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2018-14963	How does cancer end up killing a person?	Cancer cells steal the snacks of other cells. It then gets big and takes up space so other cells can't work.	[ "Section::::The medical problem.:Metastatic colorectal cancer.\n\nColorectal cancer (CRC), also called colon cancer or large bowel cancer, is the third leading cause of cancer-related death in the western world. An estimated 1.6 million people are diagnosed with the disease worldwide every year. An estimated 50% of CRC patients will show liver metastases. It is this form of metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC) Sirtex targets with SIR-Spheres microspheres. It has been estimated that in 30-40% of patients with advanced disease, the liver is the only site of spread.\n", "There are several possibilities: the infectious complications related to the immunodepression due to the disease and the treatments, the attack of a vital organ like the lungs invaded by so many metastases that the breathing becomes impossible, the thrombotic complications like a pulmonary embolism, an end of life precipitated by analgesic treatments whose doses are increased. But behind all these causes is the diversion of energy by cancer that behaves like a parasite that kills its host. In some particularly local cancers, such as pancreatic cancer, this is particularly noticeable: the patient dies of cachexia, that is to say of great malnutrition.\n", "The development of donor-derived tumors from organ transplants is exceedingly rare. The main cause of organ transplant associated tumors seems to be malignant melanoma, that was undetected at the time of organ harvest. There have also been reports of Kaposi's sarcoma occurring after transplantation due to tumorous outgrowth of virus-infected donor cells.\n\nSection::::Rare causes.:Trauma.\n", "BULLET::::- An undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcoma was transmitted from a patient to a surgeon when he injured his hand during an operation.\n\nSection::::Other animals.\n", "If this process of continuous growth, local invasion, and regional and distant metastasis is not halted via a combination of stimulation of immunological defenses and medical treatment interventions, the end result is that the host suffers a continuously increasing burden of tumor cells throughout the body. Eventually, the tumor burden increasingly interferes with normal biochemical functions carried out by the host's organs, and death ultimately ensues.\n", "The meningeal covering of the central nervous system may be the site of tumor growth. Breast cancer, lung cancer and melanoma are the most common tumors.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nColorectal cancer patients with peritoneal involvement can be treated with Oxaliplatin- or Irinotecan-based chemotherapy. Such treatment is not expected to be curative, but can extend the lives of patients. Some patients may be cured through Hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy, but the procedure entails a high degree of risk for morbidity or death.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Carcinosis entry in the public domain NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms\n", "Since reduced immune function is another contributing factor it is equally important to obtain proper nutrition and follow a healthy life style to boost immune function.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nEarly diagnosis and treatment of Merkel-cell cancers are important factors in decreasing the chance of metastasis, after which it is exceptionally difficult to cure.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Surgery.\n", "The hallmark of a malignant tumor is its tendency to invade and infiltrate local and adjacent structures and, eventually, spread from the site of its origin to non-adjacent regional and distant sites in the body, a process called metastasis. If unchecked, tumor growth and metastasis eventually creates a tumor burden so great that the host succumbs. Carcinoma metastasizes through both the lymph nodes and the blood.\n\nSection::::Pathogenesis.:Mutation.\n\nWhole genome sequencing has established the mutation frequency for whole human genomes. The mutation frequency in the whole genome between generations for humans (parent to child) is about 70 new mutations per generation.\n", "Section::::Infection and inflammation.:Inflammation.\n\nThere is evidence that inflammation itself plays an important role in the development and progression of cancer. Chronic inflammation can lead to DNA damage over time and the accumulation of random genetic alterations in cancer cells. Inflammation can contribute to proliferation, survival, angiogensis and migration of cancer cells by influencing tumor microenvironment. Individuals with inflammatory bowel disease are at increased risk of developing colorectal cancers.\n\nSection::::Radiation.\n", "Section::::Staging.:Five-year survival rates.\n\nThe survival rates for stages I through IV decrease significantly due to the advancement of the disease. For stage I, the five-year survival rate is 47%, stage II is 30%, stage III is 10%, and stage IV is 1%.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Fractality is a means that evolution has found to minimize the energy used to distribute resources. Remember that cancer uses a source of energy different from other tissues, less efficient in yield.\n\nSection::::The death of the patient.\n\nWhat is a cancer patient dying of?\n", "Section::::As prey.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Systemic symptoms.\n\nGeneral symptoms occur due to effects that are not related to direct or metastatic spread. These may include: unintentional weight loss, fever, excessive fatigue and changes to the skin. Hodgkin disease, leukemias and cancers of the liver or kidney can cause a persistent fever.\n\nSome cancers may cause specific groups of systemic symptoms, termed paraneoplastic syndrome. Examples include the appearance of myasthenia gravis in thymoma and clubbing in lung cancer.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Metastasis.\n", "In Europe the five-year survival rate for colorectal cancer is less than 60%. In the developed world about a third of people who get the disease die from it.\n", "The incidence of MCC is increased in conditions with defective immune functions such as malignancy, HIV infection, and organ transplant patients, etc. Mutations in MCC occur more frequently than would otherwise be expected among immunosuppressed patients, such as transplant patients, AIDS patients, and the elderly, suggesting that the initiation and progression of the disease is modulated by the immune system. While infection with MCV is common in humans, In addition, an high incidence of this tumor has been observed in autoimmune disease affected patients treated with immunosuppresants, such as TNF inhibitors.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Section::::Risk factors.\n\nRisk factors for tumor lysis syndrome depend on several different characteristics of the patient, the type of cancer, and the type of chemotherapy used.\n", "People who have received solid organ transplants are at a significantly increased risk of developing squamous cell carcinoma due to the use of chronic immunosuppressive medication. While the risk of developing all skin cancers increases with these medications, this effect is particularly severe for SCC, with hazard ratios as high as 250 being reported, versus 40 for basal cell carcinoma. The incidence of SCC development increases with time posttransplant. Heart and lung transplant recipients are at the highest risk of developing SCC due to more intensive immunosuppressive medications used. Squamous cell cancers of the skin in individuals on immunotherapy or suffering from lymphoproliferative disorders (i.e. leukemia) tend to be much more aggressive, regardless of their location. The risk of SCC, and non-melanoma skin cancers generally, varies with the immunosuppressive drug regimen chosen. The risk is greatest with calcineurin inhibitors like cyclosporine and tacrolimus, and least with mTOR inhibitors, such as sirolimus and everolimus. The antimetabolites azathioprine and mycophenolic acid have an intermediate risk profile.\n", "Leptomeningeal disease is becoming more evident because cancer patients are living longer and many chemotherapies cannot reach sufficient concentrations in the spinal fluid to kill the tumor cells.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nIn the United States, 1–8% of cancer patients are diagnosed with leptomeningeal disease, with approximately 110,000 cases per year. The exact incidence of leptomeningeal disease is difficult to determine, since gross examination at autopsy may overlook signs of leptomeningeal disease, and microscopic pathological inspection may be normal if the seeding is multifocal or if an unaffected area of the CNS is examined.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "The most common metastasis sites for colorectal cancer are the liver, the lung and the peritoneum.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Tumor budding.\n", "SCL show intense immune infiltration which is predominantly neutrophillic. However the tumors evade the immune system by increased expression of a negative regulator of T-cells mainly programmed death ligand-1.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.\n", "In the United States, approximately 3,500 pregnant women have a malignancy annually, and transplacental transmission of acute leukemia, lymphoma, melanoma and carcinoma from mother to fetus has been observed. Excepting the rare transmissions that occur with pregnancies and only a marginal few organ donors, cancer is generally not a transmissible disease. The main reason for this is tissue graft rejection caused by MHC incompatibility. In humans and other vertebrates, the immune system uses MHC antigens to differentiate between \"self\" and \"non-self\" cells because these antigens are different from person to person. When non-self antigens are encountered, the immune system reacts against the appropriate cell. Such reactions may protect against tumor cell engraftment by eliminating implanted cells.\n", "In addition, patients diagnosed with small cell lung carcinoma has an increased vulnerability to nervous system problems (i.e. \"Lambert-Eaton syndrome\", \"paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration\"), Cushing syndrome and Syndrome of Inappropriate Anti-diuretic Hormone (SIADH) and can demonstrate relevant symptoms .\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "In Western Europe, 10% of cancers in males and 3% of cancers in females are attributed to alcohol exposure, especially liver and digestive tract cancers. Cancer from work-related substance exposures may cause between 2 and 20% of cases, causing at least 200,000 deaths. Cancers such as lung cancer and mesothelioma can come from inhaling tobacco smoke or asbestos fibers, or leukemia from exposure to benzene.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Diet and exercise.\n", "Like any cancer, metastasization affects many areas of the body, as the cancer spreads from cell to cell and organ to organ. For example, if it spreads to the bone marrow, it will prevent the body from producing enough red blood cells and affects the proper functioning of the white blood cells and the body's immune system; spreading to the circulatory system will prevent oxygen from being transported to all the cells of the body; and throat cancer can throw the nervous system into chaos, making it unable to properly regulate and control the body.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.:Treatment side effects.\n", "Section::::Causes.\n\nThe majority of cancers, some 90–95% of cases, are due to genetic mutations from environmental and lifestyle factors. The remaining 5–10% are due to inherited genetics. \"Environmental\", as used by cancer researchers, means any cause that is not inherited genetically, such as lifestyle, economic, and behavioral factors and not merely pollution. Common environmental factors that contribute to cancer death include tobacco (25–30%), diet and obesity (30–35%), infections (15–20%), radiation (both ionizing and non-ionizing, up to 10%), stress, lack of physical activity and pollution.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-07581	why isn’t the top of my car made out of solar panels?	Fisker Karma. Also I think Tesla is working on one. That being said, the amount of electricity to run an electric vehicle is not possible to charge in real time. However, yes, you can get a charge for a limited number of miles if parked out for exposure to the sun.	[ "Section::::Solar panel charging.:The disadvantages.\n\nThe low solar conversion efficiency of 24% for the gallium arsenide based cell, and with the limited car size approximate 5.5 meter square. The solar panel could generating the most electricity of 3.3 KWH per day. In the uncertain the wether and quality issue, the even less energy will be produced.\n\nThe cost side is also a important method for consumer to measure.For car with the solar panel, cost on the research, development and material will be separately added on each consumer, thus clients will have less incentive to buy it.\n", "The small power generated by solar cells mounted on a vehicle means that the other components in the system must be special to compensate for this.\n\nFor example, the body of even a small conventional car converted to electric is still too heavy to be driven by on-board solar cells. A practical solar-powered vehicle is designed from the ground up with specially made parts.\n\nSection::::Conversion process.\n", "The project \"Yuneec & Metron\" convert a Smart Roadster to an electric car with 80 Wp solar panel in 2011. Range with solar charging only is a few kilometers per day. Range with fully charged accumulator is 160 kilometers.\n\nSection::::Switzerland.\n\nSection::::Switzerland.:CateCar.\n", "Solar arrays on solar cars are mounted and encapsulated very differently from stationary solar arrays. Solar arrays on solar cars are usually mounted using industrial grade double-sided adhesive tape right onto the car's body. The arrays are encapsulated using thin layers of Tedlar.\n\nSome solar cars use gallium arsenide solar cells, with efficiencies around thirty percent. Other solar cars use silicon solar cells, with efficiencies around twenty percent.\n\nSection::::Batteries.\n", "The choice of solar array geometry involves an optimization between power output, aerodynamic resistance and vehicle mass, as well as practical considerations. For example, a free horizontal canopy gives 2-3 times the surface area of a vehicle with integrated cells but offers better cooling of the cells and shading of the riders. There are also thin flexible solar arrays in development.\n", "BULLET::::- Cost: While sunlight is free, the creation of PV cells to capture that sunlight is expensive. Costs for solar panels are steadily declining (22% cost reduction per doubling of production volume).\n", "BULLET::::- Power density: Power from a solar array is limited by the size of the vehicle and area that can be exposed to sunlight. This can also be overcome by adding a flatbed and connecting it to the car and this gives more area for panels for powering the car. While energy can be accumulated in batteries to lower peak demand on the array and provide operation in sunless conditions, the battery adds weight and cost to the vehicle. The power limit can be mitigated by use of conventional electric cars supplied by solar (or other) power, recharging from the electrical grid.\n", "Section::::Vehicle design.:Solar array.\n\nThe solar array consists of hundreds (or thousands) of photovoltaic solar cells converting sunlight into electricity. Cars can use a variety of solar cell technologies; most often polycrystalline silicon, monocrystalline silicon, or gallium arsenide. The cells are wired together into strings while strings are often wired together to form a panel. Panels normally have voltages close to the nominal battery voltage. The main aim is to get as much cell area in as small a space as possible. Designers encapsulate the cells to protect them from the weather and breakage.\n", "Section::::Brazil.\n\nSection::::Brazil.:e.coTech Solar version.\n\nThe \"e.coTech\" is a normal electric car developed by \"HiTech Electric\" and is sold only to small and medium-sized businesses. In 2017, the solar version of \"e.coTech\" was announced and presented to the public in 2018.\n\nSection::::Canada.\n\nSection::::Canada.:Schulich Delta.\n\nThe \"Schulich Delta\" from the University of Calgary was built for the 2013 World Solar Challenge.\n\nSection::::China.\n\nSection::::China.:Cars without name.\n\nThe handicraft enthusiast \"Chen Shungui\" developed 2 prototypes between 2002 and 2010.\n\nSection::::Germany.\n\nSection::::Germany.:Hochschule Bochum: Open World.\n", "The 2010 Toyota Prius model has an option to mount solar panels on the roof. They power a ventilation system while parked to help provide cooling. There are many applications of photovoltaics in transport either for motive power or as auxiliary power units, particularly where fuel, maintenance, emissions or noise requirements preclude internal combustion engines or fuel cells. Due to the limited area available on each vehicle either speed or range or both are limited when used for motive power.\n\nSection::::Limitations.\n\nThere are limits to using photovoltaic (PV) cells for vehicles:\n", "An inventor from Michigan, USA built a street legal, licensed, insured, solar charged electric scooter in 2005. It had a top speed controlled at a bit over 30 mph, and used fold-out solar panels to charge the batteries while parked.\n\nSection::::Land.:Auxiliary power.\n\nPhotovoltaic modules are used commercially as auxiliary power units on passenger cars in order to ventilate the car, reducing the temperature of the passenger compartment while it is parked in the sun. Vehicles such as the 2010 Prius, Aptera 2, Audi A8, and Mazda 929 have had solar sunroof options for ventilation purposes.\n", "There is a distinction to be made between organically inspired solar trees and structures which have been adapted to create energy efficient parking lots. Companies such as General Electric have installed solar panels in car parking lots to collect solar energy and protect vehicles from sun damage. These car sheltering solar devices differ from artistic Solar Trees in that they have no organic aesthetic. In contrast to the field of solar artwork, they would more appropriately be dubbed elevated solar panels.\n\nSection::::The Solar Tree Foundation.\n", "On 9 June 2008, the German and French Presidents announced a plan to offer a credit of 6-8g/km of CO emissions for cars fitted with technologies \"not yet taken into consideration during the standard measuring cycle of the emissions of a car\". This has given rise to speculation that photovoltaic panels might be widely adopted on autos in the near future\n", "Section::::Cars for public use.\n\nThe first solar family car was built in 2013. Researchers at Case Western Reserve University, have also developed a better solar car which can recharge more quickly, due to better materials used in the solar panels.\n", "On the other hand, solar-powered cars could potentially be of use in regions where sunlight and space are abundant, and without easy access to grid electricity, where charging facilities are rare.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Nuna — A series of solar racing cars, built by a team from the Dutch Delft University of Technology, that have won the World Solar Challenge six times out of the last eight races.\n\nBULLET::::- Sunswift eVe — The fastest car in the 2013 Cruiser class competition of the WSC, built by a team from the University of New South Wales (Australia).\n", "The Twente One came in on the fifth place in the 2007 World solar Challenge.\n\nSection::::New Zealand.\n\nSection::::New Zealand.:UltraCommuter.\n\nThe \"UltraCommuter\" from the University of Waikato was built for the 2013 World Solar Challenge.\n\nSection::::Pakistan.\n\nSection::::Pakistan.:ECO1, ECO1GL and ECO3GL.\n\nECO1, ECO1GL and ECO3GL are built by a technology enthusiast and entrepreneur Muhammad Aslam Azaad. Built in March 2014.\n\nSection::::Slovenia.\n\nSection::::Slovenia.:Metron 7.\n", "At the FSGP 2019, the team given four additional awards at the award ceremony: The Mechanical Design award, the MOV Charging System Award, Aesthetics Award and the Corner 8 Award.\n\nSection::::Cars.\n\nSection::::Cars.:X1 (prototype).\n\nMaximum Achieved Speed: ~70 km/h\n\nSolar Array Type: none (stickers merely for show)\n\nChassis: Steel Space frame\n\nShell Composition: Fibreglass & Gelcoat\n\nCommissioned: May 2005\n\nDecommissioned: June 2006\n\nCurrent Uses: X1 has been decommissioned. The chassis is all that remains. It is suspended against a wall in the University of Calgary Solar Team's workshop.\n\nSection::::Cars.:Soleon.\n\nMaximum Achieved Speed: 140 km/h\n\nSolar Array Type: Silicon\n\nChassis: Aluminum Space frame\n", "List of prototype solar-powered cars\n\nThis list of prototype solar-powered cars comprises multiperson, relatively practical vehicles powered completely or significantly by solar cells (panels or arrays, mounted on the vehicle) which convert sunlight into electricity to drive electric motors while the vehicle is in motion and have a homologation for public streets.\n\nSection::::Australia.\n\nSection::::Australia.:Sunswift V (eVe).\n\nThe Sunswift V (aka \"eVe\") from the University of New South Wales was built for the 2013 & 2015 World Solar Challenge.\n\nSection::::Australia.:Solar Spirit 3.\n\nThe \"Solar Spirit 3\" with 3 seats was built by TAFE South Australia for the 2011 World Solar Challenge.\n", "Section::::Team History and Accomplishments.\n", "Solar panel has been a well-known method of generating clean, emission free electricity. However, it produces only direct current electricity (DC), which is not what normal appliances use. Solar photovoltaic systems (solar PV systems) are often made of solar PV panels (modules) and inverter (changing DC to AC). Solar PV panels are mainly made of solar photovoltaic cells, which has no fundamental difference to the material for making computer chips. The process of producing solar PV cells (computer chips) is energy intensive and involves highly poisonous and environmental toxic chemicals. There are few solar PV manufacturing plants around the world producing PV modules with energy produced from PV. This measure greatly reduces the carbon footprint during the manufacturing process. Managing the chemicals used in the manufacturing process is subject to the factories' local laws and regulations. \n", "It is also possible to use solar panels to extend the range of a hybrid or electric car, as incorporated in the Fisker Karma, available as an option on the Chevy Volt, on the hood and roof of \"Destiny 2000\" modifications of Pontiac Fieros, Italdesign Quaranta, Free Drive EV Solar Bug, and numerous other electric vehicles, both concept and production. In May 2007 a partnership of Canadian companies led by Hymotion added PV cells to a Toyota Prius to extend the range. SEV claims 20 miles per day from their combined 215W module mounted on the car roof and an additional 3kWh battery.\n", "The Sunraycer was a very expensive car to build (slightly less than $2 million 1987 dollars all told) and at the time it was not considered feasible to create a car for the American car market based on solar power. Instead, the idea was to create an electric powered car.\n", "Developed and built in Emilia Romagna in 2018 by the University of Bologna, the Association and several industrial partners, Emilia 4 is a 4.6 meter long, 1.8 meter wide and 1.2 meter high 4 seats vehicle. It is equipped with a 5 square meter photovoltaic roof, made of 362 silicon cells, with a nominal power of 1200W.\n\nSection::::Japan.\n\nSection::::Japan.:Kaiton II.\n\nThe \"KAITON II\" from the \"Goko High School\" was built for the 2013 World Solar Challenge.\n\nSection::::Japan.:OWL.\n\n\"OWL\" was built for the 2015 World Solar Challenge in the Cruiser class by Kogakuin University.\n\nSection::::Monaco.\n\nSection::::Monaco.:Venturi Astrolab.\n", "BULLET::::- Lotus Eco Elise is an engineering demonstrator of its classic sports car that incorporates solar panels into a roof made from hemp, while also employing natural materials in the body and interior of the car.\n\nBULLET::::- Lotus Exige 265E Bio-fuel\n\nBULLET::::- Lotus Exige 270E Tri-fuel\n\nBULLET::::- Lotus Evora 414E Hybrid. Shown at the 2010 Geneva Motor show\n\nBULLET::::- Lotus Concept City Car. Shown at the 2010 Paris motor show.\n\nSection::::Lotus Engineering.:APX and VVA.\n", "Section::::Construction and (Self-)Build.\n\nAs described later, the economical balance between cost of panel and tracker is not trivial. The steep drop in cost for solar panels in the early 2010s made it more challenging to find a sensible solution. As can be seen in the attached media files, most constructions use industrial and/or heavy materials unsuitable for small or craft workshops. Even commercial offers like \"Complete-Kit-1KW-Single-Axis-Solar-Panel-Tracking-System-Linear-Actuator-Electric-Controller-For-Sunlight-Solar/1279440_2037007138\" have rather unsuitable solutions (a big rock) for stabilisation. For a small(amateur/enthusiast) construction following criteria have to be met: economy, stability of endproduct against elemental hazards, ease of handling materials and joinery.\n" ]	[ "There are no cars that do not have a top made out of solar panels." ]	[ "Some car manufacturers make cars with a solar panel on top." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "There are no cars that do not have a top made out of solar panels.", "There are no cars that do not have a top made out of solar panels." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Some car manufacturers make cars with a solar panel on top.", "Some car manufacturers make cars with a solar panel on top." ]
2018-00994	If one company buys out another company for a monetary fee, wouldn’t the money go back to the parent company, therefore the parent company essentially gained capital for free since they own the other company? How does that work?	No, because when the company is bought it is bought from its owners. You know, the shareholders? They get the money from the buyout. The only way it would stay with the company is if the company owned itself which is silly.	[ "To account for this type of investment, the purchasing company uses the equity method. Under the equity method, the purchaser records its investment at original cost. This balance increases with income and decreases for dividends from the subsidiary that accrue to the purchaser.\n\nTreatment of \"Purchase Differentials\": At the time of purchase, purchase differentials arise from the difference between the cost of the investment and the book value of the underlying assets.\n\nPurchase differentials have two components:\n\nBULLET::::- The difference between the fair market value of the underlying assets and their book value.\n", "BULLET::::1. Cost of the fund is fixed: The transfer of funds is less costly for both companies compared to the cost of financing from its parent company and loans from banks. In addition, the subsidiary in the country may face the problem of higher lending cost from banks if the subsidiary is not well known and its credit rating may not as high as its parent company.\n", "When a company purchases 20% or less of the outstanding common stock, the purchasing company’s influence over the acquired company is not significant. (APB 18 specifies conditions where ownership is less than 20% but there is significant influence).\n\nThe purchasing company uses the cost method to account for this type of investment. Under the cost method, the investment is recorded at cost at the time of purchase. The company does not need any entries to adjust this account balance unless the investment is considered impaired or there are liquidating dividends, both of which reduce the investment account.\n", "Often a company acquiring another pays a specified amount for it. This money can be raised in a number of ways. Although the company may have sufficient funds available in its account, remitting payment entirely from the acquiring company's cash on hand is unusual. More often, it will be borrowed from a bank, or raised by an issue of bonds. Acquisitions financed through debt are known as leveraged buyouts, and the debt will often be moved down onto the balance sheet of the acquired company. The acquired company then has to pay back the debt. This is a technique often used by private equity companies. The debt ratio of financing can go as high as 80% in some cases. In such a case, the acquiring company would only need to raise 20% of the purchase price.\n", "When the amount of stock purchased is more than 50% of the outstanding common stock, the purchasing company has control over the acquired company. Control in this context is defined as ability to direct policies and management. In this type of relationship the controlling company is the parent and the controlled company is the subsidiary. The parent company needs to issue consolidated financial statements at the end of the year to reflect this relationship.\n", "A reverse breakup fee is a penalty to be paid to the target company if the acquirer backs out of the deal, usually because it can’t obtain financing. Reasons for such fees include the possibility of lawsuits, disruption of business operations, and the loss of key personnel during the period when the company is \"in play.\"\n\nSection::::Notable examples.\n\nBULLET::::- As a result of the failed 2011 merger of AT&T and T-Mobile, AT&T will have to pay a reverse breakup fee of $3 billion in cash and $1–3 billion in wireless spectrum.\n", "BULLET::::- In an amalgamation, the companies which merge into a new or existing company are referred to as transferor companies or amalgamating companies. The resultant company is referred to as the transferee company.\n\nSection::::Accounting treatment (US GAAP).\n\nA parent company can acquire another company by purchasing its net assets or by purchasing a majority share of its common stock. Regardless of the method of acquisition; direct costs, costs of issuing securities and indirect costs are treated as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- Direct costs, Indirect and general costs: the acquiring company expenses all acquisition related costs as they are incurred.\n", "Payment in the form of the acquiring company's stock, issued to the shareholders of the acquired company at a given ratio proportional to the valuation of the latter. They receive stock in the company that is purchasing the smaller subsidiary.\n\nSection::::Financing.:Financing options.\n", "Sometimes, shares are allocated in exchange for non-cash consideration, most commonly when corporation A acquires corporation B for shares (new shares issued by corporation A). Here the share capital is increased to the par value of the new shares, and the merger reserve is increased to the balance of the price of corporation B.\n", "The management of a company will not usually have the money available to buy the company outright themselves. They would first seek to borrow from a bank, provided the bank was willing to accept the risk. Management buyouts are frequently seen as too risky for a bank to finance the purchase through a loan. Management teams are typically asked to invest an amount of capital that is significant to them personally, depending on the funding source/banks determination of the personal wealth of the management team. The bank then loans the company the remaining portion of the amount paid to the owner. Companies that proactively shop aggressive funding sources should qualify for total debt financing of at least four times (4X) cash flow.\n", "\"Musharakah\" is often used in investment projects, letters of credit, and the purchase or real estate or property. In the case of real estate or property, the bank assesses an imputed rent and will share it as agreed in advance. All providers of capital are entitled to participate in management, but not necessarily required to do so. The profit is distributed among the partners in pre-agreed ratios, while the loss is borne by each partner strictly in proportion to respective capital contributions. This concept is distinct from fixed-income investing (i.e. issuance of loans).\n", "When a company spins off part of its business as a new separate company and gives shareholders new shares in that new company, the taxpayer's cost base of the original shares is split between the original and the new holding. The company advises the appropriate proportions and the shareholder would allocate the original cost base between the two entities. The new holding is taken to be acquired at the date of demerger. The cost base of the original shareholding is reduced by the cost base of the new shareholding.\n", "The consistently revenue-generating part of the company may have a much higher credit rating than the company as a whole. For instance, a leasing company may have provided $10m nominal value of leases, and it will receive a cash flow over the next five years from these. It cannot demand early repayment on the leases and so cannot get its money back early if required. If it could sell the rights to the cash flows from the leases to someone else, it could transform that income stream into a lump sum today (in effect, receiving today the present value of a future cash flow). Where the originator is a bank or other organization that must meet capital adequacy requirements, the structure is usually more complex because a separate company is set up to buy the assets.\n", "The originator initially owns the assets engaged in the deal. This is typically a company looking to either raise capital, restructure debt or otherwise adjust its finances (but also includes businesses established specifically to generate marketable debt (consumer or otherwise) for the purpose of subsequent securitization). Under traditional corporate finance concepts, such a company would have three options to raise new capital: a loan, bond issue, or issuance of stock. However, stock offerings dilute the ownership and control of the company, while loan or bond financing is often prohibitively expensive due to the credit rating of the company and the associated rise in interest rates.\n", "There are also a variety of structures used in securing control over the assets of a company, which have different tax and regulatory implications:\n\nBULLET::::- The buyer buys the shares, and therefore control, of the target company being purchased. Ownership control of the company in turn conveys effective control over the assets of the company, but since the company is acquired intact as a going concern, this form of transaction carries with it all of the liabilities accrued by that business over its past and all of the risks that company faces in its commercial environment.\n", "Section::::Financing.:Private equity financing.\n\nIf a bank is unwilling to lend, the management will commonly look to private equity investors to fund the majority of buyout. A high proportion of management buyouts are financed in this way. The private equity investors will invest money in return for a proportion of the shares in the company, though they may also grant a loan to the management. The exact financial structuring will depend on the backer's desire to balance the risk with its return, with debt being less risky but less profitable than capital investment.\n", "These types of recapitalization can be minor adjustments to the capital structure of the company, or can be large changes involving a change in the power structure as well. As with other leveraged transactions, if a firm cannot make its debt payments, meet its loan covenants or rollover its debt it enters financial distress which often leads to bankruptcy. Therefore, the additional debt burden of a leveraged recapitalization makes a firm more vulnerable to unexpected business problems including recessions and financial crises.\n", "For example, a company owns $1000 of stock in another company that was originally purchased for $200. If the capital gains tax rate is 25% (like Germany) and the company sells the stock,\n\nthe company has $800 which is 20 percent less than before it sold the stock.\n\nLong term cross ownership of shares combined with a high capital tax rate greatly increases periods of asset deflation both in time and in severity.\n\nSection::::Media cross ownership.\n", "A bought out deal is a method of offering securities to the public through a sponsor or underwriter (a bank, financial institution, or an individual). The securities are listed in one or more stock exchanges within a time frame mutually agreed upon by the company and the sponsor. This option saves the issuing company the costs and time involved in a public issue. The cost of holding the shares can be reimbursed by the company, or the sponsor can offer the shares to the public at a premium to earn profits. Terms are agreed upon by the company and the sponsor.\n", "BULLET::::- In a \"consecutive partnership\" the partners keep the same level of share in the partnership until the end of the joint venture, unless they withdraw or transfer their shares all together. It's used when a bank invests in \"a project, a joint venture, or business activity\", but usually in home financing, where the shares of the home are transferred to the customer buying the home.\n", "BULLET::::- The partners in a CJV are allowed to share profit on an agreed basis, \"not necessarily in proportion to capital contribution\". This proportion also determines the control and the risks of the enterprise in the same proportion.\n\nBULLET::::- It may be possible to operate in a CJV in a restricted area\n\nBULLET::::- A CJV could allow negotiated levels of management and financial control, as well as methods of recourse associated with equipment leases and service contracts. In an EJV management control is through allocation of Board seats.\n", "The primary owner of the company may not be willing to take the financial risk alone. By selling part of the company to private equity, the owner can take out some value and share the risk of growth with partners. Capital can also be used to effect a restructuring of a company's balance sheet, particularly to reduce the amount of leverage (or debt) the company has on its balance sheet.\n", "The terms \"demerger\", \"spin-off\" and \"spin-out\" are sometimes used to indicate a situation where one company splits into two, generating a second company which may or may not become separately listed on a stock exchange.\n\nAs per knowledge-based views, firms can generate greater values through the retention of knowledge-based resources which they generate and integrate. Extracting technological benefits during and after acquisition is ever challenging issue because of organizational differences. Based on the content analysis of seven interviews authors concluded five following components for their grounded model of acquisition:\n", "BULLET::::- Appreciation of assets\n\nBULLET::::- In \"musharakah\", as soon as the partners add their capital together in a joint pool, these assets become jointly owned by all of them according to the proportion of their respective investment. Therefore, each one of them can benefit from the appreciation in the value of the assets, even if profit has not accrued through sales.\n", "In the event of a bankruptcy or liquidation, the assets used by the company as security would first be provided to the first lien secured lenders as repayment of their borrowings. To the extent that the value of the assets is sufficient to satisfy the company's obligations to the first lien secured lenders, any additional proceeds from the sale of the pledged assets would then be made available to the second lien lenders as repayment of the second lien loan.\n" ]	[ "Money would go back to original company when buying another." ]	[ "Money goes to shareholders or founders of the bought out company." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Money would go back to original company when buying another." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Money goes to shareholders or founders of the bought out company." ]
2018-01972	Why does the air above a fire look rippled/distorted?	[When the air is heated, there is a change in density, which distorts the refractive angle of light. It's how mirage works in nature.]( URL_0 )	[ "BULLET::::- Flame structures consist of mud and are wavy or \"flame\" shaped. These flames usually extend into an overlying sandstone layer. This deformation is caused from sand being deposited onto mud, which is less dense. Load casts, technically a subset of sole markings, below, are the features which form alongside flame structures. Flames are thin fingers of mud injected upward into the overlying sands, while load casts are the pendulous knobs of sand that descend downwards into the mud between the flames.\n", "\"An inspection plug was taken out,\" said Tom Hughes in a later interview, \"and we saw, to our complete horror, four channels of fuel glowing bright cherry red.\"\n", "Pliny also says that the method was used both in opencast and deep mining. This is confirmed by remains found at the Roman gold mine of Dolaucothi in west Wales, when modern miners broke into much older workings during the 1930s where they found wood ashes near worked rock faces. In another part of the mine, there are three adits at different heights which have been driven through barren rock to the gold-bearing veins for some considerable distance, and they would have provided drainage as well as ventilation to remove the smoke and hot gases during a fire-setting operation. They were certainly much larger in section than was normal for access galleries, and the draught of air through them would have been considerable.\n", "\"So we got this rigged up,\" Tuohy recounted, \"and we had this poor little tube of carbon dioxide and I had absolutely no hope it was going to work.\"\n\nSection::::Accident.:Use of water.\n", "BULLET::::3. The Air The position of Air above Water and beneath Fire is \"due to its relative lightness\". It is \"hot and moist\", and its effect is to \"rarefy\" and make things \"softer\".\n\nBULLET::::4. The (sphere of the) Fire Fire is higher than the other elements, \"for it reaches to the world of the heavens\". It is hot and dry; it traverses the substance of the air, and subdues the coldness of the two heavy elements; \"by this power it brings the elementary properties into harmony.\"\n\nSection::::Book 1.:Thesis III The Temperaments.\n", "Temperature variations in the air can also cause refraction of light. This can be seen as a heat haze when hot and cold air is mixed e.g. over a fire, in engine exhaust, or when opening a window on a cold day. This makes objects viewed through the mixed air appear to shimmer or move around randomly as the hot and cold air moves. This effect is also visible from normal variations in air temperature during a sunny day when using high magnification telephoto lenses and is often limiting the image quality in these cases.\n", "An example is \"Painting 1978\" which has been described as challenging and disturbing the viewer by the artist's choice of colour and method of painting. \"The dramatic black and red, yellow and white composition suggests both an industrial and a natural wasteland\". The heavy impasto paint texture describes, with vigour and intensity, flames, explosions, and unidentified nightmarish images. Contradictory forces pull us into the central inferno below the glacial mountain peaks, and showers of rock explode towards us.\n", "Trench effect\n\nThe trench effect is a combination of circumstances that can rush a fire up an inclined surface. It depends on two well-understood but separate ideas: the Coandă effect from fluid dynamics and the flashover concept from fire dynamics:\n\nBULLET::::- The Coandă effect is the tendency of a fast stream of gases to bend towards, and adhere to, nearby surfaces. The stream's static pressure tends to decrease, which creates a pressure difference between the surface and areas far from it. This bends the stream towards the surface and tends to keep it attached to that surface.\n", "Among those interviewed is Archimede Seguso, a renowned Venetian glassblower of the twentieth century. Seguso lived directly behind La Fenice and witnessed the fire. Soon afterwards he created glassworks dedicated to the memory of the fire, in his own rendition of how the opera house burned.\n", "The use of the term \"mired\" dates back to Irwin G. Priest's observation in 1932 that the just noticeable difference between two illuminants is based on the difference of the reciprocals of their temperatures, rather than the difference in the temperatures themselves.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nA blue sky, which has a color temperature \"T\" of about 25,000 K, has a mired value of \"M\" = 40 mireds, while a standard electronic photography flash, having a color temperature \"T\" of 5000 K, has a mired value of \"M\" = 200 mireds.\n", "Around the centre of Midland there are a number of murals, most of which were painted by now deceased artist Fred Lenz. The largest, depicting a meeting between a local native and Jesuit Missionary Jean de Brebeuf is on the silos overlooking the main harbour. This work was completed by Lenz's sons following his death in 2001.\n", "Section::::Flying.:Thermal flying.\n\nWhen the sun warms the ground, it will warm some features more than others (such as rock faces or large buildings), and these set off thermals which rise through the air. Sometimes these may be a simple rising column of air; more often, they are blown sideways in the wind and will break off from the source, with a new thermal forming later.\n", "Several other factors affect the locations where electrical faults occur. Electrical faults do not always occur where fire first reaches a conduit, but preferentially occur at bends in a conduit or at locations where wires are pressed together. The elevation of an electrical line has a strong effect on its exposure to heat, since temperatures in a fire are generally highest near ceiling level, except in the immediate vicinity of the point of origin. Protection from the fire is an important consideration: being located within a wall or being covered in fiberglass insulation will offer some protection to an electrical line, and will delay electrical faults.\n", "According to Carrabba the area of the Ring of Fire that Cliffs acquired in 2009 represents one of the \"premier chromite deposits in the world. Chromite is smelted to produce ferrochrome which is used globally in the production of stainless steel and is categorized as a strategic metal resource by many countries.\n", "Especially large wildfires may affect air currents in their immediate vicinities by the stack effect: air rises as it is heated, and large wildfires create powerful updrafts that will draw in new, cooler air from surrounding areas in thermal columns. Great vertical differences in temperature and humidity encourage pyrocumulus clouds, strong winds, and fire whirls with the force of tornadoes at speeds of more than . Rapid rates of spread, prolific crowning or spotting, the presence of fire whirls, and strong convection columns signify extreme conditions.\n", "\"I have no doubt it was even sucking air in through the chimney at this point to try and maintain itself,\" he remarked in an interview.\n\nFinally he managed to pull the inspection plate away and was greeted with the sight of the fire dying away.\n", "Section::::Features.:Deep sky objects.\n", "BULLET::::- it was not adequate for expected wind loading, since the wind speeds which the regulations required to be considered were much too low for a tall building—in a high wind, an upper wall panel could be sucked out, leading to collapse similar to the actual collapse\n\nBULLET::::- it was not adequate in a fire, a significant fire could lead to bowing of the structure, followed by collapse as above.\n", "Smoke particulates, like other aerosols, are categorized into three modes based on particle size:\n\nBULLET::::- nuclei mode, with geometric mean radius between 2.5–20 nm, likely forming by condensation of carbon moieties.\n\nBULLET::::- accumulation mode, ranging between 75–250 nm and formed by coagulation of nuclei mode particles\n\nBULLET::::- coarse mode, with particles in micrometer range\n\nMost of the smoke material is primarily in coarse particles. Those undergo rapid dry precipitation, and the smoke damage in more distant areas outside of the room where the fire occurs is therefore primarily mediated by the smaller particles.\n", "A special type of contact metamorphism, associated with fossil fuel fires, is known as pyrometamorphism.\n\nSection::::Types.:Hydrothermal.