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56,412,449 | Robert Evelyn Porter | Sir Robert Evelyn Porter (1913 – 1983), generally known as "Tom", was a South Australian businessman and Mayor of Adelaide from 1968 to 1971. Porter was born in Adelaide, a son of Frederick Windmill Porter (1881–1937) and Clara Frances Niall Porter, née Cudmore (1884–1967), of Adelaide's influential Cudmore family. His grandfather was James Windmill Porter (c. 1850–1918), pioneer of top-dressing with superphosphates; a great-grandfather was Patrick Gay, of Gay's Arcade fame. He grew up with his parents on Edwin Terrace, Gilberton and was educated at St. Peter's College. Porter was for a time the manager of Childerley Park Station, Naracoorte, then served as a lieutenant in the 2nd AIF, promoted to major. | Sir Robert Evelyn Porter (1913 – 1983), generally known as "Tom", was a South Australian businessman and Mayor of Adelaide from 1968 to 1971.
Porter was born in Adelaide, a son of Frederick Windmill Porter (1881–1937) and Clara Frances Niall Porter, née Cudmore (1884–1967), of Adelaide's influential Cudmore family. His grandfather was James Windmill Porter (c. 1850–1918), pioneer of top-dressing with superphosphates; a great-grandfather was Patrick Gay, of Gay's Arcade fame.
He grew up with his parents on Edwin Terrace, Gilberton and was educated at St. Peter's College.
Porter was for a time the manager of Childerley Park Station, Naracoorte, then served as a lieutenant in the 2nd AIF, promoted to major.
He followed his father in the stockbroking business, as a partner in F. W. Porter & Co. of Brookman Building on Grenfell Street, Adelaide.
Porter married June Perry, of King's Park Avenue, Crawley, Perth on 31 March 1942.
In 1949 he was elected to the Adelaide City Council as Councillor for Hindmarsh ward, and was appointed Consul for Belgium.
He was a noted polo player, winner of the Barr Smith Cup in 1950, and president of the Australian Polo Council in 1955.
References
Further reading
June Porter (2013). Can a Duck Swim?: An Autobiography. Wakefield Press. ISBN 978-1743052013. | [
"Sports"
] |
23,745 | Pokémon | Pokémon is a Japanese media franchise consisting of video games, animated series and films, a trading card game, and other related media. The franchise takes place in a shared universe in which humans co-exist with creatures known as Pokémon, a large variety of species endowed with special powers. The franchise's target audience is children aged 5 to 12, but it is known to attract people of all ages.The franchise originated as a pair of role-playing games developed by Game Freak, from an original concept by its founder, Satoshi Tajiri. Released on the Game Boy on February 27, 1996, the games became sleeper hits and were followed by manga series, a trading card game, and anime series and films. From 1998 to 2000, Pokémon was exported to the rest of the world, creating an unprecedented global phenomenon dubbed "Pokémania". | Pokémon is a Japanese media franchise consisting of video games, animated series and films, a trading card game, and other related media. The franchise takes place in a shared universe in which humans co-exist with creatures known as Pokémon, a large variety of species endowed with special powers. The franchise's target audience is children aged 5 to 12, but it is known to attract people of all ages.The franchise originated as a pair of role-playing games developed by Game Freak, from an original concept by its founder, Satoshi Tajiri. Released on the Game Boy on February 27, 1996, the games became sleeper hits and were followed by manga series, a trading card game, and anime series and films. From 1998 to 2000, Pokémon was exported to the rest of the world, creating an unprecedented global phenomenon dubbed "Pokémania". By 2002, the craze had ended, after which Pokémon became a fixture in popular culture, with new products being released to this day. In the summer of 2016, the franchise spawned a second craze with the release of Pokémon Go, an augmented reality game developed by Niantic. Pokémon has since been estimated to be the world's highest-grossing media franchise and one of the best-selling video game franchises.
Pokémon has an uncommon ownership structure. Unlike most IPs, which are owned by one company, Pokémon is jointly owned by three: Nintendo, Game Freak, and Creatures. Game Freak develops the core series role-playing games, which are published by Nintendo exclusively for their consoles, while Creatures manages the trading card game and related merchandise, occasionally developing spin-off titles. The three companies established The Pokémon Company (TPC) in 1998 to manage the Pokémon property within Asia. The Pokémon anime series and films are co-owned by Shogakukan. Since 2009, The Pokémon Company International (TPCi) subsidiary of TPC has managed the franchise in all regions outside of Asia.
Name
The original full name of the franchise is Pocket Monsters (ポケットモンスター, Poketto Monsutā), which was abbreviated to Pokemon during development of the original games. When the franchise was released internationally, the short form of the title was used, with an acute accent (´) over the e to aid in pronunciation.Pokémon refers to both the franchise itself and the creatures within its fictional universe. As a noun, it is identical in both the singular and plural, as is every individual species name; it is grammatically correct to say "one Pokémon" and "many Pokémon", as well as "one Pikachu" and "many Pikachu". In English, Pokémon may be pronounced either /'powkɛmon/ (poe-keh-mon) or /'powkɪmon/ (poe-key-mon).
General concept
The Pokémon franchise is set in a world in which humans coexist with creatures known as Pokémon. Pokémon Red and Blue contain 151 Pokémon species, with new ones being introduced in subsequent games; as of December 2023, 1,025 Pokémon species have been introduced. Most Pokémon are inspired by real-world animals; for example, Pikachu are a yellow mouse-like species with lightning bolt-shaped tails that possess electrical abilities.The player character takes the role of a Pokémon Trainer. The Trainer has three primary goals: travel and explore the Pokémon world; discover and catch each Pokémon species in order to complete their Pokédex; and train a team of up to six Pokémon at a time and have them engage in battles. Most Pokémon can be caught with spherical devices known as Poké Balls. Once the opposing Pokémon is sufficiently weakened, the Trainer throws the Poké Ball against the Pokémon, which is then transformed into a form of energy and transported into the device. Once the catch is successful, the Pokémon is tamed and is under the Trainer's command from then on. If the Poké Ball is thrown again, the Pokémon re-materializes into its original state. The Trainer's Pokémon can engage in battles against opposing Pokémon, including those in the wild or owned by other Trainers. Because the franchise is aimed at children, these battles are never presented as overtly violent and contain no blood or gore. Pokémon never die in battle, instead fainting upon being defeated.After a Pokémon wins a battle, it gains experience and becomes stronger. After gaining a certain amount of experience points, its level increases, as well as one or more of its statistics. As its level increases, the Pokémon can learn new offensive and defensive moves to use in battle. Furthermore, many species can undergo a form of spontaneous metamorphosis called Pokémon evolution, and transform into stronger forms. Most Pokémon will evolve at a certain level, while others evolve through different means, such as exposure to a certain item.
History
Origins
The main idea behind Pokémon was conceived by Satoshi Tajiri. Tajiri grew up in Machida, a suburb of Tokyo. In his youth, he enjoyed discovering and catching insects and other small creatures in the various ponds and fields that surrounded his town. As Japan's economic miracle occurred, many cities, including Machida, were significantly expanded. As a consequence, Machida's nature was largely destroyed. In his second year of junior high school, an arcade hall opened in Tajiri's neighborhood, introducing him to video games. While studying electrical engineering at Tokyo College of Technology, Tajiri began publishing a doujinshi magazine titled Game Freak. The title was inspired by the 1932 film Freaks, which Tajiri was fascinated with at the time. He self-published the first issue of the magazine in March 1983, at the age of 17. At the time, magazines specializing in video games did not yet exist in Japan, allowing Game Freak to fill a gap in the market. Concurrently, Tajiri was contacted by aspiring manga artist Ken Sugimori, who became Game Freak's illustrator. Game Freak folded in the late 1980s, by which point Tajiri had become a respected game journalist in Japan's fledgling video game industry.Tajiri's knowledge of video games brought him into contact with Tsunekazu Ishihara. Ishihara had studied Arts and Science at Tsukuba University, and was trained in CGI. After working in advertising for two years, Ishihara joined a company named Sedic in 1983, which created video graphics and software, including one video game, Otocky (1987). As video games grew in popularity, Sedic also produced a number of game-related television shows for Fuji Television's late-night slot. In his job as a TV producer, Ishihara befriended Tajiri, as well as Shigesato Itoi, who would later become CEO of Ape, Inc. Ishihara was also the general director of the world's first gaming encyclopedia: TV Games: Encyclopedia of Video Games (テレビゲーム―電視遊戯大全, Terebigēmu ― Denshi Yūgi Taizen). Hatakeyama & Kubo (2000) wrote that, at the time, Ishihara was probably the most well-connected man in the industry, with a knowledge of games "beyond comparison". Ishihara was also interested in playing cards, and contributed to the development of at least three simple card games designed by Itoi for Ape.In 1986, Tajiri, Sugimori, and a few other enthusiasts started an informal development team called Game Freak, named after the magazine it grew out of. Over the next few years, they independently developed the puzzle game Quinty, working on it alongside school or their regular jobs. However, no one within the group knew how to make the game's music. After consulting all his contacts, Tajiri got in touch with Junichi Masuda, who became the group's composer. Quinty was finished in 1989, and published by Namco. Tajiri officially incorporated Game Freak Co., Ltd. on April 26, 1989.
1989–1995: Development of Red & Green
Tajiri started to think of what was to become Pokemon while completing Quinty, and before he officially founded Game Freak. Around this time, Nintendo announced the upcoming release of the Game Boy, a handheld console that would revolutionize the gaming industry. Tajiri learned that the device would have a link port, and with the corresponding Game Link Cable, two Game Boys could be linked together. Sometime later, Tajiri remembered an incident while playing Dragon Quest II (1987), a role-playing game (RPG) for the Famicom (NES). The game features randomly appearing items of varying rarity, including an extremely rare item called Mysterious Hat. Tajiri did not encounter any, while Ken Sugimori, who was also playing the game, encountered two. Upon recalling this experience, Tajiri realized that the cable now made it possible to transfer things from one cartridge to another. He noted that, until then, the Game Link Cable was only used for competing, but not for something else. Combining this inspiration with his memories of catching insects and other small species, Tajiri's idea would eventually evolve into a virtual recreation of his boyhood experiences, and an attempt to "regain the world that he had lost". He would later state that the game represents "the story of a boy's summer day".
Tajiri and the Game Freak staff began pondering over a game centered on capturing creatures of differing rarity. Since the Game Boy is a portable device, these creatures could then be exchanged with other players in real life. Once the player has caught a creature, it was to be stored in miniaturized form in a special capsule. This facet of the game was inspired by Ultraseven, a tokusatsu show that Tajiri had enjoyed as a child. The series' titular character owns a number of capsules containing miniaturized kaiju (monsters), which come out and return to their original sizes when the capsule is thrown into mid-air. Kaiju media in general were an important influence on Pokemon, as many Game Freak staff members had grown up with them. Other cited influences include: gashapon, capsules with toy figures in them that can be drawn from vending machines; collectible cards, such as baseball cards, Ultraman cards and menko; The Final Fantasy Legend (1989), the first RPG for the Game Boy; and petting in Japan, with Tajiri noting that having Pokemon is similar to having pets. Tajiri initially named his project Capsule Monsters, which GF's staff commonly shortened to Capumon. However, it later turned out that the term Capsule Monsters could not be trademarked, and it was subsequently decided to call the game Pocket Monsters, which became Pokemon. According to Tomisawa (2000), the phrase "Capsule Monsters" was already registered. According to Hatakeyama & Kubo (2000), the word "capsule" could not be used in the trademark. Tomisawa (2000) states that the Game Freak staff then came up with several alternatives, before someone within the team suggested "Pocket Monsters".In March 1989, Nintendo co-founded Ape, Inc. with Itoi. Ape's principal work was Mother (1989), a role-playing game written by Itoi, but it was also founded with the intent to give outside talent a chance to pitch new, innovative games. At the time, Ape was housed in the same Kanda-Sudachō office building as Nintendo, located in Tokyo. Ishihara, a friend of both Itoi and Tajiri, was involved with Ape's management (and would become its vice-president in 1991). Tajiri's relationship with Ishihara prompted Tajiri to present his idea for Pokemon at Ape's office. Present during Tajiri's pitch was Takashi Kawaguchi, who worked at Nintendo's General Affairs Department and was also a manager at Ape. Kawaguchi brought the idea to Nintendo president Hiroshi Yamauchi, who reportedly said: "This is it. This is the idea I've been waiting for." By pure coincidence, Ishihara had come up with an idea for a game similar to that of Tajiri, and around the same time was discussing it with Ape. This game, Toto, involved "using the Game Boy as an insect cage". GF and Ape subsequently agreed to merge their projects together. According to Tajiri, the two teams initially collaborated on the project, but the work proved difficult, one of the reasons being that Ape was busy developing EarthBound. Tajiri eventually figured that "rather than working with Ape, we had to do something on our own, or the project would never get finished". Ape, Inc. is not credited on the final product.
The development contract was signed at the beginning of 1990, with a planned delivery of the game in October. Tajiri directed the project, working under Ishihara. Ishihara was the producer – he managed the budget, staff, and work schedule, monitored the game's overall progress, and served as a liaison between Game Freak and Nintendo. Ishihara also contributed ideas to the development, and helped with debugging. Sugimori was in charge of the graphics and character design. Masuda created all music and sound effects, and did part of the programming. The budget that Nintendo granted to Game Freak was low. Thus, Pocket Monsters was initially planned as a small, compact game, based primarily around Tajiri's core idea of exchanging. However, as development progressed, GF's ideas and ambitions for Pokemon grew. They soon realized that the game they were beginning to envision would not be easy to make. Sugimori admitted that, at the time, no one at GF had much knowledge of RPGs. "We thought we could handle it, but as we began working, we realized it was going to be tough", he acknowledged. Pokemon was suspended indefinitely, and GF turned their focus on other titles.
After the game's initial development phase in 1990 and '91, the staff "tinkered with it from time to time", as Sugimori put it. For instance, by October 1992, a large number of Pokemon had been designed, and a poll was held that month among all staff members to gauge the popularity of the different species. Several more such votes followed to determine collectively which Pokemon should be included. Still, development had mostly come to a halt until the summer of 1994, after the release of Pulseman, upon which Tajiri decided it was time to make a serious effort towards finishing Pokemon. By this point, Game Freak's experience had grown considerably. Over the years, a number of new staff members had been added to the company. One of them was Atsuko Nishida, a graphic designer who created Pikachu, among others. Ishihara used his knowledge of card games to add more depth to the battle system, and among other things suggested Pokemon types. Ishihara also came up with the idea of the Pokedex, a portable encyclopedic device which players can use to keep track of the Pokemon they caught. Throughout the years, Tajiri had several conversations with Shigeru Miyamoto, Nintendo's top game designer who Tajiri described as a mentor figure. Although, in a 2018 retrospect, Miyamoto downplayed his role in advising Tajiri, and stated that his contributions to Pokemon were in fact limited. Miyamoto did, however, suggest the use of different colored cartridges for the game, in response to Tajiri's and Ishihara's musings about making each playthrough slightly different, as to 'individualize' the player's experience. According to Tajiri, "five or seven colors" were considered, but they eventually settled on two: a Red version and a Green version. Both games were identical, but each had Pokemon not found in the other, encouraging players to socialize and trade to complete their collection.Ishihara aspired to create video games of his own. As Pocket Monsters Red and Green were nearing completion, Ishihara founded Creatures, Inc. on November 8, 1995. Upon founding, the company was housed in the same Kanda-Sudachō office building as Nintendo, located in Tokyo. Co-ownership of the Pokemon property, which Ishihara helped create, was subsequently assigned to Creatures. This resulted in Pokemon having three legal owners: Game Freak, the main developer; Creatures, representing producer Ishihara; and Nintendo, the publisher. Anne Allison (2006) wrote that Nintendo also bought Pokemon after it was finished. Hatakeyama & Kubo (2000) noted that the ownership structure of Pokemon is uncommon. They wrote that "Pokemon is probably the only property in the world today for which the original rights are not concentrated in a single company", like The Walt Disney Company does with their IPs. Tajiri and Ishihara did consider merging Game Freak and Creatures at one point. However, Tajiri decided against it because he feared it would erase what he had built up since he was a teenager. "I felt threatened by the idea of changing how Game Freak was operating, and starting back over with Mr. Ishihara", he said. "It was an identity problem. If Game Freak ceased to exist, then so would I". Tajiri noted that, since Game Freak and Creatures both focus on Pokemon, it sometimes felt more like different departments than different companies.Pocket Monsters Red and Green were finally finished in December 1995. A release date of December 21, 1995 was announced, but missed. After sufficient cartridges, manuals and packages had been manufactured, the pair of games ended up being published on February 27, 1996. However, the property was copyrighted in 1995, and "© 1995" is shown on the title screens and cartridges. This year is since used on the copyright notice seen on many Pokemon products, even though no actual Pokemon product was released in 1995.
1996–1998: Rise in Japan
Release of Red & Green
Nintendo had no high expectations of Pocket Monsters Red and Green, and media largely ignored the game(s). By 1996, the seven-year-old Game Boy console was considered yesterday's news and near the end of its lifecycle. On the other hand, new Game Boys continued to be manufactured and sold. The console was widespread and, due to its age, affordable to children. Also, the Game Boy had experienced a small revival in Japan in 1995 due to the success of Mario's Picross. Coincidentally, this game was directed by Ishihara, and co-developed by Ape. The popularity of Mario's Picross inspired Nintendo to develop the Game Boy Pocket, a slimmer and improved version of the Game Boy, released in Japan on July 21, 1996. Because of the timing, some were under the impression that the Game Boy Pocket was made to promote Pocket Monsters, but this was in fact a coincidence that would end up benefiting both.
CoroCoro manga, Mew lottery
Two media channels that would play important roles in the Pokemon franchise were the CoroCoro Comic, released monthly, and its sister magazine Bessatsu CoroCoro Comic, released bi-monthly. Both manga magazines are published by Shogakukan, a long-time business partner of Nintendo, and have featured manga based on Nintendo properties (e.g. Super Mario-kun, Kirby of the Stars, Donkey Kong). At the time of Pokemon's release, the main CoroCoro magazine was read by one in four elementary school students. CoroCoro's deputy editor-in-chief was Masakazu Kubo. On Ishihara's suggestion, Kubo commissioned the creation of a Pocket Monsters manga. Written and drawn by Kosaku Anakubo, its first chapter was featured in the March/April issue of Bessatsu CoroCoro Comic, released on February 28, 1996, one day after the release of Red and Green. Shogakukan, which frequently surveys their target groups, determined that the Pocket Monsters manga was well received.To further promote Red and Green, the May issue of CoroCoro, released on April 15, 1996, announced the "Legendary Pokemon Offer", centered around a mysterious, secret Pokemon called Mew. Mew was a last-minute addition to Red & Green. It is unobtainable in the game(s) through usual means, and was intended to be used at a later point in some post-launch activity. To participate in the promotion, CoroCoro readers had to send in a postcard, and from the entrants, 20 were selected at random. The winners then had to send in their cartridge so that Mew could be uploaded onto it. The lottery was a success and increased word-of-mouth. By September, sales of Red and Green had surpassed 1 million units.
Pokemon Blue
After the release of Pokemon Red and Green, Game Freak continued to grow, and a number of new employees were hired. For training purposes, they were ordered to study and make bug fixes to the source code of Red & Green, and to create new sprites for it. The upgraded version was dubbed Pokemon Blue. It was originally not meant to be sold. Only a small number of handmade copies were made, intended as a special gift to "20 to 100 people". After Kubo learned of it, he encouraged Tajiri and Ishihara to allow an official release of Blue. President Hiroshi Yamauchi initially rejected this, fearing it would confuse people into believing it was an entirely new Pokemon game. Kawaguchi then suggested an alternative, which Yamauchi agreed with: Blue would not receive a normal retail release, but would be made available only through mail order for a limited time as a special offer. It was announced in the November issue of CoroCoro, which explicitly stated that Blue was not a new game, but rather a special, limited edition to celebrate the sale of 1 million copies of Red and Green. The offer was a surprisingly big success: 300,000 units were expected to be sold, but over 600,000 were ordered.
Trading card game launched
The Pokemon Trading Card Game was one of the first collectible card games (CCGs) developed in Japan. Its creation was influenced by Magic: The Gathering, the first CCG in history. Indeed, the Pokemon Trading Card Game can be considered a simplified version of Magic. First released in the United States in 1993, Magic had gained popularity not just in North America and Europe, but also in Asia. Ishihara was fond of playing cards, and had contributed to the development of at least three simple card games designed by Shigesato Itoi and released through Ape, Inc. At the time, Ishihara was particularly interested in Magic: The Gathering. While developing the Pokemon RPG, he realized that the concept behind it could be adapted into a Magic-like CCG. The Pokemon Card Game was designed by Ishihara, Akihiko Miura, Kōichi Ōyama, and Takumi Akabane. All were former staff members of Ape and had previously worked on EarthBound (1994): Miura was the game's main designer, Ōyama was its art director, and Akabane was one of its chief debuggers.While card games have a long history in Japan, a collectible card game was a relatively new concept there, and at the time not widely known. Because of this, Ishihara had difficulties finding distributors. Sometime in 1995, Ishihara pitched the card game to Nintendo. They agreed to have the cards manufactured, subcontracting an unidentified printing company. However, Nintendo did not want the hassle of having to develop a distribution system from the ground up, i.e. finding retailers willing to sell a CCG. Ishihara was then contacted by Satoshi Kayama, director of a small firm called Media Factory. Like Ishihara, Kayama was a fan of card games. He felt that CCGs would soon rise to prominence in Japan, and had been gathering information on the possibility of developing such a game in some form. When Kayama heard that Creatures had developed a CCG, he contacted Ishihara and offered to distribute it, signing the contract near the end of 1995.CoroCoro again proved a valuable information channel. The Pokemon card game was first announced in the November issue, the same one that announced Pokemon Blue. The issue came bundled with two promo cards: one of Purin (Jigglypuff) and one of Pikachu. Surveys showed that they were respectively the most and second-most popular Pokemon at the time. On October 20, 1996, the first card set was released. Booster packs were launched the same day, containing 10 randomly inserted cards. In the West, the booster packs contained 11 cards. The original set of the Pokemon card game would be titled the Base Set in English. Many more sets would follow. Despite being ignored by the media, except for the CoroCoro, the cards became an instant success upon release. 87 million Pokemon cards were shipped by the end of March 1997, six months after its launch, and one month before the debut of the next big installment of the franchise: the Pokemon anime series. The success of the TV series would cause the cards' sales figure to explode: by March 1998, a total of 499 million cards had been produced in Japan.
Anime production launched
By August 1996, Kubo had become convinced of Pokemon's potential, and believed Shogakukan should create a Pokemon anime. Nintendo was hesitant, realizing that if the anime would flop, it would negatively affect the popularity of the game. Ishihara initially opposed the idea, because he thought it would overly hasten the 'consumption' of the property: he feared that if the series would end, people would assume that Pokemon has ended, and move on to the next thing. At the time, Creatures and Game Freak were planning the sequel(s) to Red and Green, Pokemon Gold and Silver, and Ishihara did not want the anime to end before they could release their new game(s). Kubo was ultimately able to resolve the concerns of all parties involved. An important aspect of Kubo's bargaining power was the then-ongoing Mini 4WD craze and its accompanying hit series Bakusō Kyōdai Let's & Go!!. Kubo had an important role in the creation of both, which impressed the stakeholders. To appease Ishihara, Kubo promised him that Pokemon would last for at least one and a half year. This was unusually long for a debuting anime, and required a big investment. Kubo's proposal for Pokemon was officially approved on September 26, 1996. For Nintendo of Japan, it was the first time they licensed a TV series. Kubo assigned independent producer Choji Yoshikawa to lead the project.Shogakukan Productions, commonly called ShoPro, was Shogakukan's production company. The animation company they commissioned was OLM, Inc. (Oriental Light and Magic), on Kubo's suggestion. Pokemon's director became Kunihiko Yuyama, one of OLM's founding members. ShoPro assembled a team of five writers, plus two supporting writers. All key people involved with the production of Pokemon were well-experienced and had proven track records within Japan's anime industry. Yoshikawa felt that the team got lucky. "The probability of so many great people coming together at the same time is very low", he said. Per Tajiri's explicit condition, every anime team member had to play the game extensively, including the illustrators and voice actors. The anime staff "unanimously agreed that the game was interesting" and "felt connected with each other through the world of Pokemon", feeling positively challenged to make an anime that would match the game's quality.A production council was formed to produce the Pokemon anime. Different people appeared at different meetings, but four individuals usually present were Ishihara of Creatures, Sugimori of Game Freak, Yuyama of OLM, and independent producer Yoshikawa. Yoshikawa had the final say. The council decided on the anime's worldview, characters, general storyline, and various important details. The early meetings, which were also attended by Tajiri, usually started with a Q&A session in which Tajiri and Ishihara were asked about the Pokemon universe. The council was careful to have the anime be in concordance with the video game. Inevitably, there had to be differences between the two, but all agreed that the overall worldview as envisioned by Tajiri should not be disturbed. At the start of the video game, the player has to choose one of three starter Pokemon: Fushigidane, Hitokage, or Zenigame (Bulbasaur, Charmander, or Squirtle). The council didn't want to unfairly popularize any of them, and wanted the protagonist to start out with a different Pokemon. Hatakeyama & Kubo (2000) wrote that, by coincidence, three people independently suggested to the council that a Pikachu should be a main character in the anime: Kubo, Yuyama, and Keisuke Iwata of TV Tokyo's Film Department. In the end, all council members agreed that Pikachu should be one of Pokemon's central icons. They expected Pikachu to appeal to both boys and girls, as well as their mothers. This would expand Pokemon's audience, which was considered a core objective of the anime.During the council's very first meeting, Yoshikawa brought up the issue on whether the Pokemon in the anime could speak, and if not, how they could communicate. In the video games, each Pokemon has a specific cry. In Anakubo's CoroCoro manga, most Pokemon could speak. At first, the council believed there should be a mixture of Pokemon that could talk and Pokemon that could not. However, this idea was eventually discarded: the Pokemon had to make a specific cry. The council agreed that Pokemon were like animals, and while the humans and the Pokemon should be able to understand each other in the series, they should not speak each other's language. It was decided that Pikachu would repeatedly say its own name in various intonations. The role of Pikachu was given to Ikue Otani. During try-outs, Yuyama had Otani voice Pikachu in normal Japanese, as well as in 'Pikachu talk', in which it only said the syllables of its name. Yuyama realized that, even in the latter style of limited communication, Otani was experienced enough to still convey the messages and emotions needed.ShoPro paid half of the production cost of Pokemon. TV Tokyo paid the other half and was granted co-ownership of the anime. The ads during Pokemon's commercial breaks were managed by advertisement agency JR Kikaku, which was in turn paid by sponsors buying advertisement space. In negotiating with TV Tokyo, Kubo managed to secure the 19:00 – 19:30 timeslot on Tuesdays. Pocket Monsters premiered on April 1, 1997. By November, it had become the highest-rated program on TV Tokyo. The anime succeeded in its goal of widening Pokemon's audience. Although the video games and the cards remained mostly of interest to boys, the anime also got more girls interested in the franchise, and girls' purchases of Pokemon products increased. This has been partly credited to Pikachu, who gained widespread popularity among children. The success of this character would later lead to the game Pokemon Pikachu, released in Japan on September 12, 1998 (it would be released in the West as Pokémon Yellow). An adaptation of Pokemon Blue, this 'Pikachu version' was made to resemble the TV series more.
Copyright council formed, merchandising expands
In the early months of the franchise, Nintendo was the contractual representative for Pokemon, and thus the central contact point for all Pokemon-related licensing (the approval of branded products). Around the time that planning of the Pokemon anime begun, licensing requests for Pokemon started to increase, which Nintendo had difficulties handling due to a lack of (experienced) staff. Nintendo consequently granted ShoPro exclusive licensor rights. This was the first time that NoJ (Nintendo of Japan) granted licensor rights to another company, aside from its overseas subsidiaries NoA (Nintendo of America) and NoE (Nintendo of Europe).A copyright council was formed, headed by Ishihara. Beginning in April 1997, the council met every Tuesday, in the conference room of Creatures' office, at the Nintendo Kanda Building in Sudachō, Tokyo. Attendees usually included Ishihara and his secretary, representatives of Nintendo, Game Freak, ShoPro, TV Tokyo, and JR Kikaku, as well as head of the anime Yoshikawa. Broadly put, every meeting had three types of agenda items: discussing Pokemon-related events and basic policies in Japan, discussing Shogakukan publication plans, and considering merchandise proposals. For merchandising, the council set the bar high. Fiercely protective of Pokemon's brand equity, Ishihara was unwilling to greenlit an item just because it had a picture of a Pokemon printed on it. To avoid the market being flooded with low-quality goods, Ishihara put very specific demands on the products he evaluated. Furthermore, in most cases, the council opted to contract one company for each product category. Because of this, most merchandise proposals were rejected: of the approximately 7,500 applications submitted in 1997, only about 5% was approved.By March 1998, 35 companies offered licensed Pokemon goods, and there were approximately 700 Pokemon products. Tomy manufactured Pokemon toy figures and plush dolls. Bandai made Pokemon gashapon, dolls and ramune-flavored candy in a plastic box in the shape of a Game Boy. Meiji Seika produced Pokemon chocolate snacks and pudding. The lucrative franchise provided a much-needed boost to Japan's economy, which was stagnating in what would later be called the Lost Decade. An example of a firm that benefited greatly from Pokemon was food manufacturer Nagatanien. From May 1997, the company began selling Pokemon-branded curry, furikake, and baking mixes. In December 1997, Nagatanien was hit hard by the collapse of one of its biggest sales channels, Toshoku, in what was then the third-largest bankruptcy in Japan's postwar history. Nonetheless, due to their Pokemon-licensed products, Nagatanien reported net profits in fiscal years '97 and '98, despite having forecasted losses.
"Dennō Senshi Porygon" incident
In the evening of December 16, 1997, the Pokemon franchise was hit by a crisis related to the broadcast of the anime's 38th episode, "Dennō Senshi Porygon" (Computer Warrior Porygon). It was watched by approximately 4.6 million households. In the episode, Satoshi (Ash Ketchum) and his friends are transported into a virtual world, accompanied by a Porygon, a digital, human-made Pokemon. While flying through cyberspace, they are attacked by an anti-virus program which mistakes them for viruses, shooting "vaccine missiles" at the group resulting in explosions of bright, rapidly swapping red and blue flashes.The intense stimuli brought about by the episode triggered a variety of adverse health effects in more than 10,000 viewers, primarily irritated eyes, headaches, dizziness, and nausea. A small part suffered a photosensitive epileptic seizure, manifested in loss of conscious and/or convulsions. Hundreds of children were brought to hospitals, although a part of them had recovered enough upon arrival and they did not need to be hospitalized. No one died. Broadcasting of Pokemon was halted, and new guidelines were implemented to help prevent similar events from happening. With the show on hiatus, ShoPro and OLM worked on a feature Pokemon film. By the time the incident occurred, its script was already written, and the movie was in the storyboard stage. In mid-January, the staff resumed creating new episodes. The Pokemon anime series returned on April 16, 1998. The film, titled Pocket Monsters the Movie: Mewtwo Strikes Back, premiered on July 18, 1998 (it would later be released in the West as Pokémon: The First Movie).Ultimately, the incident did not damage the Pokemon franchise – it in fact grew further during and after the anime's hiatus. While video rental tapes were removed from shelves, all other Pokemon products continued to be sold as usual, and customer demand for them remained high. Helping matters was a general understanding among businesses that the Pokemon anime was not canceled, but rather suspended, and many executives (correctly) expected the show to be resumed after precautions had been taken. Supermarkets and other distribution outlets responded calmly to the crisis, and did not remove Pokemon products from their sales floors.
1998–2000: International expansion
North America
Possibly the first person to show interest in a North American launch of Pokemon was Minoru Arakawa, founder and then-president of Nintendo of America (NoA). Arakawa visited Japan to participate in Shoshinkai 1996, held November 22–24. It was around this time when he first played one of the three Pokemon titles. He thought the games were promising, but Nintendo of Japan (NoJ) had no plans at the time to release them elsewhere. He returned to America with a few cartridges and tested the game on his employees – they did not believe it would work in the US. At the time, role-playing games (RPGs) were not very popular outside Japan, and NoA executives believed that American children did not have the attention span for such a complex title. Americans were said to be more interested in sport- and action-oriented games, preferably with realistic graphics. Japanese people, by contrast, were alleged to care more about characters and plot. Up to that point, few Japanese properties had been successfully mainstreamed in the US, and if they were, it was alleged to be on account of having been properly Americanized: Mighty Morphin Power Rangers was considered a prime example of this. Visually, Pokemon was believed to be too kawaii, or cute. It was assumed that Pokemon could not succeed on cute alone – it must also be cool. In an effort to enhance the franchise's coolness, NoA considered a graphical redesign and contracted a few external artists to create some test-designs for the American market. The mockups they proposed included 'graffiti style' drawings, 'beefed-up' and more muscular looking Pokemon, and a new Pikachu that looked like "a tiger with huge breasts". Arakawa concluded that it "didn't work", and by that time, the anime had begun its production in Japan, leading NoA to conclude it was too late for a graphical revamp anyway.Of pivotal importance to Pokemon's global expansion was Alfred R. Kahn, CEO of US-based 4Kids Entertainment, NoA's licensing agent since 1987. Convinced of Pokemon's potential, Kahn agreed to invest an undisclosed sum in return for both the anime and licensing rights. Pokemon became one of the first Japanese media franchises in which both the localization of the anime and the licensing of merchandise was handled by a single company, as well as a non-Japanese company. Kahn suggested the name "Pokémon", adding an acute accent to the e to assist with pronunciation and to "give it a little flair". NoJ president Hiroshi Yamauchi officially approved the project in late November, and subsequently announced it at Space World 1997. However, three weeks later, the "Dennō Senshi Porygon" incident happened, which Kubo felt made even more people resistant to the idea of an overseas introduction.Market research turned back negative: American kids reportedly did not like Pokémon. Arakawa ignored the study and, convinced of the franchise's potential, allocated an enormous budget to Pokémon's launch. The exact amount was not disclosed, but was reportedly equal to or more than $50 million (roughly $89.77 million in 2022), approximately the same amount as the launch budget of the Nintendo Entertainment System in 1985. Arakawa admitted that it was "quite a bit of money", but NoA "had been doing well for several years, so we had a lot of money to spare". He opined that if Pokémon would be as successful in the US as it had been in Japan, "an investment of 1 would turn into 100." NoA and 4Kids proceeded to devise a strategy on how to localize Pokémon for the United States. Arakawa appointed Gail Tilden to lead the project, prompting her to leave her position at Nintendo Power magazine. Tilden said that they "decided to make an all-out effort to repeat the phenomenon in the Western world". In two press releases, NoA self-described Pokémon's marketing campaign as "aggressive".The localization of the Pokémon anime was done by 4Kids, and directed by Norman J. Grossfeld. Grossfeld strongly believed that the anime should be Americanized. At NATPE 1998, he asked ShoPro for a "kind of carte blanche, to let me change the show as I think would work for this market," to which ShoPro agreed. However, no national TV station was interested in buying the anime or financing its localization. Kahn then decided to self-finance Pokémon's production costs, despite realizing this "could very well bring down 4Kids" if the show would fail. According to Kahn, they "spend a fortune" on the localization. To have it broadcast in syndication, 4Kids offered the show for free to local TV stations across the country, in exchange for a portion of the advertising revenue. NoA assisted, persuading dozens of stations to carry the series by offering to buy some of their advertisement space, spending a total of $5 million (c. $8.98 million in 2022). Despite all this, most broadcasters were still reluctant to carry Pokémon, with Grossfeld experiencing difficulties getting through their "preconceived notions or their snobbery for Western-produced animation over something from Asia". At the time, anime had not yet found mainstream popularity in the West. Contemporary news reports cited Sailor Moon as an example of an anime that had failed to catch on with American youth. Still, with NoA's help, 4Kids ultimately succeeded in contracting 112 broadcasters for Pokémon, reaching "about 85 to 90 percent" of television households. However, many broadcasters gave it off-peak time slots, with starting times like 06:00 or 06:30. Prior to the late 1990s, this was the case for many anime in the US.Grossfeld came up with the advertising slogan "Gotta catch 'em all!" as the English equivalent to the Japanese Pokemon GETTO daze~! (ポケモンゲットだぜー！, Get (the) Pokémon!). The phrase "miraculously managed to gain approval" by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), which normally prohibits the use of injunctions in ads directed at children (e.g. "You must buy this!"). While the tagline does sound commanding, the FCC reasoned that the act of catching is at the core of Pokémon's play. Therefore, the phrase was allowed. The series' theme song was written by John Loeffler and John Siegler. In commissioning the track, Grossfeld specifically requested the song's chorus to be written around the "Gotta catch 'em all" phrase, firmly embedding the slogan into the theme.While NoA and 4Kids were allowed a fair degree of liberty in their localization of Pokémon, the Japanese copyright council, headed by Ishihara, had the last say over it. All decisions regarding adjustments and promotion had to gain final approval of the Japan side. This included all of the merchandise, for which a 'two-step system' was created. All (aspiring) licensees in North America were to send their merchandise proposals to 4Kids. Staff of both 4Kids and NoA then made a pre-selection and send the approved proposals to Japan, where the council made the final decision. Many submissions were bounced at the US stage, and thus never got sent to Japan. Tilden noted that processing all license applications, and mailing all approved prototypes and their documentation to Japan, was a lot of work. Arakawa did consider streamlining the process by moving someone from Japan to the US, but no person could be found who was as competent as Ishihara.The Pokémon anime was first broadcast on September 7, 1998. Pokémon Red Version and Blue Version were released three weeks later, on September 28, 1998. To localize the card game, Nintendo contracted Wizards of the Coast, the creator of Magic: The Gathering. The Pokémon Trading Card Game was officially launched nationwide on January 9, 1999, although pre-sold in select stores in December. Coinciding with the North American launch of Pokémon was the release of the Game Boy Color on 23 November 1998.
Other regions
The American version of the Pokémon anime started broadcasting in Australia and New Zealand on September 28, 1998. Red and Blue were subsequently released there on October 23. Various territories in Asia followed: the anime series debuted in Hong Kong on November 16, in Taiwan on November 23, in Shanghai on November 24, in Beijing on January 10, 1999, and in South Korea on July 14, 1999.Outside North America, 4Kids distributed the anime in cooperation with Brian Lacey of Lacey Entertainment. The series was presented at MIP TV, in Cannes, France, from April 3–8, 1998. Broadcasters were initially not interested due to its Japanese origins, and preferred to wait and see how the anime would fare in the US. After its American success, Lacey received inquiries about the series throughout 1999 from multiple international broadcasters. Lacey noted that, in Europe, this was a stark contrast compared to previous years: "I was trying to sell this sort of stuff for years and buyers would tell me they were moving away from Japanese animation shows", he said. In October 1999, the franchise was launched in the European key markets of Germany, the United Kingdom, France, and Spain. The anime started broadcasting in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden in December 1999. In 2000, broadcasting rights for the first season were secured by TV stations in South Africa, Russia, Iceland, and Finland. In Israel, the anime debuted in February 2000. For unclear reasons, Red and Blue were not officially released there. Thriving only on the strength of the TV series, The First Movie, the cards, and imported video games, the Israeli Pokémon still became a success.By the end of 2000, Pokémon games had been released in 70 countries, the anime was broadcast in 51 countries, the films were released in 33 countries, and the cards had been translated into 11 languages.
1999–2000: Pokémania
In North America, the success of the debuting Pokémon franchise was almost immediate. Red and Blue sold 200,000 copies in its first month. By December, the Pokémon anime had become the highest-rated syndicated children's show during the weekdays. This attracted the attention of two media companies: Warner Bros., co-owner of The WB channel; and Saban Entertainment/Fox Family Worldwide, owners of the Fox Kids channel. A bidding war ensued between the parties, which was won by Warner Bros. On February 13, 1999, Pokémon debuted on The WB's Kids' WB block, where it was broadcast exclusively from then on. The debut episode became the most watched premiere in Kids' WB's history. In European countries, the anime received similar levels of success. For example, in Germany, "a highly competitive kids market", Pokémon was purchased by RTL 2. The show's popularity bolstered the entire program block, more than tripling its viewers. Andrea Lang, RTL 2's editor of cartoons and children's programs, said: "We were speechless. We've never had a comparable success". By March 1998, half a year before Pokémon's overseas launch, 499 million Pokémon cards had been produced. By March 1999, the total number of cards shipped reached 764 million. By March 2000, this figure would grow further to 4.255 billion cards, manufactured in both Japanese and American factories.By April 1999, there was a general consensus in the US that Pokémon had become a phenomenon and the newest children's fad. By some, the fad was referred to as "Pokémania", including journalists of Time and USA Today. In the US, severe scarcity occurred of Pokémon goods, especially Pokémon cards, causing companies to miss profits. A Milwaukee Journal Sentinel article, published on August 3, 1999, cited a Toys "R" Us manager as saying that a supply of 600 booster packs would last 24 hours. The CEO of one card distributor stated that they were "thousands of boxes behind" on orders. In the same article, a Wizards spokeswoman stated that more employees and printers had been hired to increase card production. However, near the end of the month, a different Wizards spokeswoman told The Washington Post that they had "exhausted most of the card-printing capacity of the United States". Similarly, USA Today reported in November 1999 that factories making Hasbro's Pokémon toys had expanded production by 20 times, but demand still exceeded supply. In Europe, scarcity of Pokémon merchandise also occurred.In part due to the Pokémon craze, Nintendo saw a 250% increase in profits in 1999 compared to the previous year, reaching a six-year high. The Pokémon franchise accounted for over 30% of Nintendo's revenue that year. Pokémon's popularity also caused a sharp increase in sales of the Game Boy line. The financial windfalls came at a time when Nintendo lost dominance in the home console market, with the Nintendo 64 being outsold by Sony's PlayStation. The global success of Pokémon compensated this loss somewhat. Buckingham & Sefton-Green went even further, writing in 2004: "while Nintendo is now among Japan's most profitable corporations, it could be argued that the company would have struggled to survive without Pokémon".4Kids, initially a little-known firm, expanded thirty times in revenues, and was named the fastest-growing company in America in the September 4, 2000 issue of Fortune magazine. Many businesses that timely obtained a Pokémon license reaped considerable profits. In the summer of 1999, a massive run on stocks of publicly traded Pokémon licensees caused their value to increase dramatically. However, by November, most investors were shorting their shares. Knowing that the Pokémon fad would peak and fall at some point, investors were bearish about its prospects.Pokémon: The First Movie premiered in North America on November 12, 1999, and in Europe the following year. Despite being negatively received by many Western critics, it became one of the most successful Japanese animated films of all time. In the United States, November 1999 was estimated to have been the peak of Pokémania. Supporting the American release of The First Movie was a promotional action with Burger King, one of the largest in the history of the fast-food industry. The success of the promotion resulted in supply issues; restaurants often ran out of Pokémon toys to include with their meals. On December 27, Burger King recalled its Poké Ball toy after a 13-month-old girl died suffocating on one.Pokémon Gold and Silver, the successors to Red/Green/Blue, were released in North America on October 15, 2000. In Europe, they were released on April 6, 2001.
The Pokémon Company and Pokémon USA established
On April 23, 1998, Pokémon Center Co. Ltd. was founded as a joint venture by Nintendo, Creatures, and Game Freak. It was initially formed for the management of specialized merchandise stores called Pokemon Centers, of which the first location opened in Nihonbashi, Tokyo, on July 18, 1998. Throughout the years, multiple Japanese Pokémon Centers would open and close. As of May 2023, a total of 22 Pokémon merchandise shops exist in Japan. An American Pokémon Center also existed in New York City from 2001 to 2005. It then reopened as Nintendo World, later renamed Nintendo New York.After the release of Gold and Silver, Tsunekazu Ishihara began setting out a number of long-term goals for the Pokémon franchise, which included releasing a movie every year (a condition which Shogakukan mostly kept). As part of Ishihara's plan, the Pokemon Center Co. Ltd. was reformatted into The Pokémon Company (TPC), which was officially established in October 2000. The goal of TPC is to centralize and streamline the global management of Pokémon. Satoru Iwata, who had joined Nintendo of Japan in June, was involved with the company's creation, which was one of his first jobs at Nintendo.In February 2001, Pokémon USA (PUSA) was established, an affiliated firm of The Pokémon Company. The company's first president was Tatsumi Kimishima (who would later become president of NoA, and subsequently president of NoJ). In 2002, Kimishima was succeeded by Akira Chiba.
2001–2006: End of the craze, business reforms
In North America, Pokémania peaked in 1999. Throughout the next year, it showed signs of slowing down. On April 29, 2000, the anime was bumped off Kids' WB's #1 spot after holding it for 54 weeks. Around the same time, Pokémon was surpassed at Fox Kids by its rival Digimon. In late 2000, Wizards of the Coast laid off 100 employees, owing in part to the weakening demand for Pokémon cards. Its parent company Hasbro reported a loss over 2000 and the first half of 2001, partly due to an overly optimistic forecast regarding the demand for Pokémon cards and toys. In Europe, the craze peaked in 2000, which offset some of Hasbro's losses. On January 20, 2001, The New York Times reported that Pokémon's trading card market had collapsed in the US. A June 2001 survey in the United Kingdom confirmed that Pokémon's popularity was waning there. Tobin (2004) wrote: "By the summer of 2001, Pokémon's shelf space in Japanese and U.S. toy stores was but a fraction of what it enjoyed in the fall of 1999". By the end of 2001, Pokémania was fading globally, and by 2002, the fad was largely over.From 2000 to 2002, Game Freak developed Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire, the successors to Gold and Silver, for the newly released Game Boy Advance. Masuda, who was appointed to assistant director during Gold and Silver, was promoted to director for Ruby and Sapphire, with Tajiri making himself executive director. Masuda was concerned that the end of Pokémania indicated the end of Pokémon as a whole: "After Gold and Silver came out, it was a huge hit around the world, but shortly after everyone was saying, 'That's it. The Pokémon fad is over! It's dead!'." Determined to keep the franchise going, GF not only wanted to "prove people wrong" with Ruby and Sapphire, but already started planning their sequels: Diamond and Pearl (2006). They also began planning remakes of older installments, starting with FireRed and LeafGreen (2004), remakes of the original Red and Green.Ruby and Sapphire were released in Japan on November 21, 2002, and in the rest of the world the next year. The games introduced 135 new Pokémon, bringing the total amount to 386. Because of this, Golin Harris, NoA's ad agency, advised them to move away from the "Gotta catch 'em all!" slogan. They reasoned that if new, younger players were drawn into the franchise with Ruby/Sapphire, they would find the concept of "catching them all" to be a daunting if not impossible task if they didn't also have Red/Blue/Yellow and Gold/Silver/Crystal. Dockery (2022) noted that "from both a marketing perspective and, really, a legal perspective, it would not be to the company's advantage to keep pushing that slogan".By 2002, the relationship between Pokémon USA (PUSA) and Wizards of the Coast had deteriorated. That year, at least seven high-profile employees were poached from Wizards by PUSA: Wizard's former art director, senior graphic designer, business manager, events marketing director, project management director, and two vice presidents. All employees had signed NDAs. In March 2003, PUSA told Wizards that their contract would not be renewed, and that Wizards would not be distributing the new Ruby & Sapphire card set. Later, Wizards was also prohibited from releasing the sets Jamboree and Legendary Collection II. Notably, Jamboree was the first set containing cards designed by Wizards themselves. As considerable time and money was invested into creating them, Wizards was upset when they were barred from putting them out. On October 1, 2003, the day after their agreement expired, Wizards filed suit against Pokémon USA, alleging that the defendant had seized their intellectual property and trade secrets, and illegally tried to gain advantage over them in the competitive trading card market. The case was settled out of court. Jamboree and Legendary Collection II have remained unreleased.In October 2001, 4Kids Entertainment signed a new contract with PUSA, continuing to serve as Pokémon's exclusive licensing agent and anime localizer. On December 23, 2005, it was announced that the agreement would not be renewed and would expire on December 31, with PUSA moving all licensing in-house. The localization of the anime would be done by PUSA in cooperation with TAJ Productions. PUSA proceeded to replace almost all of the original English voice actors, who were still under contract with 4Kids. This decision "raised the ire of fans and the actors themselves". According to Stuart Zagnit, who voiced Professor Oak, the recasting was done to cut back on costs.In March 2003, Pokémon UK was established in London as a British representative of The Pokémon Company.
2006–2012: Generation IV–V, TPCi established
Following Ruby and Sapphire, Pokémon Diamond and Pearl were released for the Nintendo DS on September 28, 2006 in Japan and on April 22, 2007 in North America. A third version, Pokémon Platinum, was released on September 28, 2008 in Japan and on March 22, 2009 in North America. They form the fourth generation (Generation IV) in the Pokémon video game series. Diamond and Pearl were designed based on the DS's various features such as its Wi-Fi capabilities and slot for Game Boy Advance cartridge. Pokémon president Tsunekazu Ishihara dubbed the games as the "ultimate" Pokémon titles because they allowed the player to trade and battle Pokémon including every Pokémon from previous iterations globally through WiFi, as opposed to previously only able to do so locally and with fewer Pokémon. The games' characters are 2D and the environments are rendered in 3D, and it is considerably difficult to differentiate them because Game Freak designed them this way to innovate the graphics while also retaining the traditional game style and feel.In Platinum, the developers focused on changing the most essential elements from Diamond and Pearl to maintain continuity with the previous games. Director Junichi Masuda stated that since they designed Diamond and Pearl as the "ultimate" Pokémon titles, it was only necessary to make Platinum "even stronger" than them. They approached this by designing the "Origin Forme" for the legendary Pokémon Giratina, ensuring that the design would appear significantly different from its regular form in Diamond and Pearl and to express the games' core antimatter and Distortion World concepts. The title Platinum was chosen to reflect a precious material that "shines" and is different from diamond and pearl and their associations of "love" and "happiness" respectively.Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver were released on September 12, 2009 in Japan and on March 14, 2010 in North America as part of Generation IV. They are remakes of Gold and Silver, aiming to balance familiarity for the original games' players and new content for newcomers. The titles reflected the theme of the bond between trainers and their Pokémon. The developers faithfully recreated the original story and added elements from the Generation IV games and Yellow, the latter of which was released concurrently with Gold and Silver.
In 2009, Pokémon USA and Pokémon UK merged to form The Pokémon Company International (TPCi). This subsidiary of The Pokémon Company (TPC) has since managed the Pokémon franchise outside of Asia.In Generation V, Pokémon Black and White were released on September 18, 2010 in Japan for the DS and on March 6, 2011 in North America. The games feature enhanced visual effects and increased use of 3D graphics. The developers excluded old Pokémon and strategies, while introducing over 150 new Pokémon to evoke a sense of novelty and to provide new players a more "leveled playing field" against old players. The games seek to attract both new players and returning players through its detailed walkthrough and the addition of C-Gear (a real-time communication tool to improve the trade and battle experiences), respectively.The games were followed by Pokémon Black 2 and White 2, which were released on June 23, 2012 in Japan and on October 7, 2012 in North America. The games were developed for the DS rather than the more powerful Nintendo 3DS to maintain continuity with the game world in Black and White and they were presented from a different perspective in the storyline. Since the games are their first sequels, director Masuda explained that they have strived to find a "fine balance" to appeal to both newcomers and returning players by implementing introductory explanations, and by placing a Pokémon Center in the first in-game city, they were able to further this approach by providing newcomers with a detailed walkthrough and also returning players with new updates. During development phase, director Takao Unno revealed that they had experimented with a 100-player multiplayer experience via their communication feature Entralink drawing from their vision of players "sharing the same space, same time and same game" but this feature was never implemented due to technical limitations.
2013–2016: 3D, Generation VI–VII
In Generation VI, Pokémon X and Y were released worldwide for the 3DS on October 12, 2013, and they are the first games to be released in this way. The developers focused on the themes of "beauty," "bond," and "evolution," and it is based on these themes that they created the games' core mechanic where Pokémon could achieve a higher form of evolution by strengthening their bonds with trainers; however, to maintain game balance, they limited this feature to a special, temporary phenomenon. The games' shift to fully 3D graphics allowed the player to freely manipulate the camera angles although due to technical limitations objects far away are rendered in lower polygon models, and producer Hitoshi Yamagami addressed to 2D players that "Game Freak [developers are also] big fans of 2D graphics... So there are some elements in there that I [Yamagami] think fans of 2D will appreciate as well." When asked about the Horde battle and Sky battle types, he stated that Horde battles are to supplant the roles of "really strong Pokemon" to help the player more easily progress through the games and also to add "more excitement to the battles and a sense of danger," and that they added the Sky battles to take advantage of the games' 3D camera angels capabilities.Pokémon Omega Ruby and Alpha Sapphire were released worldwide for the 3DS on November 21, 2014 and on November 28, 2014 in Europe as part of Generation VI. They are remakes of Ruby and Sapphire. The developers adopted X and Y's core game mechanic and added enhanced 3D graphics. According to director Masuda, they reviewed the original mechanic and concept and expressed them using modern hardware, such as replacing the original PokeGear feature for the enhanced versions BuzzNav and DexNav to more effectively provide information enabled by the games' hardware capabilities. They seek to explore the concept of Pokémon coexisting with humans and nature, revisiting the concept behind original games' setting, which translated to "richness or abundance in nature and bonds between people and nature" in Japanese. To appeal to the newer audience in X and Y, the developers decided to connect the story with X and Y by further exploring their core mechanic.In Generation VII, Pokémon Sun and Moon were released worldwide for the 3DS on November 18, 2016 and on November 23, 2016 in Europe. The developers chose Hawaii for inspiration due to its distinctive warm sunlight and clear moonlight and unique biomes that helped support the games' regional Pokémon variance concept. Ohmori said, as director, he aimed to focus on the concept of "Pokémon as these living creatures, [and really focus] on them being alive." Having the release date on the 20th anniversary of Pokémon in mind, he treated this project as a "celebration of that life, and to really express this respect for life." As he contemplated about life and its origins, Ohmori considered the significance of the Sun, enabling life with its light, and the Moon's impact on certain species' reproduction. He explained how the Sun, the Moon, and the Earth "work [together] to influence [one another], and life as a result grows and flourishes based on [this] relationship."Ohmori stated that with the innovation to 3D in X and Y the designers decided to examine more minor aspects concerning with the Pokémon themselves such as their motions, such as when they designed the games' first starter Pokémon to capitalize on its owl-like characteristics with its head "twists round and round." With the 3DS technologies, the developers are able to design the characters to be more expressive as themselves including different facial expressions and reactions. In addition to portraying Pokémon harmoniously coexisting with people and vice versa in the games, the developers replaced the traditional Gym mechanic with Island Trials, deepening the players' connection with the story and their Pokémon. The enhanced versions Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon were released worldwide on November 17, 2017. The games added an alternate storyline and additional characters, Pokémon, and other features. Developer Shigeki Morimoto revealed that they were developed by the younger staff members and veterans so the more veterans can prioritized on developing more important titles, and the developers considered them to be their culmination with the 3DS.
2016–2017: Pokémon Go
In 2016, the Pokémon franchise spawned a second worldwide fad with the release of Pokémon Go, a mobile augmented reality game. The app originated as a Google April Fools's Day joke in 2014: the "Google Maps Pokémon Challenge". The prank was conceived by Tsunekazu Ishihara and Satoru Iwata. On Ishihara's initiation, the hoax was turned into an actual video game developed by Niantic. Ishihara was a fan of Niantic's previous transreality game, Ingress, and saw the game's concept as a perfect match for Pokémon.Through in-game purchases, the game generated more than $160 million by the end of July 2016, with App Annie reporting that Pokémon Go had generated around $10 million in revenue every day that month. The same month, Sensor Tower reported that the game had passed more than $200 million in worldwide revenue, beating every existing record set by Clash of Clans and Candy Crush by a wide margin. The average daily usage of the app on Android devices in July 2016 exceeded that of Snapchat, Tinder, Twitter, Instagram, and Facebook. By September 2, 2016, Pokémon Go had generated more than $440 million in worldwide revenue, according to Sensor Tower. By September 30, it had received 500 million downloads and grossed $470 million in 80 days, according to market research firm Newzoo. Pokémon Go reached the milestone of $600 million in revenue after only 90 days on the market, becoming the fastest mobile game ever to do so.
2018–present: Let's Go games, Generation VIII–IX
Pokémon: Let's Go, Pikachu! and Let's Go, Eevee! were released for the Nintendo Switch on November 16, 2018. They are part of Generation VII. Inspired by Pokémon Yellow, the games seek to introduce newcomers and a new generation of players (particularly Pokémon Go players) to the Pokémon series in addition to catering old players. As such, the games feature similar capture mechanics to Go where the player throw Poke Balls to catch wild Pokémon rather than battling them like traditional Pokémon games. In addition, the games feature the same setting and characters with the first generation of games and the original animated series and include exclusively the original 150 Pokémon to further appeal to their targeted audience.Generation VIII debuted with the release of Pokémon Sword and Shield on November 15, 2019 for the Switch. Director Shigeru Ohmori stated that they designed the games based on what they believed of the biggest Pokémon theme of becoming/being "the greatest or strongest," which was expressed in the games' gigantic-size Pokémon core mechanic and the games' increasingly powerful software and hardware capabilities. Ohmori further revealed that through developing the Let's Go games as research projects for the Switch, they were able to gain valuable experiences and knowledge to develop Sword and Shield. He noted that they took advantage of the Switch's high resolution and TV connectivity to implement the games' gigantic-size core Pokémon mechanic. They envisioned the games' setting to be a "wide-open space" that is different from the traditional route systems and is constantly changing where the player can meet and explore with other players.Prior to the games’ release, they drew heavy criticism on their lack of many pre-existing Pokémon, which developed into an intense backlash called "Dexit." Unlike previous games, Sword and Shield were accompanied by a paid downloadable content (DLC) expansion pass which consists of Part 1—The Isle of Armor, and Part 2—The Crown Tundra; they were released on June 17, 2020 and October 22, 2020 respectively, and they include additional storylines, places, Pokémon, characters, and other features.In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic broke out. The resulting widespread ennui and excessive leisure time inspired a resurgence in popularity and interest of Pokémon cards, which was further popularized by various YouTube content creators, as well as influencer Logan Paul. The craze resulted in severe supply shortages, and customers' inappropriate and obsessive behavior raised safety concerns in many retail outlets. Pokémon cards' values skyrocketed, prompting collectors to submit cards and overwhelm card grading agencies. The Pokémon Company responded by reprinting impacted products at maximum capacity to ensure price stabilization and general accessibility.Remakes of Diamond and Pearl, Pokémon Brilliant Diamond and Shining Pearl were released on November 19, 2021 for the Switch as part of Generation VIII. They are the first core series games to be developed by a third party developer, ILCA, rather than Game Freak. The developers revealed that the games would not assume the anticipated style of the Let's Go Games and feature traditional game mechanics. Pokémon intends to celebrate their 25th anniversary with the release of the remakes by revisiting old games and mechanics, which they faithfully reproduced with enhanced 3D graphics.Pokémon Legends: Arceus was released on January 28, 2022 for the Switch as a prequel to Diamond and Pearl. It is part of Generation VIII. The game "represents a new approach for the Pokémon video game series" as Pokémon transition from traditional RPG mechanics to add real-time elements in their games. Unlike traditional Pokémon games, the player can catch Pokémon by throwing a Poké Ball in real-time rather than triggering a battle; however, they can still choose the latter to weaken it for capture. Many in-game aspects, particularly its landscape, heavily resemble those of The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild.The most recent main installments in the video game series are the Generation IX games Pokémon Scarlet and Violet, which were released for the Switch on November 18, 2022. The games are the first Pokémon games to feature an entirely open-world experience as opposed to the partially open-world experience in previous Pokémon games such as Sword and Shield, and it also departed from the traditional gym mechanics and the elite four battles to opt for unique road quests. The games' improved multiplayer experience allowed for up to four players to travel together. Their DLC, The Hidden Treasure of Area Zero, consists of two parts, The Teal Mask and The Indigo Disk; The Teal Mask was released on September 12–13, 2023 and The Indigo Disk will be released sometime in late 2023 or early 2024.
Media
Video games and other software
Pokémon games have been released in a wide variety of categories, including main series, side series, and spin-off games. Other software applications have also been released, including various transfer programs and a sleep-tracking app. As of June 2023, a total of 122 Pokémon games have been published. According to Pokémon's official website, as of October 2023, over 480 million Pokémon game units have been sold worldwide.
Trading card game
The Pokémon Trading Card Game (PTCG) was one of the first collectable card games (CCGs) in Japan. It was inspired by Magic: The Gathering. In the card game, the players use a 60-card deck featuring Basic and evolved Pokémon, Energy cards, and Trainer cards to help them knock out the opponent's Pokémon, drawing prize cards and winning the game. Cards are classified into various levels of rarity, ranging from Common to Rare Holofoil with a holographic illustration; rare cards, including limited edition, exclusive cards, and older cards, are highly valued among collectors due to their scarcity.According to the official website of The Pokémon Company, 52.9 billion cards have been produced as of October 2023.
Anime
As of 2023, the anime consists of over 1,200 episodes across 26 seasons, with the latest, Pokémon Horizons: The Series, premiering in April 2023. The anime originally focused on Ash Ketchum and his travels across the Pokémon world with his partner, Pikachu. They were retired as protagonists after the 25th season, and Pokémon Horizons introduced two new protagonists, Liko and Roy. A total of 23 anime films have been released, the most recent being Pokémon the Movie: Secrets of the Jungle (2020).Spin-off series from the anime have also been produced, including a variety show titled Weekly Pokémon Broadcasting Station (週刊ポケモン放送局, Shūkan Pokemon Hōsōkyoku), which aired on TV Tokyo from 2002 to 2004 and aired in English as part of Pokémon Chronicles, as well as three television specials. Many short films focusing on Pikachu and other Pokémon were released, primarily preceding the films, and many animated mini-series were also released.
Live-action
Detective Pikachu, a live-action/animated film based on the video game of the same name, was released in 2019. A sequel is currently under development.A live-action television drama produced by The Pokémon Company and TV Tokyo titled Pocket ni Boken o Tsumekonde premiered on TV Tokyo on October 20, 2023.
Reaction to Pokémania (1999–2000)
In 1999 and 2000, Pokémon was an unprecedented, ubiquitous fad in the Western world. Time magazine described it as "a multimedia and interactive barrage like no other before it". The franchise, primarily aimed at children, elicited mixed responses from parents and teachers, some of them critical. Yano (2004) even claimed that the reactions at one point constituted a moral panic.The bulk of the criticism on Pokémon was directed at the trading cards, in particular the booster packs, sealed packages of 11 randomly inserted cards that were sold separately from the main sets. The cards are of varying scarcity, the most valuable being the "holofoil cards" (also called "holographic" or "foil cards"), in which the illustrations of the Pokémon have a shiny overlay effect. The rare cards can only be found in booster packs, and the rarest ones are very infrequently included. Tobin (2004) notes that rarity in this case is "artificially created", and "effectively a form of gambling" in which children need to repeatedly purchase booster packs to get more rare cards. Brougère (2004) described a cynicism among adults that corporations could apparently, "out of thin air", ascribe value to cards which they saw as valueless, thereby "deceiving vulnerable young consumers and garnering excessive profits".As the franchise's popularity grew, children began taking their Pokémon cards to school for trading and playing. Soon, the cards were alleged to be "disrupting learning, poisoning playground friendships and causing such distraction that some children forget their homework, tune out in class and even miss school buses as they scramble to acquire one more card". The cards "turn[ed] the playground into a black market", with card swaps sometimes inciting conflicts. Certain children engaged in "aggressive trading", tricking other (often younger) kids into unfair deals, forcing teachers to arbitrate. Some parents expressed their concerns about the craze, but feared that their children would be ostracized if they were to deny them Pokémon products. In the US, the Pokémon cards ended up "almost universally banned" from school grounds. Similar bans occurred in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and European countries. In September 1999, US-based law firm Milberg filed a class-action lawsuit against Nintendo of America, Wizards of the Coast, and 4Kids. The suit claimed that the booster packs constitute a form of lottery and promote gambling in kids. Susan Estrich noted that similar lawsuits had been filed against trading-card makers in the US, without success. The Pokémon card suit is not known to have gone to court, and is believed to have been settled.The Pokémon anime series was criticized by some as "cheap Japanese animation" that is "violent" and has "little educational value". Michelle Orecklin of Time dismissed the TV series as "less a cartoon than a half-hour exercise in Pokémon product placement". Allison (2006) wrote that even those within Pokémon's US marketing team agreed that the anime's visuals were "not especially sophisticated" compared to Disney cartoons. Pokémon: The First Movie premiered in the United States on November 12, 1999, and in European countries in February 2000. While a huge box-office success, the film was received negatively by several Western film critics. The Guardian decried it as a "contemptuously cheap animated cash-in on the monster kids' craze". The American adult animated series South Park satirized Pokémon in the episode "Chinpokomon", aired on November 3, 1999. In the episode, the titular media franchise is portrayed as a low-quality line of products that is part of an evil plan by the Japanese government to invade the US. South Park co-creator Matt Stone commented that, at the time, Pokémon was "scary huge".Kohler (2016) wrote that at the time Pokémon was considered "ruthlessly commercial", and that it "program[med] children to be consumers of anything and everything Pokémon". CNN quoted child psychiatrist John Lochridge as worrying that "Pokémon's creators and marketers deliberately set out to create a fantasy world so compelling that children would quickly become obsessed". He believed that kids were being "brainwashed", and said: "I have had parents tell me that they cannot get their kids to do anything except Pokémon, so this stuff seems to really capture their minds, in a way". These concerns were countered by psychologist William Damon, who told Newsweek that obsessing is in fact a normal part of a child's neurological development. It should concern parents only when the obsession gets dangerous or excessive. An op-ed in the New Zealander newspaper The Dominion Post claimed that the anti-Pokémon sentiment was particularly American: "The backlash, which seems largely confined to the United States, may be no more than the sound of the world's leading cultural imperialist gagging on a taste of its own medicine".As Pokémania built, Western media started reporting on several crimes associated with Pokémon. These included violence (including two reported stabbings), burglaries, robberies (some at knifepoint), and shoplifting. Almost all these incidents were connected to the Pokémon cards, and the individuals involved were almost always underage. In the US, the incidents peaked in November 1999. In England, Pokémon-related delinquency reached a head in April 2000. High prices on the grey market were a motive behind some of the crimes, "posing a great temptation for older kids and bullies to take advantage of weaker children". At specialty shops and online auctions, rare Pokémon cards could be bought and sold for prices of $50 or more (c. $88 in 2022).Aside from the negative reactions, many media also cited alleged beneficial effects of Pokémon. It was noted that the video games and the cards require children to read, memorize, calculate, and plan out a strategy. Both encourage socialization, and trading Pokémon requires negotiating skills. Stephanie Strom wrote in The New York Times that the Pokémon anime taught children "traditional Japanese values -- responsibility, empathy, cooperation, obedience, respect for elders, humility". Anne Allison interviewed various American parents during Pokémania. She found that while most of them were "utterly mystified" about Pokémon, few were overly worried about it, instead meeting the craze with "befuddled acceptance". Allison also notes that the Columbine High School massacre coincided with the fad, causing violent television, music, and games to be scrutinized. Compared to these media, she notes, Pokémon is in fact rather tame.In contrast, Pokémon received far less criticism in its native country of Japan. Yano (2004) attributes this to cultural differences, which includes: 1) greater acceptance of exuberant consumerism – to buy is to be a good citizen; 2) less focus on media influence – instead, Japan's educational system, bullying, and dysfunctional families are more often the target of attention; 3) less separation between child- and adulthood – what is suitable for adults is not necessarily considered unsuitable for kids; 4) Pokémon being permeated with kawaisa (cuteness), a hallmark of Japanese culture; 5) Japan's core religions, Buddhism and Shinto, are less moralizing in nature. However, Oliver Burkeman wrote in The Guardian that the Pokémon cards were also banned from some Japanese schools.
Legacy and influences
After World War II, Japan experienced a period of unprecedented growth and became well-known in the Western world for its consumer products, such as radios (e.g. Panasonic, Toshiba), cars (e.g. Toyota, Mitsubishi), and Sony's Walkman. From 1991 onwards, its economy stagnated, causing the country to lose its status as an economic superpower. However, during the 1990s and 2000s, Japan re-emerged as a source of 'cool' cultural goods, embraced by a growing international audience interested in Japanese culture. Nintendo, Sega, and Sony launched several popular video game consoles and franchises. In terms of children's properties, the success of Mighty Morphin Power Rangers changed perceptions on the viability of such Japanese imports in the West. The Tamagotchi fad (1997–98), centered around a portable digital pet device, was said to have "paved the way for Pokémon".Anne Allison (2006) wrote that, before the 1990s, Japan figured little in the face of the worldwide hegemony of Euro-American cultural industries, in particular that of the US. "Hollywood has been hostile to imports", she wrote, "and foreignness has largely been, and been seen as, an impediment to mass popularization in the United States". The surprise success of Pokémon was "an undeniable breakthrough in the homeland of Disney" that "changed preexisting assumptions about the US marketplace at the same time that it was constantly resisted for deviating from them". Pokémon was a welcomed boon to Japan's faltering economy, and positively influenced the country's soft power. Kamo (2000) interviewed various American children and found that kids who thought Pokémon was cool, were more likely to believe that Japan was a cool nation. Allison (2003) gave a similar finding: all the children she interviewed knew where Pokémon originated, and "many said that, as a result of Pokémon and other 'cool' Japanese goods, they had developed an interest in Japan. A number said that they now wanted to study Japanese and travel there one day". Kohler (2016) wrote: "Japanese are proud of Pokémon, the most successful export of Japanese popular culture ever". Although, Iwabuchi (2004) questioned to what extent Pokémon really is 'Japanese', and to what extent it is simply a good property with universal appeal. He noted that Japanese nationalist commentators celebrated Pokémon's global success and retrospectively attributed this to its "Japanese cultural power", while ignoring the localization of Pokémon overseas, as well as decades of increasing cooperation and cultural exchange between countries (globalization).In the 20th century, anime found niche popularity in North America and Europe in series (Astro Boy, Kimba the White Lion, Speed Racer) and films (Akira, Ghost in the Shell). The Pokémon TV series and films marked a breakthrough for anime, contributing to its growing worldwide success at the turn of the 21st century. For some children, Pokémon was their introduction to 'Japanimation', serving as a "gateway" to other anime, manga, and Japanese culture in general. Pokémon: The First Movie became one of the most successful Japanese animated films in history. After Princess Mononoke, Pokémon: The First Movie became the second anime film to open at mainstream cinemas in the West, as opposed to the usual art house venues. Pioneering anime importer John Ledford noted that Pokémon "underscored the commercial potential of anime", thus making it interesting from a business perspective.The success of Pokémon encouraged companies to look for other popular Japanese properties that might be localized for Western markets. The importing of at least three similar franchises were confirmed by business executives to have been (partly) inspired by Pokémon: Yu-Gi-Oh!, Digimon, and Monster Rancher. The import of Cardcaptor Sakura (as Cardcaptors) might also have been prompted by Pokémon.
Footnotes
References
Multi-refs notes
External links
Official hub to regional Pokémon websites
Pokémon Center, official merchandise web shop
Official Pokémon GO site | [
"Mass_media"
] |
4,164,517 | List of statutory instruments of the United Kingdom, 1964 | This is an incomplete list of statutory instruments of the United Kingdom in 1964. Prison Rules 1964 SI 1964/388
The Road Vehicles (Index Marks) Regulations 1964 SI 1964/404
Benefit Regulations 1964 SI 1964/504
Sheffield Water Order 1964 SI 1964/670
Offices, Shops and Railway Premises Act 1963 (Exemption No. 1) Order 1964 SI 1964/964
Washing Facilities Regulations 1964 SI 1964/965
Sanitary Conveniences Regulations 1964 SI 1964/966
Examination of Steam Boiler Reports (No 1) Order 1964 SI 1964/1070
Industrial Training (Construction Board) Order 1964 SI 1964/1079
Industrial Training (Engineering Board) Order 1964 SI 1964/1086
Artificial Insemination of Pigs (Scotland) Regulations 1964 SI 1964/1171
Artificial Insemination of Pigs (England and Wales) Regulations 1964 SI 1964/1172
Act of Adjournal (Rules for Legal Aid in Criminal Proceedings) 1964 SI 1964/1409
Act of Adjournal (Criminal Legal Aid Fees) 1964 SI 1964/1410
Legal Aid (Scotland) (Expenses of Successful Unassisted Parties) Regulations 1964 SI 1964/1513
Plant Varieties and Seeds (Northern Ireland) Order 1964 SI 1964/1574
Act of Sederunt (Legal Aid Rules) 1964 SI 1964/1622
Barnsley Corporation (Reduction of Compensation Water) Order 1964 SI 1964/1866
Diplomatic Privileges (Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies) Order 1964 SI 1964/2043
War Pensions (Mercantile Marine) Scheme 1964 SI 1964/2058 | This is an incomplete list of statutory instruments of the United Kingdom in 1964.
Prison Rules 1964 SI 1964/388
The Road Vehicles (Index Marks) Regulations 1964 SI 1964/404
Benefit Regulations 1964 SI 1964/504
Sheffield Water Order 1964 SI 1964/670
Offices, Shops and Railway Premises Act 1963 (Exemption No. 1) Order 1964 SI 1964/964
Washing Facilities Regulations 1964 SI 1964/965
Sanitary Conveniences Regulations 1964 SI 1964/966
Examination of Steam Boiler Reports (No 1) Order 1964 SI 1964/1070
Industrial Training (Construction Board) Order 1964 SI 1964/1079
Industrial Training (Engineering Board) Order 1964 SI 1964/1086
Artificial Insemination of Pigs (Scotland) Regulations 1964 SI 1964/1171
Artificial Insemination of Pigs (England and Wales) Regulations 1964 SI 1964/1172
Act of Adjournal (Rules for Legal Aid in Criminal Proceedings) 1964 SI 1964/1409
Act of Adjournal (Criminal Legal Aid Fees) 1964 SI 1964/1410
Legal Aid (Scotland) (Expenses of Successful Unassisted Parties) Regulations 1964 SI 1964/1513
Plant Varieties and Seeds (Northern Ireland) Order 1964 SI 1964/1574
Act of Sederunt (Legal Aid Rules) 1964 SI 1964/1622
Barnsley Corporation (Reduction of Compensation Water) Order 1964 SI 1964/1866
Diplomatic Privileges (Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies) Order 1964 SI 1964/2043
War Pensions (Mercantile Marine) Scheme 1964 SI 1964/2058
See also
List of statutory instruments of the United Kingdom
External links
Legislation.gov.uk delivered by the UK National Archive
UK SI's on legislation.gov.uk
UK Draft SI's on legislation.gov.uk | [
"Law"
] |
43,994,258 | Willard Rouse II | Willard Goldsmith Rouse II (1910 – October 20, 1971) was an American real estate developer who supported and partnered with his brother Jim Rouse to develop malls, and planned communities.Bill Rouse took on the role of supporter for his brother after the death of their parents in 1930. He funded his education, and secured Navy transport for him from Ernest L. Jahncke to return home from the University of Hawaii. He founded the Rouse Company with his brother. | Willard Goldsmith Rouse II (1910 – October 20, 1971) was an American real estate developer who supported and partnered with his brother Jim Rouse to develop malls, and planned communities.Bill Rouse took on the role of supporter for his brother after the death of their parents in 1930. He funded his education, and secured Navy transport for him from Ernest L. Jahncke to return home from the University of Hawaii. He founded the Rouse Company with his brother.
