Molossidae, or free-tailed bats, are a family of bats within the order Chiroptera. The Molossidae is the fourth-largest family of bats, containing about 110 species as of 2012. They are generally quite robust, and consist of many strong-flying forms with relatively long and narrow wings with wrinkled lips shared through their genus. Their strong flying form allows them to fly 60 miles per hour using tail winds and at altitudes over 10,000 feet. This makes them unique among bats, as they are the only bat family that withstands the elevation. They are widespread, being found on every continent except Antarctica. They are typically found in caves, abandoned mines, or tunnels. Common ancestry The family's scientific name comes from the type genus Molossus, which in turn is from the Molossus breed of dogs.The family's common name is derived from a length of "free" tail, projecting beyond the end of the uropatagium—the membrane that connects the base of the tail to the hind legs. Another common name for some members of this group, and indeed a few species from other families, is mastiff bat. The western mastiff bat (Eumops perotis), a large species from the southwestern United States and Mexico with wings over 0.5 m (1.6 ft) across, is perhaps one of the best known with this name. They are widespread, being found on every continent except Antarctica. Anatomy The tail is usually best seen when resting. A special ring of cartilage slides up or down the tail vertebrae by muscular action to stretch or retract the tail membrane. This gives many species a degree of fine tuning in their flight maneuvers to rival their day-flying ecological equivalents, such as swifts, swallows, and martins. As a result, these animals include the fastest-flying of all bat species among their number. The dental formula of free-tailed bats varies between species: 1.1.1-2.2-31-3.1.2.3 Free-tailed bats are usually grey, brown, or black in color, with some exceptions. They range from 4 to 12 cm (1.6 to 4.7 in) in length, excluding the tail, and can weigh from 8 to 220 g (0.28 to 7.76 oz), depending on species. They are insectivorous, and catch their food on the wing. While some species roost in small groups in hollow trees or rocky crevices, some cave-dwelling species form vast colonies of up to 50 million individuals.Molecular sequence data support the monophyly of the Molossidae as a whole, but not that of many of its genera, such as Chaerephon, Mops, Mormopterus, and Tadarida. The grouping of Chaerephon minus C. jobimena plus Mops was found to be monophyletic, as was Otomops. Systematics A 2012 study attempted to show the relationships of genera within the subfamily Molossinae (the other subfamily of Molossidae, Tomopeatinae, only contains the blunt-eared bat). This study used genetic data to create a phylogeny, which contrasted from previous phylogenies constructed using morphological data. Traits that were previously used to group species, such as having a flat skull, were shown to have no relation to evolutionary relationship, meaning that flat-headedness evolved multiple times within the family. Of the 16 genera of Molossinae, 15 were used to create the phylogeny (left), with researchers unable to include Peters's flat-headed bat, the only member of Platymops. The results of this study showed that Chaerephon is paraphyletic, forming a clade with Mops. There was strong support for Old World and New World clades. While the genus Tadarida has one New World species, the Mexican free-tailed bat, the genus itself has its origins in the Old World. The most recent common ancestor of Tadarida with New World genera was 29 million years ago. Several tribes have been proposed within the Molossinae. Ammerman et al. proposed Molossini (containing Molossus, Eumops, Molossops, Cynomops, Neoplatymops, Nyctinomops, and Promops); Tadarini (containing Tadarida, Chaerephon, Mops, Platymops, Sauromys, Myopterus, and Otomops); Cheiromelini (containing Cheiromeles); and Mormopterini (containing Mormopterus) Classification The 18 genera contain about 100 species: FAMILY MOLOSSIDAE Genus †Cuvierimops Genus †Nyctinomus Genus †Potamops Genus †Rhizomops Genus †Wallia Subfamily MolossinaeGenus Chaerephon – lesser mastiff bats Duke of Abruzzi's free-tailed bat, Chaerephon aloysiisabaudiae Ansorge's free-tailed bat, Chaerephon ansorgei Gland-tailed free-tailed bat, Chaerephon bemmeleni Spotted free-tailed bat, Chaerephon bivittata Fijian mastiff bat, Chaerephon bregullae Chapin's free-tailed bat, Chaerephon chapini Gallagher's free-tailed bat, Chaerephon gallagheri Northern freetail bat, Chaerephon jobensis Black and red free-tailed bat, Chaerephon jobimena Northern free-tailed bat, Chaerephon johorensis Grandidier's free-tailed bat, Chaerephon leucogaster Lappet-eared free-tailed bat, Chaerephon major Nigerian free-tailed bat, Chaerephon nigeriae Wrinkle-lipped free-tailed bat, Chaerephon plicata Little free-tailed bat, Chaerephon pumilus Russet free-tailed bat, Chaerephon russata Solomons mastiff bat, Chaerephon solomonis São Tomé free-tailed bat, Chaerephon tomensis Genus Cheiromeles – naked bats, or hairless bats Greater naked bat, Cheiromeles torquatus Lesser naked bat, Cheiromeles parvidens Genus Cynomops Cinnamon dog-faced bat, Cynomops abrasus Freeman's dog-faced bat, Cynomops freemani Greenhall's dog-faced bat, Cynomops greenhalli Mexican dog-faced bat, Cynomops mexicanus Para dog-faced bat, Cynomops paranus Southern dog-faced bat, Cynomops planirostris Genus Eumops – mastiff bats, or bonneted bats Black bonneted bat, Eumops auripendulus Dwarf bonneted bat, Eumops bonariensis Big bonneted bat, Eumops dabbenei Fierce bonneted bat, Eumops ferox Florida bonneted bat, Eumops floridanus Wagner's bonneted bat, Eumops glaucinus Sanborn's bonneted bat, Eumops hansae Guianan bonneted bat, Eumops maurus Patagonian bonneted bat, Eumops patagonicus Western mastiff bat, Eumops perotis Colombian bonneted bat, Eumops trumbulli Underwood's bonneted bat, Eumops underwoodi Wilson's bonneted bat, Eumops wilsoni Genus Mormopterus Subgenus Mormopterus Natal free-tailed bat, Mormopterus acetabulosus Moutou's free-tailed bat, Mormopterus francoismoutoui Sumatran mastiff bat, Mormopterus doriae Peters's wrinkle-lipped bat, Mormopterus jugularis Kalinowski's mastiff bat, Mormopterus kalinowskii Little goblin bat, Mormopterus minutus Incan little mastiff bat, Mormopterus phrudus Subgenus Micronomus Beccari's mastiff bat, Mormopterus beccarii Bristle-faced free-tailed bat, Mormopterus eleryi Loria's mastiff bat, Mormopterus loriae East-coast free-tailed bat, Mormopterus norfolkensis Southern free-tailed bat, Mormopterus planiceps Genus Molossops – broad-faced bats Equatorial dog-faced bat, Molossops (Cabreramops) aequatorianus Rufous dog-faced bat, Molossops neglectus Dwarf dog-faced bat, Molossops temminckii Genus Molossus – velvety free-tailed bats Alvarez's mastiff bat, Molossus alvarezi Aztec mastiff bat, Molossus aztecus Barnes' mastiff bat, Molossus barnesi Coiban mastiff bat, Molossus coibensis Bonda mastiff bat, Molossus currentium Velvety free-tailed bat, Molossus molossus Miller's mastiff bat, Molossus pretiosus Black mastiff bat, Molossus rufus Sinaloan mastiff bat, Molossus sinaloae Genus Mops – greater mastiff bats Subgenus Xiphonycteris Spurrell's free-tailed bat, Mops spurrelli Dwarf free-tailed bat, Mops nanulus Peterson's free-tailed bat, Mops petersoni Sierra Leone free-tailed bat, Mops brachypterus Bakari's free-tailed bat, Mops bakarii Railer bat, Mops thersites Subgenus Mops Angolan free-tailed bat, Mops condylurus White-bellied free-tailed bat, Mops niveiventer Mongalla free-tailed bat, Mops demonstrator Malayan free-tailed bat, Mops mops Sulawesi free-tailed bat, Mops sarasinorum Trevor's free-tailed bat, Mops trevori Medje free-tailed bat, Mops congicus Midas free-tailed bat, Mops midas Niangara free-tailed bat, Mops niangarae Medje free-tailed bat, Mops congicus Malagasy white-bellied free-tailed bat, Mops leucostigma Genus Myopterus Daubenton's free-tailed bat, Myopterus daubentonii Bini free-tailed bat, Myopterus whitleyi Genus Nyctinomops – New World free-tailed bats Peale's free-tailed bat, Nyctinomops aurispinosus Pocketed free-tailed bat, Nyctinomops femorosaccus Broad-eared bat, Nyctinomops laticaudatus Big free-tailed bat, Nyctinomops macrotis Genus Neoplatymops Mato Grosso dog-faced bat, Neoplatymops mattogrossensis Genus Otomops – big-eared free-tailed bats Javan mastiff bat, Otomops formosus Johnstone's mastiff bat, Otomops johnstonei Madagascar free-tailed bat, Otomops madagascariensis Large-eared free-tailed bat, Otomops martiensseni Big-eared mastiff bat, Otomops papuensis Mantled mastiff bat, Otomops secundus Wroughton's free-tailed bat, Otomops wroughtoni Genus Platymops Peters's flat-headed bat, Platymops setiger Genus Promops – domed-palate mastiff bats Big crested mastiff bat, Promops centralis Brown mastiff bat, Promops nasutus Genus Sauromys Roberts's flat-headed bat, Sauromys petrophilus Genus Tadarida – free-tailed bats Egyptian free-tailed bat, Tadarida aegyptiaca Mexican free-tailed bat, Tadarida brasiliensis Madagascan large free-tailed bat, Tadarida fulminans East Asian free-tailed bat, Tadarida insignis La Touche's free-tailed bat, Tadarida latouchei Kenyan big-eared free-tailed bat, Tadarida lobata European free-tailed bat, Tadarida teniotis African giant free-tailed bat, Tadarida ventralis Genus Austronomus White-striped free-tailed bat, Austronomus australis New Guinea free-tailed bat, Austronomus kuboriensis Subfamily TomopeatinaeGenus Tomopeas Blunt-eared bat, Tomopeas ravus References Further reading Corbet, G. B.; Hill, J. E. (1992). The Mammals of the Indomalayan Region: A Systematic Review. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198546931. Mohd-Azlan, J.; Maryanto, I.; Kartono, A. P.; Abdullah, M. T. (2003). "Diversity, relative abundance and conservation of chiropterans in Kayan Menterang National Park, East Kalimantan, Indonesia". Sarawak Museum Journal. 53 (79): 251–265. Hall, L. S.; Richards, G. C.; Abdullah, M. T. (2002). "The bats of Niah National Park, Sarawak". Sarawak Museum Journal. 78: 255–282.	[ "Communication" ]
29,647,639	The Slim Dusty Movie	The Slim Dusty Movie is a 1984 Australian feature film directed by Rob Stewart and starring Slim Dusty, Joy McKean, Jon Blake and Mary Charleston.	The Slim Dusty Movie is a 1984 Australian feature film directed by Rob Stewart and starring Slim Dusty, Joy McKean, Jon Blake and Mary Charleston. The film The film dramatises the early life and career of Australian country music singer/songwriter Slim Dusty, interspersed with footage of a 1980s round Australia tour by the Slim Dusty family and featuring several songs from Dusty's long career, including Pub With No Beer, When the Rain Tumbles Down in July, Lights on the Hill and Indian Pacific. Slim Dusty was Australia's most prolific musical artist, who died in 2003 while working on his 106th album for EMI Records. His wife Joy McKean and children Anne Kirkpatrick and David Kirpatrick are all accomplished country music singers who perform in the film on stage with Dusty. A number of Dusty's songwriters and old friends appear in the film, including Stan Coster and Gordon Parsons. Directed by Rob Stewart (whose credits include 1983's For the Term of His Natural Life) and with cinematography by David Eggby (Mad Max, 1979), the film features Australian landscapes prominently and is essentially a biographical documentary. Shot in diverse locations, it includes live performances at the Sydney Opera House, Bowen, Charters Towers, Mount Isa, the Peppimenarti, Northern Territory aboriginal settlement and elsewhere. Cast and crew Director: Rob Stewart Producer: Kent Chadwick Cinematography: David Eggby Music Producer: Rod Coe Audio Post: Roger Savage Sound Recordist: Paul Clarke Sound Assistant: Chris Piper Concert Sound Mixer: Clive Jones Slim Dusty as himself Joy McKean as herself Anne Kirkpatrick as herself David Kirkpatrick as himself Brett Lewis as Shorty Ranger Dean Stidworthy as Young Slim Dusty Jon Blake as Young Slim Dusty Mary Charleston as Young Heather McKean Earl Francis as the Country Radio announcer Jeanette Leigh as Milkbar waitress Sandy Paul as Young Joy McKean Beverley Phillips as Slim's mother Jimmy Sharman as himself Tom Travers as Slim's father James Wright as City Radio announcer Box office The Slim Dusty Movie grossed $225,000 at the box office in Australia. Soundtrack A soundtrack was released from the movie. It peaked at number 73 on the Australian Kent Music Report. Track listing LP/Cassette Release history See also Cinema of Australia References External links The Slim Dusty Movie at IMDb The Slim Dusty Movie at Oz Movies The Slim Dusty Movie is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive	[ "Entertainment" ]
261,082	Roger Bigod, 2nd Earl of Norfolk	Roger Bigod (c. 1144/1150 – 1221) was the son of Hugh Bigod, 1st Earl of Norfolk and his first wife, Juliana de Vere. Although his father died in 1176 or 1177, Roger did not succeed to the earldom of Norfolk until 1189 for his claim had been disputed by his stepmother for her sons by Earl Hugh in the reign of Henry II. King Richard I confirmed him in his earldom and other honours, and also sent him as an ambassador to France in the same year. Roger inherited his father's office as royal steward. He took part in the negotiations for the release of Richard from prison, and after the king's return to England became a justiciar.	Roger Bigod (c. 1144/1150 – 1221) was the son of Hugh Bigod, 1st Earl of Norfolk and his first wife, Juliana de Vere. Although his father died in 1176 or 1177, Roger did not succeed to the earldom of Norfolk until 1189 for his claim had been disputed by his stepmother for her sons by Earl Hugh in the reign of Henry II. King Richard I confirmed him in his earldom and other honours, and also sent him as an ambassador to France in the same year. Roger inherited his father's office as royal steward. He took part in the negotiations for the release of Richard from prison, and after the king's return to England became a justiciar. During the Revolt of 1173–74, Roger remained loyal to the king while his father sided with the king's rebellious sons. Roger fought at the Battle of Fornham on 17 October 1173, where the royalist force defeated a rebel force led by Robert de Beaumont, 3rd Earl of Leicester.In most of the years of the reign of King John, the earl was frequently with the king or on royal business. Yet Roger was to be one of the leaders of the baronial party which obtained John's assent to Magna Carta, and his name and that of his son and heir Hugh II appear among the twenty-five barons who were to ensure the king's adherence to the terms of that document. The pair were excommunicated by the pope in December 1215, and in 1216 John marched to East Anglia with a force of mercenaries and laid siege to Roger's seat of Framlingham Castle. Bigod was away, but Framlingham's garrison has 26 knights, 20 sergeants-at-arms, 7 crossbowmen, 1 chaplain and 3 others, perhaps enough to hold out until Roger returned to command support. Yet the castle surrendered two days, most likely for political expediency. The loss of the castle was temporary (Bigod made peace with the regents of John's son Henry III in 1217) but Roger seems to have retired from public life after this time. He died in 1221, his lands intact, the Bigod powerhouse secured and himself a respected figure. Around Christmas 1181, Roger married Ida, apparently Ida de Tosny (or Ida de Toesny), and by her had a number of children including: Hugh Bigod, 3rd Earl of Norfolk who married in 1206/1207, Maud, a daughter of William Marshal William Bigod Ralph Bigod Roger Bigod Margery, married William de Hastings Mary Bigod, married Ralph fitz RobertMany historians, including Marc Morris, have speculated that the couple had a third daughter, Alice, who married Aubrey de Vere IV, Earl of Oxford as his second wife. If so, the marriage would have been well within the bounds of consanguinity, for the couple would have been quite closely related, a daughter of the second earl of Norfolk being first cousin once removed to the second earl of Oxford. Roger Bigod in fiction Roger Bigod and his wife Ida De Tosny are the main characters in Elizabeth Chadwick's The Time of Singing (Sphere, 2008), published in the USA as For the King's Favor. They appear as minor characters in other of her books set at the same time, notably To Defy a King, which concerns the marriage of their son Hugh to Maud, a daughter of William Marshal. As Bigot, Bigod also appears as a character in the play King John by William Shakespeare. References Liber Vitae Ecclesiae Dunelmensis, Vol. 13 Morris, Marc. The Bigod Earls of Norfolk in the Thirteenth Century (2005)	[ "Human_behavior" ]
7,660,497	Picardo Farm	Picardo Farm is a 98,000 sq ft (9,100 m2) parcel of property in Wedgwood, Seattle, Washington, consisting largely of 281 plots used for gardening allotments. It is the original P-Patch (the local term for such community gardens): the "P" originally stood for "Picardo", after the family who owned it. The Picardos' land went beyond the present P-Patch; it also encompassed the property of the adjacent Reform Jewish Temple Beth Am and of University Prep, an independent private co-educational, non-sectarian day school for grades six through twelve. The land was part of what had once been known as the Ravenna Swamp.It is one of two historical farms preserved within Seattle city limits, the other being Marra Farm in South Park. The city's official web site describes Picardo Farm as having "Seattle's best soil… Rich, black, peaty, sucking with moisture in the spring, powdery dry for digging potatoes…	Picardo Farm is a 98,000 sq ft (9,100 m2) parcel of property in Wedgwood, Seattle, Washington, consisting largely of 281 plots used for gardening allotments. It is the original P-Patch (the local term for such community gardens): the "P" originally stood for "Picardo", after the family who owned it. The Picardos' land went beyond the present P-Patch; it also encompassed the property of the adjacent Reform Jewish Temple Beth Am and of University Prep, an independent private co-educational, non-sectarian day school for grades six through twelve. The land was part of what had once been known as the Ravenna Swamp.It is one of two historical farms preserved within Seattle city limits, the other being Marra Farm in South Park. The city's official web site describes Picardo Farm as having "Seattle's best soil… Rich, black, peaty, sucking with moisture in the spring, powdery dry for digging potatoes… History Creation The Picardo family arrived in Seattle in the 1890s from Salza Irpina in the southern Italian province of Avellino. The three brothers—Ernesto (who became the family patriarch), Orazio, and Sabino—set up farming in South Park along the Duwamish River.In 1922 they swapped a house in South Park for a piece of land that had been part of what was known as the "Ravenna Swamp". The family farmed the 20 acres (81,000 m2) at 25th Avenue Northeast and Northeast 80th Street from the 1920s to about 1962 or '63. Architect Victor Steinbrueck, writing in 1962, called it "an unusual reminder of the past" and praised its old barn (now demolished) as "a simple example of the anonymous architecture that has always been part of the local scene." Rainie Picardo leased out plots for a few more years, and then the city bought the land. Ravenna Swamp The peaty soil was ideal for farming but was poorly suited for buildings. Some small houses were built along 25th Avenue just south of Picardo Farm and were effectively floating on the peat bog. When the city installed sewer lines along 25th Avenue, the water table sank and houses began to slide off of their foundations. The city eventually purchased these lots to build the Dahl Playfield. At least one of the houses was moved to a new site. Venus statue controversy Thr Picardo Farm was also known for Steve Anderson's 21⁄4-foot-high bronze statue known as the Picardo Venus: "Pregnant, naked, hair in dreadlocks and sporting a sparkling nose stud". The statue attracted criticism due to its placement next to a children's play area. One P-Patch gardener remarked of it, "She's glorifying fertility a little too much for kids, isn't she?" Nonetheless, a January 2000 poll of the Picardo gardeners resulted in a decision to keep the statue. Amenities From late 2009 to early 2010 a Clivus Multrum composting toilet system was installed on the NE portion of the farm. See also Gardening portal References External links Official site, as part of the Seattle Department of Neighborhoods Picardo Farm P-Patch website Sculptor Steve Anderson's web site	[ "Information" ]