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Fire agates have beautiful iridescent rainbow colors, similar to opal, with a measurement of hardness on the Mohs scale of between 5 and 7 which reduces the occurrence of scratching when polished gemstones are set in jewelry. The vibrant iridescent rainbow colors found within fire agates, created by the Schiller effect as found in mother-of-pearl, is caused by the alternating silica and iron oxide layers which diffract and allow light to pass and form an interference of colors within the microstructure layering of the stone causing the fire effect for which it is named. \n", "The trench effect occurs when a fire burns beside a steeply inclined surface. The flames lie down along the surface, demonstrating the Coandă effect. The flames heat the material farther up: these emit gases that autoignite in a flashover event. The flames from these areas are themselves subject to the Coandă effect and blow a jet of flame up to the end of the inclined surface. This jet continues until the fuel depletes.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "In addition to the explosive blast, called the arc blast of such a fault, destruction also arises from the intense radiant heat produced by the arc. The metal plasma arc produces tremendous amounts of light energy from far infrared to ultraviolet. Surfaces of nearby objects, including people, absorb this energy and are instantly heated to vaporizing temperatures. The effects of this can be seen on adjacent walls and equipment - they are often ablated and eroded from the radiant effects.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "Falarica comes from either ancient Greek \"phalòs\" (φαλòς), because it came out of a \"phala\" (an ancient round tower posted on cities' walls and was used to fire the falaricas), or from \"phalēròs\" (φαληρòς) \"shining\" as it was enwrapped with blazing fire.\n\nSection::::Origin.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00782	The use of Sodium Fluoride in Optics or Physics in a Cerenkov Radiator?	Refraction is how much it bends light. If you need to see spmething super small, then you need to make sure your photons are super accurate. If they get bent by whatever you send them through then it can throw off your measurement. Sodium flouride bends light the least so its best to look through.	[ "Section::::Component parts.\n\nIn principle any source of infrared radiation could be used, together with an optical system of lenses or mirrors to form the transmitted beam. In practice the following sources have been used, always with some form of modulation to aid the signal processing at the receiver:\n", "Recently, through the use of a novel diffractive diffuse system composed of two microlens arrays, surface micromachining by ArF laser on fused silica has been performed with submicrometer accuracy.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n\nThe light emitted by the ArF is invisible to the human eye, so additional safety precautions are necessary when working with this laser to avoid stray beams. Gloves are needed to protect the flesh from the potentially carcinogenic properties of the UV beam, and UV goggles are needed to protect the eyes.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Excimer\n\nBULLET::::- Krypton fluoride laser\n\nBULLET::::- Electrolaser\n\nBULLET::::- Nike laser\n\nBULLET::::- Photolithography\n\nBULLET::::- Moore’s law\n", "BULLET::::- High pressure rinse (HPR) of the cavity interior in a clean room with filtered water to remove particulate contamination,\n\nBULLET::::- Careful assembly of the cavity to other vacuum apparatus in a clean room with clean practices,\n\nBULLET::::- A vacuum bake of the cavity at 120 °C for 48 hours, which typically improves \"Q\" by a factor of 2.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Interferometers are used in atmospheric physics for high-precision measurements of trace gases via remote sounding of the atmosphere. There are several examples of interferometers that utilize either absorption or emission features of trace gases. A typical use would be in continual monitoring of the column concentration of trace gases such as ozone and carbon monoxide above the instrument.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Engineering and applied science.\n", "The concept of a modulating retro-reflector is not new, dating back to the 1940s. Various demonstrations of such devices have been built over the years, though the demonstration of the first MQW MRR in 1993 was notable in achieving significant data rates. However, MRRs are still not widely used, and most research and development in that area is confined to rather exploratory military applications, as free-space optical communications in general tends to be a rather specialized niche technology.\n", "It was once common to use monochromators coupled to photomultiplier tubes. In this case the monochromator would need to be moved in order to scan through a spectral range.\n\nSection::::Instrumentation.:Detectors.:Detectors for FT–Raman.\n\nFT–Raman is almost always used with NIR lasers and appropriate detectors must be use depending on the exciting wavelength. Germanium or Indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs) detectors are commonly used.\n\nSection::::Instrumentation.:Filters.\n", "An instrument which implements this approach may be described as a multivariate optical computer. Since it describes an approach, rather than any specific wavelength range, multivariate optical computers may be built using a variety of different instruments (including Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) and Raman).\n", "The principal application of GaInAs is as an infrared detector. The spectral response of a GaInAs photodiode is shown in Figure 5. GaInAs photodiodes are the preferred choice in the wavelength range of 1.1 µm < λ < 1.7 µm. For example, compared to photodiodes made from Ge, GaInAs photodiodes have faster time response, higher quantum efficiency and lower dark current for the same sensor area. GaInAs photodiodes were invented in 1977 by Pearsall.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Detector.\n\nNeon lamps have been historically used as microwave and millimeter-wave detectors (\"plasma diodes\" or glow discharge detectors (GDDs)) up to about 100 GHz or so and in such service were said to exhibit comparable sensitivity (of the order of a few 10s to perhaps 100 microvolts) to the familiar 1N23-type catwhisker-contacted silicon diodes once ubiquitous in microwave equipment. More recently it has been found that these lamps work well as detectors even at sub-millimeter (\"terahertz\") frequencies and they have been successfully used as pixels in several experimental imaging arrays at these wavelengths.\n", "The original VISARs were built at the National Laboratories and had free-space beams on optical tables with discrete optical components such as beam-splitting pellicles, mirrors, quarter wave delay plates, glass etalons, high voltage photo-multiplier tubes, Argon ion lasers and so on. They required a fair amount of expertise to maintain. \n", "Common incandescent or quartz halogen light bulbs are most often used as broadband sources of near-infrared radiation for analytical applications. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can also used. For high precision spectroscopy, wavelength-scanned lasers and frequency combs have recently become powerful sources, albeit with sometimes longer acquisition timescales. When lasers are used, a single detector without any dispersive elements might be sufficient.\n", "The technique of amplification used in the klystron is also being applied experimentally at optical frequencies in a type of laser called the free-electron laser (FEL); these devices are called \"optical klystrons\". Instead of microwave cavities, these use devices called undulators. The electron beam passes through an undulator, in which a laser light beam causes bunching of the electrons. Then the beam passes through a second undulator, in which the electron bunches cause oscillation to create a second, more powerful light beam.\n\nSection::::Floating drift tube klystron.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Secondary emissive materials.\n\nCommonly used secondary emissive materials include\n\nBULLET::::- alkali antimonide\n\nBULLET::::- beryllium oxide (BeO)\n\nBULLET::::- magnesium oxide (MgO)\n\nBULLET::::- gallium phosphide (GaP)\n\nBULLET::::- gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)\n\nBULLET::::- lead oxide (PbO)\n\nSection::::Applications.:Photo multipliers and similar devices.\n\nIn a photomultiplier tube, one or more electrons are emitted from a photocathode and accelerated towards a polished metal electrode (called a dynode). \n", "Considerable confusion exists in the literature of this area because: (1) many sources do not distinguish between \"A\" and \"A\", but just use the symbol \"A\" (and sometimes the name \"Richardson constant\") indiscriminately; (2) equations with and without the correction factor here denoted by \"λ\" are both given the same name; and (3) a variety of names exist for these equations, including \"Richardson equation\", \"Dushman's equation\", \"Richardson–Dushman equation\" and \"Richardson–Laue–Dushman equation\". In the literature, the elementary equation is sometimes given in circumstances where the generalized equation would be more appropriate, and this in itself can cause confusion. To avoid misunderstandings, the meaning of any \"A-like\" symbol should always be explicitly defined in terms of the more fundamental quantities involved.\n", "The Baxandall converter has been used recently in driving fluorescent tubes from low voltage sources, often using rechargeable batteries, for emergency lighting and camping etc. Also in his 1959 paper, Baxandall described a voltage-switched variant of the sinewave oscillator. This variant seems to have been the forerunner of most two-transistor drivers for compact fluorescent lamps (CFL's) and which has been extended recently to drive low voltage LED lamps too.\n", "Some of the devices which evolved from Geissler tube technology:\n\nBULLET::::- Vacuum tubes\n\nBULLET::::- Xenon flash lamps (for flash photography)\n\nBULLET::::- Xenon arc lamps (for movie and IMAX projectors)\n\nBULLET::::- X-ray tubes\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium vapor lamps used in streetlights\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neon\" signs, which use both visible light discharge from neon and other gases and phosphor excitation from ultraviolet light\n\nBULLET::::- Mercury vapor lamps\n\nBULLET::::- Mass spectrometers\n\nBULLET::::- Cathode ray tubes, employed in the oscilloscope and later in television sets, radar, and computer display devices\n\nBULLET::::- Electrotachyscope (an early moving picture display device)\n\nBULLET::::- Fluorescent lamps\n\nBULLET::::- Plasma globes\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "The most widespread industrial application of ArF excimer lasers has been in deep-ultraviolet photolithography for the manufacturing of microelectronic devices (i.e., semiconductor integrated circuits or “chips”). From the early 1960s through the mid-1980s, Hg-Xe lamps had been used for lithography at 436, 405 and 365 nm wavelengths. However, with the semiconductor industry’s need for both finer resolution (for denser and faster chips) and higher production throughput (for lower costs), the lamp-based lithography tools were no longer able to meet the industry’s requirements.\n", "Consequently, optical heterodyne detection is usually performed as interferometry where the LO and signal share a common origin, rather than, as in radio, a transmitter sending to a remote receiver. The remote receiver geometry is uncommon because generating a local oscillator signal that is coherent with a signal of independent origin is technologically difficult at optical frequencies. However, lasers of sufficiently narrow linewidth to allow the signal and LO to originate from different lasers do exist.\n\nSection::::Contrast to conventional radio frequency (RF) heterodyne detection.:Photon Counting.\n", "BULLET::::- Input optics\n\nThe front-end optics of a spectroradiometer includes the lenses, diffusers, and filters that modify the light as it first enters the system. For Radiance an optic with a narrow field of view is required. For total flux an integrating sphere is required. For Irradiance cosine correcting optics are required. The material used for these elements determines what type of light is capable of being measured. For example, to take UV measurements, quartz rather than glass lenses, optical fibers, Teflon diffusers, and barium sulphate coated integrating spheres are often used to ensure accurate UV measurement.\n\nBULLET::::- Monochromator\n", "Section::::Application to climate science.\n", "Thulium doped fiber amplifiers have been used in the S-band (1450–1490 nm) and Praseodymium doped amplifiers in the 1300 nm region. However, those regions have not seen any significant commercial use so far and so those amplifiers have not been the subject of as much development as the EDFA. However, Ytterbium doped fiber lasers and amplifiers, operating near 1 micrometre wavelength, have many applications in industrial processing of materials, as these devices can be made with extremely high output power (tens of kilowatts).\n\nSection::::Semiconductor optical amplifier.\n", "The light produced by germicidal lamps is also used to erase EPROMs; the ultraviolet photons are sufficiently energetic to allow the electrons trapped on the transistors' floating gates to tunnel through the gate insulation, eventually removing the stored charge that represents binary ones and zeroes.\n\nSection::::Ozone production.\n\nFor most purposes, ozone production would be a detrimental side effect of lamp operation. To prevent this, most germicidal lamps are treated to absorb the 185 nm mercury emission line (which is the longest wavelength of mercury light which will ionize oxygen).\n", "Mach–Zehnder interferometers are being used in integrated optical circuits, in which light interferes between two branches of a waveguide that are externally modulated to vary their relative phase. A slight tilt of one of the beam splitters will result in a path difference and a change in the interference pattern. Mach–Zehnder interferometers are the basis of a wide variety of devices, from RF modulators to sensors to optical switches.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Optics.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00883	What is the difference between positive and negative pressure and why do patients with TB need to be placed in positive pressure rooms?	Positive pressure is more than atmospheric pressure. Negative (or “vacuum” ) pressure is less that atmospheric pressure. I do hope someone else can help with the second part of your question.	[ "Negative room pressure\n\nNegative room pressure is an isolation technique used in hospitals and medical centers to prevent cross-contaminations from room to room. It includes a ventilation that generates negative pressure to allow air to flow into the isolation room but not escape from the room, as air will naturally flow from areas with higher pressure to areas with lower pressure, thereby preventing contaminated air from escaping the room. This technique is used to isolate patients with airborne contagious diseases such as tuberculosis, measles, or chickenpox.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "With all three techniques, once the dressing is sealed the vacuum pump can be set to deliver continuous or intermittent pressures, with levels of pressure depending on the device used, varying between −125 and −75 mmHg depending on the material used and patient tolerance. Pressure can be applied constantly or intermittently.\n", "Pressure is the force put on the patient's body. Those forces can stem from the surgery itself, instruments, drills, gravity, attachments, and bandages. The duration and intensity of the pressure is inversely correlated. The longer the duration of the pressure, the less pressure the body can endure. However, the body can endure a large amount of pressure for brief periods of time. The amount of pressure on the tissue is based on the size of the area of the contact: the smaller the point of pressure, the greater effect it will have on the tissue. The position of instruments can cause damage to the body if pressure is not relieved periodically.\n", "Hospitals may have positive pressure rooms for patients with compromised immune systems. Air will flow out of the room instead of in, so that any airborne microorganisms (e.g., bacteria) that may infect the patient are kept away.\n\nThis process is important in human and chick development. Positive pressure, created by the closure of anterior and posterior neuropores of the neural tube during neurulation, is a requirement of brain development.\n\nAmphibians use this process to respire, whereby they use positive pressure to inflate their lungs.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Filtered Air Positive Pressure\n\nBULLET::::- Negative room pressure\n\nBULLET::::- Overpressure (CBRN protection)\n", "Pressure support ventilation\n\nPressure support ventilation (PSV), also known as pressure support, is a spontaneous mode of ventilation. The patient initiates every breath and the ventilator delivers support with the preset pressure value. With support from the ventilator, the patient also regulates his own respiratory rate and tidal volume.\n", "Use is also made of positive pressure to ensure there is no ingress of the environment into a supposed closed system. A typical example of the use of positive pressure is the location of a habitat in an area where there may exist flammable gases such as found on an oil platform or laboratory cleanroom. This kind of positive pressure is also used on operating theaters and \"in vitro\" fertilisation (IVF) labs.\n", "In Pressure Support, the set inspiratory pressure support level is kept constant and there is a decelerating flow. The patient triggers all breaths. If there is a change in the mechanical properties of the lung/thorax and patient effort, the delivered tidal volume will be affected. The user must then regulate the pressure support level to obtain desired ventilation.\n\nSection::::Oxygenation.\n\nPressure support improves oxygenation, ventilation and decreases work of breathing.\n\nSection::::Ventilation.\n\nPressure support improves patient ventilation.\n\nSection::::Work of breathing.\n\nPressure support decreases overall work of breathing when used in tandem with an intermittent mechanical ventilation mode.\n", "Intubation may be necessary for a patient with decreased oxygen content and oxygen saturation of the blood caused when their breathing is inadequate (hypoventilation), suspended (apnea), or when the lungs are unable to sufficiently transfer gasses to the blood. Such patients, who may be awake and alert, are typically critically ill with a multisystem disease or multiple severe injuries. Examples of such conditions include cervical spine injury, multiple rib fractures, severe pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), or near-drowning. Specifically, intubation is considered if the arterial partial pressure of oxygen (PaO) is less than 60 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) while breathing an inspired O concentration (FIO) of 50% or greater. In patients with elevated arterial carbon dioxide, an arterial partial pressure of CO (PaCO) greater than 45 mm Hg in the setting of acidemia would prompt intubation, especially if a series of measurements demonstrate a worsening respiratory acidosis. Regardless of the laboratory values, these guidelines are always interpreted in the clinical context.\n", "In Pressure Support, the set inspiratory pressure support level is kept constant and there is a decelerating flow. The patient triggers all breaths. If there is a change in the mechanical properties of the lung/thorax and patient effort, the delivered tidal volume will be affected. The user must then regulate the pressure support level to obtain desired ventilation.\n\nPressure support improves oxygenation, ventilation and decreases work of breathing.\n\nAlso see adaptive support ventilation.\n\nSection::::Other ventilation modes and strategies.\n\nSection::::Other ventilation modes and strategies.:Closed loop systems.\n\nSection::::Other ventilation modes and strategies.:Closed loop systems.:Adaptive Support Ventilation.\n", "Diseases of the cardiovascular system, such as hypertension and heart failure, are often associated with changes in CO. Cardiomyopathy and heart failure cause a reduction in cardiac output, whereas infection and sepsis are known to increase cardiac output. Hence, the ability to accurately measure CO is important in physiology, as it provides for improved diagnosis of abnormalities, and can be used to guide the development of new treatment strategies. However, CO is dependent upon loading conditions and is inferior to hemodynamic parameters defined by the PV plane.\n\nSection::::Pressure–volume parameters.:Ejection fraction.\n", "The septum is made of a special self-sealing silicone; it can be punctured hundreds of times before it weakens significantly. To administer treatment or to withdraw blood, a health care professional will first locate the port and disinfect the area, then access the port by puncturing the overlying skin with a Huber point needle. Due to its design, there is a very low infection risk, as the breach of skin integrity is never larger than the caliber of the needle. This gives it an advantage over indwelling lines such as the Hickman line. Negative pressure is created to withdraw blood into the vacuumized needle, to check for blood return and see if the port is functioning normally. Next, the port is flushed with a saline solution. Then, treatment will begin.\n", "To take into account the parallel conductance, G, the most common method involves injection of hypertonic saline into the subject—enough to temporarily reduce blood resistance, and therefore increase preload, but not so much as to alter haemodynamics. The minimum and maximum volumes (V and V) from each loop in the series of loops are plotted on a graph. V and V lines are extrapolated and at their point of intersection, where V is equal to V, must be zero—conductance is parallel conductance only. The volume at this point is the correction volume.\n", "Transpulmonary pressure\n\nTranspulmonary pressure is the difference between the alveolar pressure and the intrapleural pressure in the pleural cavity. During human ventilation, air flows because of pressure gradients. \n\nP = P – P. Where P is transpulmonary pressure, P is alveolar pressure, and P is intrapleural pressure.\n\nSection::::Physiology.\n\nSince atmospheric pressure is relatively constant, pressure in the lungs must be higher or lower than atmospheric pressure for air to flow between the atmosphere and the alveoli. \n", "Section::::Diagnosis.:Complications.\n\nCompartment syndrome is a clinical diagnosis, i.e., no diagnostic test conclusively proves its presence or absence, but direct measurement of the pressure in a fascial compartment, and the difference between this pressure and the blood pressure, may be used to assess its severity. High pressures in the compartment and a small difference between compartment pressure and blood pressure indicate that the blood supply is likely to be insufficient, and that surgical intervention may be needed.\n", "Decreased CSF pressure can indicate complete subarachnoid blockage, leakage of spinal fluid, severe dehydration, hyperosmolality, or circulatory collapse. Significant changes in pressure during the procedure can indicate tumors or spinal blockage resulting in a large pool of CSF, or hydrocephalus associated with large volumes of CSF.\n\nSection::::Interpretation.:Cell count.\n", "For example, it is considered the gold standard for determining the cause of acute pulmonary edema; this is likely to be present at a PWP of 20mmHg. It has also been used to diagnose severity of left ventricular failure and mitral stenosis, given that elevated pulmonary capillary wedge pressure strongly suggests failure of left ventricular output.\n", "BULLET::::- Foley catheterization may be necessary for spinal cord AGE if the person is unable to urinate.\n\nBULLET::::- Intravenous hydration may be required to maintain adequate blood pressure.\n\nBULLET::::- Therapeutic recompression is indicated for severe AGE. The diving medical practitioner will need to know the vital signs and relevant symptoms, along with the recent pressure exposure and breathing gas history of the patient. Air transport should be below if possible, or in a pressurized aircraft which should be pressurised to as low an altitude as reasonably possible.\n", "BULLET::::- Blair Lewis, Clinical Professor of Gastroenterology and instrumental in developing the International Conference of Capsule Endoscopy's consensus statement for clinical application of capsule endoscopy\n\nBULLET::::- Barry A. Love, cardiologist specializing in pediatric and congenital heart problems and Director of Mount Sinai's Congenital Cardiac Catheterization Laboratory and Director of the Pediatric Electrophysiology Service\n\nBULLET::::- Henry Zvi Lothane, Clinical Professor, internationally recognized psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, and historian of psychoanalysis.\n", "Section::::Systemic venous pressure.\n\nBlood pressure generally refers to the arterial pressure in the systemic circulation. However, measurement of pressures in the venous system and the pulmonary vessels plays an important role in intensive care medicine but requires invasive measurement of pressure using a catheter.\n\nVenous pressure is the vascular pressure in a vein or in the atria of the heart. It is much lower than arterial pressure, with common values of 5 mmHg in the right atrium and 8 mmHg in the left atrium.\n\nVariants of venous pressure include:\n", "Use: Treatment of joint pain plus a more serious symptom of decompression sickness when oxygen is not available and symptoms are relieved within 30 minutes at or less than 50 msw (164 fsw)\n\nBULLET::::- Oxygen not used\n\nBULLET::::- Maximum pressure 50msw (164 fsw)\n\nBULLET::::- Run time 19 hours 48 minutes\n\nSection::::Hyperbaric chamber treatment schedules.:Royal Navy Table 54 - Air Recompression Therapy.\n\nUse: Treatment of joint pain plus a more serious symptom of decompression sickness when oxygen is available and symptoms are \"not\" relieved within 30 minutes at or less than \n\nBULLET::::- Oxygen available\n", "Intrapleural pressure\n\nIn physiology, intrapleural pressure (also called intrathoracic pressure) refers to the pressure within the pleural cavity. Normally, the pressure within the pleural cavity is slightly less than the atmospheric pressure, in what is known as \"negative pressure\". When the pleural cavity is damaged/ruptured and the intrapleural pressure becomes equal to or exceeds the atmospheric pressure, pneumothorax may ensue.\n\nIntrapleural pressure depends on the ventilation phase, atmospheric pressure, and the volume of the intrapleural cavity.\n", "The IVT treatment device consists of a cylindrical space in which the lower body of a lying patient (up until the ribs) is enclosed and affected. The legs are fully comprised. In the waist region, the inner space of the device is sealed by means of a lens. Within the cubicle, a vacuum pump alternatingly generates intermittent normal and low pressure (-20 until -70 mbar).\n\nThe devices are declared medical devices (EG guideline 93/42/EWG class IIa. CE 0535).\n\nSection::::Mode of operation.\n", "A lumbar puncture is done by positioning the person, usually lying on the side, applying local anesthetic, and inserting a needle into the dural sac (a sac around the spinal cord) to collect cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). When this has been achieved, the \"opening pressure\" of the CSF is measured using a manometer. The pressure is normally between 6 and 18 cm water (cmHO); in bacterial meningitis the pressure is usually elevated. In cryptococcal meningitis, intracranial pressure is markedly elevated. The initial appearance of the fluid may prove an indication of the nature of the infection: cloudy CSF indicates higher levels of protein, white and red blood cells and/or bacteria, and therefore may suggest bacterial meningitis.\n", "The commonly used units of pressure for hyperbaric treatment are metres of sea water (msw) and feet of sea water (fsw) which indicate the pressure of treatment in terms of the height of water column that would be supported in a manometer. These units are also used for measuring the depth of a surface supplied diver using a and directly relate the pressure to an equivalent depth. The pressure gauges used on diving chambers are often calibrated in both of these units. Elapsed time of treatment is usually recorded in minutes, or hours and minutes, and may be measured from the start of pressurisation, or from the time when treatment pressure is reached.\n", "The part of the catheter that remains outside the skin is called the connecting hub; it can be connected to a syringe or an intravenous infusion line, or capped with a or saline lock, a needleless connection filled with a small amount of heparin or saline solution to prevent clotting, between uses of the catheter. Ported cannulae have an injection port on the top that is often used to administer medicine.\n\nIn cases of shock, a central venous catheter, a peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC), venous cutdown or intraosseous infusion may be necessary.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04509	Why do watermelons or any fruit for that matter blows up when a bullet passes throught it rather than just leaving an entry to exit hole?	Did you ever notice when someone jumps into a pool they don't leave a neat hole? They splash. Imagine all that energy trapped inside a piece of fruit.	[ "While a bullet that penetrates through-and-through tends to cause more profuse bleeding, allowing a game animal to be bloodtrailed more easily, in some applications, preventing exit from the rear of the target is more desirable. A perforating bullet can continue on (likely not coaxial to the original trajectory due to target deflection) and might cause unintended damage or injury.\n\nSection::::Firearm projectiles.:Classes of bullets.:Controlled penetration.:Flat point.\n", "BULLET::::- Covered with apricot.\n\nSection::::Variants.:The Philippines.\n", "Many large calibre projectiles are filled with a high explosive which, when detonated, shatters the shell casing, producing thousands of high velocity fragments and an accompanying sharply rising blast overpressure. More rarely, others are used to release chemical or biological agents, either on impact or when over the target area; designing an appropriate fuse is a difficult task which lies outside the realm of terminal ballistics.\n", "Two distinct, simultaneous phenomena are associated with the blast wave in air:\n\nBULLET::::- Static overpressure, i.e., the sharp increase in pressure exerted by the shock wave. The overpressure at any given point is directly proportional to the density of the air in the wave.\n\nBULLET::::- Dynamic pressures, i.e., drag exerted by the blast winds required to form the blast wave. These winds push, tumble and tear objects.\n", "Section::::International law.\n\nThe Hague Convention of 1899, Declaration III prohibits the use of expanding bullets in international warfare. This is often incorrectly believed to be prohibited by the Geneva Conventions, but it significantly predates those conventions, and is in fact a continuance of the Declaration of St Petersburg in 1868, which banned exploding projectiles of less than 400 grams.\n", "BULLET::::- This is dictated by its extremely low blast capacity as a consequence of the limited yield of these weapons, namely size and concealment constraints; as well as,\n\nBULLET::::- The likely lack of fragmentation from ‘hard’ casings (again a consequence of the need for greater concealment).\n", "BULLET::::- Exploding: Similar to the incendiary bullet, this type of projectile is designed to explode upon hitting a hard surface, preferably the bone of the intended target. Not to be mistaken for cannon shells or grenades with fuse devices, these bullets have only a cavity filled with a small amount of low explosive depending on the velocity and deformation upon impact to detonate. Exploding bullets have been used on various aircraft machine guns and on anti materiel rifles.\n", "BULLET::::- \" Rissoina hummelincki\" Jong & Coomans, 1988\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rissoina humpa\" (Chang & Wu, 2004)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rissoina illustris\" G. B. Sowerby III, 1894\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rissoina imbricata\" Gould, 1861\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rissoina inca\" d'Orbigny, 1840\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rissoina incerta\" Souverbie, 1872\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rissoina indica\" G. Nevill, 1885\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rissoina indiscreta\" Leal and Moore, 1989\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rissoina inermis\" Brazier, 1877\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rissoina io\" Bartsch, 1915\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rissoina iredalei\" Laseron, 1950\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rissoina isolata (\"Laseron, 1956)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rissoina isosceles\" Melvill & Standen, 1903\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rissoina jaffa\" Cotton, 1952\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rissoina janus\" (C.B. Adams, 1852)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rissoina jeffreysiensis\" Tomlin, 1931\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rissoina jickelii\" Weinkauff, 1881\n", "BULLET::::- Some materials such as primary high explosives may detonate with mechanical shock or impact.\n\nBULLET::::- When glass bottles of liquid are dropped or subjected to shock, the water hammer effect may cause hydrodynamic glass breakage.\n\nSection::::Considerations.\n\nWhen laboratory testing, field experience, or engineering judgement indicates that an item could be damaged by mechanical shock, several courses of action might be considered:\n\nBULLET::::- Reduce and control the input shock at the source.\n\nBULLET::::- Modify the item to improve its toughness or support it to better handle shocks.\n", "BULLET::::- N. K. Gupta and Nagesh, (2006) \"Collapse mode transitions of thin tubes with wall thickness, end condition and shape eccentricity\", \"International Journal of Mechanical Sciences\", 48, 210–223\n\nBULLET::::- N. K. Gupta, M. A Iqbal and G. S. Sekhon (2007), \"Effect of projectile nose shape, impact velocity, and target thickness on the deformation behaviour of thin aluminium targets\", \"International Journal of Solids and Structures\", 44, 3411–343\n\nBULLET::::- N. K. Gupta, N. Mohamed Sheriff and R. Velmurugan, (2007) \"Experimental and numerical investigations into collapse behavior of thin spherical shells under drop hammer impact\", \"International Journal of Solids and Structures\", 44, 3136–3155\n", "An explosion, whether or not by a weapon, causes the debris to act as multiple high velocity projectiles. An explosive weapon, or device may also be designed to produce many high velocity projectiles by the break-up of its casing, these are correctly termed fragments.\n\nSection::::Delivery projectiles.\n\nMany projectiles, e.g. shells, may carry an explosive charge or another chemical or biological substance. Aside from explosive payload, a projectile can be designed to cause special damage, e.g. fire (see also early thermal weapons), or poisoning (see also arrow poison).\n\nSection::::Sport projectiles.\n", "BULLET::::- Iran\n", "This class of projectile is designed to break apart on impact whilst being of a construction more akin to that of an expanding bullet. Fragmenting bullets are usually constructed like the hollowpoint projectiles described above, but with deeper and larger cavities. They may also have thinner copper jackets in order to reduce their overall integrity. These bullets are typically fired at high velocities to maximize their fragmentation upon impact. In contrast to a hollowpoint which attempts to stay in one large piece retaining as much weight as possible whilst presenting the most surface area to the target, a fragmenting bullet is intended to break up into many small pieces almost instantly.\n", "BULLET::::- In the Syrian Civil War, Colonel Afeef Mahmoud Suleima of the Syrian Armys aviation logistics division defects along with at least 50 of his men, ordering his men to protect protesters in the Syrian city of Hama from government forces.\n\n9 January\n", "BULLET::::- Fragmentation bomb: The use of fragmentation in bombs dates to the 14th century, and first appears in the Ming Dynasty text \"Huolongjing\". The fragmentation bombs were filled with iron pellets and pieces of broken porcelain. A heated mixture of salammoniac, tung oil, chin chih, scallion juice, and yin hsiu is poured into the bomb, coating the pellets. Once the bomb explodes, the resulting shrapnel is capable of piercing the skin and blinding enemy soldiers.\n", "BULLET::::- Haj Ali Arbab House\n\nBULLET::::- Do Berar Peak\n\nBULLET::::- Ancient Hill Qaleh Kesh\n\nBULLET::::- Larijan Thermal Spring\n\nBULLET::::- Kolakchal Mountain\n\nBULLET::::- Ghoredagh Mountain\n\nBULLET::::- Municipal House\n\nBULLET::::- Tekyeh Firuz Kola\n\nBULLET::::- Pol-e Mun Castle\n\nBULLET::::- Saghanefar Hendoukola\n\nBULLET::::- Saghanefar Zarrin Kola\n\nBULLET::::- Tekyeh Oji Abad\n\nSection::::Souvenir.\n\nBULLET::::- Rice (\"Berenj\")\n\nBULLET::::- Tursu (\"Torshi\")\n\nBULLET::::- Vegetable (\"Sabzi\")\n\nBULLET::::- Kilim (\"Gelim\")\n\nBULLET::::- Pottery (\"Sofalgari\")\n\nBULLET::::- Juglans (\"Gerdoo\")\n\nBULLET::::- Orange (\"Porteghal\")\n\nBULLET::::- Cherry (\"Gilas\")\n\nBULLET::::- Apple (\"Sib\")\n\nBULLET::::- Wood carving (\"Monabat Kari\")\n\nBULLET::::- Honey (\"Asal\")\n\nBULLET::::- Felt (\"Namad\")\n\nBULLET::::- Fruit preserves (\"Murabba\")\n\nBULLET::::- Local Bread (\"Nan Mahali\")\n\nBULLET::::- Pastry Ab dandan\n", "BULLET::::- a delay in alerting the local fire brigade.\n", "BULLET::::- Matematický klokan Czech Republic\n\nBULLET::::- Matemaatikavõistlus Känguru Estonia\n\nBULLET::::- Kangoeroe Vlaanderen Flanders\n\nBULLET::::- Le Kangourou des Mathématiques France\n\nBULLET::::- Känguru der Mathematik Germany\n\nBULLET::::- Διεθνής Μαθηματικός Διαγωνισμός \"Καγκουρό\" Greece\n\nBULLET::::- Nemzetközi Kenguru Matematika Verseny Hungary\n\nBULLET::::- math kangaroo Iran\n\nBULLET::::- קנגורו מתמטיקה Israel\n\nBULLET::::- Kangourou Italia Italy\n\nBULLET::::- Kengūra Lithuania\n\nBULLET::::- Math Kangaroo Malaysia Malaysia\n\nBULLET::::- Кенгуру Математикийн Уралдаан Монгол\n\nBULLET::::- Wiskunde Kangoeroe The Netherlands\n\nBULLET::::- Kangourou Sans Frontieres Pakistan (KSF PAKISTAN) Pakistan\n\nBULLET::::- Kangaroo » IKMC in Pakistan Pakistan\n\nBULLET::::- Kangur Matematyczny Poland\n\nBULLET::::- Cangurul Matematic Romania\n\nBULLET::::- Kenguru Russia\n\nBULLET::::- Kengur bez granica Serbia\n", "BULLET::::- Less lethal, or Less than Lethal: Rubber bullets, plastic bullets, and beanbags are designed to be non-lethal, for example for use in riot control. They are generally low velocity and are fired from shotguns, grenade launchers, paint ball guns, or specially designed firearms and air gun devices.\n\nBULLET::::- Incendiary: These bullets are made with an explosive or flammable mixture in the tip that is designed to ignite on contact with a target. The intent is to ignite fuel or munitions in the target area, thereby adding to the destructive power of the bullet itself.\n", "BULLET::::- A U.S. unmanned aerial vehicle strikes a car traveling in Syria's Idlib Governorate with an air-to-ground missile, killing senior al-Qaeda leader Abu Khayr al-Masri, a son-in-law of al-Qaeda founder Osama bin Laden. The projectile tears a hole through the car's roof but causes no explosive damage to the car, suggesting that it either was a dud or that the United States deliberately used an inert warhead to target the car.\n\nBULLET::::- 27 February\n", "Dr. Mads Gilbert and Dr. Erik Fosse, working on wounded from the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict, reported injuries that they believed were caused by some new type of weapon used by Israel, which they speculated were DIME bombs. Gilbert and Fosse made the same accusations during the ongoing 2014 Gaza conflict.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- GBU-39 Small Diameter Bomb\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Dense Inert Metal Explosive (DIME) (dead link 29 September 2018)\n\nBULLET::::- How Goes the War From Here? Small diameter solutions SF Chronicle, September 12, 2006\n\nBULLET::::- Cancer worries for new U.S. bombs by Defense Tech\n", "One unusual phenomenon occurs when dense, low-volume powders are used in large-capacity rifle cases. Small charges of powder, unless held tightly near the rear of the case by wadding, can apparently detonate when ignited, sometimes causing catastrophic failure of the firearm. The mechanism of this phenomenon is not well known, and generally it is not encountered except when loading low recoil or low-velocity subsonic rounds for rifles. These rounds generally have velocities of under 1100 ft/s (320 m/s), and are used for indoor shooting, in conjunction with a suppressor or for pest control, where the power and muzzle blast of a full-power round is not needed or desired.\n", "BULLET::::- Fort York magazine explosion: On 27 April 1813, the magazine of Fort York in Ontario (now Toronto) was fired by retreating British troops during an American invasion. Thirty thousand pounds of gunpowder and thirty thousand cartridges exploded sending debris, cannon and musket balls over the American troops. Thirty eight soldiers, including General Zebulon Pike the American commander, were killed and 222 were wounded.\n", "BULLET::::- The un-mixing or segregation of unlike grains under vibration and flow. An example of this is the so-called Brazil nut effect where Brazil nuts rise to the top of a packet of mixed nuts when shaken.The cause of this effect is that when shaken, granular (and some other) materials move in a circular pattern. some larger materials (Brazil nuts) get stuck while going down the circle and therefore stay on the top.\n", "Section::::Causes of Grain Damage.:Damage During Handling.\n\nSection::::Causes of Grain Damage.:Damage During Handling.:Filling.\n\nBULLET::::- Free fall and spouting\n" ]	[ "When shot with a bullet, watermelons should not explode on impact. " ]	[ "Because watermelons have much heat inside of them, they are bound to explode after being shot. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "When shot with a bullet, watermelons should not explode on impact. ", "When shot with a bullet, watermelons should not explode on impact. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Because watermelons have much heat inside of them, they are bound to explode after being shot. ", "Because watermelons have much heat inside of them, they are bound to explode after being shot. " ]