Personal life and family
Rouse was found dead in the restroom of a Rouse Mall project in Toledo, Ohio on 20 October 1971.Rouse was the son of Lydia Agnes (Robinson) and attorney Willard Goldsmith Rouse. His son is developer Willard Rouse. He was the brother of developer James Rouse and a great-uncle of actor Edward Norton.
== References == | [
"Economy"
] |
52,719,336 | Jayantbhai Patel Boskey | Jayantbhai Ramanbhai Patel, popularly known as Boskey is an Indian politician and member of the Nationalist Congress Party (NCP). Boskey is currently serving as the president of Gujarat NCP. | Jayantbhai Ramanbhai Patel, popularly known as Boskey is an Indian politician and member of the Nationalist Congress Party (NCP). Boskey is currently serving as the president of Gujarat NCP.
Early life and education
Boskey was born in Aden (a city in South Yemen) on 16 May 1960. He acquired his primary schooling in the Bhagalpur district of Bihar at Mt. Carmel Convent School and at C.M.S. High School. He completed his graduation in Commerce from Vallabh Vidyanagar (B.J.V.M.).
Later in the year 1988, Boskey was married to Rita Patel, a Commerce Graduate from Mumbai College, Mumbai. They had their first child, Unnati Patel, in the year 1989 and their second child, Krishna Patel, in 1991.
Inclination towards Sports
Boskey had an innate inclination towards cricket and football during his school and college days. In the year 1976-77, he played for Bihar School Boys in The Cooch Behar Trophy. In the following year, he played as a goalkeeper in the football team of Bihar School Boys. In the year 1979-80, he played cricket along with Rubin Mukherji's Tata team at the Junior County, Q.K. London. He has also played for the Bhagalpur Senior District team against the cricket teams of Patna, Bihar, etc. He is keenly interested in cricket.
Political career
Boskey was elected as the MLA from 134 Sarsa Constituency in the year 1990. In the year 1992, he was selected as the Parliamentary Secretary to the honorable Chief Minister (સંસદીય સચિવ) and contributed to the fields of Youth Service, Sports Affairs, and Public Grievance.
Offices held
1990-1995: MLA, 134 Sarsa Constituency
2007-2012: MLA, 134 Sarsa Constituency
2012-2017: MLA, 111 Umreth Constituency
2005: President, Gujarat NCP
2017: General Secretary, Gujarat NCP
2020–present: President, Gujarat NCP
References
State NCP chief Jayant Patel to contest from Anand | [
"Information"
] |
62,634,682 | Robyn McCutcheon | Robyn Alice McCutcheon (born Robert Allen McCutcheon) is an American diplomat, engineer and historian. She received her master's degrees in astronomy from Yale University and master's degrees in Russian studies from Georgetown University. She was previously an astronomer and historian. She is known for her work on the history of Soviet astronomy. She also has several publications to her credit on the history of Soviet and Russian science during the Stalin period. | Robyn Alice McCutcheon (born Robert Allen McCutcheon) is an American diplomat, engineer and historian.
She received her master's degrees in astronomy from Yale University and master's degrees in Russian studies from Georgetown University. She was previously an astronomer and historian. She is known for her work on the history of Soviet astronomy. She also has several publications to her credit on the history of Soviet and Russian science during the Stalin period. She became a member of the American Astronomical Society (AAS) in 1983 and was a member of the Historical Astronomy Division (HAD) of the AAS and chair of the AAS International Relations Committee. She formerly worked at the Space Telescope Science Institute and the Computer Sciences Corporation. She also worked as an engineer on NASA missions, primarily Hubble Space Telescope.She joined the US Department of State in 2004 and became a Foreign Service Officer in several countries, including Russia, Romania, Kazakhstan. She served at the Nuclear Risk Reduction Center in 2013–14. McCutcheon is a trans woman and is the first person to transition while posted overseas. She transitioned in 2011 in Romania. She also served as president of the GLIFAA (Gays and Lesbians in Foreign Affairs Agencies).
Publications
McCutcheon, Robert A. "The 1936-1937 purge of Soviet astronomers." Slavic Review 50, no. 1 (1991): 100-117. JSTOR 2500602
Bronshten, Vitalii A., and Robert A. McCutcheon. "VT Ter-Oganezov, ideologist of Soviet astronomy." Journal for the History of Astronomy 26, no. 4 (1995): 325-348.
Doel, Ronald. E., and Robert A. McCutcheon, eds. "Astronomy and the State: CIS Perspectives," a special issue of Journal for the History of Astronomy, no. 4 (1995).
McCutcheon, Robert. (August 19, 2003). "Russia’s Astronomy Icon Nears Rebirth". Sky & Telescope
== References == | [
"Concepts"
] |
39,305,141 | Bill Curtis | Bill Curtis (born 1948) is a software engineer best known for leading the development of the Capability Maturity Model and the People CMM in the Software Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University, and for championing the spread of software process improvement and software measurement globally. In 2007 he was elected a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) for his contributions to software process improvement and measurement. He was named to the 2022 class of ACM Fellows, "for contributions to software process, software measurement, and human factors in software engineering". | Bill Curtis (born 1948) is a software engineer best known for leading the development of the Capability Maturity Model and the People CMM in the Software Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University, and for championing the spread of software process improvement and software measurement globally. In 2007 he was elected a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) for his contributions to software process improvement and measurement. He was named to the 2022 class of ACM Fellows, "for contributions to software process, software measurement, and human factors in software engineering".
Personal life
Bill Curtis was born in Meridian, Texas in 1948. He graduated from the Fort Worth Country Day School in 1967 where the Bill Curtis Award is given annually to the undergraduate boy whose performance contributes the most to the athletic program. He received his B.A. in mathematics, psychology, and theater in 1971 from Eckerd College in St. Petersburg, Florida. He received his M.A. in 1974 from The University of Texas. He received his Ph.D. specializing in organizational psychology and statistics in 1975 from Texas Christian University in Fort Worth, Texas. He has published 4 books, over 150 articles, and has been on the editorial board of 7 academic journals. He lives in Fort Worth, Texas.
Career
He started his career as a Research Assistant Professor in the Organizational Research Group at the University of Washington where he also taught statistics in the Department of Psychology and performed research on programmer skills, leadership, and sports psychology. He entered software engineering in 1978 as the Manager of Software Management Research at Information System Programs in General Electric's Space Division (now a division of Lockheed Martin) in Arlington, Virginia, where he led research on software metrics and programming practices. From 1980 to 1983 he developed a global software productivity and quality measurement system in ITT's Programming Technology Center.
During 1983–1990 he founded the Human Interface Laboratory and later led Design Process Research at Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (MCC), the American Fifth Generation Computer Research Consortium in Austin, Texas. During 1991–1992 he was the Director of the Software Process Program at the Software Engineering Institute (SEI) at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where he led the projects that produced the Capability Maturity Model for Software (CMM). and the People CMM In 1993 he returned to Austin and co-founded TeraQuest Metrics, which provided CMM-based improvement services globally. TeraQuest was acquired by Borland Software Corporation in 2005, where he became the Chief Process Officer.
He is currently the Director of the Consortium for IT Software Quality (CISQ), an IT industry leadership group founded by the SEI and OMG. Under his leadership CISQ has begun releasing standards for measuring the size (Automated Function Point Counting) and structural quality characteristics of software at the code and software architecture level.
Significant contributions
Maturity models and process improvement
Dr. Curtis initiated the project to create the Capability Maturity Model (CMM) in 1991 after he had been selected to succeed Watts Humphrey as the Director of the Software Engineering Institute's Software Process Program. The CMM integrated the software development best practices the SEI had been collecting into Humphrey's Process Maturity Framework. The CMM for Software Version 1.0 was released in August, 1991 and Version 1.1 in January, 1993, and the CMM was published as a book in 1995. Throughout the 1990s he promoted the CMM to companies and government agencies in the U.S, E.U., and Asia, contributing to its global adoption as a method for guiding process improvement and for evaluating the capability of software organizations.
Dr. Curtis recognized that Humphrey's Process Maturity Framework was a unique model of organizational development that challenged conventional wisdom on how to conduct organizational improvement programs and could be applied to organizational processes far beyond software development. With his background in organizational psychology, he proposed applying Humphrey's framework to human capital management practices. Working with Bill Hefley and Sally Miller, he created the People CMM, validating the broad applicability of the Process Maturity Framework to many different organizational processes. The People CMM stages the implementation of increasingly sophisticated human capital management practices across the five levels of organizational maturity proposed by Humphrey. The People CMM has been used by several Fortune 200 companies to guide workforce development programs, and has been widely adopted by offshore system integrators and outsourcers to help manage the rapid growth of their workforces.With support from Nedbank in South Africa, Dr. Curtis and Charles Weber developed a Business Process Maturity Model (BPMM) to extend the benefits of CMM and CMMI which are project-based, to the continuous value-chain processes of a business. The BPMM includes several new innovations in maturity models based on a decade of experience in applying them to guide process improvement programs. The BPMM has been applied and validated in the banking, electronic equipment manufacturing, medical services, and gaming industries. The BPMM has recently become a supported specification (standard) of the Object Management Group's Business Process Management Initiative.
Software measurement
Dr. Curtis led a team at General Electric Space Division that was the first to prove experimentally that software metrics could be used to predict programmer performance and quality. His group provided early leadership in studying programming practices experimentally. He next developed a global software productivity and quality measurement system while at ITT's Programming Technology Center which allowed established corporate baselines across different business lines in one of the world's largest corporate conglomerates. He has promoted the use of advanced statistic methods in managing software productivity and quality.In 2009 Dr. Curtis became the founding Director of the Consortium for IT Software Quality (CISQ) that was created with joint sponsorship from the SEI and OMG. CISQ's primary objective has been to create standards for measuring the size and quality attributes of software at the code level. Under his leadership CISQ has recently had a standard for computing Automated Function Points approved by OMG. CISQ has also released a standard for computing automated measures of software reliability, performance efficiency, security, and quality.
Design process
Curtis has been an advocate for studying the psychological and behavioral processes of software development. In 1986 he established Design Process Research in the Software Technology Program at MCC. Over the next four years his team published research that challenged the existing top-down paradigms of software design. They interviewed design teams on large software to reveal the greatest challenges they encountered in designing large software-intensive systems. They videotaped design team meetings over a three-month period to see how designs actually emerged from the team dialectic. They also videotaped individual software designers solving problems to uncover the cognitive processes of design. Their insights have been cited as an argument for the use of agile development methods in software.
User interface
Dr. Curtis led the creation of MCC's Human Interface Laboratory that focused on creating tools for designing advanced user interfaces that integrated artificial intelligence with multi-media technology. In 1980 acquired funding from the Washington, D.C. Chapter of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) to launch the initial conference on Human Factors in Computer Systems, which became the Association for Computing Machinery's successful CHI conference series on user interface technology. He was program Chair for CHI'85 and General Chair for CHI'89. He was an advocate for making user interface design an engineering design discipline and for more sensible approaches to protecting the intellectual property in user interfaces.
== References == | [
"Technology"
] |
59,500,367 | L'Olimpiade (Galuppi) | For Giovanni Battista Pergolesi's L'Olimpiade, see L'Olimpiade (Pergolesi)
L'Olimpiade is an opera in three acts by Baldassare Galuppi in the opera seria style, based on the original libretto of the same name by Pietro Metastasio. It premiered on 26 December 1747 at the Teatro Regio Ducale in Milan. | For Giovanni Battista Pergolesi's L'Olimpiade, see L'Olimpiade (Pergolesi)
L'Olimpiade is an opera in three acts by Baldassare Galuppi in the opera seria style, based on the original libretto of the same name by Pietro Metastasio. It premiered on 26 December 1747 at the Teatro Regio Ducale in Milan.
Recordings
Mark Tucker (Clistene, tenor), Ruth Rosique (Aristea, soprano), Roberta Invernizzi (Argene, soprano), Romina Basso (Megacle, soprano [castrato]), Franziska Gottwald (Licidas, soprano [trouser role]), Furio Zanasi (Alcandro, contralto), Filippo Adami (Aminta, tenor); premiere recording on video DVD (2006) Andrea Marcon (conductor), Venice Baroque Orchestra, Dominique Poulange (stage director) Teatro Malibran, Venice – Dynamic Cat. 33545
== References == | [
"Knowledge"
] |
58,552,605 | Dardanian–Bastarnic war | The Dardanian–Bastarnic war was a military conflict between the Kingdom of Dardania and the Bastarnae tribe. | The Dardanian–Bastarnic war was a military conflict between the Kingdom of Dardania and the Bastarnae tribe.
History
Philip V of Macedon planned to use the Bastarnae as a base to attack the Romans, but that required the Macedonians to settle in Dardania, along with their families, affecting the Dardanians as a people group. This would destroy long-time enemies of the Macedonian state and secure a path to Rome. Some twenty years before, Philip had lost a war against the Roman Republic, known as the Second Macedonian War. However, war was again threatened.
The Dardanians used every opportunity to loot Macedonia, and Philip's army was too weak at the time to attack them.
In 179 BC Philip died, just after the Bastarnae left their homeland. When they heard the news about Philip's death, the Bastarnae began moving through the Odrysian Kingdom. The Thracians felt that after the king's death, they were no longer under obligation to help and supply these barbarians. The Bastarnae started looting Odrysia in search for food. The Thracians made up an army, but they were weaker than the Bastarnae. The Bastarnae beat them and made them evacuate to hills and mountains. Thracian soldiers and families moved to Thracia's highest peak, Mt. Musala. The Bastarnae chased them, but when they reached the mountains, a heavy storm hit them and they retreated.
War
Some 30,000 Bastarnae started moving to Dardania, while others returned home. They reached Dardania in autumn of 179 BC.
The Bastarnae formed several camps. The Dardanians thought they were going to vanquish the enemy easily, but years passed and attackers were still there. In 176 BC Dardanian king Monunius II sent a delegation to Rome, accusing Macedonian king Perseus of invading the Bastarnae. Perseus wanted good relations with the Roman Republic, so he denied all accusations.
The Dardanians waited to attack until the Bastarnae’s allies, the Scordisci and the Thracians, were busy working in the fields. They split into two groups; one to attack the front, and the other attacking from the flank. The first group arrived too early and was defeated. The Bastarnae pushed them and besieged them in their city. The other group of Dardanian soldiers were not aware of this, so they continued moving towards the enemy camp. The Bastarnae left their camp empty. Without their camp, they started retreating. On their way home they crossed the frozen river of the Danube. Ice started cracking and almost all Bastarnae soldiers died. Their leader, Clondicus, survived.The Dardanians won the war, but they were heavily damaged and reduced in power. Dardania continued to exist until Roman conquest in 28 BC.
See also
Invasion of Molossia
Macedonia (Dardanian puppet)
== References == | [
"History"
] |
11,308,953 | Albert Decourtray | Albert Florent Augustin Decourtray S.T.D. (9 April 1923 – 16 September 1994) was a French Catholic Cardinal and Archbishop of Lyon. | Albert Florent Augustin Decourtray S.T.D. (9 April 1923 – 16 September 1994) was a French Catholic Cardinal and Archbishop of Lyon.
Biography
Early life
He was born in the hamlet of L'Amiteuse near Lille, France. He entered the minor seminary of Haubourdin in October 1940, later entering the Grand Seminary of Lille in 1941. He was ordained on 29 June 1947 and completed his studies at the Catholic Faculties of Lille in 1948. He then went to Rome in 1948 where he entered the Pontifical Gregorian University studying for a doctorate in theology. Which he was later awarded in 1951 with his thesis on Nicolas Malebranche. While in Rome, he was also chaplain of the church of Saint-Louis des Français.
Career
From 1952 until 1966 he served as Professor of Holy Scripture at the Grand Seminary of Lille. He was also responsible for the formation of young priests of the diocese of Lille in 1958. He served as vicar general of the diocese of Lille in 1966.
He was appointed titular bishop of Ippona Zárito and Auxiliary Bishop of Dijon by Pope Paul VI on 27 May 1971. He was named Bishop of Dijon in 1974. He was bishop of Dijon until he was promoted to the metropolitan see of Lyon on 29 October 1981. He was elected vice-president of the Episcopal Conference of France serving from 1981 until 1987 and was then elected its president, serving until 1990.
Decourtray was created Cardinal-Priest of SS. Trinità al Monte Pincio on 25 May 1985 by Pope John Paul II. He was a member of the Council of Cardinals for the Study of the Organizational and Economic Problems of the Holy See from 1986. He was appointed an Officer of the Légion d'honneur in 1986. He resigned the prelature on 1 October 1988. He was elected to a one-year term as president of the Council of the Christian Churches of France on 17 November 1987. He received his first prize of the Droits de l'Homme in 1988. He was elected a member of the Académie Française on 1 June 1993.
Personal life
Decourtray had one brother, Eliane, who died at 17, and two sisters, Paule and Blanche, who both died at a young age. He died at the age of 71 in 1994.
References
"Albert Decourtray (1923–1994)" (in French). Académie française. 2009. Archived from the original on 17 November 2008. Retrieved 18 January 2009. | [
"History"
] |
34,737,565 | STANAG 3910 | STANAG 3910 High Speed Data Transmission Under STANAG 3838 or Fibre Optic Equivalent Control is a protocol defined in a NATO Standardization Agreement for the transfer of data, principally intended for use in avionic systems. STANAG 3910 allows a 1 Mb/s STANAG 3838 / MIL-STD-1553B / MoD Def Stan 00-18 Pt 2 (3838/1553B) data bus to be augmented with a 20 Mb/s high-speed (HS) bus, which is referred to in the standard as the HS channel: the 3838/1553B bus in an implementation of STANAG 3910 is then referred to as the low-speed (LS) channel. Either or both channels may be multiply redundant, and may use either electrical or optical media. Where the channels use redundant media, these are individually referred to as buses by the standard. | STANAG 3910 High Speed Data Transmission Under STANAG 3838 or Fibre Optic Equivalent Control is a protocol defined in a NATO Standardization Agreement for the transfer of data, principally intended for use in avionic systems. STANAG 3910 allows a 1 Mb/s STANAG 3838 / MIL-STD-1553B / MoD Def Stan 00-18 Pt 2 (3838/1553B) data bus to be augmented with a 20 Mb/s high-speed (HS) bus, which is referred to in the standard as the HS channel: the 3838/1553B bus in an implementation of STANAG 3910 is then referred to as the low-speed (LS) channel. Either or both channels may be multiply redundant, and may use either electrical or optical media. Where the channels use redundant media, these are individually referred to as buses by the standard.
History
The original STANAG 3910, i.e. the NATO standard, reached, at least, draft version 1.8, before work on it was abandoned in the early 1990s in favour of its publication through non-military standardization organizations: the foreword to Rev. 1.7 of the STANAG from March 1990 stated "The main body of this document is identical to the proposed Rev 1.7 of prEN 3910". Following this, several provisional, green-paper versions, prEN 3910 P1 & P2, were produced by working-group C2-GT9 of the Association Europeene des Constructeurs de Materiel Aerospatial (AECMA) (now ASD-STAN), before its development also ceased in 1996-7 (following the withdrawal of the French delegation, who held the chair of AECMA C2-GT9 at the time). As a result, the standard remains (as of Aug. 2013) in green paper form: the latest draft version is prEN3910-001 Issue P1, the front sheet of which states, 'This "Aerospace Series" Prestandard has been drawn up under the responsibility of AECMA (The European Association of Aerospace Industries). It is published on green paper for the needs of AECMA-Members.' However, despite this disclaimer, the document is offered for sale by ASD-STAN, currently (August 2013) at €382.64.
Utilisation
The incomplete nature of the standardization process (as of Aug. 2013) has not prevented at least two versions of STANAG 3910 being implemented: one for the Eurofighter Typhoon and one for the Dassault Rafale. The Eurofighter version, known as EFABus, is standardized by an internal Eurofighter document (SP-J-402-E-1039). The standardization documentation for the Dassault version is unknown.
The EFABus version of STANAG 3910 is known to use an electrical low speed (3838/1553B) control channel and a fibre optic HS channel. The version specified for the Dassault Rafale uses electrical media for both channels.
There are a number of manufacturers of avionic equipment that supply both flight and ground (e.g. test) equipment to this protocol standard.
Media
The (draft) standard contains annexes, known as slash-sheets, that specify a number of different media types for the high-speed and low-speed channels, implementations identifying a specific slash-sheet with the relevant specifications.
Optical
Versions of STANAG 3910 using optical media for the HS channel component require an additional passive component, in the form of an optical star coupler either reflective or transmissive, to interconnect the remote terminals. This limits the number of remote terminals that may be connected to the HS media, through the effect of the optical star on the optical power (determined by the number of "ways" of the star). Therefore, it may not be possible for all the (up to) 31 RTs (and 1 BC) that may be connected to the LS channel to have HS channel connections.
The optical media types include 200 and 100 μm diameter core (280, 240, or 140 μm cladding) Step-index profile (depressed cladding) optical fibre. These are much larger-core fibres than are commonly used in short-haul commercial applications, which are more normally 50/125 or 62.5/125 μm. This is, in part at least, to reduce the problems associated with contamination of the optical connectors – a given size of particle between the end faces of the fibre in a connector or misalignment of such a connector has significantly less effect on the larger fibre – which is seen as a significant issue in avionic applications, especially where contaminating environments, high vibration, and wide temperature ranges can apply.
The major difference between the transmissive and reflective star coupled fibre networks is that two fibres are needed with the transmissive star coupler to connect a line replaceable item (LRI), but with the reflective star, and a "Y" coupler internal to the LRI, only a single fibre is required: a "Y" coupler, is a three-port optical device that connects the simplex transmitter and simplex receiver to a single fibre that carries the optical signals transmitted and received by the LRI in opposite directions (half duplex). However, while the use of the reflective star reduces the cabling in the aircraft, and thus weight, the excess losses involved in the use of the "Y" couplers and reflective star coupler makes meeting the power budget requirements, given a transmitter power and receiver sensitivity, more difficult.
Whilst it is explicitly stated that the LS buses may be a fibre optic equivalent to STANAG 3838, e.g. MIL-STD-1773, there are no known implementations of this approach.
Electrical
Versions using an electrical HS channel require an additional active component, in the form of a "central repeater", with multi-tap collector and distributor lines (which use directional couplers to connect to the LRIs) and a buffer memory, to allow for small differences in data rates.
The standard and the electrical media slash sheet it contains specify a 100-ohm characteristic impedance cable for both collector and distributor lines. A maximum cable length is not given for either, and neither are limits on the numbers of directional couplers and thus RTs. However, the losses in the directional couplers, etc., especially for the RT furthest from the central repeater, and the limitations on dynamic range between the furthest (and most attenuated) and nearest (and least attenuated) RT, will limit the number of RTs operating to the standard that may be connected to the HS media.
System architectures
Since STANAG 3910 uses a 3838/1553B LS channel for control, the logical architectures that are supported are very similar to those described for 3838/1553B. Essentially, there is a bus controller (BC) and up to 31 individually addressed (0-30) remote terminals (RTs) connected to the bus. The BC then commands the RTs to receive or transmit the data, either as RT to RT, RT to BC, BC to RT, RT to RTs (broadcast), or BC to RTs (broadcast) transfers.
With electrical media HS buses, the physical architecture is like that with 3838/1553B, save that the central repeater has to be at one end of each of the collector and distributor lines: the RT's connections to these lines work preferentially in one physical direction along the bus - hence directional couplers.
The use of optical media for the HS buses, e.g. in EFABus, has a significant effect on the physical architectures: it is not practical to implement linier T coupled bus architectures, where the bus is run around the platform (e.g. the aircraft), and each line replaceable item (LRI) connects, though a stub, at the nearest convenient point in its path. Rather, each LRI has an optical physical media connection to a common star coupler, which passively connects it to all the other LRIs connected to the same star. In the case of a reflective star, the bus connection from the RT will be a single fibre cable, over which the RT both transmits and receives (half duplex). With a transmissive star, each RT is connected through two fibres, one for it to transmit and one for it to receive data over.
Transfer sequence
Transfers over the HS channel are initiated via the 3838/1553B LS channel, in an analogous way to the setup of 3838/1553B data transfers. 3838/1553B BC-RT transfers are sent to a specific subaddress of the receiving and transmitting RTs by the STANAG 3910 bus controller (BC). Despite this being a subaddress on the LS side of the RT, and thus exactly the same as any other 3838/1553B RT's subaddress, this subaddress is known as the "HS subaddress". The 3838/1553B BC-RT transfers each carry a single data word, known as an HS action word. Each HS action word identifies the HS message to be transmitted or received, analogous to the command words used to initiate 3838/1553B RT transfers. As with 3838/1553B transfers, there can be HS transfers from BC to RT, RT to BC, RT to RT, BC to RTs (broadcast) and RT to RTs (broadcast).
According to the standard, the HS actions words comprise the following:
A single-bit HS A/B field, which indicates on which bus of a dual redundant HS channel the message is to be transmitted and received.
A single-bit HS T/R field, which indicates whether the HS action word is commanding the RT to transmit or receive.
A 7-bit HS message identify/HS mode field. This either indicates that the HS action word is a mode control (value = 0000000) or identifies the subaddress of the HS RT's (which is a different entity from the HS subaddress to which the HS action word is sent) from which the message is to be sent or at which it is to be received, depending on the value of the HS T/R field.
A 7-bit HS block count (BLC) or HS mode code field, which "shall be the quantity of Data Blocks to be either sent out or received by the RT on the HS Channel or the HS Mode Code". The standard goes on to say "The message shall consist of 32 Data Words per Data Block and a maximum of 27 Data Blocks may be transmitted or received".As a 3838/1553B data word, the HS action word is preceded by the 3 bit-time data word sync field and followed by the single bit parity bit. As part of a 3838/1553B BC-RT transfer, it is preceded by a 3838/1553B command word, and should normally, i.e. if not broadcast, invalid, or illegal, elicit a 3838/1553B status word from the receiving RT.
In the case of an RT to RT HS transfer, the BC sends an HS action word to the receiving HS RT, instructing it to receive the HS message with a specified block count value at the specified subaddress. The receiving RT will then reply on the LS channel with an LS status word indicating it received the HS action word. The BC will then, after an intermessage gap on the LS channel, send another HS action word to the transmitting HS RT, instructing it to transmit the message, normally with the same block count value, and from one of its subaddresses. The transmitting RT will then reply on the LS channel with an LS status word indicating it received the HS action word and completing the HS control format. The HS RT transmitting an HS message will then begin its transmission within a maximum time measured from the parity (last) bit of the transmit HS action word. This initialization time is specified in the slash sheets, though all those in the current, draft standard are 24 to 32 µS. If the receiving HS RT does not receive the start of the HS message within a specified (in the slash sheet) time, which should be sufficient for the duration of the HS control format and the initialization time of the transmitter, it is required to timeout.
According to the standard, HS messages comprise the following:
A preamble which is equivalent to a sequence of binary ones encoded with a method equivalent to Manchester II bi-phase encoding, and which "is primarily used by the receiving HS MIU [RT interface] to acquire signal level and synchronization by using a known pattern." This is needed because, as a shared media protocol, these signal levels and data transmission rates will vary slightly between transmitters. The number of bits in the preamble can be specific to the implementation, i.e. is selected by a system's designers.
A start delimiter (SD) which is 4 bit times long, but is formatted as a specific pattern that is an illegal Manchester II bi-phase signal, so that it may always be distinguished from the data.
A frame control (FC) field in 8 bits carrying a fixed value. This field exists for compatibility with other protocols using similar protocol data units (PDUs).
A physical address (PA) field in 8 bits carrying the RT address of the STANAG 3838 source RT.
A destination address (DA) in 16 bits, which may be subdivided into an RT address in 7 bits and subaddress in 8 bits or may contain a 15-bit logical address.
A word count (WC) in 16 bits that is required to contain the actual length of the information payload field (see below) of the message in words.
A frame information payload (info) field that may contain up to 4096 words, each of 16-bits. This info field is organized into blocks of 32 words, and the HS action word, rather than indicating the length of the message to be received or transmitted in words, specifies the number of blocks.
A frame check sequence (FCS) word, which "provides a check for errors in the message" and covers "the FC, PA, DA, WC, INFO, and the FCS fields."
The FC , PA, DA, WC, INFO, and the FCS fields are all required to be formatted as valid Manchester II bi-phase signals.
There are no explicit delimiters or separators between the fields of the PDU or the blocks or words in the info field, and all are required to be transmitted contiguously.
An end delimiter (ED) field, which is 4 bit times long and, like the SD field, is an illegal Manchester II bi-phase signal that may always be distinguished from the data.While the WC fields [sic] are required to contain the actual lengths of the following info fields in words, if the receiving RT implements a feature called "word count checking", then the length of the info field may be less than 32 times the block count value in the HS action word by up to 31 words. In effect, the last block of an HS message may vary in length from 1 to 32 words. If the receiving terminal does not implement word count checking then the length of the info field shall be the block count multiplied by 32. The standard does not indicate how the transmitting terminal is meant to know whether the receiving RT implements this feature or not; hence it may be assumed to be part of the system's design.
There are also, analogous to the 3838/1553B status words, HS status words. These are also 3838/1553B data words sent over the LS channel, from the HS subaddress to which the HS action words are sent. The status words are therefore, unlike with 3838/1553B statuses, not transmitted automatically by the RTs, and require the STANAG 3910 BC to cause their transmission over the LS channel from the same HS subaddress the action words are sent to.The HS subaddress, to which the HS action words are sent, and from which HS status words and HS ???? words are transmitted, is not specified by the standard, other than it "shall not be equal to 00000 or 11111 [binary] and shall not be used for any other function". It may then, be selected for the specific implementation, i.e. a value that is not otherwise in use.
It also is possible to have "normal" 3838/1553B transfers that take place over the LS channel alone, and which may use any of the other 3910/1553B subaddresses. These transfers may happen in parallel with the HS channel transfers or be in between them. It is, however, common practice not to use the LS channel other than for control of the HS, and for LS mode commands, etc., e.g. during BC handover.
The duration of an HS control format initiating an HS RT to HS RT transfer over the HS channel comprises a pair of 3838/1553B BC-RT transfers, including command words, data words (the HS action words themselves), LS status responses, LS RT response times, and an inter message gap (which is limited by, but is not necessarily the same as the 3838/1553B specified minimum intermessage gap of 4 μs). As a consequence, the duration of such a HS control format can be relatively long in comparison to the duration of the HS transfer that follows. This overhead is then compounded where the BC initiates an RT to BC transfer on the LS channel to, e.g., obtain the HS status word from the receiver. It is technically possible to begin the setup of the next HS transfer while the previous one is in progress, and thus achieve the minimum permitted HS interframe gap of 4 μs. However, it is common practice to wait for one HS transfer to end before beginning the LS channel transfers to set up the next, as predicting the timing of the end of a transmission is complicated by the possible variations in transmitter bit rates. Thus, while the theoretical throughput approaches 21 (20 + 1) Mbps, the actual throughput will be significantly less than 20 Mbps.
Developments
There is also an extended version of EFABus, known as EFABus Express (EfEx). This was designed for tranche 2 of the Eurofighter Typhoon to reduce the time needed to set up the HS transfers by allowing them to be set up over the HS channel. This version is fully compatible with MIL-STD-1553 / STANAG 3838 and the mixed EFABus (STANAG 3910).
Since the setup of HS transactions over an EfEx channel occurs between the HS transfers themselves, like the implementations of STANAG 3910 that wait for the preceding HS transfer to complete before initiating the next, the maximum bandwidth is necessarily less than 20 Mbps; though it is higher than that of this type of STANAG 3910 channel, because the HS control formats on the HS channel require less time than those on the LS channel. However, where a STANAG 3910 channel implementation performs the setup of an HS transfer in parallel with the preceding one, an implementation of STANAG 3910 could provide a very slightly higher throughput than an EfEX implementation, even allowing for the longest possible transmission of the HS message at the lowest possible data transmission rate. Also, assuming that the RTs met the requirements of the standard for a minimum 4 μs interframe gap time, this should have meant modifying only the BC to predict the end times of the HS messages, and initiate the HS control just before this; rather than modifying both the BC and multiple RTs to send and receive HS control formats on the HS channel.
Competing protocols
Another proposed development of MIL-STD-1553 is known as MIL-STD-1553E or E-1553. This uses technologies similar to those used in ADSL to transmit very much higher bandwidths, in multiple channels, over the same media as the existing data bus, but in such a way that they do not interfere with the operation of the normal 1553B data transfers or RTs that should not be involved in them. MIL-STD-1553E is, therefore, an attractive option for upgrading existing aircraft, etc., that use 1553B, because it should not involve any modification to the wiring or any RTs that are not required to take part in these high-speed transfers.
However, whilst there has been some research into its use, there do not appear to be any existing or impending implementations of it on production aircraft, either as new build or upgrades. This may be related to the susceptibility of these additional high-speed transmissions to the specific routeing of the 1553 bus cables, and the exact placement of the couplers, BC, and RTs on different aircraft of a fleet, which may make it difficult to specify, in advance of an upgrade, precisely what additional capacity might be provided.
The E-1553 standard by Edgewater Computer Systems was ratified as STANAG 7221 in 2015. In addition to 1553B, it also runs over coax, twisted pair, Power-Line Carrier, and existing ARINC 429 links. The data rate is 100 Mbps.
References
External links
AIM GmbH, Manufacturer of STANAG 3910 and Efex interface modules and analyzer products
D. R. Bracknell, INTRODUCTION TO THE MIL-STD-1553B SERIAL MULTIPLEX DATA BUS, Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnbourogh, 1988.
Birli & Stuedle, The Fiberoptic [sic] Databus for Avionic Applications According to Draft Stanag 3910, Fiber Optic Reprint Series, Vol. 14, Military Applications of Fiber Optics, Information Gatekeepers Inc., Brighton MA, 1994 ISBN 1-56851-063-2 | [
"Education"
] |
26,044,125 | Air Sweden | Air Sweden was an airline based in Stockholm, Sweden, which operated charter flights out of Stockholm-Arlanda Airport, and worldwide aircraft lease services. The company was founded as the successor of Nordic Airways and received its airline license in December 2009. The airline suspended all operation in September 2011. | Air Sweden was an airline based in Stockholm, Sweden, which operated charter flights out of Stockholm-Arlanda Airport, and worldwide aircraft lease services. The company was founded as the successor of Nordic Airways and received its airline license in December 2009. The airline suspended all operation in September 2011.
Fleet
See also
Airlines
Transport in Sweden
References
External links
Official website Media related to Air Sweden at Wikimedia Commons | [
"Business"
] |
14,838,591 | Yang Cheng-hsing | Yang Cheng-hsing (Chinese: 楊振興; pinyin: Yáng Zhènxīng; born 19 August 1973) is a former Taiwanese football player. He had been Chinese Taipei's first-choice goalkeeper for more than 10 years and sometimes been called the Taiwanese Chilavert. In his international career, he once scored a penalty, also his first goal for Chinese Taipei, in East Asian Cup 2003 qualifiers against Mongolia. It made him the first Taiwanese goalkeeper who had scored in international competitions. At club level, he had played for Taiwan Power Company F.C. | Yang Cheng-hsing (Chinese: 楊振興; pinyin: Yáng Zhènxīng; born 19 August 1973) is a former Taiwanese football player. He had been Chinese Taipei's first-choice goalkeeper for more than 10 years and sometimes been called the Taiwanese Chilavert. In his international career, he once scored a penalty, also his first goal for Chinese Taipei, in East Asian Cup 2003 qualifiers against Mongolia. It made him the first Taiwanese goalkeeper who had scored in international competitions. At club level, he had played for Taiwan Power Company F.C. He retired in 2004.
International goals
== References == | [
"Energy"
] |
48,975,083 | Kevin Marks | Kevin Marks is on the Advisory Council of the Open Rights Group, a UK-based Digital Rights campaigning organization and is an Open Web Advocate. He is one of the founders of Microformats. Marks was listed at #13 in The Daily Telegraph's 50 most influential Britons in Technology.Marks was Vice President of Web Services at BT. He became Principal Engineer for Technorati after working for both Apple and the BBC. At the TechCrunch event Realtime Stream Crunchup he announced that he would be joining BT to work together with JP Rangaswami. | Kevin Marks is on the Advisory Council of the Open Rights Group, a UK-based Digital Rights campaigning organization and is an Open Web Advocate. He is one of the founders of Microformats.
Marks was listed at #13 in The Daily Telegraph's 50 most influential Britons in Technology.Marks was Vice President of Web Services at BT. He became Principal Engineer for Technorati after working for both Apple and the BBC. At the TechCrunch event Realtime Stream Crunchup he announced that he would be joining BT to work together with JP Rangaswami. He worked at Salesforce.com from 2011 to 2013 as their VP of Open Cloud Standards.
At the first BloggerCon, Marks discussed the power curve as it applies to weblogs:
The net changes the power law of the media curve. If you look at relative popularity on the web, using something like Technorati, you get a power curve that goes all the way down gradually, to the bottom where you see pages that got just a single click. If you look at popularity in the "real" world — best-selling books, or top music — the power curve drops like a stone from a very high level. That's because in order to get a book published, or a piece of music recorded, you have to convince somebody that you're going to sell a million copies. You end up in a zero-sum game, where people pour enormous resources into being the number one, because number two is only half as good. The promise of the net is that the power of all those little links can outweigh the power of the top ten.
In 2003, Marks was an early experimenter with and contributor to the technologies that became popular under the names podcasting and iPodder in 2004.
At the 4 October 2003 BloggerCon, Marks demonstrated a program that downloaded RSS-enclosure audio files and transferred them to Apple's iTunes music player, which could then synchronize them onto an iPod. In his weblog post from the conference that day, Marks mentioned discussing the program with Adam Curry, who also blogged about their chat the next day.Kevin previously worked for Google as a Developer Advocate on OpenSocial.
Awards
2006 Best Blog Guide - Technorati - Web 2.0 Awards
2006 Best of Show - Technorati - SXSW Awards
2006 Best Technical Achievement - Technorati - SXSW Awards
2002 Primetime Emmy Engineering Award -Academy of Television Arts & Sciences for Final Cut Pro
1998 Best Paper presented at MacHack 'Personality & Code'
1997 Japanese Wildlife Television Festival Multimedia Award - Wide World of Animals
1997 DTi Information Society Creative Award - Matter Factory
1996 Wildscreen Multimedia Award - Wide World of Animals
1995 MacUser Award - Best Reference title - 3D Atlas
1995 EMMA award for Best Information and Reference - 3D Atlas
1995 EMMA award for Best Overall CD-ROM title - 3D Atlas
1995 BIMA Gold award for Best Reference title - 3D Atlas
1994 Prix Möbius International finalist - 3D Atlas
1993 BIMA European Gold award - Erd Sicht
References
External links
Marks' leaving GoogleTechCrunch
Marks' interview about OpenSocial The Guardian
Marks work on getting the Mpeg open standard into Apple software Computer Weekly
Adam Curry accepts Marks' involvement in the genesis of podcasting at archive.today (archived 2013-01-19) CNet
on Apple's iPod MarketWatch
on Apple's iTV Slate
on the European Directive, TV Without Frontiers BBC Radio 5 Live
on internet radio The Guardian
on video codecs at archive.today (archived 2013-01-19) CNet
on blog statistics at archive.today (archived 2013-01-19) CNet
on tagging at archive.today (archived 2013-01-19) CNet
Marks' move to Google TechCrunch | [
"Technology"
] |
57,242,304 | M Jackson | Jerilynn "M" Jackson is an American geographer, glaciologist, and National Geographic Society Explorer. She is the author of the popular science books The Secret Lives of Glaciers and While Glaciers Slept: Being Human in a Time of Climate Change. M Jackson is a 2018 TED Fellow. | Jerilynn "M" Jackson is an American geographer, glaciologist, and National Geographic Society Explorer. She is the author of the popular science books The Secret Lives of Glaciers and While Glaciers Slept: Being Human in a Time of Climate Change. M Jackson is a 2018 TED Fellow.
Early life and education
Jackson completed her undergraduate studies at Western Washington University. Jackson then attended the University of Montana, which she graduated in 2011 with a Master of Science degree. She attended the University of Oregon, where she earned a doctorate in geography and glaciology. She worked in The Glacier Lab under the supervision of Mark Carey. Together they proposed a feminist glaciology framework for global environmental change. They proposed the study to provoke discussion about the people who are researching glaciers, and whose voices are left out. She completed her thesis, "Tangled Up in Blue: Narratives of Glacier Change in Southeast Iceland", in 2017.Jackson is a three-time U.S. Fulbright Fellow, completing research fellowships in Turkey and Iceland. On her second Fulbright-funded project, she worked in Höfn, Iceland, looking at how climate change affected glacier communities. During her PhD she became a National Geographic Explorer. She has served in the Peace Corps in Zambia.
Career
Jackson has given several TED talks, but is best known for her 2017 TED talk "Glaciers, Gender and Science". Jackson has spoken often on the harassment she received as a female scientist. Jackson is an Arctic expert and Emerging Explorer for the National Geographic Society. She has led expeditions across the Arctic. She regularly visits glaciers around the world.She is currently working on InTangible Ice, a multi-year project that studies the impacts of the socio-physical dimensions of glacier retreat. The project partners with the National Geographic Explorers, filmmakers and scientists. In 2018 Jackson was announced as a TED Fellow for her work highlighting how people and glaciers interact. In December 2022, Jackson began hosting a 12-episode series on Crash Course on the topic of climate change and energy production.
While Glaciers Slept
Jackson's first book, While Glaciers Slept, was published by Green Writer's Press in June 2015. It explores the parallels between the destruction of the planet as a result of climate change and a family facing the loss of parents. The book combines personal science with exploration, and was well received by critics. The book's foreword is by Bill McKibben. She has given several talks about this book and her exploration work.
The Secret Lives of Glaciers
In 2019, Green Writer's Press published Jackson's second book, The Secret Lives of Glaciers. The book explores what happens when a community's glaciers slowly disappear. Jackson unfolds complex stories of people and glaciers along the southeastern coast of Iceland, exploring the history of glacier science and the world's first glacier monitoring program, the power glaciers enact on local society, perceptions by some in the community that glaciers are alive, and the conflicting and intertwined consequences of rapid glacier change on the cultural fabric of the region. The book has been well received by critics.
The Ice Sings Back
Published in 2023, a novel set in the Cascade Range of Oregon, that follows the impact of a missing girl on the lives of four women. It has been described as an eco-thriller.
== References == | [
"Academic_disciplines"
] |
46,666,977 | Department of Computer Science, University of Bristol | The Department of Computer Science of the University of Bristol, is the computer science department of the University of Bristol and is based in the Merchant Venturers building on Woodland Road, close to Bristol city centre. As of 2021 the department is home to 145 academic staff, researchers, and PhD students. | The Department of Computer Science of the University of Bristol, is the computer science department of the University of Bristol and is based in the Merchant Venturers building on Woodland Road, close to Bristol city centre. As of 2021 the department is home to 145 academic staff, researchers, and PhD students.
Research
Research in the department is organised around 10 research groups, which focus on cryptography, algorithms, Human–computer interaction (HCI), computer vision, artificial intelligence (AI), verification, computational neuroscience, cybersecurity, robotics, high-performance computing, and programming languages.
History
The Department of Computer Science was formally established around 1984. Its heads of department include
Professor Mike Rogers (1984-1995)
Professor David May (1995-2006)
Professor Nigel Smart (2006-2008)
Professor Nishan Canagarajah (2008- ?)
Dr Neill Campbell (?-2011)
Dr Ian Holyer (2011-?)
Professor Andrew Calway (?-2016)
Professor Seth Bullock (2016-2020)
Professor Christian Allen (2020-2021)
Dr. Aisling O'Kane (2021-)
Notable faculty members
As of 2021 the department employs fourteen Professors, shown below:
Professor Awais Rashid
Professor Dave Cliff
Professor Peter Flach
Professor Majid Mirmehdi
Professor Seth Bullock
Professor Kerstin Eder
Professor Walterio Mayol-Cuevas
Professor Simon McIntosh-Smith
Professor Andrew Calway
Professor Kirsten Cater
Professor Ian Nabney
Professor Chris Preist
Professor Bogdan Warinschi
Professor Dima Damen
== References == | [
"Technology"
] |
6,120,382 | Ryakuō | Ryakuō (暦応) was a Japanese era of the Northern Court during the Era of Northern and Southern Courts, lasting from August 1338 to April 1342. The emperor in Kyoto was Emperor Kōmyō (光明天皇, Kōmyō-tennō). Go-Kōgon's Southern Court rival in Yoshino during this time-frame was Emperor Go-Murakami (後村上天皇, Go-Murakami-tennō). | Ryakuō (暦応) was a Japanese era of the Northern Court during the Era of Northern and Southern Courts, lasting from August 1338 to April 1342. The emperor in Kyoto was Emperor Kōmyō (光明天皇, Kōmyō-tennō). Go-Kōgon's Southern Court rival in Yoshino during this time-frame was Emperor Go-Murakami (後村上天皇, Go-Murakami-tennō).
Nanboku-chō overview
During the Meiji period, an Imperial decree dated March 3, 1911 established that the legitimate reigning monarchs of this period were the direct descendants of Emperor Go-Daigo through Emperor Go-Murakami, whose Southern Court (南朝, nanchō) had been established in exile in Yoshino, near Nara.Until the end of the Edo period, the militarily superior pretender-Emperors supported by the Ashikaga shogunate had been mistakenly incorporated in Imperial chronologies despite the undisputed fact that the Imperial Regalia were not in their possession.This illegitimate Northern Court (北朝, hokuchō) had been established in Kyoto by Ashikaga Takauji.
Change of era
1338 Ryakuō gannen (暦応元年): The era name was changed to Ryakuō to mark an event or a number of events. The previous era ended and a new one commenced in Kenmu 5.
Events of the Ryakuō Era
1340 (Ryakuō 3): Observations of the "broom star" (comet) are recorded.
Southern Court Equivalents
Engen
Notes
References
Nussbaum, Louis Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan Encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5; OCLC 48943301
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691
External links
National Diet Library, "The Japanese Calendar" – historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection | [
"Time"
] |
40,194,846 | Operation Bloodstone | Operation Bloodstone was a covert operation whereby the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) sought out Nazis and collaborators living in Soviet-controlled areas, to work undercover for U.S. intelligence inside the Soviet Union, Latin America, and Canada, as well as domestically within the United States. Many of those who were hired as part of Bloodstone were high-ranking Nazi intelligence agents who had committed war crimes. | Operation Bloodstone was a covert operation whereby the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) sought out Nazis and collaborators living in Soviet-controlled areas, to work undercover for U.S. intelligence inside the Soviet Union, Latin America, and Canada, as well as domestically within the United States. Many of those who were hired as part of Bloodstone were high-ranking Nazi intelligence agents who had committed war crimes.
History
Operation Bloodstone was initially proposed by the U.S. State Department, and was approved by SANACC (the State, Army, Navy, Air Force Coordinating Committee) on June 10, 1948. In the initial stages of the operation, a brief paper identified these anti-Communist elements in non-Western hemisphere countries outside the Soviet orbit who "have shown extreme fortitude in the face of the Communist menace" and have "demonstrated the know-how to counter Communist propaganda and techniques to obtain control of mass movements." Operation Bloodstone sought to tap these individuals who were "immobilized" due to lack of funds and a coordinated international movement. In July, SANACC expanded the operation to:
comprise those activities against the enemy which are conducted by Allied or friendly forces behind enemy lines ... [to] include psychological warfare, subversion, sabotage, and miscellaneous operations such as assassination, target capture and rescue of Allied airmen.By 1976, Operation Bloodstone was no longer a closely guarded secret, but an investigation revealed that two other highly classified programs were connected to it: Operation Paperclip and Alsos Mission.
See also
Klaus Barbie
Operation Paperclip
Operation Rusty
Operation Sunrise (World War II)
Ratlines (World War II)
U.S. intelligence involvement with German and Japanese war criminals after World War II
== References == | [
"Law"
] |
8,318,966 | Alan Campbell, Baron Campbell of Alloway | Alan Robertson Campbell, Baron Campbell of Alloway ERD QC (24 May 1917 – 30 June 2013) was a British judge, barrister and author who sat in the House of Lords as a life peer. The son of John Kenneth Campbell and Juliet Pinner, he was educated at Aldenham School, Hertfordshire and Ecole des Sciences Politiques in Paris in 1934. He was further educated at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he graduated with Bachelor of Arts in economics and law in 1938, and with a Master of Arts. From 1939 to 1940, Campbell served in the Royal Artillery Supplementary Reserve, British Expeditionary Force, reaching the rank of Second Lieutenant, and was a Prisoner of War in Colditz Castle from 1940 to 1945. He received the Emergency Reserve Decoration (ERD) in 1996. | Alan Robertson Campbell, Baron Campbell of Alloway ERD QC (24 May 1917 – 30 June 2013) was a British judge, barrister and author who sat in the House of Lords as a life peer.
The son of John Kenneth Campbell and Juliet Pinner, he was educated at Aldenham School, Hertfordshire and Ecole des Sciences Politiques in Paris in 1934. He was further educated at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he graduated with Bachelor of Arts in economics and law in 1938, and with a Master of Arts. From 1939 to 1940, Campbell served in the Royal Artillery Supplementary Reserve, British Expeditionary Force, reaching the rank of Second Lieutenant, and was a Prisoner of War in Colditz Castle from 1940 to 1945. He received the Emergency Reserve Decoration (ERD) in 1996.
Called to the Bar by the Inner Temple in 1939, he was made a Queen's Counsel in 1965 and a Bencher in 1972. In 1975 Campbell became a member of the Management Committee of the United Kingdom Association for European Law, and in 1976 he was appointed Recorder of the Crown Court, holding both posts until 1989. From 1974 to 1979 he was a member of the Law Advisory Panel of British Council, from 1988 to 1991 he was vice-president of the Association des Juristes Franco-Britanniques and from 1978 to 2004 President of the Colditz Association. On 2 June 1981, he was created a life peer with the title Baron Campbell of Alloway, of Ayr in the District of Kyle and Carrick. He sat as a Conservative and was a member of the Scottish Peers' Association.
In 1947 Campbell married Diana Watson-Smyth. Divorced in 1953, he married secondly Vivien de Kantzow (died 27 December 2010) in 1957. He married for the third time at the age of 94 on 1 September 2011, in the Chapel of the Royal Hospital Chelsea, Dorothea Berwick, daughter of the late Colonel Edward and Lady Elizabeth Berwick. He had one daughter, the Hon. Sarah C. Campbell (b. 1950), by his first wife.
Following the death of Edward Short, Baron Glenamara in May 2012, Campbell became the oldest sitting member of the House of Lords.
Works
Restrictive Trade Practices and Monopolies (1956)
Restrictive Trading Agreements in the Common Market (1964)
Industrial Relations Act (1971)
EC Competitions Law (1980)
Trade Unions and the Individual (1980)Case-Book, Sentence of Death (2008)
References
"DodOnline". Archived from the original on 16 December 2006. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
"thePeerage". Archived from the original on 17 December 2006. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
Obituary. Daily Telegraph
External links
Profile at the Parliament of the United Kingdom
Contributions in Parliament at Hansard 1803–2005
Current session contributions in Parliament at Hansard
Voting record at PublicWhip.org
Record in Parliament at TheyWorkForYou.com
Profile at Westminster Parliamentary Record
Profile at BBC News Democracy Live | [
"Government"
] |
8,390,502 | Northland Utilities | Northland Utilities Ltd. is a Canadian investor-owned electric utility that distributes electricity to customers in the Northwest Territories through two operating subsidiaries. The company is a joint venture between ATCO Electric and Denendeh Investments, with both owners holding 50 percent. | Northland Utilities Ltd. is a Canadian investor-owned electric utility that distributes electricity to customers in the Northwest Territories through two operating subsidiaries. The company is a joint venture between ATCO Electric and Denendeh Investments, with both owners holding 50 percent.
Northland Utilities (Yellowknife) Limited
Northland Utilities (Yellowknife) Limited, was established in 1993, and serves Yellowknife and N'Dilo. This company purchases electricity from Northwest Territories Power Corporation's Snare Lake dam. Northland purchased Centra Power Inc. in 1991, obtaining Centra's franchise agreement with the City of Yellowknife.
Northland Utilities (NWT) Limited
Northland Utilities (NWT) Limited was established in 1951 in Hay River. It provides electricity now to Hay River, Trout Lake, Kakisa, Dory Point, Fort Providence, Wekweti, Enterprise and to the Katl'odeeche First Nation. It buys power from the Taltson hydro system of Northwest Territories Power Corporation, and maintains a backup diesel generator in Hay River. In the small remote communities, Northland generates its own power for distribution.
See also
List of Canadian electric utilities
References
External links
Official website | [
"Energy"
] |
2,660,890 | Health geography | Health geography is the application of geographical information, perspectives, and methods to the study of health, disease, and health care. Medical geography, a sub-discipline of or sister field of health geography, focuses on understanding spatial patterns of health and disease as related to the natural and social environment. Conventionally, there are two primary areas of research within medical geography: the first deals with the spatial distribution and determinants of morbidity and mortality, while the second deals with health planning, help-seeking behavior, and the provision of health services. | Health geography is the application of geographical information, perspectives, and methods to the study of health, disease, and health care. Medical geography, a sub-discipline of or sister field of health geography, focuses on understanding spatial patterns of health and disease as related to the natural and social environment. Conventionally, there are two primary areas of research within medical geography: the first deals with the spatial distribution and determinants of morbidity and mortality, while the second deals with health planning, help-seeking behavior, and the provision of health services.
Overview
Medical geography
The first area of study within medical geography has been described as geographical epidemiology or disease geography and is focused on the spatial patterns and processes of health and disease outcomes. This area of inquiry can be differentiated from the closely related discipline of epidemiology in that it uses concepts and methods from geography, allowing an ecologic perspective on health that considers how interactions between humans and the environment result in observed health outcomes. The second area of study focused on the planning and provision of health services, often with a focus on the spatial organization of health systems and exploration of how this arrangement affects accessibility of care.
Health geography
The study of health geography has been influenced by repositioning medical geography within the field of social geography due to a shift towards a social model in health care, rather than a medical model. This advocates for the redefinition of health and health care away from prevention and treatment of illness only to one of promoting well-being in general. Under this model, some previous illnesses (e.g., mental ill health) are recognized as behavior disturbances only, and other types of medicine (e.g., complementary or alternative medicine and traditional medicine) are studied by the medicine researchers, sometimes with the aid of health geographers without medical education. This shift changes the definition of care, no longer limiting it to spaces such as hospitals or doctor's offices. Also, the social model gives priority to the intimate encounters performed at non-traditional spaces of medicine and healthcare as well as to the individuals as health consumers.This alternative methodological approach means that medical geography is broadened to incorporate philosophies such as Marxian political economy, structuralism, social interactionism, humanism, feminism and queer theory.
History
Relationships between place and health have long been recognized throughout human history, predating modern health delivery systems and providing insights into the transmission of infectious agents, well before the germ theory paradigm shift in the late 1800s. Throughout history there have been many examples of place and location playing major roles in shaping perceptions of health and risk. The associations between geographical characteristics and health outcomes, which essentially form the foundation of modern medical geography, were recognized more than 2,000 years ago by Hippocrates in his treatise ’’On Airs, Waters, and Places’’ (ca. 400 BC).
The industrial revolution in the 1700s brought with it a plethora of novel public health issues stemming from rapid urban development and poor sanitation, conditions which fueled the development of disease mapping, or medical cartography. A precursor to medical geography, medical cartography arose from the need to communicate spatial discrepancies in risk for diseases of unknown cause, particularly urban outbreaks of cholera and yellow fever. One of the most prominent figures in both epidemiology and medical geography is John Snow, the physician who correctly identified the source of exposure during the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak. Snow's famous 1854 map of the cholera outbreak graphically demonstrates that cases were clustered around the Broad Street pump, the source of contaminated water that fueled the epidemic. This map led Snow to identify the contaminated pump and conclude that cholera was a waterborne illness, a remarkable feat given that bacteria were unknown to science at the time. While Snow's contributions to medical geography and epidemiology are irrefutable, the role of the map in this particular investigation is somewhat overstated. Dot maps of cases produced during the industrial period were powerful tools in communicating the findings of traditional epidemiological measures of association, but their role as analytic tools were restricted due to technological limitations.Modern medical geography arose in the United States in the 1950s with the pioneering work of Jacques May, who worked as a surgeon in Thailand and Vietnam and noticed differences between the health experiences of his patients in these locations and in Europe. Although the notion that the environment could influence human health has been understood since Hippocrates, medical geography as envisioned by May built on this idea, describing medical geography as working to understand the nature of the relationships between pathogen transmission and geographical factors. May soon began mapping global distributions of disease and exploring the cultural and environmental factors that influenced these distributions.
Areas of study
Health geography is considered to be divided into two distinct elements. The first of which is focused on geographies of disease and ill health, involving descriptive research quantifying disease frequencies and distributions, and analytic research concerned with finding what characteristics make an individual or population susceptible to disease. This requires an understanding of epidemiology. The second component of health geography is the geography of health care, primarily facility location, accessibility, and utilization. This requires the use of spatial analysis and often borrows from behavioral economics.
Geographies of disease and ill health
Health geographers are concerned with the prevalence of different diseases along a range of spatial scales from a local to global view, and inspects the natural world, in all of its complexity, for correlations between diseases and locations. This situates health geography alongside other geographical sub-disciplines that trace human-environment relations. Health geographers use modern spatial analysis tools to map the dispersion of health, including various diseases, as individuals spread them amongst themselves, and across wider spaces as they migrate. Health geographers also consider all types of spaces as presenting health risks, from natural disasters, to interpersonal violence, stress, and other potential dangers.
Geography of health care provision
Although healthcare is a public good, it is not equally available to all individuals. Demand for public services is continuously increasing. People need advance knowledge and the latest prediction technology, that health geography offers. The latest example of such technology is Telemedicine. Many people in the United States are not able to access proper healthcare because of inequality in health insurance and the means to afford medical care.Mobility and Disease Tracking:
With the advent of mobile technology and its spread, it is now possible to track individual mobility. By correlating the movement of individuals through tracking the devices using access towers or other tracking systems, it is now possible to determine and even control disease spread. While privacy laws question the legality of tracking individuals, the commercial mobile service providers are using covert techniques or obtaining government waivers to allow permission to track people.
Methods
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are used extensively in medical geography to visualize and analyze georeferenced health-related data. These spatial data can be vector (point, line, or polygon) or raster (continuous grid) format and are often presented in quantitative thematic maps. Disease outcomes and sociodemographic characteristics collected through surveillance systems and population censuses are frequently used as data sources in medical geography studies. In disease ecology studies, interpolated climate data, gridded land surveys, and remote sensing imagery are examples of data used to quantify the environmental characteristics of disease systems. Spatial statistics or analysis are applied to test hypotheses regarding patterns or relationships within these data, such as the property of spatial dependency (spatially closer entities are more similar or related than spatially distant entities) or spatial heterogeneity (locations are unique relative to other locations). Some examples of the spatial analyses used in medical geography include point pattern analysis, tests for spatial autocorrelation, geographically weighted regression (GWR), ecological niche modeling, spatial scan statistics, and network analysis.
Health geographers
Notable health geographers include:
Sarah Curtis
William C. Gorgas
Kelvyn Jones
John Snow
Mei-Po Kwan
Nadine Schuurman
See also
Cluster (epidemiology)
Social model of disability
Spatial epidemiology
Tobler's first law of geography
Tobler's second law of geography
References
External links
Social and Spatial Inequalities
GeoHealth Laboratory Archived 2017-12-06 at the Wayback Machine | [
"Geography",
"Health"
] |
1,147,272 | FrontPage Magazine | FrontPage Magazine, also known as FrontPageMag.com, is an American political website edited by David Horowitz and published by the David Horowitz Freedom Center. It has been described by scholars and writers as right-wing, far-right, and Islamophobic. | FrontPage Magazine, also known as FrontPageMag.com, is an American political website edited by David Horowitz and published by the David Horowitz Freedom Center. It has been described by scholars and writers as right-wing, far-right, and Islamophobic.
History
FrontPage Magazine is a conservative journal of news and political commentary originally published under the auspices of the Center for the Study of Popular Culture, later called the David Horowitz Freedom Center.Contributors have included David Horowitz (editor in chief), Christine Williams (associate editor), Paul Gottfried, John Derbyshire, Ann Coulter, Mustafa Akyol, Robert Spencer, Bruce Thornton, Raymond Ibrahim, Thom Nickels, Kenneth Timmerman, and Stephen Miller.
Content
FrontPage Magazine has published commentary advancing the Eurabia conspiracy theory, and has been described as part of the counter-jihad movement. The website is edited by Jamie Glazov, considered a "key figure in the transnational counterjihad movement", who also hosts the online TV show The Glazov Gang which "regularly broadcasts interviews with key counterjihad figures".The website has been described by scholars and writers as right-wing, far-right, Islamophobic, and anti-Islam.
== References == | [
"Internet"
] |
3,283,948 | Nintendo Magazine System (Australia) | Nintendo Magazine System was the official Nintendo magazine of Australia. In publication for seven years until 2000, the magazine was a branch of Official Nintendo Magazine, the UK's official Nintendo magazine, which was also called Nintendo Magazine System at the time. On 12 November 2008 a new official Australian Nintendo magazine was announced.The Australian version of NMS was originally published by Trielle Corporation as a 68-page magazine. The first issue appeared in April 1993, and featured Super Mario Land 2 on the cover. It was Australia's official Nintendo magazine, and was very critical to poorly made video game software, with scores for such games often in the low thirties. | Nintendo Magazine System was the official Nintendo magazine of Australia. In publication for seven years until 2000, the magazine was a branch of Official Nintendo Magazine, the UK's official Nintendo magazine, which was also called Nintendo Magazine System at the time. On 12 November 2008 a new official Australian Nintendo magazine was announced.The Australian version of NMS was originally published by Trielle Corporation as a 68-page magazine. The first issue appeared in April 1993, and featured Super Mario Land 2 on the cover. It was Australia's official Nintendo magazine, and was very critical to poorly made video game software, with scores for such games often in the low thirties. The magazine often included news and articles not relating to Nintendo products, from information on the idea of virtual reality, to the highest selling coin-operated arcade games at the time.
Starting with Issue 34 in January 1996, Catalyst Publishing took control of the magazine, but retained the issue numbering. The last issue of Nintendo Magazine System was Issue 89, the August 2000 issue.
See also
Nintendo Power
Nintendo Official Magazine
References
External links
Nintendo Magazine System - Retro Gaming Australia
Archived Nintendo Magazine System on the Internet Archive | [
"Technology"
] |
23,346,188 | Thoma Çami | Thoma Çami was a Cham Albanian leader living in the Ottoman Empire and one of the main contributors to the revival of Albanian culture during the National Renaissance of Albania. He was a founder and the first chairman of the organization "Bashkimi", the best-known cultural club of the Albanian National Awakening. He also wrote the first scholarly history book for Albanian schools, but died before the Albanian declaration of independence. | Thoma Çami was a Cham Albanian leader living in the Ottoman Empire and one of the main contributors to the revival of Albanian culture during the National Renaissance of Albania. He was a founder and the first chairman of the organization "Bashkimi", the best-known cultural club of the Albanian National Awakening. He also wrote the first scholarly history book for Albanian schools, but died before the Albanian declaration of independence.
References
Anamali, Skënder and Prifti, Kristaq. Historia e popullit shqiptar në katër vëllime. Botimet Toena, 2002, ISBN 99927-1-622-3. | [
"Language"
] |
57,188,240 | Joyita Mondal | Joyita Mondal is the first Bengali trans woman who was a member of a judicial panel of a civil court and a social worker from West Bengal, India. | Joyita Mondal is the first Bengali trans woman who was a member of a judicial panel of a civil court and a social worker from West Bengal, India.
Early life
Mondal comes from a traditional Hindu household and suffered a lot of discrimination in her childhood because of her gender identity. She dropped out of school after class 10th. After, she slept at bus stands and begged on streets.She moved to Islampur in Uttar Dinajpur district and worked for the upliftment of the transgender community. Simultaneously, she also completed her studies through correspondence and got a degree in law. In 2010, she was the first trans person from her district to get a voter ID.Mondal also started her own organisation, Dinajpur Notun Alo (Dinajpur New Light), that is currently reaching out to and helping thousands of people in her district.
Career
Mondal is a member of the transgender community of West Bengal and works for the welfare and development of the community. In 2015, Mondal was involved with others in setting up a home for older people who were HIV positive and forming patients' welfare committees.On July 8, 2017, 29-year old Mondal became the first transgender judge of a Lok Adalat from West Bengal, India. She attended office as judge of a Lok Adalat at Islampur in the North Dinajpur, where some of her first cases involved the recovery of loans made by banks.
== References == | [
"Concepts"
] |
602,032 | Pierre Janssen | Pierre Jules César Janssen (22 February 1824 – 23 December 1907), usually known as Jules Janssen, was a French astronomer who, along with English scientist Joseph Norman Lockyer, is credited with discovering the gaseous nature of the solar chromosphere, and with some justification the element helium. | Pierre Jules César Janssen (22 February 1824 – 23 December 1907), usually known as Jules Janssen, was a French astronomer who, along with English scientist Joseph Norman Lockyer, is credited with discovering the gaseous nature of the solar chromosphere, and with some justification the element helium.
Life, work, and interests
Janssen was born in Paris (During Bourbon Restoration in France) into a cultivated family. His father, Antoine César Janssen (born in Paris, 1780 – 1860) was a well known clarinettist from Dutch/Belgian descent (his father emigrated from Walloon Brabant to Paris). His mother Pauline Marie Le Moyne (1789 – 1871) was a daughter of the architect Paul Guillaume Le Moyne.Pierre Janssen studied mathematics and physics at the faculty of sciences. He taught at the Lycée Charlemagne in 1853, and in the school of architecture 1865 – 1871, but his energies were mainly devoted to various scientific missions entrusted to him. Thus in 1857 he went to Peru in order to determine the magnetic equator; in 1861–1862 and 1864, he studied telluric absorption in the solar spectrum in Italy and Switzerland; in 1867 he carried out optical and magnetic experiments at the Azores; he successfully observed both transits of Venus, that of 1874 in Japan, that of 1882 at Oran in Algeria; and he took part in a long series of solar eclipse-expeditions, e.g. to Trani,Italy (1867), Guntur,India (1868), Algiers (1870), Siam (1875), the Caroline Islands (1883), and to Alcossebre in Spain (1905). To see the eclipse of 1870, he escaped from the Siege of Paris in a balloon. Unfortunately the eclipse was obscured from him by cloud.In the year 1874, Janssen invented the Revolver of Janssen or Photographic Revolver, instrument that originated the chronophotography. Later this invention was of great use for researchers like Etienne Jules Marey to carry out exhibitions and inventions.
Discovery of helium
In 1868 Janssen discovered how to observe solar prominences without an eclipse. While observing the solar eclipse of 18 August 1868, at Guntur, Madras State (now in Andhra Pradesh), British India, he noticed bright lines in the spectrum of the chromosphere, showing that the chromosphere is gaseous. Present in the spectrum of the Sun, though not immediately noticed or commented upon, was a bright yellow line later measured to have a wavelength of 587.49 nm. This was the first observation of this particular spectral line, and one possible source for it was an element not yet discovered on the earth. From the brightness of the spectral lines, Janssen realized that the chromospheric spectrum could be observed even without an eclipse, and he proceeded to do so.On 20 October, Joseph Norman Lockyer in England set up a new, relatively powerful spectroscope. He also observed the emission spectrum of the chromosphere, including the same yellow line. Within a few years, he worked with a chemist and they concluded that it could be caused by an unknown element, after unsuccessfully testing to see if it were some new type of hydrogen. This was the first time a chemical element was discovered on an extraterrestrial body before being found on the earth. Lockyer and the English chemist Edward Frankland named the element after the Greek word for the Sun, ἥλιος (helios).
Observatories
At the great Indian eclipse of 1868 that occurred in Guntur, Janssen also demonstrated the gaseous nature of the red prominences, and devised a method of observing them under ordinary daylight conditions. One main purpose of his spectroscopic inquiries was to answer the question whether the Sun contains oxygen or not. An indispensable preliminary was the virtual elimination of oxygen-absorption in the Earth's atmosphere, and his bold project of establishing an observatory on the top of Mont Blanc was prompted by a perception of the advantages to be gained by reducing the thickness of air through which observations have to be made. This observatory, the foundations of which were fixed in the hard ice that appeared to cover the summit to a depth of over ten metres, was built in September 1893, and Janssen, in spite of his sixty-nine years, made the ascent and spent four days making observations.In 1875, Janssen was appointed director of the new astrophysical observatory established by the French government at Meudon, and set on foot there in 1876 the remarkable series of solar photographs collected in his great Atlas de photographies solaires (1904). The first volume of the Annales de l'observatoire de Meudon was published by him in 1896. (see also Meudon Great Refractor)
Janssen was the President of the Société Astronomique de France (SAF), the French astronomical society, from 1895 to 1897.
International Meridian Conference
In 1884 he took part in the International Meridian Conference.
Death, honors, and legacy
Janssen died at Meudon on 23 December 1907 and was buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, with the name "J. Janssen" inscribed on his tomb. During his life he was made a Knight of the Legion of Honor and a Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London.Craters on both Mars and the Moon are named in his honor. The public square in front of Meudon Observatory is named Place Jules Janssen after him. Two major prizes carry his name: the Prix Jules Janssen of the French Astronomical Society, and the Janssen Medal of the French Academy of Sciences.Janssen named minor planet 225 Henrietta discovered by Johann Palisa, after his wife, Henrietta.
Notes and references
Further reading
"Pierre Jules Cesar Janssen". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 68 (4): 245–249. 1908. Bibcode:1908MNRAS..68..245.. doi:10.1093/mnras/68.4.245.
Obituary, from Popular Astronomy, 1908, vol. 16, pp. 72–74
Obituary, from Astronomische Nachrichten, 1908, vol. 177, p. 63 (in French)
Obituary, from The Astrophysical Journal, 1908, vol. 28, pp. 89–99 (in French)
Janssen statue, description and black-and-white picture from The Observatory, 1922, vol. 45, pp. 175–176
Brief biography, from the High Altitude Observatory at Boulder, Colorado
Pierre Janssen at Who's Who of Victorian Cinema
Launay, Françoise (2012). The Astronomer Jules Janssen: A Globetrotter of Celestial Physics. Springer.
Launay, Françoise (2008). Un Globe-Trotter de la Physique Céleste: L'astronome Jules Janssen. Vuibert.
Nath, B. B. (2012). The Discovery of Helium and the Birth of Astrophysics. Springer. | [
"Concepts"
] |
55,472,157 | Siv Mossleth | Siv Mossleth (born 4 April 1967) is a Norwegian politician. She was elected representative to the Storting for the period 2017–2021 for the Centre Party, from the constituency of Nordland. She was re-elected to the Storting for the period 2021–2025.Mossleth is an agronomist by education. == References == | Siv Mossleth (born 4 April 1967) is a Norwegian politician. She was elected representative to the Storting for the period 2017–2021 for the Centre Party, from the constituency of Nordland. She was re-elected to the Storting for the period 2021–2025.Mossleth is an agronomist by education.
== References == | [
"Information"
] |
68,169,025 | Institutionalization of politics | The institutionalization of politics (also spelled as institutionalisation of politics; Chinese: 政治制度化), commonly known as political institutionalization or political institutionalisation, refers to the founding, arrangement, and codification of the states' various institutions, generally via constitution-making or some other constitutional mechanisms. It is the process by which political structures and practices take root. | The institutionalization of politics (also spelled as institutionalisation of politics; Chinese: 政治制度化), commonly known as political institutionalization or political institutionalisation, refers to the founding, arrangement, and codification of the states' various institutions, generally via constitution-making or some other constitutional mechanisms. It is the process by which political structures and practices take root.
Definition
Political institutionalization means that political initiatives have been increasingly constrained by both formal and informal rules or norms. And through the process of political institutionalization, the state-society nexus has been enhanced.Samuel Huntington defines political institutionalization as "the process by which organizations and procedures acquire value and stability", and regards it as equivalent to political development.
== References == | [
"Politics"
] |
73,657,021 | Meitei proverbs | Proverbs (Meitei: Paorou, lit. 'information‑to take') in Meitei language (officially called Manipuri language) are usually short, well-known terse and vigorously expressive sayings, stating general truths as well as advices. | Proverbs (Meitei: Paorou, lit. 'information‑to take') in Meitei language (officially called Manipuri language) are usually short, well-known terse and vigorously expressive sayings, stating general truths as well as advices.
List
See also
Meitei language day
Meitei language festival
Meitei language movement
Meitei poetry day
List of Meitei folktales
List of Meitei-language films
List of Meitei-language newspapers
List of Meitei-language television channels
Bibliography
"Morphosemantic Attributes of Meetei Proverbs". Advances in Language and Literary Studies. 6 (3). 2015. ISSN 2203-4714.
Birjita Devi, Loitongbam (2007). Manipuri Paorou Neinaba (in Manipuri). India: Dr. Ningthoujam Bino Singh, Palace Compound, Imphal; Digital Library of India.
Amuba Singh, Sanoujam (1985). Ahal Lamangee Paorou Praman Panthei Part. 1 (in Manipuri). India: Digital Library of India.
Amuba Singh, Sanoujam (1986). Ahal Laman Paorou Part. 2 (in Manipuri). India: Binodini Devi; Digital Library of India.
Singh, Sanoujam Amuba (1987). Ahal Laman Paorou Praman Panthei Ahumsuba Saruk (in Manipuri). India: Binodini Devi; Digital Library of India.
References
External links
Meitei proverbs at e-pao.net | [
"Society",
"Culture"
] |
437,323 | The Two Noble Kinsmen | The Two Noble Kinsmen is a Jacobean tragicomedy, first published in 1634 and attributed jointly to John Fletcher and William Shakespeare. Its plot derives from "The Knight's Tale" in Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, which had already been dramatised at least twice before. This play is believed to have been William Shakespeare's final play before he retired to Stratford-upon-Avon and died three years later. Formerly a point of controversy, the dual attribution is now generally accepted by scholarly consensus. | The Two Noble Kinsmen is a Jacobean tragicomedy, first published in 1634 and attributed jointly to John Fletcher and William Shakespeare. Its plot derives from "The Knight's Tale" in Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, which had already been dramatised at least twice before. This play is believed to have been William Shakespeare's final play before he retired to Stratford-upon-Avon and died three years later.
Formerly a point of controversy, the dual attribution is now generally accepted by scholarly consensus.
Characters
Synopsis
A prologue informs the audience that the play is based on a story from Chaucer.
Three queens come to plead with Theseus and Hippolyta, rulers of Athens, to avenge the deaths of their husbands by the hand of the tyrant Creon of Thebes. Creon has killed the three kings and refuses to allow them proper burial. Theseus agrees to wage war on Creon.
In Thebes, Palamon and Arcite, cousins and close friends, are bound by duty to fight for Creon, though they are appalled by his tyranny. In a hard-fought battle Palamon and Arcite enact prodigies of courage, but the Thebans are defeated by Theseus. Palamon and Arcite are imprisoned but philosophically resign themselves to their fate. Their stoicism is instantly destroyed when from their prison window they see Princess Emilia, Hippolyta's sister. Both fall in love with her, and their friendship turns to bitter rivalry. Arcite is released after a relative intercedes on his behalf. He is banished from Athens, but he disguises himself, wins a local wrestling match, and is appointed as Emilia's bodyguard.