27,798,662	Grishma	Grishma (Sanskrit: ग्रीष्म, romanized: Grīṣhma) the Sanskrit word meaning summer. This is one of the six seasons (ritu), each lasting two months, the others being: Vasanta (spring), Varsha (monsoon), Sharada (autumn), Hemanta (pre-winter), and Shishira (winter).It falls in the two months of Jyeshtha and Ashadha of the Hindu calendar, or April and May of the Gregorian calendar. It is preceded by Vasanta, the spring season, and followed by Varsha, the rainy season.	Grishma (Sanskrit: ग्रीष्म, romanized: Grīṣhma) the Sanskrit word meaning summer. This is one of the six seasons (ritu), each lasting two months, the others being: Vasanta (spring), Varsha (monsoon), Sharada (autumn), Hemanta (pre-winter), and Shishira (winter).It falls in the two months of Jyeshtha and Ashadha of the Hindu calendar, or April and May of the Gregorian calendar. It is preceded by Vasanta, the spring season, and followed by Varsha, the rainy season. References Sources Selby, Martha Ann (translator). The Circle of Six Seasons, Penguin, New Delhi, 2003, ISBN 0-14-100772-9 Raghavan, V. Ṛtu in Sanskrit literature, Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri Kendriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Delhi, 1972.	[ "Time" ]
8,070,268	Moshe ben Yonatan Galante	Moshe ben Yonatan Galante (1621 – 4 February 1689 Jerusalem), grandson of Moshe Galante, was a 17th-century rabbi at Jerusalem. He served as the first Rishon Le'Zion and was called Magen (מגן) with reference to the initials of his name. Hezekiah da Silva was among his disciples. He wrote Zebaḥ ha-Shelamim, a harmonisation of contradictory Biblical passages and of Biblical with Talmudical statements (edited by his grandson Moses Ḥagis, Amsterdam, 1707–08), and Ḳorban Ḥagigah, halakic and kabalistic novellæ (Venice, 1714). Some of his responsa are found in the works of contemporaries, and a volume of his responsa exists under the title Elef ha-Magen, but has never been published (as of 1906).	Moshe ben Yonatan Galante (1621 – 4 February 1689 Jerusalem), grandson of Moshe Galante, was a 17th-century rabbi at Jerusalem. He served as the first Rishon Le'Zion and was called Magen (מגן) with reference to the initials of his name. Hezekiah da Silva was among his disciples. He wrote Zebaḥ ha-Shelamim, a harmonisation of contradictory Biblical passages and of Biblical with Talmudical statements (edited by his grandson Moses Ḥagis, Amsterdam, 1707–08), and Ḳorban Ḥagigah, halakic and kabalistic novellæ (Venice, 1714). Some of his responsa are found in the works of contemporaries, and a volume of his responsa exists under the title Elef ha-Magen, but has never been published (as of 1906). See also Galante (pedigree) Jewish Encyclopedia bibliography Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. s.v.; Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim References This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Galante". The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.	[ "Society", "Culture" ]
13,648,612	Tanveer Ahmed (footballer)	Tanveer Ahmed (Urdu: تنویر احمد; born 15 April 1976) is a football manager and former player who is the current head coach of WAPDA in the Pakistan Premier League.	Tanveer Ahmed (Urdu: تنویر احمد; born 15 April 1976) is a football manager and former player who is the current head coach of WAPDA in the Pakistan Premier League. Club career Ahmed started his career at CMF Sialkot, where his defensive ability was brought to attention and soon was called up to the national team. He was transferred to WAPDA in the 2002 season, where he was given the captaincy and won the National Championship in 2003. In the new Pakistan Premier League in 2004, WAPDA were one of the favourites to win the title, but it took until the final day of the season before they were crowned champions. They lost the PPL the following year. Managerial career After retiring from international football after the 2010 World Cup qualifiers in 2007, Ahmed became WAPDA Assistant Manager as well as retaining his squad player status, and helped them with the 2007–08 Pakistan Premier League. As a result of these displays on and off the pitch, Tanveer Ahmed was once again called back to the national squad for the AFC Challenge Cup 2008 qualifiers by head coach Akhtar Mohiuddin. After failing to reach the AFC Challenge Cup he retired again. He is the head coach at WAPDA since 2021. Career statistics International International goals Honours WAPDA National Championship/Pakistan Premier League: 2003, 2004–05, 2007–08 References External links Tanveer Ahmed at National-Football-Teams.com Tanveer Ahmed at Global Sports Archive	[ "Energy" ]
71,071,834	Matsurokoku	Matsurokoku (末盧國, Matsurokoku / Matsurakoku) is one of the countries described in Wajinden, Liangshu and History of the Northern Dynasties, and is the first place where Wei, the first place in Wa where emissaries from Tsushima and Iki landed on the mainland. Matsurokoku (末盧國) is one of the countries described in Wajinden, Liangshu and History of the Northern Dynasties, and is the first Japanese land where the envoys of Wei landed on the mainland via Tsushima and Iki. The prevailing theory is that it is a phonetic transcription of Matsura-gun (anciently "Matsura," Matsura no Kuni no Miyatsuko).	Matsurokoku (末盧國, Matsurokoku / Matsurakoku) is one of the countries described in Wajinden, Liangshu and History of the Northern Dynasties, and is the first place where Wei, the first place in Wa where emissaries from Tsushima and Iki landed on the mainland. Matsurokoku (末盧國) is one of the countries described in Wajinden, Liangshu and History of the Northern Dynasties, and is the first Japanese land where the envoys of Wei landed on the mainland via Tsushima and Iki. The prevailing theory is that it is a phonetic transcription of Matsura-gun (anciently "Matsura," Matsura no Kuni no Miyatsuko). Outline Suerokoku is located in the former Hizen Province Saga Karatsu City in the Matsuura region near the sound Nabatake Site, in the watersheds of the Matsuura River, Handa River and Uki River, and in Matsurokoku and Ukikunden Site in the watersheds of the Handa and Uki Rivers, most researchers assume that these sites were included in the central region. From Yobuko on the northern tip of the Kitamatsuura Peninsula, it is about 28 km to Iki, 73 km between Iki and Tsushima, about 75 km between Tsushima and Geoje Island in Korea (about 93 km between Tsushima and Busan), and Wajinden, each of which is 1,000 ri. Therefore, to be consistent with the distance from Iki, the current names of Sasebo City in Nagasaki Prefecture, Fukuoka City, Munakata City, and Onga-gun. The size of the area is about that of a commandery or several counties under the Ritsuryo system, indicating that a political power had been formed. Yobuko, located at the northern tip of the Kitamatsuura Peninsula, was the center of transportation to the continent under the Ritsuryo system, with a stone tomb, a jar coffin, a jar coffin tomb, a box-shaped sarcophagus, and a stone tomb. The site was once controversial for the discovery of Jomon traits, including extractions and Jomon traits. Because it corresponds to "Suera prefecture (Matsura no Agata)" and "Matsuura prefecture (Matsuura no Agata)" in " Nihon Shoki ", it is compared to Karatsu city in Saga Prefecture Description in the Wajinden In "Wajinden", it is written as follows. There are 4,000 houses, and the mountains and seas are all in the same place. The plants and trees are thick, and you can't see the people in front of you. The water is deep and shallow, and everyone sinks. （There are more than 4,000 houses, and they are located in the mountains and seas, and the plants and trees are so thick that they do not see anyone before them. (Oyi) The people went on through the reed beds so overgrown that they could not see the people ahead of them. The inhabitants caught fish and abalone as seafarers. The Ukikunden Site The Ukikunden site is a settlement from the Late Jomon and Early to Middle Yayoi Periods, with shell middens, and from the Late Jomon to the Early Yayoi Period (Itatsuki-I earthenware), they built stone tombs on the mountain behind them, and from the Early Yayoi Period (Itatsuki-II earthenware) to the Middle Yayoi Period, they built jar coffins on the flat. 129 pieces have been investigated and 150 pieces have been excavated. A small number of child jar coffins are included in this number. In this jar coffin tomb, a multi-buttoned mirror, 9 fine bronze swords, 5 fine bronze contradistances, 2 fine bronze grenades, copper bracelets, grapeshi, glass tubes, and glass beads were found. Currently, the Kagami area has the largest amount of bronze artifacts imported from the continent found in Japan.。 Sakura-baba Ruins This site is located between Hirano-cho and Yamashita-cho in Karatsu City, in the southwest of the dune area north of the Karatsu city center. The jar coffin at this site is from the late Yayoi period, and surveys and excavations of this site were conducted by Okazaki Takashi in 1945 and 1946, and by Sugihara Shosuke in 1955. 1944 (1944) A jar coffin with a jointed mouth was excavated during the construction of an air-raid shelter. Two square rectangular mirrors, a bronze bracelet with hooks, an iron sword, a small glass bead, and a bronze spear were found in the coffin. Human bones were also apparently excavated, but they have been buried back. These artifacts are now in the collection of the Saga Prefectural Museum. In 1955, a jar coffin with a stone lid and three types of earthenware were excavated. Footnotes References See also Nakoku Itokoku Ukikunden	[ "Time" ]
2,383,848	Henry Nicholas Bolander	Henry Nicholas Bolander (February 22, 1831 – August 28, 1897) was a German-American botanist and educator.	Henry Nicholas Bolander (February 22, 1831 – August 28, 1897) was a German-American botanist and educator. Early life Bolander was born in Schlüchtern, Grand Duchy of Hesse and emigrated to the United States in 1846. He joined his uncle in Columbus, Ohio and enrolled in the Columbus Lutheran Seminary. He graduated from the seminary and was ordained a minister but never served in a religious office. Instead, he began his career teaching at the local German-American schools in 1851. In 1857 he married Anna Marie Jenner, a widow who had three children from her previous marriage; together, they eventually added five more children to their family. At the same time, Bolander became acquainted with a neighbor, Leo Lesquereux, a well-known botanist who had emigrated from Switzerland in 1847. Lesquereux inspired Bolander to develop a keen interest in botany. Bolander began to travel widely in Ohio and neighboring states to study the flora and collect specimens. In 1857 he teamed with John H. Klippart, the Ohio Secretary of Agriculture, to create a catalog of the plants of Ohio. However, in 1860 failing health caused Bolander to return to Germany and the catalog was never published. Bolander recovered his health and returned to America the following year, settling this time in San Francisco, California. He taught for the San Francisco School District and made the acquaintance of members of the California Academy of Sciences and the California Geological Survey. In 1864 he succeeded William Henry Brewer as State Botanist for California and for the next several years he made extensive surveys and collections of plants for the Survey. Bolander published few botanical papers but he was widely recognized for his knowledge of California plants and his ability to identify and collect new species. He corresponded frequently with eminent botanists and shared his collections with them. They showed their gratitude, in part, by naming many new species in his honor—by one count, 37 species of flowering plants bore his name. Superintendancy and later career In 1871 Bolander was elected California Superintendent of Public Instruction, an office which he held until December 1875. During his term he revised the course of study for California schools, requiring the study of music and drawing. At the same time, important education statutes were enacted by the State Legislature. California led the nation by implementing a strong compulsory education law for children eight to fourteen years of age. California also passed laws ensuring women could serve on school boards and in other educational offices; furthermore, women employed as teachers were guaranteed the same pay as men. At the end of his term, Bolander did not seek re-election and instead ran successfully for Superintendent of Schools of San Francisco. He held the office for almost two years and then resigned in November, 1877. In 1878, Bolander travelled to Guatemala where he did educational work for the next seven years. He reportedly travelled widely to South America, Africa, and Europe but the details are not clear. In 1883, Bolander settled in Portland, Oregon and taught modern languages at Bishop Scott Academy. Notes References Cloud, Roy W. (1952). Education in California. Stanford University Press. Frahm, Jan-Peter; Eggers, Jens (2001). Lexikon deutschsprachiger Bryologen. Jepson, Willis L. (1898). "Dr. Henry N. Bolander, botanical explorer". Erythea. 6 (10): 100–107. Stuckey, Ronald L. (1984). "Early Ohio Botanical Collections and the Development of the State Herbarium". Ohio Journal of Science. 84 (4): 148–174. External links Harvard University Herbarium - Biography of Henry Nicholas Bolander Archived 2004-12-23 at the Wayback Machine	[ "Academic_disciplines" ]
42,981,792	San Giovanni in Canale, Piacenza	San Giovanni in Canale is a Gothic-style Roman Catholic church in central Piacenza, formerly associated with a Dominican monastery.	San Giovanni in Canale is a Gothic-style Roman Catholic church in central Piacenza, formerly associated with a Dominican monastery. History The Dominican order arrived in Piacenza in 1220 and donations from those living next to the Rio Beverora (an Ancient Roman canal that flowed into the Po River, allowed them to establish their base here, and while they dedicated the church to St John, this church was called “in canale” to distinguish it from a similarly dedicated temple. This Dominican complex once housed the Inquisition tribunal. The structure, including the facade were rebuilt in 1522 in a Gothic style, with a large rose window. The church was suppressed by the French in 1797. The interior has 14th century tombs of the Scotti family. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the interior was decorated in Rococo style with stucco and gilding. The Chapel of the Rosary was decorated in the neoclassical style with large canvases by Gaspare Landi (Road to Calvary) and Vincenzo Camuccini (Presentation at the Temple). == References ==	[ "Religion" ]
47,723,985	Thomas Handasyd	Major-General Thomas Handasyd was a British Army officer and colonial administrator who served as the governor of Jamaica from 1702 until 1711. Born in Elsdon, Northumberland, he served during the Stuart period from 1674 to 1710. Handasyd first saw action during the Franco-Dutch War, before accompanying William to England in the 1688 Glorious Revolution. He also fought in the Williamite War in Ireland and Nine Years War; when the latter war ended with the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick, Handasyd had been promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel. After the War of the Spanish Succession began in 1702, his regiment was sent to the English colony of Jamaica; when William Selwyn died soon after his arrival, Handasyd replaced him as regimental colonel and governor, a position he retained until 1710.	Major-General Thomas Handasyd was a British Army officer and colonial administrator who served as the governor of Jamaica from 1702 until 1711. Born in Elsdon, Northumberland, he served during the Stuart period from 1674 to 1710. Handasyd first saw action during the Franco-Dutch War, before accompanying William to England in the 1688 Glorious Revolution. He also fought in the Williamite War in Ireland and Nine Years War; when the latter war ended with the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick, Handasyd had been promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel. After the War of the Spanish Succession began in 1702, his regiment was sent to the English colony of Jamaica; when William Selwyn died soon after his arrival, Handasyd replaced him as regimental colonel and governor, a position he retained until 1710. After returning to England in 1711, he purchased Gaynes Hall near Great Staughton, Cambridgeshire where he lived quietly in retirement until his death on 26 March 1729. Life Thomas Handasyd was born about 1645 in Elsdon, Northumberland, to Colonel Roger Handasyd and his wife Margaret. He was the third of four children, three of whom lived to a great age; Gerrard (ca 1640–1735), Ann (ca 1644-?) and Roger (1653-1734).In 1686, he married Anna Morel (died 1704) and they had five surviving children; Roger Handasyd (1689-1763), Thomas (1692-1729), William (1693-1745), who all served in the military, as well as Clifford (1695-1772) and Anne (1697-1777). Career The 1638-1651 Wars of the Three Kingdoms created strong resistance in Scotland and England to a permanent military; this meant those who wanted to pursue a military career often did so in foreign armies. When the Third Anglo-Dutch War began in 1672, the Duke of Buckingham was authorised to recruit a regiment for service against the Dutch. Handasyd's cousin James was also a lieutenant in this unit.Before seeing active service, the war ended in January 1674 and many of these recruits transferred to one of the English regiments of the Scots Brigade, a mercenary unit employed by the Dutch. Handasyd joined what later became the 5th Foot and fought in the Franco-Dutch War, including the Siege of Maastricht and battles of Cassel and Saint-Denis. The Brigade accompanied William III to England in the November 1688 Glorious Revolution; Handaysd served in the 1689-1691 Williamite War in Ireland, including the Battle of the Boyne. After the 1691 Treaty of Limerick, he was among those transferred to Flanders during the Nine Years War, by which time he was captain of the Grenadier company, a unit composed of elite assault troops. In March 1694, he was appointed Major in the 28th Foot, a new regiment raised by Colonel John Gibson, a former colleague in the Scots Brigade.This was part of a force sent to retake St. John's, Newfoundland; captured by the French in June 1696, it was strategically important due to its proximity to the cod fishing areas of the Grand Banks. Gibson arrived in early 1697 to find the French had evacuated the town after first destroying it; short of supplies, he took most of his force back to Europe, leaving 300 men under Handasyd and the engineer Michael Richards to rebuild the town. By the time they returned to England in 1698, 214 of the 300 had died of malnutrition or disease, testimony to the harsh conditions.After the war ended with the 1797 Treaty of Ryswick, Parliament was determined to reduce costs; Gibson's Regiment was disbanded and by 1699, the English military was less than 7,000 men. When the War of the Spanish Succession began in 1701, Handasyd was promoted lieutenant-colonel in the 22nd Foot. Sent to Jamaica, a notoriously unhealthy location, in April 1702 he replaced Colonel William Selwyn who died soon after arrival.As the senior military officer, Handasyd also became governor, an important position due to Jamaica's hugely profitable sugar plantations. The island was a key resupply point for the Royal Navy; in March 1703, an English squadron under John Graydon was sent to attack the French town of Placentia, in Newfoundland. His ships arrived in Jamaica short of men and in poor condition; Handasyd made strenuous efforts to resupply him but the local merchants later complained about the impressment of local seamen. His wife Anna died in September 1704 and was buried in St. Jago de la Vega or Spanish Town Cathedral. Like his predecessor, Sir William Beeston, Thomas had a difficult relationship with the planter-dominated Jamaican Assembly. This came to a head in 1710, when he tried to dissolve the Assembly and in the ensuing commotion, its President Peter Beckford died after allegedly falling down the stairs.Handasyd now requested he be relieved and was replaced as Governor by Lord Archibald Hamilton, while his son Roger became Colonel of the regiment. Promoted Major-General, he returned to England in early 1711 and purchased Gaynes Hall near Great Staughton, Cambridgeshire. He died there on 26 March 1729 and was buried in the parish church of St Andrews, where his memorial can still be seen. Notes References Sources Austin, PB; Zahedieh, Nuala (2004). "Beeston, Sir William (1636-1702)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/1955. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) Black, Carlysle (1988) [1975]. History of Jamaica. Hodder. ISBN 978-0582038981. Boxer, CR (1969). "Some Second Thoughts on the Third Anglo-Dutch War, 1672–1674". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. 19: 67–94. doi:10.2307/3678740. JSTOR 3678740. Cannon, Richard (1849). Historical Record of the Twenty-Second, or the Cheshire Regiment of Foot (2015 ed.). Andesite Press. ISBN 1296561828. Chandler, David; Beckett, Ian (1996). The Oxford History Of The British Army. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0192803115. Dalton, Charles (1904). English army lists and commission registers, 1661-1714, Volume II. Eyre & Spottiswoode. Dalton, Charles (1896). English army lists and commission registers, 1661-1714, Volume III. Eyre & Spottiswoode. Ede-Borrett, Stephen (2011). "Casualties in the Anglo-Dutch Brigade at St Denis, 1678". Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research. 81 (237). JSTOR 44230964. Godfrey, Michael (1969). Handasyd, Thomas in The Dictionary of Canadian Biography Volume (Online ed.). Univ of Toronto Pr / Les Presses de L'Universite Laval. Gregg, Edward (1980). Queen Anne (Revised) (The English Monarchs Series). Yale University Press. ISBN 0300090242. Handyside, Rob. "Robert Handyside and the Holystone Handasyd Chalice" (PDF). Coquetdale. Retrieved 20 May 2019. Laughton, J. K.; Davies, J. D. (2004). "Graydon, John (died 1726)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/11359. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) Marley, David F (2008). Wars of the Americas: A Chronology of Armed Conflict in the Western Hemisphere; Volume I. ABC-CLIO. Peel, Robin. "Great Staughton church; St Andrews". Churchcrawling.com. Retrieved 21 May 2019. Poinsett, William; Robertson, James. "The Spanish Town Cathedral". www.markdgljmci.com. Retrieved 21 May 2019. External links "Church of St Andrew". British Listed Buildings. "Major-Gen. Thomas Handasyd". Geneagraphie.com.	[ "Military" ]
8,488,356	St Nicholas Cole Abbey	St Nicholas Cole Abbey is a church in the City of London located on what is now Queen Victoria Street. Recorded from the twelfth century, the church was destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666 and rebuilt by the office of Sir Christopher Wren. The church suffered substantial bomb damage from German bombs during the London Blitz in the Second World War and was reconstructed by Arthur Bailey in 1961–2.	St Nicholas Cole Abbey is a church in the City of London located on what is now Queen Victoria Street. Recorded from the twelfth century, the church was destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666 and rebuilt by the office of Sir Christopher Wren. The church suffered substantial bomb damage from German bombs during the London Blitz in the Second World War and was reconstructed by Arthur Bailey in 1961–2. History The church is dedicated to the 4th century St Nicholas of Myra. The name "Cole Abbey" is derived from "coldharbour", a medieval word for a traveller's shelter or shelter from the cold. The church was never an abbey. The earliest reference to the church is in a letter of Pope Lucius II in 1144–5. St Nicholas of Myra is patron saint of, among other groups, children and fishermen, and the church has special ties with both. An inventory of the church's possessions taken at the time of the Protestant Reformation includes vestments for children, suggesting that the church maintained the tradition of electing a boy bishop on Saint Nicholas Day. Deeds in the reign of Richard I refer to a new fish market near St Nicholas Cole Abbey. In a Charter of 1272, the church is referred to as "St Nick's behind Fish Street". During the 16th century, several fishmongers were buried here and John Stow records that, during the reign of Elizabeth I, a lead and stone cistern, fed by the Thames, was set up against the north wall "for the care and commodity of the Fishmongers in and about Old Fish Street". Like all English churches, St Nicholas Cole Abbey became Protestant during the Reformation. Upon the accession of Queen Mary I, it was the first church to celebrate Mass (on 23 August 1553). The incumbent rector, Thomas Sowdley, had obtained a licence to marry during the reign of Edward VI and was deprived of his living as a result. In the same month as the coronation of Mary I, John Strype recorded "Another priest called sir Tho. Snowdel, [i.e. Sowdley] whom they nicknamed 'Parson Chicken', was carted through Cheapside, for assoiling an old acquaintance of his in a ditch in Finsbury field; and was at that riding saluted with chamber-pots and rotten eggs". Sowdley regained his living on the accession of Elizabeth I. A century later, the living of St Nicholas Cole Abbey was owned by Colonel Francis Hacker, a Puritan who commanded the execution detail of Charles I. The church was destroyed in the Great Fire. Charles II promised the site to the Lutheran community but lobbying prevented this from being granted and the parish was combined with that of St Nicholas Olave, a nearby church also destroyed but not rebuilt. The church was rebuilt between 1672 and 1678 at a cost of £5042. Included in the building accounts are the items "Dinner for Dr Wren and other Company – £2 14s 0d" and "Half a pint of canary for Dr Wren's coachmen – 6d". It was the first church of the fifty-one lost in the Great Fire to be rebuilt. In 1737, the early Methodist leader George Whitefield preached a sermon on "Profane swearing in church" at St Nicholas Cole Abbey. The post-Fire church was built with its façade to the north on what was then Fish Street (and what is now Distaff Lane) and the east on Old Fish Street Hill. Victorian urban redevelopment changed the local street plan and the south wall of the church, instead of being hemmed in by buildings, now overlooked the newly built Queen Victoria Street. This necessitated a reordering of the church, in 1874, with windows being opened up to the south and the main doorway moving from the northwest tower to the south. Smoke generated by underground trains so blackened the exterior that in the late 19th century, the church became known as "St Nicholas Cole Hole Abbey". In May 1881, church attendance under the Reverend Henry Stebbing was down to one man and one woman. Then, in 1883, Henry Shuttleworth was appointed rector, a position he held until 1900. Shuttleworth was a Christian Socialist who installed a bar, established a prodigious musical programme and made the church a centre for debate. This had an effect, as by 1891 St Nicholas Cole Abbey had the largest congregation of any City church, numbering up to 450 worshippers on a Sunday evening. A contemporary vicar commented: "In St. Nicholas Cole Abbey there is good preaching and divine worship is also carried out in the most reverential manner. In other City churches ... as a rule, they [the rectors] are themselves the most wretched preachers and bad readers."On 10 May 1941 London suffered its worst air raid during the entire Second World War, with 1,436 people killed and several major buildings destroyed or severely damaged. Among them was St Nicholas Cole Abbey. The church remained a shell until restored under Arthur Bailey and reconsecrated in 1962. Recent history The parish was combined with that of St Andrew-by-the-Wardrobe. St Nicholas Cole Abbey became the headquarters of the Diocesan Council for Mission and Unity. Between 1982 and 2003, the church was leased to the Free Church of Scotland (Presbyterian).In 2006, the Church of England announced that St Nicholas Cole Abbey would become a national centre for Religious Education: the Culham Institute, a Church of England educational body which promotes and develops RE in schools, would move its headquarters to St Nicholas Cole Abbey from Oxford. This did not come to pass. In 2014 the building reopened as the home of the St Nicholas Cole Abbey Centre for Workplace Ministry, with a supporting cafe known as The Wren. Present day In November 2016, Sunday services re-started, alongside midweek meetings, under the name St Nick's Church.The parish is within the conservative evangelical tradition of the Church of England, and it has passed resolutions to reject the ordination of women and/or female leadership.In November 2022, St. Nicholas announced that it was making a "visible differentiation" from the Church of England's House of Bishops, in protest at the bishops' engagement with the Living in Love and Faith process which considered the possibility of blessing same-sex sexual relationships. In March 2023, after the church's General Synod approved the principle of blessings for same-sex couples, the Senior Minister of St Nicholas, along with the guild vicar of St Botolph's, Aldersgate, announced they had established a new "deanery chapter", separate from the official diocesan structures, for clergy who felt "compelled to resist all episcopal leadership from the House of Bishops". This move was described by the Diocese of London as a "unilateral move" with "no legal substance", and by the Church Times as "schismatic". Architecture The church was designated a Grade I listed building on 4 January 1950. Exterior The church is a stone box with quoins. Some medieval work remains in the south and west walls, the latter of which is of brick and rubble. On top of the body of the church is a balustrade. The windows are arched with square brackets – a favourite device of Wren.On the northwestern corner of the church is a square tower surmounted by a lead spire in the shape of an upside down octagonal trumpet. On each corner of the tower is a small flaming urn. The spire has two rows of lunettes and a small balcony near the top, resembling a crow's nest. At the very top is a vane in the shape of a three-masted barque in the round. This came from St Michael Queenhithe (demolished 1876), and was added to the spire in 1962. The pre-War vane was in the shape of a pennant with 4 "S" shapes back to back. The tower is 135 feet tall and contains one bell. Interior The east wall is dominated by three stained glass windows designed by Keith New, who also helped design the stained glass windows of Coventry Cathedral. They are reminiscent of the work of Marc Chagall. They replace windows designed by Edward Burne-Jones which were destroyed in 1941. From left to right they depict St Nicholas Cole Abbey as the centre of the world with crosses pointing to the four corners of the world; the Rock of Christ with the ark (representing the church) on four rivers (representing the Gospels); seven lamps, representing the extension of the church around the world. Swags have been recreated over the east windows. The interior is otherwise plain, other than Corinthian pilasters. In the vestry to the north west is crazy paving made from shattered tombstones. Surviving from the 17th century are the carved pulpit, (although on a modern base and lacking its tester), the font cover, part of the communion rail, parts of the original Wren era reredos, now installed on the south wall and the Charles II coat of arms. Behind a panel near the south door is a medieval stone head found during the restoration. The organ was built by Noel Mander for the restored church. In 2006, as part of a planned redevelopment of the church as a centre for Religious Education, it was announced that a free-standing glass box would be built inside the shell of the church. This redevelopment did not come to pass. Services and other activities St Nick's Church meets each Sunday at 11am. Services are contemporary in style and there are Sunday clubs and a crèche for youth and children. Before the service, coffee and pastries are served from 10.30 and there is an informal lunch afterwards.Small groups are held on Wednesday evenings, at 6.15pm for a meal and 7pm for bible study and prayer. St Nick's Talks run every Thursday lunchtime at 1.05pm. The aim of the talks is to explain, from the Bible, the good news of Jesus Christ to those working nearby. St Nicholas Cole Abbey in culture Henry Shuttleworth is the model for James Morrell, the Socialist preacher in George Bernard Shaw's 1898 play Candida. The gutted shell of St Nicholas Cole Abbey is the scene of the gold bullion heist in the 1951 Ealing comedy The Lavender Hill Mob. The church features in Iris Murdoch's first novel Under the Net, published in 1954. St Nicholas Cole Abbey was used as a location in 1968 Doctor Who serial The Invasion. See also List of churches and cathedrals of London List of Christopher Wren churches in London References Bradley, Simon & Pevsner, Nikolaus. The Buildings of England: London 1: The City of London, Penguin Books 1997 Clarke, Rev. Henry. The City Churches, Simpkin, Marshall, Kent & Co., 1898 Cobb, Gerald. London City Churches, B. T. Batsford Ltd., 1977 Jeffery, Paul. The City Churches of Sir Christopher Wren, Hambledon Press, 1996 Middleton, Paul & Hatts, Leigh. London City Churches, Bankside Press, 2003 Weinreb, Ben & Hibbert, Christopher (eds.) . The London Encyclopedia, Macmillan, 1992 External links St Nicholas Cole Abbey Archived 23 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine St Nicholas Cole Abbey from Architecture Week St Nicholas Cole Abbey Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine from Church bells of the City of London 360° panorama inside St Nicholas Cole Abbey St Nick's Church St Nick's Talks (the St Nicholas Cole Abbey Centre for Workplace Ministry) The Wren coffee shop	[ "Entities" ]
65,316,794	Ontopoetics	Ontopoetics is a philosophical concept that involves the communicative engagement of self with the world and the world with the self. It is also described as a "poetic order" that unfolds alongside the "causal order" in the process of the communicative engagement with reality and participating in it. It includes the perception of cues or signals, or the expression of actors, as well as "the construction of impressions on re-actors by the deliberate choice of attractive signifiers that communicate factual or illusory realities".Ontopoetics is not considered a theory but a view of reality and an understanding of the world as a communicative presence.	Ontopoetics is a philosophical concept that involves the communicative engagement of self with the world and the world with the self. It is also described as a "poetic order" that unfolds alongside the "causal order" in the process of the communicative engagement with reality and participating in it. It includes the perception of cues or signals, or the expression of actors, as well as "the construction of impressions on re-actors by the deliberate choice of attractive signifiers that communicate factual or illusory realities".Ontopoetics is not considered a theory but a view of reality and an understanding of the world as a communicative presence. Concept Ontopoetics is derived from the Greek words ontos ("that which is" - "I am" or "being") and poiesis ("coming into being" - creation" or "bringing forth"). It is also noted that the poetic element to the concept connotes a complexity that embraces diversity of experiences so that those that do not lie within the bounds of one's tradition are not rejected or denied. The concept also includes the manner by which humans respond to the symmetries around them. It is distinguished from panpsychism in the sense that it does not merely claim that the world is psychoactive but that it is responsive to us so that it can be called forth if engaged on an expressive plane, one of meaning and not merely of causation. According to Freya Matthews, the occurrence of meaningful communicative exchanges between self and the world and world and self allows a glimpse of the inner, psychoactive dimension that is inherent in materiality but occluded by materialism.As a concept, ontopoetics looks into the creative relationship between things and focuses on the poetic infrastructure of creation (e.g. order of an insect, structure of a seed, or the composition of a bird song). Aside from the cues, expressions, or signifiers made to communicate realities, ontopoetics also covers the "construction of imaginary situations by certain species" such as animal cheating, mimicking, and playing.Ontopoetics holds that the world is not only object-domain as represented by physics but is also "a field of meaning". According to Mathews, this understanding of the world allows for unmasking of realities and experience that are not familiar or known to science. This is attributed to the manner by which the paradigm produces a more dynamic and responsive self and poetic voice as experience and knowledge are directed by receptiveness, playfulness, and openness across human-nature divisions. The idea is that conceptual intelligence cannot access a depth of reality because it tends to trivialize it. This is also the case for possibilities of experience that are routinely open but are taken for granted. In ontopoetics, a painting or a poem can capture reality better than common language or common perception because these apprehend it in its irreducible essence. In addition, these artworks are said to also coincide with metaphysical intuition.Ontopoetics argues for a model of ontological plurality. It suggests that all truths and realities are potentially but not exclusively true and real. In the Will to Power, where Nietzsche argued for the impossibility of truth, it was maintained that "there are no facts, only interpretations." Ontopoetics stands in opposition to global perspectives (e.g. atomism and economism) due to its focus on field-concordance between psyche, meaning, and cosmos. It has been described as a fresh conception of the Cartesian split of external appearance and reality, problematizing it through a dialogic consciousness or poetics as ontology.Another conceptualization frames ontopoetics as a critique founded on the idea that the expression of being beyond what is representationally constructed as reality leads to the philosophical thought on art. Friedrich Nietzsche Friedrich Nietzsche proposed that the world and existence are aesthetic phenomena in his deconstruction of truth. Ontopoetics is part of this aesthetic metaphysics of the world and the metaphysical aesthetics of art where the work of God as the artist-creator and its representation in the work of art are distinguished as first and second levels, respectively. These perspectives would later influence aspects of the philosopy of thinkers such as Martin Heidegger and Gilles Deleuze.The application of the Nietzschean ontopoetics to art is based on a conceptualization of reality that includes elements hidden behind a "veil" created by the interplay of institutions and false needs. Art in this case articulates what the veil hides. Ontopoetics has also influenced a group of artists identified as concretists, who emphasize ontopoetic issues in their art, particularly when relating reality in itself. It is also evident in the works of Marcel Duchamp, which featured the notion of "event" and the application of "analogy" in his sculptures. His art took into consideration the onto-epistemic dynamics that lurk behind manmade structure-events, which invite the spectator to make the next move based on an analogy, assumption, or deduction. Ontopoetics in this approach is considered a constitutive and creative step. Martin Heidegger Heidegger maintained that truth can never be extracted from 'the sheer "not" of beings'. He subscribed to the Nietzschean idea that the world is a phenomenon that informs the ontopoetic conception of history. He maintained that the poetic is a type of unfolding of historical existence instead of cultural achievement. In his ontopetics, there is also the conceptualization that art does not prioritize a preference for aesthetics but focuses on the happening of being where being takes place in the midst of beings. The poetic phenomenon called the Heideggerian Mit-da ("with-there) is said to illustrate the thinker's perspective concerning the anxiety of knowledge. Here, ontopoetics, as the rhythmic dimension of reality in knowledge, has an emotional opening of the word that finds the company of the world "on the edge of existence". == References ==	[ "Communication" ]