2018-01899	Why does a vehicle need to go very fast to escape earth? Why cant it go very slowly but with a lot of power?	It can go slowly with a lot of power, but it will need to move a huge amount of fuel with it as it will have to keep burning for a very long time Escape velocity is the speed you need to get out of an object's(Earth's in this case) gravity well and continue off endlessly. The 11.2 km/s escape velocity of Earth is for an object near the surface that isn't impacted by air resistance, but if you move further away the speed requirement drops. By the time you get to 9000 km you only need to be moving about 7.1 km/s to escape Earth Your slow but powerful ship would just have to keep burning away from Earth until it gets far enough away that its speed exceeds the escape velocity at that distance. Unfortunately if you're going slowly you're going to need an obscene amount of fuel due to all the energy you lose to gravity, we go quickly so you spend as little time burning fuel to fight gravity as possible.	[ "With any current source of electrical power, chemical, nuclear or solar, the maximum amount of power that can be generated limits the amount of thrust that can be produced to a small value. Power generation adds significant mass to the spacecraft, and ultimately the weight of the power source limits the performance of the vehicle.\n\nCurrent nuclear power generators are approximately half the weight of solar panels per watt of energy supplied, at terrestrial distances from the Sun. Chemical power generators are not used due to the far lower total available energy. Beamed power to the spacecraft shows some potential.\n", "A major limiting factor for constant acceleration drives is having enough fuel. Constant acceleration won't be feasible unless the specific impulse for fuel (the fuel's fuel efficiency) becomes much higher.\n", "In the \"Known Space\" Universe, constructed by Larry Niven, Earth uses constant acceleration drives in the form of Bussard ramjets to help colonize the nearest planetary systems. In the non-Known Space novel \"A World Out of Time\", Jerome Branch Corbell (for himself), 'takes' a ramjet to the Galactic Center and back in 150 years ships time (most of it in cold sleep), but 3 million years passes on Earth.\n", "The rate of change of velocity is called acceleration, and the rate of change of momentum is called force. To reach a given velocity, one can apply a small acceleration over a long period of time, or one can apply a large acceleration over a short time. Similarly, one can achieve a given impulse with a large force over a short time or a small force over a long time. This means that for manoeuvring in space, a propulsion method that produces tiny accelerations but runs for a long time can produce the same impulse as a propulsion method that produces large accelerations for a short time. When launching from a planet, tiny accelerations cannot overcome the planet's gravitational pull and so cannot be used.\n", "Instead, a much smaller, less powerful generator may be included which will take much longer to generate the total energy needed. This lower power is only sufficient to accelerate a tiny amount of fuel per second, and would be insufficient for launching from Earth. However, over long periods in orbit where there is no friction, the velocity will be finally achieved. For example, it took the SMART-1 more than a year to reach the Moon, whereas with a chemical rocket it takes a few days. Because the ion drive needs much less fuel, the total launched mass is usually lower, which typically results in a lower overall cost, but the journey takes longer.\n", "This fact is used in interplanetary travel. It means that the amount of delta-v to reach other planets, over and above that to reach escape velocity can be much less if the delta-v is applied when the rocket is travelling at high speeds, close to the Earth or other planetary surface; whereas waiting until the rocket has slowed at altitude multiplies up the effort required to achieve the desired trajectory.\n\nSection::::Safety, reliability and accidents.\n\nThe reliability of rockets, as for all physical systems, is dependent on the quality of engineering design and construction.\n", "The \"Pioneer 10\" and \"11\", and \"Voyager 1\" and \"2\" Centaur (second) stages are also in heliocentric orbits.\n\nIn order to leave the Solar System, the probe needs to reach the escape velocity. After leaving Earth, the Sun's escape velocity is 42.1 km/s. In order to reach this speed, it is highly advantageous to use the orbital speed of the Earth around the Sun, which is 29.78 km/s. By passing near a planet, a probe can gain extra speed.\n", "For some missions, particularly reasonably close to the Sun, solar energy may be sufficient, and has very often been used, but for others further out or at higher power, nuclear energy is necessary; engines drawing their power from a nuclear source are called nuclear electric rockets.\n", "Observe that the more fuel-efficient engines can use far less fuel; their mass is almost negligible (relative to the mass of the payload and the engine itself) for some of the engines. However, note also that these require a large total amount of energy. For Earth launch, engines require a thrust to weight ratio of more than one. To do this with the ion or more theoretical electrical drives, the engine would have to be supplied with one to several gigawatts of power, equivalent to a major metropolitan generating station. From the table it can be seen that this is clearly impractical with current power sources.\n", "Since weight is no limitation, an Orion craft can be extremely robust. An uncrewed craft could tolerate very large accelerations, perhaps 100 \"g\". A human-crewed Orion, however, must use some sort of damping system behind the pusher plate to smooth the near instantaneous acceleration to a level that humans can comfortably withstand – typically about 2 to 4 \"g\".\n", "Earth's surface is situated fairly deep in a gravity well. The escape velocity required to get out of it is 11.2 kilometers/second. As human beings evolved in a gravitational field of 1g (9.8 m/s²), an ideal propulsion system would be one that provides a continuous acceleration of 1g (though human bodies can tolerate much larger accelerations over short periods). The occupants of a rocket or spaceship having such a propulsion system would be free from all the ill effects of free fall, such as nausea, muscular weakness, reduced sense of taste, or leaching of calcium from their bones.\n", "BULLET::::- if it is much more than the delta-v, then, proportionally more energy is needed; if the power is limited, as with solar energy, this means that the journey takes a proportionally longer time\n\nThe second and third are the typical amounts of thrust and the typical burn times of the method. Outside a gravitational potential small amounts of thrust applied over a long period will give the same effect as large amounts of thrust over a short period. (This result does not apply when the object is significantly influenced by gravity.)\n", "BULLET::::- for a given formula_4, the minimum energy is needed if formula_40, requiring an energy of\n\nThese results apply for a fixed exhaust speed.\n\nDue to the Oberth effect and starting from a nonzero speed, the required potential energy needed from the propellant may be \"less\" than the increase in energy in the vehicle and payload. This can be the case when the reaction mass has a lower speed after being expelled than before – rockets are able to liberate some or all of the initial kinetic energy of the propellant.\n", "In the constant-thrust trajectory, the vehicle's acceleration increases during thrusting period, since the fuel use means the vehicle mass decreases. If, instead of constant thrust, the vehicle has constant acceleration, the engine thrust must decrease during the trajectory.\n\nSection::::Interstellar travel.\n\nOver interstellar distances a spaceship using significant constant acceleration will approach the speed of light, so special relativity effects (like the difference in time flow between ship time and planetary time) become important.\n\nSection::::Interstellar travel.:Expressions for covered distance and elapsed time.\n", "For formula_4 much smaller than \"v\", this equation is roughly linear, and little reaction mass is needed. If formula_4 is comparable to \"v\", then there needs to be about twice as much fuel as combined payload and structure (which includes engines, fuel tanks, and so on). Beyond this, the growth is exponential; speeds much higher than the exhaust velocity require very high ratios of fuel mass to payload and structural mass.\n", "Constant-thrust and constant-acceleration trajectories involve the spacecraft firing its engine in a prolonged constant burn. In the limiting case where the vehicle acceleration is high compared to the local gravitational acceleration, the orbit approaches a straight line. The spacecraft points straight toward the target (accounting for target motion), and remains accelerating constantly under high thrust until it reaches its target. If it is required that the spacecraft rendezvous with the target, rather than performing a flyby, then the spacecraft must flip its orientation halfway through the journey, and decelerate the rest of the way.\n", "The escape velocity from the Earth's surface is about 11 km/s, but that is insufficient to send the body an infinite distance because of the gravitational pull of the Sun. To escape the Solar System from a location at a distance from the Sun equal to the distance Sun–Earth, but not close to the Earth, requires around 42 km/s velocity, but there will be \"partial credit\" for the Earth's orbital velocity for spacecraft launched from Earth, if their further acceleration (due to the propulsion system) carries them in the same direction as Earth travels in its orbit.\n", "Section::::Improved technologies and methodologies.:Improved rocket concepts.:Electric propulsion.\n\nElectric propulsion systems use an external source such as a nuclear reactor or solar cells to generate electricity, which is then used to accelerate a chemically inert propellant to speeds far higher than achieved in a chemical rocket. Such drives produce feeble thrust, and are therefore unsuitable for quick maneuvers or for launching from the surface of a planet. But they are so economical in their use of\n", "Spacecraft today predominantly use rockets for propulsion, but other propulsion techniques such as ion drives are becoming more common, particularly for unmanned vehicles, and this can significantly reduce the vehicle's mass and increase its delta-v.\n\nSection::::Spacecraft.:Launch systems.\n\nLaunch systems are used to carry a payload from Earth's surface into outer space.\n\nSection::::Challenges.\n\nSection::::Challenges.:Space disasters.\n", "BULLET::::- It is a fast form of travel. When ergonomics are considered, they are the fastest form of interplanetary and interstellar travel.\n\nBULLET::::- Constant acceleration creates its own artificial gravity to the benefit of passengers, who may thus be spared from having to deal with the effects of microgravity.\n\nHowever, constant acceleration is an inefficient use of fuel and energy, and is not used in existing spaceflight systems. \n\nSection::::Constant-acceleration drives.:Constant thrust versus constant acceleration.\n", "For interplanetary travel, a spacecraft can use its engines to leave Earth's orbit. It is not explicitly necessary as the initial boost given by the rocket, gravity slingshot, monopropellant/bipropellent attitude control propulsion system are enough for the exploration of the solar system (see New Horizons). Once it has done so, it must somehow make its way to its destination. Current interplanetary spacecraft do this with a series of short-term trajectory adjustments. In between these adjustments, the spacecraft simply moves along its trajectory with a constant velocity. The most fuel-efficient means to move from one circular orbit to another is with a Hohmann transfer orbit: the spacecraft begins in a roughly circular orbit around the Sun. A short period of thrust in the direction of motion accelerates or decelerates the spacecraft into an elliptical orbit around the Sun which is tangential to its previous orbit and also to the orbit of its destination. The spacecraft falls freely along this elliptical orbit until it reaches its destination, where another short period of thrust accelerates or decelerates it to match the orbit of its destination. Special methods such as aerobraking or aerocapture are sometimes used for this final orbital adjustment.\n", "Current spacecraft achieve a change in velocity by the expulsion of propellant, the extraction of momentum from stellar radiation pressure or the stellar wind or the utilisation of a gravity assist (\"slingshot\") from a planet or moon. These methods are limiting in that rocket propellants have to be accelerated as well and are eventually depleted, and the stellar wind or the gravitational fields of planets can only be utilized locally in the Solar System. In interstellar space and bereft of the above resources, different forms of propulsion are needed to propel a spacecraft, and they are referred to as advanced or .\n", "Similarly, while the orbital speed of an outer planet is less than that of the Earth, a spacecraft leaving the Earth at the minimum speed needed to travel to some outer planet is slowed by the Sun's gravity to a speed far less than the orbital speed of that outer planet. Thus, there must be some way to accelerate the spacecraft when it reaches that outer planet if it is to enter orbit about it. However, if the spacecraft is accelerated to more than the minimum required, less total propellant will be needed to enter orbit about the target planet. In addition, accelerating the spacecraft early in the flight reduces the travel time.\n", "Some drives (such as VASIMR or electrodeless plasma thruster) actually can significantly vary their exhaust velocity. This can help reduce propellant usage or improve acceleration at different stages of the flight. However the best energetic performance and acceleration is still obtained when the exhaust velocity is close to the vehicle speed. Proposed ion and plasma drives usually have exhaust velocities enormously higher than that ideal (in the case of VASIMR the lowest quoted speed is around 15000 m/s compared to a mission delta-v from high Earth orbit to Mars of about 4000m/s).\n", "For, although solar power and nuclear power are virtually unlimited sources of \"energy\", the maximum \"power\" they can supply is substantially proportional to the mass of the powerplant (i.e. specific power takes a largely constant value which is dependent on the particular powerplant technology). For any given specific power, with a large formula_6 which is desirable to save propellant mass, it turns out that the maximum acceleration is inversely proportional to formula_6. Hence the time to reach a required delta-v is proportional to formula_6. Thus the latter should not be too large.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Reaction engines.:Energy.\n" ]	[ "Vehicle cannot go slowly with a lot of power to escape earth orbit.", "Vehicles should be able to leave Earth without going very fast. " ]	[ "Vehicles can go slowly for a long time they just need to eventually get to a point where they are going faster than the escape velocity at that point. ", "It would take an excessive amount of fuel in order for a vehicle to escape Earth slowly, the amount of fuel needed is nearly impossible to obtain." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Vehicle cannot go slowly with a lot of power to escape earth orbit.", "Vehicles should be able to leave Earth without going very fast. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Vehicles can go slowly for a long time they just need to eventually get to a point where they are going faster than the escape velocity at that point. ", "It would take an excessive amount of fuel in order for a vehicle to escape Earth slowly, the amount of fuel needed is nearly impossible to obtain." ]
2018-00229	Can you get a "contact high" from living above a neighbor who smokes marijuana?	Get a testing kit, you can have traces in your system and not have been high. Unless you're hotboxing with her, i cant see u getting that high.	[ "Contact high\n\nA contact high is a psychological phenomenon that occurs in otherwise sober people and animals who come into contact with someone who is under the influence of drugs. It involves a supposed transfer of the physiological state of intoxication.\n\nA glossary of drug users' language from the 1970s describes the term as \"a psychogenic 'trip' without taking drugs by being close to somebody while he or she is on drugs. The term is often incorrectly used to describe the high obtained by inhaling the smoke of other marijuana smokers.\"\n", "Contact high (disambiguation)\n\nA contact high is a psychological phenomenon. \n\nContact High may also refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Contact High\" (film), a 2009 Austrian film\n\nBULLET::::- \"\", a 2018 book\n\nin music:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Contact High\", a 2001 album by Rocket Science\n\nBULLET::::- \"Contact High with the Godz\", an album by The Godz\n\nBULLET::::- \"Contact High\", a song by Allen Stone from his self-titled 2012 album\n\nBULLET::::- \"Contact High\", a song by Architecture in Helsinki from their 2011 album \"Moment Bends\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Contact High\", a song by Brad Paisley from his 2017 album \"Love and War\"\n", "However, every individual is different, and detection times can vary due to metabolism or other factors. It also depends on whether actual THC or THC metabolites are being tested for, the latter having a much longer detection time than the former. THC (found in marijuana) may only be detectable in saliva/oral fluid for 2–24 hours in most cases.\n", "Cannabis use is detectable with hair tests and is generally included in the standard hair test. Hair tests generally take the most recent 1.5 inches of growth and use those for testing. That provides a detection period of approximately 90 days. If an individual's hair is shorter than 1.5 inches, this detection period will be shorter. The detection window for body hair cannabis testing will be longer, because body hair grows slower than head hair and distorts the detection timeframe. Hair drug testing measures the marijuana parent metabolite embedded inside the hairshaft and eliminates external contamination as a source of a positive result. The detection window of hair drug testing for cannabis can be as low as 1 pg/mg.\n", "Benson underwent various tests to gauge his physical and mental health, first during a 30-day period in which he abstained from cannabis use, then during another 30-day period in which he smoked and ingested cannabis every day. Benson's physician concluded that the effects on Benson's health from his use of cannabis were generally inconsequential. The greatest undesirable changes noted were a weight gain of eight pounds during his \"high\" month and a significant decrease in his ability to do mental mathematics. His sperm count increased, contrary to what might be expected based on medical studies. His overall score on the SAT increased, mainly due to an increased verbal score.\n", "The concentrations obtained from such analyses can often be helpful in distinguishing active use from passive exposure, elapsed time since use, and extent or duration of use.\n\nThe Duquenois-Levine test is commonly used as a screening test in the field, but it cannot definitively confirm the presence of cannabis, as a large range of substances have been shown to give false positives.\n\nSection::::Biological timeline.\n", "As a time and cost saving alternative to extensive diagnostic interviews, several short scales for the screening for cannabis-related problems have been developed. Among the most frequently used screeners are the Cannabis Use Disorders Identification Test (CUDIT), Severity of Dependence Scale (SDS), Cannabis Abuse Screening Test (CAST) and Problematic Use of Marijuana (PUM).\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Gardner received his bachelor's degree from Harvard in 1963. He has been an editor at \"Scientific American\" and \"Ramparts,\" a private detective, a songwriter, an author, a freelance journalist, one of the credited screenwriters for \"Zabriskie Point\" directed by Michelangelo Antonioni, the owner of Variety Home Video, the editor of \"Synapse\" (the UCSF Medical Center weekly), Public Information Officer for the San Francisco District Attorney's office, and the editor of \"O'Shaughnessy's Journal of Cannabis in Clinical Practice\".\n", "Cannabis is detectable by saliva testing. Just like blood testing, saliva testing detects the presence of parent drugs and not their inactive metabolites. This results in a shorter window of detection for cannabis by saliva testing. Delta 9 THC is the parent compound. If a saliva sample is tested in a lab, the detection level can be as low as 0.5 ng/mL (up to 72 hours after intake) and if an onsite instant saliva drug test is used, the cut off level is generally 50 ng/mL (up to 12 hours after intake). Per National Institute on Drug Abuse saliva drug testing provides a reasonable alternative to other drug testing methods.\n", "Users spotting cannabis are susceptible to greater health risks than other methods of smoking cannabis. Spotting cannabis oil or resin is thought to be particularly harmful to the lungs, as the smoke comes off the oil at such a high temperature. One possible way of minimizing the risks of spotting marijuana is using cooler knives, leading to the tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) being vaporised rather than the entire plant matter being burnt. Some users also fill the lower half of the spottle with ice (that stays in place by being frozen to the edges of the spottle), but much more common is to just freeze the bottle, which leads to a cooler smoke that is less harsh on the lungs.\n", "Section::::Testing methods.:Beam's CBD Test.\n\nIn 1911, Dr. W. Beam discovered that the tissue of hemp, which is typically low in THC but high in CBD, gives a purple color when treated with bases. The test is relatively simple and inexpensive, and typically involves placing the test sample in a solution of 5% potassium hydroxide and 95% ethanol. After approximately ten minutes, samples with CBD exhibit a violet/purple/pink color. The test is specific to CBD and does not react to THC.\n\nSection::::Testing methods.:Hair testing.\n", "Hedley is a journalist who covers sports at the Saigon bureau for \"Time\" and, once called back, is commissioned to write an article about Walden Commune, where most of the strip's characters live during the 1970s. They fill his head with a lot of nonsense, convincing him that the hippie movement is coming back and that they represent a national trend. He is even convinced that Zonker's lilacs are marijuana plants.\n", "The RFU peak height depends on the amount of DNA being analyzed. When the amount of DNA is very low, then\n\nit can be difficult to separate a true low-level RFU peak from signal noise or other technical artifacts. As a result, many forensic DNA laboratories have set minimum RFU peak-height levels in \"scoring\" the analysis of alleles.\n", "Galvis was born November 14, 1989, in Punto Fijo, Falcón, Venezuela, and at age 14, the Philadelphia Phillies began to scout him during his days playing youth baseball. He participated on Latin America's team in the Little League World Series, but due to his slight stature ( ), struggled to captivate scouts' attention. Galvis said, \"They told me that I couldn't play (pro) baseball. But I knew I had the ability.\" In 2006, scouts Sal Agostinelli and Jesus Mendez signed him during the amateur player signing period. Galvis, 16 years old, was not a particularly heralded prospect, but did receive some attention from scouting experts before signing with the Phillies.\n", "Marijuana use can be detected up to 3–5 days after exposure for infrequent users; for heavy users: 1–15 days; for chronic users and/or users with high body fat: 1–30 days\n", "Section::::Law enforcement.\n\nIn 1982, Ballarta moved to Big Spring, Texas to continue his training with Gaje. He was Billy McGrath's roommate during that time, and also shared a house with Ronnie Bautista and Lee Bonvillain for a few months. Bautista is a former sheriff's deputy from Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana, and Bonvillain is a former police officer for the city of Lake Charles, Louisiana. Soon after arriving in Texas, Erwin became a police officer with the Big Spring Police Department. He was soon promoted to the rank of Sergeant of the Patrol Division, then Crime Prevention and finally Criminal Investigation Divisions.\n", "The characterization of these behaviors might suggest that crown shyness is simply the result of mutual shading based on well-understood shade avoidance responses. Malaysian scholar Francis S.P. Ng, who studied \"Dryobalanops aromatica\" in 1977 suggested that the growing tips were sensitive to light levels and stopped growing when nearing the adjacent foliage due to the induced shade.\n", "Galvis was born in Punto Fijo, Falcón, Venezuela, and played Little League Baseball including the Little League World Series there before being discovered by one of the Phillies' scouts. At age 16, he signed a contract with the Phillies despite not receiving much attention from scouts. He spent the next several years in their minor league system, including a particularly lengthy stint with the Phillies' Double-A (AA) affiliate the Reading Phillies. He made his major league debut on Opening Day of 2012 at second base, substituting for the injured Chase Utley. He became a fan favorite for his performance early in the season, especially defensively, until he sustained an injury and subsequently was suspended for 50 games after a positive test for performance-enhancing drugs. He missed the remainder of the season. Over the course of the next two seasons, he split time between the Lehigh Valley IronPigs – the Phillies' Triple-A affiliate – and the major league ball club, but struggled to establish himself offensively.\n", "Section::::Testing methods.:Blood testing.\n\nCannabis is detectable in the blood for approximately 12–24 hours, with heavy/frequent use detectable in the blood for up to 7 days. Because they are invasive and difficult to administer, blood tests are used less frequently. They are typically used in investigations of accidents, injuries and DUIs.\n\nUrine contains predominantly THC-COOH, while hair, oral fluid and sweat contain primarily THC. Blood may contain both substances, with the relative amounts dependent on the recency and extent of usage.\n\nSection::::Testing methods.:Neurological testing.\n", "BULLET::::- F10.0 alcohol intoxication (drunk)\n\nBULLET::::- F11.0 opioid intoxication\n\nBULLET::::- F12.0 cannabinoid intoxication (high)\n\nBULLET::::- F13.0 sedative and hypnotic intoxication (see benzodiazepine overdose and barbiturate overdose)\n\nBULLET::::- F14.0 cocaine intoxication\n\nBULLET::::- F15.0 caffeine intoxication\n\nBULLET::::- F16.0 hallucinogen intoxication (See for example Lysergic acid diethylamide effects)\n\nBULLET::::- F17.0 tobacco intoxication (See for example Nicotine Poisoning)\n\nSection::::Classification.:Contact high.\n\nThe term contact high is sometimes used to describe intoxication without direct administration, either by second-hand smoke (as with cannabis), or by placebo in the presence of others who are intoxicated.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Another fire hazard is plants making contact with hot HID bulbs. Growers using fluorescent bulbs with reasonable air circulation do not have this problem. Word of mouth can be as much a threat to growers as any of the above issues. Often, a few sentences of conversation overheard can result in a tip-off and thus speedy detection. It is for this reason that many growers are reluctant to talk about their cultivation.\n\nSection::::Indoor cannabis cultivation.:Housing damage.\n", "Under the typical 50 ng/mL cutoff for THC in the United States, an occasional or on-off user would be very unlikely to test positive beyond 3–4 days since the last use, and a chronic user would be unlikely to test positive much beyond 7 days. Using a more sensitive cutoff of 20 ng/mL (less common but still used by some labs), the most likely maximum times are 7 days and 21 days, respectively. In extraordinary circumstances of extended marijuana use, detection times of more than 30 days are possible in some individuals at the 20 ng/mL cutoff.\n", "Cultivating marijuana is illegal in many countries, and thus some choose to grow marijuana indoors in an attempt to conceal their activities.\n\nLaw enforcement authorities attempting to locate grow rooms are known to search the records of electricity providers for signs of excessive electrical consumption and employ air or ground vehicles using thermal imaging cameras/FLIR/infrared cameras) to detect unusual instances of excess heat radiating or otherwise escaping from buildings.\n\nGrowers respond to the use of thermal imaging cameras by isolating and decoupling rooms physically from the outer walls of buildings, and directing ventilation exhaust into a chimney.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "While at Walden Commune, Zonker spent most of his time watching TV, getting high, and swimming around in a minuscule body of water called \"Walden Puddle\", which he considered to be a sacred and holy place. In his early years in the strip, Zonker had the ability to talk to plants. (Mike also talked to the plants during Zonker's stint as Lieutenant Governor of American Samoa.) In later stories, Zonker appeared to lose this ability, but it has sprung back up occasionally, and he has been seen conversing with a marijuana plant, and a scrawny Christmas tree in recent years. Other than these few exceptions, this power seems to have left him, and he misses it terribly. When wondering out loud why he had it in the first place, he was told \"It was the drugs, man\". Ironically, it was a plant that informed him of this.\n", "High Priest (book)\n\nHigh Priest is a book by Timothy Leary. It was originally published in 1968 by New American Library, and was reprinted in 1995 by Ronin Publishing.\n\nWritten before Leary's incarceration on drug-related charges, it is an autobiographical account of his experiences from 1959 to 1962, a period that roughly coincides with his employment as a lecturer in clinical psychology at Harvard University.\n" ]	[ "You can get a contact high from living next to someone who smokes marijuana." ]	[ "You will not get high but you could have trace amounts in your system. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "You can get a contact high from living next to someone who smokes marijuana." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "You will not get high but you could have trace amounts in your system. " ]
2018-01228	why can't we make up a number that is the result of a division by 0, just like we did with i?	We could make up a number like that. The question is, does it unlock any interesting new mathematics? When we defined the square root of -1 to be i, it enabled very rich, new mathematical fields, with broad applications to not only other fields of math but also physics and engineering. Underpinning all of this was the fact that i had very well defined mathematical properties. The problem with making up a number for division by zero, is that its properties would have to be very weird and confusing, and nobody thinks that it would unlock any new fields of math or engineering.	[ "However, the generic resultant is a polynomial of very high degree (exponential in ) depending on a huge number of indeterminates. It follows that, except for very small and very small degrees of input polynomials, the generic resultant is, in practice, impossible to compute, even with modern computers. Moreover, the number of monomials of the generic resultant is so high, that, if it would be computable, the result could not be stored on available memory devices, even for rather small values of and of the degrees of the input polynomials.\n", "As the realm of numbers to which these operations can be applied expands there are also changes in how the operations are viewed. For instance, in the realm of integers, subtraction is no longer considered a basic operation since it can be replaced by addition of signed numbers. Similarly, when the realm of numbers expands to include the rational numbers, division is replaced by multiplication by certain rational numbers. In keeping with this change of viewpoint, the question, \"Why can't we divide by zero?\", becomes \"Why can't a rational number have a zero denominator?\". Answering this revised question precisely requires close examination of the definition of rational numbers.\n", "BULLET::::- division is always possible: for every \"a\" and every nonzero \"b\" in \"S\", there exist unique \"x\" and \"y\" in \"S\" for which \"b\"·\"x\" = \"a\" and \"y\"·\"b\" = \"a\".\n", "since 2 is the value for which the unknown quantity in\n\nis true. But the expression\n\nrequires a value to be found for the unknown quantity in\n\nBut any number multiplied by 0 is 0 and so there is no number that solves the equation.\n\nThe expression\n\nrequires a value to be found for the unknown quantity in\n\nAgain, any number multiplied by 0 is 0 and so this time every number solves the equation instead of there being a single number that can be taken as the value of 0/0.\n", "There are mathematical structures in which is defined for some \"a\" such as in the Riemann sphere and the projectively extended real line; however, such structures cannot satisfy every ordinary rule of arithmetic (the field axioms).\n", "Therefore, computing the resultant makes sense only for polynomials whose coefficients belong to a field or are polynomials in few indeterminates over a field.\n", "All the definitions of the previous section apply, with the change that, when \"A\" or \"I\" appear explicitly in the definition, the value of the dimension must be reduced by one. For example, the dimension of \"V\" is one less than the Krull dimension of \"A\".\n\nSection::::Computation of the dimension.\n\nGiven a system of polynomial equations over an algebraically closed field formula_11, it may be difficult to compute the dimension of the algebraic set that it defines.\n", "If infinitely many Hilbert spaces \"H\" for \"i\" in \"I\" are given, we can carry out the same construction; notice that when defining the inner product, only finitely many summands will be non-zero. However, the result will only be an inner product space and it will not necessarily be complete. We then define the direct sum of the Hilbert spaces \"H\" to be the completion of this inner product space. \n", "It follows from the properties of the number system we are using (that is, integers, rationals, reals, etc.), if then the equation is equivalent to . Assuming that is a number , then it must be that . However, the single number would then have to be determined by the equation , but every number satisfies this equation, so we cannot assign a numerical value to .\n\nSection::::Algebra.:Division as the inverse of multiplication.\n\nThe concept that explains division in algebra is that it is the inverse of multiplication. For example,\n", "If there are, say, 5 cookies and 2 people, the problem is in \"evenly distribute\". In any integer partition of a 5-set into 2 parts, one of the parts of the partition will have more elements than the other. But the problem with 5 cookies and 2 people can be solved by cutting one cookie in half. The problem with 5 cookies and 0 people cannot be solved in any way that preserves the meaning of \"divides\".\n", "Similar problems occur with 0 cookies and 0 people, but this time the problem is in the phrase \"the number\". A partition is possible (of a set with 0 elements into 0 parts), but since the partition has 0 parts, vacuously every set in the partition has a given number of elements, be it 0, 2, 5, or 1000.\n", "The estimate on the numerator follows since , and for complex numbers along the arc (which lies in the upper halfplane), the argument of lies between 0 and . So,\n\nTherefore,\n\nIf then a similar argument with an arc that winds around rather than shows that\n\nand finally we have\n\nSection::::Examples.:An infinite sum.\n\nThe fact that has simple poles with residue 1 at each integer can be used to compute the sum\n\nConsider, for example, . Let be the rectangle that is the boundary of with positive orientation, with an integer . By the residue formula,\n", "The above explanation may be too abstract and technical for many purposes, but if one assumes the existence and properties of the rational numbers, as is commonly done in elementary mathematics, the \"reason\" that division by zero is not allowed is hidden from view. Nevertheless, a (non-rigorous) justification can be given in this setting.\n", "Storing an entire residue class on a computer is impossible because the residue class has infinitely many elements. Instead, residue classes are stored as representatives. Conventionally, these representatives are the integers for which . If is an integer, then the representative of is written . When writing congruences, it is common to identify an integer with the residue class it represents. With this convention, the above equality is written .\n", "The problem of how to hold the result of a computation that is not a number is genuine (for example, 1/0) and represented a problem for early computers that would experience divide-by-zero errors or other mathematical paradoxes that software had not yet been written to deal with, leading to a computer crash. The NaN and related data types were invented to solve this problem.\n\nSection::::History and usage.\n", "So, for dividing by zero, what is the number of cookies that each person receives when 10 cookies are evenly distributed amongst 0 people at a table? Certain words can be pinpointed in the question to highlight the problem. The problem with this question is the \"when\". There is no way to distribute 10 cookies to nobody. In mathematical jargon, a set of 10 items cannot be partitioned into 0 subsets. So , at least in elementary arithmetic, is said to be either meaningless, or undefined.\n", "Section::::Computation.\n\nTheoretically, the resultant could be computed by using the formula expressing it as a product of roots differences. However, as the roots may generally not be computed exactly, such an algorithm would be inefficient and numerically unstable. As the resultant is a symmetric function of the roots of each polynomial, it could also be computed by using the fundamental theorem of symmetric polynomials, but this would be highly inefficient.\n", "Multiplication and division are not the only operations that can modify the solution set. For example, take the problem:\n\nIf we take the positive square root of both sides, we get:\n\nWe are not taking the square root of any negative values here, since both \"x\" and 4 are necessarily positive. But we have lost the solution \"x\" = −2. The reason is that \"x\" is actually not in general the \"positive\" square root of \"x\". If \"x\" is negative, the positive square root of \"x\" is \"-x\". If the step is taken correctly, it leads instead to the equation:\n", "This is true for all values of \"x\", so the solution set is all real numbers. But clearly not all real numbers are solutions to the original equation. The problem is that multiplication by zero is not \"invertible\": if we multiply by any nonzero value, we can reverse the step by dividing by the same value, but division by zero is not defined, so multiplication by zero cannot be reversed.\n\nMore subtly, suppose we take the same equation and multiply both sides by \"x\". We get\n", "The error here lies in the last equality, where we are ignoring the other fourth roots of 1, which are −1, \"i\" and −\"i\" (where \"i\" is the imaginary unit). Since we have squared our figure and then taken roots, we cannot always assume that all the roots will be correct. So the correct fourth roots are \"i\" and −\"i\", which are the imaginary numbers defined to square to −1.\n\nSection::::Power and root.:Complex exponents.\n", "BULLET::::- The value formula_56 must be known and the most efficient known computation requires 's factorization. Factorization is widely believed to be a computationally hard problem. However, calculating formula_56 is straightforward when the prime factorization of is known.\n", "However, unless \"D\" itself is a power of two, there is no \"X\" and \"Y\" that satisfies the conditions above. Fortunately, (\"N\"·\"X\")/\"Y\" gives exactly the same result as \"N\"/\"D\" in integer arithmetic even when (\"X\"/\"Y\") is not exactly equal to 1/\"D\", but \"close enough\" that the error introduced by the approximation is in the bits that are discarded by the shift operation.\n", "Of course, there are other solutions, which is evidenced by considering the position of i in the complex plane and in particular its argument arg \"i\". We can rotate counterclockwise π/2 radians from 1 to reach i initially, but if we rotate further another 2π we reach i again. So, we can conclude that i(π/2 + 2π) is \"also\" a solution for log i. It becomes clear that we can add any multiple of 2πi to our initial solution to obtain all values for log i.\n", "The fundamental theorem of algebra asserts that the complex numbers form an algebraically closed field, meaning that every polynomial with complex coefficients has a root in the complex numbers. Like the reals, the complex numbers form a field, which is complete, but unlike the real numbers, it is not ordered. That is, there is no consistent meaning assignable to saying that \" I\" is greater than 1, nor is there any meaning in saying that \" I\" is less than 1. In technical terms, the complex numbers lack a total order that is compatible with field operations.\n\nSection::::Subclasses of the integers.\n", "BULLET::::1. It is known from the equation set that i + j + m = 2. However, since j and m are neighbors of a cell with number 1, the following is true: j + m ≤ 1. This means that the variable i must be 1.\n" ]	[ "Can't make up a number that is the result of division by zero." ]	[ "We could it just doesn't unlock and new fields of math. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Can't make up a number that is the result of division by zero." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "We could it just doesn't unlock and new fields of math. " ]
2018-10360	What makes shutting puppy mills down so hard even though they are repeat offenders?	Running a puppy mill, by itself, isn't illegal in any state. Most counties have regulations that require dogs to be licensed or which restrict the amount of dogs that can be in any given area. But the penalty for violating those regulations is usually limited to a small fine. Additionally, proving that those regulations are being violated is difficult. Under normal circumstances it requires that the neighbors call animal control out to the house and that the dogs are visible from the street. Its really only when one of the dogs actually bites someone else that animal control is able to take action because at that point they can seize the dogs. In order to criminalize puppy mills, states would have to criminalize allowing dogs to breed, which isn't something that is practical or enforceable. The closest you can realistically do is what California did - which is to outlaw pet stores from selling "commercially raised animals," but even that doesn't do much since most pet stores have already stopped doing so.	[ "Section::::Legislative response.\n\nSection::::Legislative response.:United States.\n\nIn the United States, some elements of the dog breeding industry are regulated by the Animal Welfare Act of August 24, 1966.\n\nIn recent years, state legislatures have passed new laws aimed at eliminating the worst abuses at puppy mills. New laws include limits on the number of breeding females, requirements that facilities be licensed and inspected, and requirements that dogs be given proper veterinary care. Louisiana, Pennsylvania and Virginia passed puppy mill laws in 2008, and 10 states passed laws in 2009 to crack down on abusive puppy mills. \n", "Section::::Puppy mill raids.:Gibson County, Tennessee.\n", "Section::::Positions and program work.:Puppy mills.\n\nHSUS has been an active opponent of the domestic and global puppy mill industry, and helped law enforcement agencies to confiscate more than 35,000 animals from purported puppy mills since 2007. HSUS has also pressed anti-puppy mill bills in states like Indiana, Missouri, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, and Texas. The number of dog breeders licensed by the United States Department of Agriculture declined from 3,486 in 2009 to 2,205 in 2011.\n", "In 2010, Missouri voters passed Proposition B, the \"Puppy Mill Cruelty Prevention Act\", which establishes minimum standards of humane care and limits breeders to 50 intact dogs. \n\nA compromise, dubbed the \"Missouri Solution\", was signed by Missouri Governor Jay Nixon.\n\nGov. Jay Nixon, Missouri Attorney General Chris Koster, Missouri Director of Agriculture Jon Hagler and Humane Society of Missouri President Kathy Warnick in the St. Louis Post-Dispatch state that \"key provisions of a compromise dog breeding law passed in April will protect animals without putting dog breeders out of business.\"\n", "According to the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty towards Animals (ASPCA), on November 17, 2015 over 100 dogs were rescued from a puppy mill raid in Clewiston, Florida. Found in overcrowded and untidy pens with limited access to food or water, 116 dogs, including Huskies, Chihuahuas, and Poodles, were found having several ailments and untreated medical conditions that called for immediate veterinary care. According to Tim Rickey, the Vice President of ASPCA's Field Investigations and Response team, \"[ASPCA's] goal is to remove these dogs from a life of neglect, help them become healthy and eventually find them safe and loving homes.\" Reports state that the two puppy mill owners, Beatriz Perez, 46, and Alexei Fernandez, 47, have been arrested on charges of animal cruelty while the ASPCA transported the 116 dogs to a safe and secure location. The ASPCA is currently asking for donations to fund the medical treatments that many of the dogs need as well as to help these dogs find a forever home.\n", "According to the Humane Society of the United States, out of around 10,000 puppy mills in the United states, only about 3,000 of them are closely monitored by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (Sacks). This means that not every puppy mill owner is following the law. Also, puppy mills do not only affect the dogs that live and come from them. They also affect dogs living in shelters. Because so many people are buying animals from pet stores and breeders, three to four million dogs are euthanized in shelters every year (Kenny).\n", "Section::::Puppy mill raids.:White Hall, Arkansas.\n", "Section::::Media coverage.\n", "Also recently there were a few bold initiatives to fight against puppy mills. Namely RSPCA (Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals) strategy. Oscar's law (The organization’s name originates from the story of a dog called Oscar, who was rescued from a puppy factory in central Victoria). and Victorian Labor Party Efforts that restrict the number of dogs per breeding facility and require that pet shop owners to keep records of every dog sold.\n\nSection::::Legislative response.:United Kingdom.\n", "Members of the UK public frequently buy puppies and kittens without knowing the conditions under which the animals were reared, the Blue Cross estimates from 40,000 to 80,000 puppies are sold that way per year. To prevent this a new law is planned banning the sale of puppies and kittens below the age of 6 months in England except by licensed breeders and rehoming centres. Paula Boyden, of the Dogs Trust, approves of the ban but advised, \"potential loopholes\" needed to be addressed. She maintains rehoming organisations need regulation.\n\nSection::::Legal cases.\n", "The law is administered by the Texas Department of Licensing and Regulation, who issued rules regarding the administration of the program.\n\nAlicia Graef, writing for Care2, has described the ruling as triumph of puppies over angry breeders. Opponents of the bill, such as members of RPOA argued that the bill wouldn't alleviate the sufferings of badly treated animals but would create a \"dog Gestapo\".\n", "The term \"puppy mill\" has been widely used by animal rights groups in protests against breeders who have substandard breeding conditions. Critics in the breeder community claim that emotional rhetoric, sensationalism and pictures of dirty kennels are used to justify additional legislation or additional restrictive licensing that travels well beyond the initial goal of removing dogs from truly deplorable conditions, or that attempts to legislate puppy mills would put them out of business. They argue the laws requiring additional costs in updating and maintaining their facility and licensing would be detrimental to the dogs in their care. They cite existing lemon laws for puppies as sufficient protection for both dogs and prospective buyers.\n", "Jones states that the boxer case is an example of how rapidly you can cause damage. Breeders need to stand back and look at the bigger problem. Why would anyone breed animals that suffer except for vanity?\n\nSection::::Content.:Exaggerations.\n", "Chelsea Vancleve v. Chien Et Chat, Inc. stated, \"In 2014, the Animal Legal Defense Fund filed a lawsuit against Barkworks, a Southern California pet store chain with six locations.\" Barkworks tricked many puppy buyers into purchasing sick puppies. They were also making illegal breeder licenses, \"fabricating breeding certificates and lying about providing veterinary care\" The Animal Defense Fund made a complaint in 2015 that could have turned into a class action. The court prevented the case from going any further as a class action but in 2018, the parties agreed on a settlement. \"Barkworks had taken down the misleading in-store signs and closed four of its six retail stores, and the California legislature had passed a law banning the sale of dogs from commercial breeders.\" \n", "Other common conditions in mills include malnutrition and untreated injuries.\n", "The inquiry also stated that \"the KC should make the decision about whether registering dogs or dog health and welfare is their primary objective and focus their attentions more precisely on this when taking this issue forward\".\n", "Outside of the AWA, there are additional legal issues pertaining to dogs that are handled by both states and municipalities. The practice of pound seizure (permitting felines and canines to be taken from shelters for research or experimentation) was ordered by three states in 2000, this law established in 2004. Alternatively, twelve states now forbid this practice.\n", "This was passed in 2014 and creates a system of licensing and inspection for commercial breeders through the Board of Animal Health. The bill is intended to reduce the number of kitten and puppy mills in the state and mandate the proper treatment of animals.\n\nSection::::Political career.:Minnesota House of Representatives.:Animal legislation.:Beagle Freedom Bill.\n", "Similarly, the Humane Society of the United States criticized the AKC for not taking a stand against puppy mills. According to the Humane Society's report, \"over the past five years, AKC has opposed more than 80 different state bills and local ordinances designed to provide stronger protections for dogs in puppy mills\".\n", "Sydney Lord Mayor Clover Moore has responded to the problem of puppy mills in Australia by proposing the Animals Regulation of Sale Bill. It would ban the sale of dogs through pet shops, the internet or newspapers. The aim is to crack down on impulse purchases and shut down unregistered backyard breeders. These breeders should no longer easily profit from the sale of the dogs and the number of unwanted and abandoned animals could drop.\n", "Puppy mills in the US often start with hundreds of female dogs which serve their entire lives in the establishment. The females are bred until they can no longer conceive puppies, and are often euthanized after that. Two millions puppies are bred each year in the mills and almost 1.2 million dogs are euthanized in shelters every year. The conditions in puppy mills are considered inhumane because all of the dogs are in a small, dirty area which is confined with disease and bacteria. Because of the poor living conditions, dogs are often sick and malnourished. Food is often found crawling with bugs and feces is almost everywhere. Health issues that are prevalent in puppy mills consist of giardia, mange, heartworm, respiratory infections, and much more.\n", "In September, the Animal Legal Defense Fund scored a major victory for dogs suffering in puppy mills when it won its lawsuit against the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture. As a result of the lawsuit, the department was forced to reinstate comprehensive regulations for commercial dog breeders. The rules had prohibited some of the cruelest and most inhumane practices, such as keeping mother dogs in cages with metal wirestrand flooring and never letting mother dogs outside for exercise.\n", "In New York City, the New York City Housing Authority, which is not a legislature but rather a city government authority which provides affordable housing for low- and moderate-income residents and administers a citywide government-legislature-approved Section 8 Leased Housing Program, in May 2009 prohibited residents of the Authority from owning the following dog breeds: Akita Inu, Alangu Mastiff, Alano Español, American Pit Bull Terrier, American Staffordshire Terrier, Argentine Dogo, Bedlington Terrier, Boston Terrier, Bull and Terrier, Bull Terrier, Bully Kutta, Cane Corso, Dogue de Bordeaux, Dogo Sardesco, English Mastiff, Fila Brasileiro, Gull Dong, Gull Terrier, Irish Staffordshire Bull Terrier, Korean Jindo Dog, Lottatore Brindisino, Neapolitan Mastiff, Perro de Presa Canario, Perro de Presa Mallorquin, Shar Pei, Staffordshire Bull Terrier, Tosa Inu.\n", "HSUS was also a participant in a ballot initiative campaign focusing on inhumane treatment of farm animals in Ohio. The livestock-agriculture initiative was withdrawn from the ballot after a compromise was brokered between HSUS, Ohioans for Humane Farms, the Ohio Farm Bureau, and Ohio Governor Ted Strickland.\n\nHSUS led a campaign against puppy mill cruelty in Missouri in 2010. The Puppy Mill Cruelty Prevention Act, known as \"Prop B\", was narrowly passed by Missouri voters.\n\nSection::::Recent history.:United Egg Producers.\n", "In 1996, Britain passed the Breeding and Sale of Dogs Act which requires annual veterinary inspections for anyone breeding five or more litters in one year. Breeding females are restricted to one litter per year and four per lifetime.\n\nBreeders who choose to be members of the UK Kennel Club are required to register purebred puppies for sale with that organization and must certify the conditions under which the puppies were raised. Breeders who sell puppies by misrepresenting these standards may be liable to prosecution under the Sale of Goods Act 1979.\n" ]	[ "Operating a puppy mill is illegal.", "Operating a puppy mill is illegal." ]	[ "Operating a puppy mill is legal as long as they follow regulations.", "Operating a puppy mill is legal as long as they follow regulations." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Operating a puppy mill is illegal.", "Operating a puppy mill is illegal.", "Operating a puppy mill is illegal." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Operating a puppy mill is legal as long as they follow regulations.", "Operating a puppy mill is legal as long as they follow regulations.", "Operating a puppy mill is legal as long as they follow regulations." ]