Meanwhile, the jailer's daughter has fallen in love with Palamon and helps him escape. She follows him, but he ignores her since he is still obsessed with Emilia. He lives in the forest half-starved, where he meets Arcite. The two argue, but Arcite offers to bring Palamon food, drink and armaments so that they can meet in an equal fight over Emilia.
The jailer's daughter, forsaken, has gone mad. She sings and babbles in the forest. She meets a troupe of local countrymen who want to perform a Morris dance before the king and queen. The local schoolmaster Gerald invites the mad daughter to join the performance. Theseus and Hippolyta appear hunting. Gerald hails them, and they agree to watch the yokels perform a bizarre act for them, with the jailer's mad daughter dancing. The royal couple reward them.
Arcite returns with the food and weapons. After a convivial dinner with reminiscences, the two fight. Theseus and his entourage arrive on the scene. He orders for Palamon and Arcite to be arrested and executed. Hippolyta and Emilia intervene and so Theseus agrees to a public tournament between the two for Emilia's hand. Each warrior will be allowed three companions to assist them. The loser and his companion knights will be executed.
The jailer finds his daughter with the help of friends. He tries to restore her mental health. On the advice of a doctor, he encourages her former suitor to pretend to be Palamon so that she will be gradually accustomed to see him as her true love. His devotion slowly wins her over.
Before the tournament, Arcite prays to Mars that he win the battle, Palamon prays to Venus that he marry Emilia and Emilia prays to Diana that she be wed to the one who loves her best. Each prayer is granted: Arcite wins the combat but is then thrown from his horse and dies, leaving Palamon to wed Emilia.
Sources
Before the composition of The Two Noble Kinsmen, Chaucer's "Knight's Tale"—itself based on Giovanni Boccaccio's Teseida—had been adapted for the stage twice before, although both versions are now lost. The first was by Richard Edwardes in Palamon and Arcite (1566). This play was commissioned for a one-off performance before Queen Elizabeth in Oxford. It was never published, and it is unlikely to have served as a basis for The Two Noble Kinsmen.
Another play on the topic, the authorship of which is not known, would certainly have been known to Shakespeare and Fletcher. It was performed by the Admiral's Men in September 1594, which had then recently been formed after a split in Shakespeare's own company. Philip Henslowe commissioned the play, which may have influenced Shakespeare's own A Midsummer Night's Dream, which is usually considered to have been written around this time.The comic sub-plot involving the jailer's daughter has no direct source, but is similar to scenes in The Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn (1613), by Francis Beaumont, from which the performance by the yokels is derived. The Schoolmaster who organises it recalls Rombus in Sir Philip Sidney's one-act play The Lady of May (1579?). In other respects, he resembles Peter Quince in A Midsummer Night's Dream.
Date and text
Links between The Two Noble Kinsmen and contemporaneous works point to 1613–1614 as its date of composition and first performance. A reference to Palamon, one of the protagonists of Kinsmen, is contained in Ben Jonson's play Bartholomew Fair (1614). In Jonson's work, a passage in Act IV, scene iii, appears to indicate that Kinsmen was known and familiar to audiences at that time.
In Francis Beaumont's The Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn (1613), the second anti-masque features this cast of rural characters: pedant, May Lord and Lady, servingman and chambermaid, tavern host and hostess, shepherd and his wench, and two "bavians" (male and female baboon). The same cast slightly simplified (minus wench and one "bavian") enacts the Morris dance in Kinsmen, II, v, 120–138. A successful "special effect" in Beaumont's masque, designed for a single performance, appears to have been adopted and adapted into Kinsmen, indicating that the play followed soon after the masque.: 53–54, 306 The play was entered into the Stationers' Register on 8 April 1634; the quarto was published later that year by the bookseller John Waterson, printed by Thomas Cotes. The play was not included in the First Folio (1623) or any of the subsequent Folios of Shakespeare's works, though it was included in the second Beaumont and Fletcher folio of 1679.: 507 In September 2020, media reported that early seventeenth-century editions of several English plays, including a 1634 Two Noble Kinsmen had been discovered by John Stone of the University of Barcelona at the Royal Scots College's library in Salamanca, Spain. The inclusion of The Two Noble Kinsmen in one of these two volumes makes it perhaps the oldest copy of any of Shakespeare's works in the country and the first to circulate in the Spanish-speaking world.
Shakespeare and Fletcher contributions
Researchers have applied a range of tests and techniques to determine the relative shares of Shakespeare and Fletcher in the play in their attempts to distinguish the shares of Shakespeare and Fletcher. For example, Smith (1974) cites "metrical characteristics, vocabulary and word-compounding, incidence of certain contractions, kinds and uses of imagery, and characteristic lines of certain types", and offers a breakdown that agrees, in general if not in all details, with those of other scholars:
Shakespeare
Act I, scenes 1–3; Act II, scene 1; Act III, scene 1; Act V, scene 1, lines 34–173, and scenes 3 and 4.
Fletcher
Prologue; Act II, scenes 2–6; Act III, scenes 2–6; Act IV, scenes 1 and 3; Act V, scene 1, lines 1–33, and scene 2; Epilogue.
Uncertain
Act I, scenes 4 and 5; Act IV, scene 2.
Performance history
In addition to whatever public performances there were around 1613–1614, evidence suggests a performance of The Two Noble Kinsmen at Court in 1619. In 1664, after theatres had re-opened after Charles II returned to the throne at the beginning of the English Restoration period, Sir William Davenant produced an adaptation of The Two Noble Kinsmen for the Duke's Company titled The Rivals. Thomas Betterton played the role of Philander, Davenant's version of Palamon. Samuel Pepys saw Davenant's production, and judged it "no excellent play, but good acting in it" (10 September 1664).: 416, 507
Modern revivals
In July 2007, the Hudson Shakespeare Company of New Jersey staged a version of the play as part of its annual Shakespeare in the Parks series. Director David Sewell set the production in ancient Greece with an ethnically diverse cast reflective of its Mediterranean setting.A production opened on 9 June 2015 at the White Bear Theatre in Vauxhall, London—the first London production of the play since 2000. In 2016, Royal Shakespeare Company staged a version of the play at the Swan Theatre, and the play was part of the 2018 summer season at Shakespeare's Globe Theatre in London. An earlier production was staged by the Royal Shakespeare Company at the Swan Theatre's inaugural season in 1986.In 2019, The Porters of Hellsgate in Los Angeles staged a production in a rep with Double Falsehood. The production, directed by Will Block, re-purposed the Morris Dance as a hallucination featuring major characters from the Jailer's Daughter's life. It also excised Palamon and Arcite's prayers, focusing the scene instead on Emilia's dilemma.
References
External links
The Two Noble Kinsmen at Standard Ebooks
The Two Noble Kinsmen at Project Gutenberg
"A guide to the Two Noble Kinsmen prepared by the British Library".
The Two Noble Kinsmen public domain audiobook at LibriVox | [
"Knowledge"
] |
55,194,050 | List of Bandai Namco video game franchises | Bandai Namco Holdings is a Japanese holdings company, based in Tokyo, that specializes in video games, anime, toys, arcades and amusement parks. The company was formed following the merger of Bandai and Namco on 29 September 2005, with both companies' assets being merged into a single corporate entity. The core video game branch of the company is Bandai Namco Entertainment, formerly called Namco Bandai Games, which develops games for home consoles, arcades and mobile phones internationally. Bandai Namco is best known for its video game franchises; Pac-Man is its highest-grossing franchise with over US$12.8 billion by 2016, while Tekken is its best-selling franchise with over 49 million copies across multiple platforms. By the late 2010s, Bandai Namco was the largest toy company by revenue and the eighth-largest video game company.Bandai Namco owns former developer Banpresto, which operates as a toy company in Japan and was purchased in 2006, and acquired a 95% stake in D3 Publisher in 2009. | Bandai Namco Holdings is a Japanese holdings company, based in Tokyo, that specializes in video games, anime, toys, arcades and amusement parks. The company was formed following the merger of Bandai and Namco on 29 September 2005, with both companies' assets being merged into a single corporate entity. The core video game branch of the company is Bandai Namco Entertainment, formerly called Namco Bandai Games, which develops games for home consoles, arcades and mobile phones internationally. Bandai Namco is best known for its video game franchises; Pac-Man is its highest-grossing franchise with over US$12.8 billion by 2016, while Tekken is its best-selling franchise with over 49 million copies across multiple platforms. By the late 2010s, Bandai Namco was the largest toy company by revenue and the eighth-largest video game company.Bandai Namco owns former developer Banpresto, which operates as a toy company in Japan and was purchased in 2006, and acquired a 95% stake in D3 Publisher in 2009. The company owns the video game assets of defunct developer BEC, which merged with Banpresto in 2011 to form B.B. Studio. Bandai Namco also owns the video game rights to several anime licenses, notably Dragon Ball; in this instance, the first entry for these franchises will list the first game developed or published by Bandai Namco or a subsidiary company, even if the series did not begin at that time.
Franchises
See also
List of Bandai Namco games
List of Namco games
== References == | [
"Mass_media"
] |
667,938 | Vladimir Titov (cosmonaut) | Vladimir Georgiyevich Titov (Russian: Владимир Георгиевич Титов; born 1 January 1947 in Sretensk, Zabaykalsky Krai, Russia) is a retired Russian Air Force Colonel and former cosmonaut. He has participated in four spaceflight missions. The catastrophic explosion of a Soyuz rocket in 1983 led to him being one of only four people to use a launch escape system. He is married to Alexandra Kozlova, they have two children. | Vladimir Georgiyevich Titov (Russian: Владимир Георгиевич Титов; born 1 January 1947 in Sretensk, Zabaykalsky Krai, Russia) is a retired Russian Air Force Colonel and former cosmonaut. He has participated in four spaceflight missions. The catastrophic explosion of a Soyuz rocket in 1983 led to him being one of only four people to use a launch escape system. He is married to Alexandra Kozlova, they have two children.
Education
Graduated from secondary school in 1965, from the Higher Air Force College in Chernihiv in Ukraine in 1970, and the Gagarin Air Force Academy in 1987.
Career
In 1966, Titov enrolled at the Higher Air Force College in Chernihiv in Ukraine, graduating in 1970. Until 1974, he served at the College as a pilot-instructor and was responsible for the graduation of twelve student pilots. He later served as a flight commander with the air regiment where the cosmonauts carry out flying practice. He has flown 10 different types of aircraft, has logged more than 1,400 hours flying time, and holds the qualifications of Military Pilot, 1st Class, and Test Pilot, 3rd Class.
Titov was selected as a cosmonaut in 1976, and in September 1981 was paired with Gennady Strekalov. The two men served as the back-up crew for Soyuz T-5 in 1982 and Soyuz T-9 in 1983. A veteran of five missions, Titov served as commander on Soyuz T-8 and Soyuz T-10-1 in 1983 and Soyuz TM-4 in 1987, and flew on the crew of STS-63 in 1995 and STS-86 in 1997. He has logged a total of 18 hours, 48 minutes of EVA, and has spent a total of 387 days, 52 minutes, 18 seconds in space (including the Soyuz T-10-1 launch abort).Titov made his first space flight on April 20, 1983, as commander of Soyuz T-8. He and Strekalov had been specifically trained to repair the faulty Salyut 7 solar array. He was supposed to dock with Salyut 7, but once in orbit the Soyuz rendezvous radar antenna failed to deploy properly. Several attitude control maneuvers at high rates were made but failed to swing the boom out. (The postflight inquiry later discovered that the antenna had been torn off when the Soyuz payload shroud separated.) With FCC permission, the crew attempted a rendezvous using only an optical sight and ground radar inputs for guidance. During the final approach, which was made in darkness, Titov believed that the closing speed was too great. He therefore attempted a braking maneuver, but felt that the two spacecraft were still closing too fast. He aborted the rendezvous to avoid a crash, and no further attempts were made before the three men returned to Earth after a flight lasting just 2 days, 17 minutes, 48 seconds
Titov and Strekalov were then scheduled for launch on board what should have been Soyuz T-10 on September 27, 1983. However, a valve in the propellant line failed to close at T−90 seconds, causing a large fire to start at the base of the launch vehicle only one minute before launch. The fire quickly engulfed the rocket, and the automatic abort sequence failed as the wires involved burned through. Two launch controllers manually aborted the mission by sending radio commands from the launch blockhouse. This was accomplished 12 seconds after the fire began. The Soyuz descent module was pulled clear by the launch escape system, and after being subjected to 15–17 G's, the crew landed safely some 2.5 miles (4 km) from the launch vehicle, which apparently exploded seconds after the Soyuz separated. The two men were given a medical check-up, but had sustained no injuries during their brief flight which lasted 5 minutes, 30 seconds.
Titov was next assigned to command Soyuz TM-2. He and his flight engineer, Alexander Serebrov, were scheduled for a long-duration flight on board Mir 1. Six days prior to launch, due to doubts about Serebrov's health, they were replaced by the back-up crew. Titov continued training for a long-duration mission, and in April 1987 was paired with Musa Manarov. Later that year, he graduated from the Yuri Gagarin Air Force Academy while continuing his work at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center.
His next assignment came as the commander of Soyuz TM-4, which launched on December 21, 1987. Together with Musa Manarov and Anatoli Levchenko, he linked up with the orbiting Mir 1 space station and her crew. After a short period of joint work, Romanenko, Alexandrov, and Levchenko returned to Earth handing over the space station to Titov and Manarov. The two men settled down to a long program of scientific experiments and observations, and played host to the visiting Soyuz TM-5 and TM-6 missions. At the end of the Soyuz TM-6 visit, one of its crew, Dr. Valeri Polyakov, remained on board with Titov and Manarov.
On February 26, 1988, the two cosmonauts carried out an EVA lasting 4 hours and 25 minutes, during which they removed one of the sections of the solar panel and installed a new one. They also installed some new scientific experiments and removed samples of material that had been left exposed to open space, and inspected the Progress 34 spacecraft.
On June 30, 1988, they attempted a repair on the Roentgen X-ray telescope. The telescope had not been designed for repair or replacement so the EVA was a difficult one. As they sliced through the 20-layer thick thermal blanket to expose the telescope's faulty X-ray detector unit, the two men had to stop and rest several times, as they had nowhere to anchor themselves, and had to take turns holding each other steady. Their bulky gloves made removing the small bolts very difficult, and it took 90 minutes instead of the 20 allocated. When a special wrench they were using suddenly snapped, the EVA had to be aborted, and the two men returned inside the Mir, having spent 5 hours, 10 minutes in open space.
On October 20, 1988, repairs were successfully completed, and the X-ray telescope recommenced operations. The cosmonauts also installed some anchor points for the EVA scheduled for the joint Soviet-French mission, installed a new shortwave aerial, and took samples of a film which had formed over one of the portholes, before returning inside the Mir after 4 hours and 12 minutes. They then settled down to their program of experiments and observations. In November 1988, they played host to the joint Soviet-French mission. After three weeks of joint work, Titov and Manarov returned to Earth together, along with the French cosmonaut Jean-Loup Chrétien aboard Soyuz TM-6. Titov and Manarov returned to Earth after a mission lasting 365 days, 22 hours, 39 minutes, setting a new record, and exceeding one year in space for the first time.
On October 28, 1992, NASA announced that an experienced cosmonaut would fly aboard the STS-60 Space Shuttle mission. Titov was one of two candidates named by the Russian Space Agency for mission specialist training at the Johnson Space Center. In April 1993, he was assigned as back-up mission specialist for Sergei Krikalev, who flew on STS-60, the first joint U.S./Russian Space Shuttle Mission (February 3 to 11, 1994). In September 1993, Titov was selected to fly on STS-63 with Krikalev training as his back-up.
From February 2 to 11, 1995, Titov was a mission specialist aboard Space Shuttle Discovery, on STS-63, the first flight of the new joint Russian-American Space Program. Mission highlights included the rendezvous with the Russian Space Station Mir, operation of Spacehab, and the deployment and retrieval of Spartan 204. In completing this mission, he logged an additional 8 days, 6 hours, 29 minutes in space.
Titov served on the crew of STS-86 Atlantis (September 25 to October 6, 1997) NASA's seventh mission to rendezvous and dock with the Russian Space Station Mir. Highlights included the exchange of U.S. crew members Mike Foale and David Wolf, the transfer to Mir of 10,400 pounds of science and logistics, and the return of experiment hardware and results to Earth. Vladimir Titov and Scott Parazynski performed a 5-hour, 1-minute spacewalk during which they retrieved four experiments first deployed on Mir during the STS-86 docking mission, tethered the Solar Array Cap for use in a future Mir spacewalk to seal any hole found in the hull of the damaged Spektr module, and evaluated common EVA tools which may be used by astronauts wearing either Russian or American-made spacesuits. Mission accomplished in 169 orbits in 10 days, 19 hours, 21 minutes.
Titov retired from the Air Force and the Russian Space Agency in 1998. In 1998 he became Director of Space and Communications for the Boeing Company in Moscow, Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States. He is currently serving as General Director, Russian Operations of Excalibur Almaz.
Awards and honors
Hero of the Soviet Union;
Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR;
Two Orders of Lenin (1983, 1988);
Order of the Red Star;
Medal "For Merit in Space Exploration" (Russian Federation).Foreign awards:
Commander of the Legion of Honour (France);
Order of Georgi Dimitrov (People's Republic of Bulgaria);
Order of Stara Planina (People's Republic of Bulgaria);
Order "The Sun of Liberty" (Afghanistan);
Two NASA Space Flight Medals (USA).In 1990, Titov and Musa Manarov were awarded the U.S. Harmon Prize — the first Soviet citizens to win the award — in recognition of their world endurance record.
References
Sources
NASA Bio of Titov
Excalibur Almaz Bio of Titov | [
"Engineering"
] |
43,221,134 | Soekmono | Soekmono (14 July 1922 – 9 July 1997) was an Indonesian archaeologist and historian. Throughout his career, he wrote about and researched Borobudur and the Javanese Candi. His main publication about Javanese Candi was a doctoral thesis presented in 1974. He was the director of the National Archaeological Institute of the Republic Indonesia (Lembaga Purbakala dan Peninggalan Nasional Republic Indonesia). He was also the Project Manager of the Borobudur Restoration Project in the 1970s - the Proyek Pemugaran Candi Borobudur - when Borobudur was pulled down and rebuilt as part of a UNESCO project to rebuild the monument. | Soekmono (14 July 1922 – 9 July 1997) was an Indonesian archaeologist and historian.
Throughout his career, he wrote about and researched Borobudur and the Javanese Candi. His main publication about Javanese Candi was a doctoral thesis presented in 1974.
He was the director of the National Archaeological Institute of the Republic Indonesia (Lembaga Purbakala dan Peninggalan Nasional Republic Indonesia). He was also the Project Manager of the Borobudur Restoration Project in the 1970s - the Proyek Pemugaran Candi Borobudur - when Borobudur was pulled down and rebuilt as part of a UNESCO project to rebuild the monument.
Publications
New light on some Borobudur problems (1969)
Ancient Indonesian art of the central and eastern Javanese periods (1971)
Pengantar sejarah kebudayaan Indonesia, Volume 1 (1973)
Pengantar sejarah kebudayaan Indonesia, Volume 2 (1973)
Pengantar sejarah kebudayaan Indonesia, Volume 3 (1973)
Chandi Borobudur: a monument of mankind (1976)
Chandi Gumpung of Muara Jambi: a platform in stead [sic] of a conventional chandi (1987)
Rekonstruksi sejarah Malayu kuno sesuai tuntutan arkeologi (1992)
The Javanese Candi: function and meaning (1995)
== Notes == | [
"Humanities"
] |
5,396,155 | Joseph C. Porter | Joseph Chrisman Porter (12 September 1809 – 18 February 1863) was a Confederate officer in the American Civil War, a key leader in the guerrilla campaigns in northern Missouri, and a figure of controversy. The main source for his history, Joseph A. Mudd (see below) is clearly an apologist; his opponents take a less charitable view of him, and his chief adversary, Union Colonel John McNeil, regarded him simply as a bushwacker and traitor, though his service under General John S. Marmaduke in the Springfield campaign ("Marmaduke's First Raid") and following clearly shows he was regarded as a regular officer by the Confederacy. | Joseph Chrisman Porter (12 September 1809 – 18 February 1863) was a Confederate officer in the American Civil War, a key leader in the guerrilla campaigns in northern Missouri, and a figure of controversy. The main source for his history, Joseph A. Mudd (see below) is clearly an apologist; his opponents take a less charitable view of him, and his chief adversary, Union Colonel John McNeil, regarded him simply as a bushwacker and traitor, though his service under General John S. Marmaduke in the Springfield campaign ("Marmaduke's First Raid") and following clearly shows he was regarded as a regular officer by the Confederacy.
Early life
Joseph C. Porter was born in Jessamine County, Kentucky, to James and Rebecca Chrisman Porter. The family moved to Marion County, Missouri, in 1828 or 1829, where Porter attended Marion College in Philadelphia, Missouri, and was a member of the Presbyterian Church. About 1844, Porter married Mary Ann E. Marshall (d. DeWitt, AR "about two years after the war closed," according to Porter's sister). They subsequently moved to Knox County, remaining there until 1857, when they moved to Lewis County, and settled five miles east of Newark. Family members assert that only one photograph of Porter was known to exist, and it was destroyed when his home was burned by Union soldiers.
Porter had strong Southern sympathies, and was subject to harassment by pro-Union neighbors, since he lived in an area where loyalties were sharply divided. His brother, James William Porter (b. 1827, m. Carolina Marshall, sister to Joseph's wife Mary Ann, 1853), was also a Confederate officer and Joseph's trusted subordinate, reaching the rank of major. The brothers went to California during the Gold Rush of 1849, then returned to Missouri and farmed together before the war.
Civil War
The Porter brothers enrolled with Colonel Martin E. Green's Missouri State Guard regiment and participated in the attack on the union Home Guard at Athens; and they later participated in the Confederate attack on Lexington, September 1861. Joseph Porter had no prior military experience, but proved to be a natural leader and was elected a lieutenant colonel (an official commission would come later) in the Missouri State Guard.
Following his participation in the Battle of Pea Ridge in March 1862, Porter returned home on the orders of General Sterling Price, to raise recruits throughout northeast Missouri. His duties included the establishment of supply drops, weapons caches and a network of pro-Southern informants. As a Colonel he commanded the 1st Northeast Missouri Cavalry.
Throughout Porter's brief military career, his status as a regular army officer was not fully recognized by his adversaries, particularly Colonel John McNeil. Those serving behind Union lines were not recognized as legal combatants and were threatened with execution if captured.
Though most of his activities were guerrilla operations or harassment, a few battles were fought. On June 17, 1862, near Warren or New Market, in Warren Township, Marion County with 43 mounted men, he captured four men of the Union regiment he found there. The prisoners' weapons and horses were taken, then they were paroled on their oath not to take up arms against the Confederacy until exchanged.
Cherry Grove
Moving northward through the western part of Marion, the eastern portion of Knox, and the western border of Lewis counties, Porter approached Sulphur Springs, near Colony, in Knox County. Along his route he collected perhaps 200 recruits. From Sulphur Springs he moved north, threatened the Union Home Guards at Memphis, picked up additional recruits in Scotland County, and moved westward into Schuyler County to get a company known to be there under Captain Bill Dunn. Union forces under Colonel Henry S. Lipscomb and others responded with a march on Colony. They overtook Porter at Cherry Grove, in the northeastern part of Schuyler County, near the Iowa line, where, with a superior force, they attacked and defeated him, routing his forces and driving them southward. Losses on both sides were minor. Porter retreated rapidly, pursued by Lipscomb, until his forces dispersed at a point about 10 miles west of Newark. Porter, with perhaps 75 men, remained in the vicinity of his home for some days, gathering recruits all the time, and getting ready to strike again.
Memphis
On Sunday, July 13, Porter approached Memphis, Missouri in four converging columns totalling 125–169 men and captured it with little or no resistance. They first raided the Federal armory, seizing about a hundred muskets with cartridge boxes and ammunition, and several uniforms (Mudd, see below, was among those who would wear the Union uniform, as he claimed, for its superior comfort in the heat, a fact which would later draw friendly fire and aggravate the view of Porter's troops as bushwhackers, neither obeying nor protected by the rules of war). They rounded up all adult males, who were taken to the court house to swear not to divulge any information about the raiders for forty-eight hours. Porter freed all militiamen or suspected militiamen to await parole, a fact noted by champions of his character. Citizens expressed their sympathies variously; Porter gave safe passage to a physician, an admitted supporter of the Union, who was anxious to return to his seriously ill wife. A verbally abusive woman was threatened with a pistol by one of Porter's troops, perhaps as a bluff; Mudd intervened to prevent bloodshed. Porter's troops entered the courthouse and destroyed all indictments for horse-theft; the act is variously understood as simple lawlessness, intervention on behalf of criminal associates, or interference with politically motivated, fraudulent charges.
At Memphis, a key incident occurred which would darken Porter's reputation, and which his detractors see as part of a consistent behavioral pattern which put him and his men beyond the norms of warfare. According to the "History of Shelby County," which is generally sympathetic to Porter, "Most conceded that Col. Porter's purpose for capturing Memphis, MO. was to seize Dr. Wm. Aylward, a prominent Union man of the community." Aylward was captured during the day by Captain Tom Stacy's men and confined to a house. After rousing him overnight and removing him, ostensibly to see Porter, guards claimed that he escaped. However, witnesses reported hearing the sounds of a strangling, and his body was found the next day, with marks consistent with hanging or strangulation.At Memphis, Porter had been joined by Tom Stacy, generally regarded as a genuine bushwhacker – even the sympathetic Mudd says of him "if one of his men were captured and killed he murdered the man who did it if he could catch him, or, failing him, the nearest man he could catch to the one who did it." Stacy's company was called "the chain gang" by the other members of Porter's command. Supporters of Porter attribute the murder of Aylward to Stacy (who would be mortally wounded at Vassar Hill.) However, a Union gentleman who came to inquire about Aylward and a captured officer before the discovery of the body stated that when he asked Porter about Aylward, the response was, "He is where he will never disturb anybody else."
Vassar Hill
Union Col. (later General) John McNeil pursued Porter, who planned an ambush with perhaps 125 men according to participant Mudd (though Federal estimates of Porter's strength ran from 400 to 600 men). The battle is called "Vassar Hill" in the History of Scotland County; Porter himself called it "Oak Ridge," and Federal forces called it "Pierce's Mill," after a location 1.5 miles northwest of the battlefield. A detachment of three companies (C, H, I), about 300 men of Merrill's Horse, under Major John Y. Clopper, was dispatched by McNeil from Newark against Porter, and attacked him at 2 p.m. on Friday, July 18, on the south fork of the Middle Fabius River, ten miles southwest of Memphis. Porter's men were concealed in brush and stayed low when the Federals stopped to fire prior to each charge. Porter's men held their fire until the range was very short, increasing the lethality of the volley. Clopper was in the Federal front, and out of 21 men of his advance guard, all but one were killed and wounded. The Federals made at least seven mounted charges according to Mudd, doing little but adding to the body count. A battalion of roughly 100 men of the 11th Missouri State Militia Cavalry under Major Rogers arrived and dismounted. While Clopper claimed to have driven the enemy from the field after this, Mudd indicates that the Federals instead fell back and ended the engagement leaving Porter in possession of the field until he withdrew. Clopper's reputation suffered as a result of his poor tactics. Before the final charge one company officer angrily asked, "Why don't you dismount those men and stop murdering them?" On page 86 of "With Porter in North Missouri", Mudd describes "One of our boys, down the line out of my sight, losing his head fired too soon and when the Federal was about to ride him down, had an empty gun in his hand. This he clubbed and striking his assailant a powerful blow on the neck, killed him." In Joseph Budd's pension records, his death is described as occurring due to "a stroke of a weapon breaking his neck". Joseph is pictured on the right.
Union casualties were about 24 killed and mortally wounded (10 from Merrill's Horse and 14 from the 11th MSM Cavalry), and perhaps 59 wounded (24 from Merrill's Horse, and 35 from the 11th MSM Cavalry.) Porter's loss was as little as three killed and five wounded according to Mudd, or six killed, three mortally wounded, and 10 wounded left on the field according to the Shelby County History. The Union dead were originally buried on the Jacob Maggard farm, which served as a temporary hospital.After the fight, Porter moved westward a few miles, then south through Paulville, in the eastern part of Adair County; thence south-east into Knox County, passing through Novelty, four miles east of Locust Hill, at noon on Saturday, July 19, having fought a battle and made a march of sixty-five miles in less than twenty-four hours.
Florida
July 22: Detachments of F & G Companies (60 men total) of 3rd Iowa Volunteer Cavalry under Major Henry Clay Caldwell encountered Porter with 300 rebels at Florida in Monroe County, Missouri. The detachment fought outnumbered for one hour and fell back upon the post of Paris, Missouri, with 22 wounded and 2 captured.
Santa Fe
July 24: Major Caldwell and 100 men of his 3rd Iowa Volunteer Cavalry pursued Porter and his 400 men into dense brush near Botts' farm, near Santa Fe, Missouri. Porter fled and was pursued into Callaway County, Missouri. The Second Battalion suffered one killed and ten wounded.
Moore's Mill
July 28: Union forces under Colonel (later General ) Odon Guitar engaged Porter near Moore's Mill (now the village of Calwood) in Callaway County. The Union losses were 19 killed, 21 wounded. Guerrilla losses were 36-60 killed, 100 wounded. This was one of Porter's most aggressive actions, involving a daring charge and disabling the Federal artillery, until forced to retreat by the arrival of Union reinforcements and the exhaustion of his ammunition.
Newark
August 1: McNeil had dispatched Lair to Newark. Porter headed westward from Midway, putting his brother Jim Porter in charge of one column, himself at the head of another, approaching the town from east and south simultaneously, and closing the trap on the completely surprised federals at 5 p.m. on July 31.
Porter forced a company of 75 Federals to take refuge in a brick schoolhouse; when they refused terms, he had a loaded haywagon fired and threatened to run it into the building. The Federals surrendered, were paroled and permitted to keep their sidearms.
The Federal loss in the Newark fight was 4 killed, 6 wounded, and 72 prisoners. The Confederate loss was reported at from 10 to 20 killed, and 30 severely wounded. Union soldiers were treated well, but the Union-sympathizing storekeepers had their businesses gutted, and citizens were subjected to abuse. Some claim this was in spite of Porter's orders, and claimed that he bore his old neighbors no malice, while others view this action as Porter's revenge for previous ill-treatment.
Despite the victory at Newark, the high casualties on the winning side, attributed to chaotic advance and undisciplined exposure of Porter's troops to hostile fire, suggest growing disorder in his ranks. From here, records of his activities—and even the degree to which he can be said to have a unified command—are unclear. Various forces with varying degrees of official relation to Porter's command are credited with capturing Paris and Canton, and with bringing in new supplies and recruits. Porter's numbers had swelled to a size likely to be unmanageable, particularly considering the lack of trained officers and that not more than a quarter of his 2000 or so troops had regulation equipment. Perhaps another quarter had squirrel-guns or shotguns, while the rest no arms at all. Porter's objective was now to get south to Arkansas with his recruits, in order that they might be properly trained and equipped.
Kirksville
August 6, 1862
At Kirksville, Porter made a serious mistake in engaging Union forces under Col. John McNeil, whom he knew to have cannon – perhaps in overconfidence, as a result of his sharpshooters' ability to pick off the Federal artillerymen at Santa Fe. Traveling light had been Porter's great advantage -- "His troops lived off the country, and every man was his own quartermaster and commissary," in contrast to the elaborate baggage and supply trains of McNeil ("History of Shelby County"). Here Porter suffered unequivocal defeat, from which he would not recover.
Dispersal of forces
At Clem's Mills, five miles west of Kirksville, Porter crossed the Chariton River, seeking to link up with Col. John A. Poindexter in Chariton County, known to have 1,200 or 1,500 recruits; their combined forces would be able to force a passage of the Missouri River at Glasgow or Brunswick, and open a line to the Confederacy. Three miles north of Stockton (now New Cambria), in western Macon County, Porter encountered 250 men of the First Missouri State Militia, under Lieut. Col. Alexander Woolfolk, coming up to unite with McNeil. There was a brief fight at Panther Creek, Friday, August 8. Porter was turned from his course and retreated toward the northeast, away from his intended line of march and ultimate goal. The next day, Col. James McFerran, of the First Missouri State Militia, joined Woolfolk with 250 more men and took command. He caught up with Porter at Walnut Creek, in Adair County and drove him eastward to the Chariton. At See's Ford, where he recrossed the Chariton, Porter set up an ambush on the east bank with 125 men. Porter's forces opened fire at short range. Only two Federals were killed outright and 15 wounded, but the action seemed to have caused McFerran to break off pursuit.
Porter passed on to Wilsonville, in the south-east part of Adair. Here, a mass desertion took place among his discouraged troops; in a few hours, 500 had drifted away.
Capture of Palmyra and the Allsman incident
Porter wandered around the wilderness, his desertion-diminished troops feeding off the land, although there were some new recruits as well. On Friday, September 12, Porter, with 400 men, captured Palmyra, with 20 of its garrison, and held the place two hours, losing one man killed and one wounded. One Union citizen was killed and three Federals wounded. Porter's objectives were to liberate Confederates held in the jail there, and to draw Federal forces away from the Missouri River, so as to open it to southward crossing by rebels seeking to join Confederate units.
The Confederates carried away an elderly Union citizen named Andrew Allsman. The fate of Allsman remains something of a mystery, and there is disagreement as well about his character and his legitimacy as a target (see Palmyra Massacre).
Porter quickly abandoned Palmyra to McNeil, and another period of wandering ensued, in the general direction of his own home near Newark. There were further desertions, and a number of bands of organized rebels refused to place themselves under Porter's command, clearly indicating that he had lost public confidence. At Whaley's Mill, his men were definitively scattered, almost without a fight.
Death
After his rout by McNeil at Whaley's Mill, and the dispersion of his troops at Bragg's school house, Col. Porter kept himself hidden for a few days. He abandoned the idea of raising a militarily significant force, and entered Shelby County on a line of march to the south with fewer than 100 men remaining. He made his way safely through Monroe, Audrain, Callaway and Boone counties, and crossed the Missouri River in a skiff, continuing into Arkansas. Here he organized, from the men who had accompanied him and others whom he found in Arkansas, a regiment of Missouri Confederate cavalry. From Pocahontas, Arkansas, in the latter part of December 1862, as acting brigadier, he moved with his command and the battalions of Cols. Colton Greene and J. Q. A. Burbridge, to cooperate with Gen. John S. Marmaduke in his attack on Springfield. Through a mistake of Gen. Marmaduke, Col. Porter's command did not participate in this attack. It moved on a line far to the east. After the expedition had failed, the commands of Marmaduke and Porter united east of Marshfield, and started to retreat into Arkansas.
At the Battle of Hartville, in Wright Country on January 11, 1863, a small Federal force was encountered and defeated, although at severe loss to the Confederates, who had many valuable officers killed and mortally wounded. Among the latter was Colonel Porter, commanding a brigade, shot from his horse with wounds to the leg from an artillery shell. In Oates's account, (118-119), Porter died an hour later. According to Mudd, however, Porter was shot from his horse with wounds to the leg and the hand while leading a charge; in this account, Porter managed to accompany the army on a difficult trek into Arkansas, arriving at Camp Sallado on January 20, and at Batesville January 25, where he died from his wounds on February 18, 1863. The early date is refuted by Porter's own report, dated February 3, referencing the journey after the battle, as well as eyewitness Major G.W.C. Bennett's reference to "Porter's column" on the march several days after and dozens of miles away from the battle, and finally by Marmaduke's noting Porter among the wounded, in contrast to the listing of officers killed; additional near-contemporary sources also affirm Porter's survival of the journey to Arkansas. The January 11 date seems to originate with General Fitz Henry Warren, who reported as fact the speculation that a burial observed by a recently paroled Lieutenant Brown was that of Porter.
The location of Col. Porter's grave remains unknown. Oral traditions suggest that he was at some point buried on the farm of his cousin Ezekiel Porter (said to be a volunteer ambulance driver during the war), just north of Hartville, in what is now known as Porter's Cemetery, near Competition, Missouri.
Legacy and evaluation
Porter is credited variously with five and nine children, only two of whom were living at the time of Mudd's book, his daughter, Mrs. O.M. White, and his son, Joseph I. Porter of Stuttgart, AR, who wrote: "I know but little about the war and have been trying to forget what I do know about it. I hope never to read a history of it."
Porter's daughter O. M. White wrote that the family did not have a picture of their father, "the only one we ever had was destroyed when our home was burned by the soldiers during the war."Porter's character is hard to estimate: clearly he possessed considerable personal courage, but was also a prudent tactician, often declining battle when he could not choose his ground and when he thought the potential for casualties disproportionate to projected gains. Declining the option to pursue the retreating Union force at Santa Fe, Mudd has him say "I can't see that anything would be accomplished by pursuing the enemy. We might give them a drive and kill a dozen of them and we might lose a man or two, and I wouldn't give them one of my men for a dozen dead federals unless to gain some particular purpose."
A number of atrocities are attributed to him, but the partisanship of accounts makes it difficult to ascertain his responsibility for the killings of Dr. Aylward, Andrew Allsman, James Dye at Kirksville, a wounded Federal at Botts' Farm, and others, though it must be concluded that he failed to communicate the unacceptability of such actions to his subordinates. There is reliable eyewitness testimony to his intervening to prevent the lynching of two captured Federals in retaliation for the execution of a Confederate prisoner at the Battle of Florida.
References
Further reading
Oates, Stephen B., Confederate Cavalry West of the River: Raiding Federal Missouri, U-TX, 1961, rpt 1992.
House, Grant, "Colonel Joseph C. Porter's 1862 Campaign in Northeast Missouri." M.A. thesis. Western Illinois University, 1989.
Mudd, Joseph A., With Porter in North Missouri. Washington, DC: National Publishing Co., 1909. 452p.
Roth, Dave and Sallee, Scott E., "Porter's Campaign in Northeast Missouri and the Palmyra Massacre." Blue & Gray Magazine 17 (February 2000): 52–60. A tour of modern-day Northeast Missouri sites involved in Porter's campaign of 1862. Illus.
History of Shelby County, Chapter 8. (1884). Shelby County Historical Society.
The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate armies, Volume XXII, Part 1, pages 205-207 contain Porter's report. The header is: "HDQRS. PORTER'S BRIG., MISSOURI CAV., C. S. ARMY, Camp Allen, February 3, 1863." | [
"Human_behavior"
] |
13,574,544 | Jōhō | Jōhō (承保) was a Japanese era name (年号, nengō, lit. year name) after Enkyū and before Jōryaku. This period spanned the years from August 1074 through November 1077. The reigning emperor was Emperor Shirakawa-tennō (白河天皇). | Jōhō (承保) was a Japanese era name (年号, nengō, lit. year name) after Enkyū and before Jōryaku. This period spanned the years from August 1074 through November 1077. The reigning emperor was Emperor Shirakawa-tennō (白河天皇).
Change of Era
January 30, 1074 Jōhō gannen (承保元年): The new era name was created to mark an event or series of events. The previous era ended and the new one commenced in Enkyū 6, on the 23rd day of the 8th month of 1074.
Events of the Jōhō Era
1074 (Jōhō 1, 1st month): Dianagon Minamoto- no Takakune asked to be relieved of his duties because of his age. He was 71, and he wanted to retire to Uji. In his retirement, he was visited by many friends with whom he pursued research into the history of Japan. He brought this work together in a book.
March 7, 1074 (Jōhō 1, 7th day of the 2nd month): The former kampaku Fujiwara Yorimichi died aged 83. In this same period, his sister, the widow of Emperor Ichijo, died aged 87.
October 25, 1074 (Jōhō 1, 3rd day of the 10th month): Empress Jōtō-mon In died at the age of 87.
Notes
References
Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). Gukanshō: The Future and the Past. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03460-0; OCLC 251325323
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5; OCLC 58053128
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Odai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691
Varley, H. Paul. (1980). A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231049405; OCLC 6042764
External links
National Diet Library, "The Japanese Calendar" -- historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection | [
"Time"
] |
44,646,145 | Anthony J. Alexander | Anthony J. Alexander is a business executive in the energy industry. He was born in 1951 in Akron, Ohio. He is affiliated with the Republican Party. | Anthony J. Alexander is a business executive in the energy industry. He was born in 1951 in Akron, Ohio. He is affiliated with the Republican Party.
Current executive roles
Alexander was formerly the director, president and chief executive officer (from 2004 to 2015) of First Energy Corp. and FirstEnergy Service and CEO of FirstEnergy Nuclear Operating Company. At the Pennsylvania Power Company, he is CEO and president. Other places where holds the position of director include: the Ohio Edison Company, the Nuclear Energy Institute, the Cleveland Electric Illuminating Company, the Toledo Edison Company, Metropolitan Edison Company, Pennsylvania Electric Company, FirstEnergy Solutions Corp. and Team NEO. He is Director-at-large at the National Association of Manufacturers. He is CEO, president and manager of JCP&L Transition Funding LLC.
Board memberships
Alexander is a member of the board at: the Ohio Electric Utility Institute and the Association of Edison Illuminating Companies, Inc. He is a member of the boards of trustees at: Akron General Health System, The NEOUCOM Foundation, Playhouse Square Foundation, the Green Schools Foundation and The University of Akron Foundation, and serves as vice chairman of the Greater Akron Chamber.
In 2013, his compensation was: $11,659,063. In 2012, he was listed as No. 275 for CEO compensation with Forbes.
Employment history
Alexander boasts four decades of experience in the energy industry through Ohio Edison Company and FirstEnergy Corp. Leadership roles he has held at these firms include: executive vice president, general counsel and chief operating officer. He was president and CEO of Metropolitan Edison Company.
Alexander's career began back in 1972, in Ohio Edison's tax department. From there he took on the role of attorney at the firm's legal department. In 1984 he became a senior attorney there and three years later, he became associate general counsel. Following on from that he held the roles of: VP and general counsel, senior VP and general counsel, executive VP and general counsel. In 1997 he became executive VP and general counsel at FirstEnergy.
Education
Alexander has a Bachelor of Science Degree in accounting and a Juris Doctor from The University of Akron. He also did the Program for Management Development at the Harvard Graduate School of Business and the Reactor Technology Course for Utility Executives at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In September 2019 a newly built wing to the University of Akron's College of Business building was named the Anthony J. Alexander professional development center.
== References == | [
"Economy"
] |
49,527,084 | Robert Little (Flying Tiger) | Robert Laing "Bob" Little (died May 22, 1942) was an American fighter pilot and double ace with the Flying Tigers, credited with 10, 10.5 or 10.55 victories. He was a native of Spokane, Washington, and attended North Central High School in 1935 and 1936.Little resigned from the United States Army Air Corps 8th Pursuit Group to join the Flying Tigers in the days before the United States entered World War II. He was one of the few Flying Tigers with prior experience with the Curtiss P-40 fighter, having logged 375 hours. In 1942, he was credited with downing Nakajima Ki-27 fighters on January 29 and February 6, 25 and 26, as well as a Nakajima Ki-43 fighter on April 8.He was killed while on a ground attack mission at the Salween River Gorge south of Baoshan. Wingman R. H. Smith reported that Little was diving at the target when, at 1,000 feet (300 m) Smith heard an explosion, then saw flames and smoke coming from Little's left wing. | Robert Laing "Bob" Little (died May 22, 1942) was an American fighter pilot and double ace with the Flying Tigers, credited with 10, 10.5 or 10.55 victories.
He was a native of Spokane, Washington, and attended North Central High School in 1935 and 1936.Little resigned from the United States Army Air Corps 8th Pursuit Group to join the Flying Tigers in the days before the United States entered World War II. He was one of the few Flying Tigers with prior experience with the Curtiss P-40 fighter, having logged 375 hours. In 1942, he was credited with downing Nakajima Ki-27 fighters on January 29 and February 6, 25 and 26, as well as a Nakajima Ki-43 fighter on April 8.He was killed while on a ground attack mission at the Salween River Gorge south of Baoshan. Wingman R. H. Smith reported that Little was diving at the target when, at 1,000 feet (300 m) Smith heard an explosion, then saw flames and smoke coming from Little's left wing. With half the wing gone, the airplane went into a tight spin and struck the ground. Smith noted that he had seen no flak; Little may have been the unlucky victim of small arms fire from the ground triggering the premature detonation of one of his own bombs. Squadron leader Robert Neale stated, "Bob flew more missions over enemy territory than anybody else in the outfit. He never turned down a chance to fight. Bob was one of the most aggressive pilots in the AVG and a helluva good guy."Little was awarded a British Distinguished Flying Cross and an American Distinguished Flying Cross.
References
See also
List of Flying Tigers pilots
List of World War II flying aces | [
"Military"
] |
180,624 | Vehicle dynamics | Vehicle dynamics is the study of vehicle motion, e.g., how a vehicle's forward movement changes in response to driver inputs, propulsion system outputs, ambient conditions, air/surface/water conditions, etc. Vehicle dynamics is a part of engineering primarily based on classical mechanics. It may be applied for motorized vehicles (such as automobiles), bicycles and motorcycles, aircraft, and watercraft. | Vehicle dynamics is the study of vehicle motion, e.g., how a vehicle's forward movement changes in response to driver inputs, propulsion system outputs, ambient conditions, air/surface/water conditions, etc.
Vehicle dynamics is a part of engineering primarily based on classical mechanics.
It may be applied for motorized vehicles (such as automobiles), bicycles and motorcycles, aircraft, and watercraft.
Factors affecting vehicle dynamics
The aspects of a vehicle's design which affect the dynamics can be grouped into drivetrain and braking, suspension and steering, distribution of mass, aerodynamics and tires.
Drivetrain and braking
Automobile layout (i.e. location of engine and driven wheels)
Powertrain
Braking system
Suspension and steering
Some attributes relate to the geometry of the suspension, steering and chassis. These include:
Ackermann steering geometry
Axle track
Camber angle
Caster angle
Ride height
Roll center
Scrub radius
Steering ratio
Toe
Wheel alignment
Wheelbase
Distribution of mass
Some attributes or aspects of vehicle dynamics are purely due to mass and its distribution. These include:
Center of mass
Moment of inertia
Roll moment
Sprung mass
Unsprung mass
Weight distribution
Aerodynamics
Some attributes or aspects of vehicle dynamics are purely aerodynamic. These include:
Automobile drag coefficient
Automotive aerodynamics
Center of pressure
Downforce
Ground effect in cars
Tires
Some attributes or aspects of vehicle dynamics can be attributed directly to the tires. These include:
Camber thrust
Circle of forces
Contact patch
Cornering force
Ground pressure
Pacejka's Magic Formula
Pneumatic trail
Radial Force Variation
Relaxation length
Rolling resistance
Self aligning torque
Skid
Slip angle
Slip (vehicle dynamics)
Spinout
Steering ratio
Tire load sensitivity
Vehicle behaviours
Some attributes or aspects of vehicle dynamics are purely dynamic. These include:
Body flex
Body roll
Bump Steer
Bundorf analysis
Directional stability
Critical speed
Noise, vibration, and harshness
Pitch
Ride quality
Roll
Speed wobble
Understeer, oversteer, lift-off oversteer, and fishtailing
Weight transfer and load transfer
Yaw
Analysis and simulation
The dynamic behavior of vehicles can be analysed in several different ways. This can be as straightforward as a simple spring mass system, through a three-degree of freedom (DoF) bicycle model, to a large degree of complexity using a multibody system simulation package such as MSC ADAMS or Modelica. As computers have gotten faster, and software user interfaces have improved, commercial packages such as CarSim have become widely used in industry for rapidly evaluating hundreds of test conditions much faster than real time. Vehicle models are often simulated with advanced controller designs provided as software in the loop (SIL) with controller design software such as Simulink, or with physical hardware in the loop (HIL).
Vehicle motions are largely due to the shear forces generated between the tires and road, and therefore the tire model is an essential part of the math model. In current vehicle simulator models, the tire model is the weakest and most difficult part to simulate. The tire model must produce realistic shear forces during braking, acceleration, cornering, and combinations, on a range of surface conditions. Many models are in use. Most are semi-empirical, such as the Pacejka Magic Formula model.
Racing car games or simulators are also a form of vehicle dynamics simulation. In early versions many simplifications were necessary in order to get real-time performance with reasonable graphics. However, improvements in computer speed have combined with interest in realistic physics, leading to driving simulators that are used for vehicle engineering using detailed models such as CarSim.
It is important that the models should agree with real world test results, hence many of the following tests are correlated against results from instrumented test vehicles.
Techniques include:
Linear range constant radius understeer
Fishhook
Frequency response
Lane change
Moose test
Sinusoidal steering
Skidpad
Swept path analysis
See also
Automotive suspension design
Automobile handling
Hunting oscillation
Multi-axis shaker table
Vehicular metrics
4-poster
7 post shaker
References
Further reading
Egbert, Bakker; Nyborg, Lars; Pacejka, Hans B. (1987). "Tyre modelling for use in vehicle dynamics studies" (PDF). Society of Automotive Engineers. A new way of representing tyre data obtained from measurements in pure cornering and pure braking conditions.
Gillespie, Thomas D. (1992). Fundamentals of vehicle dynamics (2nd printing. ed.). Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. ISBN 978-1-56091-199-9. Mathematically oriented derivation of standard vehicle dynamics equations, and definitions of standard terms.
Milliken, William F. (2002). "Chassis Design – Principles and Analysis". Society of Automotive Engineers. Vehicle dynamics as developed by Maurice Olley from the 1930s onwards. First comprehensive analytical synthesis of vehicle dynamics.
Milliken, William F.; Douglas L. (1995). Race car vehicle dynamics (4. printing. ed.). Warrendale, Pa.: Society of Automotive Engineers. ISBN 978-1-56091-526-3. Latest and greatest, also the standard reference for automotive suspension engineers.
Limited, Jörnsen Reimpell; Helmut Stoll; Jürgen W. Betzler (2001). The automotive chassis : engineering principles. Translated from the German by AGET (2nd ed.). Warrendale, Pa.: Society of Automotive Engineers. ISBN 978-0-7680-0657-5. Archived from the original on 2012-11-02. Retrieved 2017-09-17. Vehicle dynamics and chassis design from a race car perspective.
Guiggiani, Massimo (2014). The Science of Vehicle Dynamics (1st. ed.). Dordrecht: Springer. ISBN 978-94-017-8532-7. Handling, Braking, and Ride of Road and Race Cars.
Meywerk, Martin (2015). Vehicle Dynamics (1st. ed.). West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-97135-2. Lecture Notes to the MOOC Vehicle Dynamics of iversity | [
"Engineering"
] |
4,995,547 | Samothrace temple complex | The Samothrace Temple Complex, known as the Sanctuary of the Great Gods (Modern Greek: Ιερό των Μεγάλων Θεών Ieró ton Megálon Theón), is one of the principal Pan-Hellenic religious sanctuaries, located on the island of Samothrace within the larger Thrace. Built immediately to the west of the ramparts of the city of Samothrace, it was nonetheless independent, as attested to by the dispatch of city ambassadors during festivals. It was celebrated throughout Ancient Greece for its Mystery religion. Numerous famous people were initiates, including the historian Herodotus, one of very few authors to have left behind a few clues to the nature of the mysteries, the Spartan leader Lysander, and numerous Athenians. The temple complex is mentioned by Plato and Aristophanes. | The Samothrace Temple Complex, known as the Sanctuary of the Great Gods (Modern Greek: Ιερό των Μεγάλων Θεών Ieró ton Megálon Theón), is one of the principal Pan-Hellenic religious sanctuaries, located on the island of Samothrace within the larger Thrace. Built immediately to the west of the ramparts of the city of Samothrace, it was nonetheless independent, as attested to by the dispatch of city ambassadors during festivals.
It was celebrated throughout Ancient Greece for its Mystery religion. Numerous famous people were initiates, including the historian Herodotus, one of very few authors to have left behind a few clues to the nature of the mysteries, the Spartan leader Lysander, and numerous Athenians. The temple complex is mentioned by Plato and Aristophanes.
During the Hellenistic period, after the investiture of Phillip II, it formed a Macedonian national sanctuary where the successors to Alexander the Great vied to outdo each other's munificence. It remained an important religious site throughout the Roman period. Hadrian visited, and Varro described the mysteries. The cult fades from history towards the end of Late Antiquity, when the temple would have been closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire.
Cult of the Great Gods
The identity and nature of the deities venerated at the sanctuary remains largely enigmatic, in large part because it was taboo to pronounce their names. Literary sources from antiquity refer to them under the collective name of "Cabeiri" (Greek: Κάβειροι Kábiroi), while they carry the simpler epithet of Gods or Great Gods, which was a title or state of being rather than the actual name, (Μεγάλοι Θεοί Megáloi Theoí) on inscriptions found on the site.
The pantheon of Samothrace
The Pantheon of the Great Gods consists of numerous chthonic deities, primarily predating the arrival of Greek colonists on the island in the 7th century BC, and congregating around one central figure – the Great Mother.
The Great Mother, a goddess often depicted on Samothracian coinage as a seated woman, with a lion at her side. Her original secret name was Axiéros. She is associated with the Anatolian Great Mother, the Phrygian Mount, and the Trojan Mother Goddess of Mount Ida. The Greeks associated her equally with the fertility goddess Demeter. The Great Mother is the all-powerful mistress of the wild world of the mountains, venerated on sacred rocks where sacrifices and offerings were made to her. In the sanctuary of Samothrace, these altars correspond to porphyry outcroppings of various colours (red, green, blue, or grey). For her faithful, her power also manifested itself in veins of magnetic iron, from which they fashioned rings that initiates wore as signs of recognition. A number of these rings were recovered from the tombs in the neighbouring necropolis.
Hecate, under the name of Zerynthia, and Aphrodite-Zerynthia, two important nature goddesses, are equally venerated at Samothrace, their cult having been distanced from that of the Great Mother and more closely identified with deities more familiar to the Greeks.
Kadmilos (Καδμίλος), the spouse of Axiéros, is a fertility god identified by the Greeks as Hermes; a phallic deity whose sacred symbols were a ram's head and a baton (kerykeion), which was obviously a phallic symbol and can be found on some currency.
Two other masculine deities accompany Kadmilos. These may correspond to the two legendary heroes who founded the Samothracean mysteries: the brothers Dardanos (Δάρδανος) and Iasion (Ἰασίων), also called Eetion (Ηετίων). They are associated by the Greeks with the Dioscuri, divine twins popular as protectors of mariners in distress.
A pair of underworld deities, Axiokersos and Axiokersa, are identified to Hades and Persephone, but do not appear to be part of the original group of pre-Hellenic deities. The legend (familiar to the Greeks) of the rape of the goddess of fertility by the god of the underworld also plays a part in the sacred dramas celebrated at Samothrace; although less so than at Eleusis.
During a later period this same myth was associated with that of the marriage of Cadmos and Harmony, possibly due to a similarity of names to Kadmilos and Electra.
The rituals
The whole of the sanctuary was open to all who wished to worship the Great Gods, although access to buildings consecrated to the mysteries was understood to be reserved for initiates. These rituals and ceremonies were presided over by the priestess in service to the people. The head priestess, and often a prophetess, was titled a Sybil, or Cybele.
The most common rituals were indistinguishable from practice at other Greek sanctuaries. Prayer and supplications accompanied by blood sacrifices of domestic animals (sheep and pigs) burnt in sacred hearths (εσχάραι eschárai), as well as libations made to the chthonic deities in circular or rectangular ritual pits (βόθρος bóthros). A large number of rock altars were used, the largest of which was surrounded by a monumental enclosure at the end of the 4th century BC (site plan, number 11).
The major annual festival, which drew envoys to the island from throughout the Greek world, probably took place in mid-July. It consisted of the presentation of a sacred play, which entailed a ritual wedding (ιερός γάμος hierós gámos); this may have taken place in the building with the Dancer's Wall which was built in the 4th century BC. During this era the belief arose that the search for the missing maiden, followed by her marriage to the god of the underworld, represented the marriage of Cadmos and Harmonia. The frieze (see photo below) on which the Temenos is indicated may be an allusion to this marriage. Around 200 BC, a Dionysian competition was added to the festival, facilitated by the construction of a theatre (site plan, number 10) opposite the great altar (site plan, number 11).
According to local myth, it is in this era that the city of Samothrace honoured a poet of Iasos in Caria for having composed the tragedy Dardanos and having effected other acts of good will around the island, the city, and the sanctuary.
Numerous votive offerings were made at the sanctuary, which were placed in a building made for the purpose next to the great altar (site plan, number 12). Offerings could be statues of bronze, marble or clay, weapons, vases, etc. However, due to Samothrace's location on busy maritime routes the cult was particularly popular and numerous often very modest offerings found their way there: excavations have turned up seashells and fish hooks offered by mariners or fishermen who were likely thanking the divinities for having protected them from the dangers of the sea.
The initiation
A unique feature of the Samothracean mystery cult was its openness: as compared to the Eleusinian Mysteries, the initiation had no prerequisites for age, gender, status or nationality. Everyone, men and women, adults and children, Greeks and non-Greeks, the free, the indentured, or the enslaved could participate. Nor was the initiation confined to a specific date and the initiate could on the same day attain two successive degrees of the mystery. The only condition, in fact, was to be present in the sanctuary.
The first stage of the initiation was the myesis (μύησις). A sacred account and special symbols were revealed to the mystes (μύστης); that is to say the initiate. In this fashion, Herodotus was given a revelation concerning the significance of phallic images of Hermes-Kadmilos. According to Varro, the symbols revealed on this occasion symbolized heaven and earth. In return for this revelation, which was kept secret, the initiate was given the assurance of certain privileges: Hope for a better life, and more particularly protection at sea, and possibly, as at Eleusis, the promise of a happy afterlife. During the ceremony the initiate received a crimson sash knotted around the waist that was supposed to be a protective talisman. An iron ring exposed to the divine power of magnetic stones was probably another symbol of protection conferred during the initiation.
The preparation for the initiation took place in a small room south of the Anaktoron (site plan, number 16; literally the House of the Lords), a type of sacristy where the initiate was dressed in white and was given a lamp. The myesis then took place in the Anaktoron, a large hall capable of accommodating numerous already initiated faithful, who would attend the ceremony seated on benches along the walls. The initiate carried out a ritual washing in a basin situated in the southeast corner and then made a libation to the gods in a circular pit. At the end of the ceremony, the initiate took his place seated on a round wooden platform facing the principal door while ritual dances took place around him. He was then taken to the north chamber, the sanctuary where he received the revelation proper. Access to this sanctuary was forbidden to non-initiates. The initiate was given a document attesting to his initiation in the mysteries and could, at least during the later period, pay to have his name engraved on a commemorative plaque.
The second degree of the initiation was called the epoptia (εποπτεία, literally, the contemplation). Unlike the one year interval between degrees which was demanded at Eleusis, the second degree at Samothrace could be obtained immediately after the myesis. In spite of this, it was only realized by a small number of initiates, which leads us to believe that it involved some difficult conditions, though it is unlikely that these conditions were financial or social. Lehman assessed that it concerned moral issues, as the candidate was auditioned and required to confess his sins. This audition took place overnight in front of the Hieron (site plan, number 13; literally the holy place). A foundation was recovered here which could have supported a giant torch; generally speaking, the discovery of numerous lamps and torch supports throughout this site confirms the nocturnal nature of the initiation rites. After the interrogation and the eventual absolution awarded by the priest or official the candidate was brought into the Hieron, which also functioned as an epoption (place of contemplation) where ritual cleansing took place and sacrifice was made into a sacred hearth located in the center of the "holy of holies". The initiate then went to an apse in the rear of the building, which was probably intended to resemble a grotto. The hierophant (ιεροφάντης hierophántes), otherwise known as the initiator, took his place on a platform (βήμα béma), in the apse where he recited the liturgy and displayed the symbols of the mysteries.
During the Roman era, towards 200 AD, the entrance to the Hieron was modified to permit the entrance of live sacrificial offerings. A parapet was constructed in the interior to protect the spectators and a crypt was fitted into the apse. These modifications permitted the celebration of the Kriobolia and the Taurobolia of the Anatolian Magna Mater, which were introduced to the epopteia at this time. The new rites saw the initiate, or possibly only the priest by proxy, descend into a pit in the apse. The blood of the sacrificial animals then flowed over him or her in the fashion of a baptismal rite.
Description of the sanctuary
The Samothrace site may appear to be somewhat confusing at first glance; this is due to a combination of the unusual topography and the two century long period over which the site was developed. The sanctuary occupies three narrow terraces on the west slopes of mount Hagios Georgios, separated by two steep-banked torrents. The entrance is in the east through the Ptolemy II propylaeum, also known as the Ptolemaion (site plan number 20), which spans the eastern brook and functions as a bridge. Immediately to the west, on the first terrace, there is a somewhat circular paved depression, containing an altar in the centre, which was undoubtedly a sacrificial area; although the precise function of this place has not further been determined.
A winding path descends towards the main terrace, between two brooks, where the main monuments to the cult can be found. A large tholos, the Arsinoëion, or Arsinoë Rotunda (site plan number 15), the largest covered round space in the ancient Greek world (20 m in diameter), may have served to welcome the theoroi, sacred ambassadors delegated by cities and associations to attend the great festivals at the sanctuary. The decoration of rosettes and garlanded bull's heads leads some to believe that sacrifices may have also taken place here. The rotunda was built on an older building of which only the foundation has remained. The Arlington Massachusetts Reservoir, a 2,000,000 gallon water tank, is based on one of the reconstructions of the rotunda.
Right at the opening of the path leading to the sanctuary, one finds the largest building, the Building of the Dancer's Frieze (site plan number 14), sometimes called the Temenos, as it corresponds to a monumental enclosure marking a much older sacrificial area. There is a great deal of variance in reconstructed plans for this portion of the site (compare for example the different editions of Lehman's archeological guide — the plan used in this article reflects the 4th edition). It is in essence a simple court preceded by an ionic propylaeum decorated with the well-known dancer's frieze (photo below). The celebrated architect Scopas may have been the designer.
The most important building of the cult, the epopteion, is located to the south of the Temenos. This building bears the inscription of Hieron (site plan number 13). It is not known who dedicated this building, but given the magnificence was likely a royal. It is some type of temple, but there is no peripteros (surround of columns) and only a single prostyle (partly restored – see photo above). The architectural ornamentation of the facade is noteworthy for its elegance. The interior boasts the largest unsupported span in the ancient Greek world – 11 metres. The south end of this building is an apse (fr: abside inscrite), which constitutes the most sacred portion. This apse may represent, according to R. Ginouvès, a grotto for conducting chthonic rituals. The main altar, and the building for displaying votive offerings, are located to the west of the Hieron (site plan numbers 11 & 12).
The Anaktoron, the building for greeting the myesis is located north of the Arsinoë Rotunda, though the version currently visible dates to the imperial era.
The third and final terrace, West of the spiritual centre of the sanctuary, is primarily occupied by votive buildings such as the Miletean Building, so named as it was dedicated by a citizen of Miletus (site plan number 5), and the Neorion, or naval monument (site plan number 6). It is also the location of a banquet hall (site plan number 7). Three other small Hellenistic treasures are not well known (site plan, numbers 1 to 3). Overlooking the central terrace, the space is above all dominated by a very large portico (104 m long; site plan number 8) which acts as a monumental backdrop to the sanctuary, above the theatre.
It is in this area of the site that the most recent traces of occupation can be found: a square Byzantine fort in effect built of treasure; as it re-used building material from the original site.
Diodorus Siculus (III.55) relates a legend of the temple being founded by Myrina, before she was defeated by Mopsus and Sipylus, and slain:
After that, while subduing some of the rest of the islands, she was caught in a storm, and after she had offered up prayers for her safety to the Mother of the Gods, she was carried to one of the uninhabited islands; this island, in obedience to a vision which she beheld in her dreams, she made sacred to this goddess, and set up altars there and offered magnificent sacrifices. She also gave it the name of Samothrace, which means, when translated into Greek, 'Sacred Island', although some historians say that it was formerly called Samos and was then given the name of Samothrace by Thracians who at one time dwelt on it. However, after the Amazons had returned to the continent, the myth relates, the Mother of the Gods, well pleased with the island, settled in it certain other people, and also her own sons, who are known by the name of Corybantes; who their father was, is handed down in their rites as a matter not to be divulged; and she established the mysteries which are now celebrated on the island and ordained by law that the sacred area should enjoy the right of sanctuary.
A Macedonian national sanctuary
And we are told that Philip, after being initiated into the mysteries of Samothrace at the same time with Olympias, he himself being still a youth and she an orphan child, fell in love with her and betrothed himself to her at once with the consent of her brother, Arymbas.
(Plutarch, Life of Alexander, II, 2)
According to Plutarch, this is how Macedonian king Phillip II met his future spouse Olympias, the Epirote princess of the Aeacid dynasty, during their initiation to the mysteries of Samothrace. This historical anecdote defines the Argead dynasty's allegiance to the sanctuary, followed by the two dynasties of the Diadochi; the Ptolemaic dynasty and the Antigonid dynasty who continually attempted to outdo one another in the 3rd century BC, during their alternating periods of domination over the island and more generally the Northern Aegean.
The first sovereign of whom epigraphic traces remain was the son of Philip II and half-brother of Alexander, Philip III of Macedon, who would be the principal benefactor of the Sanctuary during the 4th century BC: he probably commissioned the Temenos by 340 BC, the Main Altar in the next decade, the Hiéron by 325 BC, as well as the Doric monument and the border of the eastern circular area; these dedicated in his name as well as that of his nephew Alexander IV of Macedon, who jointly ruled from 323–317 BC.
The second surge of major construction commence started in the 280's with the Arsinoe II Rotunda, which may date from the period (288–281 BC) when this daughter of Ptolemy I was married to the Diadochus Lysimachus, then king of Macedon. Widowed after his death in battle in 281 BC, she married her half-brother, Ptolemy Keraunos and later her brother Ptolemy II in 274 BC. Of the monumental dedication which surmounted the door, only a single block remains, and it is thus not possible to determine the complete inscription. Ptolemy II himself had the Propylaeum built across the entrance to the sanctuary: the powerful Ptolemaic fleet which allowed him to dominate the bulk of the Aegean up to the Thracian coast, and the construction at Samothrace bear witness to his influence.
The re-establishment of the Antigonid dynasty on the Macedonian throne with Antigonus II Gonatas, soon led to a clash for maritime supremacy on the Aegean: Antigonus Gonatas celebrated his victory at the naval battle of Kos by dedicating one of his victorious ships to the shrine by 255–245 BC; displayed in a building constructed on an ad hoc basis on the west terrace; the Neorion (site plan number 6). It may have been inspired by another Neorion, at Delos, probably built at the end of the 4th century BC, which he re-used and dedicated to another of his ships at the same time.
The naval war between the Ptolemaics and the Antigonids continued intermittently through the second half of the 3rd century BC, until Philip V of Macedon, the last Antigonid king to attempt to establish a Macedonian thalassocracy, was finally beaten by an alliance between Rhodes and Pergamon. A monumental column was dedicated to him in front to the large stoa of the upper terrace by the Macedonians by 200 BC. It was probably during one of these episodes that the monumental fountain containing a ship's prow of limestone and the famous Winged Victory of Samothrace statue were built. This could actually be a dedication from Rhodes rather than Macedon, as analysis of the limestone used for the prow and the type of vessel indicated that it came from Rhodes.
The sanctuary became the final refuge for the last king of Macedon, Perseus of Macedon, who went to the island after his defeat at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC and was there arrested by the Romans.
Site exploration
Fascination with mystery religions renewed interest in the site during the 17th and 18th centuries. Following the 1863 discovery of the Winged Victory of Samothrace statue – now in the Louvre – by French consul Charles Champoiseau (posted to Adrianople), the French team of Deville and Coquart carried out the first archeological digs of the site in 1866. The Austrian A. Conze was next to excavate the site in 1873 and 1876: he cleared the Ptolémaion and the stoa and carried out some superficial digs at the Hiéron, the Arsinoéion as well as the Temenos. This work was published in two volumes of unusually high quality for the time. Under an agreement with the Turkish government, the Austrians shared their discoveries: numerous architectural fragments went to the Vienna Kunsthistorisch Museum, while others were sent to Gallipoli and then on to the Istanbul Archeological Museum — part of this material unfortunately disappeared in transit. Champoiseau returned in 1891 to look for the blocks which formed the ship's prow upon which the Winged Victory of Samothrace statue had been installed in Paris, and at this time discovered the theatre. The École française d'Athènes and the Charles University in Prague (Salač and Fernand Chapouthuer) also carried out joint work between 1923 and 1927, before the Institute of Fine Arts (at New York University) started their first excavations in 1938, which uncovered the Anaktoron. Interrupted by the war, during which time the site suffered greatly as a result of Bulgarian occupation, they returned in 1948 and continue to the present. In 1956 a partial reconstruction (anastylosis) of the Hiéron facade was carried out.
See also
Ancient Greek religion
Mystery religion
Eleusinian mysteries
References
Karl Lehmann, Samothrace: A Guide to the Excavations and the Museum, 5th ed. Thessaloniki: J J Augustin, 1983.
(in French) René Ginouvès et al., La Macédoine: De Philippe II à la conquête romaine. Paris: CNRS, 1993.
External links
Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites (article by one of the site archaeologists, Ph. Lehman)
Presentation of archaeological site (Greek Ministry of Culture)
presentation of the archaeological Museum (Greek Ministry of Culture)
Explore in 3D video (National Geographic)
American Excavations: Samothrace (Emory University) | [
"Knowledge",
"People",
"Concepts"
] |
24,823,109 | Phoenix Brewery | The Phoenix Brewery (also known as Finns Brewery) was a brewery run by the Finns family in Newbury, Berkshire, UK. | The Phoenix Brewery (also known as Finns Brewery) was a brewery run by the Finns family in Newbury, Berkshire, UK.
History
The brewery was founded in the early 19th century.
Premises
The brewer's house on Bartholomew Street was built in the 17th century and designed by James Clarke.The main brewery buildings including the two-storey beerhouse and the three-storey brewhouse date from approximately 1842. The beerhouse features recessed sash windows and hipped roofing. The doorway to the building is wide and designed to be used for service access.
The top floor of the brewhouse contained a hoist, grain mill, water tanks and malt stores. The first floor held the engine room and the tuns while the ground floor housed the boiler, pumps, the well, and stores for barrels. The exterior of the brewhouse features a slated roof, dentil cornice and arched windows. The gables include crown glass louvres.
The complex became a Grade II listed building in November 1981.
Closure
In the 1923, the brewery closed and was taken over by Ushers of Trowbridge. The closure meant that there was no commercial brewery in West Berkshire for 71 years, until Butts Brewery opened in Great Shefford in 1994. Upon closure, the brewhouse was converted to be used for storage.
Current use
In the early 2000s, the brewhouse was used as a restaurant and bar. In 2004, however, the business was refused an entertainment licence due to objections from local police. In 2008, the main brewery building was opened as apartments.
References
See also
List of Breweries in Berkshire | [
"Food_and_drink"
] |
44,201,141 | He Jiacheng | He Jiacheng (Chinese: 何家成; pinyin: Hé Jiāchéng; born May 1956) is a former Chinese academic and public official. Between March 2013 and October 2014 he served as the executive vice president of China National School of Administration. He was dismissed from his position in October 2014, suspected of corruption.He won the Sun Yefang Economics Prize (孙冶方经济学奖) in 1985 and Chinese Book Award in 1990. | He Jiacheng (Chinese: 何家成; pinyin: Hé Jiāchéng; born May 1956) is a former Chinese academic and public official. Between March 2013 and October 2014 he served as the executive vice president of China National School of Administration. He was dismissed from his position in October 2014, suspected of corruption.He won the Sun Yefang Economics Prize (孙冶方经济学奖) in 1985 and Chinese Book Award in 1990.
Early life
He was born and raised in Nanjing, Jiangsu. He earned his bachelor of economics degree from Nanjing University in 1981 and received his master of economics degree from Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences in 1984. After graduating from Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences with a Ph.D. in 1986. He was appointed as the director of Development Economics Research of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. At the same year, he also was elected a member of All-China Youth Federation. From September 1999 to 2000, he studied at John F. Kennedy School of Government.
Career
From 1986 to 1987, he worked in Information Research Unit of General Office of the Chinese Communist Party. In 1987, he was elected Vice-President of China Youth Entrepreneurs Association (中国青年企业家协会).
In 1990, he served as the Deputy Director of the General Office of the State Department of Materials (国家物资部), and Minister Office Director, China Institute of Economic Research Materials Institute, he remained in that position until 1992, when he was transferred to Wuxi and appointed the Vice-Mayor.
In 1991, he was elected Executive Vice-President of the Chinese Society of Material Flow (中国物资流通学会). In 1992, he was elected a member of National Youth Standing Committee.
From 1993 to 1995, he worked in State Internal Trade Policy Regime and Regulation Department (国家国内贸易部). In 1994 he was elected Vice-President of the China State-owned Assets Management Society (中国国有资产管理学会).
From 1995 to 1998, he worked as President and CPC Party Chief of China Huaxing Group (中国华星集团). In 1997 he was elected Vice-President of the China Logistics Association (中国物流协会).
From 1998 to 2000, he was a member and Deputy CPC Party Chief of State Internal Trade Bureau (国家国内贸易局).
From 2000 to 2009, he worked as the Chairman of State-owned Large Enterprises Focus (国务院国有重点大型企业监事会). In 2000 he elected Chairman of John F. Kennedy School of Government of Chinese Student Association, Vice-Chairman of China Information Infrastructure, and Vice-President of the National Information Technology Committee of Experts. He also is a former guest researcher at Peking University, Tsinghua University, and Chinese Academy of Social Sciences.
In September 2009, he was promoted to become the Vice-President of the China National School of Administration, then became the Executive Vice-President in March 2013.
Downfall
In October 2014, the state media reported that he was being investigated by the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection for "serious violations of laws and regulations". On October 13, 2014, he was removed from office by the Organization Department of the Chinese Communist Party.On November 11, 2015, He Jiacheng was expelled from the Communist Party. The investigation concluded Yu had gone to private clubs and accepted bribes.On February 28, 2017, he was sentenced to 9 years in prison for taking bribes by the Intermediate People's Court in Ningbo.
References
== External links == | [
"Education"
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40,516,523 | Nancy Snow (philosopher) | Nancy E. Snow is a professor of philosophy specializing in ethics and the director of the Institute for the Study of Human Flourishing at the University of Oklahoma. Prior to her move to Norman, she was a professor of philosophy at Marquette University. In 2022, she will move to the University of Kansas. | Nancy E. Snow is a professor of philosophy specializing in ethics and the director of the Institute for the Study of Human Flourishing at the University of Oklahoma. Prior to her move to Norman, she was a professor of philosophy at Marquette University. In 2022, she will move to the University of Kansas.
Education and career
Snow received a bachelor's degree from the Marquette University in 1980, and a master's in philosophy, also from Marquette, in 1982. She went on to receive a doctorate from the University of Notre Dame in 1988.Snow accepted an appointment as an assistant professor of philosophy at Arizona State University in 1987, before accepting an appointment as an assistant professor of philosophy at Marquette in 1989, where she has remained since. She was promoted to associate professor in 1996, and later promoted to full professor. While at Marquette, she served as the Director of Core Curriculum from 2002-2005. While at Marquette, she has driven efforts to improve the quality and diversity of courses the campus offers, especially in the realms of gender and sexuality, believing teaching to be a critically important role of the academic. She is the current associate editor for ethics and philosophy for The Journal of Moral Education, and is currently on the editorial boards of both Ethical Theory and Moral Practice and The Journal of Value Inquiry.