183,602	Eddie Rickenbacker	Edward Vernon Rickenbacker (October 8, 1890 – July 23, 1973) was an American fighter pilot in World War I and a Medal of Honor recipient. With 26 aerial victories, he was the most successful and most decorated United States flying ace of the war. He was also a race car driver, an automotive designer, and a long-time head of Eastern Air Lines.	Edward Vernon Rickenbacker (October 8, 1890 – July 23, 1973) was an American fighter pilot in World War I and a Medal of Honor recipient. With 26 aerial victories, he was the most successful and most decorated United States flying ace of the war. He was also a race car driver, an automotive designer, and a long-time head of Eastern Air Lines. Early life Rickenbacker was born Edward Rickenbacher in Columbus, Ohio. He was the third of eight children born to German-speaking Swiss immigrants, Lizzie (née Liesl Basler) and Wilhelm Rickenbacher. Later in life, he changed the spelling of his last name to Rickenbacker and adopted a middle name, Vernon. His father worked for breweries and street-paving crews and his mother Lizzie took in laundry to supplement the family income. In 1893, his father owned a construction company. With a loan from Lizzie's parents, the couple purchased a lot and built a small home on 1334 East Livingston Avenue, 2 miles (3.2 km) southeast of downtown at the edge of the city limits in 1893. The house lacked running water, indoor plumbing, and electricity. This is where Edd, as he was called by his parents, spent his childhood.Growing up, Rickenbacker worked before and after school. He helped in the garden where the family grew potatoes, cabbages, and turnips and cared for the family's chickens, goats, and pigs. He earned money by delivering papers, setting up pins at a bowling alley, and selling scavenged goods. He gave most of his earnings to his mother but spent some on Bull Durham tobacco, a habit he picked up from his older brother Bill. As a child, Rickenbacker was accident-prone. Before entering school, he toddled into an oncoming horse-drawn streetcar and fell 12 feet (3.7 m) into an open cistern. His brother rescued him from a passing coal car twice. Once, he ran back into his burning school building to retrieve his coat and nearly paid for it with his life. Sixty years later when producing his autobiography, he found significance in these close calls. He came to believe that God had repeatedly saved him for a higher purpose.Young Rickenbacker had an artistic side and enjoyed painting watercolors of animals, flowers, and scenery. He tried to design a perpetual motion machine, but, his father berated him for wasting time on an invention with no purpose. He was also "sort of the leader" of the Horsehead Gang, with whom he smoked, played hooky, and broke streetlamps. With the Horsehead Gang, he constructed pushcarts that were a precursor to the Soapbox Derby. Once, the Horsehead Gang took a "roller coaster ride" in a quarry cart and his leg was run over and badly sliced. After the Wright brothers' first airplane flight, Rickenbacker tried to "fly" a bicycle outfitted with an umbrella off of his friend's barn roof.The summer before Rickenbacker's fourteenth birthday, his father was injured in a brawl. After being hit in the head with a level, Rickenbacker's father was in a coma for almost six weeks before his death on August 26, 1904. His assailant was convicted of manslaughter and sentenced to ten years in prison. Career beginnings Though his older siblings Bill and Mary were working, Rickenbacker felt a responsibility to help replace his father's lost income. He dropped out of the seventh grade and went to work full-time, lying about his age to work around child labor laws. He worked eight different jobs during the next two years. While working at the Oscar Lear Automobile Company in 1905, he took an engineering course from the International Correspondence School. Chief engineer Lee Frayer took Rickenbacker under his wing, giving him more responsibility in the workshop.Two months later, when it came time to compete in the 1906 Vanderbilt Cup race, Frayer brought Rickenbacker to New York as his riding mechanic. After two practice runs, their engine overheated and they failed to get to the starting line for their qualifying run. Back in Columbus, Rickenbacker followed his mentor to the Columbus Buggy Company as a chief testing engineer, supervising upwards of a dozen men in his department. The sixteen-year-old Rickenbacker's hard work and mechanical acumen impressed Harvey S. Firestone, his new employer. Firestone chose Rickenbacker for special assignments, including troubleshooting in Atlantic City and demonstrating at the 1909 Chicago Automobile Show. Later that year, Firestone sent Rickenbacker to Texas to figure out why the new Frayer-designed engines were overheating. Rickenbacker solved the problem and stayed on to head up Columbus Buggy's Dallas agency. At eighteen, he was the chief engineer, experimenter, demonstrator, mechanic, and salesman. During this time, he served as a chauffeur to the visiting William Jennings Bryan, getting his picture and his cars in the newspaper. He made three sales as a result. In March 1910, Firestone sent Rickenbacker to direct the Upper Midwest Agency out of Omaha. At nineteen, Rickenbacker was in charge of six men, covering sales, distribution, and maintenance of Firestone-Columbus automobiles in four states. He earned $125 per week. Automobile racing To draw attention to his company's car, Rickenbacker entered a 25-mile race in Red Oak, Iowa. He failed to finish in his first automobile race after crashing through an outer fence. That summer, Rickenbacker went on to win most of the dirt track races he entered, including five of six races at Omaha's Aksarben Festival in October. When reporting on races, newspapers misspelled his name as Reichenbaugh, Reichenbacher, or Reichenberger, before settling on Rickenbacker.The following May, Lee Frayer invited his protégé to join him in another racing venture: the first ever Indianapolis 500. As relief driver, Rickenbacker replaced Frayer in the middle portion of the race, driving the majority of miles and helping his former boss take thirteenth place. The next year he drove Frayer's Red Wing Special by himself but was forced out after 100 miles with mechanical difficulties. Rickenbacker quit his sales job and went on the county fair circuit with a Flying Squadron team. In October 1912, the American Automobile Association (AAA) cracked down on drivers known for flouting safety regulations. Rickenbacker was barred from the track for the next twelve months. He joined the automobile workshop of Frederick and August Duesenberg in Des Moines, Iowa. For the next year, he worked sixteen-hour days at $3 a day, developing a Mason race car, named for Duesenberg's chief investor. In July 1913, Rickenbacker received dispensation from AAA to compete in his hometown Columbus 200-mile race. Somehow, he kept his racing reinstatement through the rest of the season. He won three times and finished the season in 27th place on the AAA standings with 115 points. In 1914, the Duesenberg team separated from their investor, Edward R. Mason. Winning the prize money became vital for Rickenbacker because he would be out of racing for the season if Duesenberg ran out of funds. With some hard driving, he won the Fourth of July race at Sioux City. A third-place finish by another Duesenberg driver brought in $12,500 and ensured that the team would complete the season. Rickenbacker finished the year in sixth place in the AAA standings.Rickenbacker was now a national racing figure, earning the nickname "Fast Eddie". One sportswriter called him "the most daring and...the most cautious driver in America today." The top-ranked Peugeot team lured Rickenbacker away from Duesenberg at the start of 1915. However, a couple of bad outings caused him to abandon Peugeot and switch to the Maxwell team. Looking back decades later, Rickenbacker called this "the major mistake of my racing career". Still, he finished the season ranked fifth among all racers, with three victories to his credit. In September 1915, Rickenbacker received financial backing from Indianapolis Speedway owner Carl Fisher and his partner, Fred Allison. They made Rickenbacker the leader of a new Presto-Lite team, giving him free rein over three drivers and four mechanics as they developed four Maxwell Special race cars.In 1915, newspapers began spelling his name with a second "k" more frequently, with his active encouragement. He also decided his given name "looked a little plain" and adopted a middle initial, signing his name 26 times with different letters before settling upon "V." The Hartford Courant referred to him as "Edward Victor Rickenbacher" after his win at Sheepshead Bay in 1916.In the 1915–16 seasons, Rickenbacker won at Sioux City for the third year in a row, as well as Tacoma and Sheepshead Bay (New York). In September, he was in a three-way tie for the championship with Dario Resta and Johnny Aitken. He needed a win at the Indianapolis Harvest 100 to take first place. He had the lead in the penultimate lap but had driven his car into the ground. Driving on three wheels, Aitken passed Rickenbacker's broken-down Maxwell Special. Rickenbacker called it "one of the grandest free–for-alls I ever was in." He finished the year in third place in the standings but with a win in Los Angeles. He was now one of the most famous race car drivers in America and was earning $40,000 a year.Signing with the British Sunbeam team for the upcoming season, Rickenbacker sailed to England to work to develop a new race car. Before he could disembark at Liverpool for his new job with Sunbeam, Rickenbacker was detained by two plainclothes agents from Scotland Yard. A 1914 Los Angeles Times article had fabricated a story claiming that the young driver was Baron Rickenbacher, "the disowned son of a Prussian noble." With Britain deep into World War I, Scotland Yard considered him a potential spy. In England, Rickenbacker worked at the Sunbeam shop in Wolverhampton during the week and spent weekends at the Savoy Hotel in London. The English police surveilled Rickenbacker the entire six weeks he was in England and for another two weeks when he was back in the United States. In 1917, after his experience as a suspected spy and to anglicize his name, he officially changed the spelling of his name from Rickenbacher to Rickenbacker. A few years later, he settled on the middle name "Vernon" after the brother of his boyhood crush, Blanche Calhoun. World War I Pre–U.S. entry While in England, Rickenbacker watched Royal Flying Corps airplanes fly over the Thames from the Brooklands aerodrome. He began to consider a role in aviation if the United States entered the European war. The month before, while he had been in Los Angeles, Rickenbacker had had two chance encounters with aviators. Glenn Martin, founder of Glenn L. Martin Company and more recently with Wright-Martin Aircraft, gave Rickenbacker his first ride aloft. Next, Major Townsend F. Dodd was stranded with his plane in a field and Rickenbacker diagnosed a magneto problem. Dodd later became General John J. Pershing's aviation officer and an important contact in Rickenbacker's attempt to join air combat.Back in the United States after the revelation of the Zimmermann Telegram, Rickenbacker shared his idea for an aero squadron composed of race car drivers and mechanics with a New York Times reporter: "War would practically put a stop to racing, and we have a training that our country would need in the time of war. We are experts in judging speed and in motor knowledge." After the April 6 declaration of war by the United States, Rickenbacker went to Washington, D.C. to propose his idea without success. Flight training In late May 1917, a week before he was to race in Cincinnati, Rickenbacker was invited to sail to England with General John J. Pershing. By mid-June, he was in France, where he enlisted in the United States infantry. He was assigned to drive Army officials between Paris and A.E.F. headquarters in Chaumont, and on to various points on the Western Front. Rickenbacker earned the rank of Sergeant First Class but never drove for General Pershing. Rather, he mostly drove for Major Dodd. A chance encounter with Captain James Miller on the Champs–Elysees put Rickenbacker on the track to becoming a fighter pilot. Miller asked Rickenbacker to be the chief engineer at the flight school and aerodrome he was establishing at Issoudun. Rickenbacker bargained for the chance to learn to fly at the French flight school outside Toul. He received five weeks of training or 25 hours in the air in September 1917. Then, he went to Issoudun to start constructing the United States Air Service's pursuit training facility,During the next three months, Rickenbacker took time from his work schedule to continue his flight training, standing in at the back of lectures and taking airplanes up on his own to practice new maneuvers. In January 1918, Rickenbacker finagled his way into a release for gunnery school, the final step to becoming a pursuit pilot. In February and March, Lieutenant Rickenbacker and the officers of the nascent 1st Pursuit Group completed advanced training at Villeneuve–les–Vertus Aerodrome. There he came under the tutelage and mentorship of the French flying ace, Major Raoul Lufbery. With regards to flying, Rickenbacker said, "All I learned, I learned from Lufbery". Lufbery took Rickenbacker and Douglas Campbell on their first patrol before their Nieuport 28s were outfitted with machine guns. Rickenbacker earned the respect of the other fliers, who called him "Rick." Both squadrons relocated to Toul, in the St. Mihiel sector, where Rickenbacker had begun his training with the French seven months earlier. Now the American air service had its aerodrome at nearby Gengoult. Before beginning their patrols, the two squadrons chose an insignia to paint on their planes. The 95th chose a kicking mule. The 94th chose an Uncle Sam stovepipe hat, tipped inside a surrounding circle. One officer remarked, "Well, I guess our hat is in the ring now!", and the squadron became known as The Hat-in-the-Ring Gang. Early aerial combat Rickenbacker's first sortie was with Reed Chambers on April 13, 1918. It almost ended in disaster when both became lost in the fog and Chambers was forced to land. Flight commander David Peterson called Rickenbacker a "bloody fool for flying off in a fog". Two weeks later, on April 29, Rickenbacker shot down his first enemy plane. On May 28, he claimed his fifth victory and became an ace. Rickenbacker received the French Croix de Guerre that month. However, Rickenbacker was not perfect: he almost fired on friendly planes several times, his gun jammed, and he nearly crashed when his Nieuport's fabric wing tore off in a dive. On May 30, 1918, he achieved his sixth victory, but it would be his last for three and a half months. In late June, he had a fever and ear infection that turned into an abscess and grounded him most of the Chateau Thierry campaign. While recovering in a Paris hospital in July, Rickenbacker reflected on his shortcomings as a pilot, deciding he needed more self-discipline and less impetuosity.Rickenbacker was out of the hospital in time for the St. Mihiel offensive based out of Rembercourt Aerodrome on September 12, 1918. By this time, the 94th and the other squadrons of the 1st Pursuit had converted from their agile but temperamental Nieuport airplanes to the more rugged, higher-powered Spad XIII. The Spad was a good fit for Rickenbacker's style of attack. He made another kill on September 14 against a Fokker D-VII, and another the day after that. Although Rickenbacker's performance was rising, the 94th squadron's was still disappointing. After a sluggish summer at Chateau Thierry, Major Harold Hartney wanted new leadership to lead the Hat-in-the-Ring Gang to its former greatness. He chose Lieutenant Rickenbacker over several captains as the new commander of the 94th Squadron. Commander of the 94th Aero Squadron Rickenbacker went to work turning his men "back into a team". He gathered his pilots and exhorted them to stay focused on their mission. Reminding the mechanics that he was one of them, he stressed the crucial importance of their work. Above all, he let them know that he was a "gimper" or "a bird who will stick by you through anything" and "would never ask anybody to do anything that [he] would not do [him] self first or do at the same time." To underscore his point, Rickenbacker took a solo patrol over the line and shot down two enemy planes the next morning. His victories above Billy, France, earned him the Medal of Honor, awarded by President Herbert Hoover in 1931. Building on the leadership skills he developed with Maxwell, Rickenbacker turned the 94th Squadron into a winning team. He was determined to "blind the eyes of the enemy" by taking out their observation balloons. The giant gas bags appeared easy to bring down, but were heavily guarded and dangerous to attack. Rickenbacker led planning sessions for multi-squadron raids of as many as fourteen planes. One reporter likened him to a football coach, "boning up for the season ahead" with "conferences on methods, blackboard talks, and ideas for air battle tactics". Rickenbacker was credited with bringing down five balloons, Rickenbacker inculcated