2018-08728	How lava mixing with sea water creates that terrifying lava haze (laze).	Hydrogen and chloride are components of salt water (hydrogen part of water and chloride part of salt). Upon the lava entering and flash-boiling the water it can produce a cloud which contains hydrochloric acid, a corrosive substance that can easily harm the delicate structures of the lungs. The lava will also break apart and solidify into tiny crystals and shards of glass. Typically formed from silica or quartz, the major components of sand, lava is of course composed of similar substances which when released in a fine airborne powder present another hazard to the delicate structures of the human body such as the lungs and eyes. A giant steam cloud full of acid and tiny glass knives is understandably not a great thing to stand in and breath.	[ "Laze (geology)\n\nLaze is acid rain and air pollution arising from steam explosions and large plume clouds containing extremely acidic condensate (mainly hydrochloric acid), which occur when molten lava flows enter cold oceans. The term \"laze\" is a portmanteau of \"lava\" and \"haze\".\n\nLaze, created by the interaction of lava and cold seawater, differs from vog, which originates from volcanic vents.\n", "The extremely high temperatures of lava flows (1200 °C; 2200 °F) cause sea water to decompose into hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen combines with chloride ions dissolved in sea water, forming hydrogen chloride gas (hydrochloric acid). The rapidly rising plume of gas also carries with it fine particles of volcanic glass. The hydrochloric acid and other contaminants can precipitate out rapidly and the plume may become relatively safe a few hundred meters away, however, laze plumes should be shown a degree of respect as they can and have killed people who come in contact with them. The USGS has reported that, in 2000, two people were killed by exposure to laze clouds.\n", "The central region of the Sea of Dust is the most alien. Rather than gray ash, the substance of the Sea is a white, caustic powder that blows around and causes those who do not protect their mouths and noses with damp cloths to cough blood. Mixed with water, it forms a strong lye. The light reflecting off the white dunes will blind those who do not protect their eyes with slitted visors or masks. Glassy depressions in the central Sea are said to correspond to former cities of the Suel.\n", "The water temperature in the lake ranges from , with acidity up to pH 2.2, and lake levels that vary up to , following a complicated 38-day cycle that includes an overflow stage. White silica deposits grow up to the overflow level, and the lake's colour is a result of finely divided silica suspended in the water. At low water levels the lake can be a dull grey colour, changing to an intensely sky blue colour at higher lake levels, in particular after the overflow stage.\n", "One notable feature of the lava cooling operation was the deposit of large amounts of salt where seawater was sprayed onto the lava. Large expanses of flow became encrusted with extensive white deposits, and it was estimated that up to 220,000 tonnes (240,000 short tons) of salt was deposited in total.\n", "The parish priest and dean of Vestur-Skaftafellssýsla, Jón Steingrímsson (1728–1791), grew famous because of the \"eldmessa\" (\"fire sermon\") that he delivered on 20 July 1783. The people of the small settlement of Kirkjubæjarklaustur were worshipping while the village was endangered by a lava stream, which ceased to flow not far from town, with the townsfolk still in church.\n\nSection::::1783 eruption.:Consequences in monsoon regions.\n", "BULLET::::- Some final shots of Chris Marker's film \"Sans Soleil\" are of stark white Heimaey houses slowly buried by the deep black volcanic ash of the eruption. The backdrop reveals splashes of red lava as it flows into a steel-grey sea.\n\nBULLET::::- Heimaey is mentioned in the song \"Island\" by American progressive-metal band Mastodon. The line is \"Lava goddess, Ice and fire, Settling down, Ocean Geysir, Gullfoss, Heimaey 73.\" This refers to the eruption of Eldfell.\n", "The eruption continued until 7 February 1784, but most of the lava was ejected in the first five months. One study states that the event \"occurred as ten pulses of activity, each starting with a short-lived explosive phase followed by a long-lived period of fire-fountaining\". Grímsvötn volcano, from which the Laki fissure extends, was also erupting at the time, from 1783 until 1785. The outpouring of gases, including an estimated 8 million tons of hydrogen fluoride and an estimated 120 million tons of sulfur dioxide, gave rise to what has since become known as the \"Laki haze\" across Europe.\n", "Lava flows also moved into the sea east of the island, creating new land that would eventually add over to the island, and into the eastern parts of town, destroying several hundred houses. The flows were thick and blocky aā lava (Icelandic: apalhraun) flows, and covered the ground to average depths of about 40 metre (130 ft), reaching 100 metre (330 ft) thick in places. Later on in the eruption, a surge of lava destroyed one fish processing plant and damaged two others, and also demolished the town's power generating plant.\n", "The English Channel experienced a major bloom in 2003 that traveled from the western English Channel at end of June to the French coast of Brittany at the beginning of August. The density of this bloom was up to 100 mg/m whereas it usually only takes 10 mg/m to cause noticeable discoloration.\n", "Section::::Geography.\n", "In total, the volume of lava and tephra emitted during the five-month eruption was estimated to be about 0.25 of a cubic kilometre (0.06 of a cubic mile). About of new land was added to the island, increasing its pre-eruption area by some 20%. In the end, the harbour entrance was narrowed considerably but not closed off, and the new lava flow acted as a breakwater, improving the shelter afforded by the harbour. Flakkarinn rafted several hundred metres towards the harbour along the top of the lava flow, but came to a halt well away from the water's edge.\n", "BULLET::::- Nyiragongo, Democratic Republic of Congo\n\nBULLET::::- Ambrym, Vanuatu.\n\nSection::::Lava landforms.:Lava delta.\n\nLava deltas form wherever sub-aerial flows of lava enter standing bodies of water. The lava cools and breaks up as it encounters the water, with the resulting fragments filling in the seabed topography such that the sub-aerial flow can move further offshore. Lava deltas are generally associated with large-scale, effusive type basaltic volcanism.\n\nSection::::Hazards.\n", "The fragmented volcanic material (pyroclastics) of the tuff ring contains olivine, a silicate mineral containing iron and magnesium, also known as peridot when of gem quality. Olivine is a common mineral component of lava and is one of the first crystals to form as magma cools. Olivine is locally known as \"Hawaiian Diamond\" and is notably found in Oahu's famous Diamond Head landmark. The source of the green coloration of the beach sands is due to the olivine crystals (whose green color is due to ferrous iron) which are winnowed from the eroding headland by the action of the sea. Olivine, being denser than the enclosing ash matrix, tends to accumulate on the beach whereas the less dense volcanic sand is swept out to sea. Elsewhere on the Big Island, olivine is enclosed in lava rock, rather than volcanic ash, so the olivine is not easily freed from the enclosing rock and tends to weather away rather than accumulate and concentrate as beach sand. Although these crystals are eventually broken down by weathering and chemical action and washed away, the constant erosion of the tuff ring ensures a steady supply of sand for the foreseeable future. Eventually, however, the supply will run out and the beach will look like any other.\n", "Section::::Human history.\n", "The possibility of lava flows cutting off the harbour was the most significant threat facing the town. One contingency plan devised, should the harbour be closed off, was to cut through a low sand spit on the north side of the island to provide a new channel into the harbour, but it was hoped that if the lava flow could be slowed, this would not be necessary. Lava flows had been sprayed with water in attempts to slow them in Hawaii and on Mount Etna, but these had been rather small-scale operations with limited success. However, Professor Þorbjörn Sigurgeirsson carried out an experiment that proved that further advances of the lava could be impeded by prematurely solidifying the advancing lava-flow front.\n", "BULLET::::- Cerén, El Salvador in the eruption of Ilopango between 410 and 535 AD\n\nBULLET::::- Plymouth, Montserrat, in 1995. Plymouth was the capital and only port of entry for Montserrat and had to be completely abandoned, along with over half of the island. It is still the \"de jure\" capital.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Laze (geology), acid rains and air pollution arising from steam explosions and large plume clouds containing extremely acid condensate that occur when molten lava flows enter oceans.\n\nBULLET::::- Vog, volcanic smog originating from volcanic vents.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- USGS definition of Aā\n\nBULLET::::- USGS definition of Pāhoehoe\n", "People standing too close to the edge of an active delta are not only at risk from being thrown in the water but from the steam explosions and the accompanying acidic clouds (\"laze\") that result from the collapse as seawater comes into contact with the active lava tube system.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nOn steep-sided volcanic islands, lava deltas make attractive sites for building and many villages and towns are located on old lava deltas, such as Garachico on Tenerife. \n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Lava Bench\n\nBULLET::::- Danger of Lava Benches\n\nBULLET::::- Video on Lava Benches\n\nBULLET::::- News Report on Lava Benches\n", "Basaltic composition magmas are the most common effusive eruptions because they are not water saturated and have low viscosity. Most people know them from the classic pictures of rivers of lava in Hawaii. Eruptions of basaltic magma often transition between effusive and explosive eruption patterns. The behavior of these eruptions is largely dependent on the permeability of the magma and the magma ascent rate. During eruption, dissolved gasses exsolve and begin to rise out of the magma as gas bubbles. If the magma is rising slowly enough, these bubbles will have time to rise and escape, leaving a less buoyant magma behind that fluidly flows out. Effusive basalt lava flows cool to either of two forms, ʻaʻā (pronounced “ah ah”) or pāhoehoe (pronounced “puh hoy hoy”). This type of lava flow builds shield volcanoes, which are numerous in Hawaii, and is how the island was and currently is being formed.\n", "BULLET::::- Green sand: In this kind of sand, the mineral olivine has been separated from other volcanic fragments by erosive forces. A famous example is Hawaii's Papakolea Beach, which has sand containing basalt and coral fragments.\n\nSection::::Erosion and accretion.\n\nSection::::Erosion and accretion.:Natural erosion and accretion.\n\nSection::::Erosion and accretion.:Natural erosion and accretion.:Causes.\n", "Section::::Formation.\n", "The eruption column that caused the air fall “occasionally rose to 9,000 metres (30,000 ft), or nearly to the tropopause”. Lava flows from the cone traveled north and east to produce a “continuously expanding lava delta” along the east coast of the island and into the harbor, where small explosions built up a diminutive island that was soon overtaken by the advancing delta.\n\nThe first lavas erupted by Eldfell had a mugearitic chemical composition but within a few weeks the volcano was erupting less fractionated lavas which had a hawaiitic composition.\n", "In March, 2016, Nelson Lagoon was coated with tephra, during a strong eruption of nearby Mount Pavlof.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe location where Nelson Lagoon sits was used as a Aleut summer campsite during the fishing season. In 1882, the lagoon was named for Edward William Nelson, a naturalist and explorer who travelled the region between 1877 and 1920. From 1906 until 1917, a salmon salting facility operated at the location, which was staffed mainly by Scandinavian fishermen. These men married local women, and today most native people in Nelson Bay have partial Scandinavian ancestry.\n", "The pumping capacity was increased in early March, when a large chunk of the crater wall broke away from the summit of Eldfell and began to be carried along the top of the lava flow towards the harbour. The chunk, dubbed Flakkarinn (\"The Wanderer\"), would have seriously threatened the viability of the harbour if it had reached it, and the dredging boat \"Sandey\" was brought in on 1 March to prevent its advance. Professor Þorbjörn Sigurgeirsson provided advice to the pumping crews on where to direct their efforts to most efficiently slow the flows. Eventually the Wanderer broke up into two pieces which both stopped approximately 100 metres (330 ft) from the harbour mouth.\n", "On 8 June 1783, a 25 km (15.5 mi) long fissure with 130 craters opened with phreatomagmatic explosions because of the groundwater interacting with the rising basalt magma. Over a few days the eruptions became less explosive, Strombolian, and later Hawaiian in character, with high rates of lava effusion. This event is rated as 6 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index, but the eight-month emission of sulfuric aerosols resulted in one of the most important climatic and socially repercussive events of the last millennium.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19532	Why does rain calm many people down?	i read a similar question not long ago and somone else said basically its that most of our primitive predators wouldnt hunt during rain. so its kinda like you can kick back and relax that you wont get eaten. made sense to me.	[ "Section::::Impact.:In culture and religion.\n", "When Travis began to perform this song at the 1999 Glastonbury Festival, after being sunny for several hours, it began to rain exactly when the first line was sung.\n\nIn a poll by listeners of Absolute Radio the song was ranked 39th on a list of the top 100 songs of the 1990s.\n\nSection::::Music video.\n", "In a November 2009, interview the episode's writer Mike Barker spoke about how an experience at the 2008 Bonnaroo Music Festival inspired the episode, saying: \"At Bonnaroo, I’m watching these guys create this lush, intense sound as the rain is washing over them… and as the sheet of rain attacks the stage, the raindrops are being illuminated by the multi-colored stage lights, and it was just… biblical. And it was one of those moments — and by moment I don’t mean during a certain chorus or something, I mean the entire time the guys are playing — it was one of those moments where everyone in attendance realized they were witnessing something really special. No one’s worried about getting wet, or getting their shoes muddy, or needing to sit down after standing shoulder to shoulder with wet strangers for four straight hours. And I actually remember having the thought, “If lightning strikes these guys dead, there’s not a thing tragic about that.” Seriously, can you tell me a better way for a musician to go? Because I can’t think of it. But during the show, I start to become aware of how intensely I loved this music, and by extension, these guys for playing it. And I thought to myself, “What if I try to share this experience through the characters in \"American Dad\"? Is it possible to translate how much I love this music to a large portion of \"American Dad\"’s audience that presently has no idea that this band even exists?” That would be my way of giving back, I suppose. My Morning Jacket is one of the greatest bands of all time, so why wouldn’t I try to share that fact?\"\n", "Calm Before the Storm\n\nCalm Before the Storm or The Calm Before the Storm may refer to:\n\nSection::::Books, comics.\n\nBULLET::::- \"A History of Modern Tibet, Volume 2: The Calm Before the Storm: 1951-1955\" by Melvyn Goldstein (2007)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Calm Before the Storm\", history book by Itamar Singer\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Calm Before the Storm\", List of Star Wars comic books (section The Calm Before the Storm)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Calm Before the Storm\", Wraithborn Issue 4\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Calm Before the Storm\", List of Full Metal Panic! chapters\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "\"Rain Is a Good Thing\" is an up-tempo tune in which the narrator explains how rain can affect life by facilitating the growth of corn, which in turn is processed into whiskey, which in turn causes his significant other to \"feel a little frisky.\"\n", "The end result included vivid descriptions of a man's fondness for thunderstorms and the peace it brings him (\"\"I love to hear the thunder/watch the lightnin' when it lights up the sky/you know it makes me feel good\"\") and a renewed sense of hope the storms bring (\"\"Showers wash all my cares away/I wake up to a sunny day\"\").\n", "In many societies around the world, rain dances and other rituals have been used to attempt to increase rainfall. Some Native Americans used rain dances extensively. European examples include the Romanian ceremonies known as paparuda and caloian. Some United States farmers also attempt to bring rain during droughts through prayer. These rituals differ greatly in their specifics, but share a common concern with bringing rain through ritual and/or spiritual means. Typical of these ceremonies was then-governor of Georgia Sonny Perdue's public prayer service for rain, in 2007.\n", "BULLET::::- And what does the rain say at night in a small town, what does the rain have to say? Who walks beneath dripping melancholy branches listening to the rain? Who is there in the rain's million-needled blurring splash, listening to the grave music of the rain at night, September rain, September rain, so dark and soft? Who is there listening to steady level roaring rain all around, brooding and listening and waiting, in the rain-washed, rain-twinkled dark of night? -- Book 2, Chapter 5.\n", "Cultural attitudes towards rain differ across the world. In temperate climates, people tend to be more stressed when the weather is unstable or cloudy, with its impact greater on men than women. Rain can also bring joy, as some consider it to be soothing or enjoy the aesthetic appeal of it. In dry places, such as India, or during periods of drought, rain lifts people's moods. In Botswana, the Setswana word for rain, \"pula\", is used as the name of the national currency, in recognition of the economic importance of rain in its country, since it has a desert climate. Several cultures have developed means of dealing with rain and have developed numerous protection devices such as umbrellas and raincoats, and diversion devices such as gutters and storm drains that lead rains to sewers. Many people find the scent during and immediately after rain pleasant or distinctive. The source of this scent is petrichor, an oil produced by plants, then absorbed by rocks and soil, and later released into the air during rainfall.\n", "When Mimi suggests that Isabel invite Tom and Angie to dinner before the weekend away, Isabel also invites Jamie. Isabel likes Tom instantly, but still dislikes Angie, especially when Angie flirts with Jamie and invites him to form part of the weekend party. Isabel wonders if perhaps Jamie is more suited to a younger woman like Angie, but is surprised (and reassured) when Grace announces that it is obvious that Isabel and Jamie are in love with each other. Mimi agrees that this is how it seems.\n", "Isabel's cousins Mimi and Joe visit from Dallas. Mimi tells Isabel that some friends from Texas – Tom Bruce and his fiancée Angie – own a house in Peebles, and that Mimi, Joe and Isabel have been invited to spend the weekend with them. When Mimi says that Tom suffers from Bell's palsy, Isabel realises that he is the man she saw in the art gallery, and Mimi confirms Isabel's negative impressions of Angie: most of Tom's friends think that Angie is marrying him for his money.\n", "Esta Soler, founder and president of the Family Violence Prevention Fund said: \"When we heard 'Rain on Me' and saw the Ashanti LidRock mini movie, we knew the powerful messages about violence that they artfully convey would speak to a lot of people. Ashanti wrote an amazing song that, by itself, has incredible power and emotional resonance. The LidRock minimovie just enhances the song's power, as it realistically portrays the complexity of domestic violence and the characters' inspiring strength in addressing the situation.\"\n", "Why Does It Always Rain on Me?\n\n\"Why Does It Always Rain on Me?\" is a song by Scottish band Travis, released as the third single from their second studio album, \"The Man Who\". The song became the group's international breakthrough single, receiving recognition around the world. It was their first top-ten hit on the UK Singles Chart, peaking at number 10. The song also peaked at number 11 in Australia and achieved success in mainland Europe and North America. \n", "Rainmaking (ritual)\n\nRainmaking is a weather modification ritual that attempts to invoke rain.\n\nAmong the best known examples of weather modification rituals are North American rain dances, historically performed by many Native American tribes, particularly in the Southwestern United States. Some of these weather modification rituals are still implemented today.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:North America.\n", "Another term usually associated with calmness is \"peace\". A mind that is at peace or calm will cause the brain to produce \"good\" hormones, which in turn give the person a stable emotional state and promote good health in every area of life, including marriage. Seeing the rise in crime and diseases around the world which are more often than not the consequences of the emotions going 'out-of-control', it is therefore considered beneficial for many to stay calm and cultivate it in every possible situation, especially during stressful events such as demise of a family member or failure in business.\n", "Rainmakers communicate their power to disrupt events through various psychological means. Village sectors in Africa communicate mostly via the marketplace of ideas contributed by traditional religion, observances, divination, mythology, age-grades, the Chiefs courts, the elder's square, secret and title societies, the village market square, the village drum (gbande) men, indeed the total experiences of the villager in his environment.\n", "looking for a place to fall.\n\nYou’ve heard of Robinson Crusoe,\n\nwell he had nothing on me.\n\nI’m always all alone,\n\nno sweety of my own,\n\nto make me happy as can be.\n\nI’m just as blue as skies above,\n\nI’d like to find someone \n\nto shower with my love, believe me.\n\nI’m a lonesome little raindrop\n\nlooking for a place to fall.\n\nThe girls say I’m a charming fella,\n\nbut when I come around each girl puts up her umbrella.\n\nGirls they are so fair,\n\nthey all give me the air\n\nI keep on falling falling\n", "\"Rain\" is an adventure game in which the player takes up the role as a young boy who is invisible and can only be seen when standing in the pouring rain. When walking under shelter outside the rain, the boy cannot be seen and can only be tracked by his watery footprints. The player utilizes the visibility of the boy, and other creatures, in the rain to solve various puzzles and tasks throughout the game.\n\nSection::::Music.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Africa.\n\nRain is a central concern of African societies which depend on it for their sustenance and that of their animals. The power to make rain is usually attributed to African kings. In a number of African societies, kings who failed to produce the expected rain ran the risk of being blamed as scapegoats and killed by their people. A famous rain making monarch is the Rain Queen of Balobedu, South Africa.\n\nTribal rain dances are done to ensure rain comes. Notable peoples known to have done rain dances are tribes on the Sahara Desert and Ethiopia.\n\nSection::::Examples.:China.\n", "Section::::Singles.\n\nSection::::Singles.:\"30 Sexy\".\n", "and what the trouble can be.\n\nSome fellas find of their mate\n\nsomehow it seems my fate\n\nhas made a monkey out of me.\n\nJust like a raindrop in a cloud,\n\nI find that I am lost when I am in a crowd, oh\n\nI’m a lonesome little raindrop\n\nlooking for a place to fall.\n\nThe clouds are dark but that don’t matter,\n\n'cause into some fair garden,\n\nI’ll go pitter, patter, patter.\n\nI hope goodness knows, \n\nthe friendly breeze that blows,\n\nwill let me tumble down into the heart of river flows.\n\nI’m a lonesome little raindrop\n", "Contemporary Jewish liturgy includes prayers for rain, seasonally, as a part of the morning, afternoon, and evening, daily amidah prayer, during mid-Autumn to mid-Spring. During Summer, this prayer is changed from the prayer for rain, to a prayer for dew.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n\nBULLET::::- The video of the song \"Cloudbusting\" (based on the story of William Reich) by Kate Bush features Donald Sutherland as an inventor of a rainmaking machine.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Business rainmaking\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Hatfield\n\nBULLET::::- Rain Queen\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Sanders, Todd 2008. Beyond Bodies: Rainmaking and Sense Making in Tanzania. Toronto, University of Toronto Press\n", "Section::::Rainmaking experiments.\n", "Rain holds an important religious significance in many cultures. The ancient Sumerians believed that rain was the semen of the sky-god An, which fell from the heavens to inseminate his consort, the earth-goddess Ki, causing her to give birth to all the plants of the earth. The Akkadians believed that the clouds were the breasts of Anu's consort Antu and that rain was milk from her breasts. According to Jewish tradition, in the first century BC, the Jewish miracle-worker Honi ha-M'agel ended a three-year drought in Judaea by drawing a circle in the sand and praying for rain, refusing to leave the circle until his prayer was granted. In his \"Meditations\", the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius preserves a prayer for rain made by the Athenians to the Greek sky-god Zeus. Various Native American tribes are known to have historically conducted rain dances in effort to encourage rainfall. Rainmaking rituals are also important in many African cultures. In the present-day United States, various state governors have held Days of Prayer for rain, including the Days of Prayer for Rain in the State of Texas in 2011.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13782	Why does it seem that, on television, when some music is played at the place of the filmed event, people sing along but always seconds late ?	In the example scene you cited, the microphone and the person talking into it are in a different place from the people on camera. Sound waves from the speakers were hitting the microphone before they hit the ears of the singing people (who synched their singing to the song at the time they heard it). This means the person with the microphone was closer to the speakers than the singers were. A couple of viewings suggested to me that the people on camera sang about a quarter of a second after the corresponding lyrics were audible, and sound travels at 343 meters per second, so I surmise the person with the microphone was about 85 meters closer to the speakers than the people on camera.	[ "The miming policy on the show also led to the occasional technical hitch. A famous example of this is the performance of \"Martha's Harbour\" in 1988 by All About Eve where the televised audience could hear the song but the band could not. As the opening verse of the song beamed out of the nation's television sets, the unknowing lead singer Julianne Regan remained silent on a stool on stage while Tim Bricheno (the only other band member present) did not play his guitar. An unseen stagehand apparently prompted them that something was wrong in time to mime along to the second verse. The band were invited back the following week, and chose to sing live.\n", "From 1997 to 2001, several contemporary music pieces were used for the montage (including, in 1997, R. Kelly's song \"I Believe I Can Fly\", which coincidentally came from a basketball film – \"Space Jam\", which starred Michael Jordan and Pat Benatar's song \"All Fired Up\" from 1999 to 2001).\n", "Jon Burlingame of \"Variety\" noted that \"The immediate sellout of this event tells us what we suspected – that music for television is not just ‘background,’ or ‘underscore,’ as it's often referred to – but rather an integral part of the storytelling experience, a critical factor in creating mood, setting the pace, reminding us of the place and the people and most of all, conveying the emotion that is ultimately the reason we keep tuning in.\"\n", "Section::::Types of shows.:Entertainment shows.\n\nMajor entertainment events, such as award shows and beauty pageants, are often broadcast live in primetime hours based on U.S. East Coast's schedule. In the 21st century, reality competition franchises began to emerge (such as, in the United States, \"American Idol\" and \"Dancing With The Stars\"), where viewers could vote for their favorite acts featured in live performances, but \"Idol\", as of 2020, is the only reality competition series to have broadcast live in all U.S. territories at the same time.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1977, Australian punk band the Saints appeared when their minor hit \"This Perfect Day\" made the lower reaches of the chart. Singer Chris Bailey deliberately mimed the lyrics out of time before continuing to sing after allowing the microphone to fall out of his hand. Meanwhile, guitarist Ed Kuepper stood stock still, staring blankly away from the camera whilst strumming intermittently at a fraction of the fast pace of the guitar on the record.\n\nBULLET::::- During their performance of \"Tom Hark\" in 1980, the drummer for the Piranhas used plastic fish instead of drum sticks.\n", "The format of the show is simple: the host introduces the band for the week, which performs a number of music selections. During each show, the second song is referenced as the \"roll-up selection\", it features submitted birthday and anniversary announcements of viewers rolling-up over the screen.\n", "The miming policy also led to the occasional technical hitch. A famous example of this is the performance of \"Martha's Harbour\" in 1988 by All About Eve where the television audience at home could hear the song but the band and studio audience and personnel could not. As the opening verse of the song beamed out of the nation's television sets, the unknowing lead singer Julianne Regan remained silent on a stool on stage while Tim Bricheno (the only other band member present) did not play his guitar. An unseen stagehand apparently prompted them that something was wrong in time to mime along to the second verse. The band were invited back the following week, and chose to sing live.\n", "BULLET::::- June 25, 1967 – Our World, the first live international satellite television production aired, seen by 400 million people in 25 countries worldwide. It closed with The Beatles performing a new song: \"All You Need Is Love\", composed by John Lennon for the occasion.\n\nBULLET::::- September 17, 1967 – While The Doors performed \"Light My Fire\" on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\", frontman Jim Morrison used the word \"higher\" instead of the previously agreed-upon change \"better\".\n", "The Doors were notorious for their appearance on the show. CBS network censors demanded that lead singer Jim Morrison change the lyrics to their hit single \"Light My Fire\" by altering the line, \"Girl, we couldn't get much higher,\" before the band performed the song on-camera on September 17, 1967. (Since the beginning of the fall 1966 television season, the show had been recorded on color videotape a few hours before its 8:00 pm Eastern Standard Time time slot. Performers and their managers were told that the show must proceed as if it were being done live, and videotape editing on short notice was impossible.)\n", "For more than 40 years, major bands and artists appeared on the UK show \"Top of the Pops\", with the producers insisting that the performers would either \"lip-sync or sing along with a prerecorded backing track\" for the TV broadcast. In 1984, Morrissey \"sang\" into a fern instead of a microphone\" for \"This Charming Man\". When Nirvana was not allowed to actually play their instruments live on \"Top Of The Pops\", singer/guitarist Kurt Cobain did not even pretend to play his instrument as the prerecorded track of his guitar playing sounded on the broadcast. \n", "Section::::In music.:Protests by artists.\n\nIn some cases, when producers force singers to lip-synch on live TV broadcasts, the vocalists deliberately make it clear that they are not singing live. When Public Image Limited singer John Lydon performed on Dick Clark’s \"American Bandstand\" TV show, the \"...punk pioneer refused to mime during an appearance... and instead he sat on the floor of the [TV] studio, threw himself into the assembled audience, and stuck his nose into the camera while recordings over his own voice played\" on the air.\n", "We had little receivers in our ears and wires running down our legs to pick up the musical accompaniment, because this was Peter's tribute to Ernst Lubitsch. But nobody knew it. I said to Peter, \"Please, let's have subtides saying, This is live, folks.' \" It was tough, because it all had to be in one take, the singing and the picture; and then they had to take a word here and a word there in postproduction. We'd pick up strange things on our receivers. Mexican radio stations. Right in the middle of a take I'd hear, \"Breaker, breaker.\" \n", "When Iron Maiden appeared on German TV in 1986, they were not allowed to play live. The band made it clear that they were pretending to play and passed instruments around as a recording of their song \"Wasted Years\" played on the broadcast. The band swapped instruments and at one point, three members are playing drums simultaneously.\"\n", "Prior to filming, all performers choose the song they want to sing. The 100 learn the words to all the songs before the show, but they don’t know who is going to come out and sing said songs to them. Each song is approximately 90 seconds long, but importantly the 100 can only join in for the final 60 seconds as signified by a lighting change. This means that the 100 have the same amount of time to join in the singing for every act.\n\nSection::::Format.:Tie-breaks.\n", "BULLET::::- Frankie Goes To Hollywood performed one of the many 1984 performances of their hit \"Two Tribes\" with bassist Mark O'Toole playing drums whilst drummer Ped Gill played bass.\n\nBULLET::::- In the midst of a 1986 performance of their hit \"Don't Leave Me This Way\", The Communards\" vocalists Jimmy Somerville and Sarah Jane Morris began to sing each other's vocals, an especially ironic change given that Somerville's part was much higher than that of Morris.\n", "For 2018, CBS and Turner used Irish-Rock band U2’s song American Soul, from U2’s new album Songs of Experience. They also used Say Amen (Saturday Night) by American rock band Panic! At The Disco, one of the two hit songs from their new album Pray for the Wicked, the other being High Hopes, which CBS used months later as their hype song for their college football coverage.\n", "In the second season episode of \"The Cosby Show\" \"Happy Anniversary\", the Huxtable family lip-syncs to Ray Charles' version. CNN's Lisa Respers France stated \"No 'Cosby Show' list is complete without this family performance... Keshia Knight Pulliam stole our hearts as little Rudy Huxtable in this scene.\" while Vulture called it \"The Cosby Show\"s best musical moment. In 1997, \"TV Guide\" ranked this episode number 54 on its '100 Greatest Episodes of All Time' list.\n\nSection::::James Brown version.\n", "BULLET::::- In U.S. daytime soap operas, scenes often end with a pregnant pause and a close-up on the character. There will be no dialogue for several seconds, while the music builds before cutting to a commercial or a new scene. This kind of segue is referred to in the industry as a \"tag.\"\n", "Leigh said that some actors were not \"excited\" about singing but still could participate in the episode. \"There were certain ways in which the scenes were written, even if there was a song in there, that perhaps a line was spoken instead of sung,\" she said.\n", "Patterned on similar live television musicals that had recently been produced by NBC, the production incorporated elements and songs from both the original stage musical and the 1978 film version of \"Grease\", as well as additional songs that were not present in either. In an effort to emulate the \"energy\" of a theatrical setting, live audiences were incorporated into the production's stagings. \"Grease: Live\" was broadcast from Warner Bros. Studios, utilizing two soundstages and the studio's outdoor backlot—the usage of the latter was notably affected by rain in the Los Angeles area on the day of the broadcast.\n", "During Whitney Houston's performance of “The Star Spangled Banner” with full orchestra, a pre-recorded version was used: “At the game, everyone was playing, and Whitney was singing, but there were no live microphones,” orchestra director Kathryn Holm McManus revealed in 2001. “Everyone was lip synching or finger-synching.” \"Margo Buchanan, a top British backing singer, left a 2011 Dolly Parton show incensed [angry] at the extent of miming of vocals and instrumental solos. She described it as “artistically dishonest and unfair to musicians who work hard at perfecting their craft”, but her attempts to get the Musicians’ Union involved in lobbying to control the practice fell on deaf ears.\"\n", "BULLET::::- On occasion, an answer will have a different correct question when the show was recorded compared to the time the show airs. When that happens, the date of taping will appear on screen as the answer is read in order to comply with Standards and Practices. An example of this was during the second 2014 Jeopardy! Teen Tournament first round match: the answer in the $400 My Present Government Job category in the Jeopardy! round was, \"Kathleen Sebelius, Insuring America, one person at a time.\" The correct response was \"What is the Secretary of Health and Human Services?\" However, she had resigned from that position in April 2014, between the taping of the match in March 2014 and the July 22, 2014 broadcast. The show posted a disclaimer, \"Recorded in March 2014,\" as the category was being read.\n", "At this point, Alasdair MacMillan, the director of the television production, cued the orchestra to play music for an unscripted commercial break (noticeable because of several seconds of blank screen while LWT's master control contacted regional stations to start transmitting advertisements) and Tarbuck's manager tried to pull Cooper back through the curtains.\n", "On rare occasions, a scripted series will do an episode live to attract ratings. In the U.S. and Canada, the episode is occasionally performed twice: once for the east coast which is composed of the Eastern Time Zone and Central Time Zone and again three hours later for the west coast which is composed of the Mountain Time Zone and the Pacific Time Zone unless they have Dish Network or Direct TV who provides the live feed in all states. The most recent scripted series to air all live episodes was \"Undateable\" on NBC during its third season, which aired from October 2015 until January 2016.\n", "During U.S. President George W. Bush's visit to Georgia in May 2005, he along with President Mikheil Saakashvili was addressing tens of thousands of Georgians in Freedom Square in Tbilisi when a recording of \"Tavisupleba\" failed to play properly. Saakashvili then motioned to the choirs, and thousands in the crowd joined the singers in singing it, a moment which was described by media as \"the most powerful moment of the day\".\n\nSection::::Music.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00620	How do white blood cells teach each other when identifying new threats?	White blood cells don't really “teach” one another about threats. That's what the thymus gland does, and it's much bigger in young humans and other animals because it's still “teaching” the immune system about threats. It shrinks with age because there's less to teach.	[ "According to this theory, the most important for stimulation of immune response are normal tissues. When tissue cells are distressed because of injury, infection and so on, they start to secrete or express on their surface so called \"Danger signals\". \"Danger signals\" are also introduced into extracellular space when stressed cells die by immunologic not-silent cell death such as necrosis or pyroptosis (as opposed to apoptosis, controlled cell death). This model also suggests that, despite their potential immunogenicity, neoplastic tumors do not induce significant immune responses to induce the destruction of the malignant cells. According to the danger model, the immune surveillance system fails to detect tumor antigens because transformed cells do not send any danger signals which could activate dendritic cells and initiate an immune response. \"Danger signals\" are normal intracellular molecules that are not found in the extracellular space under physiological conditions. The danger model has evolved over the years. \"Danger signals\" include DNA, RNA, heat shock proteins (Hsps), hyaluronic acid, serum amyloid A protein, ATP, uric acid and also cytokines like interferon alfa, interleukin-1β, CD40L and so on.\n", "threat : What constitutes a \"threat\" as it pertains to \"defense physiology\"? A \"threat\" may be consciously recognized or not. A physical event (a loud noise or car collision), a chemical or a biological agent which alters (or has the possibility to alter) body function (physiology) away from optimum or healthy functioning (or away from its current state of functioning) may be perceived as a \"threat\" (also called a stressor). \n", "Taking blood samples from cancer patients, scientists have found antibodies that are specific for survivin. These antibodies were absent in the blood samples of healthy normal patients. Therefore, this shows that survivin is able to elicit a full humoral immune response. This may prove useful, as one could measure the level of survivin-specific antibodies in the patient's blood as a monitor of tumour progression. In acquiring the humoral response to tumour antigens such as survivin, CD4+ T cells are activated to induce B cells to produce antibodies directed against the particular antigens.\n", "The first evidence of survivin-specific CTL recognition and killing was shown in an assay wherein cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) induced lysis of B cells transfected to present survivin peptides on its surface. The naive CD8+ T cells were primed with dendritic cells and could therefore recognize the specific peptides of survivin presented on the surface Major Histocompatibility Complex I (MHC I) molecules of the B cells.\n\nB. Humoral Antibody Response\n", "Life circumstances, though posing no immediate physical danger, could be perceived as a threat. Anything that could change the continuing of the person’s life as they are currently experiencing it could be perceived as a \"threat\".\n\nSection::::Physiological reactions to threat (or perceived threat).\n\nA threat may be either \"empirical\" (an outside observer may agree that the event or circumstance poses a threat) or \"a priori\" (an outside observer would not agree that the event or circumstance poses a threat). What is important to the individual, in terms of the body’s response, is that a threat is perceived. \n", "Other cell types, such as B cells and even neural progenitor cells, can promote regulation of immune response in the CNS. Stem and progenitor cells are usually regarded with respect to their potential to serve as a source for newly differentiated cells, but recently stem and progenitor cells have also been acknowledged for their ability to modulate immune activity. Experiments have shown that injection of neural progenitor cells into the brain’s ventricles can modulate an immune response taking place at multiple inflammatory foci in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis, or at a single site at the injured spinal cord.\n", "The danger model is a new perspective on adaptive and innate immunity. In the past innate immunity was suggested to be a minor part of the immune system — in contrast, adaptive immunity was thought to be the most important and effective part of the immune system. According to the danger model there is no adaptive immunity without the innate part. This is because APCs like dendritic cells are essential for activation of T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes, which after activation produce specific antibodies. In the case of dendritic cells deficiency, like in common variable immunodeficiency (CVID), patients suffer from hypogammaglobulinemia and from primary or secondary defects in T-cell functions.\n", "Section::::Molecular basis.\n\nMolecular mechanisms that have been linked directly to the behavioral expression of conditioning are easier to study in a clinical setting as opposed to mechanisms that underlie long-term potentiation (LTP), in which synaptic plasticity is induced by electrical or chemical stimulation of lateral amygdala circuits. LTP is important for fear processing because it strengthens the synapses in neural circuits. These strengthened synapses are how long-term memory is developed and how fear is developed.\n\nSection::::Molecular basis.:Hebbian synaptic plasticity.\n", "Section::::The danger model.\n\nIn 1994 a new immunologic model was suggested by Polly Matzinger. She suggested that the immune system does not distinguish between self and nonself, but discriminates between dangerous and safe by recognition of pathogens or alarm signals from injured or stressed cells and tissues.\n", "Some of these proteins recognize endogenous or microbial molecules or stress responses and form oligomers that, in animals, activate inflammatory caspases (e.g. caspase 1) causing cleavage and activation of important inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1, and/or activate the NF-κB signaling pathway to induce production of inflammatory molecules.\n", "BULLET::::- In MHC class I, any nucleated cell normally presents cytosolic peptides, mostly self peptides derived from protein turnover and defective ribosomal products. During viral infection, intracellular microorganism infection, or cancerous transformation, such proteins degraded in the proteosome are as well loaded onto MHC class I molecules and displayed on the cell surface. T lymphocytes can detect a peptide displayed at 0.1%-1% of the MHC molecules.\n\nSection::::T lymphocyte recognition restrictions.\n", "The Enterprise Immune System further employs an autonomous response technology, Antigena, which allows networks to take instant and autonomous action against in-progress cyber-attacks. Antigena takes targeted action, for example slowing down or stopping a compromised connection or device, in order to neutralize threats without impacting normal business operations.\n", "Section::::Background.\n\nNeural targets that control thermogenesis, behavior, sleep, and mood can be affected by pro-inflammatory cytokines which are released by activated macrophages and monocytes during infection. Within the central nervous system production of cytokines has been detected as a result of brain injury, during viral and bacterial infections, and in neurodegenerative processes.\n\nFrom the US National Institute of Health:\n", "Section::::Signaling events in proteostasis.\n\nProtein misfolding is detected by mechanisms that are specific for the cellular compartment in which they occur. Distinct surveillance mechanisms that respond unfolded protein have been characterized in the cytoplasm, ER and mitochondria. This response acts locally in a cell autonomous fashion but can also extend to intercellular signaling to protect the organism from anticipated proteotoxic stress.\n\nSection::::Signaling events in proteostasis.:Cell-autonomous stress responses.\n", "Section::::Biological functions for extrinsic recognition.\n\nSection::::Biological functions for extrinsic recognition.:Pathogen recognition in the immune system.\n", "Section::::Mechanism of action.\n", "BULLET::::- SIGLEC7 (Sialic acid-binding immunoglobulin-type lectin 7, also designated as CD328) and SIGLEC9 (Sialic acid-binding immunoglobulin-type lectin 9, also designated as CD329) are proteins found on the surface of various immune cells, including natural killer cells and macrophages (SIGLEC7) and neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells and activated T-cells (SIGLEC9). SIGLECs 7 and 9 suppress the immune function of these cells by binding to terminal sialic acid on glycans that cover the surface of cells.\n\nSection::::Immune checkpoint inhibitors.\n", "\"Despite the brain's status as an immune privileged site, an extensive bi-directional communication takes place between the nervous and the immune system in both health and disease. Immune cells and neuroimmune molecules such as cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors modulate brain function through multiple signaling pathways throughout the lifespan. Immunological, physiological and psychological stressors engage cytokines and other immune molecules as mediators of interactions with neuroendocrine, neuropeptide, and neurotransmitter systems. For example, brain cytokine levels increase following stress exposure, while treatments designed to alleviate stress reverse this effect.\n", "The immune response involves raising antibodies (IgG, IgM and IgE type) that can react with soluble antigens released by \"Onchocerca volvulus\". Opsonising antibodies that tag cells for destruction are also found against the infective J stage and microfilariae, but there is not enough evidence at the moment to say whether this is protective.\n", "Several approaches have been used experimentally in order to harness naturally occurring immune cell activity in CNS pathologies. Here are key examples:\n", "New investigations, however, have shown that a \"bull’s eye\" is not present in all immunological synapses. For example, different patterns appear in the synapse between a T-cell and a dendritic cell.\n\nThis complex as a whole is postulated to have several functions including but not limited to:\n\nBULLET::::- Regulation of lymphocyte activation\n\nBULLET::::- Transfer of peptide-MHC complexes from APCs to lymphocytes\n\nBULLET::::- Directing secretion of cytokines or lytic granules\n", "Astrocytes are another type of glial cell that among other functions, modulate the entry of immune cells into the CNS via the blood–brain barrier (BBB). Astrocytes also release various cytokines and neurotrophins that allow for immune cell entry into the CNS; these recruited immune cells target both pathogens and damaged nervous tissue.\n\nSection::::Neuroimmune responses.:Reflexes.\n\nSection::::Neuroimmune responses.:Reflexes.:Withdrawal reflex.\n", "• Sending a set of test patterns to the node suspected of being compromised. The test pattern matrix consists of a set of known intrusion vectors, as well as a set of non-intrusion patterns. Upon formation of the initial group, and every time that membership in the Trusted Domain changes, the matrix is reconstituted and distributed among all members. The matrix is distributed in such a way that no single member group of members colluding (as long as k, k N-1)/ 2; where k is number of colluding members), has complete knowledge of all test patterns\n", "Proliferating Daoy cells were placed on a glass coverslip, fixed and stained with fluorescent antibodies for survivin and alpha-tubulin. Immunoflourescence using confocal microscopy was used to look at the localization of survivin and tubulin during the cell-cycle to look for any patterns of survivin expression. Survivin was absent in interphase, but present in the G2-M phase.\n", "Those accumulated data based on research and analysis enable states to come up with preventive measures in advance. Considering the severe impacts of cyber threats, CTI has been raised as an efficient solution to maintain international security.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nThe UK's National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC) distinguishes four types of threat intelligence:\n\nBULLET::::- Tactical: attacker methodologies, tools, and tactics - relies on enough resources and involves certain actions to go against potentially dangerous actors trying to do infiltration\n\nBULLET::::- Technical: indicators of specific malware\n\nBULLET::::- Operational: details of the specific incoming attack, assess an organisation's ability in determining future cyber-threats\n" ]	[ "White blood cells teach each other." ]	[ "The thymus gland is what teaches the white blood cells what to do before they are created." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "White blood cells teach each other." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The thymus gland is what teaches the white blood cells what to do before they are created." ]