Research areas
Her research has ranged widely, but has mostly focused on moral psychology and on virtue ethics. She has served as an editor of or on the editorial boards of a number of major journals, and has written or been primary editor of four books (as well as a large number of peer-reviewed papers.)
While Snow's research has dealt with issues in the philosophy of law, social and political philosophy, moral psychology, feminist ethics, business ethics, bioethics, freedom, and determinism, she has focused particularly on virtue ethics and specific virtues. She has also attempted to, wherever possible, bring psychology in to conversation with philosophy so as to buttress philosophical arguments. She also has a heavy interest in bringing other outside fields in to conversation with western philosophy, including anthropology, literature, theology, and other philosophical traditions such as the eastern philosophical traditions inspired by figures such as Confucius.
Publications
Snow has written or been the primary editor of four books. She authored Virtue as Social Intelligence: An Empirically Grounded Theory, and edited Stem Cell Research: New Frontiers in Science and Ethics, Legal Philosophy: Multiple Perspectives, and In the Company of Others: Perspectives on Community, Family, and Culture.
Virtue as Social Intelligence: An Empirically Grounded Theory
In Virtue as Social Intelligence: An Empirically Grounded Theory, Snow points out that contemporary approaches to virtue ethics do not engage in a meaningful way with psychology, and thus remain vulnerable to the philosophical situationist challenge. In her book, Snow attempts to lay out an empirically grounded theory of virtue, hoping to avoid the challenges posed by philosophical situationists. Throughout the book, Snow examines in an empirically grounded way issues surrounding virtue, including advancing an empirical argument as to why virtue is in fact a good thing, and actively trying to counter the arguments of philosophical situationists. Snow considers virtue as a particular form of social intelligence, one that distinguishes itself from other forms of social intelligence by its motivation (care for the well-being of others.)
== References == | [
"Ethics"
] |
28,770,544 | San Bruno pipeline explosion | The San Bruno pipeline explosion occurred at 6:11 pm PDT on September 9, 2010, in San Bruno, California, when a 30-inch (76 cm) diameter steel natural gas pipeline owned by Pacific Gas & Electric exploded into flames in the Crestmoor residential neighborhood 2 miles (3.2 km) west of San Francisco International Airport near Skyline Boulevard and San Bruno Avenue. The loud roar and shaking led some residents of the area, first responders, and news media to initially believe that it was an earthquake or that a large airplane had crashed. It took crews nearly an hour to determine it was a gas pipeline explosion. As of September 29, 2010, the death toll was eight people. The United States Geological Survey registered the explosion and resulting shock wave as a magnitude 1.1 earthquake. | The San Bruno pipeline explosion occurred at 6:11 pm PDT on September 9, 2010, in San Bruno, California, when a 30-inch (76 cm) diameter steel natural gas pipeline owned by Pacific Gas & Electric exploded into flames in the Crestmoor residential neighborhood 2 miles (3.2 km) west of San Francisco International Airport near Skyline Boulevard and San Bruno Avenue.
The loud roar and shaking led some residents of the area, first responders, and news media to initially believe that it was an earthquake or that a large airplane had crashed. It took crews nearly an hour to determine it was a gas pipeline explosion.
As of September 29, 2010, the death toll was eight people. The United States Geological Survey registered the explosion and resulting shock wave as a magnitude 1.1 earthquake. Eyewitnesses reported the initial blast "shot a fireball more than 1,000 feet (300 m) in the air".
Explosion and fire
At 6:11 pm PDT on September 9, 2010, a huge explosion occurred in the Crestmoor residential neighborhood of San Bruno, near Skyline Boulevard and San Bruno Avenue. This caused a fire, which quickly engulfed nearby houses. Emergency responders from San Bruno and nearby cities soon arrived at the scene and evacuated surrounding neighborhoods. Strong winds fanned the flames, hampering fire fighting efforts. The blaze was fed by a ruptured gas pipe, and large clouds of smoke soared into the sky. It took 60 to 90 minutes to shut off the gas after the explosion, according to San Bruno Fire Chief Dennis Haag. The explosion and resulting fire leveled either 35 or 37 houses and damaged at least 8 more, according to conflicting sources. Three of the damaged houses, deemed uninhabitable, were torn down the following December. About 200 firefighters battled the eight alarm fire that resulted from the explosions. The explosion excavated an asymmetric crater 167 feet (51 m) long, 26 feet (7.9 m) wide and 40 feet (12 m) deep along the sidewalk of Glenview Drive in front of 1701 Earl Avenue (a corner house), but many of the destroyed homes were eastward in the 1600 block of Claremont Drive.
The fire continued to burn for several hours after the initial explosion. The explosion compromised a water main and required firefighters to truck in water from outside sources. Firefighters were assisted by residents who dragged fire hoses nearly 4,000 feet (1,200 m) to working hydrants. Ordinary citizens drove injured people and burn victims to the hospital. Mutual aid responded from all over the Bay Area, including the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection who sent 25 fire engines, four airtankers, two air attack planes, and one helicopter.
The fire was only fifty percent contained by 10 pm PDT and continued to burn until about 11:40 am PDT the next day.As of September 29, 2010, the death toll was eight people. Among the eight deaths was 20-year-old Jessica Morales, who was with her boyfriend, Joseph Ruigomez, at the epicenter of the fire (his home) on the corner of Earl Ave. Despite his proximity to the epicenter of the fire, Ruigomez survived but spent nearly five months recovering in the Saint Francis Memorial Hospital Burn Center. Two other people at the Claremont address close to the explosion were among those killed: Jacqueline Greig, 44, and her daughter Janessa Greig, 13. Greig worked for the California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC), in a small unit that advocates for consumer rights pertaining to natural gas regulations. She had spent part of the summer evaluating PG&E's expansion plans and investment proposals to replace out-of-date pipelines. Also killed in the blast were Lavonne Bullis, 82, Greg Bullis, 50, and Will Bullis, 17.
Response
San Bruno
A Red Cross shelter was set up at the Veterans Memorial Recreation Center in San Bruno, and the Blood Centers of the Pacific issued an emergency appeal for blood donations. Some people were evacuated to Tanforan and Bayhill Shopping Centers. All elementary schools in the San Bruno Park Elementary School District, as well as Parkside Junior High, were closed on September 10. However, Capuchino High School remained open. Some residents who were evacuated from their homes were allowed to return to those undamaged on Sunday, September 12.
Pacific Gas and Electric Company
The Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) is the owner of the pipeline. On September 10, 2010, PG&E's president, Christopher Johns, said the company was not able to approach the source of the explosion to investigate the cause. An official press release issued by PG&E on September 10 reported the pipe was a 30-inch (76 cm) steel transmission line.
Shares of PG&E stock fell eight percent on the Friday after the explosion, reducing the company's market capitalization by $1.57 billion.PG&E also reduced their operating pressures by 20 percent after investigations revealed the pipeline may have been improperly installed.After the San Bruno pipeline failure, PG&E was required to re-evaluate how it determines the maximum operating pressure for some 1,800 miles of pipeline throughout its system. Specifically, the CPUC asked PG&E officials to show their lines had been tested or examined in a way that could prove the pipeline can withstand the current maximum operating pressure. At the March 15, 2011 deadline for this report, PG&E was unable to provide documentation for details of some of its gas transmission pipelines.In response to the disaster and a subsequent decision (D.11-06-017) by the CPUC, PG&E unveiled a plan in August 2011 to modernize and enhance safety of its gas transmission operations over several years, including automation of over 200 valves, strength-testing over 700 miles (1,100 km) of pipe, replacing 185 miles (298 km), and upgrading another 200 miles (320 km) or so to allow in-line inspection. The plan was divided into two phases. The first phase, scheduled to end in 2014, targeted pipeline segments in urban areas, those not built to modern standards, and those that had not been strength-tested. Project funding of $769 million was the subject of a PG&E application (R.11-02-019) for a three-year increase in gas rates starting January 2012.On November 6, 2011, an explosion occurred near Woodside, California during strength testing of PG&E pipelines. The explosion caused a mudslide in the area; however, no casualties were reported.
California state government
Lieutenant Governor Abel Maldonado made a state of emergency declaration and signed an executive order to provide aid to victims.
State regulators ordered PG&E to survey all natural gas lines the company controls in California. Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger visited the site several days later, after returning from a trade mission in Asia.
Federal government
U.S. Rep. Jackie Speier called the devastation "a very serious crisis" and was asking Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to declare it a national disaster area.
Use of technology
The San Bruno explosion was notable for the fact that local technology companies such as Cisco Systems and Google dispatched their emergency response teams to provide emergency communications and enhanced mapping information at the request of responders at the scene. Coordinated through the nonprofit InSTEDD (Innovative Support to Emergencies, Diseases, and Disasters), with support from the Carnegie Mellon University Disaster Management Initiative, a number of unaffiliated technology volunteers were requested to support many of the GIS (Geographic Information Systems) response efforts, coordinated through the Planning Section Chief.
Investigation
San Bruno Police declared the area a crime scene to determine if foul play was involved. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) began an investigation into the cause of the explosion. During the days prior to the explosion, some residents reported smelling natural gas in the area. A source within PG&E reported a break in natural gas line number 132 caused the explosion. At the time of the explosion, the pressure within that part of the pipeline was 386–386.4 psi (2.661–2.664 MPa). Although this was 11 psi (0.076 MPa) greater than PG&E's maximum rated operating pressure for that section of the pipeline, it was still 14 psi (0.097 MPa) below PG&E's specified maximum allowable rating of 400 psi (2.8 MPa). The gas line is a large 30-inch (76 cm) steel pipe. NTSB vice chairman Christopher Hart said at a briefing that the segment of pipe that blew out onto the street was 28 feet (8.5 m) long, the explosion sent that piece of pipe about 100 feet (30 m) and the blast created a crater 167 feet (51 m) long and 26 feet (7.9 m) wide, though the NTSB Pipeline Accident Report would later size the crater to be 72 feet (22 m) long and 26 feet (7.9 m) wide. He said that an inspection of the severed pipe chunk revealed that it was made of several smaller sections that had been welded together and that a seam ran its length. The presence of the welds did not necessarily indicate the pipe had been repaired, he said. Newer pipelines are usually manufactured into the shape needed for these applications, rather than having multiple weaker welded sections that could potentially leak or break.In January 2011, federal investigators reported that they found numerous defective welds in the pipeline. The thickness of the pipe varied, and some welds did not penetrate the pipes completely. As PG&E increased the pressure in the pipes to meet growing energy demand, the defective welds were further weakened until their failure. As the pipeline was installed in 1956, modern testing methods such as X-rays were not available to detect the problem at that time.The NTSB held a 3-day public hearing on March 1 through 3, 2011, to gather additional facts for the ongoing investigation of the pipeline rupture and explosion.Parties to the public hearing included:
Pacific Gas & Electric
California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC)
Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA)
The City of San Bruno
International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers Local 1245The NTSB also published call logs from the Milpitas PG&E gas terminal to a gas control center. An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) replacement was started at the Milpitas terminal several hours before the San Bruno explosion.It was revealed that PG&E had done pipeline replacement work on Line 132 along parts of the San Andreas Fault zone, near this area, to reduce the likelihood of the pipeline failing from an earthquake. However, the replacement was stopped short of the area that failed in 2010.On January 13, 2012, an independent audit from the State of California issued a report stating that PG&E had illegally diverted over $100 million from a fund used for safety operations, and instead used it for executive compensation and bonuses.
Litigation
Private party
Through more than 20 law firms, over 100 plaintiffs have sued Pacific Gas and Electric and/or its parent, PG&E Corporation, in the Superior Courts of California in over 70 separate lawsuits. Virtually all were filed in the local state court, the Superior Court of California for the County of San Mateo. All the cases were consolidated and transferred to Judge Steven L. Dylina on March 4, 2011, and designated as Judicial Council Coordinated Proceeding (JCCP) No. 4648, PG&E "San Bruno Fire" Cases. On June 3, 2011, the plaintiffs filed a consolidated Master Complaint.
On July 5, 2011, PG&E's lawyers filed their Answer to the Master Complaint. A week later, the San Francisco Chronicle ran a front-page story attacking the defendants for invoking certain routine defenses in their answer, like state-of-the-art and comparative negligence.In July 2012, the plaintiffs lodged a deposition in San Mateo County Superior Court claiming that PG&E management ignored employee concerns about GIS data inaccuracies that impeded inspection of the pipeline.In September 2013, PG&E settled the claims of 347 victims. PG&E had previously settled with 152 victims; the additional settlements brought the total payment to $565 million for 499 victims. Two victims' lawsuits remained after the settlement, but newspapers later reported the $565 million figure as the final settlement for all victim claims. PG&E stated in its 2015 annual report that it had paid $558 million in third-party claims, and $92 million in legal costs, and received $515 million from insurance.
State of California
In October 2012, public hearings on the San Bruno pipeline blast at the CPUC were suspended for state regulators and PG&E to strike a deal about the fines. Rene Morales, mother of Jessica Morales who was burned alive and one of eight people that was killed in the fire requested that California Governor Jerry Brown appoint a new president of the California PUC. Also in October 2012, former Senator George J. Mitchell was chosen to lead talks in the settlement of fines in the explosion. In December 2012 the CPUC decided that 55% of the long term costs for PG&E pipeline inspection and safety upgrades of $229 million will be borne by electricity rate payers.On September 16, 2014, the San Francisco Chronicle reported that Carol Brown, the chief of staff for the president of the CPUC, had communicated with PG&E executives to help move litigation to judges they expected would be friendly to PG&E's side. As of October 2014 the judge shopping scandal is under federal investigation. In 2018, the CPUC fined PG&E $92.5 million for improper communication with CPUC commissioners and staff.On April 9, 2015, the Public Utilities Commission fined PG&E $1.6 billion.
Federal
On April 1, 2014, PG&E was indicted by a federal grand jury in United States District Court for the Northern District of California for multiple violations of the Natural Gas Pipeline Safety Act of 1968 relating to its record keeping and pipeline "integrity management" practices. An additional indictment was issued by the grand jury on July 29, 2014, charging the company with obstruction of justice for lying to the NTSB regarding its pipeline testing policy, bringing the total number of counts in the indictment to 28. Under the new indictment, the company could be fined as much as $1.3 billion, based on profit associated with the alleged misconduct, in addition to $2.5 billion for state regulatory violations.On January 21, 2017, PG&E was fined $3 million and ordered to perform 10,000 hours of community service for criminal actions of violating the Natural Gas Pipeline Safety Act and for obstruction of justice. In addition, it must institute a compliance and ethics monitoring program and spend up to $3 million to "publicize its criminal conduct". These actions were imposed after the company was found guilty by a federal jury in August 2016 of six of the twelve charges against the company in US District Court.
Shareholders
In 2017, PG&E settled a shareholder class action lawsuit alleging "gross mismanagement" by agreeing to have its insurance company pay PG&E $90 million, and to budget $32 million for safety and governance improvements.
Media coverage
Brigham McCown, the former head for the federal Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, called for the creation of a national commission to examine the problems surrounding high-pressure fuel pipelines that have been built in residential areas. McCown says it often takes an "incident like this one to force change." He also suggested installing a "no man's land" around some pipelines in hopes of preventing another disaster.On September 9, 2012, a memorial to the victims was unveiled in the San Bruno City Park.
See also
List of pipeline accidents
References
External links
San Bruno explosion map Interactive map from Los Angeles Times.
"Resources for San Bruno Residents" (KGO-TV)
Aerial photograph of the aftermath – Taken on November 9, 2010
Before and after comparison photos
Photo gallery and links to stories and information
Commercial pilots in the air realized it was not a plane crash – Video
Surveillance video of the explosion from a gas station one quarter mile away – Video
Surveillance video from inside a grocery store one quarter mile away – Video
National Pipeline Mapping System – Location of gas transport pipelines
Emails Produced by PG&E – 65,000 emails between PG&E and the CPUC
The NTSB Report on the San Bruno PG&E gas pipeline failure | [
"Energy"
] |
53,861,163 | St Nicholas Church, Hardwicke | Saint Nicholas Church is a grade I listed building located in Hardwicke, Gloucestershire. It practices Christianity through the Church of England denomination. The church is a stone building of the early English and late perpendicular style. It consists of a chancel, a nave, a south facing porch and a wastern tower housing the six church bells and a clock on the western wall. Inside of the church are several monuments of the Trye family. | Saint Nicholas Church is a grade I listed building located in Hardwicke, Gloucestershire. It practices Christianity through the Church of England denomination.
The church is a stone building of the early English and late perpendicular style. It consists of a chancel, a nave, a south facing porch and a wastern tower housing the six church bells and a clock on the western wall. Inside of the church are several monuments of the Trye family. It has a stained glass window on the east-side which is a memorial to Mr and Mrs Fenwick. There are three windows on the west-side one of which is a memorial to Thomas Barwick Lloyd Baker.
History
Hardwicke church was initially a chapel built in 1092, however this may have been built on the foundations of an Anglo-Saxon church. The church is classified as Norman in heritage. The walls of the chancel, common, nave and south aisle were rebuilt in the early thirteenth century. The great altar was consecrated in 1350 by the Bishop of Worcester. Bermondsey Priory sold the church in the late thirteenth or early fourteenth century. The west tower with internal stairs and gargoyles up the parapet and a porch were built in the early fourteenth century. In the late fourteenth century the rood loft and three windows on the west-side and one on the east-side were added. In the fifteenth century, the south chapel was built and two trefoil-headed lights were added on the south-side of the chancel arch. A house was built on the south-side of the churchyard around 1680, It was initially a timber-framed building with a thatched roof, However it has been rebuilt and is now privately owned. The church was named St Nicholas in the late eighteenth century but was previously called St Marys. In 1703, the church had four bells and two more bells were added in 1819 and another in 1896. The church was restored in the 1840s when the nave arcade was replaced and the east end of the chancel was rebuilt incorporating the fourteenth century window. Another more comprehensive restoration and enlargement was carried out in 1878 by Waller and Son of Gloucester. This restoration included the building of the north aisle with a chapel at its east end to house a new organ. At this time, the galleries were also removed and the porch was moved from the north to the south doorway. In 1921, the lychgate to the churchyard was opened as a World War I memorial. In 1927, The tower was restored, and six of the seven bells were kept and rehung. In 1938, The organ was moved from the north chapel to the west end of the north aisle and given a new case.
== References == | [
"Entities"
] |
1,766,793 | Al-Sijzi | Abu Sa'id Ahmed ibn Mohammed ibn Abd al-Jalil al-Sijzi (c. 945 - c. 1020, also known as al-Sinjari and al-Sijazi; Persian: ابوسعید سجزی; Al-Sijzi is short for "Al-Sijistani") was an Iranian Muslim astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer. He is notable for his correspondence with al-Biruni and for proposing that the Earth rotates around its axis in the 10th century.He dedicated work to 'Adud al-Daula, who was probably his patron, and to the prince of Balkh. He also worked in Shiraz making astronomical observations from 969 to 970. | Abu Sa'id Ahmed ibn Mohammed ibn Abd al-Jalil al-Sijzi (c. 945 - c. 1020, also known as al-Sinjari and al-Sijazi; Persian: ابوسعید سجزی; Al-Sijzi is short for "Al-Sijistani") was an Iranian Muslim astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer. He is notable for his correspondence with al-Biruni and for proposing that the Earth rotates around its axis in the 10th century.He dedicated work to 'Adud al-Daula, who was probably his patron, and to the prince of Balkh. He also worked in Shiraz making astronomical observations from 969 to 970.
Mathematics
Al-Sijzi studied intersections of conic sections and circles. He replaced the old kinematical trisection of an angle by a purely geometric solution (intersection of a circle and an equilateral hyperbola.)
Earth's rotation
Al-Biruni tells us that Al-Sijzi invented an astrolabe, called "al-zūraqī", whose design was based on the idea that the Earth rotates:
I have seen the astrolabe called Zuraqi invented by Abu Sa'id Sijzi. I liked it very much and praised him a great deal, as it is based on the idea entertained by some to the effect that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to that of the sky. By my life, it is a problem difficult of solution and refutation. [...] For it is the same whether you take it that the Earth is in motion or the sky. For, in both cases, it does not affect the Astronomical Science. It is just for the physicist to see if it is possible to refute it.
Al-Biruni also referred to Al-Sijzi as a prominent astronomer who defended the theory that the earth rotates in al-Qānūn al-Masʿūdī.
The fact that some people did believe that the earth is moving on its own axis is further confirmed by a reference from the 13th century which states: "According to the geometers [or engineers] (muhandisīn), the earth is in constant circular motion, and what appears to be the motion of the heavens is actually due to the motion of the earth and not the stars."
References
Sources
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Abu Said Ahmad ibn Muhammad Al-Sijzi", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
Suter, Heinrich: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber und ihre Werke (80–81, 224, 1900).
Further reading
Hogendijk, Jan P. (1996). Al-Sijzi's Treatise on Geometrical Problem Solving (PDF). Tehran: Fatemi Publishing Co. ISBN 964-318-114-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2004-05-03.
External links
Brummelen, Glen van (2007). "Sijzī: Abū Saʿīd Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al‐Jalīl al‐Sijzī". In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. p. 1059. ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0. (PDF version)
Dold-Samplonius, Yvonne (2008) [1970-80]. "Al-Sijzī Abū Sa'īd Aḥmad Ibn Muḥammad Ibn 'Abd Al-Jalīl". Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Encyclopedia.com. | [
"Mathematics"
] |
51,884,483 | Haplogroup T-L206 | Haplogroup T-L206, also known as haplogroup T1, is a human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. The SNP that defines the T1 clade is L206. The haplogroup is one of two primary branches of T (T-M184), the other subclade being T2 (T-PH110). T1 is the most common descendant of the T-M184 haplogroup, being the lineage of more than 95% of all T-M184 members in Africa and Eurasia (as well as countries to which those populations have migrated in the modern era, in the Americas and Australasia). T1 lineages are now found at high frequencies among northern Somali clans. | Haplogroup T-L206, also known as haplogroup T1, is a human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. The SNP that defines the T1 clade is L206. The haplogroup is one of two primary branches of T (T-M184), the other subclade being T2 (T-PH110).
T1 is the most common descendant of the T-M184 haplogroup, being the lineage of more than 95% of all T-M184 members in Africa and Eurasia (as well as countries to which those populations have migrated in the modern era, in the Americas and Australasia). T1 lineages are now found at high frequencies among northern Somali clans. It is hypothesized that T1* (if not some of its subclades) originated in Western Asia, and spread into Europe and North Africa with the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B culture (PPNB).
The basal clade T1* is rare, but has been found in at least three males from widely separated regions: a Berber from Tunisia, a Syrian, and a Macedonian.T-L206's sole primary branch, T1a (M70), is believed to have originated about 15,900 – 23,900 BP, in the Levant. It appears that a number of individuals bearing T-M70 later migrated south to Africa.
Structure
T1 (L206, L490) Found in Syria.
T1a (M70/Page46/PF5662, PAGES78) Found in Early Neolithic skeleton found in Karsdorf, Germany, 7200 years old. Also in Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Ossetia, England, Italy and Portugal.
T1a1 (L162/Page21, L299, L453/PF5617, L454) Found on Eivissa, northern Anatolia and Germany.
T1a1a (L208/Page2, L905) Mostly found in Upper Egypt, Horn of Africa, western Europe, eastern Anatolia, Iran and the Arabian Peninsula. Some spots in western Morocco, Sahrawis and Canarias.
T1a1a1 (P77,CTS8512) Mostly found in Middle East, Western Europe and Ashkenazi Jews.
T1a1a2 (P321) Found in Syria and Ashkenazi Jews.
T1a1a2a (P317) Found in Syria, Italian Jews and Ashkenazi Jews.
T1a2 (L131) Mostly found in northern Europe, eastern Europe, southeastern Europe and Anatolia. Also found in Xinjiang, Lemba, Tunisia, south and east Iberian Peninsula.
T1a2a (P322, P328) Found in Scandinavia, Denmark, Germany and Netherlands. Some spots in Yemenite Jews and Palestine(P327).
T1a2b (L446) Found in Northwest Europe and eastern Alps.
T1a3 (L1255) Found in Kuwait.
Subclade distribution
T1* (T-L206*)
This lineage could have arrived in the Levant through the PPNB expansion from northeastern Anatolia.
T1a (M70)
T1a1 (L162; xL208)
T1a1 formed 17,400-14,600 BP, is the largest lineage downstream from T1a-M70 and became widespread across Eurasia and Africa before the modern era.
This extremely rare subclade has been found in Ibizan (Eivissan) islanders and Pontic Greeks from Giresun. The first Y-STR haplotype belonging to this lineage appeared in the paper of Tomas et al in 2006 among a sample of Eivissan individuals but is not until August 2009 when the first T1a1-L162(xL208) individual was reported in a 23andMe customer of Pontic Greek background and Metaxopoulos surname, thanks to the public Adriano Squecco's Y-Chromosome Genome Comparison Project.
Pontic Greeks from Giresun descend from Sinope colonists and Sinope was colonised by Ionians from Miletus. It is interesting to note that there existed an Ionian colony known as Pityussa, just like the known Greek name for Eivissa Pityuses. In Eivissa, archaeological findings include the famous bust of Demeter which has been confused with the Punic goddess Tanit for decades. The bust belonging to Demeter has been analysed and was found to contain black particles of volcanic sand, originating from Mount Etna. It is thought that the bust was made in Sicily, with red clays typical of the eastern Trinacria, which was colonized by the Ionians. The Ionians could be arrived to Eivissa c.2700 YBP. This lineage could be an Ionian marker.
T1a1 formed 17,400-14,600 BP, is the largest lineage downstream from T1a-M70 and became widespread across Eurasia and Africa before the modern era.
T1a1a (L208)
This lineage, formed 14,200-11,000 BP, is the largest branch downstream T1a1-L162. First discovered and reported in August 2009 in a 23andMe customer of Iberian ancestry that participated in the public Squecco's Y-Chromosome Genome Comparison Project and appearing there as "Avilés" and as "AlpAstur" in 23andMe. Named as "L208" at November 2009.
T1a1a1a1b1a1 (Y3782; xY3836)
T1a1a1a1b1a1a (Y3836)
This lineage is mostly found among individuals from the Iberian Peninsula, where is found their highest diversity. The first Y-STR haplotype of this lineage, characterized by DYS437=13, was found in the public FTDNA Y-DNA Haplogroup T project, appearing there at April 2009 as kit E8011. However, is not until June 2014 when the Y-SNP Y3836 was discovered in the public YFULL project among two of their participants of Iberian ancestry, appearing there as YF01637 and YF01665.
Geographical distribution
Europe
Cretan Greeks from Lasithi possess Haplogroup T, almost certainly T1a (M70), at a level of 18% (9/50).Unconfirmed but probable T-M70+ : 14% (3/23) of Russians in Yaroslavl, 12.5% (3/24) of Italians in Matera, 10.3% (3/29) of Italians in Avezzano, 10% (3/30) of Tyroleans in Nonstal, 10% (2/20) of Italians in Pescara, 8.7% (4/46) of Italians in Benevento, 7.8% (4/51) of Italians in South Latium, 7.4% (2/27) of Italians in Paola, 7.3% (11/150) of Italians in Central-South Italy, 7.1% (8/113) of Serbs in Serbia, 4.7% (2/42) of Aromanians in Romania, 3.7% (3/82) of Italians in Biella, 3.7% (1/27) of Andalusians in Córdoba, 3.3% (2/60) of Leoneses in León, 3.2% (1/31) of Italians in Postua, 3.2% (1/31) of Italians in Cavaglià, 3.1% (3/97) of Calabrians in Reggio Calabria, 2.8% (1/36) of Russians in Ryazan Oblast, 2.8% (2/72) of Italians in South Apulia, 2.7% (1/37) of Calabrians in Cosenza, 2.6% (3/114) of Serbs in Belgrade, 2.5% (1/40) of Russians in Pskov, 2.4% (1/42) of Russians in Kaluga, 2.2% (2/89) of Transylvanians in Miercurea Ciuc, 2.2% (2/92) of Italians in Trino Vercellese, 1.9% (2/104) of Italians in Brescia, 1.9% (2/104) of Romanians in Romania, 1.7% (4/237) of Serbs and Montenegrins in Serbia and Montenegro, 1.7% (1/59) of Italians in Marche, 1.7% (1/59) of Calabrians in Catanzaro, 1.6% (3/183) of Greeks in Northern Greece, 1.3% (2/150) of Swiss Germans in Zürich Area, 1.3% (1/79) of Italians in South Tuscany and North Latium, 1.1% (1/92) of Dutch in Leiden, 0.5% (1/185) of Serbs in Novi Sad (Vojvodina), 0.5% (1/186) of Polish in Podlasie
Middle East & Caucasus
Unconfirmed but probable T-M70+ : 28% (7/25) of Lezginians in Dagestan, 21.7% (5/23) of Ossetians in Zamankul, 14% (7/50) of Iranians in Isfahan, 13% (3/23) of Ossetians in Zil'ga, 12.6% (11/87) of Kurmanji Kurds in Eastern Turkey, 11.8% (2/17) of Palestinian Arabs in Palestine, 8.3% (1/12) of Iranians in Shiraz, 8.3% (2/24) of Ossetians in Alagir, 8% (2/25) of Kurmanji Kurds in Georgia, 7.5% (6/80) of Iranians in Tehran, 7.4% (10/135) of Palestinian Arabs in Israeli Village, 7% (10/143) of Palestinian Arabs in Israel and Palestine, 5% (1/19) of Chechens in Chechenia, 4.2% (3/72) of Azerbaijanians in Azerbaijan, 4.1% (2/48) of Iranians in Isfahan, 4% (4/100) of Armenians in Armenia, 4% (1/24) of Bedouins in Israel and 2.6% (1/39) of Turks in Ankara.
North & East Asia
Barghut Mongolians from |different localities of Hulun Buir Aimak have T1a (M70) at a level of 1.3% (1/76). In the 12–13th centuries, the Barga (Barghuts) Mongols appeared as tribes near Lake Baikal, named Bargujin.
Unconfirmed but probable T-M70+: 2% (4/204) of Hui in Liaoning province, and 0.9% (1/113) of Bidayuh in Sarawak.
South Asia
Haplogroup T1a-M70 in South Asia is considered to be of West Eurasian origin.The Garo people of Tangail District appear to possess T-P77 (T1a1a1b2b2b1a) at a rate of 0.8% (1/120).||Likely +
Unconfirmed but probable T-M70+ : 56.6% (30/53) of Kunabhis in Uttar Kannada, 32.5% (13/40) of Kammas in Andhra Pradesh, 26.8% (11/41) of Brahmins in Visakhapatnam, 25% (1/4) of Kattunaiken in South India, 22.4% (11/49) of Telugus in Andhra Pradesh, 20% (1/5) of Ansari in South Asia, (2/20) of Poroja in Andhra Pradesh, 9.8% (5/51) of Kashmiri Pandits in Kashmir, 8.2% (4/49) of Gujars in Kashmir, 7.7% (1/13) of Siddis (migrants from Ethiopia) in Andhra Pradesh, 5.5% (3/55) of Adi in Northeast India, 5.5% (7/128) of Pardhans in Adilabad, 5.3% (2/38) of Brahmins in Bihar, 4.3% (1/23) of Bagata in Andhra Pradesh, 4.2% (1/24) of Valmiki in Andhra Pradesh, (1/32) of Brahmins in Maharashtra, 3.1% (2/64) of Brahmins in Gujarat, 2.9% (1/35) of Rajput in Uttar Pradesh, 2.3% (1/44) of Brahmins in Peruru, and 1.7% (1/59) of Manghi in Maharashtra.Also in Desasth-Brahmins in Maharashtra (1/19 or 5.3%) and Chitpavan-Brahmins in Konkan (1/21 or 4.8%), Chitpavan-Brahmins in Konkan (2/66 or 3%).
Africa
Ancient DNA
'Ain Ghazal, 9,573 BP
Haplogroup T is found among the later Middle Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (MPPNB) inhabitants from the 'Ain Ghazal archaeological site (in modern Jordan). It was not found among the early and middle MPPNB populations. It is thought that the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B population is mostly composed of two different populations: members of early Natufian civilisation and a population resulting from immigration from the north, i.e. north-eastern Anatolia. However, Natufians have been found to belong mostly to the E1b1b1b2 lineage – which is found among 60% of the whole PPNB population and 75% of the 'Ain Ghazal population, being present in all three MPPNB stages.
Later MPPNB populations in the Southern Levant were already witnessing severe changes in climate that would have been exacerbated by large population demands on local resources. Beginning at 8.9 cal ka BP we see a significant decrease in population in highland Jordan, ultimately leading to the complete abandonment of almost all central settlements in this region.The 9th millennium Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) period in the Levant represents a major transformation in prehistoric lifeways from small bands of mobile hunter–gatherers to large settled farming and herding villages in the Mediterranean zone, the process having been initiated some 2–3 millennia earlier.
'Ain Ghazal (" Spring of the Gazelles") is situated in a relatively rich environmental setting immediately adjacent to the Wadi Zarqa, the longest drainage system in highland Jordan. It is located at an elevation of about 720m within the ecotone between the oak-park woodland to the west and the open steppe-desert to the east.
Evidence recovered from the excavations suggests that much of the surrounding countryside was forested and offered the inhabitants a wide variety of economic resources. Arable land is plentiful within the site's immediate environs. These variables are atypical of many major neolithic sites in the Near East, several of which are located in marginal environments. Yet despite its apparent richness, the area of 'Ain Ghazal is climatically and environmentally sensitive because of its proximity throughout the Holocene to the fluctuating steppe-forest border.
The Ain Ghazal settlement first appear in the MPPNB and is split into two MPPNB phases. Phase 1 starts 10300 yBP and ends 9950 yBP, phase 2 ends 9550 yBP.
The estimated population of the MPPNB site from ‘Ain Ghazal is of 259-1,349 individuals with an area of 3.01-4.7 ha. Is argued that at its founding at the commencement of the MPPNB ‘Ain Ghazal was likely 2 ha in size and grew to 5 ha by the end of the MPPNB. At this point in time their estimated population was 600-750 people or 125-150 people per hectare.
Peki'in Cave Israel
During the Chalcolithic Period (the “Copper Age,”) In the Northern Galilee town of Peki'in here's a burial cave that dates to over 6,500 years ago. The cave is the largest one known in Israel and contains a wealth of ancient artifacts: decorated ossuaries which some claim is the proto Israelite Burial, burial offerings, jars, stone tools. We find that the individuals buried in Peqi’in Cave represent a relatively genetically homogenous population. This homogeneity is evident not only in the genome-wide analyses but also in the fact that most of the male individuals (nine out of ten) belong to the Y-DNA Haplogroup T a lineage thought to have diversified in the Near East. 2x T-L208 Peqi'in 1155,1160, 1x T-FT13419 Peqi'in 1165, 4x T-Y4119 Peqi'in ,1166,1170,1172,1178, 2x T-L454 Peqi'in 1180,1187 expressing the upstream and downstream diversity of Haplogroup T-M184 in West Asia it's most likely point of divergence.
Kulubnarti Nubian Christian
Kulubnarti 6340 was a 18 month old baby boy who lived between 770 - 960 CE Kulubnarti 6328 was a 7 year old boy who lived between 700 - 990 CE during the North Africa Christian Age and was found in the region now known as the elite R cemetery in Kulubnarti, Sudan.
They were associated with the Kulubnarti Nubians cultural group the Y-DNA was T-Y31479 and T-FT338883 they along with a Haplogroup_LT were the 3 outliers amongst the Nubian elite R cemetery.
Notable members
Elite endurance runners
Possible patterns between Y-chromosome and elite endurance runners were studied in an attempt to find a genetic explanation to the Ethiopian endurance running success. Given the superiority of East African athletes in international distance running over the past four decades, it has been speculated that they are genetically advantaged. Elite marathon runners from Ethiopia were analysed for K*(xP) which according to the previously published Ethiopian studies is attributable to the haplogroup TAccording to further studies, T1a1a* (L208) was found to be proportionately more frequent in the elite marathon runners sample than in the control samples than any other haplogroup, therefore this y-chromosome could play a significant role in determining Ethiopian endurance running success. Haplogroup T1a1a* was found in 14% of the elite marathon runners sample of whom 43% of this sample are from Arsi province. In addition, haplogroup T1a1a* was found in only 4% of the Ethiopian control sample and only 1% of the Arsi province control sample. T1a1a* is positively associated with aspects of endurance running, whereas E1b1b1 (old E3b1) is negatively associated.
Royal House of Khalifa
The House of Khalifa (Arabic: آل خليفة, romanized: Āl Khalīfah) is the ruling family of the Kingdom of Bahrain. The Al Khalifas profess Sunni Islam and belong to the Anizah tribe, some members of this tribe joined the [Utub alliance]] which migrated from Central Arabia to Kuwait, then ruled all of Qatar, more specifically Al Zubarah, which they built and ruled over before settling in Bahrain in the early 17th century. The current head of the family is Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa, who became the Emir of Bahrain in 1999 and proclaimed himself King of Bahrain in 2002, in fact becoming a constitutional monarch
Thomas Jefferson
A notable member of the T-M184 haplogroup is the third US President, Thomas Jefferson. He reportedly belongs to a subclade of T-M184 which is most commonly found in both the Iberian Peninsula (e.g. Spain) and Egypt. His most distant known ancestor is Samuel Jeffreason [sic], born 11 October 1607 at Pettistree, Suffolk, England, although there is also a widespread belief that the President had Welsh ancestry. While all subclades of T-M184 are rare in Britain, some British males with the surname Jefferson have also reportedly been found to carry T-M184, reinforcing the idea that Thomas Jefferson's immediate paternal ancestry was British and may originate in Sephardic (Spanish) Jewish populations, who have their ultimate origins in the Middle East.There was controversy for almost two centuries regarding allegations that Thomas Jefferson had fathered the children of his slave Sally Hemings. An oral tradition in the Hemings family and other historical evidence was countered in the early 19th century by some Jefferson's grandchildren, who asserted that a son of Thomas Jefferson's sister, by the name of Carr, had been the father of Hemings' children. However, a 1998 study of Jefferson male-line DNA found that it matched that of a descendant of Sally Hemings' youngest son, Eston Hemings. Most historians now believe that Jefferson had a relationship with Hemings for 38 years, and probably fathered her six known children, four of whom lived to adulthood. In addition, the testing conclusively disproved any connection between the Hemings descendant and the Carr male line.
Subclades
Tree
Phylogenetic history
Prior to 2002, there were in academic literature at least seven naming systems for the Y-Chromosome Phylogenetic tree. This led to considerable confusion. In 2002, the major research groups came together and formed the Y-Chromosome Consortium (YCC). They published a joint paper that created a single new tree that all agreed to use. Later, a group of citizen scientists with an interest in population genetics and genetic genealogy formed a working group to create an amateur tree aiming at being above all timely. The table below brings together all of these works at the point of the landmark 2002 YCC Tree. This allows a researcher reviewing older published literature to quickly move between nomenclatures.
Original research publications
The following research teams per their publications were represented in the creation of the YCC Tree.
α Jobling and Tyler-Smith 2000 and Kaladjieva 2001
β Underhill 2000
γ Hammer 2001
δ Karafet 2001
ε Semino 2000
ζ Su 1999
η Capelli 2001
Y-DNA backbone tree
References
Original research
Other works cited
Sources for conversion tables
External links
The Y-DNA Haplogroup T Project
YFull T YTree
T1a-M70 skeleton, Germany I0795_390K Archived 2017-02-21 at the Wayback Machine
T1a-M70 skeleton, Germany I0795_1240K
T1a-M70 skeleton, Germany I0797_1240K
Settlement Burials at the Karsdorf LBK Site, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany
Map of the 7100ybp T1a settlement of Karsdorf Archived 2017-01-18 at the Wayback Machine
Video: Karsdorf's adjacent pagan structure for tribal rituals
Video: Tribal culture contemporaneous to T1a and their adjacent pagan structure
The Digital Archaeological Atlas of the 'Ain Ghazal settlement
C14 radiocarbon CONTEXT database Archived 2016-03-09 at the Wayback Machine | [
"Knowledge",
"People",
"Concepts"
] |
43,416,060 | Ed Church, Uppland | Ed Church (Swedish: Eds kyrka) is a Lutheran church about 3 km southwest of the centre of Upplands Väsby, Stockholm County, Sweden. It belongs to the Diocese of Stockholm. It is a listed building, protected by law. | Ed Church (Swedish: Eds kyrka) is a Lutheran church about 3 km southwest of the centre of Upplands Väsby, Stockholm County, Sweden. It belongs to the Diocese of Stockholm. It is a listed building, protected by law.
History and architecture
Construction of the church started in the 12th century, and it was expanded during the 14th and 15th centuries. In 1487, the interior of the church was decorated with frescos by Albertus Pictor. During Catholic times, the church was dedicated to Saint Olaf.Reconstruction works were carried out in 1768. The tower was made higher, the windows enlarged and several medieval elements removed. The frescos were covered with whitewash. Architect Jean Eric Rehn designed parts of the new interior elements, notably the pulpit. The reconstruction was supported by Charles De Geer, who also supported reconstruction works at nearby Hammarby and Fresta churches. The external similarities between Fresta and Ed churches are striking.A renovation was made in 1917-18 by architect Sigurd Curman, who at the time lived in the parish. He uncovered the medieval frescos and commissioned artist Olle Hjortzberg to make additional frescos for the 18th-century vaults. Hjortzberg also designed the new stained glass windows.
References
External links
Media related to Eds kyrka, Uppland at Wikimedia Commons | [
"Entities"
] |
65,898,335 | Herbert Louis Mason | Herbert Louis (né Lewis) Mason (1896–1994) was an American botany professor, plant collector, and herbarium director.After graduating from high school, Herbert Mason and his identical twin brother matriculated at Stanford University. Their education was interrupted when they both volunteered for military service in WW I and served in a U.S. Army hospital in Beaune, France. After the end of the war, Herbert Mason returned to Stanford University and received his bachelor's degree there in 1921. He became a graduate student at the University of California, Berkeley (U.C. Berkeley) and received an M.A. | Herbert Louis (né Lewis) Mason (1896–1994) was an American botany professor, plant collector, and herbarium director.After graduating from high school, Herbert Mason and his identical twin brother matriculated at Stanford University. Their education was interrupted when they both volunteered for military service in WW I and served in a U.S. Army hospital in Beaune, France. After the end of the war, Herbert Mason returned to Stanford University and received his bachelor's degree there in 1921. He became a graduate student at the University of California, Berkeley (U.C. Berkeley) and received an M.A. there in 1923. From 1923 to 1925 he taught at Mills College. From 1925 to 1931 Mason was employed as an associate in Willis L. Jepson's Phenogamic Laboratory. In 1932 he received his Ph.D. from U.C. Berkeley. His thesis committee consisted of W. L. Jepson (as committee chair), Ralph Works Chaney, and Charles Lewis Camp. In 1932 Mason participated in an expedition to the Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean. At Jepson Herbarium and jointly in U.C. Berkeley's botany department, Mason was appointed in 1933 assistant curator and instructor, in 1934 associate curator and assistant professor, in 1938 (full) curator and associate professor, in 1941 herbarium director and (full) professor, retiring in 1963 with emeritus status. The years of Mason's directorship were a time of rapid growth for Jepson Herbarium. From 1935 to 1963 he was a member of the board of editors of the journal Madroño, where he was assisted for many years by Annetta Mary Carter, Ethel Katherine Crum, and Helen Sharsmith.In 1949 he became one of the founders of the Regional Parks Association, which has the stated goal of protecting natural resource in the East Bay region of the San Francisco Bay Area.
In 1949 and 1950, Mason joined A. H. Miller and R. A. Stirton in an expedition to the Magdalena Basin of Colombia, sponsored by the Associates in Tropical Biogeography. The objective was to study periodic phenomena under tropical conditions without marked seasons ... The State Division of Fish and Game commissioned a botanical survey of California wetlands carried out by Mason and his graduate students. It culminated in the production of A Flora of the Marshes of California (1957), doubtless his best-known work.
For volume 3 of the 4-volume series Illustrated Flora of the Pacific States by LeRoy Abrams, Mason wrote the section on the phlox family Polemoniaceae except for the genus Polemonium, which was written by John Fraser Davidson, and the genus Gilia, which Mason wrote jointly with Alva Day Grant. In preparing his manuscript for volume 3, Mason found that 5 five species of Navarretia were scientifically undescribed.He collected plants in California, Nevada, Oregon, Arizona, Colombia, and Mexico's Revillagigedo Islands.
Shortly before his retirement, Mason became one of three founders of the Elementary School Science Project, funded by the National Science Foundation and operated out of the Lawrence Hall of Science. He was recalled from retirement to serve as director of this project, which he found richly rewarding, and which has had an important impact on science education in the United States.
In May 1931 in Skagit County, Washington he married Lucile Roush (1896–1986), who was a student along with him at both Stanford and Berkeley. She received her Ph.D. from U. C. Berkeley with a thesis on coralline algae. When he retired in 1963 they moved to Washington state in order to be near their son David Thomas Mason, who was a professor at Western Washington University.
References
External links
Data related to Herbert Louis Mason at Wikispecies | [
"Academic_disciplines"
] |
7,804,077 | Kandake | Kandake, kadake or kentake (Meroitic: 𐦲𐦷𐦲𐦡 kdke), often Latinised as Candace (Ancient Greek: Κανδάκη, Kandakē), was the Meroitic term for the sister of the king of Kush who, due to the matrilineal succession, would bear the next heir, making her a queen mother. She had her own court, probably acted as a landholder and held a prominent secular role as regent. Contemporary Greek and Roman sources treated it, incorrectly, as a name. The name Candace is derived from the way the word is used in the New Testament (Acts 8:27).A kandake who ruled in her own right bore in addition the title qore, the same title carried by male rulers. | Kandake, kadake or kentake (Meroitic: 𐦲𐦷𐦲𐦡 kdke), often Latinised as Candace (Ancient Greek: Κανδάκη, Kandakē), was the Meroitic term for the sister of the king of Kush who, due to the matrilineal succession, would bear the next heir, making her a queen mother. She had her own court, probably acted as a landholder and held a prominent secular role as regent. Contemporary Greek and Roman sources treated it, incorrectly, as a name. The name Candace is derived from the way the word is used in the New Testament (Acts 8:27).A kandake who ruled in her own right bore in addition the title qore, the same title carried by male rulers.
Archaeological sources
The Kandakes of Meroe were first described through the Greek geographer's Strabo account of the "one-eyed Candace" in 23 BCE in his encyclopedia Geographica. There are at least ten regnant Meroitic queens during the 500 years between 260 BCE and 320 CE, and at least six during the 140 periods between 60 BC and 80 AD. The iconographic portrayal of the Meroitic queens depicts them as women often alone and at the forefront of their stelae and sculptures and shown in regal women's clothing. Early depictions of Kushite queens typically do not have Egyptian elements making their appearance drastically different from their Kushite men and Egyptian counterparts. As seen in the Dream Stela of Tanawetamani, a large shawl was wrapped around the body with an additionally decorated cloak worn over the first; typically, a small tab-like element hanging below the hem touches the ground and has been interpreted as a little tail. The first association with this element of dress is with Tarharqo's mother during his coronation ceremony.
It was not until George Reisner excavated the royal cemeteries at El Kurru and Nuri that archaeological material became available to study the Kushite queenship. Additionally, a few royal tombs of Kushite women have been found at Meroe's cemetery and in Egypt at Abydos (Leahy 1994). At El Kurru, six pyramids belong to royal women of the 25th Dynasty and a pyramid for queen Qalhata of the Napatan period. At Nuri, the tombs of royal women are located on the west plateau with more inscriptional information available at the site, linking the roles that the kings' mothers played in succession and their importance during the Kushite dynasty.The most important event that Kushite women participated in was kingship's ensured continuity, where royal women were mentioned and represented in the royal ceremony. The lunettes of the stelae of Tanawetamani, Harsiyotef, and Nastasen all provide iconographic and textual evidence of these kings' enthronement. In all of these stelae, the king is accompanied by a female member of his family, mother, and wife. The king's mother played an essential role in the legitimacy of her son as the king; textual evidence from Taharqo's coronation stelae represents inscriptional evidence suggesting that the king's mother traveled to her son's coronation. During the Kushite 25th Dynasty, the office that is known as God's Wife of Amun was established. The royal women in this role acted as the primary contact with the Kushite god Amun. They played a decisive role in the king's accession to the throne.
Bas-reliefs dated to about 170 B.C. reveal the kentake Shanakdakheto, dressed in armor and wielding a spear in battle. She did not rule as queen regent or queen mother, but as a fully independent ruler. Her husband was her consort. In bas-reliefs found in the ruins of building projects she commissioned, Shanakdakheto is portrayed both alone as well as with her husband and son, who would inherit the throne by her death.
Greco-Roman sources
Pliny writes that the "Queen of the Ethiopians" bore the title Candace, and indicates that the Ethiopians had conquered ancient Syria and the Mediterranean.In 25 BC the Kush kandake Amanirenas, as reported by Strabo, attacked the city of Syene, today's Aswan, in territory of the Roman Empire; Emperor Augustus destroyed the city of Napata in retaliation.Cassius Dio wrote that Kandake's army advanced as far as the Elephantine in Egypt, but Petronius defeated them and took Napata, their capital, and other cities.Four African queens were known to the Greco-Roman world as the "Candaces": Amanishakheto, Amanirenas, Nawidemak, and Malegereabar.
Biblical usage
In the New Testament, a treasury official of "Candace, queen of the Ethiopians", returning from a trip to Jerusalem, met with Philip the Evangelist:
Now an angel of the Lord said to Philip, "Rise and go toward the south to the road that goes down from Jerusalem to Gaza." This is a desert place. And he rose and went. And there was an Ethiopian, a eunuch, a court official of Candace, queen of the Ethiopians, who was in charge of all her treasure. He had come to Jerusalem to worship
He discussed with Philip the meaning of a perplexing passage from the Book of Isaiah. Philip explained the scripture to him and he was promptly baptised in some nearby water. The eunuch 'went on his way, rejoicing', and presumably therefore reported back on his conversion to the Kandake.
Ethiopian sources
Evidence outside of Nubia that shows additional links to Kushite's queenship concept are found in Ethiopia. Ethiopia has a long dynastic history claimed to be over three millennia from before 1000 BC to 1973, the year of the overthrow of the last Menelik emperor, Haile Selassie. The Ethiopian monarchy's official chronicle of dynastic succession descends from Menelik I includes six regnant queens referred to as Kandake. The following queens from the king list have "Kandake" added to their name:
Nicauta Kandake (r. 740–730 BCE)
Nikawla Kandake II (r. 342–332 BCE)
Akawsis Kandake III (r. 325–315 BCE)
Nikosis Kandake IV (r. 242–232 BCE)
Nicotnis Kandake V (r. 35–25 BCE)
Garsemot Kandake VI (r. 40–50 CE) – Allegedly the queen who ruled at the time of the Biblical story of the Ethiopian eunuch.Twenty-one queens are recorded as sole regent in the kingdom of Ethiopia until the 9th century CE. The conquest of Meroe by the Axumite King Ezana may well provide the historical fiction for the Ethiopian dynastic claim to the Nubian Kandakes and their kings, as it was from this point onwards that the Axumites began calling themselves "Ethiopians", a Greco-Roman term previously used largely for the ancient Nubians. For example, Makeda, Queen of Sheba, in the Kebra Nagast, is also recognized as Candace or "Queen Mother".
Alexandrian legend
A legend in the Alexander romance claims that "Candace of Meroë" fought Alexander the Great. In fact, Alexander never attacked Nubia and never attempted to move further south than the oasis of Siwa in Egypt. The story is that when Alexander attempted to conquer her lands in 332 BC, she arranged her armies strategically to meet him and was present on a war elephant when he approached. Having assessed the strength of her armies, Alexander decided to withdraw from Nubia, heading to Egypt instead. Another story claims that Alexander and Candace had a romantic encounter.These accounts originate from Alexander Romance by an unknown writer called Pseudo-Callisthenes, and the work is largely a fictionalized and grandiose account of Alexander's life. It is commonly quoted, but there seems to be no historical reference to this event from Alexander's time. The whole story of Alexander and Candace's encounter appears to be legendary.John Malalas has mixed the Pseudo-Callisthenes material with other and wrote about the affair of Alexander with Kandake, adding that they got married. Malalas also wrote that Kandake was an Indian queen and Alexander met her during his Indian campaign.
List of ruling kandakes
At least eleven kandakes also ruled in their own right as monarchs (i.e. queen regnants) of Kush:
Nahirqo (middle 2nd century BC)
An unknown queen regnant (end of the 2nd–first half of the 1st century BC)
Amanirenas (end of the 1st century BC–beginning of the 1st century AD)
Amanishakheto (early 1st century AD)
Shanakdakhete (first half of the 1st century AD)
Nawidemak (first half of the 1st century AD?)
Amanitore (middle 1st century AD)
Amanikhatashan (middle 2nd century AD?)
Amanikhalika (second half of the 2nd century AD)
Patrapeamani (early 4th century)
Amanipilade (mid-4th century)Based on the reading of a single inscription, some lists give two later kandakes named Maloqorebar (266–283 AD) and Lahideamani (306-314 AD). A recently discovered inscription corrects this earlier reading, however, showing that neither was a woman.
See also
Kandake of the Sudanese Revolution
References
== Sources == | [
"Universe"
] |
71,148,782 | O. Carter Snead | O. Carter Snead is an American legal scholar and bioethicist. Snead obtained a Bachelor of Arts at St. John's College in Maryland and completed his legal education at the Georgetown University Law Center. He is the director of the de Nicola Center for Ethics and Culture at the University of Notre Dame. | O. Carter Snead is an American legal scholar and bioethicist.
Snead obtained a Bachelor of Arts at St. John's College in Maryland and completed his legal education at the Georgetown University Law Center. He is the director of the de Nicola Center for Ethics and Culture at the University of Notre Dame.
Selected publications
Snead, O. Carter (2020). What It Means to Be Human: The Case for the Body in Public Bioethics. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674987722. JSTOR j.ctv15tt7h9.
== References == | [
"Ethics"
] |
3,029,898 | Great icosahedron | In geometry, the great icosahedron is one of four Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra (nonconvex regular polyhedra), with Schläfli symbol {3,5⁄2} and Coxeter-Dynkin diagram of . It is composed of 20 intersecting triangular faces, having five triangles meeting at each vertex in a pentagrammic sequence. The great icosahedron can be constructed analogously to the pentagram, its two-dimensional analogue, via the extension of the (n–1)-dimensional simplex faces of the core n-polytope (equilateral triangles for the great icosahedron, and line segments for the pentagram) until the figure regains regular faces. The grand 600-cell can be seen as its four-dimensional analogue using the same process. | In geometry, the great icosahedron is one of four Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra (nonconvex regular polyhedra), with Schläfli symbol {3,5⁄2} and Coxeter-Dynkin diagram of . It is composed of 20 intersecting triangular faces, having five triangles meeting at each vertex in a pentagrammic sequence.
The great icosahedron can be constructed analogously to the pentagram, its two-dimensional analogue, via the extension of the (n–1)-dimensional simplex faces of the core n-polytope (equilateral triangles for the great icosahedron, and line segments for the pentagram) until the figure regains regular faces. The grand 600-cell can be seen as its four-dimensional analogue using the same process.
Construction
The Great Icosahedron edge length is
7
+
3
5
2
{\displaystyle {\frac {7+3{\sqrt {5}}}{2}}}
times the original icosahedron edge length.
Images
As a snub
The great icosahedron can be constructed as a uniform snub, with different colored faces and only tetrahedral symmetry: . This construction can be called a retrosnub tetrahedron or retrosnub tetratetrahedron, similar to the snub tetrahedron symmetry of the icosahedron, as a partial faceting of the truncated octahedron (or omnitruncated tetrahedron): . It can also be constructed with 2 colors of triangles and pyritohedral symmetry as, or , and is called a retrosnub octahedron.
Related polyhedra
It shares the same vertex arrangement as the regular convex icosahedron. It also shares the same edge arrangement as the small stellated dodecahedron.
A truncation operation, repeatedly applied to the great icosahedron, produces a sequence of uniform polyhedra. Truncating edges down to points produces the great icosidodecahedron as a rectified great icosahedron. The process completes as a birectification, reducing the original faces down to points, and producing the great stellated dodecahedron.
The truncated great stellated dodecahedron is a degenerate polyhedron, with 20 triangular faces from the truncated vertices, and 12 (hidden) doubled up pentagonal faces ({10/2}) as truncations of the original pentagram faces, the latter forming two great dodecahedra inscribed within and sharing the edges of the icosahedron.
References
Wenninger, Magnus (1974). Polyhedron Models. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-09859-9.
Coxeter, Harold Scott MacDonald; Du Val, P.; Flather, H. T.; Petrie, J. F. (1999). The fifty-nine icosahedra (3rd ed.). Tarquin. ISBN 978-1-899618-32-3. MR 0676126. (1st Edn University of Toronto (1938))
H.S.M. Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, (3rd edition, 1973), Dover edition, ISBN 0-486-61480-8, 3.6 6.2 Stellating the Platonic solids, pp. 96–104
External links
Weisstein, Eric W., "Great icosahedron" ("Uniform polyhedron") at MathWorld.
Weisstein, Eric W. "Fifteen stellations of the icosahedron". MathWorld.
Uniform polyhedra and duals | [
"Universe",
"Mathematics"
] |
21,908,520 | Paul Martin Andrews | Paul Martin Andrews (born 1959) is an American rape survivor and an advocate for rape survivors. | Paul Martin Andrews (born 1959) is an American rape survivor and an advocate for rape survivors.
Background
In 1973, Andrews was kidnapped in his native Virginia and hidden in an underground box by the convicted child abuser Richard Ausley. Thirty years after his ordeal, he went public with his story and became an activist for bolstering Virginia law with additional funding for continued civil commitments for sex offenders after their criminal sentences end.
In this case, Virginia did not get a chance to test its new Civil Commitment for Sexually Violent Predators Act. Ausley's sentence was extended by five years after another victim came forward.
In January 2004, Ausley was murdered in his prison cell by his cell mate Dewey Keith Venable. Andrews later said that he did not hate Ausley, and did not wish his death.
See also
List of kidnappings
List of solved missing person cases
References
External links
"Boxed in: A boy's lost week", By Paul Andrews, Jan 30th, 2003, The Hook
"Going public: Andrews talks, and the governor listens"
"No way out: how the state helped kill a convict"
"Save your tears: Ausley was no victim"
"The Boy in the Box" | [
"Health"
] |
14,480,798 | Cui Xingwu | Cui Xingwu, 崔兴五, (1885 - 1948); Chinese officer in the army defending Rehe in the Second Sino-Japanese War that defected with his brigade to the Japanese and joined the Army of Manchukuo. Cui Xingwu was an officer in the 55th Army of Rehe province under its governor Tang Yulin. In February 1933 while commanding the 9th Cavalry Brigade at Kailu in the Battle of Rehe, Cui defected to the Japanese invaders with his whole unit. Later in April with puppet forces of Liu Guitang and Li Shouxin and the Japanese 4th Cavalry Brigade Cui moved into eastern Chahar Province. His force captured several cities but was defeated and driven out of Chahar by the Chahar People's Anti-Japanese Army. | Cui Xingwu, 崔兴五, (1885 - 1948); Chinese officer in the army defending Rehe in the Second Sino-Japanese War that defected with his brigade to the Japanese and joined the Army of Manchukuo.
Cui Xingwu was an officer in the 55th Army of Rehe province under its governor Tang Yulin. In February 1933 while commanding the 9th Cavalry Brigade at Kailu in the Battle of Rehe, Cui defected to the Japanese invaders with his whole unit. Later in April with puppet forces of Liu Guitang and Li Shouxin and the Japanese 4th Cavalry Brigade Cui moved into eastern Chahar Province. His force captured several cities but was defeated and driven out of Chahar by the Chahar People's Anti-Japanese Army.
See also
Actions in Inner Mongolia (1933-36)
Sources
Jowett, Phillip S., Rays of The Rising Sun, Armed Forces of Japan's Asian Allies 1931–45, Volume I: China & Manchuria, 2004. Helion & Co. Ltd., 26 Willow Rd., Solihull, West Midlands, England.
中国抗日战争正面战场作战记 (China's Anti-Japanese War Combat Operations)
Guo Rugui, editor-in-chief Huang Yuzhang
Jiangsu People's Publishing House
Date published : 2005-7-1
ISBN 7-214-03034-9
Online in Chinese: https://web.archive.org/web/20090116005113/http://www.wehoo.net/book/wlwh/a30012/A0170.htm | [
"Military"
] |
3,120,125 | Wajid Ali Shah | Mirza Wajid Ali Shah (Urdu: واجد علی شاه) (30 July 1822 – 1 September 1887) was the eleventh and last King of Awadh, holding the position for 9 years, from 13 February 1847 to 11 February 1856.Wajid Ali Shah's first wife was Alam Ara who was better known as Khas Mahal (transl. special wife) because of her exquisite beauty. She was one of two Nikahi wives. His second wife, Muhammadi Khanum, better known as the Begum Hazrat Mahal, rose against the British East India Company during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 as the regent of Awadh.His kingdom, long protected by the East India Company (EIC) under a treaty, was annexed by the EIC on 11 February 1856, two days before the ninth anniversary of his coronation. The Nawab was exiled to Garden Reach in Metiabruz, then a suburb of Kolkata, where he lived out the rest of his life on a generous pension. | Mirza Wajid Ali Shah (Urdu: واجد علی شاه) (30 July 1822 – 1 September 1887) was the eleventh and last King of Awadh, holding the position for 9 years, from 13 February 1847 to 11 February 1856.Wajid Ali Shah's first wife was Alam Ara who was better known as Khas Mahal (transl. special wife) because of her exquisite beauty. She was one of two Nikahi wives. His second wife, Muhammadi Khanum, better known as the Begum Hazrat Mahal, rose against the British East India Company during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 as the regent of Awadh.His kingdom, long protected by the East India Company (EIC) under a treaty, was annexed by the EIC on 11 February 1856, two days before the ninth anniversary of his coronation. The Nawab was exiled to Garden Reach in Metiabruz, then a suburb of Kolkata, where he lived out the rest of his life on a generous pension. He was a poet, playwright, dancer and great patron of the arts. He introduced Kathak, a major form of classical Indian dance as a court dance after the decline of Mughals for recreation activity.
As a King
Wajid Ali Shah succeeded the throne of Awadh when the kingdom was in decline. The British East India Company (EIC) had annexed much of the kingdom under its rule in a treaty signed with the Nawabs in 1801 and stymied the Awadh economy by imposing the costs of maintaining the Bengal Army on the kingdom's coffer, in addition to repeatedly demanding loans. However, the EIC refrained from annexing the remainder of the kingdom because they needed a buffer state between their territories to the east and south, and the Mughal Empire to the north.Wajid Ali Shah ascended the throne of Oudh at a time when the East India Company was determined to annex the throne of the prosperous Awadh, which was "the garden, granary, and queen-province of India"- the royal predecessors and successors of Awadh were one of the major threats to the dominance of the Mughal Empire before the arrival of the East India Company to the Indian subcontinent.In different circumstances perhaps, he might have succeeded as a ruler because he had many qualities that made a good administrator. He was generous, kind and compassionate towards his subjects, besides being one of the most magnanimous and passionate patrons of fine arts in the Indian tradition. When he ascended the throne, he took keen interest in the administration of justice, introduced reforms, and reorganised the military. Wajid Ali Shah was widely regarded as a debauched and detached ruler, but some of his notoriety seems to have been misplaced. The main cause for condemnation comes from the British Resident of Lucknow, General William Sleeman, who submitted a report highlighting "maladministration" and "lawlessness" he described as prevailing there, although Sleeman himself was strictly opposed to outright annexation for a variety of reasons, including political, financial and ethical ones.This provided the British with the facade of benevolence they were looking for, and formed the official basis for their annexation. Recent studies have, however, suggested that Oudh was neither as bankrupt nor as lawless as the British had claimed. In fact, Oudh was for all practical purposes under British rule well before the annexation, with the Nawab playing little more than a titular role. The Bengal presidency army was recruited largely from Oudh; while, under direction by the Governor-General Lord Dalhousie in 1855, any tax revenue from Oudh not required for state government costs was appropriated by the East India Company.In his book "Awadh Under Wajid Ali Shah", Dr. G.D. Bhatnagar gives the following assessment of this ill-starred prince:
Patron of the arts
Contributions to music
A large number of composers who thrived under the lavish patronage of the Nawab rulers of Lucknow enriched the light classical form of thumri; the most prominent among these was Wajid Ali Shah. He was not only a munificent patron of music, dance, drama, and poetry but was also a gifted composer. He had received vocal training under great Ustads like Basit Khan, Pyar Khan and Jafar Khan. Pyar Khan, Jafar Khan and Basit Khan were the direct descendants of Mian Tansen and were the sons of famous Tanseni Chajju Khan. Bahadur Hussain Khan was the descendant of Tansen's son-in-law Naubat Khan, and was one of Wajid Ali Shah's favorite musicians, so much that the Nawab bestowed upon the singer the title Zia-ud-Daulah. Although Wajid Ali Shah's poetic takhallus was "Qaisar", he used the pseudonym "Akhtarpiya" for his musical compositions. Under this name, he wrote over forty works – poems, prose and thumris. The collections Diwan-i-Akhtar and Husn-i-Akhtar contain his ghazals. He is said to have composed many new ragas and named them Jogi, Juhi, Shah-Pasand, etc.
The source for much information on music in Nawabi Lucknow comes from the text Ma’danul Moosiqui ('The Mine of Music') of Hakim Mohammed Karam Imam, courtier of Wajid Ali Shah. During his time, complicated ragas like hori and dhrupad were ignored and easier raginis like tilak, pilu, sendura, khammach, bhairvi and jhanjhauti were encouraged. As these were liked by the king and easily understood by all sections of the society. They came to be well-loved by the commoners. Wajid Ali Shah has been accused of cheapening the classical tradition and promoting lighter forms of music such as ghazals and thumris. But then, as argued by scholars like Ravi Bhatt, this is how popular music has always been criticised. Popular belief has it that the light classical form, thumri was created by Wajid Ali Shah.
However, James Kippen argued that evidence suggests that thumri had almost certainly already become an independent vocal form somewhat influenced by khayal by 1800, becoming extremely popular and pervasive in the time of Wajid Ali Shah. Wajid Ali wrote and performed ghazals, and the modern-day style of ghazals was certainly evolved by his innovative ideas and experimentations in ghazals, some of which were noted for their inclusion of obscenities and sexually explicit references to his own private life.
Contributions to dance: Kathak
Not only music but dance also developed strongly in Lucknow and became a pre-eminent art under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah. In the ancient times Kathak being the part of the temple ritual was performed at temples. With the change of time the Kathak performers in search of better prospects and rich patronage left the temple and entered into royal courts. The transformation was inevitable. The dance started adapting itself to the demands of the court, but it was under the artistic guidance and patronage of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, that Kathak achieved greater dimensions.
He gave it a definite form, made it more artistic, and gave to it an aesthetic touch, he enriched it with rasa and bhava, and he added literature to it, lent it sensuality, and furnished it with grandeur and splendor to its presentation, argued Abdul Halim Sharar. During this period, Kathak was also extensively performed by tawaifs, who themselves developed the art in parallel to its refinement in court. They frequently performed on lighter classical music of such as dadra, kajri and tappa as well as thumri. Given the tawaifs' environment, their performance style of Kathak also differed from the court style, involving more of what in Kathak is termed nakhra (mischievous playfulness).Wajid Ali Shah started two distinct forms one is Rahas and the other one is called Raas. He himself choreographed a dance based on the moves of Kathak called, Rahas, that he danced himself with the ladies of his court. For him, Rahas was a dramatic form of theatre including acting, dancing, and music and with different scenes the whole setting and locale changes. On the other hand, Raas was purely a religious form. Primarily Dhrupad was sung in Raas and the performance began with its singing. Raas was a circular form of dance where many gopis danced with one Krishna. Radhakamal Mukerjee in his book, The Lord of the Autumn Moons, says that the Raspancadhyayi or the five chapters pertaining to the circular group dance of Krishna with the Gopis, distill the embody the full maturity of the mystical emotions.Kathak dance attained new heights of popularity and glory under his expert guidance and lavish patronage. Thakur Prasadji was his Kathak guru, and the unforgettable Kalka-Binda brothers performed in his court. What with the grand pageantry of the Rahas, Jogiya Jashan, Dance-dramas, and Kathak performances, Lucknow became the magnetic cultural centre where the most reputed musicians, dancers and poets of the time flourished. The greatest musicians, dancers and instrumentalists of the time enjoyed his munificent patronage and hospitality. It was during his reign that Lucknow Gharana came into existence. It was in this period that the Lucknow Gharana of Kathak attained maturity, through the efforts of the stalwarts like Thakur Prasadji and others. The Lucknow style of Kathak dance is characterized by graceful movements, elegance and natural poise with dance. Abhinaya, concern for movement shape and creative improvisations are the hallmarks of this style. He not only made Kathak the official court dance, but using it in performances of rahas made it popular among the people.
Contributions to Hindustani theatre
When Wajid Ali Shah was a young boy, some astrologers warned his parents that he would become a Yogi, and advised them that the boy should be dressed up as a Yogi on each birthday of his so as to counteract the effect of the evil stars. He established the famous Parikhaana (abode of fairies) in which hundreds of beautiful and talented girls were taught music and dancing by expert-teachers engaged by the royal patron. These girls were known as Paris (fairies) with names such as Sultan pari, Mahrukh pari and so on. On each birthday, the Nawab would dress up as a Yogi with saffron robes, ash of pearls smeared on his face and body, necklaces of pearls around his neck, and a rosary in his hand, and walk pompously into the court with two of his 'paris dressed up as Jogans. Gradually he made it into a spectacular pageant or Mela known as Jogia Jashan, in which all citizens of Lucknow could participate, dressed as Yogis, irrespective of caste and creed. Later, when his favourite venue, the Qaisarbagh Baradari was built, he began to stage his magnificent Rahas (a Persianised name for Rasleela) full of sensuous poetry, his own lyrical compositions and glamorous Kathak dances.Ranbir Singh gives details of Wajid Ali Shah's book entitled Bani in which the author mentions 36 types of Rahas all set in Kathak style (with colourful names like Mor-Chchatr, Ghunghat, Salami, Mor Pankhi and Mujra), and gives exhaustive notes about the costumes, jewellery, and stage- craft. Rahas, prepared at a fabulous cost of several lakhs (hundred thousands) of rupees, became very popular, and was performed at the Kaisarbagh-Rahas Manzil, (most probably the first Hindustani Theatre Hall). Many have regarded Wajid Ali Shah as "the first playwright of the Hindustani theatre", because his "Radha Kanhaiyya Ka Qissa" staged in the Rahas Manzil was the first play of its kind. It featured the Goddess Radha, Lord Krishna, several sakhis, and a Vidushaka-like character named "Ramchera". Songs, dances, mime, and drama were all delightfully synthesised in these Rahas performances. He dramatised many other poems such as Darya-i-Tashsq, Afsane-i-Isbaq, and Bhahar-i-Ulfat. It is said that Amanat's Inder Sabha was inspired by these dance-dramas, written, produced and staged by Nawab Wajid Ali Shah.
Contributions to literature
Like the performing arts, Wajid Ali Shah also patronised literature and several poets and writers in his court. Notable among them were 'Barq', 'Ahmad Mirza Sabir', 'Mufti Munshi', and 'Aamir Ahmad Amir', who wrote books at the orders of Wajid Ali Shah, Irshad-us-Sultan and Hidayat-us-Sultan, Amanat the famous author of Indra Sabha and Bekhud wrote Jalwa-Akhatar, Hajjo Sharaf and Afsana-i-Lucknow have presented a picture of the times and life of Wajid Ali Shah. The famous poet Mirza Ghalib also received the gracious patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, who granted him a pension of Rupees five hundred per year in 1854.Wajid Ali Shah used to write himself and was a poet of a considerable merit. He used to write under the nom-de-plume of ‘Akhtar’. He had equal command over Persian and Urdu and wrote several books in both languages. According to his court chronicler Masih-ud-Din he received a liberal western education and was well versed in ancient and modern history and literature. Garcin de Tassy, while travelling in the sub-continent during the mid-nineteenth century wrote in his journal about Wajid Ali Shah and noted, "I do not have to appreciate here this very political resolution, neither do I have to appreciate the qualities or defects of Wajid Ali Shah, as a sovereign, but I am interested in him as a distinguished scholar and as eminent poet in Hindustani".Wajid Ali Shah wrote extensively and adopted a simple language that easily conveyed meaning to all. It showed sprinkling of Awadhi, the local dialect. He was a prolific writer. His work Sawat-ul-Qalub runs into 1061 pages and comprises a collection of 44,562 couplets, and was completed in a short span of three years.
Notable works
Abdul Lais Siddiqi in Lucknow Ka Dabistan-i-Shairi noted that it was common for kings to employ poets to write on their behalf but this was not true of Wajid Ali Shah, and every single word has been written by himself and no one else. One of his most important works is the autobiographical Huzn-i-Akhtar, which is in verse and contains nearly 1276 couplets. It is faithful records of the hazardous journey that he undertook from Lucknow to Calcutta, after having relinquished his crown. It speaks of the unkind and unceremonious treatment accorded to him by the British authorities. Vivid details of the people and the places he encountered on his journey. It also evokes his desperation at his arrest and subsequent deportment to Calcutta's Matiya Burj. Another important work of his is Bani which runs into 400 pages.
It is a treatise on Music and Dance, which offers details of the mushairas held at Matiya Burj, of the buildings raised there at his command. There are also descriptions of the animals at his personal zoo, besides vignettes of life and the time at Matiya Burj. Although it is estimated that he wrote over 60 books but most of his works are not available and hence no critical assessment of his writing has been made till date.
Exile years
After losing the kingdom, the King first went to Kanpur and then progressed to Calcutta in a steamer accompanied by his close relatives and large entourage comprising musicians, nautch girls, cooks and animals from his menagerie and came ashore at Bichali Ghat near Metiabruz, Calcutta on 13 May 1856.He had made up his mind to go and plead his case to Queen Victoria because of his firm belief in the British sense of justice. However, his physicians did not think his health would permit such a long voyage and it was his mother, brother and heir apparent who left for England. A year later when the Indian Rebellion of 1857 spread to Lucknow and rebelling sepoys;; installed one of his sons to the throne of Awadh, Wajid Ali Shah was imprisoned in Fort William by the British along with his Prime Minister, due to apprehensions that he would become a rallying figure for the sepoys.
HEA Cotton wrote that on Panic Sunday (14 June 1857), there was widespread apprehension among the European inhabitants of Kolkata because he had "one, two, three thousand" (no one knew) armed men under him. The suppression of the Indian Rebellion by the British Army dashed all his hopes of returning to Lucknow. After his release from Fort William, he was allotted a building called BNR House in Garden Reach near the headquarter of South Eastern Railway, Calcutta. In those days, it is said, it was called Parikhana.However, heartbroken after leaving Lucknow, he had carried his dear city in his heart and proceeded to carve out a miniature of Lucknow in Metiabruz. In his exile in Metiabruz, he tried to keep the sweet memories of his Lucknow era alive by recreating the musical environments of his Kaisarbagh Baradari. The banished king had been "given" a number of fine houses with vast grounds stretching along the banks of the river Hooghly three to four miles south of Kolkata. Because of the presence there of an earthen dome (or raised platform), people would refer to it as Matiya Burj. The king spent lavishly out of his income of 12 lakhs (or, 1.2 million) rupees per annum and before long a "second Lucknow" arose in this area.