into the squadron with his new principles of engagement, which germinated while he was confined in the hospital: Never attack unless there is at least a fifty-fifty chance of success, always break off an engagement that seems hopeless, and know the difference between cowardice and common sense. He continued to fly aggressively, but with calculated caution. He also flew more patrols and spent more hours in the air than any other pilot in the service—a total of 300 combat hours. He brought down fifteen aircraft in the final six weeks of the war. In September 1918, he received the rank of captain. At the end of the war in France, the 94th had the highest number of air victories of the American squadrons.When Rickenbacker learned of the Armistice, he flew an airplane above the No Man's Land to observe the ceasefire as it occurred at 11:00 a.m. on November 11, 1918. He later wrote, "I was the only audience for the greatest show ever presented. On both sides of no man's land, the trenches erupted. Brown-uniformed men poured out of the American trenches, gray-green uniforms out of the German. From my observer's seat overhead, I watched them throw their helmets in the air, discard their guns, wave their hands." Military achievements Rickenbacker received the Distinguished Service Cross a record number of eight times. In 1930, one of these awards was upgraded to the Medal of Honor. In addition, he received the Legion of Honor and the Croix de Guerre from France. He brought down 26 aircraft during the war, making him the United States ace of aces for the war. His 26 victories remained the American record until Richard Bong's forty victories in World War II. The following data is from Rickenbacker's book, Fighting the Flying Circus. New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1919, pp. 363-364. Between the wars War hero Rickenbacker returned home as a war hero. At the Waldorf-Astoria, 600 people, including Secretary of War Newton Baker and his mother, shuttled in from Columbus. They "cheered him and toasted him and shouted and sang to him". On the streets, he was mobbed by souvenir seekers who tore buttons and ribbons off his uniform. He noted, "The onslaught was pretty heavy, more than I liked, but I took it...." Los Angeles gave him a parade in June. Rickenbacker turned down several endorsement offers and an opportunity to star in a feature film. He said producer Carl Laemmle "shoved a hundred-thousand-dollar certified check under my nose". Rickenbacker turned down these opportunities because he did not want to cheapen his image. He signed a book deal worth $25,000, publishing his memoir of the war, Fighting the Flying Circus. Rickenbacker also contracted for a speaking tour for $10,000; still in the Army, Rickenbacker also used this tour to promote Liberty Bonds. After the Liberty Bond tour, he was released from the army in November 1919 with a promotion to the rank of major, but he did not claim the promotion. He felt the rank of captain was the only one that was "earned and deserved". He was referred to as Captain Eddie or just "the Captain" for the rest of his life.Rickenbacker had a name he could capitalize on in any business he chose. He told a reporter, "There is no comparison between the auto and the air. I am through with the automobile and I stand ready to place my skill and talents in flying." Around December 1919, Rickenbacker talked to Reed Chambers about a joint venture in aircraft manufacturing. However, the performance and safety of airplanes were a concern for the government and the general public. Rickenbacker resorted to his promotional abilities to generate public and governmental enthusiasm, but with limited success. In 1920 and 1921, he made four transcontinental crossings—twice in Junkers-Larsen JL-6s and twice in de Havilland DH-4s. During these trips, he had seven crack-ups, nine near misses, and eight forced landings in cornfields.In 1925, Rickenbacker was a defense witness, along with Hap Arnold, Tooey Spaatz, Ira Eaker, and Fiorello H. La Guardia, in the court-martial of General Billy Mitchell. Rickenbacker Motor Company In October 1919, Rickenbacker accepted an offer from billionaire Byron F. Everitt of Everitt-Metzger-Flanders to develop a new car under the name Rickenbacker Motor Company (RMC). Other partners in the business were Harry Cunningham and Walter Flanders.Rickenbacker designed the car, with Ray McNamara developing its core engineering. Rickenbacker's most significant innovation was the tandem flywheel construction at the rear of the crankshaft that reduced vibration. The Rickenbacker automobile model took two years of development and 100,000 miles (160,000 km) of test driving by Rickenbacker before being unveiled at the New York Auto Show in 1922. RMC marketed its vehicle as "A Car Worthy of Its Name" and also used the Hat-in-the Ring squadron symbol. It was a high-quality mid-priced car, "up to the minute in every detail". RMC models sold for $1,500 to $2,000.[1] Because it "offers the least resistance to radio because of vibration", the Rickenbacker was selected to make the first transcontinental radio tour in June 1922. The next year, Leo Wood extolled its smooth ride in a pop song, "In My Rickenbacker Car". In mid-1923 Rickenbacker introduced his next innovation—four-wheel brakes. A decade earlier, he had benefited from these on the race track and wanted to make them standard on his commercial vehicles. However, his decision to make a mid-year introduction was costly. Rickenbacker blamed sales problems on a concerted industry media attack led by Studebaker. He said, "That broke me; it was more responsible for my going broke...than anything else." A second mid-year change in 1924 left RMC dealers feeling mistreated and taking a financial hit. In 1925, the Rickenbacker model 8 was the pace car of the Indianapolis 500.RMC declined when Rickenbacker failed to fully focus on RMC and continued work on aviation. In addition, the company's production engineer, Walter Flanders, died. Above all, the arrival of the less expensive, equally reliable Chrysler cut into the RMC market. As RMC sales dropped and leadership bickered, Rickenbacker resigned from his role as vice president and director of sales. In November 1927, the company went bankrupt. Because he was a founder, Rickenbacker was responsible for $250,000 of debt. Florida Airways While he was supposed to be focusing on RMC, Rickenbacker tried to achieve speed and distance records in aviation across the United States. His focus shifted to creating a light plane that would be affordable for private ownership. In January 1923, he announced the Glider Trophy, an annual worldwide contest he established to encourage experimentation with glider design. The trophy cost $5,000 to produce.In 1926, Rickenbacker started Florida Airways, with wartime comrade Reed Chambers. Investors in the company included Henry Ford, Richard C. Hoyt of the Hayden, Stone & Co. financial empire, and Percy Rockefeller. Ford's investment included supplying three new airplanes.Florida Airways began carrying airmail in April and passengers two months later, going between Miami and Jacksonville. However, Florida Airways was out of business before completing a full year of operations. It was a victim of the 1926 hurricane, the decline of the Florida real estate boom, and the failure of Tampa officials to deliver a promised airport. The company was purchased from receivership by Harold Pitcairn. Indianapolis Motor Speedway On November 1, 1927, Rickenbacker purchased the Indianapolis Motor Speedway from Carl Fisher for $700,000. He considered his salary of $5,000 a year and the opportunities for public relations to be more valuable than the $700,000 in debt he incurred. He also drove the speedway's pace car for several years.He operated the Indianapolis Motor Speedway for more than ten years, overseeing many improvements to the facility. He was responsible for the first radio broadcast of the Memorial Day 500 race. After a final 500-mile (800 km) race in 1941, he closed the Speedway to conserve gasoline, rubber, and other resources during World War II. In 1945, Rickenbacker sold the racetrack to the businessman Anton Hulman, Jr. General Motors Before going to Detroit to produce his automobile with RMC, Rickenbacker took a job with General Motors (GM) as the California distributor for its new car, the Sheridan. He spent the first eight months of 1921 in California, creating a network of dealerships. He often traveled between cities by plane, a leased Bellanca. In January 1928, Rickenbacker became assistant general manager for sales at GM for its Cadillac and LaSalle models. Later in the year, he took out a $90,000 loan to buy the Allison Engine Company and earned a significant amount on its resale to GM. Rickenbacker repeated this strategy with Bendix Corporation soon after.By mid-1929, Rickenbacker returned his focus to aviation. He convinced GM to purchase Fokker Aircraft Corporation of America (FACA), the designer of the fighter planes he once faced on the Western Front. As compensation for his advice, Rickenbacker was promoted to vice president for sales for GM's Fokker Aircraft Company. When Fokker Aircraft relocated its headquarters to Baltimore in 1932, Rickenbacker left. He became the vice president for governmental relations for American Airways, part of American Air Transport. While there, he convinced American Air Transport to purchase North American Aviation. Ten months later, he left American Air Transport and returned to GM, convincing the automaker to purchase North American Aviation. When the deal went through in June 1933, Rickenbacker became vice president for public affairs in GM's new aviation venture. North American Aviation was the parent company for Eastern Air Transport, Curtiss-Wright Corporation, and Trans World Airlines. In 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt rescinded existing mail contracts with private airlines and moved air mail transportation to the U.S. Army Air Corps. At the time, Rickenbacker was vice president of Eastern Air Transport, one of the companies affected. He became an outspoken critic of Roosevelt's New Deal policies, seeing them as little better than socialism. This drew criticism and ire from the press and the Roosevelt administration, which ordered NBC Radio to no longer allow Rickenbacker to broadcast his criticisms of Roosevelt's policies. When several inexperienced, undertrained Army pilots crashed and died while hauling mail on treacherous routes, Rickenbacker called it "legalized murder!" Eastern Air Lines Rickenbacker called upon his connections to achieve a merger of Eastern Air Transport with Florida Airways, forming Eastern Air Lines. In early 1935, Rickenbacker became general manager of Eastern Air Lines. In April 1938, after learning that GM was considering selling Eastern to John D. Hertz, Rickenbacker met with GM's chairman of the board, Alfred P. Sloan, and bought the company for $3.5 million.Under his leadership, Eastern Air Lines grew from a company flying a few thousand miles per week into a major airline. Rickenbacker oversaw many radical changes in the field of commercial aviation. He negotiated with the U.S. government to acquire air mail routes, a great advantage to companies that needed regular income. He helped develop and support new aircraft designs. Rickenbacker bought larger and faster airliners, including the four-engine Lockheed Constellation and Douglas DC-4. He also collaborated with pioneers of aviation design, including Donald W. Douglas, the founder of the Douglas Aircraft Company and the designer and builder of the DC-4, DC-6, DC-7, and DC-8 (its first jet airliner). Comic strips Rickenbacker scripted the popular Sunday comic strip, Ace Drummond, from 1935 to 1940 for King Features Syndicate. He worked with aviation artist and author Clayton Knight, who illustrated the series. The strip followed the adventures of barnstormer Drummond as he traveled around the world and defeated evil-doers. The comic was cross-promoted through Rickenbacker's Junior Pilots Club which distributed buttons featuring Ace Drummond characters. Ace Drummond was adapted into a film serial, a radio program, and a Big Little Book, Ace Drummond (Whitman Publishing Co., 1935).Between 1935 and 1940, Knight and Rickenbacker created another Sunday comic strip for King Features. Called The Hall of Fame of the Air, this fact-based comic featured airplanes and air battles of famous aviators and aces. As one modern writer noted, "Whether 'America's Ace of Aces' wrote the pieces or not; his name added authenticity to the strip." This comic strip was adapted into a Big Little Book, Hall of Fame of the Air, by Whitman Publishing Co. in 1936. World War II Support for Britain Rickenbacker supported the war effort as a civilian. While initially supporting the isolationist movement, Rickenbacker officially left the America First organization in 1940, having been a member for a few months. He then took an outspoken pro-British stance. He was inspired by "England's heroic resistance to relentless air attacks" from the Luftwaffe's campaign during the Battle of Britain in 1940, writing: "Should these gallant British withstand the terrific onslaught of the totalitarian states until the summer of 1941, it is my sincere conviction that by that time this nation will have declared war."Rickenbacker was one of a few celebrities who participated in campaigns to rally World War I veterans to the British cause before the attack on Pearl Harbor. In 1942, he toured training bases in the southwestern United States and England. He encouraged the American public to contribute time and resources and pledged Eastern Air Lines equipment and personnel for use in military activities. Under Rickenbacker's direction, Eastern Air Lines flew munitions and supplies across the Atlantic to the British.In 1942, with a letter of authorization from Henry L. Stimson, U.S. Secretary of War, Rickenbacker visited England on an official war mission and made ground-breaking recommendations for better war operations. He inspected troops, operations, and equipment, serving in a publicity role to increase support from civilians and soldiers. Later, he worked with both the Royal Air Force and the United States Army Air Forces on bombing strategy, including work with air chief marshal Sir Arthur Harris and general Carl Andrew Spaatz. Adrift at sea In October 1942, Stimson sent Rickenbacker on a tour of air bases in the Pacific Theater of Operations to review living conditions and operations. In addition, he was to deliver a secret message from the president to General Douglas MacArthur. After visiting several air and sea bases in Hawaii, Rickenbacker was provided with a B-17D Flying Fortress (AAF Ser. No. 40-3089) as transportation to the South Pacific. Due to faulty navigation equipment, the bomber strayed hundreds of miles off course while on its way to a refueling stop on Canton Island. When the airplane ran out of fuel, the pilot, Captain William T. Cherry Jr., was forced to ditch or water land the airplane in a remote part of the Pacific Ocean. For 24 days, Rickenbacker, Army Captain Hans C. Adamson (his friend and business partner), and six crewmen drifted for thousands of miles at sea in life rafts. Adamson sustained serious injuries during the ditching. The other crewmen—John Bartek, Wiliam Cherry, John De Angelis, Alexander Kaczmarczyk, James Reynolds, and James Whittaker—were hurt to varying degrees. Their food supply ran out after three days. On the eighth day, a seagull landed on Rickenbacker's head. He captured it, and the bird became both a meal for the men and fishing bait. They survived on sporadic rainwater and small fish that they caught with their bare hands. While suffering from dehydration, Kaczmarczyk drank seawater; he died after two weeks adrift and was buried at sea.The U.S. Army Air Forces and the U.S. Navy's patrol planes planned to abandon the search for the lost B-17 crewmen after just over two weeks, but Rickenbacker's wife convinced them to search for another week. However, the newspapers and radio reported that Rickenbacker was dead.The surviving men split up. Cherry rowed off in the small raft and was rescued on day 23. Reynolds, De Angelis, and Whittaker found a small island that was close to an inhabited island where the natives were hosting an allied radio station. A U.S. Navy patrol OS2U-3 Kingfisher float-plane rescued the survivors on November 13, 1942, in the Ellice Island chain (now Tuvalu). All were suffering from exposure, sunburn, dehydration, and near starvation. He had lost 40 pounds (18 kg), but after a few days of rest, Rickenbacker completed his assignment and delivered his message to General MacArthur.The failure in the airplane's navigation was blamed on an out-of-adjustment bubble octant that gave a systematic bias to all of its readings. The octant suffered a severe shock in a failed takeoff attempt in a different bomber. When the bomber's landing gear's brakes seized, the crew unknowingly moved the damaged bubble octant to Rickenbacker's plane. This ditching spurred the development of improved navigational instruments and also better survival gear for the air crewmen. In 1943, Rickenbacker wrote Seven Came Through about his experience, saying he was lost for 21 days. He corrected the number to 24 days in his 1967 autobiography. 