2018-07392	How did Phineas gage survive?	The rod missed the parts of the brain that control systems vital to survival. Beyond that, he also got very lucky to avoid serious infection.	[ "Gage was thrown onto his back and gave some brief convulsions of the arms and legs, but spoke within a few minutes, walked with little assistance, and sat upright in an oxcart for the ride to his lodgings in town. About 30 minutes after the accident physician Edward H. Williams, finding Gage sitting in a chair outside the hotel, was greeted with \"one of the great understatements of medical history\":\n\nHarlow took charge of the case around 6 p.m.:\n\nSection::::Life.:Treatment and convalescence.\n", "Section::::Mental changes and brain damage.:Social recovery.\n\nMacmillan writes that this contrastbetween Gage's early, versus later, post-accident behaviorreflects his \"[gradual change] from the commonly portrayed impulsive and uninhibited person into one who made a reasonable 'social recovery, citing persons with similar injuries for whom \"someone or something gave enough structure to their lives for them to relearn lost social and personal skills\":\n\nAccording to contemporary accounts by visitors to Chile, Gage would have had to\n\nEn route (Macmillan continues):\n", "Despite his own optimism, Gage's convalescence was long, difficult, and uneven. Though recognizing his mother and unclesummoned from Lebanon, New Hampshire, 30 miles (50km) away on the morning after the accident, on the second day he \"lost control of his mind, and became decidedly delirious\". By the fourth day, he was again \"rational ... knows his friends\", and after a week's further improvement Harlow entertained, for the first time, the thought \"that it was \"possible\" for Gage to recover ... This improvement, however, was of short duration.\"\n", "Phineas Gage\n\nPhineas P. Gage (18231860) was an American railroad construction foreman remembered for his improbable survival of an accident in which a large iron rod was driven completely through his head, destroying much of his brain's left frontal lobe, and for that injury's reported effects on his personality and behavior over the remaining 12 years of his lifeeffects sufficiently profound (for a time at least) that friends saw him as \"no longer Gage.\" \n", "Gage may have first worked with explosives on farms as a youth, or in nearby mines and quarries. He is known to have worked on construction of the Hudson River Railroad near Cortlandt Town, New York, and by the time of his accident he was a blasting foreman (possibly an independent contractor) on railway construction projects. His employers' \"most efficient and capable foreman ... a shrewd, smart business man, very energetic and persistent in executing all his plans of operation\", he had even commissioned a custom-made tamping irona large iron rodfor use in setting explosive charges.\n\nSection::::Life.:Accident.\n", "For example, after a miner survived traversal of his skull by a gas pipe in diameter (extracted \"not without considerable difficulty and force, owing to a bend in the portion of the rod in his skull\") his physician invoked Gage as the \"only case comparable with this, in the amount of brain injury, that I have seen reported\".\n", "Section::::Mental changes and brain damage.:Early observations (1849–1852).\n\nHarlow (\"virtually our only source of information\" on Gage, according to psychologist Malcolm Macmillan) described the pre-accident Gage as hard-working, responsible, and \"a great favorite\" with the men in his charge, his employers having regarded him as \"the most efficient and capable foreman in their employ\"; he also took pains to note that Gage's memory and general intelligence seemed unimpaired after the accident, outside the periods of delirium. Nonetheless these same employers, after Gage's accident, \"considered the change in his mind so marked that they could not give him his place again\":\n", "In 1860, an American physician who had known Gage in Chile in 1858 and 1859 described him as still \"engaged in stage driving [and] in the enjoyment of good health, with no impairment whatever of his mental faculties\". Together with the fact that Gage was hired by his employer in advance, in New England, to become part of the new coaching enterprise in Chile, this implies that Gage's most serious mental changes had been temporary, so that the \"fitful, irreverent ... capricious and vacillating\" Gage described by Harlow immediately after the accident became, over time, far more functional and socially far better adapted.\n", "On the 24th day, Gage \"succeeded in raising himself up, and took one step to his chair\". One month later, he was walking \"up and down stairs, and about the house, into the piazza\", and while Harlow was absent for a week Gage was \"in the street every day except Sunday\", his desire to return to his family in New Hampshire being \"uncontrollable by his friends ... he went without an overcoat and with thin boots; got wet feet and a chill\". He soon developed a fever, but by mid-November he was \"feeling better in every respect ... walking about the house again\". Harlow's prognosis at this point: Gage \"appears to be in a way of recovering, if he can be controlled\".\n", "Often these comparisons carried hints of humor, competitiveness, or both. The \"Boston Medical and Surgical Journal\", for example, termed Gage \"the patient whose cerebral organism had been comparatively so little disturbed by its abrupt and intrusive visitor\"; and a Kentucky doctor, reporting a patient's survival of a gunshot through the nose, bragged, \"If you Yankees can send a tamping bar through a fellow's brain and not kill him, I guess there are not many can shoot a bullet between a man's mouth and his brains, stopping just short of the medulla oblongata, and not touch either.\"\n", "Late that evening Harlow noted: \"Mind clear. Constant agitation of his legs, being alternately retracted and extended like the shafts of a fulling mill. Says he 'does not care to see his friends, as he shall be at work in a few days.\n", "A report of Gage's physical and mental condition shortly before his death implies that his most serious mental changes were temporary, so that in later life he was far more functional, and socially far better adapted, than in the years immediately following his accident. A social recovery hypothesis suggests that his work as a stagecoach driver in Chile fostered this recovery by providing daily structure which allowed him to regain lost social and personal skills.\n\nSection::::Life.\n\nSection::::Life.:Background.\n", "Beginning 12 days after the accident, Gage was semi-comatose, \"seldom speaking unless spoken to, and then answering only in monosyllables\", and on the 13th day Harlow noted, \"Failing strength ... coma deepened; the globe of the left eye became more protuberant, with [\"fungus\"deteriorated, infected tissue] pushing out rapidly from the internal canthus [as well as] from the wounded brain, and coming out at the top of the head.\" By the 14th day, \"The exhalations from the mouth and head [are] horribly fetid. Comatose, but will answer in monosyllables if aroused. Will not take nourishment unless strongly urged. The friends and attendants are in hourly expectancy of his death, and have his coffin and clothes in readiness.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Frederick Frothingham (1825–1891), of Milton, Massachusetts. Educated at Harvard University, at Greenfield, Massachusetts in 1872, he married Lois Ripley Wright (1833–1900), of Lowell, Massachusetts.\n", "Other behaviors ascribed to the post-accident Gage that are either unsupported by, or in contradiction to, the known facts include the following:\n\nNone of these behaviors is mentioned by anyone who had met Gage or even his family,\n\nand as Kotowicz put it, \"Harlow does not report a single act that Gage should have been ashamed of.\" Gage is \"a great story for illustrating the need to go back to original sources\", writes Macmillan, most authors having been \"content to summarize or paraphrase accounts that are already seriously in error\".\n", "Section::::Early medical attitudes.\n\nSection::::Early medical attitudes.:Skepticism.\n\nBarker notes that Harlow's original 1848 report of Gage's survival and recovery \"was widely disbelieved, for obvious reasons\" and Harlow, in his 1868 retrospective, recalled this early skepticism:\n\n\"A distinguished Professor of Surgery in a distant city\", Harlow continued, had even dismissed Gage as a \"Yankee invention\".\n", "In November 1849, Henry Jacob Bigelow, the Professor of Surgery at Harvard Medical School, brought Gage to Boston for several weeks and, after satisfying himself that the tamping iron had actually passed through Gage's head, presented him to a meeting of the Boston Society for Medical Improvement and (possibly) to the medical school class.\n", "According to the \"Boston Medical and Surgical Journal\" (1869) it was the 1850 report on Gage by BigelowHarvard's Professor of Surgery and \"a majestic and figure on the medical scene of those times\"that \"finally succeeded in forcing [the case's] authenticity upon the credence of the as could hardly have been done by any one in whose sagacity and surgical knowledge his \"confrères\" had any less confidence\". Noting that, \"The leading feature of this case is its This is the sort of accident that happens in the pantomime at the theater, not elsewhere\", Bigelow emphasized that though \"at first wholly skeptical, I have been personally convinced\".\n", "BULLET::::- John Basil Turchin, 79, Russian-born Army officer who immigrated to the United States in 1856 as Colonel Ivan Vasilyevich Turchaninov, then joined the Union Army during the American Civil War as colonel of the 19th Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment and retired as a brigadier general.\n\nBULLET::::- Hazen S. Pingree, 60, former Governor of Michigan (1897–1901) and four-term Mayor of Detroit (1889–1897), after contracting peritonitis while on an overseas vacation\n\nSection::::June 19, 1901 (Wednesday).\n", "late on May 21, 1860. He was buried in San Francisco's Lone Mountain Cemetery.\n\nIn 1866, Harlow (who had \"lost all trace of [Gage], and had well nigh abandoned all of ever hearing from him again\") somehow learned that Gage had died in California, and made contact with his family there. At Harlow's request the family had Gage's skull exhumed, then personally delivered it to Harlow, who was by then a prominent physician, and civic leader in Woburn, Massachusetts.\n", "Nonetheless (Bigelow wrote just before Harlow's 1868 presentation of Gage's skull) though \"the nature of [Gage's] injury and its \"reality\" are now \"beyond doubt\" ... Ihave received a letter within a month [purporting] to prove that ... the accident \"could not have happened\".\"\n\nSection::::Early medical attitudes.:Standard for other brain injuries.\n", "BULLET::::- Thomas Andrews, Jr. (1873 – 1912) was an Irish born British businessman and shipbuilder. He was managing director and head of the drafting department of the shipbuilding company Harland and Wolff in Belfast, Ireland. As the naval architect in charge of the plans for the ocean liner , he was travelling on board that vessel during her maiden voyage when the ship hit an iceberg on 14 April 1912. He perished along with more than 1,500 others. His body was never recovered.\n\nSection::::Direct casualties.:Medical.\n", "Town doctor John Martyn Harlow described Gage as \"a perfectly healthy, strong and active young man, twenty-five years of age, nervo-bilious temperament, five feet six inches [] in height, average weight one hundred and fifty pounds [], possessing an iron will as well as an iron frame; muscular system unusually well developedhaving had scarcely a day's illness from his childhood to the date of [his] injury\". (In the pseudoscience of phrenology, which was then just ending its vogue, \"nervo-bilious\" denoted an unusual combination of \"excitable and active mental powers\" with \"energy and strength [of] mind and body [making] possible the endurance of great mental and physical labor\".)\n", "Section::::Life.:Injuries.\n\nIn April 1849, Gage returned to Cavendish and visited Harlow, who noted at that time loss of vision (and ptosis) of the left eye, a large scar on the forehead (from Harlow's draining of the abscess) and\n\nGage's rearmost left upper molar, immediately adjacent to the point of entry through the cheek, was also lost.\n\nThough a year later some weakness remained, Harlow wrote that \"physically, the recovery was quite complete during the four years immediately succeeding the injury\".\n\nSection::::Life.:New England and New York (18491852).\n", "BULLET::::1. Brigadier General Christopher Grant Champlin Perry, RIM (April 2, 1812 – April 5, 1854), commander of the Artillery Company of Newport from 1845-1854, m. Murial Frances Sergeant of Philadelphia (great-granddaughter of Benjamin Franklin); their daughter Margaret Mason Perry married the artist John LaFarge;\n\nBULLET::::2. Oliver Hazard Perry II (February 23, 1813 – March 4, 1814), died in infancy;\n\nBULLET::::3. Lieutenant Oliver Hazard Perry, Jr., USN (February 23, 1815 – August 20, 1878), m. 1) Elizabeth Ann Randolph (1816–1847) (Virginia Randolph family) and m. 2) Mary Ann Moseley;\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-15961	What happens when you uninstall a program from your computer?	The uninstaller program runs to delete files that the program created during installation. When it's done, it deletes itself.	[ "ZSoft Uninstaller\n\nZSoft Uninstaller is a freeware software utility from ZSoft Software for the Microsoft Windows operating system. When programs are deleted using the default program uninstaller, it may leave behind some files and registry entries. ZSoft Uninstaller provides a way to completely remove leftover data by taking a snapshot of the hard drive and registry before and after program installation.\n\nSection::::Features.\n", "Revo Uninstaller\n\nRevo Uninstaller is an uninstaller for Microsoft Windows. It uninstalls programs and additionally removes any files and Windows registry entries left behind by the program's uninstaller or by the Windows uninstall function.\n\nSection::::Features.\n\nRevo Uninstaller first runs the selected program's built-in uninstaller, then searches and removes associated files and registry entries that the uninstaller may not have removed from the user's drive.\n\nRevo Uninstaller also cleans out:\n\nBULLET::::- Files in the temporary folder\n\nBULLET::::- Entries in the Windows start-up applications folder\n\nBULLET::::- Browser history and cache of Internet Explorer, Firefox, Opera and Netscape\n", "Section::::Legality.\n\nThe majority of computer programs are covered by copyright laws. Although the precise scope of what is covered by copyright differs from region to region, copyright law generally provides the author (the programmer(s) or employer) with a collection of exclusive rights to the program. These rights include the right to make copies, including copies made into the computer's RAM (unless creating such a copy is essential for using the program).\n", "Section::::Operation.:Self-defense.\n\nThe DLL- Form of the virus is protected against deletion by setting its ownership to \"\"SYSTEM\"\", which locks it from deletion even if the user is granted with administrator privileges. The virus stores a backup copy of this DLL disguised as a .jpg image in the Internet Explorer cache of the user \"network services\".\n", "In 2011, working with the FBI, Ukrainian police arrested three Ukrainians in relation to Conficker, but there are no records of them being prosecuted or convicted. A Swede, Mikael Sallnert, was sentenced to 48 months in prison in the U.S. after a guilty plea.\n\nSection::::Removal and detection.\n\nDue to the lock of the virus files against deletion as long as the system is running, the manual or automatic removal itself has to be performed during boot process or with an external system installed. Deleting any existing backup copy is a crucial step.\n", "Running MotionPixels's uninstall routine that only removes the MotionPixels Player, not the codec itself, and not even Windows Control Panel can be used to de-install the MP codec, so the only way to get rid of it and reclaim a working system is to manually delete any single file containing the letters \"MVI\" in the Windows registry and the \\WINDOWS\\SYSTEM32 directory.\n\nSection::::MovieCD catalogue.\n", "Improper error-handling in an application program can lead to a scenario where a file is locked (either using \"share\" access or with byte-range file locking) and cannot be accessed by other applications. If so, the user may be able to restore file access by manually terminating the malfunctioning program. This is typically done through the Task Manager utility.\n", "Installation typically involves code (program) being copied/generated from the installation files to new files on the local computer for easier access by the operating system, creating necessary directories, registering environment variables, providing separate program for un-installation etc.. Because code is generally copied/generated in multiple locations, uninstallation usually involves more than just erasing the program folder. For example, registry files and other system code may need to be modified or deleted for a complete uninstallation.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "The only known way to release the lock on the aforementioned files is to reboot the OS. One can also kill the offending instance of svchost.exe, thus releasing the lock, but this normally renders the machine unusable, since it also terminates all the services hosted by the same instance of svchost.exe.\n\nAlso, the Windows Webclient (MRxDAV) is, however, known to create temporary copies of downloaded files under C:\\Documents and settings\\LocalService\\Temp\\Temporary Internet Files\\Content.IE5.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Windows Vista.\n", "The program functions by inserting itself into the Winsock system, which can in some situations disrupt network connectivity. Well-known and generally trusted anti-spyware programs like Ad-Aware and Spybot are usually effective at removing older versions of this software. More recent versions of NewDotNet can be uninstalled using the standard Windows \"Add/Remove Programs\" control panel or an uninstaller in \"C:\\Program Files\\New.net\". Manual removal, if performed incorrectly, can completely disrupt the computer's ability to access the internet. This can be fixed with an LSP Fix program.\n\nSection::::Lawsuit.\n", "The files named are copied only from the folder selected for copying; fully qualified path names are not supported.\n\nSection::::Output.\n", "Uninstaller\n\nAn uninstaller, also called a deinstaller, is a variety of utility software designed to remove other software or parts of it from a computer. It is the opposite of an installer. Uninstallers are useful primarily when software components are installed In multiple directories, or where some software components might be shared between the system being uninstalled and other systems that remain in use.\n", "At the end of the output is a table giving numbers of directories, files, and bytes. For each of these, the table gives the total number found in the source, the number \"copied\" (but this includes directories marked \"New Dir\" even if they are not copied), the number \"skipped\" (because they already exist in the target), and the number of \"mismatches\", \"FAILED\", and \"extras\". \"Failed\" can mean that there was an I/O error that prevented a file being copied, or that access was denied. There is also a row of time taken (in which the time spent on failed files seems to be in the wrong column).\n", "In some cases, this may take the form of libraries that the software uses being changed in a way which adversely affects the software. If the old version of a library that previously worked with the software can no longer be used due to conflicts with other software or security flaws that were found in the old version, there may no longer be a viable version of a needed library for the program to use.\n\nSection::::Classification.\n\nSoftware rot is usually classified as being either dormant rot or active rot.\n\nSection::::Classification.:Dormant rot.\n", "BULLET::::- An inode may have no links. An unlinked file is removed from disk, and its resources are freed for reallocation but deletion must wait until all processes that have opened it finish accessing it. This includes executable files which are implicitly held open by the processes executing them.\n", "The main feature of ZSoft Uninstaller is to remove unnecessary files and registry entries left behind after uninstalling a program. It begins by analyzing the hard drive and registry before the program is installed. The user is then asked to install the program that they want to analyze. After the program is installed, ZSoft Uninstaller will reanalyze the same hard drive and registry, and compare the differences of the pre-installation with the post-installation. Each difference will be logged and the user can return at any time to delete the program and all of the files that were installed.\n", "BULLET::::4. RESTORE: Like BACKUP, RESTORE allowed an Eagle user to specify the file(s) to work on, in a specification file. If a file to be restored had been divided across two or more disks, RESTORE would ask for disks as it needed them, and tell its user if he put in the wrong disk. Of course, if a file weren't divided, and the user knew what disk it was on, he could also restore it with PIP or some regular copy program.\n", "Should I Remove It?\n\nShould I Remove It? is a freeware utility from Reason Software that uses crowdsourced data to recommend removal of programs from Microsoft Windows systems.\n\nSection::::Features.\n", "In some cases, variants may instead modify the registry to install the malicious payload as a debugger for the benign system file ctfmon.exe so that ctfmon.exe executes on system startup, which leads to the execution of the malware.\n\nIn most cases, Slenfbot will attempt to delete the original copy of the worm. Some variants may make additional modifications to the registry in order to delete the originally executed copy of the worm when the system restarts.\n", "The Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) can be a problem for the preservation of old software as it prohibits required techniques. In October 2003, the US Congress passed 4 clauses to the DMCA which allow for reverse engineering software in case of preservation. \n\nIn November 2006 the Library of Congress approved an exemption to the DMCA that permits the cracking of copy protection on software no longer being sold or supported by its copyright holder so that they can be archived and preserved without fear of retribution.\n\nSection::::Law.:US copyright law.\n", "CheckInstall\n\nCheckInstall is a computer program for Unix-like operating systems which eases the installation and uninstallation of software compiled from source by making use of package management systems. After software compilation it can automatically generate a Slackware-, RPM-, or Debian-compatible package that can later be cleanly uninstalled through the appropriate package manager.\n", "BULLET::::6. Thread B's F can now acquire a reentrant lock and proceed if it was still waiting\n\nSection::::Software emulation.\n\nSoftware emulation can be accomplished using the following structure:\n\nBULLET::::- A \"control\" condition using a regular lock\n\nBULLET::::- Owner identifier, unique to each thread (defaulting to empty / not set)\n\nBULLET::::- Acquisition count (defaulting to zero)\n\nSection::::Software emulation.:Acquisition.\n\nBULLET::::1. Acquire the control condition.\n\nBULLET::::2. If the owner is set and not the current thread, wait for the control condition to be notified (this also releases the condition).\n", "Here are some examples of usage. If more than one option is specified, they must be separated by spaces.\n\nBULLET::::- Copy directory contents of to (including file data, attributes and timestamps), recursively with empty directories (codice_6):\n\nBULLET::::- Copy directory recursively (codice_6), copy all file information (codice_2, equivalent to codice_10, codice_11=Data, codice_12=Attributes, codice_13=Timestamps, codice_14=Security=NTFS ACLs, codice_15=Owner info, codice_16=Auditing info), do not retry locked files (codice_17) (the number of retries on failed copies default value is 1 million), preserve original directories' Timestamps (codice_4 - requires version XP026 or later):\n", "BULLET::::- Open source and freeware programs that have been abandoned: In some cases, source code remains available, which can prove a historical artifact. One such case is PC-LISP, still found online, which implements the Franz Lisp dialect. The DOS-based PC-LISP still runs well within emulators and on Microsoft Windows.\n\nSection::::Implications.\n", "The Windows operating system can be reinstalled on a computer that is already licensed for it. The reinstallation can be done by downloading the operating system or by using a \"restore disk\" provided by the computer manufacturer. Eric Lundgren was fined and sentenced to U.S. federal prison in April 2018 for producing 28,000 restore disks and intending to distribute them for about 25 cents each as a convenience to computer repair shops.\n\nSection::::List of data recovery software.\n\nSection::::List of data recovery software.:Bootable.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02484	how do scientists and historians know what colour dinosaurs (and other pre-human animals) were?	For the most part, they don't, and it is mostly guesswork. Of course, it is tried to include as much science as is possible (most marine animals are dark on top and paler on the bottom as this is a good form of camouflage, so when drawing an extinct marine reptile, we might also use that colouring) There are a few feathered dinosaurs (Microraptor, for example) where we have been able to study their fossilised feathers and find out what colour they are through that. Interestingly, what we can tell sometimes if we have good skin impressions, is if there are any differences in texture which can indicate that a particular animal had a pattern on its skin. Due to a very well preserved fossilised skin imprint from Edmontosaurus, we suspect that these dinosaurs had, at the very least, a striped tail.	[ "In some stratigraphic sequences, there is clearly a variation in color between different strata. Such color differences often originate from variations in the incorporation of transition metal-containing materials during deposition and lithification. Other differences in color can originate from variations in the organic carbon content of the rock. However, until relatively recently, these variations were not commonly investigated because of the great effort and expense involved in chemical analysis.\n", "Section::::Other dinosaurs.\n\nSection::::Other dinosaurs.:\"Psittacosaurus\".\n", "Dinosaur coloration\n\nDinosaur color is one of the unknowns in the field of paleontology as skin pigmentation is nearly always lost during the fossilization process. However, recent studies of feathered dinosaurs have shown that we might be able to infer the color of some species through the use of melanosomes, the color-determining pigments within the feathers.\n\nSection::::Feathered dinosaurs.\n\nSection::::Feathered dinosaurs.:\"Anchiornis\".\n", "Timeline of dromaeosaurid research\n\nThis timeline of dromaeosaurid research is a chronological listing of events in the history of paleontology focused on the dromaeosaurids, a group of sickle-clawed, bird-like theropod dinosaurs including animals like \"Velociraptor\". Since the Native Americans of Montana used the sediments of the Cloverly Formation to produce pigments, they may have encountered remains of the dromaeosaurid \"Deinonychus\" hundreds of years before these fossils came to the attention of formally trained scientists.\n", "Several professional paleoartists recommend the consideration of contemporary animals in aiding accurate restorations, especially in cases where crucial details of pose, appearance and behavior are impossible to know from fossil material. For example, most extinct animals' coloration and patterning are unknown from fossil evidence, but these can be plausibly restored in illustration based on known aspects of the animal's environment and behavior, as well as inference based on function such as thermoregulation, species recognition, and camouflage.\n\nSection::::Aims and production.:Artistic principles.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Poppleton in Winter\" (2001)\n\nBULLET::::- \"First Graders From Mars\" by Shana Corey, Illustrated by Teague\n\nBULLET::::- \"Episode 1, Horus's Horrible Day\" (2001)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Episode 2, The Problem with Pelly\" (2002)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Episode 3, Nergal and the Great Space Race\" (2002)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Episode 4, Tera, Star Student\" (2003)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dinosaurs\" series by Jane Yolen and Mark Teague\n\nBULLET::::- \"How Do Dinosaurs Say Goodnight?\" (2000)\n\nBULLET::::- \"How Do Dinosaurs Get Well Soon?\" (2003)\n\nBULLET::::- \"How Do Dinosaurs Clean Their Rooms?\" (2004)\n\nBULLET::::- \"How Do Dinosaurs Count to Ten?\" (2004)\n\nBULLET::::- \"How Do Dinosaurs Eat Their Food?\" (2005)\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- A study on pigment traces in fossilized dinosaur eggshells is published by Wiemann, Yang & Norell (2018), who interpret their findings as indicating that eggshell coloration and pigment pattern originated in nonavian theropod dinosaurs.\n\nBULLET::::- A study on the nutritional value of plants grown under elevated CO levels, evaluating the hypothesis that constraints on sauropod diet quality were driven by Mesozoic CO concentration, is published by Gill \"et al.\" (2018).\n", "Section::::Other dinosaurs.:\"Borealopelta\".\n\nIn a 2017 study examination of melanosomes preserved in a specimen of \"Borealopelta\" indicated that the nodosaurid had a reddish-brown coloration in life, with a counter-shaded pattern which it was speculated was used for camouflage. The discovery that \"Borealopelta\" possessed camouflage coloration may indicate that it was under threat of predation, despite its large size, and that the armor on its back was primarily used for defensive rather than display purposes.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Orange stripey dinosaurs? Fossil feathers reveal their secret colors, \"The Guardian\", February 28, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- What colour were dinosaurs?, \"The Guardian\", February 7, 2009\n", "Section::::Feathered dinosaurs.:\"Cruralispennia\".\n", "Section::::Prescientific.\n\nBULLET::::- The Crow people and other Native American groups inhabiting Montana used to use rocks from the Cloverly Formation to make red pigments. Since the red pigments are richest in the same layers of the formation that preserve dinosaur fossils, its likely that Native Americans encountered \"Deinonychus\" fossils long before scientifically trained paleontologists.\n\nSection::::19th century.\n\nSection::::19th century.:1880s.\n\n1887\n\nBULLET::::- Harry Govier Seeley described the new species \"Ornithodesmus cluniculus\".\n\nSection::::20th century.\n\nSection::::20th century.:1910s.\n\n1914\n\nBULLET::::- Barnum Brown collected a partial skull and foot in Late Cretaceous rocks that would later serve as the type specimen of \"Dromaeosaurus albertensis\".\n\nSection::::20th century.:1920s.\n", "BULLET::::- Geothermal alteration studies examine the colour of palynomorphs extracted from rocks to give the thermal alteration and maturation of sedimentary sequences, which provides estimates of maximum palaeotemperatures.\n\nBULLET::::- Limnology studies. Freshwater palynomorphs and animal and plant fragments, including the prasinophytes and desmids (green algae) can be used to study past lake levels and long term climate change.\n", "In 2010, paleontologists studied a well-preserved skeleton of \"Anchiornis\", an averaptoran from the Tiaojishan Formation in China, and found melanosomes within its fossilized feathers. As different shaped melanosomes determine different colors, analysis of the melanosomes allowed the paleontologists to infer that \"Anchiornis\" had black, white and grey feathers all over its body and a crest of dark red or ochre feathers on its head.\n\nAnother specimen was reported to possess melanosomes which induced grey and black coloration, but none that suggested red or brown coloration.\n\nSection::::Feathered dinosaurs.:\"Sinosauropteryx\".\n", "Section::::Reception.:On first publication in 1890.:\"British Medical Journal\".\n", "Collections of shells in display cases are accompanied by descriptions of the different parts of shells. Other information, for example, how molluscs are classified and the characteristics of each of the five categories and how colours and patterns are formed are accompanied the displays. Their shapes, their sculptures, ornamentation and commercial uses can be known in details.\n", "The coloration of mosasaurs was unknown until 2014, when the findings of Johan Lindgren of Lund University and colleagues revealed the pigment melanin in the fossilized scales of a mosasaur. Mosasaurs were likely countershaded, with dark backs and light underbellies, much like a great white shark or leatherback sea turtle, the latter of which had fossilized ancestors for which color was also determined. The findings were described in the journal \"Nature\".\n\nSection::::Paleobiology.:Ontogeny and growth.\n", "Section::::Episodes.\n\nSection::::Episodes.:Episode one: \"Central England\".\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. Philip Wilby of the British Geological Survey in Nottingham examines soft-tissue, preserved by the \"Medusa effect\", from a recently re-excavated Victorian fossil discovery.\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. Phil Manning compares a T-Rex with William Buckland’s Megalosaurus (the first scientifically identified dinosaur and the inspiration for Charles Dickens’ opening paragraph in \"Bleak House\").\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. Derek Siveter of Oxford University Museum and Dr. Mark Sutton of Imperial College London demonstrate virtual dissection that produces computer-models of microfossils.\n", "BULLET::::- 1784. Thomas Jefferson (American) wrote \"Notes on the State of Virginia\" (1784) that refuted some of Buffon's mistakes about New World fauna. As U.S. President, he dispatched the Lewis and Clark expedition to the American West (1804).\n\nBULLET::::- 1789? Guillaume Antoine Olivier (French, 1756–1814) wrote ', or ' (1789).\n\nBULLET::::- 1789. George Shaw & Frederick Polydore Nodder published \"The Naturalist's Miscellany: or coloured figures of natural objects drawn and described immediately from nature\" (1789–1813) in 24 volumes with hundreds of color plates.\n", "The colour of a rock or its component parts is a distinctive characteristic of some rocks and is always recorded, sometimes against standard colour charts, such as that produced by the Rock-Color Chart Committee of the Geological Society of America based on the Munsell color system.\n\nSection::::Fabric.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Piggins and the Royal Wedding\" (1989)\n\nHow Do Dinosaurs...? (illustrated by Mark Teague)\n\nBULLET::::- \"How Do Dinosaurs Say Good Night?\" (2000)\n\nBULLET::::- \"How Do Dinosaurs Get Well Soon?\" (2002)\n\nBULLET::::- \"How Do Dinosaurs Learn to Read?\" (2003)\n\nBULLET::::- \"How Do Dinosaurs Clean Their Rooms?\" (2004)\n\nBULLET::::- \"How Do Dinosaurs Count to Ten?\" (2004)\n\nBULLET::::- \"How Do Dinosaurs Eat Their Food?\" (2005)\n\nBULLET::::- \"How Do Dinosaurs Play with Their Friends?\" (2006)\n\nBULLET::::- \"How Do Dinosaurs Learn Their Colors?\" (2006)\n\nBULLET::::- \"How Do Dinosaurs Go to School?\" (2007)\n\nBULLET::::- \"How Do Dinosaurs Say I Love You?\" (2009)\n", "Catherine Forster, in 1997, stated that color information can in principle not be derived from the skin impressions of dinosaur mummies. In 2015, Philip Manning and colleagues concluded that skin in dinosaur mummies is not simply preserved as an impression but contains original biomolecules or their derivatives. These researchers inferred the presence of melanin pigments in the skin of another \"Edmontosaurus\" mummy nicknamed Dakota. While clarifying that a reconstruction of the coloration is currently not possible given the many different factors that influence coloration, they remarked that the melanin distribution may potentially allow for deriving a monochrome (black-and-white) picture of the animal's pigmentation pattern. Any chemical analysis of AMNH 5060 would be problematic, however, as consolidating chemicals have been applied to its skin for preservation.\n", "Section::::Reception.:Modern.:The Thayer debate.\n", "In 2011 graduate student Ryan Carney and colleagues produced the first color study on an \"Archaeopteryx\" specimen; fossilized melanosomes suggested a primarily black coloration in the feathers of the specimen. The feather studied was likely a covert, which would have partly covered the primary feathers on the wings. Carney pointed out that this is consistent with the flight feathers of modern birds, in which black melanosomes have structural properties that strengthen feathers for flight.\n", "BULLET::::- T. Swain proposed that when flowering plants evolved their tissues contained alkaloids and tannins that poisoned the dinosaurs, leading to their extinction.\n\n1977\n\nBULLET::::- Alvarez and others published their research on the magnetic reversals of the Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary interval recorded in the rocks at Gubbio, Italy. They proposed that these rocks be regarded as the standard to which other rocks thought to be of this age are compared.\n", "BULLET::::- Micromosaics of Harold \"Henry\" Dalton: Microscopic mosaics from the 19th century depicting flowers, animals, and other objects, made entirely from individual butterfly wing scales and diatoms\n\nBULLET::::- The Stereofloral Radiographs of Albert G. Richards: A collection of stereographic radiographs of flowers\n\nBULLET::::- Rotten Luck: The Decaying Dice of Ricky Jay: A collection of decomposing antique dice once owned by magician Ricky Jay and documented in his book \"Dice: Deception, Fate, and Rotten Luck\"\n", "Section::::Approach.\n" ]	[ "Scientists and historians know what colour dinosaurs were.", "Scientists and historians are knowledgeable on the color of prehistoric animals such as dinosaurs. " ]	[ "Scientists and historians don't know for sure what colour dinosaurs were, but they use science to make a best guess.", "Scientists don't actually know the true color of dinosaurs, most of the colors portrayed are simply guesses." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Scientists and historians know what colour dinosaurs were.", "Scientists and historians are knowledgeable on the color of prehistoric animals such as dinosaurs. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Scientists and historians don't know for sure what colour dinosaurs were, but they use science to make a best guess.", "Scientists don't actually know the true color of dinosaurs, most of the colors portrayed are simply guesses." ]