Legacy: "Babul Mora" Thumri
His bhairavi thumri Babul Mora Naihar Chhooto Jaay has been sung by several prominent singers, but a particularly popular rendition remembered today was performed by Kundan Lal Saigal for the 1930s movie Street Singer.
In popular culture
In Satyajit Ray's Shatranj Ke Khilari, Wajid Ali Shah is shown as a very enthusiastic patron of dance and music. The role was played by Amjad Khan.
Muzaffar Ali made an Indian television series, Jaan e Alam, about Wajid Ali Shah and his queen. Ali played the role of Shah himself while Zarina Wahab essayed the role of his wife.
External links
National Informatics Centre, Lucknow – Rulers of Awadh
Much of the content here has been extracted from an article by Susheela Mishra.
"Awadh Under my Wajid Ali Shah", Dr. G.D. Bhatnagar
"Wajid Ali Shah: The Tragic King", Ranbir Sinh
Baabul Moraa
Wajid Ali Shah: The Naturalist King by Shakunt Pandey
== References == | [
"Society",
"Culture"
] |
9,053,564 | Angulimala (2003 film) | Angulimala (Thai: องคุลิมาล, or Ongkulimal; RTGS: Ongkhuliman) is a 2003 Thai fantasy-adventure-drama film based on the Buddhist-scripture story of Angulimala as interpreted by the director and actors of the film. The film is directed by Sutape Tunnirut and stars Peter Noppachai Jayanama as Angulimala, Stella Malucchi as Nantha, John Rattanaveroj as Vikul, Alisa as Mantanee and Catherina Grosse. The story is a tale of redemption for the character, who embarks on a series of killings in which he murders 999 people (the Buddha was to be his 1,000th kill), collecting a finger from each victim and wearing the fingers in a garland around his neck. Later, when he realizes he was tricked into his wrongdoings, he tries to atone for his sins by becoming a Buddhist . The film was controversial on its release in Thailand, with religious leaders, local public and government officials arguing it was a distortion of Buddhist teachings. | Angulimala (Thai: องคุลิมาล, or Ongkulimal; RTGS: Ongkhuliman) is a 2003 Thai fantasy-adventure-drama film based on the Buddhist-scripture story of Angulimala as interpreted by the director and actors of the film. The film is directed by Sutape Tunnirut and stars Peter Noppachai Jayanama as Angulimala, Stella Malucchi as Nantha, John Rattanaveroj as Vikul, Alisa as Mantanee and Catherina Grosse. The story is a tale of redemption for the character, who embarks on a series of killings in which he murders 999 people (the Buddha was to be his 1,000th kill), collecting a finger from each victim and wearing the fingers in a garland around his neck. Later, when he realizes he was tricked into his wrongdoings, he tries to atone for his sins by becoming a Buddhist . The film was controversial on its release in Thailand, with religious leaders, local public and government officials arguing it was a distortion of Buddhist teachings.
Plot
Born a Brahmin, Ahimsaka is studying under a guru when he sees a woman named Nantha attempting to commit suicide by jumping off a cliff. He saves her, but later learns that Nantha was intended to be the bride of his teacher.
The teacher, angered by Ahimsaka's attention to his wife-to-be, tells his student that the only way he will attain enlightenment is to kill 1,000 people. This sets Ahimsaka off on a life as a highwayman, and at first he seeks to kill only bandits and other evildoers. To keep track of his victims, he takes a finger from the right hand of each, and wears the fingers around his neck, thus earning him the name Angulimala, "the wearer of a garland of fingers." He struggles to find 1,000 victims, so he resorts to killing all who cross his path. Nantha, wanting to stop the killing, tries to kill Ahimsaka, but only succeeds in killing herself.
Eventually, he meets the Buddha himself, who tells Ahimsaka of his wrongful ways and convinces the killer that he can redeem himself by becoming a Buddhist monk.
Cast
"Peter" Noppachai Jayanama as Ahimisaka/Angulimala
Stella Malucchi as Nantha
John Rattanaveroj as Vikul
Kamron Gunatilaka as Sati
Alisa Kajornchaiyakul as Mantanee
Catherina Grosse
Varin Sachdev
Anant Sammarsup as Kakkapakawa
Naowarat Pongpaiboon as The Lord Buddha (voice)
Reception
Religious leaders and Buddhists called for the film to be banned, voicing concerns that it distorted Buddhist teachings, showed them in bad light and glorified violence. The film was initially blocked from release by government censors, who demanded the film be re-edited for the concerns of the public in Thailand most of which are Buddhist and not Christians.Some violent scenes were removed and the film's tagline was changed. It was then viewed by revered monk Phra Phisan Dhammavadhi, who had earlier called for the film to be banned, and found acceptable.The film had poor box-office reception in Thailand, which critics blamed on the poor show and violent and negative depiction of the film.Nonetheless, Angulimala won at the Thailand National Film Association Awards for best costumes, best visual effects and best supporting actress for Alisa Kajornchaiyakul. It was screened at the 26th Moscow International Film Festival in 2004, where it was in competition for a Golden St. George. It also screened at the Asian Film Festival of Paris in 2004.
References
External links
Angulimala at IMDb
Official site | [
"Philosophy"
] |
47,559,740 | Li Guangdi | Li Guangdi (Chinese: 李光地; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Lí Kong-tē; 1642–1718), also known by his courtesy name Jinqing (Chinese: 晉卿; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Chìn-kheng) and sobriquet Hou'an (Chinese: 厚庵; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Hō͘-am), was a Chinese neo-Confucianist court official during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty. | Li Guangdi (Chinese: 李光地; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Lí Kong-tē; 1642–1718), also known by his courtesy name Jinqing (Chinese: 晉卿; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Chìn-kheng) and sobriquet Hou'an (Chinese: 厚庵; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Hō͘-am), was a Chinese neo-Confucianist court official during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty.
Biography
Li was a native of An-khoe County, Fujian Province. In 1670, he was promoted to the rank of jinshi and moved to Beijing, leaving his brother Li Guangpo behind to look after his family. Li's career prospects improved when the Emperor pacified Fujian and acted on Li's suggestion to defeat Wu Sangui. He also helped defeat Geng Jingzhong, persuading his friend Chen Menglei to work as a spy in Geng's camp. Later in life, he was responsible for planning Shi Lang's conquest of Taiwan. During the course of his life, Li held various court positions, including Chancellor of the Hanlin Academy, Governor of Zhili and Grand Secretary, and positions on the Board of War, Board of Civil Service and the Board of Public Works.
Philosophy
Li's philosophy was rooted in the Cheng-Zhu school. However, despite being a follower of Zhu Xi he did not entirely disregard the teachings of Zhu's rivals Lu Jiuyuan and Wang Yangming. He also highlighted similarities between the teachings of Confucius and those of Buddha and Lao Tzu. Li felt that human nature (which he believed to be inherently good) was the ultimate subject of his study, and that nature was the guiding principle on which to base human morality. He had an interest in the sciences.Li wrote or edited a number of philosophical texts, including the Complete Works of Master Zhu (Zhuzi daquan), the Essential Ideas of Nature and Principle (Xingli jingli) and the Interpretation of the Meaning of the Four Books (Si shu Jieyi). An expert on the I Ching, he also wrote two books on the subject, the Penetrating Discourse (Zhouyi tonglun) and the Balanced Annotations (Zhouyi zhezhong); the latter took the (at the time) unusual editorial step of segregating the original text of the I Ching from its subsequent commentaries. A complete collection of Li's works (around thirty books) was published around a hundred years after his death, entitled the Complete Works of Rongcun (Rongcun quanji).
References
Further reading
Ng, On-Cho, Cheng-Zhu Confucianism in the Early Qing: Li Guangdi (1642–1718) and Qing Learning. (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2001). ISBN 0791448819
Hummel, Arthur W. Sr., ed. (1943). "Li Kuang-ti" . Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. United States Government Printing Office. | [
"Philosophy"
] |
18,970,909 | Battlefield House (Stoney Creek, Ontario) | Battlefield House near King Street East and Centennial Parkway in Stoney Creek, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada is a living history museum and site of the historic Battle of Stoney Creek on June 6, 1813, which was fought during the War of 1812. It was built in 1796. The house and 15.5 acres (6.3 ha) of parkland (Battlefield Park), were the property of the Women's Wentworth Historical Society, (1899-1962), and given by this society to the Niagara Parks Commission on January 19, 1962. The park was designated a National Historic Site in 1960.Nestled under the Niagara Escarpment, this historic site is located on 32 acres (12.9 ha) of park land linked to the Bruce Trail. Also located on the property are the Battlefield Monument and the Grandview (Nash-Jackson House) building. | Battlefield House near King Street East and Centennial Parkway in Stoney Creek, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada is a living history museum and site of the historic Battle of Stoney Creek on June 6, 1813, which was fought during the War of 1812. It was built in 1796. The house and 15.5 acres (6.3 ha) of parkland (Battlefield Park), were the property of the Women's Wentworth Historical Society, (1899-1962), and given by this society to the Niagara Parks Commission on January 19, 1962. The park was designated a National Historic Site in 1960.Nestled under the Niagara Escarpment, this historic site is located on 32 acres (12.9 ha) of park land linked to the Bruce Trail. Also located on the property are the Battlefield Monument and the Grandview (Nash-Jackson House) building. Smith's Knoll Cemetery is also nearby, across King Street East from the park. During the first weekend in June, a re-enactment of the Battle of Stoney Creek is held with re-enactors in full regalia, representing both the British and American sides. The 2016 event was the 35th such re-enactment.The re-enactments scheduled for 2020 and 2021 were cancelled due to the covid-19 pandemic. In mid-May 2022 it was revealed that the upcoming re-enactment would also be cancelled due to "uncertainty surrounding COVID-19 restrictions" and construction taking place at Battlefield House, but would return in 2023. However, at a meeting held on May 19, it was revealed that the re-enactment would be "permanently" cancelled. Friends of Battlefield Museum withdrew its support for the museum following the meeting.British units made a night attack on an American encampment. Due in large part to the capture of both American brigadier generals, and an overestimation of British strength by the Americans, the battle was a victory for the British, and a turning point in the defence of Upper Canada.
The museum is affiliated with: CMA, CHIN, and Virtual Museum of Canada.
See also
List of attractions in Hamilton, Ontario
References
External links
Battlefield House Museum & Park (Official Site) Archived 2008-06-10 at the Wayback Machine
Hamilton Civic Museums
Official War of 1812 Bicentennial website: Battlefield House
"Musket escapes fiery end; finds a home at Stoney Creek Battlefield House Museum." (www.GeneralBrock.com)
Battle of 1812- People & Stories: Billy Green
Vintage Hamilton Postcards: Battlefield House
Ontario Ghosts & Hauntings Research Society: Battlefield House | [
"Geography"
] |
25,084 | Public speaking | Public speaking, also called oratory, is the act or skill of delivering speeches on a subject before a live audience.Public speaking has played an important cultural role in human history. Confucius, an ancient Chinese philosopher and prominent public-speaking scholar, believed that a good speech should impact individual lives, regardless of whether they were in the audience. He believed that someone in power could influence the world through words and actions.Public speaking was also studied in Ancient Greece and Rome, where it was analyzed by prominent thinkers as a central part of rhetoric. The Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle indicated 3 speech purposes: deliberative (political speech), forensic (courtroom speech), and epideictic (speech of praise or blame). Similarly, the Roman statesman and philosopher Cicero defined three purposes for public speaking: judicial (courtroom speech), deliberative (political speech), and demonstrative (a ceremonial form of speech, similar to Aristotle's epideictic).Today, public speaking has been transformed by digital technologies, such as video conferencing, multimedia presentations, and other non-traditional forms of presentation. | Public speaking, also called oratory, is the act or skill of delivering speeches on a subject before a live audience.Public speaking has played an important cultural role in human history. Confucius, an ancient Chinese philosopher and prominent public-speaking scholar, believed that a good speech should impact individual lives, regardless of whether they were in the audience. He believed that someone in power could influence the world through words and actions.Public speaking was also studied in Ancient Greece and Rome, where it was analyzed by prominent thinkers as a central part of rhetoric.
The Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle indicated 3 speech purposes: deliberative (political speech), forensic (courtroom speech), and epideictic (speech of praise or blame). Similarly, the Roman statesman and philosopher Cicero defined three purposes for public speaking: judicial (courtroom speech), deliberative (political speech), and demonstrative (a ceremonial form of speech, similar to Aristotle's epideictic).Today, public speaking has been transformed by digital technologies, such as video conferencing, multimedia presentations, and other non-traditional forms of presentation.
A Speakers' Corner is an area where free speech open-air public speaking, debate, and discussion are allowed. The original and best known is in the northeast corner of Hyde Park in London, England.
Purposes
The main objective of public speaking is to inform or change the audience's thoughts and actions. The function of public speaking is determined by the speaker's intent, but it is possible for the same speaker, with the same intent, to deliver substantially different speeches to different audiences.Public speaking is frequently directed at a select and sometimes restricted audience, consisting of individuals who may hold different perspectives. This audience can encompass enthusiastic supporters of the speaker, reluctant attendees with opposing views, or strangers with varying levels of interest in the speaker's topic. Proficient speakers recognize that even a modest-sized audience is not a uniform entity but rather a diverse assembly of individuals.Broadly, public speaking aims to either reassure an anxious audience or to alert a complacent audience of something important. Once the speaker has determined which of these approaches is required, they will use a combination of storytelling and informational approaches to achieve their goals.
Persuasion
Persuasion is a term derived from the Latin word "persuadere." Persuasive speaking aims to change the audience's beliefs and is commonly used in political debates. Leaders use such public forums in an attempt to persuade their audience, whether they be the general public or government officials.Persuasive speaking involves four essential elements: (i) the speaker or persuader; (ii) the audience; (iii) the speaking method; and (iv) the message the speaker is trying to convey. When attempting to persuade an audience to change their opinions, a speaker appeals to their emotions and beliefs.Various techniques exist for speakers to gain audience support. Speakers can demand action from the audience, use inclusive language like 'we' and 'us' to create unity between the speaker and the audience and choose words with strong connotations to intensify a message's impact. Rhetorical questions, anecdotes, generalizations, exaggerations, metaphors, and irony may be employed to increase the likelihood of persuading an audience.
Education
Public speaking can often take an educational form, where the speaker transfers knowledge to an audience. TED Talks are an example of educational public speaking. The speakers inform their audience about different topics, such as science, technology, religion, economics, human society, and psychology. TED speakers can use the platform to share personal experiences with traumatic events, such as abuse, bullying, grief, assault, suicidal ideation, near-death encounters, and mental illness. They may attempt to raise awareness and acceptance of stigmatizing issues, such as disabilities, racial differences, LGBTQ rights, children's rights, and women's rights.There have been many studies that have proven the benefits of teaching public speaking strategies to students in an academic setting, including a higher level of self-confidence and helping to render community well-being with access to a variety of information. Harvard University offers a range of courses in public speaking, including persuasive communication and personal narratives. With the continued popularity of academic conferences and TED talks taking place worldwide, public speaking has become an essential subject in academia for scholarly and professional advancement. Additionally, work meetings and presentations require proficiency in public speaking to actively formulate ideas and solutions, and modern technology helps companies release information to a wider audience.
Intervention
The intervention style of speaking is a relatively new method proposed by rhetorical theorist William R. Brown. This style revolves around the theory of idealism, which holds that humans create a symbolic meaning for life and the things around them. Due to this, the symbolic meaning of everything changes based on the way one communicates. When approaching communication with an intervention style, communication is understood to be responsible for the constant changes in society, behaviors, and how one considers the meaning behind objects, ideologies, and everyday life.From an interventional perspective, when individuals communicate, they are intervening with what is already a reality and might "shift symbolic reality." This approach to communication encompasses the possibility or idea that one may be responsible for unexpected outcomes due to what and how one communicates.
This perspective widens the scope of focus from a single speaker who is intervening to a multitude of speakers all communicating and intervening, simultaneously affecting the world around us.
History
Greece
Although evidence of public speaking training exists in ancient Egypt, the first known writing on oratory is 2,000 years old from ancient Greece. This work elaborates on principles drawn from the practices and experiences of ancient Greek orators.
Aristotle was one of the first oratory teachers to use definitive rules and models. One of his key insights was that speakers always combine, to varying degrees, three things: reasoning, which he called Logos; credentials, which he called Ethos; and emotion, which he called Pathos. Aristotle's work became an essential part of a liberal arts education during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The classical antiquity works by the ancient Greeks capture how they taught and developed the art of public speaking thousands of years ago.
In classical Greece and Rome, rhetoric was the main component of composition and speech delivery, both critical skills for use in public and private life. In ancient Greece, citizens spoke for themselves rather than having professionals, such as modern lawyers, speak for them. Any citizen who wished to succeed in court, politics, or social life had to learn public speaking techniques. Rhetorical tools were first taught by a group of teachers called Sophists, who taught paying students how to speak effectively using their methods.Separately from the Sophists, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle developed their theories of public speaking, teaching these principles to students interested in learning rhetorical skills. Plato founded The academy and Aristotle founded The Lyceum to teach these skills.Demosthenes was a well-known orator from Athens. After his father died when he was 7, he had three legal guardians: Aphobus, Demophon, and Theryppides. His inspiration for public speaking came from learning that his guardians had robbed him of the money his father left for his education. His first public speech was in the court proceeding he brought against his three guardians. After that, Demosthenes continued to practice public speaking. He is known for sticking pebbles into his mouth to improve his pronunciation, talking while running so that he would not lose his breath, and practicing speaking in front of a mirror to improve his delivery.When Philip II, the ruler of Macedon, tried to conquer the Greeks, Demosthenes made a speech called Kata Philippou A. In this speech, he spoke about why he opposed Philip II as a threat to all of Greece. This was the first of several speeches known as the Philippics. He made other speeches known as the Olynthiacs. Both series of speeches favored independence and rallied Athenians against Philip II.
Rome
During the political rise of the Roman Republic, Roman orators copied and modified the ancient Greek techniques of public speaking. Instruction in rhetoric developed into a full curriculum, including instruction in grammar (study of the poets), preliminary exercises (progymnasmata), and preparation of public speeches (declamation) in both forensic and deliberative genres.
The Latin style of rhetoric was heavily influenced by Cicero and emphasized a broad education in all areas of the humanities. Other areas of rhetorical study included the use of wit and humor, the appeal to the listener's emotions, and the use of digressions. Oratory in the Roman Empire, though less central to political life than during the Republic, remained important in law and entertainment. Famous orators were celebrities in ancient Rome, becoming wealthy and prominent in society.
The ornate Latin style was the primary form of oration through the mid-20th century. After World War II and the increased use of film and television, the Latin oration style began to fall out of favor. This cultural change likely had to do with the rise of the scientific method and the emphasis on a "plain" style of speaking and writing. Even today's formal oratory is much less ornate than in the Classical Era.
China
Ancient China had a delayed start to implementing Rhetoric (persuasion) because there were no rhetoricians training students. It was understood that Chinese rhetoric was part of Chinese philosophy, which schools taught focusing on two concepts: "Wen” (rhetoric); and “Zhi”(thoughtful content). Ancient Chinese rhetoric shows strong connections with modern public speaking, as Chinese rhetoric placed a high value on ethics.Ancient Chinese rhetoric had three objectives: (i) using language to reflect people's feelings; (ii) using language to be more pointed, effective, and impactful; and (iii) using rhetoric as an "aesthetic tool." Chinese rhetoric traditionally focused more on the written than the spoken word, but both share similar characteristics of construction.A unique and key difference between Chinese and Western rhetoric is the audience targeted for persuasion. In Chinese rhetoric, state rulers were the audience, whereas Western rhetoric targets the public. Another difference between Chinese and Western rhetoric practices is how a speaker establishes credibility or Ethos. In Chinese rhetoric, the speaker does not focus on individual credibility, like Western rhetoric. Instead, the speaker focuses on collectivism by sharing personal experiences and establishing a connection between the speaker's concern and the audience's interest.Chinese rhetoric analyzes public speakers based on three standards:
Tracing: This standard evaluates how well the speaker is doing compared to traditional speaking practices.
Examination: This standard evaluates how well the speaker considers the audience's daily lives.
Practice: This standard evaluates how relevant the topic or argument is to the “state, society, and people.”
Theorists
Aristotle's "Rhetoric"
Aristotle and one of his most famous writings, "Rhetoric" (written in 350 B.C.E), have been used as a foundation for learning how to master the art of public speaking. In his works, rhetoric is the act of publicly persuading an audience. Rhetoric is similar to dialect: he defines both as being acts of persuasion. However, dialect is the act of persuading someone in private, whereas rhetoric is about persuading people in a public setting. Aristotle defines someone who practices rhetoric or a "rhetorician" as an individual who can comprehend persuasion and how it is applied.Aristotle divides rhetoric into three elements: (i) the speaker; (ii) the topic or point of the speech; and (iii) the audience. Aristotle also classifies oration into three types: (i) political, used to convince people to take or not take action; (ii) forensic, usually used in law related to accusing or defending someone; and (iii) ceremonial, which recognizes someone positively or negatively.Aristotle breaks down the political category into five focuses or themes: "ways and means, war and peace, national defense, imports and exports, and legislation." These focuses are broken down into detail so that the speaker can effectively influence an audience to agree and support the speaker's ideas.
The focus of "ways and means" deals with economic aspects of how the country is spending money.
"Peace and War" focuses on what the country has to offer in terms of military power, how war has been conducted, how war has affected the country in the past, and how other countries have conducted war.
"National defense" deals with considering a country's position and strength in the event of an invasion. Fortifying structures and points with a strategic advantage should all be considered.
"Food supply" is concerned with the ability to support a country in regards to food, importing and exporting food, and carefully making decisions to arrange agreements with other countries.
"Legislation" is the most important to Aristotle. The legislation of a country is the most crucial aspect because everything is affected by the policies and laws set by the people in power.In Aristotle's "Rhetoric" writing, he mentions three strategies someone can use to try to persuade an audience: Establishing the character of a speaker (Ethos), influencing the emotional element of the audience (Pathos), and focusing on the argument specifically (Logos). Aristotle believes establishing the character of a speaker is effective in persuasion because the audience will believe what the speaker is saying to be true if the speaker is credible and trustworthy. With the audience's emotional state, Aristotle believes that individuals do not make the same decisions when in different moods. Because of this, one needs to try to influence the audience by being in control of one's emotions, making persuasion effective. The argument itself can affect the attempt to persuade by making the argument of the case so clear and valid that the audience will understand and believe that the speaker's point is real.In the last part of "Rhetoric", Aristotle mentions that the most critical piece of persuasion is to know in detail what makes up government and to attack what makes it unique: "customs, institutions, and interest". Aristotle also states that everyone is persuaded by considering people's interests and how the society in which they live influences their interests.
Women and public speaking
Australia
An organization called the Penguin Club of Australia was founded in Sydney in 1937 and aimed at developing women's communication skills. Led by Jean Ellis, the organization spread to other territories of Australia and current-day Papua New Guinea over time. A main premise of the organization was that it was created "for women by women." They renamed to "Speaking Made Easy" in 2020.
United States
During the 18th and 19th centuries in the United States, a prohibition was instituted whereby women were precluded from engaging in public discourse within the confines of the courtroom, the Senate floor, and the pulpit. It was deemed improper for a woman to be heard in a public setting. Exceptions existed for women from the Quaker religion, allowing them to speak publicly in meetings of the church.Frances Wright was one of the first female public speakers in the United States, advocating equal education for both women and men through large audiences and the press. Maria Stewart, a woman of African American descent, was also one of the first female speakers of the United States, lecturing in Boston in front of both men and women just four years after Wright, in 1832 and 1833, on educational opportunities and abolition for young girls.The first female agents and sisters of the American Anti-Slavery Society Angelina Grimké and Sarah Grimké created a platform for public lectures to women and conducted tours between 1837 and 1839. The sisters advocated that slavery relates to women's rights and that women need equality. They came to a disagreement with churches that did not want the two speaking publicly due to them being women.
Great Britain
The British political activist, Emmeline Pankhurst, founded the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) on October 10, 1903. The organization was aimed towards fighting for women's right to a parliamentary vote, which only men were granted at the time. Emmeline was known for being a powerful orator, who led many women to rebel through militant forms until the outbreak of World War I in 1914.
Pakistan
Malala Yousafzai is a public speaker born in the Swat Valley in Pakistan, and is an educational activist for women and girls. After the Taliban restricted the educational rights of women in the Swat Valley, Yousafzai presented her first speech How Dare the Taliban Take Away My Basic Right to Education?, in which she protested the shutdowns of the schools. She presented this speech to the press in Peshawar, bringing more awareness to the situation in Pakistan. She is known for her "inspiring and passionate speech" about educational rights given at the United Nations. She is the youngest person ever to receive the Nobel Peace Prize, at the age of 17, which was awarded to her in 2014. Her public speaking has brought worldwide attention to the difficulties of young girls in Pakistan. She continues to advocate for educational rights for women and girls worldwide through the Malala Fund, to help girls around the world receive 12 years of education.
Japan
Kishida Toshiko (1861–1901) was a female speaker during the Japanese Meiji Period. In October 1883, she publicly delivered a speech entitled 'Hakoiri Musume' (Daughters Kept in Boxes) in front of approximately 600 people. Presented in Yotsu no Miya Theater in Kyoto, she criticized the action of parents that shelter their daughters from the outside world. Despite her prompt arrest, Kishida demonstrated the ability of Japanese women to evoke women's issues, experiences, and liberation in public spaces, through the use of public speaking.
Glossophobia
The fear of speaking in public, known as glossophobia or public speaking anxiety, is often mentioned as one of the most common phobias. The reason is uncertain, but it has been speculated that this fear is primal, similar to how animals fear being seen by predators.The apprehension experienced when speaking in public can have several causes, such as social anxiety disorder, or a prior experience of public humiliation.
This can be related to Stage fright.
Training
Effective public speaking can be developed by joining a club such as Rostrum, Toastmasters International, Association of Speakers Clubs (ASC), or Speaking Circles, in which members are assigned exercises to improve their speaking skills. Members learn by observation and practice and hone their skills by listening to constructive suggestions, followed by new public speaking exercises.
Toastmasters International
Toastmasters International is a public speaking organization with over 15,000 clubs worldwide and more than 300,000 members. This organization helps individuals with their public speaking skills, as well as leadership skills necessary to become effective public speakers such as content development, club development, and speech contests. Members of the club meet and work together on their skills; each member practices giving speeches, while the other members evaluate and provide feedback. A typical meeting also includes Table Topics, which refers to impromptu speaking, that is, talking about different topics without having anything planned. Members can volunteer to serve as a meeting functionary to help facilitate the meeting using their public speaking and leadership skills. The functionary roles enable each member the opportunity to speak at least one time at the meetings. Members can participate in a variety of speech contests, in which the winners can compete in the annual World Championship of Public Speaking.
Rostrum
Rostrum is another public speaking organization, founded in Australia, with more than 100 clubs all over the country. This organization aims at helping people become better communicators, no matter the occasion. At the meetings, speakers can gain skills by presenting speeches, while members provide feedback to those presenting. Qualified speaking trainers attend these meetings as well, and provide professional feedback at the end of the meetings. There are competitions that are held for members to participate in. An online club is also available for members, no matter where they live.
Self-Training Solutions
The new millennium has seen a notable increase in the number of training solutions, offered in the form of video and online courses. Videos can provide simulated examples of behaviors to emulate. Professional public speakers often engage in ongoing training and education to refine their craft. This may include seeking guidance to improve their speaking skills, such as learning better storytelling techniques, learning how to use humor as a communication tool effectively, and continuously researching their topic area of focus. They also recognize that content is king and advocate writing as a self-training exercise because it requires a speaker to focus on developing the content, not just speaking techniques.
Professional speakers
Public speaking for business and commercial events is often done by professionals, whose expertise is well established. These speakers can be contracted independently, through representation by a speakers bureau, or by other means. Public speaking plays a large role in the professional world. It is believed that 70 percent of all jobs involve some form of public speaking.
Modern
Technology
New technology has opened different forms of public speaking that are non-traditional such as TED Talks, which are conferences that are broadcast globally. This form of public speaking has created a wider audience base because public speaking can now reach both physical and virtual audiences. These audiences can be watching from all around the world. YouTube is another platform that allows public speaking to reach a larger audience. On YouTube, people can post videos of themselves. Audiences can watch these videos for all types of purposes.Multimedia presentations can contain different video clips, sound effects, animation, laser pointers, remote control clickers, and endless bullet points. All adding to the presentation and evolving our traditional views of public speaking.
Public speakers may use audience response systems. For large assemblies, the speaker will usually speak with the aid of a public address system or microphone and loudspeaker.
Telecommunication
Telecommunication and videoconferencing are also forms of public speaking. David M. Fetterman of Stanford University wrote in his 1997 article Videoconferencing over the Internet: "Videoconferencing technology allows geographically disparate parties to hear and see each other usually through satellite or telephone communication systems." This technology is helpful for large conference meetings and face-to-face communication between parties without demanding the inconvenience of travel.
Notable modern theorists
Harold Lasswell developed Lasswell's model of communication. Five basic elements of public speaking are described in this theory: the communicator, message, medium, audience, and effect. In short, the speaker should be answering the question "who says what in which channel to whom with what effect?"
See also
References
Further reading
Collins, Philip. "The Art of Speeches and Presentations" (John Wiley & Sons, 2012).
Fairlie, Henry. "Oratory in Political Life," History Today (Jan 1960) 10#1 pp. 3–13. A survey of political oratory in Great Britain from 1730 to 1960.
Flintoff, John-Paul. "A Modest Book About How To Make An Adequate Speech" (Short Books, 2021). excerpt
Gold, David, and Catherine L. Hobbs, eds. Rhetoric, History, and Women's Oratorical Education: American Women Learn to Speak (Routledge, 2013).
Heinrichs, Jay. "Thank You For Arguing" (Penguin, 2008).
Lucas, Stephen E. The Art of Public Speaking (13th ed. McGraw Hill, 2019).
Noonan, Peggy. "Simply Speaking" (Regan Books, 1998).
Parry-Giles, Shawn J., and J. Michael Hogan, eds. The Handbook of Rhetoric and Public Address (2010) excerpt
Sproule, J. Michael. "Inventing public speaking: Rhetoric and the speech book, 1730–1930." Rhetoric & Public Affairs 15.4 (2012): 563–608. excerpt
Turner, Kathleen J., Randall Osborn, et al. Public speaking (11th ed. Houghton Mifflin, 2017). excerpt
Dale Carnegie· Arthur R. Pell. Public Speaking for Success. 2006
Dale Carnegie. Public Speaking and Influencing Men in Business. 2003
Dale Carnegie. How to Develop Self-Confidence & Influence People by Public Speaking. New York: Pocket Books,1926
Chris Anderson. The Official TED Guide to Public Speaking. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Boston, 2016.
External links
Public speaking at Curlie
How to speak so that people want to listen | [
"Politics"
] |
4,167,812 | Victoria Prison | Victoria Prison, was the first and longest-running prison to date in Hong Kong. It is located on Old Bailey Street in Central, Hong Kong Island. Named in honour of Queen Victoria, it was originally known as Victoria Gaol and was renamed into Victoria Prison in 1899. Victoria Prison has been redeveloped into a cultural and shopping destination generally called Tai Kwun (大館). Tai Kwun is composed of three declared monuments: the former Central Police Station, former Central Magistracy and Victoria Prison. | Victoria Prison, was the first and longest-running prison to date in Hong Kong. It is located on Old Bailey Street in Central, Hong Kong Island. Named in honour of Queen Victoria, it was originally known as Victoria Gaol and was renamed into Victoria Prison in 1899. Victoria Prison has been redeveloped into a cultural and shopping destination generally called Tai Kwun (大館). Tai Kwun is composed of three declared monuments: the former Central Police Station, former Central Magistracy and Victoria Prison.
History
The prison was completed on 4 August 1842. It was originally known as the Victoria Gaol and is said to be the first western building constructed of durable material in Hong Kong. The prison still retains the facade of Victorian architecture, having been built mostly of granite and brick.
Ho Chi Minh, the Vietnamese revolutionary, was imprisoned there from 1931 to 1933.During World War II, the prison was occupied by the Japanese and most of its buildings were damaged by bombing. The prison was re-opened for use in 1946 after restoration. When Hong Kong was later declared a port of first asylum for Vietnamese refugees, Victoria Prison became a transit and repatriation centre. It was subsequently developed into an institution with modern management facilities for accommodating discharged inmates of both sexes prior to repatriation or deportation. The prison buildings were declared monuments on 8 September 1995, together with the adjacent former Central Police Station and the former Central Magistracy. It was officially decommissioned on 12 March 2006. It has recently finished renovation and in 2018 Victoria Prison was reopened as The Tai Kwun Center for Heritage and Arts.
Preservation Guidelines
The completion dates of different parts of the old Central Police Station, the former Central Magistracy and Victoria Prison compound are listed below:
Preservation of F Hall
Reasons for preserving F Hall (as submitted by the Central and Western District Council
In the early 20th century, a series of changes happened in Victoria Prison. The existing F Hall, representing the door to the interior of the prison, was completed in 1913. It was used as a printing factory for prisoners to work and acquire skills. In 1931, F Hall was rebuilt as a two-storey building and a "weaving area" was added. After the Japanese Army invaded Hong Kong during World War II, many parts of the Prison, including F Hall, were severely damaged. F Hall was rebuilt in 1948 and was re-opened as a Government printing workshop (i.e. the former Printing Department). In 1956, the ground floor of F Hall was converted to an office and reception centre of the prison. The Victoria Prison finally closed down in early 2006.
The Government declared Victoria Prison as a declared monument in September 1995.
In early 2000, the Government planned to develop the Central Police Station and Victoria Prison Compound for cultural and tourism use, and to assign the Tourism Commission, which was responsible for developing the new tourist spots, to co-ordinate the development project. The Government also planned to let private enterprise develop and manage te heritage compound through public tender.
Accompanied by representatives of the Antiquities and Monuments Office (AMO), the Central and Western District Council (C&W DC) visited the heritage compound in April 2003. During the visit, the C&W DC learned that the Antiquities Advisory Board (AAB) had considered the 18 buildings in the heritage compound as historical buildings. However, AAB formally laid down a set of guidelines for developing the heritage compound after a meeting held in June 2004. The guidelines pointed out that only 17 buildings in the compound were considered historical buildings and that F Hall, located behind the entrance to Victoria Prison, was not on the list.
Motions passed by the Central & Western District Council on F Hall
The C&W DC strongly requested that F Hall of Victoria Prison be preserved, and that the future developer of the heritage compound not be given the right to decide whether F Hall should be demolished. The C&W DC also requested the AAB to reconsider the views of the public and the C&W DC. (This motion was passed by the C&W DC at a meeting held on 25 November 2004)
Views of Government on the preservation of F Hall
In a reply to the C&W DC in November 2004, AMO pointed out that the AAB had considered that in comparison with other historical buildings, the cultural value of F Hall was lower, and therefore F Hall should be kept under the category of non-historical buildings. AAB also viewed that the above decision would not affect the overall historical value of the Victoria Prison Compound. This could enhance the flexibility of the future development of the compound, and allow more creative design that was compatible with the historical buildings in the Victoria Prison Compound.
At the C&W DC meeting held on 2 November 2004, Dr. Louis Ng, the former Executive Secretary of the Antiquities and Monuments Office stated that the Government declared the whole heritage compound as declared monuments in 1995. However, the Government did not specify the cultural value and preservation mode of individual buildings in the heritage compound, nor pointed out particularly that F Hall was a historical building. According to the Antiquities and Monuments Ordinance, any demolition works to be carried out in the heritage compound is to be approved by the Antiquities Authority (i.e. the Secretary for Home Affairs). Upon receiving an application for demolition of a building in the heritage compound, the Antiquities Authority will consider the cultural value of relevant buildings and the necessity of the demolition works etc. Doctor Louis Ng has clarified that AAB did not ask for demolition of F Hall, but considered if there was a need to fulfill the design, the Board would consider demolition of F Hall.
Views put forward by the C&W DC on the preservation of F Hall
At a meeting held on 25 November 2004, C&W DC members put forward the following views regarding the preservation of F Hall:
Demolition of F Hall would affect unity of the heritage compound, and therefore the future developer should not be given the right to decide whether F Hall should be demolished.
F Hall represented the entrance of the whole heritage compound. Without this entrance, the heritage compound could not be regarded as a heritage compound.
There was educational value in F Hall. It was a typical prison and was totally different from B Hall and E Hall. If the future developer was given the right to decide whether F Hall should preserved, F Hall would not exist and the history of prisons in Hong Kong would certainly diminish.
It was hoped that the Government would review the preservation of F Hall. The Hong Kong Institute of Architects has indicated that F Hall should not be demolished, and only part of F Hall should be redeveloped. The heritage compound reflected the prison development in Hong Kong. If the future developer was given the right to decide whether F Hall should be preserved, they would certainly pull down the building for redevelopment
Buildings
The prison complex consists of 3 three-storey buildings, 3 two-storey buildings and 3 single-storey buildings. Inside these buildings there are cellular and dormitory accommodations, a special unit, a hospital, a kitchen, dining halls/ dayrooms, a laundry, an exercise yard and an administration block.
The prison had undergone several stages of expansion since its original founding with the major one in 1895 when D Hall complex with its Neo-Georgian architectural style was built. A further stage of major expansion took place in 1914 with the addition of B Hall, C Hall and E Hall to cope with the needs of the time.
The various buildings were constructed as follows:
The overall compound also comprises 7 blocks of the old Central Police Station as follows:
And finally, there is also one former Central Magistracy building built in 1914.
The compound is bordered on the North by Hollywood Road, on the South by Chancery Lane, on the East by Arbuthnot Road and on the West by Old Bailey Street.
2006 Public Opening
Upon its decommission, the "Victoria Prison Decommissioning Open Days" event was organised. The prison was opened to the public on 11, 17 and 18 March 2006 as a charity event to raise funds for the Community Chest of Hong Kong. Each visitor was asked to donate HK$20 to the charity.
Correctional Services department staff volunteers dressed in old staff uniforms helped to provide a glimpse of the changes in attire over the years, when the former Prisons Department was renamed the Correctional Services Department in 1982.
A piece of the equipment for administering corporal punishment, called the "Cat-of-nine tails" (a whip), was also on display.
2007 Public Opening
The Central and Western District Council organised six Open Days in January 2007 under the title of "Journey to the History of Victoria Prison"
Guided tours were led by docents to historical buildings in the heritage compound. There was a "Prison Art Museum" where local artists were given access to several cells that they could decorate or use as a display gallery.
The Open Days were scheduled on 6,7,13,14,20 and 21 January 2007 from 09:30 to 16:00.
In popular culture
Victoria Prison appeared in the 2008 Anthony Horowitz novel Necropolis as Scarlett Adams' and Matthew Freeman's prison when they are captured by the Nightrise corporation.
This prison serves as a main setting for Hong Kong TVB drama series Phoenix Rising.
See also
List of places named for Queen Victoria, for a list of places named after Queen Victoria
Malcolm Struan Tonnochy - Superintendent of Victoria Gaol 1876-1882
References
External links
Antiquities and Monuments Office
Victoria Prison at the Wayback Machine (archived 2004-12-06) - Hong Kong Correctional Services
Hong Kong Disciplined Services Collectibles | [
"Government"
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239,672 | Sulla | Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (; 138–78 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman. He won the first large-scale civil war in Roman history and became the first man of the Republic to seize power through force. Sulla had the distinction of holding the office of consul twice, as well as reviving the dictatorship. A gifted and innovative general, he achieved numerous successes in wars against foreign and domestic opponents. Sulla rose to prominence during the war against the Numidian king Jugurtha, whom he captured as a result of Jugurtha's betrayal by the king's allies, although his superior Gaius Marius took credit for ending the war. | Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (; 138–78 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman. He won the first large-scale civil war in Roman history and became the first man of the Republic to seize power through force.
Sulla had the distinction of holding the office of consul twice, as well as reviving the dictatorship. A gifted and innovative general, he achieved numerous successes in wars against foreign and domestic opponents. Sulla rose to prominence during the war against the Numidian king Jugurtha, whom he captured as a result of Jugurtha's betrayal by the king's allies, although his superior Gaius Marius took credit for ending the war. He then fought successfully against Germanic tribes during the Cimbrian War, and Italian allies during the Social War. He was awarded the Grass Crown for his bravery at the Battle of Nola. Sulla was closely associated with Venus, adopting the title Epaphroditos meaning favored of Aphrodite/Venus.Sulla played an important role in the long political struggle between the optimates and populares factions at Rome. He was a leader of the optimates, which sought to maintain senatorial supremacy against the populist reforms advocated by the populares, headed by Marius. In a dispute over the command of the war against Mithridates, initially awarded to Sulla by the Senate, but withdrawn as a result of Marius' intrigues, Sulla marched on Rome in an unprecedented act and defeated Marian forces in battle. The populares nonetheless seized power once he left with his army to Asia. He returned victorious from the east in 82 BC, marched a second time on Rome, and crushed the populares and their Italian allies at the Battle of the Colline Gate. He then revived the office of dictator, which had been inactive since the Second Punic War, over a century before. He used his powers to purge his opponents, and reform Roman constitutional laws, to restore the primacy of the Senate and limit the power of the tribunes of the plebs. Resigning his dictatorship in 79 BC, Sulla retired to private life and died the following year. Later political leaders such as Julius Caesar would follow precedent set by Sulla and his military coup in attaining political power through force.
Family and youth
Sulla, the son of Lucius Cornelius Sulla and the grandson of Publius Cornelius Sulla, was born into a branch of the patrician gens Cornelia, but his family had fallen to an impoverished condition at the time of his birth. Publius Cornelius Rufinus, one of Sulla's ancestors and also the last member of his family to be consul, was banished from the Senate after having been caught possessing more than 10 pounds of silver plate. Sulla's family thereafter did not reach the highest offices of the state until Sulla himself. His father may have served as praetor, but details are unclear; his father married twice and Sulla' stepmother was of considerable wealth, which certainly helped the young Sulla's ambitions.One story, "as false as it is charming", relates that when Sulla was a baby, his nurse was carrying him around the streets, until a strange woman walked up to her and said, "Puer tibi et reipublicae tuae felix", which can be translated as, "The boy will be a source of luck to you and your state". After his father's death, around the time Sulla reached adulthood, Sulla found himself impoverished. He might have been disinherited, though it was "more likely" that his father simply had nothing to bequeath. Lacking ready money, Sulla spent his youth among Rome’s comedians, actors, lute players, and dancers. During these times on the stage, after initially only singing, he started writing plays, Atellan farces, a kind of crude comedy. Plutarch mentions that during his last marriage to Valeria, he still kept company with "actresses, musicians, and dancers, drinking with them on couches night and day.Sulla almost certainly received a normal education for his class, grounded in ancient Greek and Latin classics. Sallust declares him well-read, intelligent, and he was fluent in Greek. Regardless, by the standards of the Roman political class, Sulla was a very poor man. His first wife was called either Ilia or Julia. If the latter, he may have married into the Julii Caesares. He had one child from this union, before his first wife's death. He married again, with a woman called Aelia, of whom nothing is known other than her name. During these marriages, he engaged in an affair with the hetaira Nicopolis, who also was older than him. The means by which Sulla attained the fortune which later would enable him to ascend the ladder of Roman politics are not clear; Plutarch refers to two inheritances, one from his stepmother (who loved him dearly) and the other from his mistress Nicopolis. Keaveney 2005, pp. 10–11 accepts these inheritances without much comment and places them around Sulla's turning thirty years of age.
Early career
After meeting the minimum age requirement of thirty, he stood for the quaestorship in 108 BC. Normally, candidates had to have first served for ten years in the military, but by Sulla's time, this had been superseded by an age requirement. He was then assigned by lot to serve under the consul Gaius Marius.
Jugurthine War (107–106 BC)
The Jugurthine War had started in 112 BC when Jugurtha, grandson of Massinissa of Numidia, claimed the entire kingdom of Numidia in defiance of Roman decrees that divided it among several members of the royal family. After massacring a number of Italian traders who supported one of his rivals, indignation erupted as to Jugurtha's use of bribery to secure a favourable peace treaty; called to Rome to testify on bribery charges, he successfully plotted the assassination of another royal claimant before returning home. After the war started, several Roman commanders were bribed (Bestia and Spurius), and one (Aulus Postumius Albinus) was defeated. In 109, Rome sent Quintus Caecilius Metellus to continue the war. Gaius Marius, a lieutenant of Metellus, returned to Rome to stand for the consulship in 107 BC. Marius was elected consul and, through assignment by tribunician legislation, took over the campaign. Sulla was assigned by lot to his staff.When Marius took over the war, he entrusted Sulla to organise cavalry forces in Italy needed to pursue the mobile Numidians into the desert. If Sulla had married one of the Julii Caesares, this could explain Marius' willingness to entrust such an important task to a young man with no military experience, as Marius too had married into that family.Under Marius, the Roman forces followed a very similar plan as under Metellus, capturing and garrisoning fortified positions in the African countryside. Sulla was popular with the men, charming and benign, he built up a healthy rapport while also winning popularity with other officers, including Marius. Ultimately, the Numidians were defeated in 106 BC, due in large part to Sulla's initiative in capturing the Numidian king. Jugurtha had fled to his father-in-law, King Bocchus I of Mauretania (a nearby kingdom); Marius invaded Mauretania, and after a pitched battle in which both Sulla and Marius played important roles in securing victory, Bocchus felt forced by Roman arms to betray Jugurtha. After the Senate approved negotiations with Bocchus, it delegated the talks to Marius, who appointed Sulla as envoy plenipotentiary. Winning Bocchus' friendship and making plain Rome's demands for Jugurtha's deliverance, Sulla successfully concluded negotiations and secured Bocchus' capture of Jugurtha and the king's rendition to Marius' camp. The publicity attracted by this feat boosted Sulla's political career. Years later, in 91 BC, Bocchus paid for the erection of gilded equestrian statue depicting Sulla's capture of Jugurtha.
Cimbrian War (104–101 BC)
In 104 BC, the Cimbri and the Teutones, two Germanic tribes who had bested the Roman legions on several occasions, seemed to again be heading for Italy. Marius, in the midst of this military crisis, sought and won repeated consulships, which upset aristocrats in the Senate; they, however, likely acknowledged the indispensability of Marius' military capabilities in defeating the Germanic invaders. Amid a reorganisation of political alliances, the traditionalists in the Senate raised up Sulla – a patrician, even if a poor one, – as a counterweight against the newcomer Marius.Starting in 104 BC, Marius moved to reform the defeated Roman armies in southern Gaul. Sulla then served as legate under his former commander and, in that stead, successfully subdued a Gallic tribe which revolted in the aftermath of a previous Roman defeat. The next year, Sulla was elected military tribune and served under Marius, and assigned to treat with the Marsi, part of the Germanic invaders, he was able to negotiate their defection from the Cimbri and Teutones. His prospects for advancement under Marius stalled, however, Sulla started to complain "most unfairly" that Marius was withholding opportunities from him. Demanding transfer to Catulus' (Marius' consular colleague) army, he received it.In 102 BC, the invaders returned and moved to force the Alps. Catulus, with Sulla, moved to block their advance; the two men likely cooperated well. But Catulus' army was defeated in the eastern Alps and withdrew from Venetia and thence to the southern side of the river Po. At the same time, Marius had annihilated the Cimbri's allies, the Teutones, at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae. Marius, elected again to the consulship of 101, came to Catulus' aid; Sulla, in charge of supporting army provisioning, did so competently and was able to feed both armies. The two armies then crossed the Po and attacked the Cimbri. After the failure of negotiations, the Romans and Cimbri engaged in the Battle of the Raudian Field in which the Cimbri were routed and destroyed.Victorious, Marius and Catulus were both granted triumphs as the commanding generals. Refusing to stand for an aedileship (which, due to its involvement in hosting public games, was extremely expensive), Sulla became a candidate for the praetorship in 99 BC. He was, however, defeated. Campaigning on his military record, the people were unwilling to hear tales of military bravado from a mere junior officer after two triumphs. Moreover, the people knew that Sulla was friends with Bocchus, a rich foreign monarch, and rejected his standing for the praetorship to induce him to spend money on games. Sulla, undeterred, stood again for the praetorship the next year, promising he would pay for good shows; duly elected as praetor in 97 BC, he was assigned by lot to the urban praetorship.
Cilician governorship (96–93 BC)
His term as praetor was largely uneventful, excepting a public dispute with Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo (possibly his brother-in-law) and his magnificent holding of the ludi Apollinares. The next year, 96 BC, he was assigned – "probably pro consule as was customary" – to Cilicia in Asia Minor.While governing Cilicia, Sulla received orders from the Senate to restore Ariobarzanes to the throne of Cappadocia. Ariobarzanes had been driven out by Mithridates VI of Pontus, who wanted to install one of his own sons (Ariarathes) on the Cappadocian throne. Despite initial difficulties, Sulla was successful with minimal resources and preparation; with few Roman troops, he hastily levied allied soldiers and advanced quickly into rugged terrain before routing superior enemy forces. His troops were sufficiently impressed by his leadership that they hailed him imperator.Sulla's campaign in Cappadocia had led him to the banks of the Euphrates, where he was approached by an embassy from the Parthian Empire. Sulla was the first Roman magistrate to meet a Parthian ambassador. At the meeting, he took the seat between the Parthian ambassador, Orobazus, and Ariobarzanes, seeking to gain psychological advantage over the Parthian envoy by portraying the Parthians and the Cappadocians as equals with Rome as superior. The Parthian ambassador, Orobazus, was executed upon his return to Parthia for allowing this humiliation; the Parthians, however, ratified the treaty reached, which established the Euphrates as a clear boundary between Parthia and Rome. At this meeting, Sulla was told by a Chaldean seer that he would die at the height of his fame and fortune. This prophecy was to have a powerful hold on Sulla throughout his lifetime.In 94 BC, Sulla repulsed the forces of Tigranes the Great of Armenia from Cappadocia. He may have stayed in the east until 92 BC, when he returned to Rome. Keaveney places his departure to 93. Sulla was regarded to have done well in the east: he had restored Ariobarzanes to the throne, been hailed imperator by his men, and was the first Roman to treat successfully with the Parthians. With military and diplomatic victory, his political fortunes seemed positive. However, his candidature was dealt a blow when he was brought up on charges of extorting Ariobarzanes. Even though the prosecutor declined to show up on the day of the trial, leading to Sulla's victory by default, Sulla's ambitions were frustrated.
Social War
Relations between Rome and its allies (the socii), had deteriorated over the years up to 91 BC. From 133 BC and the start of Tiberius Gracchus' land reforms, Italian communities were displaced from de jure Roman public lands over which no title had been enforced for generations. Various proposals to give the allies Roman citizenship over the decades had failed for various reasons, just as the allies also "became progressively more aware of the need to cease to be subjects and to share in the exercise of imperial power" by acquiring that citizenship. The Cimbric war also revived Italian solidarity, aided by Roman extension of corruption laws to allow allies to lodge extortion claims. When the pro-Italian plebeian tribune Marcus Livius Drusus was assassinated in 91 BC while trying again to pass a bill extending Roman citizenship, the Italians revolted.The same year, Bocchus paid for the erection of a statue depicting Sulla's capture of Jugurtha. This may have been related to Sulla's campaign for the consulship. Regardless, if he had immediate plans for a consulship, they were forced into the background at the outbreak of war. At the start of the war, there were largely two theatres: a northern theatre from Picenum to the Fucine Lake and a southern theatre including Samnium. Sulla served as one of the legates in the southern theatre assigned to consul Lucius Julius Caesar.In the first year of fighting, Roman strategy was largely one of containment, attempting to stop the revolting allies from spreading their rebellion into Roman-controlled territory. Sulla, in southern Italy, operated largely defensively on Lucius Julius Caesar's flank while the consul conducted offensive campaigning. Late in the year, Sulla cooperated with Marius (who was a legate in the northern theatre) in the northern part of southern Italy to defeat the Marsi: Marius defeated the Marsi, sending them headlong into Sulla's waiting forces. Sulla attempted also to assist Lucius' relief of the city of Aesernia, which was under siege, but both men were unsuccessful.The next year, 89 BC, Sulla served as legate under the consul Lucius Porcius Cato. But after Cato's death in battle with the Marsi, Sulla was prorogued pro consule and placed in supreme command of the southern theatre. He brought Pompeii under siege. After one of the other legates was killed by his men, Sulla refused to discipline them except by issuing a proclamation imploring them to show more courage against the enemy. While besieging Pompeii, an Italian relief force came under Lucius Cluentius, which Sulla defeated and forced into flight towards Nola. Killing Cluentius before the city's walls, Sulla then invested the town and for his efforts was awarded a grass crown, the highest Roman military honour. Pompeii was taken some time during the year, along with Stabiae and Aeclanum; with the capture of Aeclanum, Sulla forced the Hirpini to surrender. He then attacked the Samnites and routed one of their armies near Aesernia before capturing the new Italian capital at Bovianum Undecimanorum. All of these victories would have been won before the consular elections in October 89.Political developments in Rome also started to bring an end to the war. In 89 BC, one of the tribunes of the plebs passed the lex Plautia Papiria, which granted citizenship to all of the allies (with exception for the Samnites and Lucanians still under arms). This had been preceded by the lex Julia, passed by Lucius Julius Caesar in October 90 BC, which had granted citizenship to those allies who remained loyal. Buttressed by success against Rome's traditional enemies, the Samnites, and general Roman victory across Italy, Sulla stood for and was elected easily to the consulship of 88 BC; his colleague would be Quintus Pompeius Rufus.
First consulship, 88 BC
Sulla's election to the consulship, successful likely due to his military success in 89 BC, was not uncontested. Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo, merely an ex-aedile and one of Sulla's long-time enemies, had contested the top magistracy. Beyond personal enmity, Caesar Strabo may also have stood for office because it was evident that Rome's relations with the Pontic king, Mithridates VI Eupator, were deteriorating and that the consuls of 88 would be assigned an extremely lucrative and glorious command against Pontus. Pompey Strabo may have coveted a second consulship for similar reasons. The question to whom to send against Mithridates would be one of the sources of the following domestic crisis.Shortly after Sulla's election, probably in the last weeks of the year, Sulla married his daughter to one of his colleague Pompeius Rufus' sons. He also divorced his then-wife Cloelia and married Metella, widow of the recently-deceased Marcus Aemilius Scaurus. These marriages helped build political alliances with the influential Caecilii Metelli and the Pompeys. He was also assigned by the senate, probably with the support of his consular colleague, Quintus Pompeius Rufus, the Mithridatic command.
Sulpicius
Sulla became embroiled in a political fight against one of the plebeian tribunes, Publius Sulpicius Rufus, on the matter of how the new Italian citizens were to be distributed into the Roman tribes for purposes of voting. Sulla and Pompeius Rufus opposed the bill, which Sulpicius took as a betrayal; Sulpicius, without the support of the consuls, looked elsewhere for political allies. This led him to a secret deal with Marius, who had for years been coveting another military command, in which Marius would support Sulpicius' Italian legislation in exchange for a law transferring Sulla's command to Marius. Sulpicius' attempts to push through the Italian legislation again brought him into violent urban conflict, although he "offered nothing to the urban plebs... so it continued to resist him". The consuls, fearful of intimidation of Sulpicius and his armed bodyguards, declared a suspension of public business (iustitium) which led to Sulpicius and his mob forcing the consuls to flee.During the violence, Sulla was forced to shelter in Marius' nearby house (later denied in his memoirs). Marius arranged for Sulla to lift the iustitium and allow Sulpicius to bring proposals; Sulla, in a "desperately weak position... [received] little in return[,] perhaps no more than a promise that Sulla's life would be safe". Sulla then left for Capua before joining an army near Nola in southern Italy. He may have felt, after this political humiliation, that the only way to recover his career was to come back from the Mithridatic command victorious.
First march on Rome
With Sulpicius able to enact legislation without consular opposition, Sulla discovered that Marius had tricked him, for the first piece of legislation Sulpicius brought was a law transferring the command against Mithridates to Marius. Thus,
Sulla was presented with a choice. He could acknowledge the law as valid. To do so would mean total humiliation at the hands of his opponents, the end of his political career, and perhaps even further danger to his life. Or he could attempt to reverse it and regain his command. He can hardly have been in any doubt. Like Caesar, he was an outsider in politics, totally self-centred in pursuit of his ambitions, always ready to break the rules of the political game to achieve his objective... If Sulla hesitated it can only have been because he was not sure how his army would react.
Speaking to the men, Sulla complained to them of the outrageous behaviour of Marius and Sulpicius. He hinted to them that Marius would find other men to fight Mithridates, forcing them to give up opportunities to plunder the East, claims which were "surely false". The troops were willing to follow Sulla to Rome; his officers, however, realised Sulla's plans and deserted him (except his quaestor and kinsman, almost certainly Lucius Licinius Lucullus). They then killed Marcus Gratidius, one of Marius' legates, when Gratidius attempted to effect the transfer of command.When the march on Rome started, the Senate and people were appalled. The Senate immediately sent an embassy demanding an explanation for his seeming march on the fatherland, to which Sulla responded boldly, saying that he was freeing it from tyrants. Without troops defending Rome itself, Sulla entered the city; once there, however, his men were pelted with stones from the rooftops by common people. Almost breaking before Marius' makeshift forces, Sulla then stationed troops all over the city before summoning the Senate and inducing it to outlaw Marius, Marius' son, Sulpicius, and nine others. He then reinforced this decision by legislation, retroactively justifying his illegal march on the city and stripping the twelve outlaws of their Roman citizenship. Of the twelve outlaws, only Sulpicius was killed after being betrayed by a slave. Marius and his son, along with some others, escaped to Africa.
Aftermath
Sulla then had Sulpicius' legislation invalidated on the grounds that they had been passed by force. According only to Appian, he then brought legislation to strengthen the Senate's position in the state and weaken the plebeian tribunes by eliminating the comitia tributa as a legislative body and requiring that tribunes first receive senatorial approval for legislation; some scholars, however, reject Appian's account as mere retrojection of legislation passed during Sulla's dictatorship. He sent his army back to Capua and then conducted the elections for that year, which yielded a resounding rejection of him and his allies. His enemy, Lucius Cornelius Cinna, was elected consul for 87 BC in place of his candidate; his nephew was rejected as plebeian tribune while Marius' nephew was successful. Cinna, even before the election, said he would prosecute Sulla at the conclusion of the latter's consular term.After the elections, Sulla forced the consuls designate to swear to uphold his laws. And for his consular colleague, he attempted to transfer to him the command of Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo's army. The law was vetoed by one of the tribunes, but when Quintus Pompeius Rufus went to Pompey Strabo's army to take command under the Senate's authority, he was promptly assassinated after his arrival and assumption of command, almost certainly on Strabo's orders. No action was taken against the troops nor action taken to relieve Pompey Strabo of command. He then left Italy with his troops without delay, ignoring legal summons and taking over command from a legate in Macedonia.Sulla's ability to use military force against his own countrymen was "in many ways a continuation of the Social War... a civil war between former allies and friends developed into a civil war between citizens... what was eroded in the process was the fundamental distinction between Romans and foreign enemies". Political violence in Rome continued even in Sulla's absence. Cinna violently quarrelled with his co-consul, Gnaeus Octavius. After Octavius induced the senate to outlaw Cinna, Cinna suborned the army besieging Nola and induced the Italians again to rise up. Marius, offering his services to Cinna, helped levy troops. By the end of 87 BC, Cinna and Marius had besieged Rome and taken the city, killed consul Gnaeus Octavius, massacred their political enemies, and declared Sulla an outlaw; they then had themselves elected consuls for 86 BC.
Proconsular command and Civil War
First Mithridatic War
During close of the Social War, in 89 BC, Mithridates VI Eupator of Pontus invaded Roman Asia. In the summer of 88, he reorganised the administration of the area before unsuccessfully besieging Rhodes. News of these conquests reached Rome in the autumn of 89 BC, leading the Senate and people to declare war; actual preparations for war were, however, delayed: after Sulla was given the command, it took him some eighteen months to organise five legions before setting off; Rome was also severely strained financially. While Rome was preparing to move against Pontus, Mithridates arranged the massacre of some eighty thousand Roman and Italian expatriates and their families – known today as the Asiatic vespers – and confiscated their properties.Mithridates' successes against the Romans incited a revolt by the Athenians against Roman rule. The Athenian politician Aristion had himself elected as strategos epi ton hoplon and established a tyranny over the city. Hind 1994, p. 150 dismisses claims in Plutarch and Vellius Paterclus of Athens being forced to cooperate with Mithridates as "very hollow" and "apologia". Rome unsuccessfully defended Delos from an joint invasion by Athens and Pontus. They were, however, successful in holding Macedonia, then governed by propraetor Gaius Sentius and his legate Quintus Bruttius Sura.
Sack of Athens
Early in 87 BC, Sulla transited the Adriatic for Thessaly with his five legions. Upon his arrival, Sulla had his quaestor Lucullus order Sura, who had vitally delayed Mithridates' advances into Greece, to retreat back into Macedonia. He separately besieged Athens and Piraeus (the Long Walls had since been demolished). Threatened by the Pontic navy, Sulla sent his quaestor Lucullus to scrounge about for allied naval forces. At the same time, Mithridates attempted to force a land battle in northern Greece, and dispatched a large army across the Hellespont. These sieges lasted until spring of 86 BC.Discovering a weak point in the walls and popular discontent with the Athenian tyrant Aristion, Sulla stormed and captured Athens (except the Acropolis) on 1 March 86 BC. The Acropolis was then besieged. Athens itself was spared total destruction "in recognition of [its] glorious past" but the city was sacked. In need of resources, Sulla sacked the temples of Epidaurus, Delphi, and Olympia; after a battle with the Pontic general Archelaus outside Piraeus, Sulla's forces forced the Pontic garrison to withdraw by sea. Capturing the city, Sulla had it destroyed.
Boeotian battles
In the summer of 86 BC, two major battles were fought in Boeotia. The Battle of Chaeronea was fought in early summer around the same time the Athenian acropolis was taken. The later battle, at Orchomenus, was fought in high summer but before the start of the autumn rains. The Pontic casualties given in Plutarch and Appian, the main sources for the battles, are exaggerated; Sulla's report that he suffered merely fifteen losses is not credible.Sulla decamped his army from Attica toward central Greece. Having exhausted available provisions near Athens, doing so was both necessary to ensure the survival of his army and also to relieve a brigade of six thousand men cut off in Thessaly. He declined battle with Pontus at the hill Philoboetus near Chaeronea before manoeuvring to capture higher ground and build earthworks. After some days, both sides engaged in battle. The Romans neutralised a Pontic charge of scythed chariots before pushing the Pontic phalanx back across the plain. According to the ancient sources, Archelaus commanded between 60,000 and 120,000 men; in the aftermath, he allegedly escaped with only 10,000.After the Battle of Chaeronea, Sulla learnt that Cinna's government had sent Lucius Valerius Flaccus to take over his command. Sulla had officially been declared an outlaw and in the eyes of the Cinnan regime, Flaccus was to take command of an army without a legal commander. Sulla moved to intercept Flaccus' army in Thessaly, but turned around when Pontic forces reoccupied Boetia. Turning south, he engaged the Pontic army – allegedly 90,000 – on the plain of Orchomenus. His troops prepared the ground by starting to dig a series of three trenches, which successfully contained Pontic cavalry. When the Pontic cavalry attacked to interrupt the earthworks, the Romans almost broke; Sulla personally rallied his men on foot and stabilised the area. Roman forces then surrounded the Pontic camp. Archelaus tried to break out but were unsuccessful; Sulla then annihilated the Pontic army and captured its camp. Archelaus then hid in the nearby marshes before escaping to Chalcis.
Peace with Mithridates
In the aftermath of the battle, Sulla was approached by Archelaus for terms. With Mithridates' armies in Europe almost entirely destroyed, Archelaus and Sulla negotiated a set of relatively cordial peace terms which were then forwarded to Mithridates. Mithridates was to give Asia and Paphlagonia back to Rome. He was to return the kingdoms of Bithynia and Cappadocia to Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes, respectively. Mithridates also would equip Sulla with seventy or eighty ships and pay a war indemnity of two or three thousand talents. Sulla would ratify Mithridates' position in Pontus and have him declared a Roman ally.Mithridates, still in Asia, was faced with local uprisings against his rule. Adding to his challenges was Lucullus' fleet, reinforced by Rhodian allies. When Flaccus' consular army marched through Macedonia towards Thrace, his command was usurped by his legate Gaius Flavius Fimbria, who had Flaccus killed before chasing Mithridates with his army into Asia itself. Faced with Fimbria's army in Asia, Lucullus' fleet off the coast, and internal unrest, Mithridates eventually met with Sulla at Dardanus in autumn 85 BC and accepted the terms negotiated by Archelaus.After peace was reached, Sulla advanced on Fimbria's forces, which deserted their upstart commander. Fimbria then committed suicide after a failed attempt on Sulla's life. Sulla then settled affairs – "reparations, rewards, administrative and financial arrangements for the future" – in Asia, staying there until 84 BC. He then sailed for Italy at the head of 1,200 ships.The peace reached with Mithridates was condemned in ancient times as a betrayal of Roman interests for Sulla's private interest in fighting and winning the coming civil war. Modern sources have been somewhat less damning, as the Mithridatic campaigns later showed that no quick victory over Pontus was possible as long as Mithridates survived. However, this and Sulla's delay in Asia are "not enough to absolve him of the charge of being more concerned with revenge on opponents in Italy than with Mithridates". The extra time spent in Asia, moreover, equipped him with forces and money later put to good use in Italy.
Civil war
Sulla crossed the Adriatic for Brundisium in spring of 83 BC with five legions of Mithridatic veterans, capturing Brundisium without a fight. Sulla's arrival in Brundisium induced defections from the Senate in Rome: Marcus Licinius Crassus, who had already fled from the Cinnan regime, raised an army in Spain, and departed for Africa to join with Metellus Pius (who also joined the Sullans), joined Sulla even before his landing in Italy. Pompey, the son of Pompey Strabo, raised a legion from his clients in Picenum and also joined Sulla; Sulla treated him with great respect and addressed him as imperator before dispatching him to raise more troops. Even those whom Sulla had quarrelled with (including Publius Cornelius Cethegus, whom Sulla had outlawed in 88 BC) defected to join his side.The general feeling in Italy, however, was decidedly anti-Sullan; many people feared Sulla's wrath and still held memories of his extremely unpopular occupation of Rome during his consulship. The Senate moved the senatus consultum ultimum against him and was successful in levying large amount of men and materiel from the Italians. Sulla, buoyed by his previous looting in Asia, was able to advance quickly and largely without the ransacking of the Italian countryside. Advancing on Capua, he met the two consuls of that year – Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus and Gaius Norbanus – who had dangerously divided their forces. He defeated Norbanus at the Battle of Mount Tifata, forcing the consul to withdraw. Continuing towards Scipio's position at Teanum Sidicinum, Sulla negotiated and was almost able to convince Scipio to defect. Negotiations broke down after one of Scipio's lieutenants seized a town held by Sulla in violation of a ceasefire. The breakdown allowed Sulla to play the aggrieved party and place blame on his enemies for any further bloodshed. Scipio's army blamed him for the breakdown in negotiations and made it clear to the consul that they would not fight Sulla, who at this point appeared the peacemaker. Sulla, hearing this, feigned an attack while instructing his men to fraternise with Scipio's army. Scipio's men quickly abandoned him for Sulla; finding him almost alone in his camp, Sulla tried again to persuade Scipio to defect. When Scipio refused, Sulla let him go. Sulla attempted to open negotiations with Norbanus, who was at Capua, but Norbanus refused to treat and withdrew to Praeneste as Sulla advanced. While Sulla was moving in the south, Scipio fought Pompey in Picenum but was defeated when his troops again deserted.For 82 BC, the consular elections returned Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, in his third consulship, with the younger Gaius Marius, the son of the seven-time consul, who was then twenty-six. The remainder of 83 BC was dedicated to recruiting for the next year's campaign amid poor weather: Quintus Sertorius had raised a considerable force in Etruria, but was alienated from the consuls by the election of Gaius Marius' son rather than himself and so left to his praetorian province of Hispania Citerior; Sulla repudiated recognition of any treaties with the Samnites, whom he did not consider to be Roman citizens due to his rejection of Marius and Cinna's deal in 87 BC.Fighting in 82 BC began with reverses for Sulla's opponents: their governors in Africa and Sardinia were deposed. When the campaign in Italy started, two theatres emerged, with Sulla facing the younger Marius in the south and Metellus Pius facing Carbo in the north. Marius, buttressed by Samnite support, fought a long and hard battle with Sulla at Sacriportus that resulted in defeat when five of his cohorts defected. After the battle, Marius withdrew to Praeneste and was there besieged.After the younger Marius' defeat, Sulla had the Samnite war captives massacred, which triggered an uprising in his rear. He left one of his allies, Quintus Lucretius Afella to maintain the siege at Praeneste and moved for Rome. At the same time, the younger Marius sent word to assemble the Senate and purge it of suspected Sullan sympathisers: the urban praetor Lucius Junius Brutus Damasippus then had four prominent men killed at the ensuing meeting. The purge did little to strengthen resolve and when Sulla arrived at Rome, the city opened its gates and his opponents fled. Sulla had his enemies declared hostes, probably from outside the pomerium, and after assembling an assembly where he apologised for the ongoing war, left to fight Carbo in Etruria.Carbo, who had suffered defeats by Metellus Pius and Pompey, attempted to redeploy so to relieve his co-consul Marius at Praeneste. Skilfully withdrawing to Clusium, he delegated to Norbanus command of troops to hold Metellus Pius. There, Sulla attacked him in an indecisive battle. Pompey ambushed eight legions sent to relieve Praeneste but an uprising from the Samnites and the Lucanians forced Sulla to deploy south as they moved also to relieve Praeneste or join with Carbo in the north. Sulla's specific movements are very vaguely described in Appian, but he was successful in preventing the Italians from relieving Praeneste or joining with Carbo. In the north at the same time, Norbanus was defeated and fled for Rhodes, where he eventually committed suicide. After another attempt to relieve Praeneste failed, Carbo lost his nerve and attempted to retreat to Africa; his lieutenants attempted again to relieve Praeneste but after that again failed, marched on Rome to force Sulla from his well-defended positions. Sulla hurried in full force towards Rome and there fought the Battle of the Colline Gate on the afternoon of 1 November 82 BC. Sulla himself was defeated and forced to flee into his camp but his lieutenant Crassus on the right wing was victorious. Sulla's wing fled to the gates of Rome but were met with a closed gate, forcing them to stand and fight, eventually winning in the night. With Crassus pursuing the enemy as far into the countryside and victory at the Colline Gate, Sulla's forces had won; the Samnite and anti-Sullan commanders were then hunted down as "for all intents and purposes the civil war in Italy was over".
Dictatorship and constitutional reforms
After the battle at the Colline Gate, Sulla summoned the Senate to the temple of Bellona on the Campus Martius. There, while giving a speech, he had three or four thousand Samnite prisoners butchered, to the shock of the attending senators. Sulla marched to Praeneste and forced its siege to a close, with the younger Marius dead from suicide before its surrender.Sulla had his stepdaughter Aemilia (daughter of princeps senatus Marcus Aemilius Scaurus) married to Pompey, although she shortly died in childbirth. Pompey was then dispatched to recover Sicily. With the capture and execution of Carbo, who had fled Sicily for Egypt, both consuls for 82 BC were now dead.
Proscription
In total control of the city and its affairs, Sulla instituted a proscription (a program of executing and confiscating the property of those whom he perceived as enemies of the state). Plutarch states in his Life of Sulla that "Sulla now began to make blood flow, and he filled the city with deaths without number or limit," further alleging that many of the murdered victims had nothing to do with Sulla, though Sulla killed them to "please his adherents."
Sulla immediately proscribed 80 persons without communicating with any magistrate. As this caused a general murmur, he let one day pass, and then proscribed 220 more, and again on the third day as many. In an harangue to the people, he said, with reference to these measures, that he had proscribed all he could think of, and as to those who now escaped his memory, he would proscribe them at some future time.
The proscriptions are widely perceived as a response to similar killings that Marius and Cinna had implemented while they controlled the Republic during Sulla's absence. Proscribing or outlawing every one of those whom he perceived to have acted against the best interests of the Republic while he was in the east, Sulla ordered some 1,500 nobles (i.e. senators and equites) executed, although as many as 9,000 people were estimated to have been killed. The purge went on for several months. Helping or sheltering a proscribed person was punishable by death, while killing a proscribed person was rewarded with two talents. Family members of the proscribed were not excluded from punishment, and slaves were not excluded from rewards. As a result, "husbands were butchered in the arms of their wives, sons in the arms of their mothers." The majority of the proscribed had not been enemies of Sulla, but instead were killed for their property, which was confiscated and auctioned off. The proceeds from auctioned property more than made up for the cost of rewarding those who killed the proscribed, filling the treasury. Possibly to protect himself from future political retribution, Sulla had the sons and grandsons of the proscribed banned from running for political office, a restriction not removed for over 30 years.
The teenaged Gaius Julius Caesar, as Cinna's son-in-law, became one of Sulla's targets, and fled the city. He was saved through the efforts of his relatives, many of whom were Sulla's supporters. Sulla later noted in his memoirs that he regretted sparing the boy's life in light of the grown man's notorious ambition. Historian Suetonius records that when agreeing to spare Caesar, Sulla warned those who were pleading his case that he would become a danger to them in the future, saying, "In this Caesar, there are many Mariuses."
Dictator
At the end of 82 BC or the beginning of 81 BC, the Senate appointed Sulla dictator legibus faciendis et reipublicae constituendae causa ("dictator for the making of laws and for the settling of the constitution"). The assembly of the people subsequently ratified the decision, with no limit set on his time in office. Sulla had total control of the city and Republic of Rome, except for Hispania (which Marius' general Quintus Sertorius had established as an independent state). This unusual appointment (used hitherto only in times of extreme danger to the city, such as during the Second Punic War, and then only for 6-month periods) represented an exception to Rome's policy of not giving total power to a single individual. Sulla can be seen as setting the precedent for Julius Caesar's dictatorship, and for the eventual end of the Republic under Augustus.
Reforms
Sulla, who opposed the Gracchian popularis reforms, was an optimate; though his coming to the side of the traditional Senate originally could be described as atavistic when dealing with the tribunate and legislative bodies, while more visionary when reforming the court system, governorships, and membership of the Senate. As such, he sought to strengthen the aristocracy, and thus the Senate. Sulla retained his earlier reforms, which required senatorial approval before any bill could be submitted to the Plebeian Council (the principal popular assembly), and which had also restored the older, more aristocratic "Servian" organization to the Centuriate Assembly (assembly of soldiers). Sulla, himself a patrician, thus ineligible for election to the office of Plebeian Tribune, thoroughly disliked the office. As Sulla viewed the office, the tribunate was especially dangerous, and his intention was to not only deprive the Tribunate of power, but also of prestige (Sulla himself had been officially deprived of his eastern command through the underhanded activities of a tribune). Over the previous 300 years, the tribunes had directly challenged the patrician class and attempted to deprive it of power in favor of the plebeian class. Through Sulla's reforms to the Plebeian Council, tribunes lost the power to initiate legislation. Sulla then prohibited ex-tribunes from ever holding any other office, so ambitious individuals would no longer seek election to the tribunate, since such an election would end their political career. Finally, Sulla revoked the power of the tribunes to veto acts of the Senate, although he left intact the tribunes' power to protect individual Roman citizens.