1943 mission to the USSR Still determined to support the war effort, Rickenbacker suggested a fact-finding mission in the Soviet Union to provide the Soviets with technical assistance with their American aircraft. To get approval for this trip, Rickenbacker approached Soviet diplomats, rather than President Roosevelt. By trading favors with the Soviet ambassador and with Stimson's help, Rickenbacker secured permission to travel to the Soviet Union. Stimson assigned Rickenbacker to visit the bases and production facilities in the Aleutian Islands, Burma, China, India, the Middle East, North Africa, and the Soviet Union. The War Department provided everything Rickenbacker needed, including a highly unusual letter giving the bearer permission to "visit...any...areas he may deem necessary for such purposes as he will explain to you in person", signed by the Secretary of War.In April 1943, Rickenbacker began his trip, traveling to Cairo, Egypt, in a United States Army Air Forces C-54 provided by General Henry H. Arnold. Rickenbacker made observations at every stop and reviewed American operations with a critical eye, forwarding reports to authorities. From Cairo, he traveled by C-87 to India to experience the Hump airlift into China—he reported unfavorably on the Hump airlift to Arnold after his return to the United States. Continuing into China, Rickenbacker was impressed by the determination of the Chinese people but disgusted with the corruption of the Kuomintang government. Next, he went to Iran and, from there, to the Soviet Union. In the Soviet Union, Rickenbacker observed wartime conditions, the dedication and patriotism of the Russians, and the denial of food to those deemed unproductive to the war effort. He befriended many Soviet officials and shared his knowledge of the aircraft they had received from the United States. He was lavishly entertained by the Soviets and recalled attempts by NKVD agents to get him intoxicated enough to disclose sensitive information. Rickenbacker's mission was successful. A commander of Moscow's defense had stayed at Rickenbacker's home in 1937, and this personal connection aided his information-gathering. He learned about Soviet defense strategies and capabilities. When the Battle of Kursk started, he took advantage of the Soviets' distraction, viewing and memorizing a map that detailed the locations of Soviet military units at the front. He also persuaded his hosts to give him an unprecedented tour of the Shturmovik aircraft factory. However, Rickenbacker made comments during his trip that alerted the Soviets to the existence of the secret B-29 Superfortress program.After Rickenbacker visited the Soviet Union, British prime minister Winston Churchill interviewed him. In the United States, Rickenbacker's information resulted in some diplomatic and military action; however, the president did not meet with him. For his support of the war effort, Rickenbacker received the Medal for Merit from the United States government. Postwar For a time, Eastern was the most profitable airline in the postwar era. During the late 1950s, however, Eastern Air Lines' fortunes declined. Rickenbacker was forced out of his position as CEO on October 1, 1959. At the age of 73, Rickenbacker also resigned as the chairman of the board on December 31, 1963.In the 1960s, Rickenbacker became a well-known speaker. He shared his vision for the future of technology and commerce, exhorting Americans to respect the Soviet Union during the Cold War, but still uphold American values. He also endorsed many conservative ideas. In 1967, Rickenbacker published his autobiography, giving a special edition to the employees of Eastern Air Lines. Personal life Rickenbacker met Adelaide Frost Durant in Los Angeles before World War I. At the time, she was married to Clifford Durant, a racing competitor of Rickenbacker and the hard-partying son of William Durant of General Motors fame. Durant was also an abusive husband. Adelaide chose to get a hysterectomy to ensure she would bear him no children. Her father-in-law stepped in to allow her to live independently, buying her a comfortable home and giving her $220,000 in equities, half being GM stock.Rickenbacker saw Adelaide again in New York in 1921 and was smitten. She finalized her divorce in July 1922, and the two were married on September 16, 1922, in Cumberland Presbyterian Church of South Beach, Connecticut. Following a seven-week honeymoon in Europe, the newlyweds set up home at Indian Village Manor in Detroit, Michigan. They adopted two boys: David Edward in 1925, and William Frost in 1928. Before the second adoption, the couple purchased a home in Grosse Pointe. In 1931, the family moved to Bronxville, New York. New York City was Rickenbacker's favored home base and remained the couple's primary residence for the rest of their lives, along with their second home in Key Biscayne. They also owned a ranch in Kerr County, Texas in the 1950s. Both of their sons attended the Asheville School where Rickenbacker served on the board of trustees.On February 26, 1941, Rickenbacker was a passenger on Eastern Air Lines Flight 21 on a Douglas DC-3 airliner that crashed outside Atlanta, Georgia. The survivors were rescued after spending the night at the crash site. Rickenbacker barely survived being soaked in fuel and trapped in the wreckage. The press mistakenly announced his death. In his autobiography, Rickenbacker gave a dramatic retelling of the incident. While he was still conscious and in terrible pain, he was left behind while some ambulances carried away the bodies of the dead. When he arrived at the hospital, his injuries were so severe that the emergency surgeons and physicians left him for dead for some time. The doctors instructed their assistants to "take care of the live ones". Rickenbacker's injuries included a fractured skull, a shattered left elbow with a crushed nerve, a paralyzed left hand, several broken ribs, a crushed hip socket, a pelvis broken in two places, a severed nerve in his left hip, a broken left knee, and his left eyeball was out of its socket. He was in critical condition at Atlanta's Piedmont Hospital for ten days. After four months in the hospital, followed by months of home care, Rickenbacker healed from his injuries and regained his full eyesight. Rickenbacker later noted the supreme act of will that it took to stave off dying.Rickenbacker was an avid golfer, often playing at the Siwanoy Country Club course near his home in Bronxville. He is one of a very select few members who were granted honorary lifetime membership. He was also a member of the Los Angeles Elks Lodge #99. After he left Eastern Airlines, the Rickenbackers traveled for several years in the Orient.In 1972, Rickenbacker had a stroke that left him in a coma for a short time. He recovered and traveled to Zürich, Switzerland in July 1973, seeking medical treatments for his wife's failing vision. While in Zürich, Rickenbacker contracted pneumonia and died at the age of 82. His memorial service was held at the Key Biscayne Presbyterian Church with the eulogy given by Lt. General Jimmy Doolittle. He was interred in Columbus, Ohio, at Green Lawn Cemetery. When he died, Rickenbacker was the last living Medal of Honor recipient from the United States Army Air Service.In 1977, Adelaide was blind, in failing health, and still grieving severely from the loss of her husband. She died by suicide via gunshot at their home in Key Biscayne, Florida at the age of 92. Awards and honors Military awards Junior Military Aviation Badge Mackay Trophy for bringing down sixteen enemy aircraft, 1918 Croix de Guerre with Palm from France in May 1918 Legion of Honor (Chevalier) from France in May 1918 Distinguished Service Cross for service near Billy, France on September 25, 1918 (replaced by a Medal of Honor in 1930) Distinguished Service Cross for heroism near Montsec, France on April 29, 1918 Distinguished Service Cross Oak Leaf Cluster for heroic action over Richecourt, France on May 17, 1918 Distinguished Service Cross Oak Leaf Cluster for heroism over Saint-Mihiel, France on May 22, 1918 Distinguished Service Cross Oak Leaf Cluster for heroism in action over Boise Rate, France on May 28, 1918 Distinguished Service Cross Oak Leaf Cluster for heroism in action at 4,000 meters (13,000 ft) over Jaulny, France on May 30, 1918 Distinguished Service Cross Oak Leaf Cluster for heroism in action near Villecy, France on September 14, 1918 Distinguished Service Cross Oak Leaf Cluster for action in the region of Bois-de-Wavrille, France, September 15, 1918 World War I Victory Medal with six battle clasps Medal of Honor awarded on November 6, 1930, for service near Billy, France on September 25, 1918 (replaced his first Distinguished Service Cross) Other awards Medal for Merit for efforts as a civilian during World War II Veterans of Foreign Wars Merit Award, 1953 Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame, 1954 Tony Jannus Award,1967 Automotive Hall of Fame, 1973 International Motorsports Hall of Fame, 1992 National Sprint Car Hall of Fame, 1992 Motorsports Hall of Fame of America, 1994 Georgia Aviation Hall of Fame, 1999 National Aviation Hall of Fame, 1965 and 2004 Other honors When it opened in 1941, Dobbins Air Reserve Base in Georgia was originally called Rickenbacker Field, in his honor. In November 1947, a four-mile (6 km) Rickenbacker Causeway was completed, linking Miami with Crandon Park with Key Biscayne. He was made an honorary brother of the Alpha Pi Sigma fraternity in March 1949 at Parks Air College in Cahokia, Illinois. In 1974, Lockbourne Air Force Base, a Strategic Air Command (SAC) installation in Columbus, Ohio was renamed Rickenbacker Air Force Base. On April 1, 1980, it was turned over to the Ohio Air National Guard and renamed Rickenbacker Air National Guard Base which shares an airfield with Rickenbacker International Airport. The Rickenbacker Award is the Civil Air Patrol cadet achievement equivalent to an Air Force Technical Sergeant. The United States Postal Service issued a postage stamp honoring Rickenbacker as an aviation pioneer in 1995. The stamp was reprinted in 1999 and reissued in 2000. A coffee shop and deli located at Maxwell Air Force Base's University Inn is called Rickenbacker's. Rickenbacker was named as the class exemplar at the United States Air Force Academy for the Class of 2004. His childhood home in Columbus, Ohio is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the Captain Edward V. Rickenbacker House. Pop culture references Co-founded in 1931 by a second cousin, Adolph Rickenbacker, Rickenbacker Guitars was given its name because of its association with the already famous Eddie Rickenbacker. The 1945 biographical movie, Captain Eddie, starred Fred MacMurray as Rickenbacker. The story of Eddie Rickenbacker "and his courageous company" appears in Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions, the 1953 book from Alcoholics Anonymous. It pertains to when his plane crashed in the Pacific and is used in the closing remarks of Tradition One: "Our common welfare should come first; personal recovery depends upon A.A. unity." In the 1955 film The Court-Martial of Billy Mitchell, Rickenbacker is played by Tom Mckee. In the 1959 television show, The Twilight Zone episode "The Parallel", in a parallel universe, Rickenbacker was never found after the B-17 incident. In the early 1960s, Al Capp included an airplane pilot, Cap'n Eddie Ricketyback, in his comic strip Li'l Abner. In a 1960s Peanuts comic strip, Lucy tells Snoopy that he received a postcard from Charlie Brown who is on vacation. Snoopy imagines that the message was sent from Captain Eddie Rickenbacker claiming that "Rick will never amount to much...Those racing drivers don't know anything about flying airplanes." The 1975 children's television series Fraidy Cat stars a cat who lived his seventh life as an ace pilot named Eddie Kittenbacker, a feline caricature of Rickenbacker. In the pilot episode of the science fiction series Voyagers! (1982), the protagonists help Rickenbacker defeat the Red Baron. Eddie Rickenbacker appears in the 1990 video game Red Baron as one of the Allied aces. In the 1999 video game System Shock 2, a military spaceship is named the UNN Rickenbacker. The 2004 board game Wings of War: Famous Aces features Rickenbacker's Spad XIII. In the 2004 novel The Godfather Returns, Nick Geraci is reading Eddie Rickenbacker's autobiography. His father quotes from the sleeve of the book. Rickenbacker is an instructor in the World War I simulation game Rise of Flight, released in 2009. In the 2007 documentary The King of Kong: A Fistful of Quarters, Billy Mitchell compares Eddie Rickenbacker with the Red Baron to illustrate his dominance of competitive video gaming. He says, "The top French pilot in World War I shot down 24 enemy planes. The top American pilot—you don't know his name, do you? Nobody does, but it's Eddie Rickenbacker. Shot down 26 enemy planes. The German Ace, the Red Baron—everyone knows who the Red Baron is. That's 'cause he shot down 87 enemy planes. I mean, he was the best...There's a level of difference between people, and it translates into some games." In 2009, musician Todd Snider wrote a song called "Money, Compliments, and Publicity," which revolves around a statement Rickenbacker made indicating that the pinnacle of success is when you lose interest in money, compliments, and publicity. In the 2017 film Wonder Woman, the fictional pilot/spy Steve Trevor has Rickenbacker's logo and number on his plane. Publications Fighting the Flying Circus: The Greatest True Air Adventure to Come out of World War I. New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1919 Ace Drummond (Big Little Book no. 1177). Racine, Wisconsin: Whitman Publishing Company, 1935 Hall of Fame of the Air (Big Little Book no. 1159). Racine, Wisconsin: Whitman Publishing Company, 1936. Seven Came Through. Garden City: Doubleday, Doran and Company, Inc., 1943 Rickenbacker: an Autobiography. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967. ISBN 978-0-13-781005-5 From Father to Son; The Letters of Captain Eddie Rickenbacker To his Son William, from Boyhood to Manhood. William Rickenbacker, ed. New York: Walker & Co, 1970. ISBN 978-0-8027-0325-5 Fighter Pilot: The Combat Memoir of Eddie Rickenbacker (Modern Annotated Edition). Laurence La Tourette Driggs and David W. Bradford, ed. Boston Hill Press, 2015. ASIN B016FZ6JTY See also List of Medal of Honor recipients for World War I List of members of the American Legion List of World War I flying aces from the United States References This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Army Center of Military History. External links Rickenbacker in the Vanderbilt Cup Races Rickenbacker photographs, Auburn University Digital Library Interview with Rickenbacker from The Literary Digest, 1919 Works by or about Eddie Rickenbacker at Internet Archive Works by Eddie Rickenbacker at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)	[ "Engineering" ]
39,481,863	Central Gardens Nature Reserve	The Central Gardens Nature Reserve, also called Central Gardens, is a protected nature reserve located in the western suburbs of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Established in 1976, the 12-hectare (30-acre) reserve, garden and fauna and wildlife park is situated in the suburb of Merrylands and is managed by Cumberland Council. The park is regionally important and it attracts visitors outside the Cumberland local government area. The bushland contains remnants of Cumberland Plain Woodland and is approximately 3.5 hectares (8.6 acres).	The Central Gardens Nature Reserve, also called Central Gardens, is a protected nature reserve located in the western suburbs of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Established in 1976, the 12-hectare (30-acre) reserve, garden and fauna and wildlife park is situated in the suburb of Merrylands and is managed by Cumberland Council. The park is regionally important and it attracts visitors outside the Cumberland local government area. The bushland contains remnants of Cumberland Plain Woodland and is approximately 3.5 hectares (8.6 acres). History Before opening, the area was first used for clay extraction pits and kilns for brick making in the 1970s. The design of the park began at that time, with the tennis courts and grass area developed. The reserve was officially opened on 12 April 1976 by The Hon Tom Uren, the Deputy Leader of the Opposition at that time. Many trees were lost in the park as a result of a severe storm in February 2002. The boardwalk and deck structure was built in 1993, which was designed to allow disabled persons to access the edge of the main lake. Geography The reserve is located between Merrylands Road, Paton Street and the Cumberland Highway in Merrylands. The park's landform is made up of two main topographic regions — The northern half slopes gently from Merrylands Road towards the system of lakes in the centre of the park, whilst the section of park's south of the lakes is largely flat, with a small localised rise in elevation opposite of Paton St. Water is pumped from the main lake to an outlet near the Cumberland Highway. The quality of the lake is rather poor. Factors include silt laden runoff entering from adjacent areas, shallow waters, presence of marine animals and lack of reliable water supply to fill the lakes up during dry periods. Flora The vegetation of the gardens generally consist of a mixture of remnant indigenous vegetation and planted trees. The most significant area of remnant vegetation, known as Central Gardens Woodland, is located in the northwest corner of the park adjacent to the Cumberland Highway. The Woodland of the park is isolated from other significant areas of vegetation in the region. A total of 78 native plant species have been observed in the reserve. The Reserve has vegetation species such as Bursaria spinosa, Eucalyptus moluccana, Melaleuca decora, Exocarpos cupressiformis, Lomandra filiformis, Grey Box, Eucalyptus crebra (Narrow-leafed Ironbark), Eucalyptus tereticornis (Forest Red Gum), Bursaria spinosa (Blackthorn), Dillwynia juniperina (Prickly Parrot-pea), Casuarina glauca (Swamp Oak) and Themeda australis. Exotic species include Ulmus parvifolia (Chinese Elm) and Liquidambar styraciflua (Sweet Gum). Fauna Some of the animals in the park include kangaroos and wallabies, Australian white ibis, emus, waterfowl, wombats, and native birds, including cockatoos and cockatiels. Carps are found in the ponds, and also duck species such as the Pacific black duck, black swan, Emden goose, dusky moorhen and the Australian wood duck. The main habitat area within the gardens is the tree canopy, which is used by a range of bird species. Features The natural bushland features walking tracks, boardwalk, kiosk, amphitheatre, fountains, ornamental lake system, bird and animal enclosures (fauna and aviary), also sports ground such as tennis courts and open fields. The reserve is a popular venue for wedding photos and company picnics. Yarrabee and Pinaroo areas may be hired for those large family or company picnics. Other features include hot water tank, sink, toilets, BBQs, picnic tables and dozens of shady trees. Concrete paths meander throughout the park. The lake's water jets help with water aeration, whilst also providing a visual and auditory perspective. A major attribute of the reserve is the exposed sandstone rock face, formed during quarrying operations, when the site was used for brick making. Part of this cliff is used for a large (artificial) waterfall and is a conspicuous attraction in the park. Demographics The 1989 survey indicated that the most popular form of recreation in the park was picnicking and barbequing (62%), with relaxing also a favoured activity (55%). 83% of visitors to the park arrive by car and 15% of visitors by foot. Peak times for visitation occurred between 12 noon and 2pm. The survey found that 56.7% of park users were not residents of the Cumberland local government area. Access Bookings, which go through Cumberland Council, are required in order to access the tennis courts. Entry is free. Wheelchair access is available. Restricted access areas include the fenced woodland area, the animal enclosures and the works depot. The park is closed on Christmas Day and Good Friday. Gallery See also Auburn Botanical Gardens List of parks in Sydney Nurragingy Reserve Prospect Nature Reserve Protected areas of New South Wales Western Sydney Parklands Wetherill Park Nature Reserve == References ==	[ "Geography" ]
43,700,201	Howard Freeman (CIA)	Howard Freeman is an American CIA operative.	Howard Freeman is an American CIA operative. Combat Between 10–11 March 1968, Freeman was a Paramilitary Officer in the CIA's Special Activities Division and was assigned to command a remote outpost at Phou Pha Thi's Lima Site 85 north of the CIA base at Long Tieng, Laos where the US Air Force had installed a strategic radar system to enable US bombers to launch more accurate raids on North Vietnam. When the Vietnamese overran the 3,000-foot (910 m) mountain outpost, Freeman and a small security detachment of Hmong rushed to the top of the mountain where they engaged in close combat with the enemy, resulting in Freeman's wounding. Freeman was carrying only a sawed-off shotgun and a side arm when he was hit in the back of the leg. Unable by that time to rescue any of the Air Force personnel, Freeman, CIA agent John "Woody" Spence, and their Hmong team were ordered off the mountain. Seven United States personnel, including Freeman and Spence, returned alive from the mission.Freeman was awarded the CIA's Intelligence Star. Later career In his later career, Freeman served with distinction in the Agency's Counterterrorism Center, where he handled some of the CTC's most dangerous assignments. Notes References Castle, Timothy N. (2000). One Day Too Long: Top Secret Site 85 and the Bombing of North Vietnam. New York; Chichester, Sussex: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231103176.	[ "Law" ]