2018-02057	Why can some feelings, like being hungry or tired, get progressively worse but after enough time has passed without eating or sleeping your body no longer feels as bad as it did before?	Because your body assumes that you're staying up late/not eating for an important reason and so adapts. Haven't slept in awhile? Your body thinks "Well I must be awake because I need to in order to survive" and gives you what people call a "second wind". This keeps you alert and focused so that you can do whatever it is that you need to do. It doesn't last forever though, and you'll eventually conk out. Same with going hungry. If you're hungry and don't eat for awhile, your metabolism will slow and your body will start burning off reserves instead.	[ "Coupled with deprivation of sleep and oxygen, another form of deprivation includes fasting. Fasting can occur because of religious purposes or from psychological conditions such as anorexia. Fasting refers to the ability to willingly refrain from food and possibly drinks as well. The dissociation caused by fasting is not only life-threatening but it is the reason why extended fasting periods can lead to ASC. Thus, the temporary dissociation from reality allows fasting to fall into the category of an ASC following the definition provided by Dr. Avner (2006).\n\nSection::::Induction methods.:Pathologies/other.:Psychosis.\n", "Marcus took a four-day public holiday at Alsium, a resort town on the Etrurian coast. He was too anxious to relax. Writing to his former tutor Marcus Cornelius Fronto, he declared that he would not speak about his holiday. Fronto replied ironically: \"What? Do I not know that you went to Alsium with the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking and complete leisure for four whole days?\" He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Pius had enjoyed exercise in the \"palaestra\", fishing, and comedy), going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening—Marcus had apparently been spending most of his evenings on judicial matters instead of leisure. Marcus could not take Fronto's advice. \"I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off,\" he wrote back. Marcus put on Fronto's voice to chastise himself: \"'Much good has my advice done you', you will say!\" He had rested, and would rest often, but \"—this devotion to duty! Who knows better than you how demanding it is!\"\n", "For those patients who have not been able to stop this disorder on their own, doctors have been working to discover a treatment that will work for everyone. One treatment that Schenck and Mahowald studied consisted of psychotherapy combined with \"environmental manipulation\". This was usually done separately from the weight-reducing diets. However, during this study only 10 percent of the patients were able to lose more than one third of their initial excess weight, which was not a viable percentage. In addition, they reported that many of the patients experienced \"major depression\" and \"severe anxiety\" during the attempted treatments. This was not one of the most successful attempts to help those with NSRED.\n", "On 23 August 1946, Denise Jacob testified about her experiences. Roughly translated from the original French, she said:The pain, the cold, the hunger, the thirst, the lack of sleep, the insurmountable misery that is overcome, the body, except serious sequelae, forgets them in an unconscious space.\n", "On a standard symptom-rating scale, subjects rated markedly stronger feelings of hunger after total SD than after seven hours of sleep (3.9 ± 0.7 versus 1.7 ± 0.3; P = 0.020) or 4.5 hours sleep (2.2 ± 0.5; P = 0.041). Plasma ghrelin levels were 22 ± 10% higher after total SD than after seven hours of sleep (0.85 ± 0.06 versus 0.72 ± 0.04 ng mL(−1); P = 0.048) with intermediate levels of the hormone after 4.5 hours sleep (0.77 ± 0.04 ng mL(−1)).\n", "The symptoms from withdrawal may be even more dramatic when the drug has masked prolonged malnutrition, disease, chronic pain, infections (common in intravenous drug use), or sleep deprivation, conditions that drug abusers often suffer as a secondary consequence of the drug. When the drug is removed, these conditions may resurface and be confused with withdrawal symptoms.\n\nSection::::Effect on homeostasis.\n", "The Roman Historian Flavius Josephus writing in the first century described classic symptoms of the syndrome among survivors of the siege of Jerusalem. He described the death of those who overindulged in food after famine, whereas those who ate at a more restrained pace survived.\n\nIn his 5th century BC work 'On Fleshes' (\"De Carnibus\"), Hippocrates writes, \"if a person goes\n\nseven days without eating or drinking anything, in this period most die; but there are some who survive that time\n", "Some feel that the notion of SHS has been invented to sell people medical products.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nSigns and symptoms considered indicators of SHS include aches, chronic fatigue, indigestion, sleep disorders, congestion, nervousness, distraction, nausea, and poor mood.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Surviving letters from Marcus to Fronto describe a holiday the emperor took in Etruria, at the costal resort town of Alsium, during which he was too anxious to relax. Fronto encouraged Marcus Aurelius to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Pius had enjoyed exercise in the \"palaestra\", fishing, and comedy), He went so far as to write a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening, to help Marcus break his habit of spending his evenings working on judicial matters instead of relaxing. Marcus, unable to take his former tutor's advise, wrote back: \"I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off\".\n", "Finally, on the opposite end of the spectrum, other patients may report feeling that they have slept much longer than is observed. It has been proposed that this experience be subclassified under sleep state misperception as \"positive sleep state misperception\", \"reverse sleep state misperception\", and \"negative sleep state misperception\".\n\nSection::::Symptoms and diagnosis.:Diagnostic criteria.\n", "Absorptive state\n\nAbsorptive state is the period in which the gastrointestinal tract is full and the anabolic processes exceed catabolism. The fuel used for this process is glucose.\n\nSection::::Nutrient processing in the absorptive state.\n", "1. Fatigue: The treated patient feels exhausted upon awaking from the hypnotic trance.\n\n2. Health: When the fatigue is gone, the patient seems to be in perfect health. All symptoms of the disorder are gone, and the patient appears to be “back to normal.” However, the patient is not cured and this phase is temporary. The only sign that something is odd is the patient’s obsession with the hypnotist.\n", "A sultan was very proud of his garden, and of six of his seven sons, but he scorned the youngest son as weak. One day, he saw that his date tree was ready to fruit; he set his six sons to watch it, or the slaves would steal the fruit, and he would have none for many a year. The oldest went, and had his slaves beat the drums to keep him awake, but when it grew light, they slept, and a bird ate all the dates. Every year after that, he set a different son, and for six years the bird still ate the dates. The seventh year, he set a man of his, and his youngest son asked why he did not send him, himself. Finally the father agreed. The youngest went, but sent his slaves home, and slept until early. Then he sat with corn in one hand and sand in the other. He chewed on the corn until he grew sleepy, and then he put sand in his mouth, which kept him awake.\n", "At that time the God Narayana, intending to test the devotion of the rishi, came there as an old muni looking very hungry and thirsty. On seeing him, Saalihothirar greeted him and offered a portion of the rice he had kept for himself, but Narayana wanted the entire quantity of rice. Saalihothirar was very happy to give all of the food to his guest, starving himself. After eating the food, Narayana asked, \"where do I sleep?\" (Tamil: Ev-uL-uRangalAm). Saalihothirar asked him to sleep in his own hut.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Common medicines known to cause this problem are eszopiclone, zolpidem, and anxiolytics such as benzodiazepines and which are prescribed to people having difficulties falling or staying asleep.\n\nRebound depression\n\nDepressive symptoms may appear to arise in patients previously free of such an illness.\n\nDaytime rebound\n", "BULLET::::- Pyrrhus and Cineas, a philosophical essay by Simone de Beauvoir, which features a similar conversation: Cineas asks Pyrrhus why he doesn't rest now instead of going through all the trouble of conquering empires, when his ultimate plan is to rest after the final conquest. The anecdote originally appeared in \"Parallel Lives\" by Plutarch\n", "Several records mention the impact that \"The Forty Days of Musa Dagh\" made on the Jews of Europe. One of these records is dated to 1943 in the Białystok Ghetto: \"The only thing left is to see our ghetto as Musa Dagh.\" These words were used when the members of the underground Białystok Ghetto were debating whether they should try to escape to the forest or to remain in the ghetto and organize resistance. According to Auron, \"The Forty Days of Musa Dagh\" was one of the main factors in the decision not to abandon the elderly, but instead to stay in the ghetto and resist.\n", "Marcus took a four-day public holiday at Alsium, a resort town on the coast of Etruria. He was too anxious to relax. Writing to Fronto, he declared that he would not speak about his holiday. Fronto replied: 'What? Do I not know that you went to Alsium with the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking, and complete leisure for four whole days?' He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Antoninus had enjoyed exercise in the \"palaestra\", fishing, and comedy), going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening – Marcus had apparently been spending most of his evenings on judicial matters instead of at leisure. Marcus could not take Fronto's advice. 'I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off', he wrote back. Marcus Aurelius put on Fronto's voice to chastise himself: \"Much good has my advice done you', you will say!' He had rested, and would rest often, but 'this devotion to duty! Who knows better than you how demanding it is!'\n", "Section::::Track listing.\n\nBULLET::::1. \"If Today Was Your Last Day\" (album version) – 4:08\n\nSection::::Charts.\n", "Empty Days & Sleepless Nights\n", "Daytime reemergence and rebound withdrawal symptoms, sometimes confused with interdose withdrawal, may occur once dependence has set in. 'Reemergence' is the return of symptoms for which the drug was initially prescribed, in contrast, 'rebound' symptoms are a return of the symptoms for which the benzodiazepine was initially taken, but at a more intense level than before; whereas 'interdose withdrawal' is when a prior dosage of drug wears off and beginnings of an entirely new cycle of withdrawal sets in, the symptoms of which dissipate upon taking the next dosage but after which yet another entirely new cycle of withdrawal begins when that dosage wears off, a new onset of withdrawal between each dosage thus called 'interdose withdrawal' and if not properly treated can recur indefinitely in a vicious circle (for which consider a benzo with a long half life (e.g. Valium (Diazepam)) so the drug does not wear off between doses). Withdrawal symptoms may appear for the first time during dose reduction, and include insomnia, anxiety, distress, weight loss, dizziness, night sweats, shakes, muscle twitches, aphasia, panic attacks, depression, derealization, paranoia, indigestion, diarrhea, photo phobia etc., and are more commonly associated with short-acting benzodiazepines discontinuation, like triazolam. Daytime symptoms can occur after a few days to a few weeks of administration of nightly benzodiazepine use or z-drugs such as zopiclone; withdrawal-related insomnia rebounds worse than baseline even when benzodiazepines are used intermittently.\n", "During the Arameans' siege of Samaria, four leprous men at the gate asked each other why they should die there of starvation, when they might go to the Arameans, who would either save them or leave them no worse than they were. When at twilight, they went to the Arameans' camp, there was no one there, for God had made the Arameans hear chariots, horses, and a great army, and fearing the Hittites and the Egyptians, they fled, leaving their tents, their horses, their donkeys, and their camp. The lepers went into a tent, ate and drank, and carried away silver, gold, and clothing from the tents and hid it.\n", "Also, in the \"nirtzah\" section of the seder, in a reference to or the Haggadah recounts how God judged the King of Gerar Abimelech in the middle of the night.\n", "Rabbi Akiva interpreted the words \"and [He] cast them into another land, as it is this day\" in to teach that the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel were destined not to return. But Rabbi Eliezer interpreted the allusion to \"day\" in differently, teaching that just as the day darkens and then becomes light again, so even though it went dark for the Ten Tribes, it will become light for them again.\n", "Recovery from this syndrome is situational, as some drug therapies have been effective in some individuals but not others. Patients may live in a variety of settings, including psychiatric hospitals, depending on the success of treatment. With successful treatment, an individual may live at home. In many of the reported cases, remission of symptoms occurred during the follow-up period.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18076	If the US purchased the land to then build the Panama Canal, why did Jimmy Carter give it away?	It's not that simple. The US wanted to control an area of Colombia that would make an excellent place for a canal. Colombia wouldn't allow it, so the US backed a war to make a portion of Colombia break away and become a new nation that the US could control. The US-backed forces won and the nation of Panama was created. The US-backed government then of course immediately (like, within days) made a treaty with the US to make a big chunk of territory within the country into a US territory, to be called The Panama Canal Zone, and which also gave a certain amount of control within Panama to the US. The zone was in the middle of the country, from coast to coast, so Panama was divided into two different sections. The US controlled it and had US military there. So basically the creation of the country was a coup led by a foreign power so that that foreign power could control a valuable resource. This is the kind of imperialist endeavor that is often frowned upon as being an abuse of power. The US paid the Panamanian government a small amount of money every year for it, but that doesn't take away the fact that the US only controlled it due to using coercive and violent methods, and that any nation has the right to decide how to use land within its territory and to negotiate its treaties. As time went on, the citizens of Panama were not happy with this arrangement and there were repeated protests and clashes. President Jimmy Carter was concerned about the unfairness of the situation historically and was willing to renegotiate the treaty and grant control of the canal to Panama.	[ "Torrijos died shortly after the inauguration of US President Ronald Reagan, just two months after Ecuadorian president Jaime Roldós died in strikingly similar circumstances. Like other Republicans when the canal treaty came before the U.S. Senate, Reagan alleged that Democratic U.S. president Jimmy Carter had \"given away\" a U.S. asset—the Panama Canal and the Canal Zone. In the 1976 Republican primaries, Reagan claimed regarding the canal: \"We built it, we paid for it, it's ours, and we should tell Torrijos and company that we are going to keep it.\"\n", "On the day the treaty took effect, most of the land within the former Canal Zone transferred to Panama. However, the treaty set aside many Canal Zone areas and facilities for transfer during the following 20 years. The treaty specifically categorized areas and facilities by name as \"Military Areas of Coordination\", \"Defense Sites\" and \"Areas Subject to Separate Bilateral Agreement\". These were to be transferred by the U.S. to Panama during certain time windows or simply by the end of the 243-month treaty period.\n", "BULLET::::3. The United States gave back Panamanian jurisdiction of the lands in \"Punta Paitilla\". It also gave back the lands of \"Nuevo Cristobal\", \"Playa de Colon\", and the Lesseps area. Panama, as a consequence, had multi-tasks to \"beautify\" the U.S. embassy in Panama. These tasks included the construction of a park in front of the embassy, and the fixing of two properties next to the embassy.\n\nBULLET::::4. The construction of a bridge over the canal, by the USA.\n\nBULLET::::5. The permitting of local traders to sell to ships crossing the canal.\n", "As a result of the treaties, by the year 2000 nearly , including some 7,000 buildings, such as military facilities, warehouses, schools, and private residences, were transferred to Panama. In 1993, the Panamanian government created a temporary agency (\"Autoridad de la Región Interoceánica\" or \"Interoceanic Region Authority\", commonly referred to as ARI) to administer and maintain the reverted properties.\n", "Section::::History.:United States acquisition.\n\nAt this time, the President and the Senate of the United States were interested in establishing a canal across the isthmus, with some favoring a canal across Nicaragua and others advocating the purchase of the French interests in Panama. Bunau-Varilla, who was seeking American involvement, asked for $100 million, but accepted $40 million in the face of the Nicaraguan option. In June 1902, the US Senate voted in favor of the Spooner Act, to pursue the Panamanian option, provided the necessary rights could be obtained.\n", "Bunau-Varilla was originally involved in the building of the Panama Canal under Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had built the Suez Canal. After the collapse of the de Lesseps efforts to build the Panama Canal, Bunau-Varilla became an important shareholder of the \"Compagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama\", which still had the concession, as well as certain valuable assets, for the building of a canal in Panama. Although not Panamanian himself, Bunau-Varilla had provided financial assistance to the rebel side in Panama's independence from Colombia, which occurred two weeks prior to the signing of the treaty. He had not, however, been in Panama for seventeen years, nor had he ever returned. As part of the Hay–Bunau-Varilla negotiations, the U.S. bought the shares and assets of the \"Compagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama\" for US$40 million.\n", "BULLET::::- United States to assume full cost of the road to Rio Hato, and therefore to pay the $2 million borrowed by Panama for this purchase from the US-operated Export-Import Bank\n\nBULLET::::- The United States to transfer the railroad station in Panama City to the government of Panama\n\nBULLET::::- The United States to pay an indemnity of the flow of US troops during wartime interrupted regular canal traffic\n\nBULLET::::- The United States to provide workers for building an oil pipeline between Panama City and the Balboa port.\n", "The canal, nevertheless, was clearly vital to Panama's economy. Some 30 percent of Panama's foreign trade passed through the canal. About 25 percent of the country's foreign exchange earnings and 13 percent of its GNP were associated with canal activities. The level of traffic and the revenue thereby generated were key factors in the country's economic life.\n", "In 1901, Secretary of State John Hay pressed the Nicaraguan Government for approval of a canal. Nicaragua would receive $1.5 million in ratification, $100,000 annually, and the U.S. would \"provide sovereignty, independence, and territorial integrity\". Nicaragua then returned the contract draft with a change; they wished to receive, instead of an annual $100,000, $6 million in ratification. The U.S. accepted the deal, but after Congress approved the contract a problem of court jurisdiction came up. The U.S. did not have legal jurisdiction in the land of the future canal. An important note is that this problem was on the verge of correction, until Pro-Panama representatives posed problems for Nicaragua; the current leader (General José Santos Zelaya) did not cause problems, from the outlook of U.S. interests.\n", "In the late 19th century, the United States government negotiated with President José Santos Zelaya to lease the land to build a canal through Nicaragua. Luis Felipe Corea, the Nicaraguan minister in Washington, wrote to United States Secretary of State John Hay expressing the Zelaya government's support for such a canal. The United States signed the Sánchez–Merry Treaty with Nicaragua in case the negotiations for a canal through Panama fell through, although the treaty was later rejected by John Hay.\n", "Ten years after construction was complete, this arrangement was becoming unacceptable to the Panamanians and they insisted that the United States give to Panama all the Canal Zone property they had purchased, ownership and control of the canal, ports, water supply, etc., and to submit the Canal Zone to Panamanian governance. By 1963, President Eisenhower had compromised by giving land to Panama, raising the annual tolls paid to Panama up to more than $2 million annually, and with a plan to allow the flag of Panama to be flown beside the Stars and Stripes outside public buildings. This measure had not been fully enacted, when President Kennedy was assassinated. In Panama, there were demonstrations by Panamanian, often involving the desecration of United States flags.\n", "President Roosevelt famously stated, \"I took the Isthmus, started the canal and then left Congress not to debate the canal, but to debate me.\" Several parties in the United States called this an act of war on Colombia: The \"New York Times\" described the support given by the United States to Bunau-Varilla as an \"act of sordid conquest.\" The \"New York Evening Post\" called it a \"vulgar and mercenary venture.\" The US maneuvers are often cited as the classic example of US gunboat diplomacy in Latin America, and the best illustration of what Roosevelt meant by the old African adage, \"Speak softly and carry a big stick [and] you will go far.\" After the revolution in 1903, the Republic of Panama became a US protectorate until 1939.\n", "At least 13 other parcels each were enclosed partly by land under the absolute jurisdiction of Panama and partly by an “Area of Civil Coordination\" (housing), which under the treaty was subject to elements of both U.S. and Panamanian public law. In addition, the 1977 treaty designated numerous areas and individual facilities as “Canal Operating Areas” for joint U.S.-Panama ongoing operations by a commission. On the effective date of the treaty, many of these, including Madden Dam, became newly surrounded by the territory of Panama. Just after noon local time on 31 December 1999, all former Canal Zone parcels of all types had come under the exclusive jurisdiction of Panama.\n", "The name was unpopular with the government of Panama, however, which preferred the name \"Bridge of the Americas\". The Panamanian view was made official by a resolution of the National Assembly on October 2, 1962, ten days before the inauguration. \n\nThe resolution read as follows:\n\nThe bridge over the Panama Canal shall bear the name Bridge of the Americas. Said name will be used exclusively to identify said bridge.\n\nPanamanian government officials shall reject any document in which reference is made to the bridge by any name other than \"Bridge of the Americas\".\n", "It has been considered by later observers that this happened mainly because Herrán had negotiated the treaty with little government or legislative oversight. It has also been mentioned that many of the politicians and congressmen found the amount offered to fall short, considering that the United States was willing to pay $40 million for the New Panama Canal Company and its construction equipment and excavations. \n", "The governmental initiatives in the economy, legitimated by the new Constitution, were already underway. The government had announced in early 1969 its intention to implement 1962 legislation by distributing 700,000 hectares of land within 3 years to 61,300 families. Acquisition and distribution progressed much more slowly than anticipated, however.\n", "Further criticism arose when journalists revealed that the Canal was allegedly surrendered to Panama in order to allow Torrijos to service the debt on his American bank loans. In 1968, before the general seized political control, Panama's foreign debt was less than $200 million. By 1977, its debt to American banks alone stood at $1.8 billion. The United States's surrender of the Canal would allow American banks to receive payments from its debtor.\n\nSection::::Implementation.\n", "Negotiations for a new set of treaties were resumed in June 1971, but little was accomplished until March 1973 when, at the urging of Panama, the UN Security Council called a special meeting in Panama City. A resolution calling on the United States to negotiate a \"just and equitable\" treaty was vetoed by the United States on the grounds that the disposition of the canal was a bilateral matter. Panama had succeeded, however, in dramatizing the issue and gaining international support.\n", "Negotiations were carried on throughout the first half of the presidency of Roberto Chiari's successor, Marcos Aurelio Robles. When the terms of three draft treaties—concerning the existing lock canal, a possible sea-level canal, and defense matters—were revealed in 1967, Panamanian public reaction was adverse. The new treaties would have abolished the resented \"in perpetuity\" clause in favor of an expiration date of December 13, 1999, or the date of the completion of a new sea-level canal if that were earlier. Furthermore, they would have compensated the Panamanian government on the basis of tonnage shipped through the canal, an arrangement that could have increased the annuity to more than US$20 million.\n", "King Hussein of Jordan ordered the construction of this residence by the sea in the town of Costa Teguise, in the municipality of Teguise, northeast of Lanzarote. Hussein never stayed in it but one of his sons did it to spend a vacation period after his wedding. In 1989, Hussein gave the house to Juan Carlos I, King of Spain, who in turn gave it to Patrimonio Nacional.\n", "Section::::1926.:Creation of Panama Extension Station.\n", "Section::::History.:Panama Canal Treaties.\n\nUntil 1979, when the Canal Zone as a solely US territory was abolished under the terms of the Panama Canal Treaties, the town of Balboa was the administrative center of the Canal Zone, and remained so until midday on December 31, 1999, by which time, according to the Torrijos-Carter Treaties, the Panama Canal and all its assets and territories were fully returned to the Panamanian government.\n\nSection::::History.:Panama Canal Administration Building.\n", "Meanwhile, the United States had initiated a new aid program for all of Latin America—the Alliance for Progress. Under this approach to hemisphere relations, President Kennedy envisioned a long-range program to raise living standards and advance social and economic development. No regular United States government development loans or grants had been available to Panama through the late 1950s. The Alliance for Progress, therefore, was the first major effort of the United States to improve basic living conditions. Panama was to share in the initial, large-scale loans to support self-help housing. Nevertheless, pressure for major revisions of the treaties and resentment of United States recalcitrance continued to mount.\n", "Ratification in the United States necessitated the approval of two-thirds of the Senate. The debates, the longest in Senate history, began on February 7, 1978. The Neutrality Treaty was approved on March 16, and the main treaty on April 18, when the debate finally ended. To win the necessary sixty-seven Senate votes, Carter agreed to the inclusion of a number of amendments, conditions, reservations, and understandings that were passed during the Senate debates and subsequently included in the instruments of ratification signed by Carter and Torrijos in June.\n", "The first two and a half years of the American canal effort were substantially dedicated to preparation, much of it making the area fit for large-scale human habitation. A significant part of this was the sanitation program put in place by Gorgas. Nearly $20 million was spent on health and sanitation during the ten years.\n" ]	[ "The US purchased the land to then build the Panama Canal", "The US purchased the land just for the Panama Canal." ]	[ "To gain control of the land to build the Panama Canal, rather than purchasing the land, the US backed a war in Colombia which enabled a portion of Colombia to break away and become a new nation under US control.", "The Panama Canal Zone also gave a certain amount of control within Panama to the US." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The US purchased the land to then build the Panama Canal", "The US purchased the land just for the Panama Canal." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "To gain control of the land to build the Panama Canal, rather than purchasing the land, the US backed a war in Colombia which enabled a portion of Colombia to break away and become a new nation under US control.", "The Panama Canal Zone also gave a certain amount of control within Panama to the US." ]
2018-08341	How come after sitting in a car all day during a road trip, you still feel physically tired when you reach a hotel, even if it’s no where near to your bedtime	Even though it's not physically exhausting, the demands on your attention and reactions are mentally exhausting. You think that's bad, try a few hours on a motorcycle. Whew!	[ "In some cases, driving after 18–24 hours without sleep is equivalent to a blood alcohol content of 0.05%–0.10%.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nFatigue can be both physical and mental. Physical fatigue is the inability to continue functioning at the level of one's normal abilities; a person with physical fatigue cannot lift as heavy a box or walk as far as he could if not fatigued.\n", "Because disrupted sleep is a significant contributor to fatigue, a diagnostic evaluation considers the quality of sleep, the emotional state of the person, sleep pattern, and stress level. The amount of sleep, the hours that are set aside for sleep, and the number of times that a person awakens during the night are important. A sleep study may be ordered to rule out a sleep disorder.\n\nDepression and other psychological conditions can produce fatigue, so people who report fatigue are routinely screened for these conditions, along with drug abuse, poor diet, and lack of physical exercise, which paradoxically increases fatigue.\n", "Mental fatigue, on the other hand, rather manifests in sleepiness or slowness. A person with mental fatigue may fall asleep, may react very slowly, or may be inattentive. With microsleeps, the person may be unaware that he was asleep. Without proper amount of sleep, it will feel like certain tasks seem complicated, concentration will drop and ultimately result in fatal mistakes\n\nSection::::Factors.\n\nThe Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration identifies three main factors in driver fatigue: Circadian rhythm effects, sleep deprivation and cumulative fatigue effects, and industrial or \"time-on-task\" fatigue.\n", "Muscle strength testing can be used to determine the presence of a neuromuscular disease, but cannot determine its cause. Additional testing, such as electromyography, can provide diagnostic information, but information gained from muscle strength testing alone is not enough to diagnose most neuromuscular disorders.\n\nPeople with multiple sclerosis experience a form of overwhelming lassitude or tiredness that can occur at any time of the day, for any duration, and that does not necessarily recur in a recognizable pattern for any given patient, referred to as \"neurological fatigue\".\n\nSection::::Classification.:Mental fatigue.\n", "Thermochemistry aside, the rate of metabolism and an amount of energy expenditures can be mistakenly interchanged, for example, when describing RMR and REE.\n\nSection::::Use.:Clinical guidelines for conditions of resting measurements.\n\nThe Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (AND) provides clinical guidance for preparing a subject for RMR measures, in order to mitigate possible confounding factors from feeding, stressful physical activities, or exposure to stimulants such as caffeine or nicotine:\n\n\"In preparation, a subject should be fasting for 7 hrs or greater, and mindful to avoid stimulants and stressors, such as caffeine, nicotine, and hard physical activities such as purposeful exercises.\"\n", "Travel fatigue is general fatigue, disorientation, and headache caused by a disruption in routine, time spent in a cramped space with little chance to move around, a low-oxygen environment, and dehydration caused by dry air and limited food and drink. It does not necessarily involve the shift in circadian rhythms that cause jet lag. Travel fatigue can occur without crossing time zones, and it often disappears after one day accompanied by a night of good quality sleep.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "The perception of mental fatigue is believed to be modulated by the brain's reticular activating system (RAS).\n\nSection::::Presentation.\n\nSection::::Presentation.:Complications.\n\nFatigue impacts a driver's reaction time, awareness of hazards around them and their attention. Drowsy drivers are three times more likely to be involved in a car crash and if they are awake over 20 hours, is the equivalent of driving with a blood-alcohol concentration level of 0.08%.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Although the RMR of any person may deviate from the reference value, MET can be thought of as an index of the intensity of activities: for example, an activity with a MET value of 2, such as walking at a slow pace (e.g., 3 km/h) would require twice the energy that an average person consumes at rest (e.g., sitting quietly).\n", "Physical inactivity is a predictor of CVD events and related mortality. Many components of metabolic syndrome are associated with a sedentary lifestyle, including increased adipose tissue (predominantly central); reduced HDL cholesterol; and a trend toward increased triglycerides, blood pressure, and glucose in the genetically susceptible. Compared with individuals who watched television or videos or used their computers for less than one hour daily, those who carried out these behaviors for greater than four hours daily have a twofold increased risk of metabolic syndrome.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Aging.\n", "Section::::Present status.\n\nFAST is now a commercial product marketed through Fatigue Science and Institutes for Behavior Resources.\n\nSection::::U.S. Navy.\n", "Budgeting and proper care of one's finances is the strongest stimulus for ridding oneself of debt-lag. This includes preparation, research and budgeting around optimal financial products for travel, both before and after travel.\n\nSection::::Management.:Before travelling.\n\nMany banks and financial institutions will have specific travel products on offer such as prepaid travel money cards or credit cards with little or no currency conversion fees and complimentary travel insurance. These kinds of financial products will often be far better suited to travel than typical banking products and will minimise the amount spent on fees and charges associated with travel. \n", "On the other hand, research by Samen, Wegmann, and Vejvoda investigated the variation of fatigue among long-haul pilots. 50 pilots all from German airlines participated in the research. As participants, pilots were subject to physiological measures pre-departure and during flight and filled out routine logs recording their times of sleep and awakening. Pilots also completed two questionnaires. The first reflecting feelings of fatigue before and after the flight, recorded before departure, 1-hour intervals during the flight and then immediately after landing. The second questionnaire was the NASA task load index.\n", "Fatigue is generally considered a more long-term condition than sleepiness (somnolence). Although sleepiness can be a symptom of medical issues, it usually results from lack of restful sleep, or a lack of stimulation. Chronic fatigue, on the other hand, is a symptom of a greater medical problem in most cases. It manifests in mental or physical weariness and inability to complete tasks at normal performance. Both are often used interchangeably and even categorized under the description of 'being tired.' Fatigue is often described as an uncomfortable tiredness, whereas sleepiness is comfortable and inviting.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Measurement.\n", "The term debt-lag is similar to jet lag in that both have to do with travel, however travellers can be affected by debt-lag without leaving their time zone. Jet lag refers to the condition sustained by the body after rapid long-distance travel which requires days of adjustment upon return. Debt-lag works in much the same way as it refers to a traveller's need to adjust upon return as well, except it is more directly related to the traveller's financial situation than their biological one.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "In addition to the primary factors identified by the FAA, other potential contributors to fatigue during transportation have been identified. These include endogenous factors such as mental stress and age of the vehicle operator, as well as exogenous or environmental stressors, such as the presence of non sea-level cabin pressure in-flight, vehicle noise, and vehicle vibration/acceleration (which contributes to the sopite syndrome). Many of the exogenous contributors merit further study because they are present during transportation operations but not in most lab studies of fatigue.\n\nSection::::In aviation.\n", "Though not universally used, ‘metabolic fatigue’ is a common term for the reduction in contractile force due to the direct or indirect effects of two main factors:\n\nBULLET::::1. Shortage of fuel (substrates) within the muscle fiber\n\nBULLET::::2. Accumulation of substances (metabolites) within the muscle fiber, which interfere either with the release of calcium (Ca) or with the ability of calcium to stimulate muscle contraction.\n\nSection::::Metabolic fatigue.:Substrates.\n", "The Ride Majestic\n\nThe Ride Majestic is the tenth studio album by Swedish heavy metal band, Soilwork. It was released on August 28, 2015. It is the last album to feature long time drummer Dirk Verbeuren, who left the band in July 2016 to join Megadeth.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "In 2008 she moved to Dubai. Right after that she got her motorcycle riding license and bought her first bike which was Harley Davidson Sportster 803. In 2012 she had done her first riding Challenge. She road 805 km in 12 hours non-stop, and became the first Lady in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) who did such a challenge. In 2014, she got the title of Road Captain, and became the first lady in GCC to achieve such a title. In 2015 she did her second challenge, 1700 km non-stop ride in 19 hours. On 1 April 2016, she decided to achieve the title of the first lady in the world who has ridden 2500 km non-stop in 24 hours. But unfortunately because of a sandstorm after 1000 km she had a dreadful accident. She got spine fractures, but also such a dangerous accident couldn’t stop her and just after 2 months she has started riding again. In May 2016 she became the first lady in the world who became as the Head Road Captain.\n", "Brody appeared to have slept well, according to her husband, in the days leading up to the accident. Her cell phone records showed no sign that she was awake between midnight and 9 a.m. when she usually slept, and her coworkers said she had exhibited no exhaustion at her job. She took medication for her hypothyroidism, which could have left her fatigued if she had missed a dose, but her husband said that did not appear to have happened.\n", "Low level theories exist that suggest that fatigue is due mechanical failure of the exercising muscles (\"peripheral fatigue\"). However, such low level theories do not explain why running muscle fatigue is affected by information relevant to cost benefit trade offs. For example, marathon runners can carry on running longer if told they are near the finishing line, than far away. The existence of a central governor can explain this effect.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Central governor\n\nBULLET::::- Deployment cost–benefit selection in physiology\n\nBULLET::::- Evolutionary medicine\n\nBULLET::::- Health science\n\nBULLET::::- Management control system\n\nBULLET::::- Mind–body\n\nBULLET::::- Neural top–down control of physiology\n", "\"The capacity to be 'quickly moved' was clearly the basis of the holding in Carroll, and our cases have consistently recognized ready mobility as one of the principal bases of the automobile exception.\" In addition, \"'[b]esides the element of mobility, less rigorous warrant requirements govern because the expectation of privacy with respect to one's automobile is significantly less than that relating to one's home or office.'\" The Court noted that the automobile exception has been applied several times by the Court even when the vehicle is no longer readily movable, if it was readily movable at the time of seizure.\n", "To overcome this problem, scientists developed the Universal Fatigue Algorithm based on a data-driven approach. Drowsiness is a state determined by independent non-EEG measures. The Oxford Sleep Resistance Test (OSLER test) and the Psychomotor Vigilance Test (PVT) are the most commonly used measures in sleep research. Both tests were used to establish the sample dataset for development of the Universal Fatigue Algorithm. The algorithm was developed from real EEG of a large number of individuals. Artificial intelligence techniques were then used to map the multitude of individual relationships. The implication is that the result gets progressively universal and significant as more data from a wider range of individuals are included in the algorithm. In addition to an unseen-blinded experiment approach, testing of the algorithm is also subject to independent external parties.\n", "BULLET::::- Adenosine levels in the brain progressively increase with sleep deprivation, and return to normal during sleep. Upon awakening with sleep deprivation, high amounts of adenosine will be bound to receptors in the brain, neural activity slows down, and a feeling of tiredness will result\n", "Acetylcholine is required for the generation of muscular force. In the central nervous system, acetylcholine modulates arousal and temperature regulation. It also may play a role in central fatigue. During exercise, levels of acetylcholine drop. This is due to a decrease in plasma choline levels. However, there have been conflicting results in studies about the effect of acetylcholine on fatigue. One study found that plasma choline levels had dropped 40% after the subjects ran the Boston Marathon. Another study found that choline supplementation did not improve time to exhaustion. This study also found that plasma choline levels had not changed in either the placebo or the choline supplemented groups. More research is needed to investigate acetylcholine's effects on fatigue.\n", "Section::::Neurochemical mechanisms.\n\nExisting experimental methods have provided enough evidence to suggest that variations in synaptic serotonin, noradrenaline, and dopamine are significant drivers of central nervous system fatigue. An increased synaptic dopamine concentration in the CNS is strongly ergogenic (promotes exercise performance). An increased synaptic serotonin or noradrenaline concentration in the CNS impairs exercise performance.\n\nSection::::Neurochemical mechanisms.:Noradrenaline.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00949	Why do psychedelic mushrooms almost ubiquitously cause people to experience a deeper connection with nature? Why is this phenomenon not reported as often with use of other psychedelics like LSD?	It's an ego separator. Your connections to the world break down, that's the 15 minute jitters at the beginning. Those preconceptions break down and then you form the world new in ways you hadn't imagined.	[ "Those who ingest psychoactive drugs often report similar experiences of ecological awareness. Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann, Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss, British religious studies scholar Graham Harvey, and American mycologist Paul Stamets have all written about the shared ecological message of the psychedelic experience. The back-to-the-land movement and the creation of rural intentional communities by the hippie counterculture of the 1960s was in part due to the wide use of psychedelic drugs which people felt helped them get in touch with nature. \n", "Section::::History.\n\nIt is likely that humans have consumed psychoactive plants in the ritual context of shamanism for thousands of years prior to the advent of Western civilization and the supplanting of indigenous cultural values. Anthropological archaeologist Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff studied the shamanic rituals of the indigenous Tucano people of South America and found that their shamanic practices primarily served to maintain ecological balance in the rainforest habitat. Experts speculate that the ecological values of shamanism are an attribute of the psychedelic experience.\n", "Psychedelics and ecology\n\nResearchers have noted the relationship between psychedelics and ecology, particularly in relation to the altered states of consciousness (ASC) produced by psychedelic drugs and the perception of interconnectedness expressed through ecological ideas and themes produced by the psychedelic experience. This is felt through the direct experience of the unity of nature and the environment of which the individual is no longer perceived as separate but intimately connected and embedded inside. \n", "Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann, the first person to synthesize LSD, believed that the drug made one aware and sensitive to \"the magnificence of nature and of the animal and plant kingdom\" and the role of humanity in relation to nature. Stanley Krippner and David Luke have speculated that \"the consumption of psychedelic substances leads to an increased concern for nature and ecological issues\". As a result, American psychologist Ralph Metzner and several others have argued that psychedelic drug use was the impetus for the modern ecology movement in the late 1960s.\n\nSection::::Terminology and assessment.\n", "Thomas Metzinger has discussed the effects of substances such as LSD, dimethyltryptamine, and mescaline in his \"Being No One\" (2003). Metzinger describes the hallucinatory component of the psychedelic experience as \"epistemically vacuous\" i.e. it provides no epistemic knowledge. In spite of this, Metzinger still believes that philosophers and consciousness researchers would have much to gain if they were \"well traveled in phenomenal state space, if they were cultivated in terms of the richness of their own inner experience\" through the psychedelic experience. According to Metzinger, psychedelic experiences could change researchers' theoretical intuitions as well as serving as a form of 'mental culture', an analogue to Physical culture.\n", "In 1999 Jeremy Narby, an anthropologist specialized in amazonian shamanism, acted as a translator for three molecular biologists who travelled to the Peruvian Amazon to see whether they could obtain bio-molecular information in the visions they had in sessions orchestrated by an indigenous shaman. Narby recounts this preliminary experiment and the exchange of methods of gaining knowledge between the biologists and indigenous people in his article \"Shamans and scientists\".\n", "In the United States, The Hasheesh Eater (1857) an autobiographical book by Fitz Hugh Ludlow became popular. Ludlow wrote that a Marijuana user sought \"the soul’s capacity for a broader being, deeper insight, grander views of Beauty, Truth and Good than she now gains through the chinks of her cell.\" The American William James was one of the first academic philosophers to write about the effects of hallucinogenic substances in his \"The Subjective Effects of Nitrous Oxide\" (1882) in which he writes that the gas can produce a \"tremendously exciting sense of an intense metaphysical illumination. Truth lies open to the view in depth beneath depth of almost blinding evidence. The mind sees all logical relations of being with an apparent subtlety and instantaniety to which its normal consciousness offers no parallel\". He goes on to say that the experience gave him the sense that the philosophy of Hegel was true. In his \"The Varieties of Religious Experience\" he likewise writes:\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Cosmic Serpent\" and \"Intelligence in Nature\" by Jeremy Narby\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plants of the Gods: Origins of Hallucinogenic Use\" by Richard Evans Schultes\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vine of the Soul: Medicine Men, Their Plants and Rituals in the Colombian Amazonia\" by Richard Evans Schultes\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Art of Shamanic Healing\" by Wade Davis\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" by Carlos Castaneda\n\nSection::::Subjective effects of psychedelic drugs.\n\nBULLET::::- Harris, Joel R. \"Into the heart of the Amazon in search of Truth\", 2008\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" edited by Rak Razam\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Doors of Perception\" and \"Heaven and Hell\" by Aldous Huxley\n", "BULLET::::- Horizons 2011: Jim Fadiman, Ph.D - “New Frontiers In Psychedelic Research: Letting go of the medical model” James Fadimans lecture on his work with psychedelics and the learning model of psychedelic research.\n\nBULLET::::- Psychedelics as Entheogens: How to Create and Guide Successful Sessions James Fadimans lecture in the Psychedelic Science in the 21st Century conference in 2010.\n\nBULLET::::- National Geographic: lnside LSD James Fadiman interviewed about the experiment in 2009.\n\nBULLET::::- Is it time to revisit the role of psychedelic drugs in enhancing human creativity? B. Sessa, Journal of Psychopharmacology 2008; 22; 821.\n", "The idea that the psychedelic experience could grant access to eastern spiritual insights was also promoted by the popular philosopher Alan Watts in his writings such as \"The Joyous Cosmology\", who also argued that one should not remain dependent on them for spiritual growth: \"If you get the message, hang up the phone. For psychedelic drugs are simply instruments, like microscopes, telescopes, and telephones. The biologist does not sit with eye permanently glued to the microscope, he goes away and works on what he has seen.\"\n", "Inspired by the Wassons' \"Life\" article, Timothy Leary traveled to Mexico to experience psilocybin mushrooms firsthand. Upon returning to Harvard in 1960, he and Richard Alpert started the Harvard Psilocybin Project, promoting psychological and religious study of psilocybin and other psychedelic drugs. After Leary and Alpert were dismissed by Harvard in 1963, they turned their attention toward promoting the psychedelic experience to the nascent hippie counterculture.\n", "In 2008, Peyote to LSD: A Psychedelic Odyssey, aired on The History Channel. The program was co-written and hosted by National Geographic Explorer in Residence Wade Davis who describes the life of famed Harvard plant-explorer Richard Evans Schultes. Shot in the Amazon and several other countries, the program reveals how Schultes' discoveries of hallucinogens amongst the indigenous peoples of the Americas inadvertently helped spark the psychedelic era. This documentary won awards from both the CINE Competition and the Columbus International Film & Video Festival.