Sulla then increased the number of magistrates elected in any given year, and required that all newly elected quaestores gain automatic membership in the Senate. These two reforms were enacted primarily to allow Sulla to increase the size of the Senate from 300 to 600 senators. This also removed the need for the censor to draw up a list of senators, since more than enough former magistrates were always available to fill the Senate. To further solidify the prestige and authority of the Senate, Sulla transferred the control of the courts from the equites, who had held control since the Gracchi reforms, to the senators. This, along with the increase in the number of courts, further added to the power that was already held by the senators. Sulla also codified, and thus established definitively, the cursus honorum, which required an individual to reach a certain age and level of experience before running for any particular office. Sulla also wanted to reduce the risk that a future general might attempt to seize power, as he himself had done. To this end, he reaffirmed the requirement that any individual wait for 10 years before being re-elected to any office. Sulla then established a system where all consuls and praetors served in Rome during their year in office, and then commanded a provincial army as a governor for the year after they left office.
Finally, in a demonstration of his absolute power, Sulla expanded the Pomerium, the sacred boundary of Rome, unchanged since the time of the kings. Sulla's reforms both looked to the past (often repassing former laws) and regulated for the future, particularly in his redefinition of maiestas (treason) laws and in his reform of the Senate.
At the start of his second consulship in 80 BC with Metellus Pius, Sulla resigned his dictatorship. He also disbanded his legions and, through these gestures, attempted to show the re-establishment of normal consular government. He dismissed his lictores and walked unguarded in the Forum, offering to give account of his actions to any citizen. In a manner that the historian Suetonius thought arrogant, Julius Caesar later mocked Sulla for resigning the dictatorship.
Retirement and death
As promised, when his tasks were complete, Sulla returned his powers and withdrew to his country villa near Puteoli to be with his family. Plutarch states in his Life of Sulla that he retired to a life spent in dissolute luxuries, and he "consorted with actresses, harpists, and theatrical people, drinking with them on couches all day long." From this distance, Sulla remained out of the day-to-day political activities in Rome, intervening only a few times when his policies were involved (e.g. the execution of Granius, shortly before his own death).Sulla's goal now was to write his memoirs, which he finished in 78 BC, just before his death. They are now largely lost, although fragments from them exist as quotations in later writers. Ancient accounts of Sulla's death indicate that he died from liver failure or a ruptured gastric ulcer (symptomized by a sudden hemorrhage from his mouth, followed by a fever from which he never recovered), possibly caused by chronic alcohol abuse. Accounts were also written that he had an infestation of worms, caused by the ulcers, which led to his death.His public funeral in Rome (in the Forum, in the presence of the whole city) was on a scale unmatched until that of Augustus in AD 14. Sulla's body was brought into the city on a golden bier, escorted by his veteran soldiers, and funeral orations were delivered by several eminent senators, with the main oration possibly delivered by Lucius Marcius Philippus or Hortensius. Sulla's body was cremated and his ashes placed in his tomb in the Campus Martius. An epitaph, which Sulla composed himself, was inscribed onto the tomb, reading, "No friend ever served me, and no enemy ever wronged me, whom I have not repaid in full." Plutarch claims he had seen Sulla's personal motto carved on his tomb on the Campus Martius. The personal motto was "no better friend, no worse enemy."
Legacy
Sulla is generally seen as having set the precedent for Caesar's march on Rome and dictatorship. Cicero comments that Pompey once said, "If Sulla could, why can't I?" Sulla's example proved that it could be done, therefore inspiring others to attempt it; in this respect, he has been seen as another step in the Republic's fall. Sulla attempted to mitigate this by passing laws to limit the actions of generals in their provinces, and although these laws remained in effect well into the imperial period, they did not prevent determined generals, such as Pompey and Julius Caesar, from using their armies for personal ambition against the Senate, a danger of which Sulla was intimately aware.
While Sulla's laws such as those concerning qualification for admittance to the Senate, reform of the legal system and regulations of governorships remained on Rome's statutes long into the principate, much of his legislation was repealed less than a decade after his death. The veto power of the tribunes and their legislating authority were soon reinstated, ironically during the consulships of Pompey and Crassus.Sulla's descendants continued to be prominent in Roman politics into the imperial period. His son, Faustus Cornelius Sulla, issued denarii bearing the name of the dictator, as did a grandson, Quintus Pompeius Rufus. His descendants among the Cornelii Sullae would hold four consulships during the imperial period: Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 5 BC, Faustus Cornelius Sulla in AD 31, Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix in AD 33, and Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix in 52 AD (he was the son of the consul of 31, and the husband of Claudia Antonia, daughter of the emperor Claudius). His execution in AD 62 on the orders of emperor Nero made him the last of the Cornelii Sullae.
His rival, Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, described Sulla as having the cunning of a fox and the courage of a lion – but that it was his cunning that was by far the most dangerous. This mixture was later referred to by Machiavelli in his description of the ideal characteristics of a ruler.
Cultural references
The dictator is the subject of four Italian operas, two of which take considerable liberties with history: Lucio Silla by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Silla by George Frideric Handel. In each, he is portrayed as a bloody, womanizing, ruthless tyrant who eventually repents his ways and steps down from the throne of Rome. Pasquale Anfossi and Johann Christian Bach also wrote operas on this subject.
Sulla is a character in Taylor Caldwell's novel A Pillar Of Iron; in it, he has Marcus Tullius Cicero's injured brother, Quintus, recovering in his home, as Quintus is a soldier under his command. He is shown as cold, calculating and ruthless, yet a devoted leader to his men and sternly wedded to his personal ideals for Rome.
Sulla is a central character in the first three Masters of Rome novels, by Colleen McCullough. Sulla is depicted as ruthless and amoral, very self-assured, and personally brave and charming, especially with women. His charm and ruthlessness make him a valuable aide to Gaius Marius. Sulla's desire to move out of the shadow of aging Marius eventually leads to civil war. Sulla softened considerably after the birth of his son, and was devastated when the boy died at a young age. The novels depict Sulla full of regrets about having to put aside his homosexual relationship with a Greek actor to take up his public career.
Sulla is played by Richard Harris in the 2002 miniseries Julius Caesar.
Lucius Cornelius Sulla is also a character in the first book of the Emperor novels by Conn Iggulden, which are centered around the lives of Gaius Julius Caesar and Marcus Junius Brutus.
Sulla is a major character in Roman Blood, the first of the Roma Sub Rosa mystery novels by Steven Saylor.
Sulla is the subject of The Sword of Pleasure, a novel by Peter Green published in the UK in 1957. The novel is in the form of an autobiography.
Marriages and children
His first wife was Ilia, according to Plutarch. If Plutarch's text is to be amended to "Julia", then she is likely to have been one of the Julias related to Julius Caesar, most likely Julia Caesaris, Caesar's first cousin once removed. They had two children:
The first was Cornelia, who first married Quintus Pompeius Rufus the Younger and later Mamercus Aemilius Lepidus Livianus, giving birth to Pompeia (third wife of Julius Caesar) with the former.
The second was Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who died young.
His second wife was Aelia.
His third wife was Cloelia, whom Sulla divorced due to sterility.
His fourth wife was Caecilia Metella, with whom he also had three children:
They had twins Faustus Cornelius Sulla, who was a quaestor in 54 BC, and Fausta Cornelia, who first married Gaius Memmius (praetor in 58 BC), then later Titus Annius Milo (praetor in 54 BC). Fausta's son from her first marriage was Gaius Memmius, suffect consul in 34 BC.
A son who died young, shortly before his mother's own death.
His fifth and last wife was Valeria, with whom he had only one child, Cornelia Postuma, who was born after Sulla's death.
Appearance and character
Sulla was red-blond and blue-eyed, and had a dead-white face covered with red marks. Plutarch notes that Sulla considered that "his golden head of hair gave him a singular appearance."He was said to have a duality between being charming, easily approachable, and able to joke and cavort with the most simple of people, while also assuming a stern demeanor when he was leading armies and as dictator. An example of the extent of his charming side was that his soldiers would sing a ditty about Sulla's one testicle, although without truth, to which he allowed as being "fond of a jest." This duality, or inconsistency, made him very unpredictable and "at the slightest pretext, he might have a man crucified, but, on another occasion, would make light of the most appalling crimes; or he might happily forgive the most unpardonable offenses, and then punish trivial, insignificant misdemeanors with death and confiscation of property."His excesses and penchant for debauchery could be attributed to the difficult circumstances of his youth, such as losing his father while he was still in his teens and retaining a doting stepmother, necessitating an independent streak from an early age. The circumstances of his relative poverty as a young man left him removed from his patrician brethren, enabling him to consort with revelers and experience the baser side of human nature. This "firsthand" understanding of human motivations and the ordinary Roman citizen may explain why he was able to succeed as a general despite lacking any significant military experience before his 30s.The historian Sallust fleshes out this character sketch of Sulla:
He was well versed both in Greek and Roman literature, and had a truly remarkable mind. He was devoted to pleasure but more devoted to glory. He never allowed his debaucheries to interfere with his duties but he devoted all his leisure time to them. He was both eloquent and clever, and he made friends easily. When it came to hiding his intentions, his mind was incredibly unfathomable, yet with all else he was extremely generous; especially with money.
Chronology
circa 138 BC: Born in Rome;
110 BC: Marries first wife;
107–105 BC: Quaestor and pro quaestore to Gaius Marius in the war with Jugurtha in Numidia;
106 BC: End of Jugurthine War;
104 BC: Legatus to Marius (serving his second consulship) in Gallia Transalpina;
103 BC: Tribunus militum in the army of Marius (serving his third consulship) in Gallia Transalpina;
102–101 BC: Legatus to Quintus Lutatius Catulus (who was consul at the time) and pro consule in Gallia Cisalpina;
101 BC: Took part in the defeat of the Cimbri at the Battle of Vercellae
97 BC: Praetor urbanus
96 BC: Propraetor of the province of Cilicia, pro consule;
90–89 BC: Senior officer in the Social War, as legatus pro praetore;
88 BC:
Holds the consulship for the first time, with Quintus Pompeius Rufus as colleague
Invades Rome and outlaws Marius
87 BC: Commands Roman armies to fight King Mithridates of Pontus
86 BC: Participates in the sack of Athens, the battle of Chaeronea and the battle of Orchomenus.
85 BC: Liberates the provinces of Macedonia, Asia, and Cilicia from Pontic occupation
84 BC: Reorganizes the province of Asia
83 BC: Returns to Italy and undertakes civil war against the factional Marian government
83–82 BC: Enters war with the followers of Gaius Marius the Younger and Cinna
82 BC: Obtains victory at the battle of the Colline Gate
82/81 BC: Appointed dictator legibus faciendis et rei publicae constituendae causa
80 BC: Holds the consulship for the second time. His colleague was Metellus Pius. Resigned the dictatorship at the beginning of the year
79 BC: Retires from political life, refusing the post consulatum provincial command of Gallia Cisalpina he was allotted as consul, but retaining the curatio for the reconstruction of the temples on the Capitoline Hill.
78 BC: Dies, perhaps of an intestinal ulcer, with funeral held in Rome
See also
Apellicon of Teos – politician and collector of books from ancient AthensPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
References
Citations
Modern sources
Ancient sources
External links
L. Cornelius (392) L. f. P. n. Sulla Felix ('Epaphroditus') in the Digital Prosopography of the Roman Republic.
Plutarch's Life of Sulla | [
"People"
] |
67,687,160 | Carlos Vasallo | Carlos Luis Vasallo Tomé (born 18 October 1950 in Valencia) is a Spanish businessman and audiovisual producer resident in Miami. | Carlos Luis Vasallo Tomé (born 18 October 1950 in Valencia) is a Spanish businessman and audiovisual producer resident in Miami.
Biography
Carlos Luis Vasallo Tomé was born on 18 October 1950 in Valencia, Spain. He was one of the eight children of the Spanish writer and also screenwriter Jesús Vasallo (1919–1993). His father was from Ciudad Rodrigo (Castile and León), and her mother from Teixeiro (Galicia). At 14, he settled in Madrid to work in theater and cinema. Soon he started producing, and moved to Mexico. He was married the Mexican actresses, Tere Velázquez and Susana Dosamantes. Now, he lives in Miami.Carlos Vasallo founded VasalloVision, and is the presidente and CEO of América CV Network, América TeVe, TeVeo, and Radio Caracol 1260 am. He is also the largest owner of Mexican movies, and in 2021 has sued Google and YouTube for playing his movies without permission.
Filmography
Actor
Los guardiamarinas (1967)
Aquí mando yo (1967)
¿Es usted el asesino? (1967)
Juicio de faldas (1969)
Golpe de mano (Explosión) (1970)
El diablo Cojuelo (1971)
Tirarse al monte (1971)
La cera virgen (1972)
Minutos después (1976)
Writer
Manaos (1979)
La conquista de la tierra perdida (Conquest) (1983)
Goma-2 (1984)
Escuadrón: Counterforce (1988)
A puño limpio (1989)
Leyendas del Exilio (2017)
Director
El día de los asesinos (1979)
El día del compadre (1983)
Gregorio Walerstein: El zar (2009)
References
External links
Carlos Vasallo at IMDb | [
"Internet"
] |
68,378,149 | Sylvia Rumball | Sylvia Vine Sheat Rumball (née Sheat; born 1939) is a New Zealand scientist and an international expert in scientific research ethics. | Sylvia Vine Sheat Rumball (née Sheat; born 1939) is a New Zealand scientist and an international expert in scientific research ethics.
Education
Rumball completed a BSc and MSc (1962) at the University of Canterbury. She moved to the University of Auckland where she undertook a PhD in chemistry (1966), supervised by Professor (later Sir) Neil Waters.
Career
During her PhD studies, Rumball worked as a junior lecturer at the University of Auckland from 1963 to 1966. She then moved to the University of Oxford on a postdoctoral fellowship and studied protein crystallography under Dorothy Hodgkin.Rumball joined Massey University as a lecturer in 1967. She was promoted to associate professor in 2000 and to full professor by 2005, when she was also assistant to the Vice Chancellor (Equity and Ethics) at Massey. She served on the University Council from 2005 to 2008. She was appointed Professor Emeritus in July 2009, officially retiring in November of the same year.To celebrate the centenary of women's suffrage in New Zealand, Rumball was selected as one of eight women to give graduation addresses at Massey University in 1993.From 2002 to 2011 she was chair of the National Ethics Committee on Assisted Human Reproduction, later known as the Advisory Committee on Assisted Reproductive Technology (ACART). She also served on the Drug Free Sport New Zealand Board from 2007 to 2015. Rumball also served on UNESCO's International Bioethics Committee and the International Council for Science's Committee on Freedom and Responsibility in the conduct of Science.
Honours and awards
Rumball was appointed an Officer of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to science, in the 1998 Queen's Birthday Honours. In the 2008 New Year Honours, she was promoted to Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit, also for service to science.
== References == | [
"Ethics"
] |
5,792,187 | Yisrael Mendel Kaplan | Israel or Yisrael Mendel Kaplan (April 14, 1913 – April 4, 1985), known as "Reb Mendel" was an American Orthodox Jewish rabbi and author. He was best known as a teacher in the Hebrew Theological College of Chicago and the Talmudical Yeshiva of Philadelphia, where he mentored many future leaders of Orthodox Jewry. | Israel or Yisrael Mendel Kaplan (April 14, 1913 – April 4, 1985), known as "Reb Mendel" was an American Orthodox Jewish rabbi and author. He was best known as a teacher in the Hebrew Theological College of Chicago and the Talmudical Yeshiva of Philadelphia, where he mentored many future leaders of Orthodox Jewry.
Early life
Yisrael Mendel Kaplan was born in Baranovich, Poland (now Baranavichy, Belarus) to Avraham and Esther Kaplan. Avraham was a lawyer and Esther was involved in community service, raising funds for the yeshiva and feeding the poor.
After his bar mitzvah, Kaplan was enrolled in Yeshiva Ohel Torah-Baranovich, and studied under Elchonon Wasserman. He was considered a very promising student and was assigned Wasserman's son, Naftali, as a study partner. When Wasserman needed to travel overseas in order to raise money for the yeshiva, Kaplan would deliver the lecture in his stead. He later studied in the Mir yeshiva under Yeruchom Levovitz.In late 1939, during the invasion of Poland, the Jews of Baranovich fled for their lives. Wasserman advised his yeshiva students to regroup in then-independent Vilna, Lithuania. Kaplan, who by this time had gotten married, moved there with his family, where he studied under Yitzchak Zev Soloveitchik. In June 1940, when the Soviet Union occupied Vilna, Jewish life became unbearable. Like the members of the Mir yeshiva and other refugees there, Kaplan sought visas to allow him to escape Nazi and Soviet rule. He obtained a de facto destination visa from the Dutch consul but was unable to obtain the necessary transit visa from the Japanese Vice-consul, Chiune Sugihara, that would allow his family to detour through Japan while awaiting some final, true destination.The family nevertheless boarded the trains to the Russian port city of Vladivostok. His son, Chaim Ozer, was born on the train ride. After entering Japanese territory by boat, Kaplan expected deportation back to Russia and eventually Siberia. Japanese officials goaded him to produce any kind of visa, and he reluctantly showed them an obviously tampered Japanese transit visa. Inexplicably, it was stamped and accepted and the family continued on to Kobe and then later to Shanghai.His son Shimon was born in Shanghai, while his middle son, Chaim Ozer got sick and died there.
Career
In 1946, the Kaplans arrived in San Francisco, and from there they went on to Chicago, where Kaplan's brother Hertzl was teaching at the Chicago yeshiva that was to become the Hebrew Theological College. Kaplan accepted a teaching position there, though his students were English-speaking and his English was not yet mastered. Even so, eventually he found success teaching the American youth. He won the students over by offering to "teach them to read the Chicago Tribune if they taught him to read English." His insights into world affairs and reading between the lines of the daily paper (even while needing help with the language) earned him his student's respect.When his girls were old enough for high school, his wife moved with them to Brooklyn, New York, so they could attend a Jewish girls high school in Williamsburg. Kaplan started Kaplan's Winery Corporation, producing traditional Kosher Concord wine, in an effort to supplement his income to cover his daughter's tuition costs.By 1965, Kaplan had joined his family in New York and was invited to start teaching the first-level post-high school class in the Talmudical Yeshiva of Philadelphia. He accepted the position, lived in the dormitory, and commuted each weekend to his wife and family in Brooklyn. Kaplan did not consider it beneath his dignity to fix his own car or pick up random hitchhikers from the side of the road. He remained at the Talmudical Yeshiva of Philadelphia and taught the same level until his death on April 4, 1985. To this, Yaakov Kamenetsky commented "Ahzah Kuntz (lit. transl. What a feat!). He is greater than famous roshei yeshiva, and he can still work quietly under younger men."
Personal life
While studying in Mir in 1933 (or 1935), Kaplan married Sarah Baila Gutman (b. Navahrudak, 1910 – d. New York City, March 12, 2008), the daughter of Tzvi Hirsch Gutman, the administrator of the yeshiva in Baranovich. When Gutman was looking for a match, he asked Elchonon Wasserman about a number of prospects, and Wasserman recommended Kaplan. When Gutman demurred, saying "Isn't your own son, Naftoli, a little better?" Wasserman retorted, "My Naftoli is a good boy, but he doesn't measure up to Mendel". Sarah Baila died in 2008.The couple had six children: Tzirel, wife of Haim Benoliel, died in 2016; Rachel, wife of David Lopian; Yeruchom Kaplan died in 2022; Chaim Ozer Kaplan, born circa 1942, died in Shanghai; Shimon; and Esther, wife of Shaul Hutner.
Notable students
Moshe Gottesman, dean of the Hebrew Academy of Nassau County
Chaim Malinowitz, dayan (rabbinic judge), general editor of the 73-volume Schottenstein Edition of the Babylonian Talmud
Berel Wein, rabbi, lecturer and author
Yosef Mermelstein, Rosh Yeshiva of Yeshivas Novominsk
Works
Nesivei Yam ("Paths of the Sea") – containing novellae on the Talmudical tractate Kiddushin (2005).
References
Sources
Greenwald, Yisroel (1995). Reb Mendel and his Wisdom. ISBN 0-89906-117-6.
Further reading
Weiss, James David (1992). Vintage Wein: The Collected Wit and Wisdom, the Choicest Anecdotes and Vignettes of Rabbi Berel Wein. ISBN 978-0-89906-598-4.
External links
A former student's reminiscences of Rabbi Mendel Kaplan
Online Stories of Rabbi Kaplan | [
"Society",
"Culture"
] |
3,783,131 | A Better Tomorrow III: Love & Death in Saigon | A Better Tomorrow III: Love & Death in Saigon (Chinese: 英雄本色3-夕陽之歌) is a 1989 Hong Kong action drama film directed, co-written, and co-produced by Tsui Hark. It is a loosely based prequel to John Woo's A Better Tomorrow and A Better Tomorrow II. The film was directed by Tsui Hark, the producer behind the first two films in the series. John Woo wrote a screenplay for a third installment, but he never got to direct it due to having had artistic differences with Tsui during the filming of the second film. Instead, the original screenplay later became Bullet in the Head. | A Better Tomorrow III: Love & Death in Saigon (Chinese: 英雄本色3-夕陽之歌) is a 1989 Hong Kong action drama film directed, co-written, and co-produced by Tsui Hark. It is a loosely based prequel to John Woo's A Better Tomorrow and A Better Tomorrow II.
The film was directed by Tsui Hark, the producer behind the first two films in the series. John Woo wrote a screenplay for a third installment, but he never got to direct it due to having had artistic differences with Tsui during the filming of the second film. Instead, the original screenplay later became Bullet in the Head. The two films have many parallels, most notably, both being set in the Vietnam War.
The film stars Chow Yun-fat, who reprises his role of Mark Gor from the first film, Tony Leung Ka-fai and Anita Mui. Set during the Vietnam War, it sets up the story of how Mark became the character he was in the original film. The second part of the title Love & Death in Saigon (夕陽之歌 or Song of the Setting Sun in Chinese) is also the title song for this movie, sung by Anita Mui, who was also the leading lady in this third installment.
Plot
In 1974, during the final days of the Vietnam War, Mark Lee arrives in Saigon, intending to bring his uncle and cousin Michael Cheung Chi-mun back to Hong Kong with him. After arriving at the airport, Mark is confined by corrupt security guards who strip and attempt to rob him, but he is saved by Chow Ying-kit, who seems to have some measure of influence.
Mark and Michael later encounter Kit in a nightclub where they learn of her criminal activities including gun running. Kit takes an interest in the cousins and invites them to accompany her on a deal with a local Vietnamese warlord. The deal sours but the three escape. Kit is impressed with how Mark and Michael handled themselves and helps them escape Vietnam, taking them under her wing.
Over the next few months, Kit trains the cousins in her business and in marksmanship. Mark and Michael develop an attraction to her while Kit is attracted to Mark. Despite his feelings, Mark does not reciprocate Kit's affections to avoid hurting Michael, who thinks Kit is in love with him.
Kit manages to secure safe passage for Mark, Michael, and Michael's father back to Hong Kong. The three return and start a new business there.
The leader of the arms smuggling company (and Kit's former lover), Sam Ho Cheung-ching, returns after a three-year absence when he was presumed dead. Jealous of Kit's relationship with Mark and Michael, he plots to kill the cousins. Ho sends a bomb to the business, which kills Michael's father. Ho and his men capture Mark and Michael; they severely beat them with Ho warning them to stay away from Kit.
Kit expresses her regret for Michael's father's death and to share her feelings with Mark, which he reciprocates. Ho returns to Vietnam, taking Kit with him, to complete the deal with the Vietnamese warlord encountered earlier in the film.
Mark and Michael follow Ho back to Saigon, intending to kill him. Mark steps off the plane attired in his iconic outfit as seen in A Better Tomorrow: black duster, sunglasses, and matchstick in his mouth.
Kit later meets Michael in an abandoned temple to give him two plane tickets to leave Saigon with Mark. However, they are unexpectedly swarmed by Việt Cộng troops who attempt to execute them. Pat, a soldier and friend of Mark and Michael, strays into the temple which triggers a firefight with the Viet Cong. Michael is shot but is able to escape with Kit and Pat onto a jeep. During the ride however, Michael falls off and is surrounded by the Viet Cong which forces Pat and Kit to use a mortar that lands too close to Michael.
Believing Michael to be dead, Mark confronts Kit in her hotel room and accuses her of betrayal and keeping secrets from him. Their spat becomes physical with Michael hitting her and telling her he wants nothing to do with her before leaving. Later, Mark is met by Pat who takes him to an ambulance where Michael had been recovering.
Meanwhile, a despondent Kit prepares a bomb that she plans to detonate during her planned meeting with Ho and the Vietnamese warlord. During the meeting, however, the warlord attempts to double-cross Ho leading to a shoot-out. When the gun battle dies down, Mark arrives dual wielding two M-16 rifles, intending to exact revenge on Ho. Another shoot-out ensues, this time between Ho and Mark, during which Kit is shot by one of Ho's henchmen. Ho, however, is furious that Kit had become collateral and shoots his henchman. Ho prepares to execute Mark only to be shot by the warlord firing from a window. Mark catches Ho and uses his gun to shoot back at the warlord; Mark then cradles Ho who dies in his arms.
Pat and Michael arrive in the same ambulance to help Mark escape with the wounded Kit. The four are pursued by the warlord in an M48 Patton tank but Mark manages to destroy the tank with mortars, killing the warlord.
Mark and Michael then rush a dying Kit to the US Embassy in Saigon, where a mass evacuation is on-going as a result of the Fall of Saigon. Showing Kit's travel pass to the guards, the three are granted passage on the last US helicopter leaving the embassy which lifts off just as the crowds rush through the gates and the North Vietnamese flag is raised.
Kit succumbs to her injuries. Mark cradles her dead body and contemplates his life ahead as the helicopter flies off into the sunset.
Cast
Box office
The film grossed HK$18,476,116 at the Hong Kong box office.
Alternative versions
The Taiwan version runs 145 minutes long, which is the complete uncut version. The Hong Kong version runs only 114 minutes long despite saying 130 minutes on the cover. On a special 2004 DVD release, there are a few minutes of scenes that were deleted from the Hong Kong version as a separate feature. A Chinese out-of-print DVD dubbed from Taiwan (but actually published in China) runs 130 minutes long, which is the extended version, which is shorter compared to the Taiwanese out-of-print 145-minute VCD. A Taiwan Long Shong VHS dubbed in Taiwan (and distributed from Taiwan) contains an alternate scene in which Anita kisses Tony Leung's hand and is also shorter than the 145-minute Taiwan VCD.
Year-end list
10th – Stephen Hunter, The Baltimore Sun
References
External links
A Better Tomorrow III: Love & Death in Saigon at the Hong Kong Movie DataBase
A Better Tomorrow III: Love & Death in Saigon at IMDb
A Better Tomorrow III: Love & Death in Saigon at AllMovie
A Better Tomorrow III: Love & Death in Saigon at Rotten Tomatoes
A Better Tomorrow 3 at chinesemov.com | [
"Mass_media"
] |
36,082,914 | Dealing Dogs (film) | Dealing Dogs is a 2006 documentary film created by animal rights group Last Chance for Animals (LCA) about animal welfare in the United States, specifically about the marketing and sale of dogs to veterinarian schools and research labs.The film was a 2007 Emmy Nominee for Best Cable Documentary and for Outstanding Investigative Journalism - Long Form, and won a 2007 Genesis Award for Outstanding Cable Documentary. | Dealing Dogs is a 2006 documentary film created by animal rights group Last Chance for Animals (LCA) about animal welfare in the United States, specifically about the marketing and sale of dogs to veterinarian schools and research labs.The film was a 2007 Emmy Nominee for Best Cable Documentary and for Outstanding Investigative Journalism - Long Form, and won a 2007 Genesis Award for Outstanding Cable Documentary.
Synopsis
The film involves an undercover investigation by LCA's special investigations unit of Martin Creek Kennel in Williford, Arkansas, an alleged "Class B" dealer. A member of the unit known simply as "Pete" to maintain his cover, obtains a job at the kennel and documents deplorable conditions: dead dogs, dying dogs, starving dogs, dogs covered with wounds, dogs with missing ears. Partially as a result of the documentation, the kennel was permanently shut down by federal authorities.
References
External links
Official site
Dealing Dogs at IMDb | [
"Entertainment"
] |
40,897,961 | Jeanne Vertefeuille | Jeanne Ruth Vertefeuille (December 23, 1932 – December 29, 2012) was a CIA officer who participated in a small team that investigated and uncovered the actions of Aldrich Ames, a notorious Cold War spy. | Jeanne Ruth Vertefeuille (December 23, 1932 – December 29, 2012) was a CIA officer who participated in a small team that investigated and uncovered the actions of Aldrich Ames, a notorious Cold War spy.
Early life
Born in New Haven, Connecticut, on December 23, 1932, Vertefeuille earned a bachelor's degree in history from the University of Connecticut in 1954, where she also learned German and French. She began her career as a typist for the Agency in 1954 and obtained promotions and expertise on the Soviet Union over several decades, serving in Ethiopia, Finland, and the Netherlands.
Career
In 1976, Vertefeuille wrote ''The GRU Today'', which was a study on the operations of the GRU, the Soviet Union's foreign military intelligence organisation.She was made the lead investigator of a small team looking at the high rate of Soviet double agent disappearances in 1986. As it became more clear to the team that there could be a mole in the organization, Vertefeuille worked to keep the team small and focused to minimize the chances of the mole escaping before an arrest could be made. Over the course of eight years, this investigation led her to Ames's involvement in the disappearances – he had exposed them in exchange for millions of dollars, leading to at least eight executions. The investigation was fraught with difficulty, but the team began to uncover his treachery in 1989 when it was found that he had bought luxury cars and a house, beyond the salary of a typical CIA agent. The case was not cracked until 1991, when Vertefeuille and her team correlated Ames's meeting times with large deposits in his bank account. She officially retired in 1992 but continued to work as a contractor until a few months before her death in 2012. Ames was arrested with the involvement of the FBI on February 21, 1994. Prior to his arrest, Ames had told the KGB that Vertefeuille had the requisite access to be framed instead.
Illness and death
Throughout her career, Vertefeuille was known for her intense personal privacy and solitary nature. She died of brain cancer at the age of 80.According to Peter Earnest, executive director (emeritus) of the International Spy Museum in Washington, D.C., Vertefeuille's "friend, in her final days, was, of course, Sandy Grimes. They had been friends for years, very close friends, and very close teammates."
Legacy
In 1998, Ames' story was dramatized in the TV movie Aldrich Ames: Traitor Within, starring Joan Plowright as Vertefeuille.In 2014, ABC aired The Assets, an eight-part American drama television miniseries based on Circle of Treason.
References
Further reading
Sandra Grimes and Jeanne Vertefeuille. Circle of Treason: A CIA Account of Traitor Aldrich Ames and the Men He Betrayed. Annapolis, Md: Naval Institute Press, 2012. ISBN 9781591143345 OCLC 785079499 | [
"Law"
] |
30,863,490 | International School of Kuala Lumpur | The International School of Kuala Lumpur (ISKL; Malay: Sekolah Antarabangsa Kuala Lumpur) is an American non-profit school in the Kuala Lumpur metropolitan area, Malaysia. The curriculum is international-based, and offers students the chance to earn a High School Diploma, an International Baccalaureate diploma (or certificates), and to attend Advanced Placement programs. It is accredited by the United States-based Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) and internationally through the Council of International Schools (CIS). The majority of students are from expatriate families seeking a western school system for their children while living abroad. At the same time, many Malaysians are seeking an American-based education who also attend the school. | The International School of Kuala Lumpur (ISKL; Malay: Sekolah Antarabangsa Kuala Lumpur) is an American non-profit school in the Kuala Lumpur metropolitan area, Malaysia. The curriculum is international-based, and offers students the chance to earn a High School Diploma, an International Baccalaureate diploma (or certificates), and to attend Advanced Placement programs. It is accredited by the United States-based Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) and internationally through the Council of International Schools (CIS).
The majority of students are from expatriate families seeking a western school system for their children while living abroad. At the same time, many Malaysians are seeking an American-based education who also attend the school. While the school focuses on a western education system, it also maintains and encourages cultural relations with its host country, giving students the opportunity to participate in a variety of cultural activities.
It has three divisions: elementary school, middle school and high school. ISKL is currently located in a 26-acre site on Ampang Hilir, moving from its previous Ampang campus in 2018.ISKL is a member of IASAS, the Green Schools Alliance, and EARCOS.
Background
Established in 1965, the ISKL was the first school with an American curriculum in Malaysia. It was also the first fully accredited international school in Malaysia. The curriculum is US-based, and offers students the chance to earn a High School Diploma, an International Baccalaureate diploma (or certificates), and to attend Advanced Placement programs. The majority of students are from expatriate families seeking a western school system for their children while living abroad. At the same time, there are many Malaysians seeking an American-based education who also attend the school. While the school focuses on a western education system, it also maintains and encourages cultural relations with its host country, giving students the opportunity to participate in a variety of cultural activities. The school also employs the national and compulsory law of enforcing school uniforms. As of 2021, there are approximately 1500 students from more than 65 countries, with the most common nationalities being Americans, (South) Koreans, Malaysians, Chinese, and Indians. Other well-represented nationalities included are British, Canadians, Dutch, Norwegian, Japanese, Australian, Indonesian, Colombian, and Pakistani. A majority of students have parents working for oil companies or embassies, as ISKL has a close relationship with the US, and other embassies, ambassadors, and high commissioners who are regular guests at ISKL events and ceremonies.
ISKL's teaching faculty comprises individuals from the US, Canada, the UK, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Korea, China, Colombia, Argentina, Mexico, France, Germany, Chile, and Malaysia. Over 75% of them hold degrees at the master's or doctorate level.
ISKL is the first school to achieve Malaysia's Green Building Index Platinum rating for sustainable design.
History
ISKL was first situated in an old palace on Jalan Maxwell in the Kenny Hills area, before being granted a 2.6 ha parcel of land in Jalan Kerja Ayer Lama, Ampang Jaya in 1976. In 1992, the Melawati campus opened to accommodate the Elementary School and the Ampang campus became the home of the Middle and High School. In March 1995, the High School moved to a new wing of the Ampang campus.
Media coverage
As a large and well known international school in Malaysia, ISKL is often in the news.In terms of private school fees in Malaysia, ISKL is often interviewed or referenced, in part because it one of the country's most expensive schools.In terms of the school's charity work, an example is its outreach to poorer children in Klang Valley.The school is also in the news for its scholarships for Malaysian students, alumni relations, and awards. ISKL's High school principal, Jeff Farrington, was recently named the Principal of the Year for 2021. The award is sponsored by the NASSP, in affiliation with the U.S. Department of State Office of Overseas Schools.
Governance and leadership
The school is parent owned and parent governed. Every year a Board of Directors is elected by all parents (members of ISKL). Parents serve on the board for two years.
The 2020-2023 Board has 14 members, all parents of ISKL students. 13 members were elected in September 2020 for a three-year term and one is the US Embassy Appointee.
The current board comprises Board Chair Toshi Saito, Treasurer Kwan Lee, Radhika Savant Mohit, Nauman Malik, Michael Newbill, Jolene Ferguson, Jessica Wright, Erica Wong, Effendy Shahul Hamid, Debi Fairman, Anna-Marie Pampellonne, Charles Horton, Vasily Pasetchnik and Abdul Jalil Rasheed.
Past board members have included Martin Rushworth, Valerie Scane, Dominic Silva and Nigel Cumberland.The Head of School (equivalent of headmaster or CEO) is Rami Madani.
Academics
ISKL's flagship high school program is the International Baccalaureate (IB) program, a two-year curriculum for 16- to 19-year-old students, culminating in exams in six subjects (three higher level and three standard level). The IB also requires students to complete three core requirements: CAS, TOK and the Extended Essay. Additionally, the Advanced Placement (AP) program is offered for students who wish to pursue colleges in the United States and Canada.
ISKL has a 97% pass rate for the IB Diploma, and the program is not geared towards any specific nationality. ISKL is Malaysia's longest-running IB World School. The most recent graduating class of 2021 exhibited a 98% pass rate compared to the global average of 88.96%. 10 students also scored a perfect 45 points and 36.8% scored 40 points and above. Furthermore, the average score for this class is 37.1 points, compared to the average global score of 33.02.
Extracurricular activities and athletics
ISKL is a part of several international and local leagues, promoting competition between both Malaysian and international schools:
IASAS: Formed in 1982, the Interscholastic Association of Southeast Asian Schools (IASAS) includes varsity-level competition among schools in Jakarta, Indonesia (JIS), Bangkok, Thailand (ISB), Taipei, Taiwan (TAS), Singapore (SAS) and Manila, Philippines (ISM) in sports, fine and performing arts and Model United Nations.
ISAC: International Schools Athletic Conference
ISAKL: International School Association of Kuala Lumpur
SEA Forensics
AIMS: The Association of International Malaysian SchoolsFine arts:
Music Programs include Instrumental Music, IASAS Music, ISKL Choir, Jazz/Concert Band, the ISKL Singers (a cappella), and the Tri-M Music Society
Dance and Theatre Programs include Dance Troupe, One Acts, Solo/Duet Acting, Improv Club, IASAS Dance, and the ISTA Theater Festival. ISKL participates in the IASAS Visual Arts competition annuallyAthletics:
Athletics are an integral part of the ISKL experience, and the school offers a variety of sports at a multitude of levels. These sports compete at the local and international level.High school varsity sports include football (soccer), cross country running, volleyball, basketball, swimming, tennis, baseball, indoor climbing, rugby, touch rugby, track & field, badminton, and golf.
Campus facilities
The Ampang campus, which began use from August 2018, is set on approximately 10 hectares (25.7 acres) in Ampang Hilir. The campus has state-of-the-art facilities catering to both athletics and the arts. Athletic facilities include: an indoor fitness center, an Olympic-sized track; three sports fields; an Aquatic Complex including a 50-metre Olympic-sized swimming pool built accredited by FINA, two gyms, an indoor climbing wall, tennis courts and playgrounds. Arts facilities include The Dr. Norma J. Hudson Amphitheater, the Robert B. Gaw Theater and the Melawati Theater: available for student meetings, music recitals, presentations, plays and other arts-centric performances; ISKL's 'green' facility is the first International school in Malaysia to achieve platinum Green Building Index (GBI) status with environmentally sustainable concepts.
Uniforms
In accordance with the national law of Malaysia, ISKL institutes a mandatory uniform policy. The uniform consists of a collared shirt with the school logo on the front in different colours for each division of the school. Elementary School has royal blue shirts, Middle School has light blue shirts and High School has navy blue and white shirts. Boys may pair this with shorts and pants in dark blue, while girls may wear shorts, skirts or pants in the same dark blue. When wearing outer layers, students are encouraged to purchase them in dark blue or white as part of the uniform. They also may buy pants or shorts from other companies that are similar to the school wear.
See also
List of schools in Selangor
References
External links
International School of Kuala Lumpur website
US State Department website page on International School of Kuala Lumpur
"International School of Kuala Lumpur (ISKL)". Architect Magazine. | [
"Education"
] |
44,914,560 | San Giuseppe Sposo, Bologna | San Giuseppe Sposo is a medieval Roman Catholic church and convent, now respectively parish church and museum, near Porta Saragozza in Bologna, Italy. | San Giuseppe Sposo is a medieval Roman Catholic church and convent, now respectively parish church and museum, near Porta Saragozza in Bologna, Italy.
History
Originally the site was part of an Augustinian order Cluniac monastery originating in 1254; the church was then dedicated to Santa Maria Maddalena in Valdipietra. The monastery later passed on to nuns, and later the Dominican order. In 1566, it housed the Servi di Maria, who named the church San Giuseppe. In 1810, the convent was suppressed. However, after Napoleon's defeat, in 1818, the Capuchin order, with 11 priests and 16 lay brothers, were granted the church and monastery. In 1865–1866, the Kingdom of Italy expropriated the site for military uses. In 1873, the church was reconsecrated, and the monastery reused in 1892. In 1926, in celebration of the 700th anniversary of St Francis, the field adjacent to the Piazza of the church was converted into a public garden, and a bronze statue of the Saint by Mario Sarto was erected. The convent suffered grievously during the Second World War, including the destruction of its once large library. In 1943, the church was named a sanctuary, and in 1959, made a parish church.
Museum
A museum, founded in 1928 by father Leonardo Montalti of Mercato Saraceno, is now hosted in the convent of the Frati Minori Cappuccini just outside Porta Saragozza. It collects works of art from various Capuchin order convents of the Emilia-Romagna region, including Ferrara, Porretta, Castel San Pietro, Imola, and Lugo. In the 1970s, the architect Leone Pancaldi rearranged the exhibition space, giving special prominence to the Crucifix by Marco Zoppo, by creating an apse for exhibition. Other major works are a Madonna of the Rose by Pietro Lianori; a Coronation of the Virgin by Jacopo di Paolo; an Adoration by the Magi by Flaminio Torri; a
Crucifixion by the Passerotti brothers; a St Francis in Ecstasy by Bartolomeo Cesi; a Deposition of Christ by Gaetano Gandolfi; and two ovals with St Peter and Paul by Giuseppe Maria Crespi. The museum also has works of ivory and a large terracotta Madonna and child (1523), called Sedes Sapientiae by Zaccaria Zacchi; two wooden tabernacles from Lugo, one of them signed by Cesare Fabbri (1706); and some terracota nativity scenes, one by Rossetti.
Other artists in the museum are Innocenzo da Imola, Lavinia Fontana, Dionigi Calvaert, Ubaldo Gandolfi, Luigi Crespi, Ercole Graziani the Younger, Piancastelli and Majani.
== References == | [
"Religion"
] |
12,106,795 | Intersputnik | The Intersputnik International Organization of Space Communications, commonly known as Intersputnik, is an international satellite communications services organization founded on 15 November 1971, in Moscow by the Soviet Union along with a group of eight formerly socialist states (Poland, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Mongolia, and Cuba). The objective was and continues to be the development and common use of communications satellites. It was created as the Eastern Bloc's response to the Western Intelsat organization. As of 2008 the organization has 25 member states, among them the Federal Republic of Germany as the legal successor of the GDR. Intersputnik nowadays is a commercially aligned organization. | The Intersputnik International Organization of Space Communications, commonly known as Intersputnik, is an international satellite communications services organization founded on 15 November 1971, in Moscow by the Soviet Union along with a group of eight formerly socialist states (Poland, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Mongolia, and Cuba).
The objective was and continues to be the development and common use of communications satellites. It was created as the Eastern Bloc's response to the Western Intelsat organization. As of 2008 the organization has 25 member states, among them the Federal Republic of Germany as the legal successor of the GDR.
Intersputnik nowadays is a commercially aligned organization. It operates 12 satellites in orbit and 41 transponders. In June 1997 Intersputnik created the Lockheed Martin Intersputnik (LMI) joint venture together with Lockheed Martin, which built and operated the satellites of the same name. In September 2006, Lockheed Martin Intersputnik was acquired by Asia Broadcast Satellite (ABS).
History
Initially, the Intersputnik system was created on the basis of the Soviet Orbit-2 satellite broadcasting network and was designed to serve the countries participating in the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon). The main system and technical developments were carried out by NIIR, radio receiving equipment was produced at the Moscow Radio Engineering Plant, antenna-feeder devices at the Podolsk Electromechanical Plant, radio transmitting and channel-forming equipment was manufactured by the Krasnoyarsk TV Plant.
In the initial version, Intersputnik used highly elliptical satellites of the Molniya-3 type, and in 1978 it began using geostationary satellites of the Gorizont type. Receiving complexes "Orbita-2" with transmitters "Gradient-K" and channel-forming equipment RS-1, RS-2 operated at the earth stations. In the process of modernization, the transmitters were replaced by more modern Helikon type with a power of 3 kW and new channel-forming equipment “Gradient-N” began to be used. Subsequently, the Budapest Long Distance Telecommunications Institute (TKI) took part in the development of the equipment for Intersputnik, and factories in Hungary and Czechoslovakia were connected to production.
Member states
See also
Ground stations
Communications satellite
Submarine communications cable
European Telecommunications Satellite Organization
References
External links
Official website
Agreement on the legal capacity, privileges and immunities, Berlin, 20 September 1976
satnews.com Archived 2007-07-11 at the Wayback Machine
english.pravda.ru
un.org
dlr.de | [
"Science"
] |
13,883,357 | List of prehistoric sponge genera | This list of prehistoric sponges is an attempt to create a comprehensive listing of all genera that have ever been included in the phylum Porifera, excluding purely vernacular terms. The list includes all commonly accepted genera, but also genera that are now considered invalid, doubtful (nomina dubia), or were not formally published (nomina nuda), as well as junior synonyms of more established names, and genera that are no longer considered to be sponges. | This list of prehistoric sponges is an attempt to create a comprehensive listing of all genera that have ever been included in the phylum Porifera, excluding purely vernacular terms. The list includes all commonly accepted genera, but also genera that are now considered invalid, doubtful (nomina dubia), or were not formally published (nomina nuda), as well as junior synonyms of more established names, and genera that are no longer considered to be sponges.
Naming conventions and terminology
Naming conventions and terminology follow the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Technical terms used include:
Junior synonym: A name which describes the same taxon as a previously published name. If two or more genera are formally designated and the type specimens are later assigned to the same genus, the first to be published (in chronological order) is the senior synonym, and all other instances are junior synonyms. Senior synonyms are generally used, except by special decision of the ICZN, but junior synonyms cannot be used again, even if deprecated. Junior synonymy is often subjective, unless the genera described were both based on the same type specimen.
Nomen nudum (Latin for "naked name"): A name that has appeared in print but has not yet been formally published by the standards of the ICZN. Nomina nuda (the plural form) are invalid, and are therefore not italicized as a proper generic name would be. If the name is later formally published, that name is no longer a nomen nudum and will be italicized on this list. Often, the formally published name will differ from any nomina nuda that describe the same specimen.
Nomen oblitum (Latin for "forgotten name"): A name that has not been used in the scientific community for more than fifty years after its original proposal.
Preoccupied name: A name that is formally published, but which has already been used for another taxon. This second use is invalid (as are all subsequent uses) and the name must be replaced. As preoccupied names are not valid generic names, they will also go unitalicized on this list.
Nomen dubium (Latin for "dubious name"): A name describing a fossil with no unique diagnostic features. As this can be an extremely subjective and controversial designation, this term is not used on this list.
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C
D
E
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== References == | [
"Life"
] |
2,458,682 | Wards Brewing Company | Wards Brewing Company was a brewery based at Sheaf Brewery on Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, England, now a subsidiary of Double Maxim Beer Company. The most famous brand produced was Wards Best Bitter. | Wards Brewing Company was a brewery based at Sheaf Brewery on Ecclesall Road, Sheffield, England, now a subsidiary of Double Maxim Beer Company. The most famous brand produced was Wards Best Bitter.
History
Early years
In 1837, William Roper and John Kiby started a brewery and business on Effingham Street. Roper died in 1842, leaving John Kiby in sole control. He was joined by George Wright in 1860.
S. H. Ward
Septimus Henry Ward joined the company in 1868 when it ran into financial trouble. Due to the substantial amount he had invested, the primary brand was renamed Wards Best Bitter. George Wright left the partnership a year later. The business continued to expand by buying up other breweries and associated public houses. In 1876, it bought the SOHO Brewery and made it its main premises, renaming it to Sheaf Brewery. It was made a limited company called S.H. Wards & Company Limited in 1896.
The company continued to expand in the twentieth century by acquiring and restoring pubs. This was halted by the onset of the Second World War due to a lack of raw materials. The brewery was hit by three incendiary bombs in 1940, which caused the death of four of its workers. Despite these setbacks, it recovered after the end of the war and continued restoring pubs.
Demise
In 1972, the company was acquired by Vaux & Associated Breweries and continued to brew bitter as a subsidiary. Despite still being profitable, the brewery was closed in 1999 as the Vaux company was broken up after an acrimonious takeover by financiers. Members of the Vaux founding family, the Nicholsons, attempted a management buyout of Wards but their offer was rejected.
On the final day of operation, an unofficial celebration to mark the years of dedicated work of the Wards staff was held. The much respected operations manager, and former head brewer Paul Simpson (also an RNR officer) was parodied by one of the brewing operatives who wore a homemade sailor suit. Also on this last day, several 'generations' of the brewery's excise officers, including Lorraine Baker and David Bates, bought everyone else a beer by installing a barrel in the brewer tap, The Devonshire, across the road from the brewery. The cremated remains of the last brewery cat, once to be found in the Sample/Training Room, were spirited away and now rest in the house of one of the former excise officers.
The land was sold to developers who demolished most of it to make way for luxury apartments. It was revealed later that the price achieved was several million pounds less than the buyout that would have saved this much-loved brewer.
Resurrection
The Wards brand was bought by the Double Maxim Beer Company in 2003 and is run as a subsidiary called Wards Brewing Company. After a successful launch of the bottled version (first brewed again by Robinson's of Stockport), and cask (originally re-brewed by Jennings of Cockermouth) all variants are now brewed by Maxim. The branding still states Wards Brewery Sheffield.
Brands
Wards Best Bitter (bottled 4.5% abv)
Wards Best Bitter (cask 4% abv)
Wards 1840 (4.5 abv)
References
History of Wards Best Bitter | [
"Food_and_drink"
] |
34,394,476 | Taylors UniLink | Taylors UniLink is a private university located in the city of Melbourne, Australia, offering accredited higher education diplomas. Taylors UniLink is a part of Study Group and partners with over 200 university across the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and Europe, China, Australia and New Zealand. | Taylors UniLink is a private university located in the city of Melbourne, Australia, offering accredited higher education diplomas.
Taylors UniLink is a part of Study Group and partners with over 200 university across the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and Europe, China, Australia and New Zealand.
Partner Universities
Taylors UniLink has partnerships with fourteen universities across Australia.Its partner universities include:
Bond University (CRICOS 00017B)
Charles Sturt University (CRICOS 00005F NSW, 01947G VIC and 02960B ACT)
Deakin University (CRICOS 00113B)
Edith Cowan University (CRICOS 00279B)
Flinders University (CRICOS 00114A)
Griffith University (CRICOS 00233E)
La Trobe University (CRICOS 00115M)
Murdoch University (CRICOS 00125J)
Queensland University of Technology (CRICOS 00213J)
RMIT University (CRICOS 00122A)
Swinburne University of Technology (CRICOS 00111D)
University of Technology Sydney (CRICOS 00099F)
The University of Newcastle (CRICOS 00109J)
University of Wollongong (CRICOS 00102E)
Campus Facilities
Taylors UniLink campus is located in Melbourne city, housed in a building and near the city center.
References
== Categories == | [
"Education"
] |
63,516,447 | Glischropus bucephalus | Glischropus bucephalus, the Indochinese thick-thumbed bat, is a species of bat in the family Vespertilionidae. The bat is found in Cambodia, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam north of the Isthmus of Kra. | Glischropus bucephalus, the Indochinese thick-thumbed bat, is a species of bat in the family Vespertilionidae. The bat is found in Cambodia, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam north of the Isthmus of Kra.
Taxonomy
Specimens of this species were formerly considered to be G. tylopus, but are now a distinct species, with G. tylopus restricted to the south of the Isthmus of Kra.
Habitat and distribution
The bat is found in Cambodia, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam north of the Isthmus of Kra.
The bat is widespread and most probably roosts in bamboo forests.
Conservation
The species may be threatened by the destruction of bamboo forests.
== References == | [
"Communication"
] |
35,940,985 | Marvel One-Shots | Marvel One-Shots are a series of direct-to-video short films produced by Marvel Studios, set within or inspired by the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). Initially released from 2011 to 2014, they were included as special features on the MCU films' Blu-ray and digital distribution releases. The films, which range from 3 to 15 minutes, are designed to be self-contained stories that provide more backstory for characters or events introduced in the films. Two of the shorts inspired the development of MCU television series. The Consultant (2011) and A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Thor's Hammer (2011) star Clark Gregg as Agent Phil Coulson and offer up brief, self-contained stories about a day in the life of a S.H.I.E.L.D. | Marvel One-Shots are a series of direct-to-video short films produced by Marvel Studios, set within or inspired by the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). Initially released from 2011 to 2014, they were included as special features on the MCU films' Blu-ray and digital distribution releases. The films, which range from 3 to 15 minutes, are designed to be self-contained stories that provide more backstory for characters or events introduced in the films. Two of the shorts inspired the development of MCU television series.
The Consultant (2011) and A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Thor's Hammer (2011) star Clark Gregg as Agent Phil Coulson and offer up brief, self-contained stories about a day in the life of a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent. Marvel Studios then made several longer One-Shots: Item 47 (2012), starring Lizzy Caplan and Jesse Bradford as a down-on-their-luck couple who find a discarded Chitauri gun after the events of The Avengers (2012); Agent Carter (2013), starring Hayley Atwell as Peggy Carter after the events of Captain America: The First Avenger (2011); and All Hail the King (2014), starring Ben Kingsley as Trevor Slattery after the events of Iron Man 3 (2013).
The first two shorts received generally negative reviews, but the rest were more positively received and highlighted for their contributions to expanding the MCU. All the One-Shots were made available on Disney+ by January 2022, when the Team Thor mockumentary shorts (released from 2016 to 2018) were reclassified as One-Shots.
Development
In August 2011, Marvel announced that a couple of short films, designed to be self-contained stories, would be released direct-to-video. Co-producer Brad Winderbaum said they were a "fun way to experiment with new characters and ideas" and expand the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) beyond the plots of the feature films. The first two shorts were made in conjunction with The Ebeling Group. Winderbaum said the name of the shorts program was derived from the label used by Marvel Comics for their one-shot comics.Marvel Studios co-president Louis D'Esposito later said Marvel was considering introducing established characters who may not yet be ready to carry their own feature films in future One-Shots, stating, "There's always a potential to introduce a character. We have 8,000 of them, and they can't all be at the same level. So maybe there are some that are not so popular, and we introduce them [with a short]—and they take off. I could see that happening." When asked whether a Marvel superhero would ever appear in a One-Shot, D'Esposito replied that "We would love to, but it's difficult because there's a cost to that. If Iron Man is flying around doing something, that [is] very costly. And first of all, what's the story? Is it important that that superhero is in the story?"During the Agent Carter panel at the 2013 San Diego Comic-Con International, D'Esposito said Marvel was considering debuting short films in theaters before feature films. In May 2014, it was revealed that Captain America: The Winter Soldier's (2014) home media release would be the first to not include a One-Shot since the program started, and in October 2014, it was revealed that Guardians of the Galaxy's (2014) home media release also would not include a short. Guardians of the Galaxy director James Gunn said a One-Shot was not included with the film due to lack of space on the disc. Marvel Studios head Kevin Feige stated in May 2015 that there were no active plans to make more Marvel One-Shots, but the studio was not opposed to continuing the series.All of the One-Shots were made available on Disney+ by January 2022, at which point the Team Thor mockumentary shorts (which were released from 2016 to 2018) were reclassified as One-Shots. Feige had previously described the Team Thor shorts as a "doable" version of the One-Shot program, and felt there was potential for future One-Shots to similarly be released as extra content prior to a film's premiere.
Films
The Consultant (2011)
Set after the events of Iron Man 2 and The Incredible Hulk, Phil Coulson informs Jasper Sitwell that the World Security Council wishes for Emil Blonsky to be released from prison to join the Avengers Initiative. They see him as a war hero and blame the devastation in Harlem on Bruce Banner. The Council orders them to ask General Thaddeus "Thunderbolt" Ross to release Blonsky into S.H.I.E.L.D. custody. As Nick Fury does not want to release Blonsky, the two agents decide to send a patsy to sabotage the meeting. Coulson reluctantly sends "The Consultant", Tony Stark, and (as partially depicted in the post-credits scene of The Incredible Hulk) Stark approaches the disgraced Ross while he is drinking in a bar. Stark annoys Ross so much that he tries to have Stark removed from the bar, until Stark buys the bar and has it scheduled for demolition. The next day, Coulson informs Sitwell that their plan worked and Blonsky will remain in prison.
At the 2011 San Diego Comic-Con, Marvel announced that The Consultant would appear exclusively on the Thor Blu-ray release on September 13, 2011. It was directed by Leythum and written by Eric Pearson, with music by Paul Oakenfold. The short was filmed over 2–3 days. Clark Gregg and Maximiliano Hernández return to portray Agent Phil Coulson and Agent Jasper Sitwell, respectively, from the films. They are joined via archive footage by Robert Downey, Jr. as Tony Stark / The Consultant, William Hurt as General Thaddeus "Thunderbolt" Ross, and Tim Roth as Emil Blonsky in his Abomination form. Co-producer Brad Winderbaum said the producers "wanted to paint a picture of S.H.I.E.L.D. pulling the strings and being responsible for some of the events seen in the films. What better character to represent this idea than Agent Coulson, the first S.H.I.E.L.D. agent we were introduced to in the first Iron Man film?" Gregg said he was told about the short film program in the same phone call that warned him Coulson would die in The Avengers. The actor noticed that the One-Shots could then provide more information on Coulson, to "build the audience's relationship [with] him" and make his death in the film more impactful. The Consultant was written after A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Thor's Hammer, due to the latter taking up 80% of the budget Marvel reserved for the two shorts, leaving a remaining budget "for two guys talking". To help with this, Pearson included Sitwell in the short, who had a minor role in Thor, and had him and Coulson "brainstorming a way to deal with this red tape bureaucratic politics of the Avengers Initiative".
A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Thor's Hammer (2011)
Set before the events of Thor, Phil Coulson stops at a gas station on his way to Albuquerque, New Mexico. While Coulson shops for snacks in the back of the station, two robbers enter and demand the money from the register. When the robbers ask whose car is outside, Coulson reveals himself, surrenders his keys, and offers to surrender his pistol as well. As he turns over the gun, Coulson distracts the robbers and subdues both men in seconds. He then nonchalantly pays for his snacks while advising the clerk not to mention his involvement to the police.
A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Thor's Hammer was included on the Captain America: The First Avenger Blu-ray release on October 25, 2011. It was directed by Leythum and written by Eric Pearson, with music by Paul Oakenfold. It was filmed over 2–3 days. The short stars Clark Gregg reprising his role as Agent Phil Coulson, and served to showcase Coulson as "more than just an annoying bureaucrat" of S.H.I.E.L.D.
Item 47 (2012)
Bennie and Claire, a down-on-their-luck couple, find a discarded Chitauri gun ("Item 47") left over from the attack on New York City in The Avengers. The couple use it to rob a few banks, drawing the attention of S.H.I.E.L.D., which assigns agents Sitwell and Blake to retrieve the weapon and "neutralize" the couple. Agent Sitwell tracks the couple down to a motel room that gets wrecked in the subsequent confrontation, and the stolen money gets destroyed. Instead of killing the couple, Sitwell invites them to join S.H.I.E.L.D., with Bennie assigned to the R&D 'think-tank' to reverse engineer the Chitauri technology, and Claire becoming Blake's assistant.
Item 47 was released on The Avengers Blu-ray on September 25, 2012. The film stars Jesse Bradford and Lizzy Caplan as Bennie and Claire, respectively. The film also sees the return of Agent Sitwell, played by Maximiliano Hernández, and introduced Agent Blake, portrayed by Titus Welliver. It was directed by Marvel Studios co-president Louis D'Esposito, written by Eric Pearson, and features music by Christopher Lennertz. The short film, which was filmed over four days, has a runtime of 12 minutes, longer than the previous films, which were no longer than 4 minutes. Pearson and D'Esposito had the idea for the short after watching The Avengers and thinking, "New York is a mess. There must be weapons everywhere". Item 47 partially inspired the MCU television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.
Agent Carter (2013)
One year after the events of Captain America: The First Avenger, Strategic Scientific Reserve Agent Peggy Carter is stuck compiling data instead of working field cases. One night, while alone in the office, the case line informs Carter of the location of the mysterious Zodiac. She is able to retrieve the Zodiac serum single-handedly. The next day, Agent John Flynn reprimands Carter for not going through the proper procedures to complete the mission. Carter explains that the mission was time-sensitive, but Flynn is unmoved, dismissing the indignant Carter as an "old flame" of Captain America's who was given her current job out of pity for her bereavement. The case line rings again, this time with Howard Stark on the other end, who tells Flynn to inform Carter that she will co-head the newly created S.H.I.E.L.D. In a mid-credit scene, Dum Dum Dugan is seen poolside with Stark, marveling at two women wearing the newly created bikinis.
Agent Carter, released on the Iron Man 3 Blu-ray release on September 24, 2013, as well as part of the digital download release on September 3, 2013, was seen as a bridge between that film and the then-upcoming Captain America: The Winter Soldier. Marvel had considered adding it to previous home media releases as well. Hayley Atwell reprises her role as Peggy Carter, along with Dominic Cooper and Neal McDonough reprising their respective roles as Howard Stark and Timothy "Dum Dum" Dugan. Chris Evans appears as Steve Rogers / Captain America via archive footage. The short introduces Bradley Whitford as Agent John Flynn and Iron Man 3 director Shane Black as the Disembodied Voice. It was directed by Louis D'Esposito and written by Eric Pearson. The short was filmed over five days, and reused visual effects shots of 1940s New York from Captain America: The First Avenger to save money. Christopher Lennertz returned from Item 47 to compose music for the short, and went on to compose the score for the MCU television series Agent Carter, which was partially inspired by the short.
All Hail the King (2014)
Trevor Slattery was arrested at the end of Iron Man 3 and is now held in Seagate Prison where he is living luxuriously, with his own personal "butler", Herman, as well as a fan club of other inmates who protect him. Looking on at the attention Slattery receives is Justin Hammer, who wonders what makes him so special. Slattery has been talking with documentary filmmaker Jackson Norriss to chronicle the events of the Mandarin situation seen in Iron Man 3. Trying to learn more about him personally, Norriss recounts Slattery's past from his first casting as a child to his starring in a failed CBS pilot. Norriss eventually informs Slattery that his portrayal has angered some people, including the actual Ten Rings terrorist group, which Slattery did not know existed. Norriss tells him the history of the Mandarin and the terrorist group, before revealing that he is a member of the group. The real reason for the interview is to break Slattery out of prison so he can meet the actual Mandarin. Hearing this, Slattery still has no idea of the full ramifications of his posing as the Mandarin.
In October 2013, Ben Kingsley said he was working on a secret project with Marvel involving "many members of the crew that were involved in Iron Man 3", later revealed to be the Marvel One-Shot All Hail the King, which was released on the digital download release of Thor: The Dark World on February 4, 2014, and on February 25, 2014 for the Blu-ray release. The film stars Ben Kingsley as Trevor Slattery, reprising his role from Iron Man 3; Scoot McNairy as Jackson Norriss, a member of the Ten Rings terrorist organization posing as a documentary filmmaker; Lester Speight as Herman; and Sam Rockwell as Justin Hammer, reprising his role from Iron Man 2. The short was written and directed by Drew Pearce, the co-screenwriter of Iron Man 3, and was filmed in Los Angeles. Pearce and producer Stephen Broussard had the idea for the short during the production of Iron Man 3, to provide a "fresh take" on the Mandarin character. Music for the short was composed by Iron Man 3's Brian Tyler, with the fake CBS pilot, Caged Heat, receiving a new musical theme composed by 1980s TV-music icon Mike Post.
Team Thor series (2016–18)
Team Thor is a series of direct-to-video mockumentary short films that were released from 2016 to 2018, consisting of Team Thor, Team Thor: Part 2, and Team Darryl, all written and directed by Taika Waititi. The three short films are included as special features in the MCU films' Blu-ray and digital distribution releases. The first two films follow Thor as he moves in with a new roommate, Darryl Jacobson, during the events of Captain America: Civil War, while Team Darryl sees Darryl move to Los Angeles and move in with the Grandmaster. The shorts were designed to introduce MCU fans to the irreverent tone of Waititi's Thor: Ragnarok.
Cast and characters
Collection
All of the Marvel One-Shots were included on the bonus-disc of the "Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Two Collection" box set, which includes all of the Phase Two films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. The One-Shots feature audio commentary, with Gregg providing it for The Consultant and A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Thor's Hammer; D'Esposito, Hernandez, Welliver, and Bradford on Item 47; D'Esposito and Atwell for Agent Carter; and Pearce and Kingsley with All Hail the King. The collection was released on December 8, 2015. All One-Shots were made available on Disney+ by January 2022, along with the Team Thor films.
Reception
Cindy White of IGN was intrigued by The Consultant and felt the "snappy dialogue seems to fit right in with what we expect from a Joss Whedon-ized Avengers movie." Scott Chitwood of ComingSoon.net was disappointed by the short due to a third of it simply re-using the end scene of The Incredible Hulk and the rest of the short just featuring Coulson "sitting and having a chat". R.L. Shaffer at IGN said A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Thor's Hammer was fun, while Zachary Scheer wrote for CinemaBlend that the short was "as hackneyed as that title. It's about four minutes of Coulson being a badass, if the definition of 'badass' is performing needless slow-motion action stunts and then pausing to consider something normal people would consider—like which donuts to buy."Collider's Andre Dellamorte said Item 47 was silly, while William Bibbiani of CraveOnline found it to be a success, highlighting the performances of Hernandez, Bradford, and Caplan. He did think Welliver was "saddled with a little awkward dialogue, particularly in regards to Coulson, which doesn't entirely sell". Spencer Terry at Superhero Hype! said the short was "easily the best" of the One-Shots so far, and attributed that to its longer runtime. He felt that this meant Item 47 did not need to rush and was able to give a "clear understanding of both the S.H.I.E.L.D. perspective of the events and the robbers' point of view".Andy Hunsaker of CraveOnline said Agent Carter was a "fun treat" that could lead to some female-focused Marvel films, and also felt it gave Peggy Carter "the send-off she deserves." At IGN, Scott Collura said Carter was the "big-screen female superhero we've all been waiting for. She kicks so much ass in this short story with such aplomb, using not just brawn but also brains, and it's all very clever and fun". Rosie Fletcher of Total Film praised Atwell as a "perfect femme fatale-come-special agent", and also praised the visuals of the short as well as its action. By the release of Agent Carter, knowing that Item 47 had led to the creation of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. and there were discussions of the Agent Carter short doing the same for a series centered on Peggy Carter, Graeme McMillan of The Hollywood Reporter felt the shorts were no longer "fun little throwaways filled with Easter Eggs" but instead were an important program for Marvel that gave a "sneak peek at the shape of things to come".IGN's Cliff Wheatley gave All Hail the King a 9.4 out of 10, and described it as a "return to the loveable personality of the hapless Trevor and a step forward for the larger Marvel Cinematic Universe. It has its twists that should satisfy both lovers and haters of Trevor Slattery. But it's the approach that Pearce takes with the material, from the kung-fu movie style credit sequences to the light-hearted tone that takes a sudden and jarring turn. Kingsley once again shines in the role of Slattery, aloof and ignorant, but more than happy to slide back into Mandarin mode if it will please his adoring fans. Pearce does go for some of the same jokes from Iron Man 3 in a sort of referential way, but it's nothing too damaging." Andrew Wheeler of ComicsAlliance criticized the way homosexuality was presented in the short, given it was Marvel Studios' first attempt to bring LGBT concepts into the MCU.
Potential projects
In May 2013, DMG Entertainment said they were considering creating a short film, tentatively titled The Prologue, centered on Wang Xueqi's Dr. Wu from Iron Man 3, who only appeared in 10 seconds of the film outside of China; Xueqi appeared in three minutes of the Chinese release of the film. The Prologue would be composed of sequences shot during the production of Iron Man 3 and would explore Wu before the events of Iron Man. DMG added that they were unsure of how they would release the short, saying rumors claiming The Prologue could possibly release on television or a future MCU home media release were "speculation".D'Esposito said in July 2013 that he had considered making stand-alone shorts for several characters, including Loki, a young Nick Fury, Black Panther, Ms. Marvel, and Black Widow. However, D'Esposito noted that a story about Loki would be complicated by how costly it is to portray Asgard, while for Fury and Black Panther they would have to cast new actors and design costumes. He added, "We tried. We were there in development, and we tried, but they were very difficult for all the reasons I gave. And we don't want to do something that's half baked because it's not good for us and it's not good for our fans." In February 2014, Pearce mentioned other shorts that he had written that never came to fruition, including ones based on Sin and Crossbones, Jessica Jones, and Damage Control.Feige said in May 2015 that Marvel was not opposed to making more One-Shots, and there was a backlog of potential ideas. In September 2015, he added that with the MCU expanding to three feature films a year they would struggle to find the "time and place" to make more content than that, despite their continued discussions about potential future One-Shots. Spider-Man actor Tom Holland hinted in June 2017 that Marvel was planning on creating more One-Shots, and Pearson reiterated this in October, adding that he had a folder of One-Shot ideas that he had created. Taika Waititi said there were discussions about creating a One-Shot centered on the characters Korg and Miek from Ragnarok. In April 2018, D'Esposito said Disney hoped Marvel would continue with the One-Shot films, but admitted that the studio was busy focusing on their increased feature film output. In the book The Story of Marvel Studios: The Making of the Marvel Cinematic Universe, which was published in October 2021, D'Esposito said more One-Shots were in development. In June 2023, Nicholas Pillay of Comic Book Resources opined that Marvel should create new One-Shots to debut on Disney+, as it would provide additional value to the service's subscribers, while being able to expand the wider MCU as the original shorts did.
See also
Marvel Studios Special Presentations, television specials by Marvel Studios
References
External links
Marvel One-Shot: The Consultant at IMDb
Marvel One-Shot: A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Thor's Hammer at IMDb
Marvel One-Shot: Item 47 at IMDb
Marvel One-Shot: Agent Carter at IMDb
Marvel One-Shot: All Hail the King at IMDb
Team Thor at IMDb
Team Thor: Part 2 at IMDb
Team Darryl at IMDb | [
"Mass_media"
] |
1,537,067 | List of bridges in Singapore | This is a list of flyovers, bridges and viaducts in Singapore, including those for pedestrians and vehicular traffic. In Singapore, a "flyover" is an overpass that crosses over another road, while a "bridge" is a structure that crosses a body of water. A "viaduct" usually refers to a flyover that crosses over multiple roads and spans several kilometres. Only structures that are officially named are listed below. There are many more bridges in various parts of Singapore and its outlying islands that exist without names. | This is a list of flyovers, bridges and viaducts in Singapore, including those for pedestrians and vehicular traffic.
In Singapore, a "flyover" is an overpass that crosses over another road, while a "bridge" is a structure that crosses a body of water. A "viaduct" usually refers to a flyover that crosses over multiple roads and spans several kilometres.
Only structures that are officially named are listed below. There are many more bridges in various parts of Singapore and its outlying islands that exist without names.
Pedestrian bridges
Pedestrian overhead bridges
Vehicular bridges
Vehicular flyovers
Vehicular viaducts
See also
List of underpasses and tunnels in Singapore
== References == | [
"Lists"
] |
49,473,530 | Umaid Asif | Umaid Asif (born 30 April 1984) is a Pakistani cricketer who plays for Peshawar Zalmi. In April 2018, he was named in Federal Areas squad for the 2018 Pakistan Cup.In August 2018, he was one of 33 players to be awarded a central contract for the 2018–19 season by the Pakistan Cricket Board (PCB). In March 2019, he was named in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa's squad for the 2019 Pakistan Cup. In September 2019, he was named in Southern Punjab's squad for the 2019–20 domestic cricket season.In August 2020, he was named in Balochistan cricket team for 2020–21 domestic season. In January 2021, he was named in Balochistan's squad for the 2020–21 Pakistan Cup. | Umaid Asif (born 30 April 1984) is a Pakistani cricketer who plays for Peshawar Zalmi. In April 2018, he was named in Federal Areas squad for the 2018 Pakistan Cup.In August 2018, he was one of 33 players to be awarded a central contract for the 2018–19 season by the Pakistan Cricket Board (PCB). In March 2019, he was named in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa's squad for the 2019 Pakistan Cup. In September 2019, he was named in Southern Punjab's squad for the 2019–20 domestic cricket season.In August 2020, he was named in Balochistan cricket team for 2020–21 domestic season. In January 2021, he was named in Balochistan's squad for the 2020–21 Pakistan Cup. In December 2021, he was signed by the Karachi Kings following the players' draft for the 2022 Pakistan Super League.
References
External links
Umaid Asif at ESPNcricinfo | [
"Energy"
] |
17,384,594 | Great Yarmouth Power Station | Great Yarmouth Power Station is combined cycle gas turbine power station on South Denes Road in Great Yarmouth in Norfolk, England, with a maximum output of 420 MW electricity, opened in 2001. It is built on the site of an oil-fired power station, built in 1958 and closed and demolished in the 1990s. A coal-fired power station was built in Great Yarmouth in 1894 and operated until 1961. The station is operated by RWE. | Great Yarmouth Power Station is combined cycle gas turbine power station on South Denes Road in Great Yarmouth in Norfolk, England, with a maximum output of 420 MW electricity, opened in 2001. It is built on the site of an oil-fired power station, built in 1958 and closed and demolished in the 1990s. A coal-fired power station was built in Great Yarmouth in 1894 and operated until 1961. The station is operated by RWE.
History
Great Yarmouth's first power station which used coal was built in 1894 and demolished in 1961 together with its iconic large chimney.
In 1923 the AC plant comprised 3 × 75 kW, 3 × 150 kW and 2 × 300 kW reciprocating engines and generators, and 1 × 600 kW and 2 × 1,500 kW turbo-alternators. The DC plant comprised 2 × 200 kW and 1 × 400 kW reciprocating engines and generators. The total generating capacity of the station was 4,175 kW. The total output of the boiler plant was 58,000 lb/hr (7.31 kg/s) of steam. Electricity was available as single phase AC, 83.5 Hz at 200 and 100V and DC at 500 V. In 1923 the station generated 3.776 GWh of electricity, some of this was used in the plant, the total amount sold was 5.559 GWh. The revenue from sales of current was £48,038, this gave a surplus of revenue over expenses of £20,776. By 1959 the plant comprised one Babcock & Wilcox 108,000 pounds per hour boiler delivering steam at 260 psi and 750 °F to one 7.5 MW and one 3.75 MW Brush-Ljunstrom turbo-alternators. Condenser water was drawn from the River Yare. The electricity output in the final years was:
Before demolition a second much larger plant, built on the South Denes, had opened in September 1958.
South Denes power station
South Denes power station was sanctioned in July 1953 and was initially commissioned in 1957. It had an installed capacity of 252 MW and comprised 2 × 60 MW Metropolitan Vickers turbo-alternator and 2 × 60 MW Richardsons Westgarth turbo-alternators. In 1972 the 60 MW machine was up-rated to 64 MW. The four boilers were oil-fired and produced steam at a rate of 550,000 lb/hr (69.3 kg/s) at a pressure of 900 psi (62.1 bar) and 482 °C. Seawater was used for cooling. In 1961 the thermal efficiency of the station was 30.44 per cent. The output in GWh over the period 1961-82 was as follows. This plant produced power until it was first scheduled to close in 1984 before briefly being used again during the UK miners' strike (1984–1985) (see graph) after which it again remained unused until 1994 when demolition began. On 5 May 1997 the main building and its chimney were demolished via a controlled explosion watched by thousands of people from the roads on the other side of the River Yare. The 360-foot (110 m) chimney was a landmark of Great Yarmouth, and had been the tallest structure in Norfolk.The current gas power station plant was built on the site by Bechtel for Great Yarmouth Power Limited (a specially formed company owned by BP, Amoco and Arco) between 1998 and 2001. The project was projected to cost £185 million. The plant was operated by GE International, trading as IGE Energy Services (UK) Ltd and was then bought by RWE (trading as npower) in November 2005 for £155m.