16,774,007	Galileo Regio	Galileo Regio is a large, dark surface feature on Jupiter's moon Ganymede.It is a region of ancient dark material that has been broken apart by tectonism and is now surrounded by younger, brighter material (such as that of Uruk Sulcus) that has been upwelling from Ganymede's interior. It is thought to be some 4 billion years old and is heavily cratered and palimpsested, but also has a unique distribution of furrows and smooth terrain that has been the subject of conflicting speculation regarding cause or origin. The distribution of smooth terrain on Galileo Regio suggests that the ancient crust of Ganymede was relatively thin in the equatorial region and thickened poleward in this area. The age relationships, morphology, and geometry of the furrow systems do not favor an origin by impact or tidal stressing. A possible, but speculative, origin is crustal uplift caused by a plume-like convection cell in a fluid mantle underlying a thin crust.	Galileo Regio is a large, dark surface feature on Jupiter's moon Ganymede.It is a region of ancient dark material that has been broken apart by tectonism and is now surrounded by younger, brighter material (such as that of Uruk Sulcus) that has been upwelling from Ganymede's interior. It is thought to be some 4 billion years old and is heavily cratered and palimpsested, but also has a unique distribution of furrows and smooth terrain that has been the subject of conflicting speculation regarding cause or origin. The distribution of smooth terrain on Galileo Regio suggests that the ancient crust of Ganymede was relatively thin in the equatorial region and thickened poleward in this area. The age relationships, morphology, and geometry of the furrow systems do not favor an origin by impact or tidal stressing. A possible, but speculative, origin is crustal uplift caused by a plume-like convection cell in a fluid mantle underlying a thin crust. Stratigraphic and morphologic relationships among furrows and crater palimpsests suggest that palimpsest morphology is largely the result of impact into a rheologically weak crust rather than viscous relaxation. The regio is bounded on the southwest by Uruk Sulcus, which lies between it and Marius Regio. Within Galileo Regio itself lies the palimpsest Memphis Facula, a relic of an impact crater that has been flattened in a manner characteristic of some of the Solar System bodies with icy crusts. References Harland, D. M.; Jupiter Odyssey, Springer Praxis (2000), p. 141 Casacchia, R., and R. G. Strom (1984), Geologic evolution of Galileo Regio, Ganymede, J. Geophys. Res., 89(S02), B419–B428, doi:10.1029/JB089iS02p0B419.	[ "Universe", "Mathematics" ]
3,530,500	Maurice Wilks	Maurice Fernand Cary Wilks (19 August 1904 – 8 September 1963) was a British automotive and aeronautical engineer, and by the time of his death in 1963, was the chairman of the Rover Company, a British car manufacturer. He was the founder of the Land Rover marque and responsible for the inspiration and concept work that led to the development of the first Land Rover off-road utility vehicle.	Maurice Fernand Cary Wilks (19 August 1904 – 8 September 1963) was a British automotive and aeronautical engineer, and by the time of his death in 1963, was the chairman of the Rover Company, a British car manufacturer. He was the founder of the Land Rover marque and responsible for the inspiration and concept work that led to the development of the first Land Rover off-road utility vehicle. Early life Wilks was born on 19 August 1904 on Hayling Island, Hampshire, England, the youngest of five sons and one daughter of Thomas Wilks (born Balham), a director of Leather Co and his wife Jane Eliza (born St. Sepulchre, London), a Suffragette. One of his brothers was Spencer Wilks who became managing director, chairman and president of the Rover Car Company. He was educated at Malvern College. Career Maurice Wilks worked from 1922 to 1926 for the Hillman Motor Car Company in Coventry. In 1926 he went to work for General Motors in the United States but after two years in the U.S., returned to England and Hillman. Wilks remained at Hillman as a planning engineer until 1930, when he moved to the Rover Company as chief engineer following his much older brother, Spencer. Spencer Wilks had been brought in from Hillman in September 1929 by Rover's Frank Searle made general manager and given a seat on Rover's board the following year. Spencer would be appointed managing director of Rover from 1932In 1930 Spencer and Maurice Wilks on Spencer's appointment to the board made the important decision to make only high quality cars.During World War II, Wilks led Rover's team developing Frank Whittle's gas turbine aircraft engines. Experiencing difficulties with Whittle's team Rover passed the project to Rolls-Royce in 1943. After the war, Wilks continued working with gas turbine engines, leading to Rover unveiling the first gas turbine powered car in 1949. Shortly after the war, whilst at his farm in Anglesey, Wilks, who used an army surplus Willys Jeep for farm work, and his brother Spencer who was visiting him, were inspired to develop and produce a utility four-wheel-drive vehicle for farmers, and the name Land Rover was coined for it.By the summer of 1947 Rover had built a prototype Land Rover vehicle based on a Jeep chassis. In September 1947, the Rover company authorised the production of 50 pre-production models for evaluation purposes. The Land Rover was launched to the world at the 1948 Amsterdam Motor Show.Maurice Wilks was a leading light in the establishment and development of the proving ground facilities of the Motor Industry Research Association.Maurice Wilks remained chief engineer until appointed technical director in 1946. He was appointed joint managing director with brother Spencer Wilks in August 1956 and succeeded his brother as managing director in November 1960. In January 1962 preferring policy to day-to-day management he was appointed chairman of the Rover Company in succession to his older brother Spencer Wilks. The managing director appointment was given to W F F Martin-Hurst. Death Wilks died at his farm near Newborough, Anglesey, on 8 September 1963. He was 59.His obituary in The Times described him as shunning publicity but added that he was farsighted and regarded as one of the industry's outstanding engineers with a brilliant knowledge of engineering detail. He was survived by his wife and three children.He married Barbara Martin-Hurst in 1937. Wilks family From the early 1930s, until merged with British Leyland, Rover had much of the nature of a family business. Maurice Wilks's elder brother, Spencer Bernau Wilks (1891—1971), was general manager from September 1929 then managing director of Rover from 1932 until 1957 when he was appointed chairman of the board of directors. Spencer was hired by Rover managing director, Frank Searle, from his position of joint (with John Black) managing director of Hillman following the purchase of Hillman by the Rootes brothers. Spencer brought Maurice from Hillman to Rover the following year to be Rover's chief engineer.Aged 70 Spencer retired from the chair in favour of his much younger (13 years) brother at the beginning of 1962 remaining on the board in a non-executive capacity. He was made president of Rover in 1967.William Martin-Hurst (1905-1988) Rover's well-liked managing director, was a Maurice Wilks relative by marriage. Peter Wilks (1920-1972), son of Geoffrey Wilks, took over his uncle Maurice Wilks' technical directorship in 1963 and later became engineering director but he retired for health reasons in July 1971 when only 51 and died the following year. Spencer King (1925-2010) was a nephew of Spencer and Maurice Wilks. He took over as technical director on the retirement of Peter Wilks.Spencer Wilks and John Black of the Standard Motor Company married sisters, daughters of William Hillman bicycle and automobile manufacturer. References External links Still photograph of M C Wilks by British Pathé	[ "Engineering" ]
43,280,351	St. Frances Cabrini Catholic Church (Omaha, Nebraska)	St. Frances Cabrini Catholic Church is a historic Catholic church building in Omaha, Nebraska, United States. It was formerly the cathedral of the Diocese of Omaha and was named St. Philomena's Cathedral at that time. The church and the rectory are listed on the National Register of Historic Places and are also Omaha Landmarks under the St. Philomena name.	St. Frances Cabrini Catholic Church is a historic Catholic church building in Omaha, Nebraska, United States. It was formerly the cathedral of the Diocese of Omaha and was named St. Philomena's Cathedral at that time. The church and the rectory are listed on the National Register of Historic Places and are also Omaha Landmarks under the St. Philomena name. History The Spanish Renaissance Revival style church was built in 1908 as St. Philomena's Cathedral. It served the Diocese of Omaha as its cathedral church until St. Cecilia's Cathedral was substantially completed in 1916. The church was designed by Omaha architect Thomas Rogers Kimball. The name of the church was changed in 1958 to honor the first American citizen to be canonized a saint, Frances Xavier Cabrini. It was named an Omaha Landmark in 1979 and it was added to the National Register in 1980. See also List of Catholic cathedrals in the United States List of cathedrals in the United States References External links Media related to St. Frances Cabrini complex (Omaha, Nebraska) at Wikimedia Commons	[ "Entities" ]
384,430	W. V. D. Hodge	Sir William Vallance Douglas Hodge (; 17 June 1903 – 7 July 1975) was a British mathematician, specifically a geometer.His discovery of far-reaching topological relations between algebraic geometry and differential geometry—an area now called Hodge theory and pertaining more generally to Kähler manifolds—has been a major influence on subsequent work in geometry.	Sir William Vallance Douglas Hodge (; 17 June 1903 – 7 July 1975) was a British mathematician, specifically a geometer.His discovery of far-reaching topological relations between algebraic geometry and differential geometry—an area now called Hodge theory and pertaining more generally to Kähler manifolds—has been a major influence on subsequent work in geometry. Life and career Hodge was born in Edinburgh in 1903, the younger son and second of three children of Archibald James Hodge (1869-1938), a searcher of records in the property market and a partner in the firm of Douglas and Company, and his wife, Jane (born 1875), daughter of confectionery business owner William Vallance. They lived at 1 Church Hill Place in the Morningside district.He attended George Watson's College, and studied at Edinburgh University, graduating MA in 1923. With help from E. T. Whittaker, whose son J. M. Whittaker was a college friend, he then took the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos. At Cambridge he fell under the influence of the geometer H. F. Baker. He gained a Cambridge BA degree in 1925, receiving the MA in 1930 and the Doctor of Science (ScD) degree in 1950.In 1926 he took up a teaching position at the University of Bristol, and began work on the interface between the Italian school of algebraic geometry, particularly problems posed by Francesco Severi, and the topological methods of Solomon Lefschetz. This made his reputation, but led to some initial scepticism on the part of Lefschetz. According to Atiyah's memoir, Lefschetz and Hodge in 1931 had a meeting in Max Newman's rooms in Cambridge, to try to resolve issues. In the end Lefschetz was convinced. In 1928 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. His proposers were Sir Edmund Taylor Whittaker, Ralph Allan Sampson, Charles Glover Barkla, and Sir Charles Galton Darwin. He was awarded the Society's Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize for the period 1964 to 1968.In 1930 Hodge was awarded a Research Fellowship at St. John's College, Cambridge. He spent the year 1931–2 at Princeton University, where Lefschetz was, visiting also Oscar Zariski at Johns Hopkins University. At this time he was also assimilating de Rham's theorem, and defining the Hodge star operation. It would allow him to define harmonic forms and so refine the de Rham theory. On his return to Cambridge, he was offered a University Lecturer position in 1933. He became the Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry at Cambridge, a position he held from 1936 to 1970. He was the first head of DPMMS. He was the Master of Pembroke College, Cambridge from 1958 to 1970, and vice-president of the Royal Society from 1959 to 1965. He was knighted in 1959. Amongst other honours, he received the Adams Prize in 1937 and the Copley Medal of the Royal Society in 1974. He died in Cambridge on 7 July 1975. Work The Hodge index theorem was a result on the intersection number theory for curves on an algebraic surface: it determines the signature of the corresponding quadratic form. This result was sought by the Italian school of algebraic geometry, but was proved by the topological methods of Lefschetz. The Theory and Applications of Harmonic Integrals summed up Hodge's development during the 1930s of his general theory. This starts with the existence for any Kähler metric of a theory of Laplacians – it applies to an algebraic variety V (assumed complex, projective and non-singular) because projective space itself carries such a metric. In de Rham cohomology terms, a cohomology class of degree k is represented by a k-form α on V(C). There is no unique representative; but by introducing the idea of harmonic form (Hodge still called them 'integrals'), which are solutions of Laplace's equation, one can get unique α. This has the important, immediate consequence of splitting up Hk(V(C), C)into subspaces Hp,qaccording to the number p of holomorphic differentials dzi wedged to make up α (the cotangent space being spanned by the dzi and their complex conjugates). The dimensions of the subspaces are the Hodge numbers. This Hodge decomposition has become a fundamental tool. Not only do the dimensions hp,q refine the Betti numbers, by breaking them into parts with identifiable geometric meaning; but the decomposition itself, as a varying 'flag' in a complex vector space, has a meaning in relation with moduli problems. In broad terms, Hodge theory contributes both to the discrete and the continuous classification of algebraic varieties. Further developments by others led in particular to an idea of mixed Hodge structure on singular varieties, and to deep analogies with étale cohomology. Hodge conjecture The Hodge conjecture on the 'middle' spaces Hp,p is still unsolved, in general. It is one of the seven Millennium Prize Problems set up by the Clay Mathematics Institute. Exposition Hodge also wrote, with Daniel Pedoe, a three-volume work Methods of Algebraic Geometry, on classical algebraic geometry, with much concrete content – illustrating though what Élie Cartan called 'the debauch of indices' in its component notation. According to Atiyah, this was intended to update and replace H. F. Baker's Principles of Geometry. Family In 1929 he married Kathleen Anne Cameron. Publications Hodge, W. V. D. (1941), The Theory and Applications of Harmonic Integrals, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-35881-1, MR 0003947 Hodge, W. V. D.; Pedoe, D. (1994) [1947], Methods of Algebraic Geometry, Volume I (Book II), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-46900-5 Hodge, W. V. D.; Pedoe, Daniel (1994) [1952], Methods of Algebraic Geometry: Volume 2 Book III: General theory of algebraic varieties in projective space. Book IV: Quadrics and Grassmann varieties., Cambridge Mathematical Library, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-46901-2, MR 0048065 Hodge, W. V. D.; Pedoe, Daniel (1994) [1954], Methods of Algebraic Geometry: Volume 3, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-46775-9 See also List of things named after W. V. D. Hodge == References ==	[ "Mathematics" ]
49,877,423	Holbæk Museum	Holbæk Museum is a local history museum in Holbæk, Denmark. It is based in a large complex of historic, mostly half-timbered buildings from the 17th to 19th century surrounding a garden space. One of the buildings was moved to the site in 1937 but the others all stand in their original location. The museum also comprises a pilot boat from 1922 docked in Holbæk's harbor. Holbæk Museum has been part of Museum Vestsjælland since 1 January 2014.	Holbæk Museum is a local history museum in Holbæk, Denmark. It is based in a large complex of historic, mostly half-timbered buildings from the 17th to 19th century surrounding a garden space. One of the buildings was moved to the site in 1937 but the others all stand in their original location. The museum also comprises a pilot boat from 1922 docked in Holbæk's harbor. Holbæk Museum has been part of Museum Vestsjælland since 1 January 2014. History Holbæk Museum was founded in 1910 as "Folkemuseet for Holbæk og omliggende Herreder" ("Museum of Folklore of Holbæk and Surrounding Hundrets"). The museum first opened its doors to the public on 1 November 1911 and was then based in the restored building of Holbæk Priory.In 1919 the museum moved to a new building in Søren Mays Gaard (Klosterstræde 16 and the building to its rear). It has later taken over more buildings and now comprises a total of 13 historic buildings. In 2009, Holvæk Museum opened the satellite museum at Bakkekammen 45. On 1 January 2013, it was merged with several other local museums in the western part of Zealand to form Museum Vestsjælland. Buildings Klosterstræde 19: Old Town Hall Holbæk's old town hall at Klosterstræde 18 contains an auditorium, museum shop, tourist information, café and administration.The two-storey building is from 1844 and was designed by F.F. Friis. The triangular pediment above the main entrance features king Christian VIII's monogram. The building was Golbæk's first purpose-built town hall. The local administration had until then been based in the south wing of Golbæk Priory on the other side of the street (Klosterstræde No. 7). The new town also contained the town jail. Holbæk's second town hall was inaugurated in 1911 but the building was still used for administrative functions until the inauguration of the third town hall in 1979. Part of the building was then used as library until Holbæk Museum took over the entire building in 1989.1911. Klosterstræde 16: Søren May House The half-timbered building at Klosterstræde 16 was built as private residence by pastor Søren May in about 1670. The building fronting the street and the building to its rear was originally part of a three-winged complex but the north wing was demolished in about 1900. The building was in 1844 acquired by the city and used as poorhouse and school until 1915 when it was taken over by the museum. The building contains an exhibition about Holbæk from the Middle Ages until 1870. The upper floor is for children and has a Hans Christian Andersen theme. Klosterstræde 14: Borchs Haandgjerningsskole The two-storey building at Klosterstræde 14 was originally part of the Søren May House. The upper floor was added after the town took over the property in 1744. The building was used for school purposes. It has been part of the museum since 1971 and is now used by the museum's textile guild and is also home to the museum's library and offices. Klosterstræde 8: Alfred and Johanne Jacobsen House Klosterstræde 8 shows a reconstruction of the home where Alfred and Johanne Jacobsen lived with their 11 children in 1940. Merchant house and Grocery store The Merchant House is the only building which has been moved to the site. It was originally located at the site where the newspaper Nordvestnyt is now headquartered. The two-storey, half-timbered building is from 1660 and is the old main wing of a larger complex built by the shipowner Christen. The house stands on a foundation of large granite ashlars which is believed to originate from the first St Nicolas' Church, Holbæk's old parish church. Thomsen. The complex served its original purpose until the beginning of the 20th century but was demolished in 1937 except for the building that was moved. The building now features reconstructed interiors from the first half of the 19th century with residence office and a Grocery store which is open for business on special dates, selling copies of toys, spices, candy and other goods. Old school Friskolen (literally "The Free School") is a former public school from 1867. It is a two-storey brick building with yellow dressing. The upper floor is an addition from 1888. The school was founded in 1942 and was first based in the now demolished north wing of the Søren May House. The new school building was in the beginning of the 20th century replaced by Østre Skole ("Rastern School"). The old building was used as a military barracks during World War I and later as social housing. It was taken over by the museum in 1930. The building is now used for temporary exhibitions and is also home to ArcheoLAB where children can try out techniques used by archeologists. Activities and structures in other locations Pilot boat The former pilot boat KDL Lodsbåden was acquired by Holbæk Museum in 1999 and put through a major renovation at Holbæk Dockyard to bring it back to its original state. It is now operated and maintained by volunteers from the Boat Guild. The aim of the Boat Guild is to preserve the ship as well as knowledge about Holbæk's maritime history with seafaring and ship building.KDL Lodsbåden was built in 1922 for Rørvig Pilot Service at Frederikssund Dockyard and transferred to Holbæk Pilot Service in 1926. The boat was acquired by Port of Holbæk in 1954 and by a private owner in 1972. Tea Pavilion The Tea Pavilion dates from approximately 1859 and was located in the garden of the local chemist. It has timber framing of pine timber and is covered by a zinc roof. It originally had a plaster ceiling and wooden floor. In 1937, when the chemist's garden was converted into a public park, its pavilion was moved to Sct. Elisabeth Hospital (now Elisabethcentret). In 1990 it was dismantled in connection with an expansion of the healthcare centre and rebuilt in its original location in what is now Bysøparken. Exhibitions Knabstrup ceramics Holbæk from the Middle Ages until 1870 World War II in Holbæk References External links Official website Drawings of the museum buildings by former museum director Albert Thomsen	[ "Information" ]