\n", "Ram Dass' Be here now and Tim Leary's The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual Based on The Tibetan Book of the Dead compared the psychedelic experiences to eastern philosophy and mystical states of consciousness. These books further popularized the idea that eastern - particularly Indian philosophical and spiritual insights could be obtained from using psychedelics. One of these experiences described in \"The Psychedelic Experience\" is that of ego death or depersonalization.\n", "The 1990s saw a surge in the recreational use of psilocybin mushrooms due to a combination of a psychedelic revival in the rave culture, improved and simplified cultivation techniques, and the distribution of both the mushrooms themselves and information about them via the Internet. This \"mushrooming of mushroom use\" has also caused an increased popularization of ethnomycology itself as there are many websites and Internet forums where mushroom references in Christmas and fairy tale symbolism are discussed. It remains open to interpretation what effect this popularization has on ethnomycology in the academic world, where the lack of verifiable evidence has kept its theories with their often far-reaching implications shrouded in controversy.\n", "BULLET::::- \"When the Impossible Happens: Adventures in Non-Ordinary Reality\" (2006) by Stanislav Grof\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Ultimate Journey: Consciousness and the Mystery of Death\" (2006) by Stanislav Grof\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Secret Chief\" by Myron Stolaroff\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" by Daniel Pinchbeck\n\nBULLET::::- \"Psychedelics Encyclopedia\" by Peter Stafford (And/Or Press, 1977)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Psychedelic Drug Treatments\" (2015) by Ben Sessa\n\nBULLET::::- \"Taking The Psychedelic Leap: Ayahuasca, Mushrooms, and Other Visionary Plants along the Spiritual Path\" (2018) by Richard L. Haight\n\nSection::::The anthropology of psychedelic drugs.\n\nBULLET::::- \"On Drugs\" by David Lenson of the University of Massachusetts Amherst comparative literature department\n", "Section::::Basic phenomenology.:Psychotherapy/personal development.\n\nThere is a distinctly gnosis-like quality to psychedelic experiencing; it is a learning experience that elevates consciousness and makes a profound contribution to personal development. For this reason, the plant sources of some psychedelic drugs such as ayahuasca and mescaline-containing cacti are sometimes referred to as \"plant teachers\".\n\nSimilarly, in a follow-up to the psilocybin and mysticism study at Johns Hopkins, researchers observed that psilocybin: \"occasions personally and spiritually significant mystical experiences that predict long-term changes in behaviors, attitudes and values\".\n\nSection::::Basic phenomenology.:Mystical/religious experience.\n", "In 1991, Denise Caruso, writing a computer column for \"The San Francisco Examiner\" went to SIGGRAPH, the largest gathering of computer graphic professionals in the world. She conducted a survey; by the time she got back to San Francisco, she had talked to 180 professionals in the computer graphic field who had admitted taking psychedelics, and that psychedelics are important to their work; according to mathematician Ralph Abraham.\n", "Section::::Cartography of the psyche.\n\nStanislav Grof has researched the effects of psychedelic substances, which can also be induced by non-pharmacological means. Grof has developed a \"cartography of the psyche\" based on his clinical work with psychedelics, which describe the \"basic types of experience that become available to an average person\" when using psychedelics or \"various powerful non-pharmacological experiential techniques\".\n", "There are multiple well-known recurring psytrance festivals in the USA. On the East Coast, Massachusetts-based Fractaltribe hosts their annual Fractalfest while New York State's Radial Engine Tribe has Smoke On The Water. Chilluminati's Sacred Earth Open-Air Festival covers the Midwest, and T.O.U.C.H. Samadhi's Equinox is in North Carolina. On the West Coast, Psytribe's Freakshow has been a Halloween fixture for 16 years. Northern California hosts Symbiosis which is in its 11th year. The Burning Man festival in Nevada has, in the past, also featured a number of psytrance-oriented camps and DJ performances.\n", "One explanatory model for the experiences provoked by psychedelics is the \"reducing valve\" concept, first articulated in Aldous Huxley's book \"The Doors of Perception\". In this view, the drugs disable the brain's \"filtering\" ability to selectively prevent certain perceptions, emotions, memories and thoughts from ever reaching the conscious mind. This effect has been described as \"mind expanding\", or \"consciousness expanding\", for the drug \"expands\" the realm of experience available to conscious awareness.\n\nWhile possessing a unique mechanism of action, cannabis or marijuana has historically been regarded alongside the classic psychedelics.\n\nSection::::Research chemicals and designer drugs.\n", "BULLET::::- Psilocybin mushrooms: This hallucinogenic drug was an important drug in the psychedelic scene. Until 1963, when it was chemically analysed by Albert Hofmann, it was completely unknown to modern science that \"Psilocybe semilanceata\" (\"Liberty Cap\", common throughout Europe) contains psilocybin, a hallucinogen previously identified only in species native to Mexico, Asia, and North America.\n", "\"Plant Teacher\" begins in 1972 when a hippie in Oakland, California flushes a syringe of LSD down a toilet in anticipation of a police raid. Thirty-five years later, the wayward drug paraphernalia has found its final resting place in a marsh in Los Yungas, Bolivia, the umbilical cord between the Andes and Amazonia. Along the journey, the syringe has taken on super-potent homeopathic powers, and unbeknownst to the locals who use flora from the marsh to make traditional potions, the essence exuded from the syringe causes hallucinations.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Transpersonal Vision\" (1998) book and audio by Stanislav Grof\n\nBULLET::::- \"Realms of the Human Unconscious: Observations from LSD Research\" (1975) by Stanislav Grof\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Human Encounter With Death\" (1977) with Joan Halifax\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Cosmic Game: Explorations of the Frontiers of Human Consciousness\" (1998) by Stanislav Grof\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Consciousness Revolution: A Transatlantic Dialogue\" (1999) by Stanislav Grof with Peter Russell and Ervin Laszlo. Foreword by Ken Wilber\n\nBULLET::::- \"Psychology of the Future: Lessons from Modern Consciousness Research\" (2000) by Stanislav Grof\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caterpillar Dreams\" (2004) by Stanislav Grof with Melody Sullivan\n", "As with other psychedelics such as LSD, the experience, or 'trip', is strongly dependent upon set and setting. Hilarity, depression, lack of concentration, and muscular relaxation (including dilated pupils) are all normal effects, sometimes in the same trip. A negative environment could contribute to a bad trip, whereas a comfortable and familiar environment would set the stage for a pleasant experience. Psychedelics make experiences more intense, so if a person enters a trip in an anxious state of mind, they will likely experience heightened anxiety on their trip. Many users find it preferable to ingest the mushrooms with friends or people who are familiar with 'tripping'. The psychological consequences of psilocybin use include hallucinations and an inability to discern fantasy from reality. Panic reactions and psychosis also may occur, particularly if a user ingests a large dose. In addition to the risks associated with ingestion of psilocybin, individuals who seek to use psilocybin mushrooms also risk poisoning if one of the many varieties of poisonous mushrooms is confused with a psilocybin mushroom.\n", "Section::::Reception.:Academic journals.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02405	How is source code kept from the public?	In a nutshell, program source code isn't everywhere. A program gets compiled from source and turned into a binary format. That is what gets installed and distributed when you download a program. The source is typically only used to compile the program once. (Ignoring interpreters, JIT, etc). That said, there are decompilers but they can only do so much. Comments and variable names are lost and the optimization process often makes a non human readable mess of things.	[ "For proprietary software, the provisions of the various copyright laws, trade secrecy and patents are used to keep the source code closed. Additionally, many pieces of retail software come with an end-user license agreement (EULA) which typically prohibits decompilation, reverse engineering, analysis, modification, or circumventing of copy protection. Types of source code protection—beyond traditional compilation to object code—include code encryption, code obfuscation or code morphing.\n\nSection::::Quality.\n", "Occasionally the entire source code to a large program is published as a hardback book, such as \"Computers and Typesetting\", vol. B: \"TeX, The Program\" by Donald Knuth, \"PGP Source Code and Internals\" by Philip Zimmermann, \"PC SpeedScript\" by Randy Thompson, and \"µC/OS, The Real-Time Kernel\" by Jean Labrosse.\n\nSection::::Organization.\n", "While most proprietary software is distributed without the source code, some vendors distribute the source code or otherwise make it available to customers. For example, users who have purchased a license for the Internet forum software vBulletin can modify the source for their own site but cannot redistribute it. This is true for many web applications, which must be in source code form when being run by a web server. The source code is covered by a non-disclosure agreement or a license that allows, for example, study and modification, but not redistribution. The text-based email client Pine and certain implementations of Secure Shell are distributed with proprietary licenses that make the source code available.\n", "The Daily Source Code was one of the shows featured by Adam Curry on Sirius Satellite Radio in his \"Adam Curry's PodShow\" from May 1, 2005 till the end of the contract in May 2007. Since May 4, 2006 (episode 380) Curry has been promoting Daily Source Code in Second Life under the name \"Adam Neumann\" via Curry Castle.\n", "Notable projects that use one of the versions of the MIT License include Expat, an XML parser library; Ruby on Rails, a web application framework; Node.js, a web application runtime environment; jQuery, a JavaScript library; the Lua programming language; and the X Window System, for which the license was originally written. Microsoft's .NET Core framework is also published under MIT License and the source code repository on GitHub includes the license for anyone visiting the resource. \n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of free and open-source software licenses\n", "Open Source Center\n\nThe Director of National Intelligence Open Source Center (OSC) is a U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) intelligence center located in Reston, Virginia, which provides analysis of open-source intelligence materials, including gray literature, through OSC's headquarters and overseas bureaus. Established on November 1, 2005, by the Office of the Director of National Intelligence, OSC is tasked with improving the availability of open sources to intelligence officers and other government officials. OSC provides material to the National Technical Information Service (NTIS) and other government officials through the online news service World News Connection.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Generally speaking, software is \"open source\" if the source code is free to use, distribute, modify and study, and \"proprietary\" if the source code is kept secret, or is privately owned and restricted. One of the first software licenses to be published and to explicitly grant these freedoms was the GNU General Public License in 1989; the BSD license is another early example from 1990.\n", "An author of a non-trivial work like software, has several exclusive rights, among them the copyright for the source code and object code. The author has the right and possibility to grant customers and users of his software some of his exclusive rights in form of software licensing. Software, and its accompanying source code, can be associated with several licensing paradigms; the most important distinction is open source vs proprietary software. This is done by including a copyright notice that declares licensing terms. If no notice is found, then the default of \"All rights reserved\" is implied.\n", "The source code which constitutes a program is usually held in one or more text files stored on a computer's hard disk; usually these files are carefully arranged into a directory tree, known as a source tree. Source code can also be stored in a database (as is common for stored procedures) or elsewhere.\n", "In several of the cases listed here, the game's developers released the source code expressly to prevent their work from becoming abandonware. Such source code is often released under varying (free and non-free, commercial and non-commercial) software licenses to the games' communities or the public; artwork and data are often released under a different license than the source code, as the copyright situation is different or more complicated. The source code may be pushed by the developers to public repositories (e.g. SourceForge or GitHub), or given to selected game community members, or sold with the game, or become available by other means. The game may be written in an interpreted language such as BASIC or Python, and distributed as raw source code without being compiled; early software was often distributed in text form, as in the book \"BASIC Computer Games\". In some cases when a game's source code is not available by other means, the game's community \"reconstructs\" source code from compiled binary files through time-demanding reverse engineering techniques. \n", "When IBM first offered software to work with its machine, the source code was provided at no additional charge. At that time, the cost of developing and supporting software was included in the price of the hardware. For decades, IBM distributed source code with its software product licenses, after 1999.\n\nMost early computer magazines published source code as type-in programs.\n", "In the fall of November 1992, Senator David Boren, then Chairman of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, sponsored the National Security Act of 1992, attempting to achieve modest reform in the U.S. Intelligence Community. His counterpart on the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence was Congressman Dave McCurdy. The House version of the legislation included a separate Open Source Office, at the suggestion of Larry Prior, a Marine Reservist with Marine Corps Intelligence Command experience then serving on the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence staff.\n", "The source code of every KDE project is stored in a source code repository using Git. Stable versions are released to the KDE FTP server in the form of source code with configure scripts, ready to be compiled by operating system vendors and to be integrated with the rest of their systems before distribution. Most vendors use only stable and tested versions of KDE programs or applications, providing it in the form of easily installable, pre-compiled packages.\n\nSection::::Development.:Implementation.\n", "In 2010 the museum began with the collection of source code of important software, beginning with Apple's MacPaint 1.3, written in a combination of Assembly and Pascal and available as download for the public.\n", "Other financial situations include partnerships with other companies. Governments, universities, companies, and non-governmental organizations may develop internally or hire a contractor for custom in-house modifications, then release that code under an open-source license. Some organizations support the development of open-source software by grants or stipends, like Google's Summer of Code initiative founded in 2005.\n\nSection::::Approaches.:Voluntary donations.\n", "In 2012 the APL programming language followed. In February 2013 Adobe Systems, Inc. donated the Photoshop 1.0.1 source code to the collection. On March 25, 2014 followed Microsoft with the source code donation of SCP MS-DOS 1.25 and a mixture of Altos MS-DOS 2.11 and TeleVideo PC DOS 2.11 as well as Word for Windows 1.1a under their own license. On October 21, 2014, Xerox Alto's source code and other resources followed.\n\nSection::::Fellows.\n", "Sometimes software developers themselves will intentionally leak their source code in an effort to prevent a software product from becoming abandonware after it has reached its end-of-life, allowing the community to continue development and support. Reasons for leaking instead of a proper release to public domain or as open-source can include scattered or lost intellectual property rights. An example is the video game \"Falcon 4.0\" which became available in 2000; another one is \"Dark Reign 2\", which was released by an anonymous former Pandemic Studios developer in 2011. Another notable example is an archive of Infocom's video games source code which appeared from an anonymous Infocom source and was archived by the Internet Archive in 2008.\n", "Section::::Past projects.\n\nThe Projects section of the site contained tasks and call to action from filmmakers. The past projects included:\n\nBULLET::::- Preempting Dissent -- Open Sourcing Secrecy: In collaboration with researchers and filmmakers at the Infoscape Research Lab at Ryerson University and the Department of Communication, Florida State University, Open Source Cinema is hosting the collaborative production of “Preempting Dissent -- Open Sourcing Secrecy”, a documentary based on the book by Greg Elmer and Andy Opel.\n", "Section::::Public (software) Library.\n\nOne of Nelson Ford's interest in the HAL-PC user group was swapping public domain and shareware software with other members. He eventually created a large, organized library of programs and his group made copies for other members for a disk fee.\n", "The situation varies worldwide, but in the United States before 1974, software and its source code was not copyrightable and therefore always public domain software.\n\nIn 1974, the US Commission on New Technological Uses of Copyrighted Works (CONTU) decided that \"computer programs, to the extent that they embody an author's original creation, are proper subject matter of copyright\".\n\nIn 1983 in the United States court case \"Apple v. Franklin\" it was ruled that the same applied to object code; and that the Copyright Act gave computer programs the copyright status of literary works.\n", "Git, a distributed and open-source source management system designed to guarantee the integrity of the source code, is used to keep track of changes in the Linux source code. This and the fact that the source code is available to anyone and widely known makes any attempt to tamper with the source code fairly easy to detect and revert if required. All that makes kernel.org not the primary repository, but rather a distribution point of the kernel sources.\n", "... if I wanted to do some code analysis on a consultancy basis for his boss, Kenneth Brown. I ended up doing about 10 hours of work, comparing early versions of Linux and Minix, looking for copied code. To summarize, my analysis found no evidence whatsoever that any code was copied. When I called him to ask if he had any questions about the analysis methods or results, and to ask if he would like to have it repeated with other source comparison tools, I was in for a bit of a shock. Apparently, Ken was expecting me to find gobs of copied source code. He spent most of the conversation trying to convince me that I must have made a mistake, since it was clearly impossible for one person to write an OS and 'code theft' had to have occurred.\n", "In 1999, in the United States court case \"Bernstein v. United States\" it was further ruled that source code could be considered a constitutionally protected form of free speech. Proponents of free speech argued that because source code conveys information to programmers, is written in a language, and can be used to share humor and other artistic pursuits, it is a protected form of communication.\n\nSection::::Legal aspects.:Licensing.\n", "Every purchased copy of ScrumbleShip will come with a full copy of the C source code. However, the license is non-free: any redistribution, in source or binary form, verbatim or modified, is allowed \"only on websites explicitly approved by Orangehat Tech, LLC. Currently the only approved website for redistribution is scrumbleship.com.\"\n\nModders can contribute their original source code and voxel models for inclusion in the main build.\n\nSection::::Bleeding Edge Releases.\n", "KDE SC releases are made to the KDE FTP server in the form of source code with configure scripts, which are compiled by operating system vendors and integrated with the rest of their systems before distribution. Most vendors use only stable and tested versions of KDE SC, providing it in the form of easily installable, pre-compiled packages. The source code of every stable and development version of KDE SC is stored in the KDE source code repository, using Git. KDE Platform is licensed under the LGPL, BSD license, MIT license, or X11 license. Applications also allow GPL. Documentation also allow FDL. CMake modules must be licensed under the BSD licence.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-16798	Why does random walk in 3D not have a probability of returning to the origin when given infinite time?	Well I can at least offer some intuition, though I can't give a LI5 proof. The more dimensions you have, the more directions you have to choose from for each step, and most of those directions will take you further away from the origin than you were before. For example, after you've taken the first step in 3 dimensions, you're a distance of 1 from the start, but 5 out of 6 directions for the next step will take you further away, to a distance of 2 away. For your third step, either 4 out of 6 or 5 out of 6 of the directions will put you even further from the start (depending if your first two steps were in a straight line or an L shape) Essentially, at each step you are more likely to end up further away, and that likeliness is high enough that even given infinite time, your walk often never meanders back close to where you started. ^ Assuming your 2nd step didn't take you back to the start	[ "Will the person ever get back to the original starting point of the walk? This is the 2-dimensional equivalent of the level crossing problem discussed above. In 1921 George Pólya proved that the person almost surely would in a 2-dimensional random walk, but for 3 dimensions or higher, the probability of returning to the origin decreases as the number of dimensions increases. In 3 dimensions, the probability decreases to roughly 34%.\n", "BULLET::::- As ε goes to zero the distribution of the path converges to some distribution on simple paths from \"x\" to the boundary of \"D\" (different from Brownian motion, of course — in 2 dimensions paths of Brownian motion are not simple). This distribution (denote it by formula_31) is called the scaling limit of loop-erased random walk.\n\nBULLET::::- These distributions are conformally invariant. Namely, if φ is a Riemann map between \"D\" and a second domain \"E\" then\n\nBULLET::::- The Hausdorff dimension of these paths is 5/4 almost surely.\n", "An immediate corollary is that loop-erased random walk is symmetric in its start and end points. More precisely, the distribution of the loop-erased random walk starting at \"v\" and stopped at \"w\" is identical to the distribution of the reversal of loop-erased random walk starting at \"w\" and stopped at \"v\". This is not a trivial fact. Loop-erasing a path and the reverse path do not give the same result. It is only the \"distributions\" that are identical.\n", "With \"f\" defined choose formula_22 using \"f\" at the neighbors of formula_23 as weights. In other words, if formula_24 are these neighbors, choose formula_25 with probability\n\nContinuing this process, recalculating \"f\" at each step, with result in a random simple path from \"v\" to \"w\"; the distribution of this path is identical to that of a loop-erased random walk from \"v\" to \"w\".\n", "Let now \"v\" and \"w\" be two vertices in \"G\". Any spanning tree contains precisely one simple path between \"v\" and \"w\". Taking this path in the \"uniform\" spanning tree gives a random simple path. It turns out that the distribution of this path is identical to the distribution of the loop-erased random walk starting at \"v\" and stopped at \"w\".\n", "where \"max\" here means up to the length of the path formula_1. The induction stops when for some formula_7 we have formula_12. Assume this happens at \"J\" i.e. formula_13 is the last formula_7. Then the loop erasure of formula_1, denoted by formula_16 is a simple path of length \"J\" defined by\n", "The easiest case to analyze is dimension 5 and above. In this case it turns out that there the intersections are only local. A calculation shows that if one takes a random walk of length \"n\", its loop-erasure has length of the same order of magnitude, i.e. \"n\". Scaling accordingly, it turns out that loop-erased random walk converges (in an appropriate sense) to Brownian motion as \"n\" goes to infinity. Dimension 4 is more complicated, but the general picture is still true. It turns out that the loop-erasure of a random walk of length \"n\" has approximately formula_29 vertices, but again, after scaling (that takes into account the logarithmic factor) the loop-erased walk converges to Brownian motion.\n", "Let \"d\" be the dimension, which we will assume to be at least 2. Examine Z i.e. all the points formula_27 with integer formula_28. This is an infinite graph with degree 2\"d\" when you connect each point to its nearest neighbors. From now on we will consider loop-erased random walk on this graph or its subgraphs.\n\nSection::::Grids.:High dimensions.\n", "This happens in one dimension too, when the field is a one dimensional scalar field, a random walk in time. A random walk also moves arbitrarily far from its starting point, so that a one-dimensional or two-dimensional scalar does not have a well defined average value.\n", "Section::::Grids.:Two dimensions.\n\nIn two dimensions, arguments from conformal field theory and simulation results led to a number of exciting conjectures. Assume \"D\" is some simply connected domain in the plane and \"x\" is a point in \"D\". Take the graph \"G\" to be\n\nthat is, a grid of side length ε restricted to \"D\". Let \"v\" be the vertex of \"G\" closest to \"x\". Examine now a loop-erased random walk starting from \"v\" and stopped when hitting the \"boundary\" of \"G\", i.e. the vertices of \"G\" which correspond to the boundary of \"D\". Then the conjectures are\n", "Now let \"G\" be some graph, let \"v\" be a vertex of \"G\", and let \"R\" be a random walk on \"G\" starting from \"v\". Let \"T\" be some stopping time for \"R\". Then the loop-erased random walk until time \"T\" is LE(\"R\"([1,\"T\"])). In other words, take \"R\" from its beginning until \"T\" — that's a (random) path — erase all the loops in chronological order as above — you get a random simple path.\n", "If we now add the scale parameter formula_5 back in, we find that to retain a reasonable acceptance rate, we must make the transformation formula_21. In this situation, the acceptance rate can now be made reasonable, but the exploration of the probability space becomes increasingly slow. To see this, consider a slice along any one dimension of the problem. By making the scale transformation above, the expected step size is any one dimension is not formula_22 but instead is formula_23. As this step size is much smaller than the \"true\" scale of the probability distribution (assuming that formula_22 is somehow known a priori, which is the best possible case), the algorithm executes a random walk along every parameter.\n", "Consider a one-dimensional lattice of \"N\" particle sites, with each particle site separated by distance \"a\", for a total length of L = \"Na\". Instead of assuming that the waves in this one-dimensional box are standing waves, it is more convenient to adopt periodic boundary conditions:\n", "Theorem: \"a graph is transient if and only if the resistance between a point and infinity is finite. It is not important which point is chosen if the graph is connected.\"\n\nIn other words, in a transient system, one only needs to overcome a finite resistance to get to infinity from any point. In a recurrent system, the resistance from any point to infinity is infinite.\n\nThis characterization of transience and recurrence is very useful, and specifically it allows us to analyze the case of a city drawn in the plane with the distances bounded.\n", "Imagine putting a marble in a ladle. It will settle itself into the lowest point of the ladle and, unless disturbed, will stay there. Now imagine giving the ball a push, which is an approximation to a Dirac delta impulse. The marble will roll back and forth but eventually resettle in the bottom of the ladle. Drawing the horizontal position of the marble over time would give a gradually diminishing sinusoid rather like the blue curve in the image above.\n", "Take any two vertices and perform loop-erased random walk from one to the other. Now take a third vertex (not on the constructed path) and perform loop-erased random walk until hitting the already constructed path. This gives a tree with either two or three leaves. Choose a fourth vertex and do loop-erased random walk until hitting this tree. Continue until the tree spans all the vertices. It turns out that \"no matter which method you use to choose the starting vertices\" you always end up with the same distribution on the spanning trees, namely the uniform one.\n", "The motion is singular if at some point, the swinging mass passes through the origin. Since the system is invariant under time reversal and translation, it is equivalent to say that the pendulum starts at the origin and is fired outwards:\n\nThe region close to the pivot is singular, since formula_9 is close to zero and the equations of motion require dividing by formula_9. As such, special techniques must be used to rigorously analyze these cases.\n\nThe following are plots of arbitrarily selected singular orbits.\n\nSection::::Trajectories.:Singular orbits.:Collision orbits.\n", "The self-avoiding walk of length n on Z^d is the random n-step path which starts at the origin, makes transitions only between adjacent sites in Z^d, never revisit a site, and is chosen uniformly among all such paths. In two dimensions, due to self-trapping, a typical self-avoiding walk is very short, while in higher dimension it grows beyond all bounds. \n\nThis model has often been used in polymer physics (since the 1960s).\n\nBULLET::::- The loop-erased random walk.\n\nBULLET::::- The reinforced random walk.\n\nBULLET::::- The exploration process.\n\nBULLET::::- The multiagent random walk.\n\nSection::::Variants.:Long-range correlated walks.\n", "To visualize the two-dimensional case, one can imagine a person walking randomly around a city. The city is effectively infinite and arranged in a square grid of sidewalks. At every intersection, the person randomly chooses one of the four possible routes (including the one originally travelled from). Formally, this is a random walk on the set of all points in the plane with integer coordinates.\n", "How many times will a random walk cross a boundary line if permitted to continue walking forever? A simple random walk on formula_1 will cross every point an infinite number of times. This result has many names: the \"level-crossing phenomenon\", \"recurrence\" or the \"gambler's ruin\". The reason for the last name is as follows: a gambler with a finite amount of money will eventually lose when playing \"a fair game\" against a bank with an infinite amount of money. The gambler's money will perform a random walk, and it will reach zero at some point, and the game will be over.\n", "If the state space is limited to finite dimensions, the random walk model is called simple bordered symmetric random walk, and the transition probabilities depend on the location of the state because on margin and corner states the movement is limited.\n\nSection::::Lattice random walk.:One-dimensional random walk.\n\nAn elementary example of a random walk is the random walk on the integer number line, formula_1, which starts at 0 and at each step moves +1 or −1 with equal probability.\n", "This relation with Pascal's triangle is demonstrated for small values of \"n\". At zero turns, the only possibility will be to remain at zero. However, at one turn, there is one chance of landing on −1 or one chance of landing on 1. At two turns, a marker at 1 could move to 2 or back to zero. A marker at −1, could move to −2 or back to zero. Therefore, there is one chance of landing on −2, two chances of landing on zero, and one chance of landing on 2.\n", "There are two types of random walk in space: \"self-avoiding random walks\", where the links of the polymer chain interact and do not overlap in space, and \"pure random\" walks, where the links of the polymer chain are non-interacting and links are free to lie on top of one another. The former type is most applicable to physical systems, but their solutions are harder to get at from first principles.\n\nBy considering a freely jointed, non-interacting polymer chain, the end-to-end vector is \n\nwhere r is the vector position of the \"i\"-th link in the chain. \n", "The probability of finding the particle in some region of space is given by the integral over that region:\n\nprovided the wave function is normalized. When is all of 3d position space, the integral must be if the particle exists.\n", "This distribution is peaked at formula_17 which is formula_18 for large formula_8. This means that the step size will increase as the roughly the square root of the number of dimensions. For the MH algorithm, large steps will almost always land in regions of low probability, and therefore be rejected.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17227	Why there are still Kings and Queens in some countries and how effective they are in modern world?	Most monarchies are constitutional monarchies where the king or queen is mostly a figurehead. They still exist because mainly because those countries have had them for hundreds of years and haven't felt the need to get rid of them. How effective they are depends on what you expect them to do. They don't do much ruling (except in some countries like Saudi Arabia), but you don't really want them to because that's the job of the elected government. Their main job these days is representing their country. I'd say the UK's queen does that pretty well. She's widely recognised and a key part of the UK's identity, in the eyes of both British and non-British people (that's not to say everyone loves her though). I can't really say about other countries, their monarchs are less well known.	[ "The twentieth century saw the abolition of several monarchies - some constitutionally or violently overthrown by revolution or by war, some disappearing as part of the process of decolonisation. By contrast, the restoration of monarchies has occurred rarely in modern times:\n\nBULLET::::- the autocratic Ukrainian State revived a monarchical Hetmanate in 1918\n\nBULLET::::- Spain established a constitutional monarchy in 1978 following the end of Francoist Spain in 1975 (Francoist Spain was nominally a monarchy, although it was under an authoritarian regency and the throne was vacant)\n\nBULLET::::- Cambodia transitioned from a republic to a kingdom in 1993\n", "During the nineteenth century many small monarchies in Europe merged with other territories to form larger entities, and following World War I and World War II, many monarchies were abolished, but of those remaining all except Luxembourg, Liechtenstein, Andorra, Vatican City and Monaco were headed by a king or queen.\n\nSection::::History.:Monarchs in Asia.\n", "Many countries such as the United Kingdom, Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, Thailand, Japan and Bhutan turned powerful monarchs into constitutional monarchs with limited or, often gradually, merely symbolic roles. For example, in the predecessor states to the United Kingdom, constitutional monarchy began to emerge and has continued uninterrupted since the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and passage of the Bill of Rights 1689.\n", "Monarchism as a political force internationally has substantially diminished since the end of the Second World War, though it had an important role in the 1979 Iranian Revolution and also played a role in the modern political affairs of Nepal. Nepal was one of the last states to have had an absolute monarch, which continued until King Gyanendra was peacefully deposed in May 2008 and the country became a federal republic. One of the world's oldest monarchies was abolished in Ethiopia in 1974 with the fall of Emperor Haile Selassie.\n\nSection::::Current monarchies.\n", "Monarchical rule is among the oldest political institutions. Monarchy has often claimed legitimacy from a higher power (in early modern Europe the divine right of kings, and in China the Mandate of Heaven).\n", "Some countries (such as the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Scandinavian countries, and Japan) turned powerful monarchs into constitutional ones with limited, or eventually merely symbolic, powers. Often the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system, whether or not they were replaced with democratic institutions (such as in France, China, Iran, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece, Turkey and Egypt). In Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Papua New Guinea, and some other countries the monarch, or its representative, is given supreme executive power, but by convention acts only on the advice of his or her ministers. Many nations had elite upper houses of legislatures, the members of which often had lifetime tenure, but eventually these houses lost much power (as the UK House of Lords), or else became elective and remained powerful.\n", "Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in many countries including China and Japan, were considered divine. Of the institutions that ruled states, that of kingship stood at the forefront until the American Revolution put an end to the \"divine right of kings\". Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the longest-lasting political institutions, dating as early as 2100 BC in Sumeria to the 21st century AD British Monarchy. Kingship becomes an institution through the institution of hereditary monarchy.\n", "Section::::Culture of the group.:Royalty.:Rule by right of arms.\n\nEach SCA kingdom is \"ruled\" by a king and queen chosen by winning a Crown Tournament in armored combat. Corpora require this to be held as a \"properly constituted armored combat\" tournament. The winner of the Crown Tournament and his/her Consort are styled \"Crown Prince and Princess\" and serve an advisory period (three to six months, depending upon the scheduling of the Crown Tournament) under the current King and Queen prior to acceding to the throne and ruling in their turn.\n", "Many countries abolished the monarchy in the 20th century and became republics, especially in the wake of either World War I, World War II, the Palestine War, or the Cold War. Advocacy of republics is called republicanism, while advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism. In the modern era, monarchies are more prevalent in small states than in large ones.\n\nSection::::Characteristics and role.\n", "List of current monarchies\n\nThis is a list of current monarchies. , there are some 45+ sovereign states in the world with a monarch as Head of state. \n\nSection::::Types of monarchy.\n\nThese are roughly the categories which modern monarchies fall into:\n", "BULLET::::- In other cases the monarch's power is limited, due not to constitutional restraints, but to effective military rule. In the late Roman Empire, the Praetorian Guard several times deposed Roman Emperors and installed new emperors. Similarly, in the Abbasid Caliphate the Ghilmans (slave soldiers) deposed Caliphs once they became prominent, allowing new ones to come to power. The Hellenistic kings of Macedon and of Epirus were elected by the army, which was similar in composition to the \"ecclesia\" of democracies, the council of all free citizens; military service was often linked with citizenship among the male members of the royal house. The military have dominated the monarch in modern Thailand and in medieval Japan (where a hereditary military chief, the \"shōgun\", was the \"de facto\" ruler, although the Japanese emperor nominally reigned). In Fascist Italy the Savoy monarchy under King Victor Emmanuel III coexisted with the Fascist single-party rule of Benito Mussolini; Romania under the Iron Guard and Greece during the first months of the Colonels' regime were similar. Spain under Francisco Franco was officially a monarchy, although there was no monarch on the throne. Upon his death, Franco was succeeded as head of state by the Bourbon heir, Juan Carlos I, and Spain became a democracy with the king as a figurehead constitutional monarch.\n", "Monarchy was the most common form of government until the 20th century. Forty-five sovereign nations in the world have monarchs acting as heads of state, sixteen of which are Commonwealth realms that recognise Queen Elizabeth II as their head of state. Most modern monarchs are constitutional monarchs, who retain a unique legal and ceremonial role, but exercise limited or no political power under the nation's constitution. In some nations, however, such as Brunei, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and Eswatini, the hereditary monarch has more political influence than any other single source of authority in the nation, either by tradition or by a constitutional mandate.\n", "That of Egypt was abolished in 1953, after the revolution of 1952, which caused King Farouk I to abdicate in favour of his infant son Fuad II. The monarchy of Tunisia ended in 1957 when Muhammad VIII al-Amin lost his throne and that of Iraq in 1958 when King Faisal II was killed and a republic proclaimed. The monarchy of Yemen was abolished in 1962 when King Muhammad al-Shami was overthrown in a coup, although he continued to resist his opponents until 1970. King Idris of Libya was overthrown by a military coup led by Muammar Gaddafi in 1969. The monarchy of Afghanistan was abolished in 1973 after a coup d'état overthrew King Mohammed Zahir Shah. That of Iran was abolished by the Islamic revolution of 1979 overthrowing Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. In Ethiopia, Emperor Haile Selassie I was overthrown in 1974 as a result of a leftist coup. King Palden Thondup Namgyal of Sikkim lost his throne in 1975 when the country became a state of India following a referendum. Political upheaval and Communist insurrection put an end to the monarchies of Indochina after World War II: a short-lived attempt to leave a monarchical form of government in post-colonial South Vietnam came to naught in 1955, a military coup overthrew the kingless monarchy in Cambodia in 1970 and a Communist takeover ended the monarchy in Laos in 1975. Cambodia's monarchy later saw an unexpected rebirth under an internationally mediated peace settlement with former king Norodom Sihanouk being restored as a figurehead in 1993.\n", "BULLET::::- East and Southeast Asian constitutional monarchies. The Kingdom of Bhutan; the Kingdom of Cambodia; Empire of Japan; and the Kingdom of Thailand have constitutional monarchies where the monarch has a limited or ceremonial role. Japan and Thailand changed from traditional absolute monarchies into constitutional ones during the twentieth century, while the Kingdom of Bhutan changed in 2008. The Kingdom of Cambodia had its own monarchy after independence from the French Colonial Empire, which was deposed after the Khmer Rouge came into power. The monarchy was subsequently restored in the peace agreement of 1993.\n", "Some monarchies have a weak or symbolic legislature and other governmental bodies the monarch can alter or dissolve at will. Countries where monarchs still maintain absolute power are: Brunei, Eswatini, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and the individual emirates composing the United Arab Emirates, which itself is a federation of such monarchies– a federal monarchy.\n\nSection::::History and examples of absolute monarchies.\n\nSection::::History and examples of absolute monarchies.:Outside Europe.\n", "Oman is led by Monarch Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al Said. The Kingdom of Jordan is one of the Middle East's more modern monarchies is also ruled by a Malik. In Arab and arabized countries, Malik (absolute King) is absolute word to render a monarch and is superior to all other titles. Nepal abolished their monarchy in 2008. Sri Lanka had a complex system of monarchies from 543BC to 1815. Between 47BC-42BC Anula of Sri Lanka became the country's first female head of state as well as Asia's first head of state.\n", "The degree to which the monarchs have control over their polities varies greatly—in some they may have a great degree of domestic authority (as in the United Arab Emirates), while others have little or no policy-making power (the case with numerous ethnic monarchs today). In some, the monarch's position might be purely traditional or cultural in nature, without any formal constitutional authority at all.\n\nSection::::Contemporary Institutions.\n\nSection::::Contemporary Institutions.:France.\n", "In subsequent decades, republicanism would regain lost ground with the rise of liberalism, nationalism, and later socialism. The Revolutions of 1848 were largely inspired by republicanism. Most of Europe's monarchies were abolished either during or following World War I or World War II, and the remaining monarchies were transformed into constitutional monarchies.\n", "Abolition of monarchy\n\nThe abolition of monarchy involves the ending of monarchical elements in the government of a country. Such abolition may also (but not always) eliminate aristocratic systems and \"hereditary government\" features in constitutional practice.\n", "The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the immediate continuity of leadership (as seen in the classic phrase \"The King is dead. Long live the King!\").\n\nSome monarchies are non-hereditary. In an elective monarchy, monarchs are elected, or appointed by some body (an electoral college) for life or a defined period, but once appointed they serve as any other monarch. Four elective monarchies exist today: Cambodia, Malaysia and the United Arab Emirates are 20th-century creations, while one (the papacy) is ancient.\n", "List of monarchies\n\nThere are and have been throughout recorded history a great many monarchies in the world. \n\nTribal kingship and Chiefdoms have been the most widespread form of social organisation from the Neolithic, and the predominance of monarchies has declined only with the rise of Republicanism in the modern era.\n\nA monarchical form of government can be combined with many different kinds of political and economic systems, from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy and from a market economy to a planned economy. Some examples for certain forms of monarchy are:\n\n\"Extant monarchies are listed in bold type.\"\n\nSection::::Antiquity.\n", "BULLET::::- Among the many alternate timelines visited by the protagonists, there is one in which late 20th century Mexico is a monarchy, ruled by a king.\n\nSection::::Portugal.\n\nSection::::Portugal.:\"The Alteration\" by Kingsley Amis.\n\nBULLET::::- The unnamed King of Portugal is mentioned as being in attendance at the funeral of Stephen III of England in 1976.\n\nSection::::Portugal.:\"Curious Notions\" by Harry Turtledove.\n", "The Belgian monarchy survived despite scandals; the Swedish and Norwegian monarchies have flourished. Most other countries who invited in new rulers have since become non-monarchical republics.\n\nSection::::Current uses.\n\nCurrently, the world's only true elective monarchies are:\n\nBULLET::::- Cambodia, where the king is chosen for a life term by the Royal Council of the Throne from candidates of royal blood.\n\nBULLET::::- The Holy See and the associated Vatican City State, where the Pope is elected in a conclave by the College of Cardinals, generally from among their number.\n", "Recently, due to the largely ceremonial nature of the regnant in many constitutional monarchies, many monarchs have abdicated due to old age, such as the monarchs of Spain, Cambodia, Netherlands, Japan, and the Papacy.