Specification
It is a CCGT type power station that runs on natural gas supplied via a 12-inch diameter high pressure (69 bar) pipeline from the Bacton Gas Terminal 27 miles to the north-west. It has one 265MWe General Electric Frame 9 (9001FA+E) gas turbine with the exhaust gas heating a Doosan heat recovery steam generator, leading to a 150MWe Hitachi steam turbine. At 420MW, it generates enough electricity for around 350,000 homes. It has a thermal efficiency of 57%. The terminal voltage of the plant is 19kV, which meets the distribution network of EDF Energy via a transformer at 132kV. The steam condenser uses about 9 tonnes of water a second drawn from the River Yare and discharged out to sea.
References
External links
Other CCGTs in eastern England
Acquisition of the power station by RWE at the Office of Fair Trading | [
"Energy"
] |
9,138,514 | Jamie Fenton | Jamie Faye Fenton (born Jay Fenton) is a game programmer best known for the 1981 arcade game Gorf and for being one of the creators of MacroMind's VideoWorks software (since renamed Macromedia Director). Jamie has been active in the transgender community and transitioned from male to female around 1998. | Jamie Faye Fenton (born Jay Fenton) is a game programmer best known for the 1981 arcade game Gorf and for being one of the creators of MacroMind's VideoWorks software (since renamed Macromedia Director). Jamie has been active in the transgender community and transitioned from male to female around 1998.
Biography
Fenton was drawn to computer technology while in school because its highly predictable nature appealed to her and it provided a haven from being picked on by other students.In 1975, while studying computer science in the University of Wisconsin, Jamie and fellow student Tom McHugh volunteered to work at Dave Nutting Associates, who enlisted their help to redesign pinball machines and the Japanese arcade game Western Gun using Intel's 8080 microprocessor, she also later worked on the Bally Astrocade.In 1978, Jamie created an early example of glitch art entitled Digital TV Dinner.In 2018, Digital TV Dinner was exhibited in the Chicago New Media 1973-1992 exhibition, curated by Jon Cates.
Works
Datsun 280 ZZZAP (1976)
Checkmate (1977)
Digital TV Dinner (1978)
Bally Astrocade BASIC re-write (1980)
Gorf (1981)
Robby Roto (1981)
See also
List of women in the video game industry
Women and video games
Women in computing
References
External links
Fentonia.com | [
"Concepts"
] |
35,335,508 | Rhett Allain | Rhett Allain is an American associate professor of physics at Southeastern Louisiana University and the author of the Wired magazine science blog Dot Physics. He received his Ph.D. from North Carolina State University in 2001 and works in the field of physics education research.In his blog, Dot Physics, Allain discusses physical concepts, answers questions related to physics and math, and debunks questionable physical claims. Many of his posts are supported by experiments, calculations, and models. Recently, he has analyzed the physics behind the Angry Birds Space video game and behind a now-debunked video which purported to show a man flying with home-made wings. He has also criticized television shows, including Fight Science, that perform poorly controlled experiments which are presented as scientific.In 2008 Allain rejected the concept of sailing dead downwind faster than the wind as a violation of conservation laws, stating that "this is the same situation as people trying to make energy from nothing". | Rhett Allain is an American associate professor of physics at Southeastern Louisiana University and the author of the Wired magazine science blog Dot Physics. He received his Ph.D. from North Carolina State University in 2001 and works in the field of physics education research.In his blog, Dot Physics, Allain discusses physical concepts, answers questions related to physics and math, and debunks questionable physical claims. Many of his posts are supported by experiments, calculations, and models. Recently, he has analyzed the physics behind the Angry Birds Space video game and behind a now-debunked video which purported to show a man flying with home-made wings. He has also criticized television shows, including Fight Science, that perform poorly controlled experiments which are presented as scientific.In 2008 Allain rejected the concept of sailing dead downwind faster than the wind as a violation of conservation laws, stating that "this is the same situation as people trying to make energy from nothing". When the concept was demonstrated to work in practice by the Blackbird in 2010, Allain didn't offer further explanations and merely noted: "If it works, does it matter what I say?"In 2011 Rhett became the science advisor for the Discovery Channel show Mythbusters and continues to work on it today with the new Mythbusters. He is also a technical consultant for the CBS show MacGyver. Rhett Allain is also a host on Southeastern's KSLU Radio with his show "STEM Science Radio", which Allain says is , "...redundant because science appears twice, but I didn't come up with the name."
Personal
Allain describes himself as "a slacker by night." His favorite saying is "I like to take things apart, but I can't always put them back together." Allain has been married for 22 years and has 4 children.
References
External links
Dot Physics | [
"Technology"
] |
62,004,589 | Leimarel Sidabi | Leimarel Sidabi (Meitei: ꯂꯩꯃꯔꯦꯜ ꯁꯤꯗꯕꯤ) or Leimalel Sitapi (Meitei: ꯂꯩꯃꯂꯦꯜ ꯁꯤꯇꯄꯤ) is a goddess in Meitei mythology and the religion of Ancient Kangleipak (early Manipur). She is the highest female divinity in the Meitei pantheon. She is the goddess of earth, of nature and the household. She is revered as the mother of every living being in the universe.Presently, the market complex number 1 is named after her at the Ima Keithel (Mothers' market), the world's only market run exclusively by women. | Leimarel Sidabi (Meitei: ꯂꯩꯃꯔꯦꯜ ꯁꯤꯗꯕꯤ) or Leimalel Sitapi (Meitei: ꯂꯩꯃꯂꯦꯜ ꯁꯤꯇꯄꯤ) is a goddess in Meitei mythology and the religion of Ancient Kangleipak (early Manipur). She is the highest female divinity in the Meitei pantheon. She is the goddess of earth, of nature and the household. She is revered as the mother of every living being in the universe.Presently, the market complex number 1 is named after her at the Ima Keithel (Mothers' market), the world's only market run exclusively by women.
Etymology
The Meitei word "Leimarel" (ꯂꯩꯃꯔꯦꯜ) or "Leimaren" (ꯂꯩꯃꯔꯦꯟ) means "queen" or "goddess" in English. The word "Leimarel" (or "Leimaren") can be broken into the syllables "Lei" (ꯂꯩ), "Ma" (ꯃ) and "-ren" (-ꯔꯦꯟ) or "-rel" (-ꯔꯦꯜ). "Lei" means land or earth. "Ma" means mother. "-ren" (or "-rel") means excellent. The Meitei word "Sidabi" can be broken into "Si" (ꯁꯤ), "-da" (ꯗ) and "-bi" (-ꯕꯤ). "Si" ("See") means "to die". "-da" denotes negative meaning. "-bi" ("-bee") denotes feminine gender.
Description
Leimarel is the eternal mother goddess. In ancient times, the ruling royal couples sat in the Laplen Ka (the central room). They faced the sacred spot of goddess Leimarel. It was believed that men and women originated from Leimarel's womb. A house symbolises the Mother in traditional Meitei cosmic beliefs.
Mythology
The supreme creator Atingkok (alias Salailel) asked his two sons, Sanamahi and Pakhangba to run in a race around the world. The winner would become the ruler of the world. Sanamahi was stronger than his younger brother, Pakhangba. He started his journey. Pakhangba wept to his mother, Leimarel Sidabi. She told him the secret behind the throne of the universe. The secret is that going around the throne of the Supreme Being is equivalent to going around the universe. So, Pakhangba went around the Supreme Being, his father. Thus, he won the race and became the ruler of the universe. When Sanamahi returned home, he found his younger brother sitting on the throne. He got angry. He attacked Pakhangba. Pakhangba ran away. He hid himself among seven lairembis (celestial divine maidens). The Supreme Being intervened the situation. He brought peace of Sanamahi. He made Sanamahi as the king of the household of the mankind. At the same time, goddess Leimarel Sidabi became another Imung Lai (household deity), besides Sanamahi.According to some legends, goddess Ima Leimaren (lit. Mother Leimarel) takes care of the market. She brings peace and harmony by doing so. This tradition is still maintained by womenfolk. The women are considered as the descendents of the "Ima".During the infant world, the creator God Atingkok Maru Sidaba asked goddess Leimarel Sidabi to produce another goddess from herself. After the production, the new goddess was named as Emoinu (Imoinu), who was sent to earth as the guardian goddess of humankind.
Texts
Several ancient texts (PuYas) write things about the goddess Leimarel (Old Manipuri: Leimalen). Some include the Leimaren Naoyom (Old Manipuri: Leimalen Naoyom), the Leimaren Langon (Old Manipuri: Leimalen Lang-ngon), the Leimaren Mingkhei (Old Manipuri: Leimalen Mingkhei), the Leimaren Shekning Lasat (Old Manipuri: Leimalen Shekning Laasat), the Leimaren Ungoiron (Old Manipuri: Leimalen Ungkoilon), besides other texts.
Worship
Leimarel Sidabi and her son Sanamahi are worshipped in the first room of every Meitei household. Goddess Leimarel doesn't want the Korou Anganba (English: sunlight) in the morning. So, houses of Loi castes are mainly made facing southwards. She lives in water also. So, she is worshipped in an Isaiphu (an earthen pitcher or terracotta pot containing water). There are no images kept to represent the two deities inside their abode.A senior woman of a house fills the earthen pot of the goddess with fresh water. She does this after taking a holy bath. Fresh flowers, fruits, vegetables and rice are offered. Prayers are also offered to protect the family members from every troubles.The maibas perform rites and rituals by chanting hymns dedicated to goddess Leimaren (ancestral mother goddess). It is generally done inside the house. Water, rice and flowers are mainly placed.
Shayon (incarnations)
Leimarel Sidabi is known for her various incarnation in different forms possessing diverse attributes.
The following are her incarnations:
Festivals
Goddess Leimarel Sidabi and her son Sanamahi are mainly worshipped in many religious occasions. Some are Sajibu Cheiraoba and Saroi-Khangba. Cheiraoba is the Meitei new year (Manipuri new year) festival. Saroi-Khangba is a religious event to please the evil spirits.
In the festival of Mera Chaorel Houba, God Lainingthou Sanamahi and goddess Leimarel Sidabi are worshipped in the famous Sanamahi Temple by offering fruits and vegetables.
In the Meitei festival of Sajibu Cheiraoba, goddess Leimarel Sidabi is worshipped by offering her the uncooked rice by the devotees.
Pantheon
Goddess Leimarel Sidabi, besides being worshipped in Manipur, Assam and Tripura, has her pantheon in Bangladesh and Myanmar too.
In Myanmar, one of the famous shrines of Ema Leimarel Sidabi is located at the Ye Ki Bauk village, where the Meitei people worship her.
In Arts
Among the nine forms of musical rhythms (Seisaks) of Pena (musical instrument), the Leimarel Sheisak is one. This singing style (tune) of Meitei tradition (Manipuri culture) is sung during the festival of Lai Haraoba.In the novel The Tales of Kanglei Throne, goddess Leimarel Sidabi is presented as Nongda Nongkhal Lembi.
Namesakes
In commerce
Ima Keithel (English: Mothers' Market) is the world's only women run market. It has 3 major complexes. Leimarel Sidabi Ima Keithel is the Complex Number 1 of the market. It is followed by Imoinu Ima Keithel (Complex Number 2) and Phouoibi Ima Keithel (Complex Number 3). This 500 year old market is in the center of Imphal, Manipur.
In geography
The Leimarel Hill is a hill in Manipur. Trekkers go here for panaromic viewing of 360 degree of Loktak Lake.
References
Bibliography
Ariba Meiteigee Seitha by Gourachandra, Mayanglambam
Kangleikhol January 1988 by Kangjia, Ng
Leimarel Mingkhei by Bhogeshawr, Oinam
Yimpallon by Singh, Wakhemcha Tomba
External links
Internet Archive, Leimarel
E-pao, Leimarel
Journal on Sanamahism religion (read 5th paragraph )
celebrates-mera-chaoren-houba/ Celebrating Sanamahism festival
NATURE WORSHIP | [
"Concepts"
] |
441,545 | Ray Hyman | Ray Hyman (born June 23, 1928) is a Professor Emeritus of Psychology at the University of Oregon in Eugene, Oregon, and a noted critic of parapsychology. Hyman, along with James Randi, Martin Gardner and Paul Kurtz, is one of the founders of the modern skeptical movement. He is the founder and leader of the Skeptic's Toolbox. Hyman serves on the Executive Council for the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. | Ray Hyman (born June 23, 1928) is a Professor Emeritus of Psychology at the University of Oregon in Eugene, Oregon, and a noted critic of parapsychology. Hyman, along with James Randi, Martin Gardner and Paul Kurtz, is one of the founders of the modern skeptical movement. He is the founder and leader of the Skeptic's Toolbox. Hyman serves on the Executive Council for the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry.
Career
Hyman was born in Chelsea, Massachusetts to a Jewish family. Although he was bar mitzvahed at 13, Hyman "never had a religious feeling". In his teenage years and later while attending Boston University, he worked as a magician and mentalist, impressing the head of his department (among others) with his palmistry. Hyman at one point believed that 'reading' the lines on a person's palm could provide insights into their nature, but later discovered that the person's reaction to the reading had little to do with the actual lines on the palm. This fascination with why this happened led him to switch from a journalist degree to psychology.JREF president D.J. Grothe asked Hyman "How does a young psychology student get into this parapsychology racket ... why you?" Hyman replied that it began when he was hired as a magician at age 7 (as the "Merry Mystic") performing for the Parents and Teachers Association at his school. This led him to read all about Harry Houdini and his work with spiritualists. By the age of 16 he started investigating spiritualist meetings. Thinking back to age 7, "I can't ever remember not being a skeptic".Magicians who perform mentalism debate among themselves about using a disclaimer. The disclaimer is supposed to inform the audience that what they are witnessing is entertainment, and is not based on actual paranormal powers. In an interview with mentalist Mark Edward, Edward asked Hyman if he had ever used a disclaimer during the six years when he performed professionally as a mentalist. Hyman told him he did not remember explicitly using a disclaimer. He remembered always beginning the performance by stating that he did not claim any special powers. He was an entertainer and he hoped they would enjoy the show. After he became a psychologist, he realized that this was an example of the "invited inference." By openly stating that he made no claims about the nature of his ability, Hyman had given his audience no reason to challenge him. Indeed, he had invited the onlookers to make their own inferences about the source of the apparent feats of mind reading. Most of them concluded he was truly psychic.He obtained a doctorate in psychology from Johns Hopkins University in 1953, and then taught at Harvard for five years. He also became an expert in statistical methods. In 2007 Hyman received an honorary doctorate from the Simon Fraser University for his "intellect and discipline who inspire others to follow in his footsteps... (and) for his courageous advocacy of unfettered skeptical inquiry". In 1982, Hyman held the "Spook Chair" for one year at Stanford University during a sabbatical from the University of Oregon. What the Stanford University psychologists informally call the "Spook" chair is officially known as The Thomas Welton Stanford Chair for Psychical Research. Thomas Welton was the brother of Stanford's founder, Leland Stanford.Along with other notable skeptics like James Randi, Martin Gardner, Marcello Truzzi and Paul Kurtz, he was a founding member of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP) (which is now known as the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI)), which publishes the Skeptical Inquirer. He also developed a style guide and etiquette manual to assist skeptical writers and critics. This is called "Hyman's Proper Criticism" and proposes six steps that skeptics can use to upgrade the quality of their criticism.
Aside from his scholarly publications and consultation with the U.S. Department of Defense in scrutinizing psychic research, one of his most popular articles is thirteen points to help you "amaze your friends with your new found psychic powers!", a guide to cold reading. According to Jim Alcock, "His article on cold reading, so Paul Kurtz informs me, has generated more requests for reprints than any other article in the history of the Skeptical Inquirer". The guide exploits what fascinated him in his academic research in cognitive psychology, that much deception is self-deception. He has investigated dowsing in the United States and written a book on the subject. He is one of the foremost skeptical experts on the Ganzfeld experiment. According to Bob Carroll, psychologist Ray Hyman is considered to be the foremost expert on subjective validation and cold reading.Hyman's prestidigitational skills (which he calls "manipulating perception") have earned him the cover of The Linking Ring twice, June 1952 and October 1986 this magazine of the International Brotherhood of Magicians of which he has been a member for over 35 years.Hyman retired in 1998 but continues to give talks and investigate paranormal claims. In July 2009 he appeared at The Amaz!ng Meeting 7 in Las Vegas, Nevada. Also in 2011, TAM 9 From Outer Space and TAM 2012. He is working on two books: How Smart People Go Wrong: Cognition and Human Error and Parapsychology's Achilles' Heel: Consistent Inconsistency.
On October 9, 2010, the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry announced Hyman (and others) as a part of their policy-making Executive Council, he will also serve on Skeptical Inquirer's magazine board.
History of skeptical movement
In the 2010 D.J. Grothe interview, Hyman states that the formation of the skeptic movement can be attributed to Uri Geller and Alice Cooper. Randi was touring with Cooper as a part of the stage show, Cooper asked Randi to invite Hyman to a show in order to ask his advice about the audience. While there, "Randi pulled me aside and said... we really ought to do something about this Uri Geller business... lets form an organization called SIR" (Sanity In Research). In 1972 joined by Martin Gardner they had their first meeting. The three of them felt they had no administration experience, "we just had good ideas" and were soon joined by Marcello Truzzi who provided structure for the group. Truzzi involved Paul Kurtz and they then formed CSICOP in 1976.In an interview in 2009 with Derek Colanduno for the Skepticality podcast, Hyman was asked his opinion of the modern skeptical movement. Hyman responded that skeptics need to have goals and a way to measure them. They need to become a resource for the public, and focus on educating journalists and teachers. "That way we will get more bang for our buck." On the current state of the skeptical movement, Hyman stated "The media, unfortunately has made it so we have many more believers." Less science teachers in the classrooms, major newspapers are firing their science writing staff, 24-hour news channels are trying to fill all that time and compete with Fox News. "Things are not good."
Skeptic's Toolbox
Hyman in 1989 created the Skeptic's Toolbox to teach people how to be better skeptics. Hyman tells James Underdown that "we were putting out more fires by skeptics than by believers... they were going overboard". The first toolbox was in Buffalo, NY with himself, James Alcock and Steve Shaw now called Banachek. With the exception of one year when the toolbox was held in Boulder, CO the toolbox has been held at the University of Oregon in Eugene. The Skeptic's Toolbox originally spanned 5 days. Later it was cut back to 4 days.Speaking to a reporter from The Register-Guard Hyman explains that people come from all over the country to attend the 4-day conference, to hone their critical thinking skills. Hyman is curious about why people who believe in paranormal claims without evidence continue to do so: "'I just want to understand how people get to believe some things... Magic is a perfect example of how people can be fooled'" and it works the same way with paranormal claims. Hyman felt that it was necessary to teach attendees with a "case-based approach... concrete examples as a first step toward extracting broad examples... (giving) the benefit of context" to the learning experience. This approach differs from that of a traditional conference: he has attendees use hands-on participation, splitting them into teams so they are able to spend quality time discussing the readings and lectures. At the 2014 Toolbox, Hyman used Oskar Pfungst’s investigation of Clever Hans as an example of how detailed and exhaustive some investigators are in studying claims.
Hick-Hyman Law
Hyman published his "classic paper showing that human choice reaction time is related to the information content of an incoming signal" called the Hick-Hyman Law. This helped to lay the groundwork "for the shift from behavioral psychology... to the era of cognitive psychology." This was Hyman's second published paper, and submitted while still a grad student. He states that Hick used a different formula and got his "math wrong, which I corrected" but they still named the law after him because Hyman was "just a student". Sometimes called Hick's Law (mainly in Britain), in America it is more often referred to as the Hick-Hyman Law.
Remote viewing review
Along with Jessica Utts, he conducted a review of CIA remote viewing experiments in 1995. He noted that the experiments "appear to be free of the more obvious and better known flaws that can invalidate the results of parapsychological investigations" and that there are significant effect sizes "too large and consistent to be dismissed as statistical flukes." However, he stops short of "concluding that the existence of anomalous cognition has been established."
Ganzfeld experiments
While working at Stanford University and serving as the "Spook Chair'" Hyman decided that he would never be able to read all the literature concerning parapsychology that existed in the 1980s. He then asked parapsychologists "What is the best evidence for psi?" they nearly universally pointed to the Ganzfeld experiment. Hyman wrote to Charles Honorton and was sent 600 pages of information. Three years later Hyman's analysis led to the 1985 issue of the Journal of Parapsychology publishing Hyman's critiques. Hyman's conclusion "By themselves these experiments do not mean anything unless they can be replicated".
In 2007, Hyman noted that the ganzfeld experiments had not been successfully replicated and suggested there was evidence that sensory leakage had taken place in the autoganzfeld experiments.
Uri Geller and Stanford Research Institute
Magician Jerry Andrus and Hyman appeared in 1975 on a TV station in Portland, Oregon, where they explained and duplicated the "paranormal" tricks Geller had performed for host Dick Klinger the week prior. Klinger asked, "Does Uri Geller have any supernatural powers?" Andrus gave the short answer "No." Hyman stated, "(Geller) is an opportunist... which is why it is difficult to duplicate him, he himself cannot duplicate himself. He's always ready to do something... he is going to do something when you think he is doing something else... misdirection... he's excellent at it, he's superb."In 1972 Hyman was asked by The Department of Defense to investigate psychic Uri Geller. Hyman was intrigued by a story that Geller had taken a ring from one of the scientists, set it on a table, and without touching it, the ring stood on end, broke in half and formed itself into a S-shape. Upon questioning all the scientists at the lab, Hyman discovered that no one had actually seen this happen, but had heard stories from others (who could not be tracked down) that it had happened." Hyman continued to question the scientists and discovered that no one had ever seen Geller bend anything without touching it. In fact "Geller was allowed to take the object into the bathroom... and then come back with the bent object, they took his word for it." "The parapsychologist (also sent to investigate) 'saw a psychic,' and I reported back that I saw only a charismatic fraud."When asked to explain further why people believe in Geller when a magician can do the same thing without paranormal powers, Hyman states, "He's a fraud, but you can't blame people for believing him. Geller is a product of a wonderful public relations campaign... What the audience gets is only one side of the story... He has been caught cheating many times" but people still believe. Speaking as a psychologist Hyman says "If you get people in the right frame of mind and they are cooperating with you... and even give them a poor reading... they will fit it to themselves and believe you are telling them about their unique personality."
Gary Schwartz
Gary Schwartz conducted numerous experiments at his laboratory at the University of Arizona where he is a tenured professor. Schwartz believes that he has proven the dead communicate with the living through human mediums. Hyman details many methodological errors with Schwartz's research including; "Inappropriate control comparisons", "Failure to use double-blind procedures", "Creating non-falsifiable outcomes by reinterpreting failures as successes" and "Failure to independently check on facts the sitters endorsed as true". Hyman wrote "Even if the research program were not compromised by these defects, the claims being made would require replication by independent investigators." Hyman criticizes Schwartz's decision to publish his results without gathering "evidence for their hypothesis that would meet generally accepted scientific criteria... they have lost credibility."There have been many follow-up exchanges between Schwartz and Hyman over the Afterlife Experiments conducted by Schwartz. Published May 2003, Schwartz responded that Hyman ignored "the total body of research." Schwartz takes issue with Hyman's opinion that he (Hyman) will not believe in psi. Hyman answered, "Until multiple perfect experiments are performed and published... believe that the totality of the findings must be due to some combination of fraud, cold reading, rater bias, experimenter error, or chance... Why spend the time and money conducting multiple multi-center, double-blind experiments unless there are sufficient theoretical, experimental, and social reasons for doing so?"
Proper Criticism
Hyman wrote a brief guide called Proper Criticism directed at critics of paranormal claims. It has widely been dispersed among Skeptics working in the public eye, including the editorial staff at Skeptical Inquirer. It is also featured in his book The Elusive Quarry.
Proper Criticism gives eight suggestions for approaching criticism thoughtfully in a way that is "both effective and responsible"
1. Be prepared: have responses prepared for commonly asked questions about Skepticism
2. Clarify your objectives: assess your own intentions and determine your intended audience. Hyman warns against criticism motivated by bad intentions, such as attacking the claimant instead of the claim.
3. Do your homework: research to understand the claimant's argument
4. Do not go beyond your level of competence: admit what you do not know and consult experts when needed
5. Let the facts speak for themselves: if you have thoroughly prepared, let the audience reach the conclusion on their own
6. Be precise: use precise language, be as accurate as possible. While discussing Proper Criticism on the Squaring the Strange Podcast, Benjamin Radford expanded on this advice, "often times ambiguous or fuzzy words or concepts reveal ambiguous or fuzzy thinking and obfuscation" 7. Use the principle of charity: give the claimant the benefit of the doubt. Also on Squaring the Strange Podcast, Celestia Ward has called this the opposite of the Straw man fallacy, advising critics formulate responses to the strongest interpretation of the claimant's argument.
8. Avoid loaded words and sensationalism: instead, choose long term credibility
Awards
In Praise of Reason Award, the highest honor from the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal in 2003. The award is given in recognition of distinguished contributions in the use of critical inquiry, scientific evidence, and reason in evaluating claims to knowledge. Other recipients of this award include Carl Sagan, Kendrick Frazier, Murray Gell-Mann, Stephen Jay Gould, Martin Gardner, and Nobel laureate physicist Leon Lederman.
Co-recipient of the 2005 Robert P. Balles Prize in Critical Thinking, awarded by CSICOP. The award is rewarded to the author of "The published work that best exemplifies healthy skepticism, logical analysis or empirical science". The 2005 award was shared with authors Andrew Skolnick and Joe Nickell. Hyman received award for his article Testing Natasha published in the series Testing the Girl with the X-Ray Eyes in Skeptical Inquirer.
Doctor of Science, Honoris Causa from Simon Fraser University in October 2007.
Philip J. Klass Award for outstanding contributions in promoting critical thinking and scientific understanding for 2010, awarded by National Capital Area Skeptics (NCAS).The Independent Investigation Group presented Hyman with the Houdini Hall of Honor award 2011.
Books
Bush, Robert R.; Abelson, Robert; Hyman, Ray (1956), Mathematics for Psychologists, New York: Social Science Research Council, OCLC 2301803
Vogt, Evon Zartman; Hyman, Ray (1959), Water Witching USA, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, OCLC 315006378
Hyman, Ray (1964), The Nature of Psychological Inquiry, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, OCLC 191376
Hyman, Ray (1989), The Elusive Quarry: A Scientific Appraisal of Psychical Research, Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, ISBN 0879755040, OCLC 19455101
Andrus, Jerry; Hyman, Ray (2000), Andrus Card Control, Eugene, OR: Chazpro Magic, OCLC 65215589
Selected articles
How People Are Fooled by Ideomotor Action – Quackwatch.org
Proper Criticism – July/August 2001 – Skeptical Inquirer Magazine
References
External links
The Skeptic's Toolbox
"Ray Hyman, on season 8 , episode 2". Scientific American Frontiers. Chedd-Angier Production Company. 1997–1998. PBS. Archived from the original on 2006-01-01. on dowsing, Nov. 19, 1997 | [
"Science"
] |
48,908,334 | Union Express Charter Airline | Union Express is a charter airline based in Myanmar. | Union Express is a charter airline based in Myanmar.
History
In May 2014, Union Express Charter Airline was announced as a start-up airline to offer charter flights from Myeik, Myanmar (Myeik Airport) to Bangkok (Suvarnabhumi Airport) using a Boeing 737 Next Generation aircraft on twice weekly flights from mid-2014. It is a joint venture between Myanmar Union Express Aviation Group and Myeik Public Corporation.
Fleet
== References == | [
"Business"
] |
61,713,449 | Yoganand Shastri | Yoganand Shastri (born 17 April 1944) is an Indian politician from Delhi. He thrice served as member of Delhi Legislative Assembly. He also served as the Speaker of Delhi Legislative Assembly from 2008 to 2013. He was a cabinet minister for Development, Food and Civil Supplies in First Dikshit cabinet and Minister for Health and Social Welfare in Second Dikshit cabinet. He twice represented Malviya Nagar Assembly constituency and one time Mehrauli Assembly constituency. | Yoganand Shastri (born 17 April 1944) is an Indian politician from Delhi. He thrice served as member of Delhi Legislative Assembly. He also served as the Speaker of Delhi Legislative Assembly from 2008 to 2013. He was a cabinet minister for Development, Food and Civil Supplies in First Dikshit cabinet and Minister for Health and Social Welfare in Second Dikshit cabinet. He twice represented Malviya Nagar Assembly constituency and one time Mehrauli Assembly constituency. He entered the Nationalist Congress Party in November 2021 in the presence of party chief Sharad Pawar.
Position held
Electoral Performances
References
पूर्व विधानसभा अध्यक्ष का नौकर छेड़छाड़ में गिरफ्तार
Dikshit criticises BJP for demanding Speaker's res
Dr Yoganand Shastri: Congress (Malviya Nagar) | [
"Information"
] |
52,856,897 | Education (Scotland) Act 1872 | The Education (Scotland) Act 1872 (35 & 36 Vict. c. 62) made elementary education for all children between the ages of 5 and 13 mandatory in Scotland.The Act achieved a more thorough transfer of existing schools to a public system than the Elementary Education Act 1870 in England. It created popularly elected school boards which undertook a significant building programme. The Scottish Act remains controversial because it caused substantial harm to the Scottish Gaelic language. At the time it was criticised because it did not deal with secondary education and because it did too little to safeguard the tradition of the parish schools in Scotland. | The Education (Scotland) Act 1872 (35 & 36 Vict. c. 62) made elementary education for all children between the ages of 5 and 13 mandatory in Scotland.The Act achieved a more thorough transfer of existing schools to a public system than the Elementary Education Act 1870 in England. It created popularly elected school boards which undertook a significant building programme. The Scottish Act remains controversial because it caused substantial harm to the Scottish Gaelic language. At the time it was criticised because it did not deal with secondary education and because it did too little to safeguard the tradition of the parish schools in Scotland.
Background
In 1866 the government established the Argyll Commission, under Whig grandee George Campbell, 8th Duke of Argyll, to look into the schooling system. It found that of 500,000 children in need of education 200,000 were receiving it under efficient conditions, 200,000 in schools of doubtful merit, without any inspection and 90,000 were receiving no education at all. Although this compared favourably with the situation in England, with 14% more children in education and with relatively low illiteracy rates of between 10 and 20%, similar to those in the best-educated nations such as those in Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Scandinavia, the report was used as support for widespread reform. The result was the 1872 Education (Scotland) Act, based on that passed for England and Wales as the Elementary Education Act 1870, but providing a more comprehensive solution.
The Act
Under the act approximately 1,000 regional school boards were established and, unlike in England where they merely attempted to fill gaps in provision, immediately took over the schools of the old and new kirks and were able to begin to enforce attendance, rather than after the decade necessary in England. Some ragged and industrial schools requested to be taken over by the boards, while others continued as Sunday schools. All children aged from 5 to 13 years were to attend. Poverty was not accepted as an excuse and some help was supplied under the Poor laws. This was enforced by the School Attendance Committee, while the boards busied themselves with building to fill the gaps in provision. This resulted in a major programme that created large numbers of grand, purpose-built schools. Overall administration was in the hands of the Scotch (later Scottish) Education Department in London. Demand for places was high and for a generation after the act there was overcrowding in many classrooms, with up to 70 children being taught in one room. The emphasis on a set number of passes at exams also led to much learning by rote and the system of inspection led to even the weakest children being drilled with certain facts.
Effect on Gaelic
The Education (Scotland) Act 1872 effectively put an end to non-English medium education and repressed Scottish Gaelic medium education, with pupils being punished for speaking the language. Pupils were physically punished if caught speaking in Gaelic and beaten again if they did not reveal the names of other students speaking Gaelic. The effect of the education act upon the Gaelic language has been described as "disastrous" and by denying the value of Gaelic culture and language, contributed to destroying the self-respect of Gaelic communities. It was a continuation of a general policy (by both Scottish and, after 1707, British governments) which aimed at Anglicisation.As a result of facing punishment and humiliation for speaking Gaelic, many parents decided not to pass on the language to their children, resulting in language shift. Scottish Gaelic medium education was not established until the 1980s, and the impact of the Act is still being felt in Gaelic communities today.
See also
Canadian Gaelic § Reasons for decline
Vergonha in Occitan-speaking France
Treachery of the Blue Books in Wales
American Indian boarding schools
Canadian Indian residential school system
Specific devices for punishing children using the "wrong" language in schools:
Welsh Not
Symbole in France
Dialect card (方言札, hōgen fuda) in Japan
== References == | [
"Education"
] |
12,866,553 | Mohawk Island | Mohawk Island is a small (4 hectares (9.9 acres)) island in the northeast of Lake Erie, in Haldimand County, Ontario, Canada. It is composed of limestone with almost no vegetation, and is close to the water level. It was formerly known as Gull Island and contains the ruins of the Gull Island Lighthouse which was built in 1848 to guide ships into the Welland Canal at Port Maitland. In 1933, the lighthouse was automated to no longer require a human keeper and lost significance in 1934 due to the realignment of the canal at Port Colborne. It was decommissioned in 1969 when the mechanism was destroyed by a fire. | Mohawk Island is a small (4 hectares (9.9 acres)) island in the northeast of Lake Erie, in Haldimand County, Ontario, Canada. It is composed of limestone with almost no vegetation, and is close to the water level. It was formerly known as Gull Island and contains the ruins of the Gull Island Lighthouse which was built in 1848 to guide ships into the Welland Canal at Port Maitland. In 1933, the lighthouse was automated to no longer require a human keeper and lost significance in 1934 due to the realignment of the canal at Port Colborne. It was decommissioned in 1969 when the mechanism was destroyed by a fire. The lighthouse is located close to the shore of Rock Point Provincial Park.Currently, no humans live on the island, and it is mostly inhabited by birds. It is an important nesting and loafing area for gulls, terns and cormorants. The island is also used by migratory birds such as Canada geese as a stopover point. Management of the island was transferred to the Canadian Wildlife Service in 1976 and it was designated as the Mohawk Island National Wildlife Area in 1978. The lighthouse ruin was protected as a heritage lighthouse in 2015.
Geography
Mohawk Island is located in the eastern basin of Lake Erie in Ontario, 20 kilometres (12 mi) southeast of Port Maitland, near the mouth of the Grand River. The island is a limestone outcrop barely above Lake Erie. The island's bedrock is composed of Dundee Limestone, an Eifelian geological formation (397.5 to 391.8 million years old). Because of its low elevation, the proportion of the island's land area varies with lake level. For example, the area of the island was 16,325 square metres (175,720 sq ft) in 1995 and 26,325 square metres (283,360 sq ft) in 2006. The level of Lake Erie can vary by as much as 4 metres (13 ft), but generally fluctuates between 1 and 2 metres (3 ft 3 in and 6 ft 7 in). During November storms waves on the lake can reach 2 to 5 metres (6 ft 7 in to 16 ft 5 in) completely submerging the island.The island's climate is tempered by the Great Lakes. In the spring, the temperature is cooled by moist air masses from Lake Erie and remains near the freezing point. In the fall and winter, the warmer lake water warms the air and often forms fog.The island is bare to the rock, although some crevices and the highest area of the island have a thin layer of soil. It has a beach and a sand and gravel mound on its south and east coasts. On the southeast side, there is a mound of zebra and quagga mussel shells.
Natural environment
Flora
The vegetation on Mohawk Island is sparse and not very diverse. There are only a few herbaceous and grassy colonies in the crevices of the island. Species present include common cinquefoil, lady's thumb, dandelion, an unidentified dock species, purple loosestrife and goldenrod species. Lichens and mosses are also found on the rock. Sedges and rushes grow in the submerged crevices. As the island is bare to bedrock and exposed to frequent heavy rainfall it is unlikely that vegetation will recover.
Fauna
The main breeding bird species are the herring gull, ring-billed gull, double-crested cormorant and Caspian tern. The Herring Gull and Double-crested Cormorant colonies on the island are the largest recorded in the eastern basin of Lake Erie. The Caspian Tern colony is the only known colony in the lake. Common Tern and Great Black-backed Gull have also nested on the island.The first record of nesting Herring Gulls was in 1943. The population then slowly increased to 200 nests by 1966. The population then began to vary from year to year between 200 and 250 nests. The 253 nests in 2007 represented 10.1% of the nests recorded around Lake Erie. Ring-billed Gulls were also first reported on the island in 1943. The population there increased much more rapidly than the Hudson's Gull, reaching a peak of 6,300 nests in 1964. The population then varied between 1,500 and 2,400 nests. The 2201 nests recorded in 2010 represented 6.1% of the nests around Lake Erie.Double-crested cormorants arrived on the island in 1983. The number of nests has steadily increased since then, reaching a peak of 1,586 nests in 2008. This increase is representative of the increase observed around the Great Lakes. In 2009, the 800 nests represent 9% of the number of nests around Lake Erie.Caspian terns began nesting on the island in 1996. They nest exclusively on deposits of zebra and quagga mussel shells, both of which are invasive species in the Great Lakes. Although variable, the breeding population is steadily increasing. In 2007, the colony consisted of 300 nests, or 10.3% of the Great Lakes population.
In 1946, the common tern was the main species nesting on the island with between 1,400 and 1,800 pairs. Beginning in 1960, the gull population increased, resulting in a decrease in vegetation on the island as well as a decrease in pairs. No more nests have been observed since 2004. The Great Black-backed Gull, first observed on the island in 1991, nests on the island intermittently.The low level of the island makes the colonies particularly vulnerable to waves. For example, the Caspian tern colony was completely destroyed in June 2010 by a large seiche that raised the water level by more than a meter in the eastern basin of Lake Erie.Since 1970, at least twenty species of waterfowl have been observed within 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) of the island's shoreline. During migration periods, mallards, Canada geese, goldeneyes, scaups and sandpipers frequent the Mohawk Island area as they cross Lake Erie. The population of mallards and American black ducks using the area more than doubled between the 1970s and 1990s and the Canada goose population increased more than thirteen-fold. The island area is considered of secondary importance compared to other areas of Lake Erie, such as Long Point National Wildlife Area.Other than birds, only one vertebrate species has been observed on the island, the garter snake, seen in the lighthouse foundation.
History
The lighthouse and lightkeeper's house, originally known as Gull Island, were built between 1846 and 1848 to mark the shoals near the entrance to the Welland Canal at Port Maitland. Standing 18 metres (59 ft) high, the lighthouse has an octagonal iron lantern topped by a dome. Its light beam had a range of 18 kilometres (11 mi). In 1911, the Ontario Department of Lands, Forests and Mines recommended that ownership of the lighthouse island be transferred to the federal Department of Marine and Fisheries to facilitate maintenance. The lighthouse was automated in 1933. In 1934, the entrance to the Welland Canal was transferred to Port Colborne, reducing the importance of the lighthouse. In 1969, a fire destroyed the mechanisms. It was replaced the same year by a simple navigation buoy.In 1970, the Canadian Wildlife Service recommended the transfer of the island and its designation as a National Wildlife Area to protect its bird colonies. Ownership of the island was transferred in 1976 and it was designated a National Wildlife Area in 1978. In 1977, Transport Canada issued a demolition notice because it considered the old lighthouse to be a public hazard, though eventually abandoned the idea following public pressure. Only the walls of the lighthouse and the house remain in 2016 and it is forbidden to enter the interior of the structure. It was classified as a heritage lighthouse in 2015 by the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada.
Land protection
The island is located entirely within the Mohawk Island National Wildlife Area, a national wildlife area administered by the Canadian Wildlife Service of Environment and Climate Change Canada. It is one of the few protected areas in the vicinity, along with Byng Island Conservation Area, James N. Allan Provincial Park, and Rock Point Provincial Park which is a banding station for the Canadian Migration Monitoring Network. Access to Mohawk Island is prohibited except by permit between April 1 and August 30 to avoid disturbance of breeding birds. From September 1 to March 31, access is permitted during daylight hours, including by motorboat. Permitted activities include "wildlife viewing, picnicking, recreational fishing from shore ... [and] swimming". Entering the stone lighthouse structures is not permitted.
References
External links
Mohawk Island Lighthouse Dunnville Online
Gull Island Lighthouse | [
"Nature"
] |
69,309,184 | Abdulhamid Al-Rafiʻi | Abdulhamid bin Abdul Ghani Al-Rafiʻi Al-Farouki (Arabic: عبد الحميد بن عبد الغني الرافعي الفاروقي; 1851–1932) was a Lebanese poet, writer, journalist and politician. | Abdulhamid bin Abdul Ghani Al-Rafiʻi Al-Farouki (Arabic: عبد الحميد بن عبد الغني الرافعي الفاروقي; 1851–1932) was a Lebanese poet, writer, journalist and politician.
Career
He was born in Tripoli, Syria on the 5th of Sha’ban of 1275 AH (March 5,1851 CE). His father was one of the leading scholars of Tripoli who nurtured him during his upbringing, he then studied in Tripoli's schools, then he studied under sheikh Husain Al-Gisr for four years. He attended rhetoric classes at Sheikh Mahmoud Nashabh’ circle. He then left for Egypt and received a five-year education from the scholars of Al-Azhar Mosque where he excelled in Arabic sciences and literature. He studied law in Istanbul, where he worked as an editor in the Arab journal of Moderation (Arabic: Jaredat Al-E’tidal Al’arabiyah) alongside Hassan Al-Tawerani.
He returned to Tripoli, and entered in the service of the state and was appointed as an interrogator, he stayed there for 10 years and then moved to Benghazi, then transferred to Astana (Istanbul) where he was assigned to the Ministry of interior and was appointed as a lieutenant in Nazareth District, and he transferred through the Administrative jobs for 20 years, he gained the second order because of his good services and retired in 1914.
He was subjected to the indignation of the Turkish government during the first world war because his son escaped the compulsory military service, he was exiled to Medina then transferred to Kirklareli in Anatolia, he remained exiled for one year and three months.
He was called (Syria's Bulbul) (Arabic: bulbul Siria), and a ceremony was held to honor him by the Lebanese government in which he was awarded the Lebanese order of Merit, and famous Arab scholars and poets participated in the ceremony, including: Shakib Arsalan, Khalil Matran, as well as Ahmed Shouqi with a poet he sent to the ceremony.
Works
Abdulhamid Al-Rafi’i's collection of poems
(Arabic title: Diwan Abdulhamid Al-Rafi’i), Printed in Baghdad.(Arabic title: Al-Aflath Al-Zabirdagiyah fi Mad’h Al-Otra Al-Ahmadiyah).
(Arabic title: Al-Madaeh Al-Rafa’iyah).
(Arabic title: Madaeh Al-Bayt Al-Sayadi).
(Arabic title: Al-Minhal Al-Asfa fi Kawatir Al-Minfa).
Death
He died on Friday the 16thof Dul-Hijjah, 1350 AH (22 April 1932 CE). He was buried in the family cemetery in Tripoli.
== References == | [
"Language"
] |
56,226,237 | Prasophyllum atratum | Prasophyllum atratum, commonly known as the Three Humock leek orchid, is a species of orchid endemic to Tasmania. It has a single tubular, dark green leaf and up to twenty five brownish- to purplish-green flowers with a dark purplish labellum. It is only known from a single population of fewer than one thousand plants growing on Three Hummock Island. | Prasophyllum atratum, commonly known as the Three Humock leek orchid, is a species of orchid endemic to Tasmania. It has a single tubular, dark green leaf and up to twenty five brownish- to purplish-green flowers with a dark purplish labellum. It is only known from a single population of fewer than one thousand plants growing on Three Hummock Island.
Description
Prasophyllum atratum is a terrestrial, perennial, deciduous, herb with an underground tuber and a single dark green, tube-shaped leaf which is 120–400 mm (5–20 in) long and 4–6 mm (0.16–0.24 in) wide near its reddish to purple base. Between eight and twenty five brownish- to purplish-green flowers are arranged along a flowering spike which is 50–100 mm (2–4 in) long, reaching to a height of 150–300 mm (6–10 in). The flowers are about 7 mm (0.3 in) wide and as with other leek orchids, are inverted so that the labellum is above the column rather than below it. The dorsal sepal is 5–7 mm (0.2–0.3 in) long, about 3 mm (0.1 in) wide and the lateral sepals are 5.5–7.5 mm (0.2–0.3 in) long, about 2 mm (0.08 in) wide and free from each other, sometimes joined at the base. The petals are 5–7 mm (0.2–0.3 in) long, about 1 mm (0.04 in) wide and curved. The labellum is dark purplish, 4.5–5.5 mm (0.18–0.22 in) long, 3–4 mm (0.1–0.2 in) wide, tapers to a point and turns sharply upwards near its middle. There is a blackish callus in the centre of the labellum and extending nearly to its tip. Flowering occurs in October and November.
Taxonomy and naming
Prasophyllum atratum was first formally described in 2006 by David Jones from a specimen collected near the airstrip on Three Hummock Island. The description was published in Australian Orchid Research. The specific epithet (atratum) is a Latin word meaning "dressed in black", referring to the dark-coloured flowers.
Distribution and habitat
The Three Hummock leek orchid grows in sedgy heath on Three Hummock Island.
Conservation
Prasophyllum atratum is listed as "Critically Endangered" under the Commonwealth Government Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC) Act and as "Endangered" (the highest risk category) under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995. It is only known from a single population growing mainly on an airstrip and the area surrounding it. The orchid appears to benefit from disturbance.
== References == | [
"Life"
] |
17,822,852 | Environmental Information Regulations 2004 | The Environmental Information Regulations 2004 (EIR), UK Statutory Instrument SI 2004 No. 3391, provide a statutory right of access to environmental information held by UK public authorities. The regulations came into force on 1 January 2005. The regulations were made by the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs under the authority provided by the European Communities Act 1972, entering into force on 1 January 2005, along with the Freedom of Information Act 2000. The Regulations covers UK Central Government and public authorities in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. | The Environmental Information Regulations 2004 (EIR), UK Statutory Instrument SI 2004 No. 3391, provide a statutory right of access to environmental information held by UK public authorities. The regulations came into force on 1 January 2005. The regulations were made by the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs under the authority provided by the European Communities Act 1972, entering into force on 1 January 2005, along with the Freedom of Information Act 2000. The Regulations covers UK Central Government and public authorities in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Scottish public authorities are covered by the Environmental Information Regulations (Scotland) 2004 (EISR).
Origins
The Environmental Information Regulations 2004 implement the European Council Directive 2003/4/CE on public access to environmental information in the UK. The Directive in turn has as its source the Aarhus Convention.
The overriding objective
The main objective of the regulations is encapsulated in Regulation 4, which requires the relevant data holder to engage in a proactive exercise to make the information available for inspection "by electronic means" which inevitably requires the data to be made publicly available online or via an electronic device (e.g. a computer terminal) in a public place. Recognising the reality of a wide diversity of information, the Regulations allow alternative formats, but require that they be "easily accessible" to the public. There is no denying that the principal obligation placed on holders of Environmental Information is public electronic dissemination.
Definition of 'Environmental Information'
Environmental information includes information about air, water, soil, land, flora and fauna, energy, noise, waste and emissions. Environmental Information also includes information about decisions, policies and activities that affect the environment.It is accepted by the UK Government that most maps will contain environmental information.
Public authorities
The coverage of the Environmental Information Regulations is greater than that of the Freedom of Information Act 2000, although there are bodies such as the BBC which are covered by the Freedom of Information Act but not by the EIR. The Freedom of Information Act sets out a list of the bodies and classes of bodies that are public authorities, the EIR is less prescriptive.
Security service MI5 acknowledges that its activities are covered by the EIR, and has published Environmental Information on its website.The regulations were originally interpreted by the Information Commissioner to include water companies; however, the Upper Tribunal ruled that they are not subject to the Regulations.This was later superseded by the CJEU ruling, which extended public authorities to a much wider definition including private companies.
Requests under the regulations
Requests for information under the Regulations can be made in writing or verbally, unlike requests under the Freedom of Information Act 2000 which must be made in writing. The exceptions that public authorities can use to withhold information under the Regulations are narrower in their scope and application than the exemptions contained in the Act. As with the Act, public authorities have 20 working days from the receipt of a request to provide the information to the requester or to explain the exceptions that apply.
The Information Commissioner is responsible for dealing with complaints against public authorities related to EIR. The Scottish Information Commissioner is responsible for dealing with complaints against public authorities related to equivalent Scottish regulations.
Repeal
Upon entry into force of these regulations, they replaced the Environmental Information Regulations 1992 and the Environmental Information Regulations (Northern Ireland) 1993 and two other statutory instruments that amended those regulations.
References
External links
Statutory Instrument 2004 No. 3391 Environmental Information Regulations 2004
Guidance on EIR from the Information Commissioner's Office
Information on EIR in Scotland from the Scottish Information Commissioner
Guidance on the EIR from Defra | [
"Law"
] |
67,532,398 | Gaumont-Palace | The Gaumont-Palace was a cinema located on Rue Caulaincourt in the French capital Paris. Originally constructed between 1898 and 1900 as the Hippodrome de Montmartre, it staged equestrian shows during its early years. It was originally built with a Belle Époque facade. The site was acquired by Léon Gaumont in 1907 and converted into a cinema. It remained part of the Gaumont Film Company empire throughout its history. | The Gaumont-Palace was a cinema located on Rue Caulaincourt in the French capital Paris. Originally constructed between 1898 and 1900 as the Hippodrome de Montmartre, it staged equestrian shows during its early years. It was originally built with a Belle Époque facade. The site was acquired by Léon Gaumont in 1907 and converted into a cinema. It remained part of the Gaumont Film Company empire throughout its history.
In 1931, Gaumont reconstructed the cinema, with a new Art Deco exterior. The largest cinema in France, it was used to premiere major productions from both France and abroad. With a capacity of 6,000, it commonly attracted between fifty and sixty thousand spectators a week in the early 1930s. The size of the cinema meant that it rarely held films over for more than two weeks before they were switched to smaller venues in the city such as the Caméo cinema.In 1952, the cinema featured in the comedy film Holiday for Henrietta. In 1962, it was converted for the use of Cinerama widescreen format. Increasingly, its large size was considered a disadvantage, due to poor audio quality. Plans were made for a further reconstruction but these were abandoned. In 1972, Gaumont sold off the site and it was demolished in 1973 and redeveloped. The money the company received from its sale allowed it to renovate other parts of its cinema chain, including in Lille, Lyon, Marseilles, Bordeaux, Reims, Nice and Toulouse.
References
Bibliography
Abel, Richard. The Cine Goes to Town: French Cinema, 1896-1914. University of California Press, 1998.
Crisp, Colin. Genre, Myth and Convention in the French Cinema, 1929-1939. Indiana University Press, 2002. | [
"Entertainment"
] |
194,863 | Foundling Hospital | The Foundling Hospital (formally the Hospital for the Maintenance and Education of Exposed and Deserted Young Children) was a children's home in London, England, founded in 1739 by the philanthropic sea captain Thomas Coram. It was established for the "education and maintenance of exposed and deserted young children." The word "hospital" was used in a more general sense than it is in the 21st century, simply indicating the institution's "hospitality" to those less fortunate. Nevertheless, one of the top priorities of the committee at the Foundling Hospital was children's health, as they combated smallpox, fevers, consumption, dysentery and even infections from everyday activities like teething that drove up mortality rates and risked epidemics. With their energies focused on maintaining a disinfected environment, providing simple clothing and fare, the committee paid less attention to and spent less on developing children's education. | The Foundling Hospital (formally the Hospital for the Maintenance and Education of Exposed and Deserted Young Children) was a children's home in London, England, founded in 1739 by the philanthropic sea captain Thomas Coram. It was established for the "education and maintenance of exposed and deserted young children." The word "hospital" was used in a more general sense than it is in the 21st century, simply indicating the institution's "hospitality" to those less fortunate. Nevertheless, one of the top priorities of the committee at the Foundling Hospital was children's health, as they combated smallpox, fevers, consumption, dysentery and even infections from everyday activities like teething that drove up mortality rates and risked epidemics. With their energies focused on maintaining a disinfected environment, providing simple clothing and fare, the committee paid less attention to and spent less on developing children's education. As a result, financial problems would hound the institution for years to come, despite the growing "fashionableness" of charities like the hospital.
Early history
Foundation
Thomas Coram presented his first petition for the establishment of a Foundling Hospital to King George II in 1735. The petition was signed by 21 prominent women from aristocratic families, whose names not only lent respectability to his project, but made Coram's cause "one of the most fashionable charities of the day". Two further petitions, with male signatories from the nobility, professional classes, gentry, and judiciary, were presented in 1737. The founding royal charter, signed by King George II, was presented by Coram at a distinguished gathering at 'Old' Somerset House to the Duke of Bedford in 1739. It contains the aims and rules of the hospital and the long list of founding governors and guardians: this includes 17 dukes, 29 earls, 6 viscounts, 20 barons, 20 baronets, 7 Privy Councillors, the Lord Mayor and 8 aldermen of the City of London; and many more besides. The building was constructed between 1742 and 1752 by John Deval, the King's Master Mason.The first children were admitted to the Foundling Hospital on 25 March 1741, into a temporary house located in Hatton Garden. At first, no questions were asked about child or parent, but a note was made of any 'particular writing, or other distinguishing mark or token' which might later be used to identify a child if reclaimed. These were often marked coins, trinkets, pieces of fabric or ribbon, playing cards, as well as verses and notes written on scraps of paper. On 16 December 1758, the hospital governors decided to provide receipts to anyone leaving a child making the identifying tokens unnecessary. Despite this, the admission records show that tokens continued to be left. Clothes were carefully recorded as another means to identify a claimed child. One entry in the record reads, "Paper on the breast, clout on the head." The applications became too numerous, and a system of balloting with red, white and black balls was adopted. Records show that between 1 January 1750 and December 1755, 2523 children were brought for admission, but only 783 taken in. Private funding was insufficient to meet public demand. Between 1 June 1756 and 25 March 1760, and with financial support from parliament, the Hospital adopted a period of unrestricted entry. Admission rates soared to highs of 4000 per year. By 1763 admission was by petition, requiring applicants to provide their name and circumstances. Children were seldom taken after they were 12 months old, except for war orphans.On reception, children were sent to wet nurses in the countryside, where they stayed until they were about four or five years old. Due to the fact that many of these nurses lived outside of London it was necessary to involve a network of voluntary inspectors, who were the hospital's representatives. Although the hospital governors had no specific plan for who these inspectors were, in practice it was often local clergy or gentry who performed this role.At the age of 16, girls were generally apprenticed as servants for four years; at 14, boys were apprenticed into a variety of occupations, typically for seven years. There was a small benevolent fund for adults.The London hospital was preceded by the Foundling Hospital, Dublin, founded 1704, and the Foundling Hospital, Cork, founded 1737, both funded by government.
The new Hospital
In September 1742, the stone of the new Hospital was laid on land acquired from the Earl of Salisbury on Lamb's Conduit Field in Bloomsbury, an undeveloped area lying north of Great Ormond Street and west of Gray's Inn Lane. The hospital was designed by Theodore Jacobsen as a plain brick building with two wings and a chapel, built around an open courtyard. The western wing was finished in October 1745. An eastern wing was added in 1752 "in order that the girls might be kept separate from the boys". The new Hospital was described as "the most imposing single monument erected by eighteenth century benevolence".In 1756, the House of Commons resolved that all children offered should be received, that local receiving places should be appointed all over the country, and that the funds should be publicly guaranteed. A basket was accordingly hung outside the hospital; the maximum age for admission was raised from two months to 12, and a flood of children poured in from country workhouses. In less than four years 14,934 children were presented, and a vile trade grew up among vagrants, who sometimes became known as "Coram Men", of promising to carry children from the country to the hospital, an undertaking which they often did not perform or performed with great cruelty. Of these 15,000, only 4,400 survived to be apprenticed out. The total expense was about £500,000, which alarmed the House of Commons. After throwing out a bill which proposed to raise the necessary funds by fees from a general system of parochial registration, they came to the conclusion that the indiscriminate admission should be discontinued. The hospital, being thus thrown on its own resources, adopted a system of receiving children only with considerable sums (e.g., £100), which sometimes led to the children being reclaimed by the parent. This practice was finally stopped in 1801; and it henceforth became a fundamental rule that no money was to be received. The committee of inquiry had to be satisfied of the previous good character and present necessity of the mother, and that the father of the child had deserted both mother and child, and that the reception of the child would probably replace the mother in the course of virtue and in the way of an honest livelihood. At that time, illegitimacy carried deep stigma, especially for the mother but also for the child. All the children at the Foundling Hospital were those of unmarried women, and they were all first children of their mothers. The principle was in fact that laid down by Henry Fielding in The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling: "Too true I am afraid it is that many women have become abandoned and have sunk to the last degree of vice [i.e. prostitution] by being unable to retrieve the first slip."There were some unfortunate incidents, such as the case of Elizabeth Brownrigg (1720–1767), a severely abusive Fetter Lane midwife who mercilessly whipped and otherwise maltreated her adolescent female apprentice domestic servants, leading to the death of one, Mary Clifford, from her injuries, neglect and infected wounds. After the Foundling Hospital authorities investigated, Brownrigg was convicted of murder and sentenced to hang at Tyburn. Thereafter, the Foundling Hospital instituted more thorough investigation of its prospective apprentice masters and mistresses.
Music and art
The Foundling Hospital grew to become a very fashionable charity, and it was supported by many noted figures of the day in high society and the arts. Its benefactors included a number of renowned artists, thanks to one of its most influential governors, the portrait painter and cartoonist William Hogarth.
Art
Hogarth, who was childless, had a long association with the hospital and was a founding governor. He designed the children's uniforms and the coat of arms, and he and his wife Jane fostered foundling children. Hogarth also decided to set up a permanent art exhibition in the new buildings, encouraging other artists to produce work for the hospital. By creating a public attraction, Hogarth turned the Hospital into one of London's most fashionable charities as visitors flocked to view works of art and make donations. At this time, art galleries were unknown in Britain, and Hogarth's fundraising initiative is considered to have established Britain's first ever public art gallery.Several contemporary English artists adorned the walls of the hospital with their works, including Sir Joshua Reynolds, Thomas Gainsborough, Richard Wilson and Francis Hayman. Hogarth himself painted a portrait of Thomas Coram for the hospital, and he also donated his Moses Brought Before Pharaoh's Daughter. His painting March of the Guards to Finchley was also obtained by the hospital after Hogarth donated lottery tickets for a sale of his works, and the hospital won it. Another noteworthy piece is Roubiliac's bust of Handel. The hospital also owned several paintings illustrating life in the institution by Emma Brownlow, daughter of the hospital's administrator. In the chapel, the altarpiece was originally Adoration of the Magi by Casali, but this was deemed to look too Catholic by the hospital's Anglican governors, and it was replaced by Benjamin West's picture of Christ presenting a little child. William Hallett, cabinet maker to nobility, produced all the wood panelling with ornate carving, for the court room.Exhibitions of pictures at the Foundling Hospital, which were organised by the Dilettante Society, led to the formation of the Royal Academy in 1768. The Foundling Hospital art collection can today be seen at the Foundling Museum.
Music
In May 1749, the composer George Frederic Handel held a benefit concert in the Hospital chapel to raise funds for the charity, performing his specially composed choral piece, the Foundling Hospital Anthem. The work included the "Hallelujah" chorus from recently composed oratorio, Messiah, which had premiered in Dublin in 1742. On 1 May 1750 Handel directed a performance of Messiah to mark the presentation of the organ to the chapel. That first performance was a great success and Handel was elected a Governor of the hospital on the following day. Handel subsequently put on an annual performance of Messiah there, which helped to popularise the piece among British audiences. He bequeathed to the hospital a fair copy (full score) of the work.The musical service, which was originally sung by the blind children only, was made fashionable by the generosity of Handel. In 1774, Dr Charles Burney and a Signor Giardini made an unsuccessful attempt to form in connection with the hospital a public music school, in imitation of the Pio Ospedale della Pietà in Venice, Italy. In 1847, however, a successful juvenile band was started. The educational effects of music were found excellent, and the hospital supplied many musicians to the best army and navy bands.
Relocation
In the 1920s, the Hospital decided to move to a healthier location in the countryside. A proposal to turn the buildings over for university use fell through, and they were eventually sold to a property developer called James White in 1926. He hoped to transfer Covent Garden Market to the site, but the local residents successfully opposed that plan. In the end, the original Hospital building was demolished. The children were moved to Redhill, Surrey, where an old convent was used to lodge them, and then in 1935 to the new purpose-built Foundling Hospital in Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire. When, in the 1950s, British law moved away from institutionalisation of children toward more family-orientated solutions, such as adoption and foster care, the Foundling Hospital ceased most of its operations. The Berkhamsted buildings were sold to Hertfordshire County Council for use as a school (Ashlyns School) and the Foundling Hospital changed its name to the Thomas Coram Foundation for Children and currently uses the working name Coram.
Today
The Foundling Hospital still has a legacy on the original site. Seven acres (28,000 m2) of it were purchased for use as a playground for children with financial support from the newspaper proprietor Lord Rothermere. This area is now called Coram's Fields and owned by an independent charity, Coram's Fields and the Harmsworth Memorial Playground. The Foundling Hospital itself bought back 2.5 acres (10,000 m2) of land in 1937 and built a new headquarters and a children's centre on the site. Although smaller, the building is in a similar style to the original Foundling Hospital and important aspects of the interior architecture were recreated there. It now houses the Foundling Museum, an independent charity, where the art collection can be seen. The original charity still exists as Coram, registered under the name Thomas Coram Foundation for Children.
In fiction
In the 1840s Charles Dickens lived in Doughty Street, near the Foundling Hospital, and rented a pew in the chapel. The foundlings inspired characters in his novels including the apprentice Tattycoram in Little Dorrit, and Walter Wilding the foundling in No Thoroughfare. In "Received a Blank Child", published in Household Words in March 1853, Dickens writes about two foundlings, numbers 20,563 and 20,564, the title referring to the words "received a [blank] child" on the form filled out when a foundling was accepted at the hospital.The Foundling Hospital is the setting for Jamila Gavin's 2000 novel Coram Boy. The story recounts elements of the problems mentioned above, when "Coram Men" were preying on people desperate for their children.It appears in three books by Jacqueline Wilson: Hetty Feather, Sapphire Battersea and Emerald Star. In the first story, Hetty Feather, Hetty has just arrived in the hospital, after her time with her foster family. This book tells us about her new life in the Foundling Hospital. In Sapphire Battersea, Hetty has just left the hospital and speaks ill of it. The Foundling Hospital is mentioned in Emerald Star, although it is mainly about Hetty growing up.Published in 2020, Stacey Hall's The Foundling (or The Lost Orphan in the U.S.) sees the main character, Bess Bright, leave her illegitimate daughter Clara at London's Foundling Hospital. The book was a Sunday Times Best Seller.
See also
Blackguard Children
Child abandonment
List of demolished buildings and structures in London
List of organisations with a British royal charter
Thomas Coram Foundation for Children
Taylor White, a founding governor of the Foundling Hospital and its first Treasurer
References
Bibliography
Enlightened Self-interest: The Foundling Hospital and Hogarth (exhibition catalogue), Thomas Coram Foundation for Children, London 1997.
The Foundling Museum Guide Book. The Foundling Museum, London, 2004.
Gavin, Jamila. Coram Boy. London: Egmont/Mammoth, 2000: ISBN 1-4052-1282-9 (U.S. Edition: New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 2001: ISBN 0-374-31544-2)
Jocelyn, Marthe. A Home for Foundlings. Toronto: Tundra Books: 2005: ISBN 0-88776-709-5
McClure, Ruth. Coram's Children: The London Foundling Hospital in the Eighteenth Century. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981: ISBN 0-300-02465-7
Nichols, R. H., and F. A. Wray. The History of the Foundling Hospital (London: Oxford University Press, 1935).
Oliver, Christine, and Peter Aggleton. Coram's Children: Growing Up in the Care of the Foundling Hospital: 1900-1955. London: Coram Family, 2000: ISBN 0-9536613-1-8
Sheetz-Nguyen, Jessica A. Unwed Mothers: Victorian Women and the London Foundling Hospital. London: Continuum, 2012.
Zunshine, Lisa. Bastards and Foundlings: Illegitimacy in Eighteenth Century England, Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2005: ISBN 0-8142-0995-5
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Foundling Hospitals". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 746–747.
External links
The Foundling Museum
Coram Story: History of the Foundling Hospital and Thomas Coram
Old Coram Association
The Foundling Museum section at the Survey of London online
BBC British History: The Foundling Hospital | [
"Health"
] |
419,161 | River Lugg | The River Lugg (Welsh: Afon Llugwy) rises near Llangynllo in Radnorshire, Wales. It flows through the border town of Presteigne and then through Herefordshire, England, where it meets its main tributary, the River Arrow, to the south of Leominster. It flows into the River Wye downstream of Hereford at Mordiford, around 63 miles (101 km) from its source. Its name comes from a Welsh root, and means "bright stream".As it passes through the countryside, it is crossed by a number of bridges, many of which are listed structures. Lugg Bridge at Lugwardine and the bridge at Mordiford with its associated causeway both date from the 14th century. | The River Lugg (Welsh: Afon Llugwy) rises near Llangynllo in Radnorshire, Wales. It flows through the border town of Presteigne and then through Herefordshire, England, where it meets its main tributary, the River Arrow, to the south of Leominster. It flows into the River Wye downstream of Hereford at Mordiford, around 63 miles (101 km) from its source. Its name comes from a Welsh root, and means "bright stream".As it passes through the countryside, it is crossed by a number of bridges, many of which are listed structures. Lugg Bridge at Lugwardine and the bridge at Mordiford with its associated causeway both date from the 14th century. The river at Leominster was altered significantly in the 1960s, when it was diverted to the south and then along the course of the Leominster and Kington Railway around the northern edge of the town, as part of a flood defence scheme. In the past, it was important for milling, supplying power to nearly one third of the mills in Herefordshire at the time of the Domesday Book. There are a few mills left, and some obvious mill sites, but many of the mills below Leominster were bought up and their weirs demolished as part of a scheme to make the river navigable in the 1690s. This was not a success, as the water levels dropped creating shoals, and in the 1720s, some of the weirs were reinstated, with pound locks to enable boats to bypass them. Navigation up to Leominster was for a time possible, although it was never hugely successful, and ceased in the 1860s, once railways had been built in the area.
The river was a free navigation as a result of powers obtained in an Act of Parliament of 1695, but in 2002, the Environment Agency became the navigation authority following the passing of the Wye Navigation Order. This reaffirmed the right of navigation on the river, but prohibited the building of locks and weirs, and so most boating is by canoes and kayaks. The river is also used for fishing, as it has good populations of wild brown trout and grayling. Water quality of the river system is moderate, although some of its tributaries have poor water quality, and some bad. In common with many rivers, the chemical quality changed from good to fail in 2019, following the introduction of testing for chemicals not previously included in the quality assessment. The whole of the river is a Site of Special Scientific Interest, and since 2003, a policy of building fish passes where there are weirs has led to significant improvements to the presence of migratory fish in the river.
Course
The River Lugg rises at two locations on Pool Hill, to the north-west of Llangunllo, close to the 1,600-foot (490 m) contour, and is joined by several other streams as it descends rapidly. It is crossed by the Heart of Wales Line, between Llanbister Road and Llangynllo stations, before passing under the first of four bridges that carry the B4356 road over it. Already it has dropped below the 820-foot (250 m) contour. It turns to the east to reach Greenstreet Bridge on the B4356, and then to the south-east to pass the village of Llangunllo. Just beyond it is Llangunllo Bridge, again on the B4356. Mynachdy moated enclosure, a well-preserved medieval moated homestead is situated on the north bank, after which the river turns to the south to pass the grade I listed Monaughty House, dating from the 16th and 17th centuries. It is one of the oldest stone buildings in Radnorshire, and renovation in the 1990s saw many of its later 19th century modifications removed.Next it is crossed by the A488 Penybont to Shrewsbury road, after which a tributary joins on the south bank. Castell Foel-Allt, the remains of a medieval motte and bailey castle is located on the north bank, and is a scheduled monument. It passes under Whitton Bridge on the B4357 road, and is joined by Cascob Brook on its south bank. Almost opposite is a short section of Offa's Dyke, a long linear earthworks which roughly defined much of the border between England and Wales. After a fourth crossing by the B4356, it arrives on the outskirts of Presteigne. It is crossed by the narrow, single-arched Old Boultibrooke Bridge, probably dating from the 18th century, which has been bypassed by a new bridge constructed in 1932, just to its east. After it is joined by Norton Brook and the English/Welsh border, the river continues along the northern edge of Presteigne, passing the Old Mill, formerly known as New Mill House. Close by is the weir which once powered the mill. Lugg Bridge, the first of several with this name, carries Ford Street over the river, and has three segmental arches. The basic structure dates from the 17th century, but it has been heavily modified.Continuing eastwards, the river comes to Rosser's Bridge, where the border turns to the south, and the river is wholly in Herefordshire. Hindwell Brook joins on the south bank, and the course turns to the north-east. Another tributary, Lime Brook, flows southwards to join the north bank. Just before Lyepole Bridge, the river passes a castle mound, which was once a motte castle, founded by Hugh Mortimer in the mid-12th century. As the river turns to the south-east, a large weir directs water into a mill leat, which runs on the north side of the main channel to Aymestrey Mill, a grist mill built in the 1860s. Most of the machinery is still in situ, and the wheel now powers a printing press. The A4110 road bridge crosses the river and the mill tailrace, and as the river turns to the south, a similar weir creates a leat to the west of the river. Mortimer's Cross Water Mill is located further to the south, fed by another weir. It is 89 feet (27 m) long and a 220-yard (200 m) leat feeds the mill, which has three sets of stones. It was a paper mill until the 1830s, and then became a grain mill. New machinery was installed in 1870 and it produced animal feed until the 1940s. It is unusual in that it was designed to be operated by one man. It has been restored and on days when it is open to the public, it can be seen in operation.To the south of the mill is Lugg Bridge, consisting of three arches, two spanning the river and a third spanning the mill tailrace. The north face dates from 1771, when the bridge was built, while the south face dates from 1938, when it was widened. At Lugg Green, Kingsland is another Lugg Bridge, and after a series of weirs, the river arrives on the northern edge of Leominster. A leat to Crowards Mill, now disconnected from the main river, was formerly the main channel of the Lugg, with much of the flow passing over a weir into the Kenwater. The Lugg served Osborne Mill, Marsh Mill and a third corn mill, before rejoining the Kenwater within the town. Pinsley Brook ran through the town just to the south of Kenwater, to power Pinsley Mill, another corn mill just to the north of Leominster railway station and joined the Lugg below Eaton Bridge. There were once 19 bridges in Leominster, most of them crossing the Lugg, Kenwater or Pinsley Brook. The river system within the town was radically reworked in the 1960s, as part of a flood alleviation scheme. The Lugg continued southwards along the course of the Kenwater, to a new weir close to the former course of the Leominster and Kington Railway. The Kenwater passed over the weir, while a new channel was cut for the Lugg, following the course of the railway. It then passed under the railway to meet the Ridgemoor Brook, and under Ridgemoor Bridge, a single span that dates from 1815 but was widened in 1940, which carries the A44 road. Below the bridge, it is joined by Cheaton Brook, and then rejoins its original course. The Pinsley Brook was diverted into the Kenwater to the west of the town in 1968 and its original course filled in. Parts of it had been culverted some years before that.The Lugg then passes under Mosaic Bridge, constructed for the A49 bypass in 1988. It takes its name from a mosaic on the southern pier which was designed by young people at the time of its construction, and has since been restored. Eaton Bridge, carrying the A44, has three arches and was built in the 16th century, with modifications made in the 18th century. Near Eaton Hall is another three-arched bridge, dating from the 19th century, where the eastern arch crosses a leat. The river is then joined by the River Arrow on its western bank, and was crossed by the Worcester, Bromyard and Leominster Railway until it was closed in 1964. As the river passes under Ford Bridge at Ford, the B4361 road, the railway and the A49 road are squeezed into a narrow gap between it and War Hill to the west. The next bridge downstream is Hampton Court Bridge at Hope under Dinmore, a single span which carries the A417. It may have been designed by Sir Jeffry Wyattville for the Arkwright family who lived at Hampton Court, a grade I listed house built between 1427 and 1436 and modified in the 18th century. The river forms the western and southern boundaries of the associated parkland and the building was remodelled and restored by Wyattville for Richard Arkwright at that time. The Humber Brook forms the eastern boundary of the estate, and joins the Lugg on its north bank.
The river continues to the east and then turns to the south. At Bodenham is the single-span Bodenham Bridge, dating from 1816, after which the river turns to the west. It is crossed by two bridges carrying the Welsh Marches Line just to the south of the twin tunnels through Dinmore Hill. Dinmore railway station was located on the north bank, until it closed in 1958. The river crosses back under the railway a little further to the south. At Marden a hump-backed bridge with four spans crosses the river. It is grade II* listed and the Ordnance Survey call it Laystone Bridge, while English Heritage call it Leystone Bridge. Wellington Brook joins on the west bank of the river, opposite the grade I listed church of St Mary, Marden, which dates from the 13th and 14th centuries. As it approaches Moreton Bridge, the channel splits into two, enclosing an island, and the three-span bridge crosses both channels. It dates from the 16th or 17th century, but was altered in the mid-19th century. The bridge is to the east of the village of Moreton on Lugg. After Wergins Bridge, Morton Brook joins on the west bank, and the river is crossed by a railway bridge carrying the Cotswold Line.Lugg Bridge at Lugwardine dates from the 14th century, and was repaired in 1409 and 1464. It has three arches, and was widened in the 1960s, when the south side was largely rebuilt. The Little Lugg joins from the east near the bridge, which was the location of corn mills in 1903, when a structure spanned the river to the south of the bridge. A little further downstream is Lugwardine Bridge, consisting of three spans dating from the early 17th century. It was widened in 1824 and altered in the 20th century. After the River Frome joins on the east bank, the final bridge connects Mordiford on the east bank to Hampton Bishop. The bridge dates from the 14th century, and was widened in the 16th century. It consists of two main arches, through which the Lugg flows, with two flood arches and a causeway containing five more arches to the west of the main arches. The causeway was widened on the upstream side in the 20th century. To the west of the causeway are the remains of a pound lock. The walls of the chamber survive, although they are in poor condition. The Pentaloe Brook joins the river on its east bank just below the bridge, and then the Lugg joins the River Wye.
History
At the time of the Domesday Book, which recorded details of a survey of the land in 1086, the Lugg was an important river for milling. Some 80 mills were recorded in the county of Herefordshire, and of those, around one third were located in the valley of the Lugg, some on tributaries and others on the main river. In addition, those on the Lugg were valued considerably higher than those elsewhere, with an average value of 15 shillings and 4 pence, compared to 6 shillings and 7 pence for mills on other rivers. At that time, the hay meadows on the banks of the Lugg were the largest in the county, and the valley produced large crops of hay and corn. At least four of the sites were recorded as having fulling mills subsequently, but none were recorded when a survey of the river was made in 1697.Between the 17th and 19th centuries, four Acts of Parliament were passed which specifically named the River Lugg in their titles, but the middle two had the most effect on the river. The first (14 Cha. 2. c. 15) was passed on 19 May 1662, entitled An Act for the making navigable the Rivers Wye and Lugg, and the Rivers and Brooks running into the same, in the counties of Hereford, Gloucester and Monmouth. Sir William Sandys was appointed to carry out the work, which involved building weirs and flash locks to maintain water levels, but his previous experience on the Warwickshire Avon did not fit the Wye, which was a much steeper and faster-flowing river, and the work was abandoned by about 1668, before any work had been started on the Lugg.The second Act of Parliament was obtained on 17 March 1695, entitled An Act for making navigable the Rivers of Wye and Lugg, in the county of Hereford. One important effect of this act was that it re-established both rivers as free navigations, for it contained the clause:
Therefore be it enacted that the rivers Wye and Lugg may be henceforth accounted, deemed and taken to be free and common rivers for all to make use of for carrying and conveying of all passenger goods, wares and commodities by boats, barges, lighters and other vessels whatsoever.