4,799,510	Down Will Come Baby	Down Will Come Baby is a 1999 American suspense thriller television film written and directed by Gregory Goodell, based on the 1991 novel of the same name by Gloria Murphy. The film tells the story of Leah (played by Meredith Baxter), a career woman who prioritizes work over her husband Marcus (Tom Amandes) and their young daughter Robin (Evan Rachel Wood). Leah accepts an out-of-state promotion that takes her away from her family, just as Robin is going through a difficult time following the accidental death of her friend at summer camp. The family's kindly new neighbor Dorothy (Diana Scarwid) steps in to help, but Leah suspects that Dorothy's seemingly innocent interest in her daughter belies a darker motive. Down Will Come Baby was produced by Hearst Entertainment for CBS, following the network's adaptation of another one of Murphy's novels for the 1996 film Summer of Fear.	Down Will Come Baby is a 1999 American suspense thriller television film written and directed by Gregory Goodell, based on the 1991 novel of the same name by Gloria Murphy. The film tells the story of Leah (played by Meredith Baxter), a career woman who prioritizes work over her husband Marcus (Tom Amandes) and their young daughter Robin (Evan Rachel Wood). Leah accepts an out-of-state promotion that takes her away from her family, just as Robin is going through a difficult time following the accidental death of her friend at summer camp. The family's kindly new neighbor Dorothy (Diana Scarwid) steps in to help, but Leah suspects that Dorothy's seemingly innocent interest in her daughter belies a darker motive. Down Will Come Baby was produced by Hearst Entertainment for CBS, following the network's adaptation of another one of Murphy's novels for the 1996 film Summer of Fear. The film was shot over 18 days in and around Phoenix, Arizona, from February to March 1999. Down Will Come Baby premiered on CBS on May 4, 1999, to negative reviews. Critics panned the film for its lurid depiction of child violence as well as its unflattering view on working mothers. It was watched by 11.4 million total viewers and was the 27th highest-rated prime time broadcast for its respective week. Plot Leah Garr is a workaholic whose career often takes her away from her home in Phoenix, Arizona, causing tension with her husband Marcus, who wants her to spend more time with her family. Tired of their constant fighting, the couple's 12-year-old daughter Robin insists on going away to summer camp. At camp, Robin befriends Amelia, an odd girl who lives with her abusive and controlling mother. One night, Robin decides to sneak off for a swim in a nearby lake and convinces Amelia to join her. Amelia is not a good swimmer and ends up drowning, leaving Robin ridden with guilt. Meanwhile, Leah accepts a big promotion that requires her to move to Denver, such that she only gets to see her family on the weekends. While hanging out at the park, Robin is approached by a friendly stranger named Dorothy Cotton, who later turns out to be Robin's new neighbor. In Leah's absence, Dorothy ingratiates herself in Robin's life, offering to help look after the girl whenever Marcus is busy. Leah is suspicious of Dorothy's intentions, but Marcus reassures her that Dorothy is just trying to be a good friend. Dorothy encourages Robin to confide in her, and Robin admits that she blames herself for her friend Amelia's death. Dorothy shares that her younger sister was also named Amelia, who she claims accidentally fell to her death when they were playing in their attic as children. Robin becomes creeped out by Dorothy's increasingly obsessive behavior, which includes stalking her, rearranging her bedroom, and yelling at the girl when she does not follow her instructions to the letter. Robin shares her fears with Marcus, who thinks she is overreacting. Unbeknownst to the Garrs, Dorothy has also been listening in on their conversations through a baby monitor she hid in Robin's room. Marcus is grateful when Dorothy agrees to stay over with Robin while he and Leah are out of town. While staying over, Dorothy's overbearing conduct gets on Robin's nerves. When the latter tries to call her mother to complain, Dorothy knocks her unconscious in a fit of rage. Leah and Marcus return home to find their daughter missing and they call the police after noticing blood on the doorframe. The worried couple convince their landlord to unlock Dorothy's barely lived-in apartment, where they find photographs of Robin's friend Amelia. The Garrs realize that Dorothy has been lying about her true identity, and that she is in fact the mother of Robin's deceased friend, who in turn was named after Dorothy's deceased sister. Meanwhile, Robin is being held captive in her late friend's bedroom by a delusional Dorothy, who believes that Robin is actually her daughter Amelia. Tired of waiting on the police, Leah and Marcus break into the summer camp's office, where they find out that Dorothy's real name is Gretchen McIntyre. They rush to Gretchen's address and arrive just in time to stop Gretchen from branding Robin with a hot iron as punishment for her disobedience. The police arrive shortly thereafter and Gretchen has a mental breakdown as she is taken into custody. On their way home, Leah announces that she is going to leave her job post in Denver to be with her family in Phoenix, much to Marcus and Robin's delight. Cast Production Down Will Come Baby was written and directed by Gregory Goodell, based on the 1991 novel of the same name by Gloria Murphy. It was produced by Hearst Entertainment for CBS, with Renee Valente and Paullette Breen serving as executive producers. The creative team also included Tom Del Ruth (director of photography), Paul Dixon (editor), and Joseph Conlan (composer). CBS had previously adapted another one of Murphy's novels, Simon Says (1994), into the 1996 television film Summer of Fear. While Murphy was unhappy with the previous adaptation, she approved of Goodell's adaptation of Down Will Come Baby, believing that his script stayed true to her original story and characters. There were some changes made for the film, such as the setting being switched from New England to Arizona.Meredith Baxter said the role of Leah appealed to her because she could relate to the struggle of being a working mother. She was also drawn to the notion put forth in the script that even ordinary people can find themselves in extraordinary situations, noting that the film starts out following a very normal family before taking a sudden sinister turn. Having done her share of true crime television dramas, Baxter was pleased to be a part of a film that is based on a fictional story. She explained: This confirms that the networks are again ready and willing to accept stories made up by the magnificence of a writer's mind. For a long period of time, it seemed a script had to come from the headlines before it had any dramatic credibility. The film was shot on location in Phoenix, Arizona, based out of the downtown area, from February to March 1999. It was shot over 18 days in what Baxter described as a "pretty demanding" schedule. Several local Arizonan actors rounded out the supporting cast including Booze-Mooney, Thompson, Glaeser, and McKay. Release and reception Down Will Come Baby premiered on CBS on May 4, 1999, in the 9:00–11:00 pm time slot, as part of the network's season-ending "sweeps" line-up. It was released on home video in the UK later that year by Odyssey Video. Ratings The film earned a national Nielsen rating of 8.7, where each ratings point represents 994,000 households, making it the 27th highest-rated prime time broadcast for the week of May 3 to 9, 1999. Overall it was the 120th most-watched television film for the 1998–1999 season, with a total of 11.4 million viewers. Critical response The Corpus Christi Caller-Times' Elaine Liner found that Down Will Come Baby plays out in such an uninspiring manner, that its only remarkable feature was having Baxter play a "good mom" in contrast to her usual "wack-job" roles. Given its depiction of brutality against a minor, Liner also thought it was irresponsible of CBS to broadcast the film just two weeks after the Columbine High School massacre. Similarly, The Washington Post's Tom Shales and The Times-Picayune's Benjamin Morrison both condemned the film for stoking parental fears with its gratuitous depiction of child violence. Despite his criticisms, Morrison acknowledged that the film was "effective and occasionally well-handled", with an engaging plot and cast; although he felt that its constant gloom ultimately made for an unpleasant viewing experience.In The Scranton Times-Tribune, Faye Zuckerman opined that any potential for a compelling story was quickly discarded by the filmmakers in favor of typical horror fare. She compared Down Will Come Baby unfavorably to the 1992 film The Hand That Rocks the Cradle, noting the lurid violence displayed in both. Variety's Laura Fries found the cast to be adequate, highlighting Wood as the steadiest performer, but did not think their performances were enough to elevate the film from "a hodgepodge script and so many plot holes". New York magazine's John Leonard highlighted Scarwid's unrestrained performance, but was otherwise unimpressed with what he considered to be a "by-the-numbers" production.Reviewers also took issue with the apparent moral that sees Leah learning to cast aside her career to focus on being a mother and wife. Morrison suggested that Marcus should have been the one to re-evaluate his behavior instead. Shales, who was especially annoyed by the "simpering" Marcus throughout the film, emphatically stated that the Garr family's problems were really the result of Marcus' foolish ignorance rather than Leah's career ambitions as the script asserted. Fries was critical of Goodell's unflattering treatment of the adult female characters as a whole, noting that they were pigeonholed as either being dedicated to their careers or to their families, with the underlying implication that women who forsake their maternal duties deserve to be punished. Susan Stewart's review in TV Guide Magazine concluded that "the real horror is that movies like this are still made in the era of two-income families". Accolades For her performance as Robin, Wood was nominated for the YoungStar Award for Best Young Actress in a Miniseries/Made for TV Film. References External links Down Will Come Baby at IMDb Down Will Come Baby at AllMovie	[ "Health" ]
32,984,673	John Watson (philosopher)	John Watson (22 February 1847 – 27 January 1939) was a Canadian philosopher and academic.	John Watson (22 February 1847 – 27 January 1939) was a Canadian philosopher and academic. Life He was born in Gorbals parish, Glasgow, Scotland, on 25 February 1847, the son of John Watson, a printer from Lanarkshire, and his wife Elizabeth Robertson from Northumberland. He attended the Free Church School in Kilmarnock. He then worked as a clerk to 1866.Watson enrolled at the University of Edinburgh. Within a month, however, he was drawn to the University of Glasgow by the reputations of the brothers John Caird, professor of divinity, and Edward Caird, professor of moral philosophy. On completion of his studies in 1872, he was appointed on the basis of the recommendation of his mentor Edward Caird to the Chair of Logic, Metaphysics, and Ethics at Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario. Caird had written that "Watson is perhaps a man of the 'driest light' that I know. I do not know anyone who sees his way more clearly through any philosophical entanglements." He spent the remainder of his career at Queen's and died in Kingston on 27 January 1939. Among his works are Kant and His English Critics, Christianity and Idealism, and The State in Peace and War. He was the Gifford Lecturer for 1910–1912 at the University of Glasgow after which his lectures were published as The Interpretation of Religious Experience. He was a charter member of the Royal Society of Canada. Watson Hall at Queen's University is named after him. Philosophy Watson's philosophy, which he called speculative or constructive idealism, continued the Hegelian critique of Immanuel Kant as pursued by Thomas Hill Green, Francis Herbert Bradley, and especially by his teacher at the University of Glasgow, Edward Caird. The main distinction between his position and that of Kant's critical idealism is that while both maintain that the universe is rational and that reason is self-harmonious, critical idealism denies that either of these propositions can be established on the basis of knowledge, while speculative idealism contends that the opposition of the theoretical and practical reason is fatal to both positions. While critical idealism falls back upon certain "postulates" of the moral consciousness in support of "faith", speculative idealism refuses to accept the antithesis of faith and knowledge, theoretical and practical reason, maintaining that a faith which is not identical with reason, a theoretical reason which is not in harmony with practical reason, is beset by an inherent weakness, which is sure to betray itself under the most searching of all tests, the test of self-criticism.All that exists is rational and in principle knowable. The degree to which it is known reflects both evolution and history. The human being possesses – as a result of evolution – a principle of rationality that makes it possible to comprehend the rationality of the world and to master it. Watson argued that this capacity could not, however, have resulted from natural selection. By contrast, human evolution, especially as continued in history, represents a transcendence of nature, "the gradual realisation of reason in the individual and in society, and the gradual comprehension of the meaning of both when viewed in their relation to the world and God". Religion and moral philosophy God is the absolute. The absolute is inadequately conceptualized as substance, power, person – although Watson found "personality" more fitting, though still inadequate – or super rational. The. absolute is the identity of subject and object, the repository of universal reason itself, the very rationality that is manifest in the world and increasingly revealed to conscious, reflective human beings. Morality is acting rationally; and as reason ultimately governs both, there is no real conflict between individual and societal interests. Evil, or immorality, is the failure to act rationally owing to ignorance or confusion. Watson's liberal theology had a significant influence on the Social Gospel movement and the formation of the United Church of Canada in 1925. Political theory Watson's social thought is pervaded with a communitarianism deriving from his doctrine of the in-principle identity in reason of individual and common goods. Thus he summarizes his position on the State as existing "for the purpose of providing the external conditions under which all the citizens may have an opportunity of developing the best that is in them, and the success with which this aim is achieved is a test of the perfection of a community." Works Kant and his English Critics:a comparison of critical and empirical philosophy Glasgow: James Maclehose and Sons, 1881. Schelling's Trascendental Idealism. A critical exposition. Chicago: S. C. Griggs and Company, 1882. Hedonistic Theories from Aristippus to Spencer Glasgow: James Maclehose and Sons, 1895. Christianity and Idealism: the Christian ideal of life in its relations to the Greek and Jewish ideals and to modern philosophy New York: The Macmillan Co., 1897. (Reprinted with additions, August, 1897.) The Philosophical Basis of Religion Glasgow: James Maclehose and Sons, 1907. The philosophy of Kant as contained in extracts from his own writings Glasgow: James Maclehose and Sons, 1908. The philosophy of Kant explained Glasgow: James Maclehose and Sons, 1908. An Outline of Philosophy Glasgow: James Maclehose and Sons, 1908. The Interpretation of Religious Experience (2 volumes) Gifford Lectures Volume 1 Volume 2 Glasgow: James Maclehose and Sons, 1912. The State in Peace and War Glasgow: James Maclehose and Sons, 1919. Selections from Kant Glasgow: Jackson Wylie & Co, 1927. See also Canadian idealism Notes References Further reading Armour, Leslie; Trott, Elizabeth (1981). The Faces of Reason: An Essay on Philosophy and Culture in English Canada, 1850–1950. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. ISBN 0-88920-107-2. McKillop, A. B. A Disciplined Intelligence: Critical Inquiry and Canadian Thought in the Victorian Era. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1979. McKillop, A. B. Matters of Mind: The University in Canada, 1791–1951. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994. Sibley, Robert C. Northern Spirits: John Watson, George Grant, and Charles Taylor: Appropriations of Hegelian Political Thought. Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2008. Rabb, J. D. Religion and Science in Early Canada. Kingston: Ronald P. Frye & Co., 1988. External links Queen's University The Philosophical Basis of Religion	[ "Ethics" ]