On many of Britain's lowland rivers, there was an uneasy relationship between use of the water for milling, which required weirs to be built, and navigation, which required freedom of movement along the waterway. The 1695 Act took a radical approach, allowing the weirs to be bought and demolished, with funding for the purchases to be raised by a rate on the county of Herefordshire. On the Wye, some of the weirs were associated with fishing, but on the Lugg, all of them were connected with milling. Details of them have survived, because a comprehensive survey was carried out by an anonymous author, thought to be Daniel Dennell, who had previously worked on the Exeter Canal, and Dennell's document was acquired by the British Museum in 1856. The survey listed ten mills between Lugg Bridge, Leominster and the junction with the Wye, but this was probably the number of wheels or pairs of millstones, rather than the number of buildings where milling occurred. The annual value of each mill was to be established, and the price to buy the mill and weir was then fixed at 16 times that value.It is not clear exactly what work was done, since the relevant sheets from the accounts are missing, but a lot of money was spent. Locks may have been put into some of the weirs; this was certainly true at Tidnor, and may have also been the case at the confluence with the Wye, at Mordiford, Hampton Court, and some other sites. Several bridges were altered, by breaking one of the arches and constructing a timber drawbridge or later a raised arch. Overall, the policy of removing the weirs was not a success, as it meant that water levels dropped significantly, and navigation was hindered by shoals, which prevented boats from passing. A third Act of Parliament was obtained on 15 May 1727, which openly stated that destroying the weirs had been a mistake, and allowed the trustees to reinstate them, with associated locks. Neither the minutes nor the accounts for this phase of the work have survived.Thomas Chinn, a millwright from Tewkesbury, was employed to build locks around 1748, after money was raised by subscriptions in Leominster. He was later indicted for building locks against four bridges, but this charge may have been malicious. When the case was heard, he was only fined sixpence for each bridge and was not required to remove the locks. There are known to have been locks at twelve sites between Leominster and the Wye, at Volca Meadow, Ford Bridge, Hampton Court, Bodenham Mill, Kings Mill, Moreton Bridge, Wergins Bridge, Sherwick Mill, Lugg Bridge, Tidnor, Mordiford and the confluence. Some of these may have been half locks or flash locks, but some were definitely pound locks with two sets of gates, and of the three locks still in existence in 1906, both Tidnor and Mordiford were pound locks, but no clear evidence for a second set of gates at Lugg Bridge has been found. Barges on the river were hauled by teams of men. A fourth Act of Parliament was obtained in 1809, to allow horse towing paths to be constructed on the Wye and the Lugg, but there is no evidence that such a path was ever started on the Lugg.The arrival of railways in the area in the 1850s led to the winding up of the Wye and Lugg Towing Path Company, and use of both the Lugg and the Wye for navigation ceased soon afterwards. Some traffic may have used the lower 5 miles (8 km) of the Lugg up to Lugg Bridge until about 1860.As a result of the 1695 Act, the Lugg was a free navigation, but in 1995 the National Rivers Authority sought to apply bylaws to both the Wye and the Lugg. Their case was taken to the High Court, and was continued by the Environment Agency, which superseded the National Rivers Authority later that year. This action eventually led to the granting of the Wye Navigation Order in 2002, which reaffirmed the right of navigation on both rivers, appointed the Environment Agency as the navigation authority for the rivers, but prohibited the construction of weirs and locks. Most use of the river is now by canoes and kayaks, although it is still sometimes used by small boats but can be very dangerous when in flood. In February 2020, it was one of several rivers with severe flood warnings following the impact of Storm Dennis.
Recreation
The river is popular with canoeists who have undisputed rights of navigation. However travelling from Leominster to Hereford is challenged by numerous fallen trees obstructing the river. It is a good fishing river, with populations of wild brown trout and grayling.
Environment
The Environment Agency measure the water quality of the river systems in England. Each is given an overall ecological status, which may be one of five levels: high, good, moderate, poor and bad. There are several components that are used to determine this, including biological status, which looks at the quantity and varieties of invertebrates, angiosperms and fish. Chemical status, which compares the concentrations of various chemicals against known safe concentrations, is rated good or fail. Equivalent data for the Welsh section is not readily available.
The water quality of the River Lugg system was as follows in 2019.
Like many rivers in the UK, the chemical status changed from good to fail in 2019, due to the presence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), perfluorooctane sulphonate (PFOS) and mercury compounds, none of which had previously been included in the assessment.
From its source to its mouth, the entire length of the river has been a designated Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) since 2 February 1995. It received the designation because it was one of the best examples of a clay river, with its chemistry changing from nutrient-poor in the upper reaches to naturally nutrient-rich in the lower reaches. As well as supporting several rare plant communities and otters, it also provides habitat for Atlantic stream crayfish, Atlantic Salmon, Bullhead and Twaite Shad. Below Eaton, the river is a designated Special Area of Conservation (SAC). During the 1980s and 1990s, there was a sharp drop in the number of migrating salmon on the river, as access was impeded by weirs. From 2003, a number of fish passes were constructed at these locations, and a survey in 2013 found that numbers of salmon in the river and in the tributary River Arrow had increased dramatically. The survey also found that brown trout had benefitted from the improvements, as their numbers had also increased. Some of the work was funded by the Lugg and Arrow Fisheries Association.The Eaton Angling Club, which was established in 1877, manages the fishing rights on 1.2 miles (2 km) of the river near Eaton Hall. Every year since 1955, they had stocked the river with 500 to 600 rainbow trout, but in 2009, some of their stocking was with triploid brown trout, infertile females which cannot inter-breed with the wild trout. Because of the conservation status of the river, and guided by the Environment Agency's National Trout and Grayling Fisheries Strategy, they have reduced the levels of stocking, which still include some triploid brown trout. Research on similar rivers has shown that reducing the levels of restocking can have a disproportionate benefit for the native populations of both brown trout and grayling, and the club are monitoring catch data to see if this is the case on the Lugg. A survey by the Trout Trust identified the bridge at Eaton as a problem for migrating fish, as there is a weir which forms part of the bridge footings. While salmon and larger trout can easily negotiate the flume that this creates, it acts as a barrier to smaller fish, grayling and eels, and they recommended that some remedial action should be taken.Construction of a Larinier fish pass at Ballsgate Weir, near Aymestrey, was expected to be completed in autumn 2019, but work was delayed by high water levels in the river throughout the winter from September onwards. The need for the fish pass was shown by fish surveys carried out above and below the weir, which showed that while plenty of salmon spawned below the weir, very few succeeded in getting further upstream. The fish pass was completed by the Wye and Usk Foundation in September 2020, and was funded by the European Regional Development Fund. The weir was the last major obstacle on the river for migrating salmon, and opens up miles of spawning grounds further upstream, in addition to making it easier for other species to move up and down the river.
2020 and 2021 illegal damage
In November/December 2020, damage was done to a 1.5-mile (2.4 km) stretch of the riverbank near Kingsland in Herefordshire. The damaged area, which was part of the SSSI, was home to protected wildlife including crayfish, otters, salmon, and lampreys. It was discovered that trees had been felled, river-bed gravel removed, the meanders straightened, and all vegetation in the area had been dug up by bulldozer, without permission, leaving the riverbank devastated.A lawyer for Salmon and Trout Conservation, who is also a local resident, said:
"This is one of the most egregious acts of ecological vandalism that I have seen in 25 years of working on rivers in the UK"
The Environment Agency, Natural England and the Forestry Commission interrupted the work, preventing further damage. Herefordshire Wildlife Trust said the changes would have "huge repercussions for wildlife downstream" and urged that the landowner responsible be prosecuted. John Price, the landowner, has stated that he was acting legally, and had been asked to carry out the work to prevent flooding of nearby homes. Further damage was done in December 2021.In March 2022, the Environment Agency and Natural England launched legal proceedings against the landowner, following an investigation. John Price, the landowner, was ordered to appear at Kidderminster Magistrates' Court in May 2022. He admitted seven charges relating to the dumping of materials, modifying the watercourse and natural features, using vehicles to disturb species of interest, and destroying flora and fauna, river habitats and fish populations.In April 2023, Price was jailed for twelve months and ordered to pay a total of over £1.2million in court costs and for the restoration of the affected stretch of river. His sentence was reduced to 10 months on appeal, and he served 3 months before being released in July 2023.
“The decimation of this section of the River Lugg has been devastating to the local environment and to local people, destroying the habitats of iconic wildlife such as otters, kingfisher and salmon. It was heartbreaking to see this beautiful riverside illegally damaged.”
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
River Lugg SSSIs
Photos of the River Lugg on geograph.org.uk | [
"Nature"
] |
31,048,518 | Ninkasi Brewing Company | Ninkasi Brewing Company is a microbrewery based in Eugene, Oregon. | Ninkasi Brewing Company is a microbrewery based in Eugene, Oregon.
History
Named after the Sumerian goddess of beer, Ninkasi was founded in 2006 by Jamie Floyd and Nikos Ridge. The first beer they produced was Total Domination IPA. Production reached 56,000 barrels in 2011 and by 2013 production had increased to 86,000.The company's headquarters are in Eugene's Whiteaker neighborhood, which is also home to several other local breweries.
Products
Beer varieties include Tricerahops Double IPA, Dawn of the Red IRA, Believer Double Red, and Oatis Oatmeal Stout. Their beers are available in Alaska, Alberta, British Columbia, Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Virginia. In 2010, Ninkasi produced over 32,000 barrels of beer.
Dawn of the Red: Red IPA
Far North x Northwest: Wheat Beer Made in Collaboration with 49th State Brewing Co
Hazy Domination: Hazy IPA
Oatis: Oatmeal Stout
Prismatic: Juicy IPA
Total Domination IPA: Northwest IPA
Tricerahops Double IPA: Double IPA
See also
Brewing in Oregon
List of microbreweries
References
Further reading
Verive, John (August 16, 2013). "Oregon craft brew legend Ninkasi expands, Total Domination is coming". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
Foyston, John (October 13, 2012). "Ninkasi expansion fourth since 2006, will triple capacity". The Oregonian.
New beers from Alaskan, Widmer & Ninkasi on shelves now... |. The Oregonian.
Ninkasi moves up to No. 3 in Oregon beer sales - Portland Business Journal
Beer and Community: Ninkasi Isn't Just a Brewery - Eugene Daily News | Eugene Daily News
External links
Official website
Ninkasi Brewing Company Collection, 2012-2014
Ninkasi Brewing of Eugene, Oregon. Photos from The Oregonian. | [
"Food_and_drink"
] |
22,194,665 | Edgar Unsworth | Sir Edgar Ignatius Godfrey Unsworth, KBE, CMG, QC (18 April 1906 – 15 March 2006) was a British lawyer and judge. He served as both Attorney-General for Northern Rhodesia and Chief Justice of Gibraltar during his long legal career. | Sir Edgar Ignatius Godfrey Unsworth, KBE, CMG, QC (18 April 1906 – 15 March 2006) was a British lawyer and judge. He served as both Attorney-General for Northern Rhodesia and Chief Justice of Gibraltar during his long legal career.
Biography
He attended Stonyhurst College and Manchester University (LLB Hons) and studied law at Gray's Inn, where he was called to the bar in 1930. He was in private practice from 1930 to 1937 before accepting the post as a Crown Counsel in Northern Nigeria. He afterwards served as Attorney-General of Northern Rhodesia (1951–56) and of the Federation of Nigeria (1956–60) before serving two years as Federal Justice of the Federal Supreme Court.He then took the post of Chief Justice of Nyasaland (1962–64) and was appointed Chief Justice of Gibraltar the following year. He was knighted in 1963.
At the time of his death, he was the second to last person originally appointed as “King's Counsel”, before the accession of Elizabeth II.
He died in 2006, a month before his centenary. He never married.
References
External links
Obituary notice Archived 14 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
Sources
Burke's Peerage & Gentry LLC. (Burke's Peerage & Baronetage 107th Edition, Burke's Landed Gentry 19th Edition)
Burke's Peerage Partnership. (Burke's Landed Gentry 18th Edition) | [
"Government"
] |
3,216,704 | Darcy Ribeiro | Darcy Ribeiro (October 26, 1922 – February 17, 1997) was a Brazilian anthropologist, historian, sociologist, author and politician. His ideas have influenced several scholars of Brazilian and Latin American studies. As Minister of Education of Brazil he carried out profound reforms which led him to be invited to participate in university reforms in Chile, Peru, Venezuela, Mexico and Uruguay after leaving Brazil due to the 1964 coup d'état. | Darcy Ribeiro (October 26, 1922 – February 17, 1997) was a Brazilian anthropologist, historian, sociologist, author and politician. His ideas have influenced several scholars of Brazilian and Latin American studies. As Minister of Education of Brazil he carried out profound reforms which led him to be invited to participate in university reforms in Chile, Peru, Venezuela, Mexico and Uruguay after leaving Brazil due to the 1964 coup d'état.
Biography
Darcy Ribeiro was born in Montes Claros, in the state of Minas Gerais, the son of Reginaldo Ribeiro dos Santos and of Josefina Augusta da Silveira. He completed his primary and secondary education in his native town, at the Grupo Escolar Gonçalves Chaves and at the Ginásio Episcopal de Montes Claros. He is best known for development work in the areas of education, sociology and anthropology and for being, along with his friend and colleague Anísio Teixeira, one of the founders of the University of Brasília in the early 1960s. He also served as the first rector of that university, and the campus is named after him. He was the founder of the State University of Norte Fluminense (Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense) as well. He wrote numerous books, many of them about the indigenous populations of Brazil.
During the first mandate of governor Leonel Brizola in Rio de Janeiro (1983–1987), Darcy Ribeiro created, planned and directed the implementation of the "Integrated Centers for Public Instruction" (Centros Integrados de Ensino Público), a visionary and revolutionary pedagogical project of assistance for children, including recreational and cultural activities beyond formal instruction – making concrete the projects envisioned decades earlier by Anísio Teixeira. Long before politicians incorporated the importance of education for the development of Brazil into their discourse, Darcy Ribeiro and Leonel Brizola had already developed these ideals.
In the elections of 1986, Ribeiro was the Democratic Labor Party (PDT) candidate for the governorship of Rio de Janeiro, running against Fernando Gabeira (at that time affiliated with the Workers’ Party), Agnaldo Timóteo of the Social Democratic Party (PDS) and Moreira Franco of the Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB). Ribeiro was defeated, being unable to overcome the high approval rating of Moreira who was elected due to the popularity of the then-recent currency reform, the Cruzado Plan (Plano Cruzado). Another defeat was in 1994, when he was Brizola's running-mate in the presidential election; Darcy Ribeiro was also chief of staff (Ministro-chefe da Casa Civil) in the cabinet of President João Goulart, vice-governor of Rio de Janeiro from 1983 to 1987 and exercised the mandate of senator from Rio de Janeiro from 1991 until his death. Darcy Ribeiro was elected to the Brazilian Academy of Letters (Academia Brasileira de Letras) on October 8, 1992. His election was to Chair Number 11, which has as its Patron Fagundes Varela. He was formally received into the Academy on April 15, 1993, by author Cândido Mendes. He died in Brasília, aged 74.
Thought
Darcy Ribeiro's ideas belonged to the evolutionist school of sociology and anthropology, and his main influences were Neoevolutionists Leslie White and Julian Steward, and the Marxist archeologist V. Gordon Childe. He believed that people went through a "civilizatory process" beginning as hunter-gatherers. This "civilizatory process" was according to him marked by technological revolutions, and among these he stress the eight more important as the following:
the agricultural revolution
the urban revolution
the irrigation revolution
the metallurgic revolution
the livestock revolution
the mercantile revolution
the industrial revolution
the thermonuclear revolutionRibeiro proposed also a classification scheme for Latin American countries where he identified "New Peoples" (Chile, Colombia, Paraguay, Venezuela etc.), that merged from the mix of several cultures; "Testimony Peoples" (Peru, Mexico, Ecuador, Guatemala and Bolivia), remnants of ancient civilizations; and Argentina and Uruguay, former "New Peoples" that became "Transplantated Peoples", essentially European, after massive immigration.
Selected works
References
External links
Profile at the official site of the Brazilian Academy of Letters
Fundação Darcy Ribeiro | [
"Humanities"
] |
75,062 | Battle of Philippi | The Battle of Philippi was the final battle in the Liberators' civil war between the forces of Mark Antony and Octavian (of the Second Triumvirate) and the leaders of Julius Caesar's assassination, Brutus and Cassius, in 42 BC, at Philippi in Macedonia. The Second Triumvirate declared the civil war ostensibly to avenge Julius Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, but the underlying cause was a long-brewing conflict between the so-called Optimates and the so-called Populares. The battle, involving up to 200,000 men in one of the largest of the Roman civil wars, consisted of two engagements in the plain west of the ancient city of Philippi. The first occurred in the first week of October; Brutus faced Octavian, and Antony's forces fought those of Cassius. The Roman armies fought poorly, with low discipline, nonexistent tactical coordination and amateurish lack of command experience evident in abundance with neither side able to exploit opportunities as they developed. | The Battle of Philippi was the final battle in the Liberators' civil war between the forces of Mark Antony and Octavian (of the Second Triumvirate) and the leaders of Julius Caesar's assassination, Brutus and Cassius, in 42 BC, at Philippi in Macedonia. The Second Triumvirate declared the civil war ostensibly to avenge Julius Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, but the underlying cause was a long-brewing conflict between the so-called Optimates and the so-called Populares.
The battle, involving up to 200,000 men in one of the largest of the Roman civil wars, consisted of two engagements in the plain west of the ancient city of Philippi. The first occurred in the first week of October; Brutus faced Octavian, and Antony's forces fought those of Cassius. The Roman armies fought poorly, with low discipline, nonexistent tactical coordination and amateurish lack of command experience evident in abundance with neither side able to exploit opportunities as they developed. At first, Brutus pushed back Octavian and entered his legions' camp. However, to the south, Cassius was defeated by Antony and died by suicide after hearing a false report that Brutus had also failed. Brutus rallied Cassius's remaining troops, and both sides ordered their army to retreat to their camps with their spoils. The battle was essentially a draw but for Cassius's suicide. A second encounter, on 23 October, finished off Brutus's forces after a hard-fought battle. He took his own life in turn, leaving the triumvirate in control of the Roman Republic.
Prelude
After the assassination of Caesar, the two main conspirators, Brutus and Cassius, known as the Liberators, and leaders of the Republicans had left Italy. They took control of all the eastern provinces from Greece to Syria and of the allied eastern kingdoms. In Rome the three main Caesarian leaders (Antony, Octavian and Lepidus), who controlled almost all the Roman army in the west, had crushed the opposition of the Senate and established the Second Triumvirate. One of their first tasks was to destroy the Liberators' forces, not only to get full control of the Roman world, but also to avenge Caesar's death.
The triumvirs decided that Lepidus would remain in Italy, while the two main partners of the triumvirate, Antony and Octavian, moved to northern Greece with their best troops, a total of 28 legions. They were able to ferry their army across the Adriatic and sent out a scouting force of eight legions, commanded by Norbanus and Saxa, along the Via Egnatia, with the aim of searching for the Liberators' army. Norbanus and Saxa passed the town of Philippi in eastern Macedonia and took a strong defensive position at a narrow mountain pass. Antony was following, while Octavian was delayed at Dyrrachium because of his ill-health (which would accompany him throughout the Philippi campaign). Although Antony and Octavian had been able to cross the sea with their main force, further communications with Italy were made difficult by the arrival of the Republican admiral Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, with a large fleet of 130 ships.
The Liberators did not wish to engage in a decisive battle, but rather to attain a good defensive position and then use their naval superiority to block the triumvirs' communications with their supply base in Italy. They had spent the previous months plundering Greek cities to swell their war-chest. They gathered in Thrace with the Roman legions from the eastern provinces and levies from allies. With their superior forces they were able to outflank Norbanus and Saxa, who had to abandon their defensive position and retreat west of Philippi. This meant that Brutus and Cassius could position their forces to hold the high ground along both sides of the Via Egnatia, about 3.5 kilometres (2.2 mi) west of the city of Philippi. The southern position was anchored on a supposedly impassable marsh, while on the north on impassable hills. They had time to fortify their position with a rampart and ditch. Brutus positioned his camp to the north while Cassius was on the south of the Via Egnatia. Antony arrived and positioned his army south of the Via Egnatia, while Octavian put his legions north of the road.
Forces
Antony and Octavian
The Triumvirs' army present for the battle included nineteen legions. The sources specify the name of only one legion, IV legion, but other legions present included the III, VI, VII, VIII, X Equestris, XII, XXVI, XXVIII, XXIX, and XXX, since their veterans participated in the land settlements after the battle. Appian reports that the triumvirs' legions were almost at full complement. Furthermore, they had a large allied cavalry force of 13,000 horsemen.
The Liberators
The Liberators' army had seventeen legions; eight with Brutus and nine with Cassius. Only two of the legions were at full strength, but the army was reinforced by levies from the eastern allied kingdoms. Appian reports that the army mustered a total of about 80,000 foot-soldiers. Allied cavalry totaled 20,000 horsemen, including 5,000 bowmen mounted in the Eastern fashion. This army included the old Caesarean legions present in the east, probably including XXVII, XXXVI, XXXVII, XXXI and XXXIII legions; so most of these legionaries were Caesarean veterans. However, at least the XXXVI legion consisted of old Pompeian veterans, enrolled in Caesar's army after the Battle of Pharsalus. The loyalty of the soldiers who were supposed to fight against Caesar's heir was a delicate issue for the Liberators. It is important to emphasize that the name "Octavian" was never used by contemporaries: he was simply known as "Gaius Julius Caesar". Cassius tried to reinforce the soldiers' loyalty both with strong speeches ("Let it give no one any concern that he has been one of Caesar's soldiers. We were not his soldiers then, but our country's") and with a gift of 1,500 denarii for each legionary and 7,500 for each centurion.Although ancient sources do not report the total numbers of men of the two armies, it seems that they had a similar strength. Adrian Goldsworthy suggests that at full strength the 19 Triumvir legions may have amounted to 95,000 men and the 17 Liberators' legions to 85,000. Most likely each side had only 40,000–50,000 legionaries. As the campaign lasted for months, it is unlikely that either side could have sustained the logistics to keep so many men, horses and baggage animals fed if both sides had had 100,000 or so troops.
First battle
Antony offered battle several times, but the Liberators were not lured into leaving their defensive position. Antony tried to secretly outflank the Liberators' position through the marshes in the south. With great effort he was able to cut a passage through the marshes, throwing up a causeway over them. This manoeuvre was finally noticed by Cassius, who countered by moving part of his army south into the marshes and constructing a transverse wall in a bid to cut off Antony's outstretched right wing. This brought about a general battle on 3 October 42 BC.
Antony ordered a charge against Cassius, aiming at the fortifications between Cassius's camp and the marshes. At the same time, Brutus's soldiers, provoked by the triumvirs' army, rushed against Octavian's army, without waiting for the order of attack, which was to be given with the watchword "Liberty". This surprise assault had complete success: Octavian's troops were put to flight and pursued up to their camp, which was captured by Brutus's men, led by Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus. Three of Octavian's legions had their standards taken, a clear sign of a rout. Octavian was not found in his tent: his couch was pierced and cut to pieces. Most ancient historians say that he had been warned in a dream to beware of that day, as he wrote in his memoirs. Pliny bluntly reports that Octavian went into hiding in the marsh.
However, on the other side of the Via Egnatia, Antony was able to storm Cassius' fortifications, demolishing the palisade and filling up the ditch. Then he easily took Cassius's camp, which was defended by only a few men. It seems that part of Cassius's army had advanced south: when these men tried to come back they were easily repulsed by Antony.Apparently the battle had ended in a draw. Cassius had lost 8,000 men, while Octavian had about 16,000 casualties. The battlefield was very large and clouds of dust made it impossible to make a clear assessment of the outcome of the battle, so both wings were ignorant of each other's fate. Cassius moved to the top of a hill, but could not see what was happening on Brutus's side. Believing that he had suffered a crushing defeat he ordered his freedman Pindarus to kill him. Brutus mourned over Cassius's body, calling him "the last of the Romans". He avoided a public funeral, fearing its negative effects on the army morale.
Other sources credit the avarice of Brutus' troops as the factor that undid their definitive victory on October 3. Premature looting and gathering of treasure by Brutus's advancing forces allowed Octavian's troops to re-form their line. In Octavian's future reign as Emperor, a common battle cry became "Complete the battle once begun!"
Second battle
On the same day as the first battle, the Republican fleet was able to intercept and destroy the triumvirs' reinforcements of two legions and other troops and supplies led by Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus. The strategic position of Antony and Octavian became perilous, since the already depleted regions of Macedonia and Thessaly were unable to supply their army for long, while Brutus could easily receive supplies from the sea. The triumvirs had to send a legion south to Achaia to collect more supplies. The morale of the troops was boosted by the promise of a further 5,000 denarii for each soldier and 25,000 for each centurion.
On the other side, the Liberators' army was left without its best strategic mind. Brutus had less military experience than Cassius and, even worse, he could not command the same respect from his allies and his soldiers, although after the battle he offered another gift of 1,000 denarii for each soldier.
In the next three weeks, Antony was able to slowly advance his forces south of Brutus's army, fortifying a hill close to Cassius's former camp, which had been left unguarded by Brutus.
To avoid being outflanked, Brutus was compelled to extend his line to the south and then the east, parallel to the Via Egnatia, building several fortified posts. While still holding the high ground he wanted to keep to the original plan of avoiding an open engagement and waiting for his naval superiority to wear out the enemy. The traditional understanding is that Brutus, against his better judgment, subsequently abandoned this strategy because his officers and soldiers were tired of the delaying tactics and demanded he offer another open battle. Brutus and his officers may have feared that their soldiers would desert to the enemy if they appeared to have lost the initiative. Plutarch also reports that Brutus had not received news of Domitius Calvinus' defeat in the Ionian Sea. When some of the eastern allies and mercenaries started deserting, Brutus was forced to attack on the afternoon of October 23. As he said, "I seem to carry on war like Pompey the Great, not so much commanding as commanded." However, the reality is that Brutus had no option but to fight, because his entire position was now in danger of being isolated and rendered untenable. If the triumvirs were allowed to continue stretching their lines unimpeded to the east they would ultimately cut off his supply route to Neapolis and pin him against the mountains. If that happened, the tables would be turned; Brutus would either be starved into submission or be forced to retreat by taking his entire army via the hazardous northern trail that had brought him to Philippi.
The battle which ensued resulted in close combat between two armies of well-trained veterans. Ranged weapons such as arrows or javelins were largely ignored; instead, the soldiers packed into solid ranks and fought face-to-face with their swords, and the slaughter was terrible. According to Cassius Dio, the two sides had little need for missile weapons, "for they did not resort to the usual manoeuvres and tactics of battles" but immediately advanced to close combat, "seeking to break each other's ranks". In the account of Plutarch, Brutus had the better of the fight at the western end of his line and pressed hard on the triumvirs' left wing, which gave way and retreated, being harassed by the Republican cavalry, which sought to exploit the advantage when it saw the enemy in disorder. But the eastern flank of Brutus's line had inferior numbers because it had been extended to avoid being outflanked. This meant Brutus's legions had been drawn out too thin in the center, and were so weak here they could not withstand the triumvirs' initial charge. Having broken through, the triumvirs swung to their left to take Brutus in his flank and rear. Appian speaks of the triumvirs' legions having "pushed back the enemy's line as though they were turning round a very heavy machine." Brutus's legions were driven back step-by-step, slowly at first, but as their ranks crumbled under the pressure they began to give ground more rapidly. The second and third reserve lines in the rear failed to keep pace with the retreat and all three lines became entangled. Octavian's soldiers were able to capture the gates of Brutus's camp before the routing army could reach this defensive position. Brutus's army could not reform, which made the triumvirs' victory complete. Brutus was able to retreat into the nearby hills with the equivalent of only four legions. Seeing that surrender and capture were inevitable, Brutus took his own life.The total casualties for the second battle of Philippi were not reported, but the close quarters fighting likely resulted in heavy losses for both sides.
Aftermath
Plutarch reports that Antony covered Brutus's body with a purple garment as a sign of respect. Although they had not been close friends, he remembered that Brutus had stipulated, as a condition for his joining the plot to assassinate Caesar, that the life of Antony be spared.
Many other young Roman aristocrats lost their lives in the battle or died by suicide after the defeat, including the son of great orator Hortensius, and Marcus Porcius Cato, the son of Cato the Younger, and Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus, the father of Livia, who became Octavian's wife. Some of the nobles who were able to escape negotiated their surrender to Antony and entered his service. Among them were Lucius Calpurnius Bibulus and Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus. Apparently, the nobles did not want to deal with the young and merciless Octavian.
The remains of the Liberators' army were rounded up, and roughly 14,000 men were enrolled into the triumvirs' army. Old veterans were discharged back to Italy, but some of the veterans remained in the town of Philippi, which became a Roman colony, Colonia Victrix Philippensium.
Antony remained in the East, while Octavian returned to Italy, with the difficult task of finding enough land on which to settle a large number of veterans. Although Sextus Pompey was controlling Sicily and Domitius Ahenobarbus still commanded the Republican fleet, the Republican resistance had been definitively crushed at Philippi.The Battle of Philippi marked the highest point of Antony's career: at that time he was the most famous Roman general and the senior partner of the Second Triumvirate.
Quotes
Plutarch famously reported that Brutus experienced a vision of a ghost a few months before the battle. One night he saw a huge and shadowy form appearing in front of him; when he calmly asked, "What and whence art thou?" it answered "Thy evil spirit, Brutus: I shall see thee at Philippi." He again met the ghost the night before the battle. This episode is one of the most famous in Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar. Plutarch also reports the last words of Brutus, quoted by a Greek tragedy "O wretched Virtue, thou wert but a name, and yet I worshipped thee as real indeed; but now, it seems, thou were but fortune's slave."
Augustus's own version of the Battle of Philippi was: "I sent into exile the murderers of my father, punishing their crimes with lawful tribunals, and afterwards, when they made war upon the Republic, I twice defeated them in battle." Qui parentem meum [interfecer]un[t eo]s in exilium expuli iudiciis legitimis ultus eorum [fa]cin[us, e]t postea bellum inferentis rei publicae vici b[is a]cie. Res Gestae 2.
Popular culture
The battle figures in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar (background of the story in Acts 4 and 5), in which the two battles are merged into a single day's events. After Cassius' death Brutus says "Tis three o'clock, and, Romans, yet ere night / We shall try fortune in a second fight." Otherwise the information is mostly accurate.
A fictionalised account of the battle is depicted in the sixth episode of the second season of the HBO television series Rome. There is but a single battle and both Cassius and Brutus fall in battle instead of being suicides, though Brutus's death is a lone, suicidal attack on the triumvirate's' advancing forces.
See also
Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC
List of Roman wars and battles
Citations
References
Burstein, Stanley M. (2004). The Reign of Cleopatra. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313325274.
Goldsworthy, Adrian (2010). Antony and Cleopatra. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-86104-1.
Lawrence Keppie. The making of the Roman army. New York 1984
Roller, Duane W. (2010). Cleopatra: a biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195365535.
Ronald Syme. The Roman revolution. Oxford 1939
Sheppard, Si (2008). Philippi 42 BC: The death of the Roman Republic. Oxford: Osprey Publishing (published 2008-08-10). ISBN 978-1-84603-265-3.
Thomas Harbottle, Dictionary of Battles. New York 1906
Primary sources
Appian: Roman Civil Wars Archived 2016-11-10 at the Wayback Machine
Plutarch: The Life of Brutus
Suetonius: The Life of Augustus
Velleius Paterculus: Roman History
Augustus: Res Gestae
External links
Map of the First Battle of Philippi Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine and Map of the Second Battle of Philippi Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine at Livius.org | [
"People"
] |
10,978,144 | El Roi | El Roi (Biblical Hebrew: אֵל רֳאִי, romanized: ʾēl rŏʾî) is one of the names of God in the Hebrew Bible. It is used in Genesis 16:13 by Hagar. Rashi translates it "god of sight", Joseph b. Isaac Bekhor Shor translates it "god saw me", Abraham Ibn Ezra, Bahya b. Asher, and Obadiah b. Jacob Sforno, "god who appears", David Kimhi, "god I saw" or "visible god", and Levi b. Gershon as "all-seeing god". == References == | El Roi (Biblical Hebrew: אֵל רֳאִי, romanized: ʾēl rŏʾî) is one of the names of God in the Hebrew Bible. It is used in Genesis 16:13 by Hagar.
Rashi translates it "god of sight", Joseph b. Isaac Bekhor Shor translates it "god saw me", Abraham Ibn Ezra, Bahya b. Asher, and Obadiah b. Jacob Sforno, "god who appears", David Kimhi, "god I saw" or "visible god", and Levi b. Gershon as "all-seeing god".
== References == | [
"Knowledge",
"Concepts"
] |
4,196,314 | Charles Cutler Torrey | Charles Cutler Torrey (20 December 1863 – 12 November 1956) was an American historian, archaeologist and scholar. | Charles Cutler Torrey (20 December 1863 – 12 November 1956) was an American historian, archaeologist and scholar.
Career
He is known for, presenting through his books, manuscript evidence supporting alternate views on the origins of Christian and Islamic religious texts. He founded the American School of Archaeology at Jerusalem in 1901.Torrey taught Semitic languages at the Andover Theological Seminary (1892–1900) and Yale University (1900–32). He countered certain parts of the Biblical interpretation of Catholic theologian, Albert Condamin, of the Book of Jeremiah.Some of Torrey's studies are included in The Origins of The Koran: Classic Essays on Islam’s Holy Book, edited by Ibn Warraq.
Books
The Mohammedan Conquest of Egypt and North Africa (1901), based on the Arabic work of Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam, of which he subsequently published an edition (1922).
The Jewish Foundation of Islam (1933).
The Composition and Historical Value of Ezra-Nehemiah (1896)
Ezra Studies (1910)
The Chronicler's History of Israel (1954).
In The Second Isaiah: A New Interpretation (1928), he argued that Isa. 34–35 and 40–66 should be dated c. 400 BC.
Original Prophecy (1930) presents his theory that the canonical book of Ezekiel is a revision of a 3rd-century pseudepigraphon.
The Translations Made from the Original Aramaic Gospels (1912)
The Four Gospels: A New Translation (1933)
Our Translated Gospels (1936), Torrey held that the four Gospels were Greek translations from Aramaic originals.
Apocalypse of John (1958) argues that Revelation was a translation of an Aramaic original written in AD 68.
References
External links
The Four Gospels: A New Translation at Universal Digital Library. | [
"Humanities"
] |
47,052,545 | Brouwerij Van Steenberge | Brouwerij Van Steenberge is a brewery in Ertvelde, East Flanders, Belgium. | Brouwerij Van Steenberge is a brewery in Ertvelde, East Flanders, Belgium.
Beers
Augustijn
Bornem Blonde
Bornem Double
Bornem Triple
Celis White
Gulden Draak (Dutch for Gilded Dragon) (10.5% ABV)
Gulden Draak 9000 Quadruple (10.70%)
Leute Bokbier
Piraat, pale ale with an ABV of 10.5%.
Principale Bruin
References
External links
Official website | [
"Food_and_drink"
] |
6,046 | Cicero | Marcus Tullius Cicero ( SISS-ə-roh; Latin: [ˈmaːrkʊs ˈtʊlli.ʊs ˈkɪkɛroː]; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the establishment of the Roman Empire. His extensive writings include treatises on rhetoric, philosophy and politics. He is considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists and the innovator of what became known as "Ciceronian rhetoric". Cicero was educated in Rome and in Greece. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the Roman equestrian order, and served as consul in 63 BC. | Marcus Tullius Cicero ( SISS-ə-roh; Latin: [ˈmaːrkʊs ˈtʊlli.ʊs ˈkɪkɛroː]; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the establishment of the Roman Empire. His extensive writings include treatises on rhetoric, philosophy and politics. He is considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists and the innovator of what became known as "Ciceronian rhetoric". Cicero was educated in Rome and in Greece. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the Roman equestrian order, and served as consul in 63 BC.
His influence on the Latin language was immense. He wrote more than three-quarters of extant Latin literature that is known to have existed in his lifetime, and it has been said that subsequent prose was either a reaction against or a return to his style, not only in Latin but in European languages up to the 19th century. Cicero introduced into Latin the arguments of the chief schools of Hellenistic philosophy and created a large amount of Latin philosophical vocabulary via lexical innovation (e.g. neologisms such as evidentia, generator, humanitas, infinitio, qualitas, quantitas), almost 150 of which had been introduced from the translation of Greek philosophical terms, demonstrating himself as both an adept scholar of philosophy as well as a skilled translator.
Though he was an accomplished orator and successful lawyer, Cicero believed his political career was his most important achievement. It was during his consulship that the Catiline conspiracy attempted to overthrow the government through an attack on the city by outside forces, and Cicero suppressed the revolt by summarily and controversially executing five conspirators without trial. During the chaotic middle period of the first century BC, marked by civil wars and the dictatorship of Julius Caesar, Cicero championed a return to the traditional republican government. Following Caesar's death, Cicero became an enemy of Mark Antony in the ensuing power struggle, attacking him in a series of speeches. He was proscribed as an enemy of the state by the Second Triumvirate and consequently executed by soldiers operating on their behalf in 43 BC, having been intercepted during an attempted flight from the Italian peninsula. His severed hands and head were then, as a final revenge of Mark Antony, displayed on the Rostra.Petrarch's rediscovery of Cicero's letters is often credited for initiating the 14th-century Renaissance in public affairs, humanism, and classical Roman culture. According to Polish historian Tadeusz Zieliński, "the Renaissance was above all things a revival of Cicero, and only after him and through him of the rest of Classical antiquity." The peak of Cicero's authority and prestige came during the 18th-century Enlightenment, and his impact on leading Enlightenment thinkers and political theorists such as John Locke, David Hume, Montesquieu, and Edmund Burke was substantial. His works rank among the most influential in global culture, and today still constitute one of the most important bodies of primary material for the writing and revision of Roman history, especially the last days of the Roman Republic.
Early life
Marcus Tullius Cicero was born on 3 January 106 BC in Arpinum, a hill town 100 kilometers (62 mi) southeast of Rome. He belonged to the tribus Cornelia. His father was a well-to-do member of the equestrian order and possessed good connections in Rome. However, being a semi-invalid, he could not enter public life and studied extensively to compensate. Although little is known about Cicero's mother, Helvia, it was common for the wives of important Roman citizens to be responsible for the management of the household. Cicero's brother Quintus wrote in a letter that she was a thrifty housewife.Cicero's cognomen, a hereditary nickname, comes from the Latin for chickpea, cicer. Plutarch explains that the name was originally given to one of Cicero's ancestors who had a cleft in the tip of his nose resembling a chickpea. Romans often chose down-to-earth personal surnames. The famous family names of Fabius, Lentulus, and Piso come from the Latin names of beans, lentils, and peas, respectively. Plutarch writes that Cicero was urged to change this deprecatory name when he entered politics, but refused, saying that he would make Cicero more glorious than Scaurus ("Swollen-ankled") and Catulus ("Puppy").At the age of 15, in 90 BC, Cicero started serving under Pompey Strabo and later Sulla in the Social war between Rome and its Italian allies. When in Rome during the turbulent plebeian tribunate of Publius Sulpicius Rufus in 88 BC which saw a short bout of fighting between the Sulpicius and Sulla, who had been elected consul for that year, Cicero found himself greatly impressed by Sulpicius' oratory even if he disagreed with his politics. He continued his studies at Rome, writing a pamphlet titled On Invention relating to rhetorical argumentation and studying philosophy with Greek academics who had fled the ongoing First Mithridatic War.
Education
During this period in Roman history, "cultured" meant being able to speak both Latin and Greek. Cicero was therefore educated in the teachings of the ancient Greek philosophers, poets and historians; as he obtained much of his understanding of the theory and practice of rhetoric from the Greek poet Archias. Cicero used his knowledge of Greek to translate many of the theoretical concepts of Greek philosophy into Latin, thus translating Greek philosophical works for a larger audience. It was precisely his broad education that tied him to the traditional Roman elite.Cicero's interest in philosophy figured heavily in his later career and led to him providing a comprehensive account of Greek philosophy for a Roman audience, including creating a philosophical vocabulary in Latin. In 87 BC, Philo of Larissa, the head of the Platonic Academy that had been founded by Plato in Athens about 300 years earlier, arrived in Rome. Cicero, "inspired by an extraordinary zeal for philosophy", sat enthusiastically at his feet and absorbed Carneades' Academic Skeptic philosophy.Cicero said of Plato's Dialogues, that if Zeus were to speak, he would use their language. He would, in due course, honor them with his own convivial dialogues.According to Plutarch, Cicero was an extremely talented student, whose learning attracted attention from all over Rome, affording him the opportunity to study Roman law under Quintus Mucius Scaevola. Cicero's fellow students were Gaius Marius Minor, Servius Sulpicius Rufus (who became a famous lawyer, one of the few whom Cicero considered superior to himself in legal matters), and Titus Pomponius. The latter two became Cicero's friends for life, and Pomponius (who later received the nickname "Atticus", and whose sister married Cicero's brother) would become, in Cicero's own words, "as a second brother", with both maintaining a lifelong correspondence.In 79 BC, Cicero left for Greece, Asia Minor and Rhodes. This was perhaps to avoid the potential wrath of Sulla, as Plutarch claims, though Cicero himself says it was to hone his skills and improve his physical fitness. In Athens he studied philosophy with Antiochus of Ascalon, the 'Old Academic' and initiator of Middle Platonism. In Asia Minor, he met the leading orators of the region and continued to study with them. Cicero then journeyed to Rhodes to meet his former teacher, Apollonius Molon, who had taught him in Rome. Molon helped Cicero hone the excesses in his style, as well as train his body and lungs for the demands of public speaking. Charting a middle path between the competing Attic and Asiatic styles, Cicero would ultimately become considered second only to Demosthenes among history's orators.
Early career
Early legal activity
While Cicero had feared that the law courts would be closed forever, they were reopened in the aftermath of Sulla's civil war and the purging of Sulla's political opponents in the proscriptions. Many of the orators which Cicero admired in his youth were now dead from age or political violence. His first major appearance in the courts was in 81 BC at the age of 26 when he delivered, Pro Quinctio, a speech defending certain commercial transactions which Cicero had recorded and disseminated.His more famous speech defending Sextus Roscius of Ameria – Pro Roscio Amerino – on charges of parricide in 80 BC was his first appearance in criminal court. In this high-profile case, Cicero accused a freedman of the dictator Sulla, Chrysogonus, of fabricating Roscius' father's proscription to obtain Roscius' family's property. Successful in his defence, Cicero tactfully avoided incriminating Sulla of any wrongdoing and developed a positive oratorical reputation for himself.While Plutarch claims that Cicero left Rome shortly thereafter out of fear of Sulla's response, "most scholarly now dismiss this suggestion" because Cicero left Rome after Sulla resigned his dictatorship. Cicero, for his part, later claimed that he left Rome, headed for Asia, to develop his physique and develop his oratory. After marrying his wife, Terentia, in 80 BC, he eventually left for Asia Minor with his brother Quintus, his friend Titus Atticus, and others on a long trip spanning most of 79 through 77 BC. Returning to Rome in 77 BC, Cicero again busied himself with legal defence.
Early political career
In 76 BC, at the quaestorian elections, Cicero was elected at the minimum age required – 30 years – in the first returns from the comitia tributa, to the post of quaestor. Ex officio, he also became a member of the Senate. In the quaestorian lot, he was assigned to Sicily for 75 BC. The post, which was largely one related to financial administration in support of the state or provincial governors, proved for Cicero an important place where he could gain clients in the provinces. His time in Sicily saw him balance his duties – largely in terms of sending more grain back to Rome – with his support for the provincials, Roman businessmen in the area, and local potentates. Adeptly balancing those responsibilities, he won their gratitude.Promising to lend the Sicilians his oratorical voice, he was called on a few years after his quaestorship to prosecute the Roman province's governor Gaius Verres, for abuse of power and corruption. In 70 BC, at the age of 36, Cicero launched his first high-profile prosecution against Verres, an emblem of the corrupt Sullan supporters who had risen in the chaos of the civil war.The prosecution of Gaius Verres was a great forensic success for Cicero. While Verres hired the prominent lawyer, Quintus Hortensius, after a lengthy period in Sicily collecting testimonials and evidence and persuading witnesses to come forward, Cicero returned to Rome and won the case in a series of dramatic court battles. His unique style of oratory set him apart from the flamboyant Hortensius. On the conclusion of this case, Cicero came to be considered the greatest orator in Rome. The view that Cicero may have taken the case for reasons of his own is viable. Hortensius was, at this point, known as the best lawyer in Rome; to beat him would guarantee much success and the prestige that Cicero needed to start his career. Cicero's oratorical ability is shown in his character assassination of Verres and various other techniques of persuasion used on the jury. One such example is found in the speech In Verrem, where he states "with you on this bench, gentlemen, with Marcus Acilius Glabrio as your president, I do not understand what Verres can hope to achieve". Oratory was considered a great art in ancient Rome and an important tool for disseminating knowledge and promoting oneself in elections, in part because there were no regular newspapers or mass media. Cicero was neither a patrician nor a plebeian noble; his rise to political office despite his relatively humble origins has traditionally been attributed to his brilliance as an orator.Cicero grew up in a time of civil unrest and war. Sulla's victory in the first of a series of civil wars led to a new constitutional framework that undermined libertas (liberty), the fundamental value of the Roman Republic. Nonetheless, Sulla's reforms strengthened the position of the equestrian class, contributing to that class's growing political power. Cicero was both an Italian eques and a novus homo, but more importantly he was a Roman constitutionalist. His social class and loyalty to the Republic ensured that he would "command the support and confidence of the people as well as the Italian middle classes". The optimates faction never truly accepted Cicero, and this undermined his efforts to reform the Republic while preserving the constitution. Nevertheless, he successfully ascended the cursus honorum, holding each magistracy at or near the youngest possible age: quaestor in 75 BC (age 30), aedile in 69 BC (age 36), and praetor in 66 BC (age 39), when he served as president of the "Reclamation" (or extortion) Court. He was then elected consul at age 42.
Consulship
Cicero, seizing the opportunity offered by optimate fear of reform, was elected consul for the year 63 BC; he was elected with the support of every unit of the centuriate assembly, rival members of the post-Sullan establishment, and the leaders of municipalities throughout post-Social War Italy. His co-consul for the year, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, played a minor role.He began his consular year by opposing a land bill proposed by a plebeian tribune which would have appointed commissioners with semi-permanent authority over land reform. Cicero was also active in the courts, defending Gaius Rabirius from accusations of participating in the unlawful killing of plebeian tribune Lucius Appuleius Saturninus in 100 BC. The prosecution occurred before the comita centuriata and threatened to reopen conflict between the Marian and Sullan factions at Rome. Cicero defended the use of force as being authorised by a senatus consultum ultimum, which would prove similar to his own use of force under such conditions.
Catilinarian Conspiracy
Most famously – in part because of his own publicity – he thwarted a conspiracy led by Lucius Sergius Catilina to overthrow the Roman Republic with the help of foreign armed forces. Cicero procured a senatus consultum ultimum (a recommendation from the senate attempting to legitimise the use of force) and drove Catiline from the city with four vehement speeches (the Catilinarian orations), which remain outstanding examples of his rhetorical style. The Orations listed Catiline and his followers' debaucheries, and denounced Catiline's senatorial sympathizers as roguish and dissolute debtors clinging to Catiline as a final and desperate hope. Cicero demanded that Catiline and his followers leave the city. At the conclusion of Cicero's first speech (which was made in the Temple of Jupiter Stator), Catiline hurriedly left the Senate. In his following speeches, Cicero did not directly address Catiline. He delivered the second and third orations before the people, and the last one again before the Senate. By these speeches, Cicero wanted to prepare the Senate for the worst possible case; he also delivered more evidence, against Catiline.Catiline fled and left behind his followers to start the revolution from within while he himself assaulted the city with an army of "moral and financial bankrupts, or of honest fanatics and adventurers". It is alleged that Catiline had attempted to involve the Allobroges, a tribe of Transalpine Gaul, in their plot, but Cicero, working with the Gauls, was able to seize letters that incriminated the five conspirators and forced them to confess in front of the Senate. The senate then deliberated upon the conspirators' punishment. As it was the dominant advisory body to the various legislative assemblies rather than a judicial body, there were limits to its power; however, martial law was in effect, and it was feared that simple house arrest or exile – the standard options – would not remove the threat to the state. At first Decimus Junius Silanus spoke for the "extreme penalty"; many were swayed by Julius Caesar, who decried the precedent it would set and argued in favor of life imprisonment in various Italian towns. Cato the Younger rose in defense of the death penalty and the entire Senate finally agreed on the matter. Cicero had the conspirators taken to the Tullianum, the notorious Roman prison, where they were strangled. Cicero himself accompanied the former consul Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura, one of the conspirators, to the Tullianum.Cicero received the honorific "pater patriae" for his efforts to suppress the conspiracy, but lived thereafter in fear of trial or exile for having put Roman citizens to death without trial. While the senatus consultum ultimum gave some legitimacy to the use of force against the conspirators, Cicero also argued that Catiline's conspiracy, by virtue of its treason, made the conspirators enemies of the state and forfeited the protections intrinsically possessed by Roman citizens. The consuls moved decisively. Antonius Hybrida was dispatched to defeat Catiline in battle that year, preventing Crassus or Pompey from exploiting the situation for their own political aims.After the suppression of the conspiracy, Cicero was proud of his accomplishment. Some of his political enemies argued that though the act gained Cicero popularity, he exaggerated the extent of his success. He overestimated his popularity again several years later after being exiled from Italy and then allowed back from exile. At this time, he claimed that the republic would be restored along with him.Shortly after completing his consulship, in late 62 BC, Cicero arranged the purchase of a large townhouse on the Palatine Hill previously owned by Rome's richest citizen, Marcus Licinius Crassus. To finance the purchase, Cicero borrowed some two million sesterces from Publius Cornelius Sulla, whom he had previously defended from court. Cicero boasted his house was "in conspectu prope totius urbis" ("in sight of nearly the whole city"), only a short walk from the Roman Forum.
Exile and return
In 60 BC, Julius Caesar invited Cicero to be the fourth member of his existing partnership with Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus, an assembly that would eventually be called the First Triumvirate. Cicero refused the invitation because he suspected it would undermine the Republic.During Caesar's consulship of 59 BC, the triumvirate had achieved many of their goals of land reform, publicani debt forgiveness, ratification of Pompeian conquests, etc. With Caesar leaving for his provinces, they wished to maintain their hold on politics. They engineered the adoption of patrician Publius Clodius Pulcher into a plebeian family and had him elected as one of the ten tribunes of the plebs for 58 BC. Clodius used the triumvirate's backing to push through legislation that benefited them. He introduced several laws (the leges Clodiae) that made him popular with the people, strengthening his power base, then he turned on Cicero by threatening exile to anyone who executed a Roman citizen without a trial. Cicero, having executed members of the Catiline conspiracy four years previously without formal trial, was clearly the intended target. Furthermore, many believed that Clodius acted in concert with the triumvirate who feared that Cicero would seek to abolish many of Caesar's accomplishments while consul the year before. Cicero argued that the senatus consultum ultimum indemnified him from punishment, and he attempted to gain the support of the senators and consuls, especially of Pompey.Cicero grew out his hair, dressed in mourning and toured the streets. Clodius' gangs dogged him, hurling abuse, stones and even excrement. Hortensius, trying to rally to his old rival's support, was almost lynched. The Senate and the consuls were cowed. Caesar, who was still encamped near Rome, was apologetic but said he could do nothing when Cicero brought himself to grovel in the proconsul's tent. Everyone seemed to have abandoned Cicero.After Clodius passed a law to deny to Cicero fire and water (i.e. shelter) within four hundred miles of Rome, Cicero went into exile. He arrived at Thessalonica, on 23 May 58 BC. In his absence, Clodius, who lived next door to Cicero on the Palatine, arranged for Cicero's house to be confiscated by the state, and was even able to purchase a part of the property in order to extend his own house. After demolishing Cicero's house, Clodius had the land consecrated and symbolically erected a temple of Liberty (aedes Libertatis) on the vacant land.Cicero's exile caused him to fall into depression. He wrote to Atticus: "Your pleas have prevented me from committing suicide. But what is there to live for? Don't blame me for complaining. My afflictions surpass any you ever heard of earlier". After the intervention of recently elected tribune Titus Annius Milo, acting on the behalf of Pompey who wanted Cicero as a client, the Senate voted in favor of recalling Cicero from exile. Clodius cast the single vote against the decree. Cicero returned to Italy on 5 August 57 BC, landing at Brundisium. He was greeted by a cheering crowd, and, to his delight, his beloved daughter Tullia. In his Oratio De Domo Sua Ad Pontifices, Cicero convinced the College of Pontiffs
to rule that the consecration of his land was invalid, thereby allowing him to regain his property and rebuild his house on the Palatine.Cicero tried to re-enter politics as an independent operator, but his attempts to attack portions of Caesar's legislation were unsuccessful and encouraged Caesar to re-solidify his political alliance with Pompey and Crassus. The conference at Luca in 56 BC left the three-man alliance in domination of the republic's politics; this forced Cicero to recant and support the triumvirate out of fear from being entirely excluded from public life. After the conference Cicero lavishly praised Caesar's achievements, got the Senate to vote a thanksgiving for Caesar's victories and grant money to pay his troops. He also delivered a speech 'On the consular provinces' (Latin: de provinciis consularibus) which checked an attempt by Caesar's enemies to strip him of his provinces in Gaul. After this, a cowed Cicero concentrated on his literary works. It is uncertain whether he was directly involved in politics for the following few years.
Governorship of Cilicia
In 51 BC he reluctantly accepted a promagistracy (as proconsul) in Cilicia for the year; there were few other former consuls eligible as a result of a legislative requirement enacted by Pompey in 52 BC specifying an interval of five years between a consulship or praetorship and a provincial command. He served as proconsul of Cilicia from May 51 BC, arriving in the provinces three months later around August.In 53 BC Marcus Licinius Crassus had been defeated by the Parthians at the Battle of Carrhae. This opened the Roman East for a Parthian invasion, causing unrest in Syria and Cilicia. Cicero restored calm by his mild system of government. He discovered that a great amount of public property had been embezzled by corrupt previous governors and members of their staff, and did his utmost to restore it. Thus he greatly improved the condition of the cities. He retained the civil rights of, and exempted from penalties, the men who gave the property back. Besides this, he was extremely frugal in his outlays for staff and private expenses during his governorship, and this made him highly popular among the natives.Besides his activity in ameliorating the hard pecuniary situation of the province, Cicero was also creditably active in the military sphere. Early in his governorship he received information that prince Pacorus, son of Orodes II the king of the Parthians, had crossed the Euphrates, and was ravaging the Syrian countryside and had even besieged Cassius (the interim Roman commander in Syria) in Antioch. Cicero eventually marched with two understrength legions and a large contingent of auxiliary cavalry to Cassius's relief. Pacorus and his army had already given up on besieging Antioch and were heading south through Syria, ravaging the countryside again. Cassius and his legions followed them, harrying them wherever they went, eventually ambushing and defeating them near Antigonea.Another large troop of Parthian horsemen was defeated by Cicero's cavalry who happened to run into them while scouting ahead of the main army. Cicero next defeated some robbers who were based on Mount Amanus and was hailed as imperator by his troops. Afterwards he led his army against the independent Cilician mountain tribes, besieging their fortress of Pindenissum. It took him 47 days to reduce the place, which fell in December. On 30 July 50 BC Cicero left the province to his brother Quintus, who had accompanied him on his governorship as his legate. On his way back to Rome he stopped in Rhodes and then went to Athens, where he caught up with his old friend Titus Pomponius Atticus and met men of great learning.
Julius Caesar's civil war
Cicero arrived in Rome on 4 January 49 BC. He stayed outside the pomerium, to retain his promagisterial powers: either in expectation of a triumph or to retain his independent command authority in the coming civil war. The struggle between Pompey and Julius Caesar grew more intense in 50 BC. Cicero favored Pompey, seeing him as a defender of the senate and Republican tradition, but at that time avoided openly alienating Caesar. When Caesar invaded Italy in 49 BC, Cicero fled Rome. Caesar, seeking an endorsement by a senior senator, courted Cicero's favor, but even so Cicero slipped out of Italy and traveled to Dyrrhachium where Pompey's staff was situated. Cicero traveled with the Pompeian forces to Pharsalus in Macedonia in 48 BC, though he was quickly losing faith in the competence and righteousness of the Pompeian side. Eventually, he provoked the hostility of his fellow senator Cato, who told him that he would have been of more use to the cause of the optimates if he had stayed in Rome. After Caesar's victory at the Battle of Pharsalus on 9 August, Cicero refused to take command of the Pompeian forces and continue the war. He returned to Rome, still as a promagistrate with his lictors, in 47 BC, and dismissed them upon his crossing the pomerium and renouncing his command.In a letter to Varro on c. 20 April 46 BC, Cicero outlined his strategy under Caesar's dictatorship. Cicero, however, was taken by surprise when the Liberatores assassinated Caesar on the ides of March, 44 BC. Cicero was not included in the conspiracy, even though the conspirators were sure of his sympathy. Marcus Junius Brutus called out Cicero's name, asking him to restore the republic when he lifted his bloodstained dagger after the assassination. A letter Cicero wrote in February 43 BC to Trebonius, one of the conspirators, began, "How I could wish that you had invited me to that most glorious banquet on the Ides of March!" Cicero became a popular leader during the period of instability following the assassination. He had no respect for Mark Antony, who was scheming to take revenge upon Caesar's murderers. In exchange for amnesty for the assassins, he arranged for the Senate to agree not to declare Caesar to have been a tyrant, which allowed the Caesarians to have lawful support and kept Caesar's reforms and policies intact.
Opposition to Mark Antony and death
In April 43 BC, "diehard republicans" may have revived the ancient position of princeps senatus (leader of the senate) for Cicero. This position had been very prestigious until the constitutional reforms of Sulla in 82–80 BC, which removed most of its importance.On the other side, Antony was consul and leader of the Caesarian faction, and unofficial executor of Caesar's public will. Relations between the two were never friendly and worsened after Cicero claimed that Antony was taking liberties in interpreting Caesar's wishes and intentions. Octavian was Caesar's adopted son and heir. After he returned to Italy, Cicero began to play him against Antony. He praised Octavian, declaring he would not make the same mistakes as his father. He attacked Antony in a series of speeches he called the Philippics, after Demosthenes's denunciations of Philip II of Macedon. At the time, Cicero's popularity as a public figure was unrivalled.
Cicero supported Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus as governor of Cisalpine Gaul (Gallia Cisalpina) and urged the Senate to name Antony an enemy of the state. The speech of Lucius Piso, Caesar's father-in-law, delayed proceedings against Antony. Antony was later declared an enemy of the state when he refused to lift the siege of Mutina, which was in the hands of Decimus Brutus. Cicero's plan to drive out Antony failed. Antony and Octavian reconciled and allied with Lepidus to form the Second Triumvirate after the successive battles of Forum Gallorum and Mutina. The alliance came into official existence with the lex Titia, passed on 27 November 43 BC, which gave each triumvir a consular imperium for five years. The Triumvirate immediately began a proscription of their enemies, modeled after that of Sulla in 82 BC. Cicero and all of his contacts and supporters were numbered among the enemies of the state, even though Octavian argued for two days against Cicero being added to the list.
Cicero was one of the most viciously and doggedly hunted among the proscribed. He was viewed with sympathy by a large segment of the public and many people refused to report that they had seen him. He was caught on 7 December 43 BC leaving his villa in Formiae in a litter heading to the seaside, where he hoped to embark on a ship destined for Macedonia. When his killers – Herennius (a Centurion) and Popilius (a Tribune) – arrived, Cicero's own slaves said they had not seen him, but he was given away by Philologus, a freedman of his brother Quintus Cicero.
As reported by Seneca the Elder, according to the historian Aufidius Bassus, Cicero's last words are said to have been:
Ego vero consisto. Accede, veterane, et, si hoc saltim potes recte facere, incide cervicem.I go no further: approach, veteran soldier, and, if you can at least do so much properly, sever this neck.
He bowed to his captors, leaning his head out of the litter in a gladiatorial gesture to ease the task. By baring his neck and throat to the soldiers, he was indicating that he would not resist. According to Plutarch, Herennius first slew him, then cut off his head. On Antony's instructions his hands, which had penned the Philippics against Antony, were cut off as well; these were nailed along with his head on the Rostra in the Forum Romanum according to the tradition of Marius and Sulla, both of whom had displayed the heads of their enemies in the Forum. Cicero was the only victim of the proscriptions who was displayed in that manner. According to Cassius Dio, in a story often mistakenly attributed to Plutarch, Antony's wife Fulvia took Cicero's head, pulled out his tongue, and jabbed it repeatedly with her hairpin in final revenge against Cicero's power of speech.Cicero's son, Marcus Tullius Cicero Minor, during his year as a consul in 30 BC, avenged his father's death, to a certain extent, when he announced to the Senate Mark Antony's naval defeat at Actium in 31 BC by Octavian.Octavian is reported to have praised Cicero as a patriot and a scholar of meaning in later times, within the circle of his family. However, it was Octavian's acquiescence that had allowed Cicero to be killed, as Cicero was condemned by the new triumvirate.Cicero's career as a statesman was marked by inconsistencies and a tendency to shift his position in response to changes in the political climate. His indecision may be attributed to his sensitive and impressionable personality; he was prone to overreaction in the face of political and private change."Would that he had been able to endure prosperity with greater self-control, and adversity with more fortitude!" wrote C. Asinius Pollio, a contemporary Roman statesman and historian.
Personal life and family
Cicero married Terentia probably at the age of 27, in 79 BC. According to the upper-class mores of the day it was a marriage of convenience but lasted harmoniously for nearly 30 years. Terentia's family was wealthy, probably the plebeian noble house of Terenti Varrones, thus meeting the needs of Cicero's political ambitions in both economic and social terms. She had a half-sister named Fabia, who as a child had become a Vestal Virgin, a great honour. Terentia was a strong-willed woman and (citing Plutarch) "took more interest in her husband's political career than she allowed him to take in household affairs".In the 50s BC, Cicero's letters to Terentia became shorter and colder. He complained to his friends that Terentia had betrayed him but did not specify in which sense. Perhaps the marriage could not outlast the strain of the political upheaval in Rome, Cicero's involvement in it, and various other disputes between the two. The divorce appears to have taken place in 51 BC or shortly before. In 46 or 45 BC, Cicero married a young girl, Publilia, who had been his ward. It is thought that Cicero needed her money, particularly after having to repay the dowry of Terentia, who came from a wealthy family.Although his marriage to Terentia was one of convenience, it is commonly known that Cicero held great love for his daughter Tullia. When she suddenly became ill in February 45 BC and died after having seemingly recovered from giving birth to a son in January, Cicero was stunned. "I have lost the one thing that bound me to life," he wrote to Atticus. Atticus told him to come for a visit during the first weeks of his bereavement, so that he could comfort him when his pain was at its greatest. In Atticus's large library, Cicero read everything that the Greek philosophers had written about overcoming grief, "but my sorrow defeats all consolation." Caesar and Brutus, as well as Servius Sulpicius Rufus, sent him letters of condolence.Cicero hoped that his son Marcus would become a philosopher like him, but Marcus himself wished for a military career. He joined the army of Pompey in 49 BC, and after Pompey's defeat at Pharsalus 48 BC, he was pardoned by Caesar. Cicero sent him to Athens to study as a disciple of the peripatetic philosopher Kratippos in 48 BC, but he used this absence from "his father's vigilant eye" to "eat, drink, and be merry." After Cicero's death, he joined the army of the Liberatores but was later pardoned by Augustus. Augustus's bad conscience for not having objected to Cicero's being put on the proscription list during the Second Triumvirate led him to aid considerably Marcus Minor's career. He became an augur and was nominated consul in 30 BC together with Augustus. As such, he was responsible for revoking the honors of Mark Antony, who was responsible for the proscription and could in this way take revenge. Later he was appointed proconsul of Syria and the province of Asia.
Legacy
Cicero has been traditionally considered the master of Latin prose, with Quintilian declaring that Cicero was "not the name of a man, but of eloquence itself." The English words Ciceronian (meaning "eloquent") and cicerone (meaning "local guide") derive from his name. He is credited with transforming Latin from a modest utilitarian language into a versatile literary medium capable of expressing abstract and complicated thoughts with clarity. Julius Caesar praised Cicero's achievement by saying "it is more important to have greatly extended the frontiers of the Roman spirit than the frontiers of the Roman empire". According to John William Mackail, "Cicero's unique and imperishable glory is that he created the language of the civilized world, and used that language to create a style which nineteen centuries have not replaced, and in some respects have hardly altered."Cicero was also an energetic writer with an interest in a wide variety of subjects, in keeping with the Hellenistic philosophical and rhetorical traditions in which he was trained. The quality and ready accessibility of Ciceronian texts favored very wide distribution and inclusion in teaching curricula, as suggested by a graffito at Pompeii, admonishing: "You will like Cicero, or you will be whipped".Cicero was greatly admired by influential Church Fathers such as Augustine of Hippo, who credited Cicero's lost Hortensius for his eventual conversion to Christianity, and St. Jerome, who had a feverish vision in which he was accused of being "follower of Cicero and not of Christ" before the judgment seat.This influence further increased after the Early Middle Ages in Europe, where more of his writings survived than any other Latin author. Medieval philosophers were influenced by Cicero's writings on natural law and innate rights.Petrarch's rediscovery of Cicero's letters provided the impetus for searches for ancient Greek and Latin writings scattered throughout European monasteries, and the subsequent rediscovery of classical antiquity led to the Renaissance. Subsequently, Cicero became synonymous with classical Latin to such an extent that a number of humanist scholars began to assert that no Latin word or phrase should be used unless it appeared in Cicero's works, a stance criticised by Erasmus.His voluminous correspondence, much of it addressed to his friend Atticus, has been especially influential, introducing the art of refined letter writing to European culture. Cornelius Nepos, the first century BC biographer of Atticus, remarked that Cicero's letters contained such a wealth of detail "concerning the inclinations of leading men, the faults of the generals, and the revolutions in the government" that their reader had little need for a history of the period.Among Cicero's admirers were Desiderius Erasmus, Martin Luther, and John Locke. Following the invention of Johannes Gutenberg's printing press, De Officiis was the second book printed in Europe, after the Gutenberg Bible. Scholars note Cicero's influence on the rebirth of religious toleration in the 17th century.Cicero was especially popular with the Philosophes of the 18th century, including Edward Gibbon, Diderot, David Hume, Montesquieu, and Voltaire. Gibbon wrote of his first experience reading the author's collective works thus: "I tasted the beauty of the language; I breathed the spirit of freedom; and I imbibed from his precepts and examples the public and private sense of a man...after finishing the great author, a library of eloquence and reason, I formed a more extensive plan of reviewing the Latin classics..."Voltaire called Cicero "the greatest as well as the most elegant of Roman philosophers" and even staged a play based on Cicero's role in the Catilinarian conspiracy, called Rome Sauvée, ou Catilina, to "make young people who go to the theatre acquainted with Cicero." Voltaire was spurred to pen the drama as a rebuff to his rival Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon's own play Catilina, which had portrayed Cicero as a coward and villain who hypocritically married his own daughter to Catiline.Montesquieu produced his "Discourse on Cicero" in 1717, in which he heaped praise on the author because he rescued "philosophy from the hands of scholars, and freed it from the confusion of a foreign language". Montesquieu went on to declare that Cicero was "of all the ancients, the one who had the most personal merit, and whom I would prefer to resemble."Internationally, Cicero the republican inspired the Founding Fathers of the United States and the revolutionaries of the French Revolution. John Adams said, "As all the ages of the world have not produced a greater statesman and philosopher united than Cicero, his authority should have great weight." Thomas Jefferson names Cicero as one of a handful of major figures who contributed to a tradition "of public right" that informed his draft of the Declaration of Independence and shaped American understandings of "the common sense" basis for the right of revolution. Camille Desmoulins said of the French republicans in 1789 that they were "mostly young people who, nourished by the reading of Cicero at school, had become passionate enthusiasts for liberty".Jim Powell starts his book on the history of liberty with the sentence: "Marcus Tullius Cicero expressed principles that became the bedrock of liberty in the modern world."Likewise, no other ancient personality has inspired as much venomous dislike as Cicero, especially in more modern times. His commitment to the values of the Republic accommodated a hatred of the poor and persistent opposition to the advocates and mechanisms of popular representation. Friedrich Engels referred to him as "the most contemptible scoundrel in history" for upholding republican "democracy" while at the same time denouncing land and class reforms. Cicero has faced criticism for exaggerating the democratic qualities of republican Rome, and for defending the Roman oligarchy against the popular reforms of Caesar. Michael Parenti admits Cicero's abilities as an orator, but finds him a vain, pompous and hypocritical personality who, when it suited him, could show public support for popular causes that he privately despised. Parenti presents Cicero's prosecution of the Catiline conspiracy as legally flawed at least, and possibly unlawful.Cicero also had an influence on modern astronomy. Nicolaus Copernicus, searching for ancient views on earth motion, said that he "first ... found in Cicero that Hicetas supposed the earth to move."Notably, "Cicero" was the name attributed to size 12 font in typesetting table drawers. For ease of reference, type sizes 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 20 were all given different names.
Works
Cicero was declared a righteous pagan by the Early Church, and therefore many of his works were deemed worthy of preservation. Subsequent Roman and medieval Christian writers quoted liberally from his works De re publica (On the Commonwealth) and De Legibus (On the Laws), and much of his work has been recreated from these surviving fragments. Cicero also articulated an early, abstract conceptualization of rights, based on ancient law and custom. Of Cicero's books, six on rhetoric have survived, as well as parts of seven on philosophy. Of his speeches, 88 were recorded, but only 52 survive.
In archaeology
Cicero's great repute in Italy has led to numerous ruins being identified as having belonged to him, though none have been substantiated with absolute certainty. In Formia, two Roman-era ruins are popularly believed to be Cicero's mausoleum, the Tomba di Cicerone, and the villa where he was assassinated in 43 BC. The latter building is centered around a central hall with Doric columns and a coffered vault, with a separate nymphaeum, on five acres of land near Formia. A modern villa was built on the site after the Rubino family purchased the land from Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies in 1868. Cicero's supposed tomb is a 24-meter (79 feet) tall tower on an opus quadratum base on the ancient Via Appia outside of Formia. Some suggest that it is not in fact Cicero's tomb, but a monument built on the spot where Cicero was intercepted and assassinated while trying to reach the sea.In Pompeii, a large villa excavated in the mid 18th century just outside the Herculaneum Gate was widely believed to have been Cicero's, who was known to have owned a holiday villa in Pompeii he called his Pompeianum. The villa was stripped of its fine frescoes and mosaics and then re-buried after 1763 – it has yet to be re-excavated. However, contemporaneous descriptions of the building from the excavators combined with Cicero's own references to his Pompeianum differ, making it unlikely that it is Cicero's villa.In Rome, the location of Cicero's house has been roughly identified from excavations of the Republican-era stratum on the northwestern slope of the Palatine Hill. Cicero's domus has long been known to have stood in the area, according to his own descriptions and those of later authors, but there is some debate about whether it stood near the base of the hill, very close to the Roman Forum, or nearer to the summit. During his life the area was the most desirable in Rome, densely occupied with Patrician houses including the Domus Publica of Julius Caesar and the home of Cicero's mortal enemy Clodius.
Notable fictional portrayals
In Dante's 1320 poem the Divine Comedy, the author encounters Cicero, among other philosophers, in Limbo. Ben Jonson dramatised the conspiracy of Catiline in his play Catiline His Conspiracy, featuring Cicero as a character. Cicero also appears as a minor character in William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar.Cicero was portrayed on the motion picture screen by British actor Alan Napier in the 1953 film Julius Caesar, based on Shakespeare's play. He has also been played by such noted actors as Michael Hordern (in Cleopatra), and André Morell (in the 1970 Julius Caesar). Most recently, Cicero was portrayed by David Bamber in the HBO series Rome (2005–2007) and appeared in both seasons.In the historical novel series Masters of Rome, Colleen McCullough presents a not-so-flattering depiction of Cicero's career, showing him struggling with an inferiority complex and vanity, morally flexible and fatally indiscreet, while his rival Julius Caesar is shown in a more approving light. Cicero is portrayed as a hero in the novel A Pillar of Iron by Taylor Caldwell (1965). Robert Harris' novels Imperium, Lustrum (published under the name Conspirata in the United States) and Dictator comprise a three-part series based on the life of Cicero. In these novels Cicero's character is depicted in a more favorable way than in those of McCullough, with his positive traits equaling or outweighing his weaknesses (while conversely Caesar is depicted as more sinister than in McCullough). Cicero is a major recurring character in the Roma Sub Rosa series of mystery novels by Steven Saylor. He also appears several times as a peripheral character in John Maddox Roberts' SPQR series.Samuel Barnett portrays Cicero in a 2017 audio drama series pilot produced by Big Finish Productions. A full series was released the following year. All episodes are written by David Llewellyn and directed and produced by Scott Handcock.
See also
Notes
References
Citations
Modern sources
Ancient sources
Further reading
External links
Works by Cicero
Works by Cicero at Perseus Digital Library
Works by Cicero in eBook form at Standard Ebooks
Works by Cicero at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Cicero at Internet Archive
Works by Cicero at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Works by Cicero at the Stoic Therapy eLibrary
The Latin Library (Latin): Works of Cicero
Dickinson College Commentaries: Against Verres 2.1.53–86
Dickinson College Commentaries: On Pompey's Command (De Imperio) 27–49
Horace MS 1b Laelius de Amicitia at OPenn
Lewis E 66 Epistolae ad familiares (Letters to friends)Biographies and descriptions of Cicero's time
Plutarch's biography of Cicero contained in the Parallel Lives
Life of Cicero by Anthony Trollope, Volume I & Volume II
Cicero by Rev. W. Lucas Collins (Ancient Classics for English Readers)
Roman life in the days of Cicero by Rev. Alfred J. Church
Social life at Rome in the Age of Cicero by W. Warde Fowler
"At Heraklia website". Archived from the original on 14 January 2006. Retrieved 31 March 2017.
Dryden's translation of Cicero from Plutarch's Parallel Lives
At Middlebury College website
Raphael Woolf. "Cicero". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. | [
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5,805,908 | Christian Streiff | Christian Streiff (born 21 September 1954) is a French businessman. Streiff was born at Sarrebourg, Moselle. He was nominated chief executive officer of the European commercial aircraft manufacturer Airbus S.A.S. on 2 July 2006. He resigned from this position three months later, on 9 October 2006, and was replaced by Louis Gallois that same day. | Christian Streiff (born 21 September 1954) is a French businessman.
Streiff was born at Sarrebourg, Moselle. He was nominated chief executive officer of the European commercial aircraft manufacturer Airbus S.A.S. on 2 July 2006. He resigned from this position three months later, on 9 October 2006, and was replaced by Louis Gallois that same day. According to a former Airbus employee, Streiff found himself "isolated" in his plans to restructure Airbus and offered to quit. One month later, Streiff was appointed the chief executive officer of the second-largest European car maker, PSA Peugeot Citroën. On Sunday 29 March 2009 the board of PSA Peugeot Citroën ousted Streiff, stating publicly that a change in leadership was needed to "unlock the group's potential."
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