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "List of current monarchies by continent\n\nThis is a list of current monarchies by continent. There are 14 monarchies in Asia, 3 in Africa, 12 in Europe, 10 in North America and 6 in Oceania, total 42 monarchies around the world. South America has 0 monarchies; the only continent in the world not to have any.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03671	how do radio stations pay for the songs they play?	Commercial am and fm stations pay hardly anything since it's considered free exposure for the artist. It's 12 cents per play, so if it was nonstop 3 minutes songs that's less than $60 per day. See a more in depth answer here with the answer that begins "In the USA, larger commercial radio stations " URL_0	[ "In October 1998, the US Congress passed the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), one result of which is that performance royalties are to be paid for satellite radio and Internet radio broadcasts in addition to publishing royalties. In contrast, traditional radio broadcasters pay only publishing royalties and no performance royalties.\n", "The sound recording royalty, when paid under the provisions of the statutory license, is distributed to the featured artist on the recording, two musicians' unions, and the owner of the copyright—usually a record label.\n\nWhile traditional radio stations cannot determine how many people are listening to their station at a given moment, this information is readily available to an Internet radio station. The Internet Radio Equality Act specifies that the provider may choose to pay royalties of:\n\nBULLET::::- 0.33 cents ($0.0033) per hour of sound recordings transmitted to a single listener, or\n", "Radio stations pay large amounts of money to licensing organizations PRS for Music and PPL for the music they play, and music has been on the radio for many years. During the war, there were programmes like Music While You Work. Now, many radio stations have features about workplaces. If the PRS forces people to switch their radios off then how are these stations going to survive? Music has to be heard before people go out and buy it.\n", "Market share is not always a consideration, because not all radio stations are commercial. Public radio is funded by government and private donors. Since most public broadcasting operations don't have to make a profit, no commercials are necessary. (In fact, because most public broadcasting stations operate under noncommercial licenses from their country's broadcasting regulator, they may not be allowed to sell advertising at all.) Underwriting spots, which mention the name of a sponsor and some information but cannot include “calls to action” attempting to convince the listener to patronize the sponsor, may be allowed.\n", "A different form of payola has been used by the record industry through the loophole of being able to pay a third party or independent record promoters (\"indies\"; not to be confused with independent record labels), who will then go and \"promote\" those songs to radio stations. Offering the radio stations \"promotion payments\", the independents get the songs that their clients, record companies, want on the playlists of radio stations around the country.\n", "Stations usually adopt a music format to gain the greatest number of listeners for the least expense. Since the content has already been produced, the station merely adds the low-cost on-air programming between records.\n", "For most mainstream country stations, the emphasis is generally on current pop country, following the same process as top 40; the remaining music in a particular station's library generally uses music from the past fifteen years (shorter for \"hot country\" or \"new country\" stations), with the exact music used varying depending on the station and the style of music the listener wants to hear.\n", "Section::::History.:Network programming.\n", "Radio stations pay fees to licensing bodies for nonexclusive rights to broadcast music. Radio stations and businesses typically pay a flat rate once a year, called a blanket license, which can vary based on the size of the audience, value of the advertising revenues, and amount and nature of music usage. As part of the license contract a radio station may conduct periodic audits of the music being played, with the audit results submitted to the licensing body.\n\nSection::::Home video.\n\nLicensing issues are encountered when television shows or films using copyrighted music are released on DVD format.\n", "Section::::Marketing.\n\nAside of paid advertising in print or broadcast media, radio airplay is one of the most important tools to sell records. A research commissioned by one of major label groups stated that \"four out of five music purchases can be traced to radio airplay.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Radionomy acquires copyright license for its music content through SABAM. It generates revenue to pay royalties and other operating costs by broadcasting up to four minutes per hour of advertising.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nRadionomy was founded in September 2007 by four Belgian entrepreneurs: Alexandre Saboundjian Gilles Bindels, Cedric van Kan and Yves Baudechon.\n\nSection::::History.:2008.\n\nBULLET::::- 17 January - Radionomy held a press conference at the Eiffel Tower in Paris, and announced the public launch of the planned business April 17, 2008.\n", "Section::::Premium Choice.\n\nOn April 15, 2009, Clear Channel Radio (now iHeartMedia) announced the start of Premium Choice, a menu of national format options available to local radio stations, their HD Radio digital subchannels, and the iHeartRadio platform.\n", "In the United Kingdom, Internet radio stations must obtain licenses from both the MCPS-PRS Alliance and Phonographic Performance Limited. Although the former of these fees is largely fixed, the latter is calculated based on the number of tracks played per hour, in addition to the number of listeners (calculated via Internet radio audience measurement). In addition to these two main licenses, stations must also pay the PPL dubbing fee in order to store tracks to a hard-drive or other storage device for playout, and the MCPS-PRS TV and Radio Advertisement License in order to use copyrighted music in advertisements and promotional pieces. The multitude of licenses required, and the accumulative cost of them all, have priced many small stations out of running sustainably via Internet mediums.\n", "The web site offers a real-time \"recently played\" facility affording listeners the ability to rate and comment on individual songs on the playlist, as well as songs on the Listener Review Channel, consisting of songs uploaded by listeners to be considered for airplay.\n", "BULLET::::- Operates over 1,100 digital billboards in 27 markets.\n\nSection::::Businesses.:Television.\n", "The numbers can show who is listening to a particular station, the most popular times of day for listeners in that group, and the percentage of the total listening audience that can be reached with a particular schedule of advertisements. The numbers also show exactly how many people are listening at each hour of the day. This allows an advertiser to select the strongest stations in the market with specificity and tells them what times of day will be the best times to run their ads.\n", "Thus, advertising rates will vary depending on time of year, time of day, how well the station does in the particular demographic an advertiser is trying to reach, how well a station does compared to other stations, and demand on station inventory. The busier the time of year for the station, the more an advertiser can expect to spend. And, the higher ranked a station is in the market, according to the ratings data, the more an advertiser can expect to get charged to run on that station.\n", "Some broadcasters did not participate, such as Last.fm, which had just been purchased for US$280 million by CBS Music Group. According to a Last.fm employee, they were unable to participate because participation \"may compromise ongoing license negotiations.\"\n\nSoundExchange, representing supporters of the increase in royalty rates, pointed out that the rates were flat from 1998 through 2005 (see above), without being increased to reflect cost-of-living increases. They also declared that if Internet radio is to build businesses from the product of recordings, the performers and owners of those recordings should receive fair compensation.\n", "Within a few years, there were nearly 200 stations, including WGUL in the Tampa market, whose chairman Carl Marcocci held the same position with Music of Your Life. Affiliates were learning that going after over-50 listeners was nothing to be ashamed of; these people were active and had lots of money to spend, and advertisers could reach them if they just made the effort. One of the most successful was KGIL in Los Angeles. Other success stories included WLUX in Long Island. \n", "Some stations in The Hits network support local branches of the Royal New Zealand Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. In 2015 the network hosted a live video feed of kittens from Auckland SPCA, as part of a nationwide campaign to promote cat adoption. It was accompanied by cat adoption drives at local SPCAs.\n\nSection::::Other services.:News and information.\n", "Section::::United Kingdom.\n", "On September 30, 2008, the United States Congress passed \"a bill that would put into effect any changes to the royalty rate to which [record labels and web casters] agree while lawmakers are out of session.\" Although royalty rates are expected to decrease, many webcasters nevertheless predict difficulties generating sufficient revenue to cover their royalty payments.\n\nIn January 2009, the US Copyright Royalty Board announced that \"it will apply royalties to streaming net services based on revenue.\" Since then, websites like Pandora Radio, AccuRadio, Mog, 8tracks and recently Google Music have changed the way people discover and listen to music.\n", "However, new radio networks have cropped up with their own owned-and-operated networks. iHeartMedia owns many stations in the top 100 U.S. markets, and in turn feeds them with programming, either from corporate subsidiary Premiere Radio Networks or via internal distribution; in particular, this is done with their talk radio station portfolio. Voicetracking purposes are handled either by internal methods or through their Premium Choice format menus, the latter of which is geared towards small and medium-market stations with air talent selected from stations in larger markets.\n", "Licensing fees for Internet radio have often been the subject of controversy. For example, in 1998, the passing of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act meant that US-based Internet radio and satellite radio stations would have to pay separate royalties to recording artists and sound recording copyright owners, unlike traditional over-the-air stations that paid royalties only for the use of the underlying musical works. This led to the creation of the \"SaveNetRadio.org\" petition group, in addition to the proposal of the Internet Radio Equality Act.\n" ]	[ "It may be expensive for radio stations to pay for the music they play." ]	[ "Radio stations hardly pay anything for the music they play on air as it's considered free exposure for the artist." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It may be expensive for radio stations to pay for the music they play.", "It may be expensive for radio stations to pay for the music they play." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Radio stations hardly pay anything for the music they play on air as it's considered free exposure for the artist.", "Radio stations hardly pay anything for the music they play on air as it's considered free exposure for the artist." ]
2018-17207	ELIF: Why is sweating one of the responses to eating spicy food?	Sweating is a counter measure to being hot. Spicy food automatically makes your body "think" you are warmer when you eat it although you technically arent* The body registers the fact that you are hotter and starts sweating to cool you down *Edit: u/Use_the_Sauce pointed it out	[ "Gustatory sweating refers to thermal sweating induced by the ingestion of food. The increase in metabolism caused by ingestion raises body temperature, leading to thermal sweating. Hot and spicy foods also leads to mild gustatory sweating in the face, scalp and neck: capsaicin (the compound that makes spicy food taste \"hot\"), binds to receptors in the mouth that detect warmth. The increased stimulation of such receptors induces a thermoregulatory response.\n\nSection::::Sweat.:Antiperspirant.\n", "When capsaicin is ingested, cold milk is an effective way to relieve the burning sensation (due to caseins having a detergent effect on capsaicin); and room-temperature sugar solution (10%) at is almost as effective. The burning sensation will slowly fade away over several hours if no actions are taken.\n\nCapsaicin-induced asthma might be treated with oral antihistamines or corticosteroids.\n\nSection::::Toxicity.:Effects on weight loss and regain.\n", "Sweating (cooking)\n\nSweating in cooking is the gentle heating of vegetables in a little oil or butter, with frequent stirring and turning to ensure that any emitted liquid will evaporate. Sweating usually results in tender, sometimes translucent, pieces. Sweating is often a preliminary step to further cooking in liquid; onions, in particular, are often sweated before including in a stew. This differs from sautéing in that sweating is done over a much lower heat, sometimes with salt added to help draw moisture away, and making sure that little or no browning takes place.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Braising\n\nBULLET::::- Frying\n", "Yellow ají is one of the ingredients of Peruvian cuisine and Bolivian cuisine. It is used as a condiment, especially in many dishes and sauces. In Peru the chilis are mostly used fresh, and in Bolivia dried and ground. Common dishes with ají \"amarillo\" are the Peruvian stew \"Ají de gallina\" (\"Hen Chili\"), \"Papa a la Huancaína\" and the Bolivian \"Fricase Paceno\", among others. In Ecuadorian cuisine, Ají amarillo, onion, and lemon juice (amongst others) are served in a separate bowl with many meals as an optional additive.\n", "It is anecdotally said that hot peppers help people in the tropics “cool off.” This theory is consistent with the peripheral vasodilatory effect of capsaicin that has been shown to lower skin temperature in humans exposed to a hot environment. Capsaicin feels hot in the mouth because it activates sensory receptors on the tongue otherwise used to detect thermal heat. This receptor is called Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 1 (TRPV1). TRPV1 receptors are also located in the gut and in other organs. Stimulation of TRPV1 receptors is known to bring about activation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). Capsaicin has been shown to increase fat burning in humans and animals through stimulation of the SNS.\n", "Capsinoid chemicals provide the distinctive tastes in \"C. annuum\" variants. In particular, capsaicin creates a burning sensation (\"hotness\"), which in extreme cases can last for several hours after ingestion. A measurement called the Scoville scale has been created to describe the hotness of peppers and other foods.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Traditional medicine.\n\nHot peppers are used in traditional medicine as well as food in Africa. English botanist John Lindley described \"C. annuum\" in his 1838 \"Flora Medica\" thus:\n\nIn Ayurveda, \"C. annuum\" is classified as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Guna\" (properties) – \"ruksha\" (dry), \"laghu\" (light) and \"tikshna\" (sharp)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rasa\" (taste) – \"katu\" (pungent)\n", "Early research showed capsaicin to evoke a long-onset current in comparison to other chemical agonists, suggesting the involvement of a significant rate-limiting factor. Subsequent to this, the TRPV1 ion channel has been shown to be a member of the superfamily of TRP ion channels, and as such is now referred to as . There are a number of different TRP ion channels that have been shown to be sensitive to different ranges of temperature and probably are responsible for our range of temperature sensation. Thus, capsaicin does not actually cause a chemical burn, or indeed any direct tissue damage at all, when chili peppers are the source of exposure. The inflammation resulting from exposure to capsaicin is believed to be the result of the body's reaction to nerve excitement. For example, the mode of action of capsaicin in inducing bronchoconstriction is thought to involve stimulation of C fibers culminating in the release of neuropeptides. In essence, the body inflames tissues as if it has undergone a burn or abrasion and the resulting inflammation can cause tissue damage in cases of extreme exposure, as is the case for many substances that cause the body to trigger an inflammatory response.\n", "\"H. assulta\" is one of very few insects that can successfully feed on and damage plants, such as hot peppers, containing capsaicin. Studies show that long-term dietary exposure to capsaicin stimulates larger larvae. Furthermore, its unique tolerance to capsaicin may have allowed \"H. assulta\" to expand its host range.\n\nSection::::Food Resources.:Life Stages.\n\nSection::::Food Resources.:Life Stages.:Larvae.\n", "The substances that give chili peppers their pungency (spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl-\"N\"-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called \"capsaicinoids\". The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and on growing conditions. Water stressed peppers usually produce stronger pods. When a habanero plant is stressed, by absorbing low water for example, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit. \n", "\"Colletotrichum capsici\" has a broad host range, but prefers peppers, yams and eggplants. On chili peppers, \"Capsicum annuum\" L., \"C. capsici\" infect the stem, fruit, and leaves of the plant, causing anthracnose, die-back and ripe fruit rot. \"C. capsici\" infection tends to infect ripe red fruit, and lead to the development of brown necrotic lesions containing concentric acervuli that will eventually appear black from the setae and sclerotia (Srinivasan, Vijayalakshmi Kothandaraman, Vaikuntavasan, & Rethinasamy, 2014). Additionally, the fruit content of capsaicin and oleoresin is reduced, which results in a decrease of its medicinal potency (Madhavan, Paranidharan, & Velazhahan, 2016).\n", "Section::::Cause.\n", "Physical pathological sensation, as occurs in IBS, COPD, and other illnesses, is also influential in affective sensation and response. The emotional response to especially a chronic illness can be correlated with its severity. This has been shown in COPD, where emotionally-driven descriptions of sensation due to breathing impairments may reflect the severity of the illness and probability of long-term, responsal behavior changes. Additionally, in IBS patients, affective sensation and its correlative brain areas including the ACC, insula, and VMPFC demonstrated heightened fMRI activity in response to painful visceral stimuli, and an inability to down-regulate their activation and modulate the emotional response to pain. This link between perceptual intensity and affective sensation persists in the case of chili pepper consumption. Those individuals who eat chili peppers more often, and presumably enjoy them, also report less burning sensation in response to eating chilis. While this could be due to either individual taste-perception differences or intensity judgement differences, it is more likely due to the latter because previous spicy food-consumption experiences do not correlate with the differences in affective sensation responses.\n", "The primary treatment is removal from exposure. Contaminated clothing should be removed and placed in airtight bags to prevent secondary exposure.\n", "Because of the burning sensation caused by capsaicin when it comes in contact with mucous membranes, it is commonly used in food products to provide added spice or \"heat\" (piquancy), usually in the form of spices such as chili powder and paprika. In high concentrations, capsaicin will also cause a burning effect on other sensitive areas, such as skin or eyes. The degree of heat found within a food is often measured on the Scoville scale. Because people enjoy the heat, there has long been a demand for capsaicin-spiced products like curry, chili con carne, and hot sauces such as Tabasco sauce and salsa.\n", "Primary or \"focal\" hyperhidrosis may be further divided by the area affected, for instance palmoplantar hyperhidrosis (symptomatic sweating of only the hands or feet) or gustatory hyperhidrosis (sweating of the face or chest a few moments after eating certain foods).\n", "Although sweating is found in a wide variety of mammals, relatively few (exceptions include humans and horses) produce large amounts of sweat in order to cool down.\n\nSection::::Definitions.\n\nBULLET::::- The words diaphoresis and hidrosis both can mean either perspiration (in which sense they are synonymous with \"sweating\") or excessive perspiration (in which sense they can be either synonymous with hyperhidrosis or differentiable from it only by clinical criteria involved in narrow specialist senses of the words).\n\nBULLET::::- Hypohidrosis is decreased sweating from whatever cause.\n", "Several researchers have noted that symptoms overlap with hantavirus pulmonary syndrome and have proposed an unknown hantavirus as the cause. A critique of this hypothesis argued that sweating sickness was thought to be transmitted from human to human, whereas hantaviruses are rarely spread that way. However, infection via human contact has been suggested in hantavirus outbreaks in Argentina.\n", "The amount of capsaicin in the fruit is highly variable and dependent on genetics and environment, giving almost all types of \"Capsicum\" varied amounts of perceived heat. The most recognizable \"Capsicum\" without capsaicin is the bell pepper, a cultivar of \"Capsicum annuum\", which has a zero rating on the Scoville scale. The lack of capsaicin in bell peppers is due to a recessive gene that eliminates capsaicin and, consequently, the \"hot\" taste usually associated with the rest of the \"Capsicum\" family. There are also other peppers without capsaicin, mostly within the \"Capsicum annuum\" species, such as the cultivars Giant Marconi, Yummy Sweets, Jimmy Nardello, and Italian Frying peppers (also known as the Cubanelle).\n", "To counter this, Francesco Torti, who first systematically studied the effect of cinchona in the treatment of malaria, wrote a book which he titled \"Therapeutice Specialis ad Febres Periodicas Perniciosas\".\n\nSection::::Tree of fevers.\n", "The infection is diagnosed by close examination of the hair shafts where brown to yellow material called concretions are seen. There is usually an associated rancid odour. A microscopic examination can confirm the diagnosis, but this is rarely needed.\n\nSome patients with excessive sweating present the so-called corynebacterial triad, that is, the simultaneous presence of trichobacteriosis axillaris, erythrasma, and pitted keratolysis.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nNo specific therapeutic studies on trichobacteriosis are available.\n", "A study by the Food and Drug Administration of shipments of spices to the United States during fiscal years 2007-2009 showed about 7% of the shipments were contaminated by Salmonella bacteria, some of it antibiotic-resistant. As most spices are cooked before being served salmonella contamination often has no effect, but some spices, particularly pepper, are often eaten raw and present at table for convenient use. Shipments from Mexico and India, a major producer, were the most frequently contaminated. However, with newly developed radiation sterilization methods, the risk of Salmonella contamination is now lower.\n\nSection::::Nutrition.\n", "As well, capsaicin induces satiety as a result of oral and gastro-intestinal contribution. Lower energy and fat intake were observed under short-term conditions; however, the effect of the spice was reduced over prolonged exposure. Increased satiety was observed when oral contribution of capsaicin was measured in addition to the gastro-intestinal exposure, indicating the sensory effect of hot peppers plays a significant role.\n\nSection::::Strategies for maintaining a healthy weight.:Increasing caffeine intake.\n", "As of 2007 there was no evidence showing that weight loss is directly correlated with ingesting capsaicin. Well-designed clinical studies had not been performed because the pungency of capsaicin in prescribed doses under research prevents subject compliance. A 2014 meta-analysis of further trials that had been run, found weak, uneven evidence suggesting that consuming capsaicin before a meal might slightly reduce the amount of food that people eat and might drive food choice toward carbohydrates.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Section::::Strategies for maintaining a healthy weight.:Capsaicin.\n\nClinical research on capsaicin has showed that consumption of the spice during breakfast can increase energy expenditure by 23% immediately after meal ingestion. Capsaicin, also known as hot pepper, is a primary ingredient in chilli peppers and red hot peppers. Hot peppers have been reported to induce thermogenesis at the cellular level.\n", "Capsaicinoids are the chemicals responsible for the \"hot\" taste of chili peppers. They are fat soluble and therefore water will be of no assistance when countering the burn. The most effective way to relieve the burning sensation is with dairy products, such as milk and yogurt. A protein called casein occurs in dairy products which binds to the capsaicin, effectively making it less available to \"burn\" the mouth, and the milk fat helps keep it in suspension. Rice is also useful for mitigating the impact, especially when it is included with a mouthful of the hot food. These foods are typically included in the cuisine of cultures that specialise in the use of chilis. Mechanical stimulation of the mouth by chewing food will also partially mask the pain sensation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-17308	Why does the longevity of a cell phone battery decrease over time?	Well you know what happens when you use a pencil right? Eventually you have to resharpen (charge) it. What happens when you do this? The pencil gets shorter. ie. its lifespan shortens. Why? You're using all the lead up slowly (electrolytes in a battery). Same way in a battery, as you use the electrolytes in the battery with each charge, some of them are no longer able to hold a charge, all the way until current can no longer flow and the battery is dead. EDIT: Some comments are rightly pointing out that not all batteries are liquid cells. This is correct. However the principal in my explanation is the same. Batteries that rely on chemical reactions never maintain 100% efficiency, so you lose some potential each time you reverse the reaction. Do this enough times, and eventually there's barely enough left to charge at all. It's a slow process, but the same in practical terms none the less.	[ "Section::::Hardware.:Battery.\n\nThe average phone battery lasts 2–3 years at best. Many of the wireless devices use a Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) battery, which charges 500-2500 times, depending on how users take care of the battery and the charging techniques used. It is only natural for these rechargeable batteries to chemically age, which is why the performance of the battery when used for a year or two will begin to deteriorate. Battery life can be extended by draining it regularly, not overcharging it, and keeping it away from heat.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:SIM card.\n", "When exposed to high temperatures, the lithium-ion batteries in smartphones are easily damaged and can fail faster than expected, in addition to letting the device run out of battery too often. Debris and other contaminants that enter through small cracks in the phone can also infringe on smartphone life expectancy. One of the most common factors that causes smartphones and other electronic devices to die quickly is physical impact and breakage, which can severely damage the internal pieces.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "NiCd cells, if used in a particular repetitive manner, may show a decrease in capacity called \"memory effect\". The effect can be avoided with simple practices. NiMH cells, although similar in chemistry, suffer less from memory effect.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Environmental conditions.\n", "BULLET::::- Lifetime – Around 60,000 hours. For PEM fuel cell units, which shut down at night, this equates to an estimated lifetime of between ten and fifteen years.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "Most modern cell phones, laptops, and most electric vehicles use Lithium-ion batteries. These batteries last longest if the battery is frequently charged; fully discharging the cells will degrade their capacity relatively quickly, but most such batteries are used in equipment which can sense the approach of fill discharge and discontinue equipment use. When stored after charging, lithium battery cells degrade more while fully charged than if they are only 40-50% charged. As with all battery types, degradation also occurs faster at higher temperatures. Degradation in lithium-ion batteries is caused by an increased internal battery resistance often due to cell oxidation. This decreases the efficiency of the battery, resulting in less net current available to be drawn from the battery. However, if Li-ION cells are discharged below a certain voltage a chemical reaction occurs that make them dangerous if recharged, which is why many such batteries in consumer goods now have an \"electronic fuse\" that permanently disables them if the voltage falls below a set level. The electronic fuse circuitry draws a small amount of current from the battery, which means that if a laptop battery is left for a long time without charging it, and with a very low initial state of charge, the battery may be permanently destroyed.\n", "A cell phone's shelf life is only about 24 months for the average user. This means that newer cell phone models are constantly put up on the market to replace older ones. This is as a result of the rapid progression of technology in the mobile industry. According to Matt Ployhar of Intel, the industry is rapidly evolving, possibly even at “Moore's law pace or faster.” This means that newer cell phone models are continually on the rise of consumerism and more outdated models are likely to end up in landfills.\n", "BULLET::::- Gravimetric energy density 90 Wh/kg ( 320 J/g)\n\nBULLET::::- 100% DOD cycle life (number of cycles to 80% of original capacity) = 2,000–7,000\n\nBULLET::::- 10% DOD cycle life (number of cycles to 80% of original capacity) 10,000\n\nBULLET::::- Sony Fortelion: 74% capacity after 8,000 cycles with 100% DOD\n\nBULLET::::- Cathode composition (weight)\n\nBULLET::::- 90% C-LiFePO, grade Phos-Dev-12\n\nBULLET::::- 5% carbon EBN-10-10 (superior graphite)\n\nBULLET::::- 5% polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)\n\nBULLET::::- Cell configuration\n\nBULLET::::- Carbon-coated aluminium current collector 15\n\nBULLET::::- 1.54 cm cathode\n\nBULLET::::- Electrolyte: ethylene carbonate–dimethyl carbonate (EC–DMC) 1–1 lithium perchlorate () 1M\n", "Section::::Hardware.:Battery.\n\nBy the end of 2017, smartphone battery life has become generally adequate; however, earlier smartphone battery life was poor due to the weak batteries that could not handle the significant power requirements of the smartphones' computer systems and color screens.\n", "Recent EVs are utilizing new variations on lithium-ion chemistry that sacrifice specific energy and specific power to provide fire resistance, environmental friendliness, rapid charging (as quickly as a few minutes), and longer lifespans. These variants (phosphates, titanates, spinels, etc.) have been shown to have a much longer lifetime, with A123 types using lithium iron phosphate lasting at least 10+ years and 7000+ charge/discharge cycles, and LG Chem expecting their lithium-manganese spinel batteries to last up to 40 years.\n", "BULLET::::- The batteries are more difficult to damage than other batteries, tolerating deep discharge for long periods. In fact, Ni–Cd batteries in long-term storage are typically stored fully discharged. This is in contrast, for example, to lithium ion batteries, which are less stable and will be permanently damaged if discharged below a minimum voltage.\n\nBULLET::::- The battery performs very well under rough conditions, perfect for use in the portable tools.\n\nBULLET::::- Ni–Cd batteries typically last longer, in terms of number of charge/discharge cycles, than other rechargeable batteries such as lead/acid batteries.\n", "The study also describes the value of all precious metals inside of cell phones as well as the cost of extracting said metals. The average cost in 2006 to extract the precious metals for the U.S. cell phone recycling company ECS Refining was $.18 while the average revenue from the recycled metals was $.75. With a profit margin significantly smaller than refurbished units, this method of gaining economic value from the recycling of cell phones is significantly more volume dependent. The most valuable precious metal in cell phones is Gold which is used in the unit's microprocessor. This precious metals percentage of the total mass of phones has constantly decreased over time. From 1992 to 2006, gold as a percentage of total mass of cell phones dropped from .06% to .03%. There is a significant amount of volume in the U.S. market with Americans in 2009 throwing away on average 350,000 cell phones a day but with thinning margins, volume starts to become irrelevant.\n", "Some products contain batteries that are not user-replaceable after they have worn down. While such a design can help make the device thinner, it can also make it difficult to replace the battery without sending the entire device away for repairs or purchasing a replacement.\n\nSection::::Types.:Perceived obsolescence.\n\nObsolescence of desirability or stylistic obsolescence occurs when designers change the styling of products so customers will purchase products more frequently due to the decrease in the perceived desirability of unfashionable items.\n", "In use, the voltage across the terminals of a disposable battery driving a load decreases until it drops too low to be useful; this is largely due to an increase in internal resistance rather than a drop in the voltage of the equivalent source.\n\nIn rechargeable lithium polymer batteries, the internal resistance is largely independent of the state of charge but increases as the battery ages; thus, it is a good indicator of expected life.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Norton's theorem\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Student Reference Manual for Electronic Instrumentation Laboratories (2nd Edition) - Stanley Wolf & Richard F.M. Smith\n", "New Li-ion battery cell technology has introduced a silicon–graphene additive that helps to preserve the positive terminal during discharging, thus increasing the cell longevity and cycle-life. An inherent side-effect when operating a 3.7V Li-ion cell above 4.2V is decreased cycle-life, with increased internal resistance.\n\nStudies have shown that the poor capacity-retention and decreased lifespan of a Li-ion cell exponentially increases when charged above 4.2V, specifically due to corrosion of the positive terminal. The silicon-graphene additive helps reduce corrosion of the positive terminal when charged up to voltages of 4.35V or more.\n", "A popular early mobile phone battery was the nickel metal-hydride (NiMH) type, due to its relatively small size and low weight. Lithium ion batteries are also used, as they are lighter and do not have the voltage depression due to long-term over-charging that nickel metal-hydride batteries do. Many mobile phone manufacturers use lithium–polymer batteries as opposed to the older lithium-ion, the main advantages being even lower weight and the possibility to make the battery a shape other than strict cuboid.\n\nSection::::SIM card.\n", "Button cell batteries are attractive to small children and often ingested. In the past 20 years, although there has not been an increase in the total number of button cell batteries ingested in a year, researchers have noted a 6.7-fold increase in the risk that an ingestion would result in a moderate or major complication and 12.5-fold increase in fatalities comparing the last decade to the previous one.\n", "Society today revolves around technology and by the constant need for the newest and most high-tech products we are contributing to a mass amount of e-waste. Since the invention of the iPhone, cell phones have become the top source of e-waste products because they are not made to last more than two years. Electrical waste contains hazardous but also valuable and scarce materials. Up to 60 elements can be found in complex electronics. As of 2013, Apple has sold over 796 million iDevices (iPod, iPhone, iPad). Cell phone companies make cell phones that are not made to last so that the consumer will purchase new phones. Companies give these products such short lifespans because they know that the consumer will want a new product and will buy it if they make it. In the United States, an estimated 70% of heavy metals in landfills comes from discarded electronics.\n", "As lithium in used but non working (i.e. extended storage) button cells is still likely to be in the cathode cup, it is possible to extract commercially useful quantities of the metal from such cells as well as the manganese dioxide and specialist plastics. From experiment the usual failure mode is that they will read 3.2 V or above but be unable to generate useful current (5 mA versus 40 mA for a good new cell)\n\nSome also alloy the lithium with magnesium (Mg) to cut costs and these are particularly prone to the mentioned failure mode.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "If batteries are used repeatedly even without mistreatment, they lose capacity as the number of charge cycles increases, until they are eventually considered to have reached the end of their useful life. Different battery systems have differing mechanisms for wearing out. For example, in lead-acid batteries, not all the active material is restored to the plates on each charge/discharge cycle; eventually enough material is lost that the battery capacity is reduced. In lithium-ion types, especially on deep discharge, some reactive lithium metal can be formed on charging, which is no longer available to participate in the next discharge cycle. Sealed batteries may lose moisture from their liquid electrolyte, especially if overcharged or operated at high temperature. This reduces the cycling life.\n", "Most cell phones contain precious metals and plastics that can be recycled to save energy and resources that would otherwise be required to mine or manufacture. When placed in a landfill, these materials can pollute the air and contaminate soil and drinking water. Cell phone coatings are typically made of lead, which is a toxic chemical that can result in adverse health effects when exposed to it in high levels. The circuit board on cell phones can be made of copper, gold, lead, zinc, beryllium, tantalum, coltan, and other raw materials that would require significant resources to mine and manufacture. This is why it is important to recycle old cell phones and source these increasingly scarce materials whenever possible.\n", "Some recent studies have found an association between mobile phone use and certain kinds of brain and salivary gland tumors. Lennart Hardell and other authors of a 2009 meta-analysis of 11 studies from peer-reviewed journals concluded that cell phone usage for at least ten years \"approximately doubles the risk of being diagnosed with a brain tumor on the same ('ipsilateral') side of the head as that preferred for cell phone use\".\n", "Old rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline batteries, especially nickel-based batteries; a freshly charged nickel cadmium (NiCd) battery loses 10% of its charge in the first 24 hours, and thereafter discharges at a rate of about 10% a month. However, newer low self-discharge nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries and modern lithium designs display a lower self-discharge rate (but still higher than for primary batteries).\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Corrosion.\n\nInternal parts may corrode and fail, or the active materials may be slowly converted to inactive forms.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Physical component changes.\n", "Ni–Cd batteries may suffer from a \"memory effect\" if they are discharged and recharged to the same state of charge hundreds of times. The apparent symptom is that the battery \"remembers\" the point in its charge cycle where recharging began and during subsequent use suffers a sudden drop in voltage at that point, as if the battery had been discharged. The capacity of the battery is not actually reduced substantially. Some electronics designed to be powered by Ni–Cd batteries are able to withstand this reduced voltage long enough for the voltage to return to normal. However, if the device is unable to operate through this period of decreased voltage, it will be unable to get enough energy out of the battery, and for all practical purposes, the battery appears \"dead\" earlier than normal.\n", "Batteries also have a small amount of internal resistance that will discharge the battery even when it is disconnected. If a battery is left disconnected, any internal charge will drain away slowly and eventually reach the critical point. From then on the film will develop and thicken. This is the reason batteries will be found to charge poorly or not at all if left in storage for a long period of time.\n\nSection::::Chargers and sulfation.\n", "To a more limited extent this is also true of some consumer electronic products, where manufacturers will release slightly updated products at regular intervals and emphasize their value as status symbols. An example is OnePlus, a smartphone manufacturer that releases a marginally updated model every 5 or 6 months compared to the typical yearly cycle, leading to the perception that a one year-old handset can be up to two generations old.\n\nSection::::Types.:Systemic obsolescence.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03400	How did old LPs go from mixed/negative reviews upon release to critical acclaim nowadays?	Well, the LP hasn’t changed, but the entire music scene and all of society has changed continuously since that LP was put out. When someone creates new music, a new sound, no one is used to it yet. A lot of people will hear it as harsh and nerve jangling just because it’s unfamiliar. The more people hear a ‘sound’ the more they will start to hear what is actually there in the way of instrumentation, vocals, composition, meaning etc. something that first sounds harsh can start to sound exciting. Something else that sounds boring can sound subtle, nuanced, entrancing. Even harsh sounds can become nuanced and full of subtleties once you are accustomed to them. There’s two main ways new ‘bad’ music can become ‘good’ old music. One way, entire genres spring up around the new sound. Many other artists create similar music and people become acclimated and appreciative of something they used to dislike, or at least found strange. The second way of course is when one particular example never goes away and becomes a classic. The Beatles albums are what, 50 or 60 years old now? But although they aren’t played everywhere, they have always been played somewhere. People still like them, and young people who are exposed generally like them too. They have staying power simply because many people respond very positively to that music. It wasn’t liked much by ma y people at first, simply because nothing before had sounded like that. It was a new sound.	[ "In this new format, B-plus records were only reviewed occasionally and most were filed under an \"Honorable Mention\" section, featuring one short phrasal statement for each album alongside its recommended tracks. Records he considered poor were relegated to a list of ungraded \"Duds\" or featured in a special November column dedicated to negative reviews (titled \"Turkey Shoot\"), with the highest possible grade a B-minus.\n", "\"LP III\" was met with mixed reviews, although it was professionally reviewed only a few times. Allmusic enjoyed the album, noting its melodies and harmonies and calling it \"the Soviettes' best-performed record yet\". The service did note the short length of the album as its downfall, but otherwise had no negative feedback and rated the album as a four out of five.\n", "As of 2006, individual tracks were made available as digital downloads.\n\nIn late 2013, 35 years after its debut, \"Negative Trend\" was remastered, again at Fantasy Studios, but this time by George Horn, for a reissue, in its original 7-inch vinyl disc format and cover art, on Superior Viaduct, an archival record label.\n\nSection::::Re-recordings.\n", "\"Rolling Stone\" magazine has been criticized for reconsidering many classic albums that it had previously dismissed, and for frequent use of the 3.5-star rating. For example, Led Zeppelin was largely written off by \"Rolling Stone\" magazine critics during the band's most active years in the 1970s, but by 2006, a cover story on the band honored them as \"the Heaviest Band of All Time\". A critic for \"Slate\" magazine described a conference at which 1984's \"The Rolling Stone Record Guide\" was scrutinized. As he described it, \"The guide virtually ignored hip-hop and ruthlessly panned heavy metal, the two genres that within a few years would dominate the pop charts. In an auditorium packed with music journalists, you could detect more than a few anxious titters: How many of us will want our record reviews read back to us 20 years hence?\"\n", "For nearly two decades since \"Something Better Change\" and the follow-up album \"Hardcore '81\" went out of print, the albums were compiled into the compilation \"Bloodied But Unbowed\", and then, to address the numerous songs removed in the process, the Polish import greatest hits album \"Greatest Shits\" was released. Music critic Jack Rabid stated that \"when one considers how revolutionary and yet how distinct from each other those two LPs were, this state of affairs just made no sense.\".\n", "In the realm of rock music, as in that of classical music, critics have not always been respected by their subjects. Frank Zappa declared that \"Most rock journalism is people who can't write, interviewing people who can't talk, for people who can't read.\" In the Guns N' Roses song \"Get in the Ring\", Axl Rose verbally attacked critics who gave the band negative reviews because of their actions on stage; such critics as Andy Secher, Mick Wall and Bob Guccione Jr. were mentioned by name.\n\nSection::::Popular.:Critical trends of the 21st century.\n\nSection::::Popular.:Critical trends of the 21st century.:2000s.\n", "The album was also included on a number of critics' year-end lists. The album was number 12 on Pitchfork reviewer Paul Cooper's year-end albums list, and number 14 on fellow Pitchfork critic Richard Juzwiak's list.\n\nSection::::Singles.\n", "BULLET::::- Bruce Smith (1989): \"“There were strong characters involved, but it didn't make one character. Rotten's vocals and the music and the compositions have gelled together. On the last record we made, it wasn't there at all [...] I think some of the tracks might suffer from the final mix being a little too smooth, but I certainly would have done it like that.”\"\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Laswell (producer, 1989): \"“He's lost it. Ask him why he delivered a bad disco album.”\"\n", "Kik Axe Music reviewer Matt Molgaard gave the album a four out of five rating, writing that \"even if you’re not a huge fan of the 'commercial' sound [...] there's plenty of grim tracks to appease the appetite of new and old fans alike.\" Another writer for the website, James Zahn, gave the \"Nuclear Edition\" reissue 4.5 out of 5.\n", "The album's release saw strong support from publications such as the NME. They awarded the album 8/10 and claimed it to be 'absolutely vital'. The following year they also included Neils Children singer John Linger in their yearly 'Cool List' feature, coming in at 30 out of 50 places. The group were largely favoured by the magazine and around the time of release were regularly included in interview and review features.\n\nOnline music site Gigwise awarded the album 4 and a half stars out of 5, the only gripe being the record's short running time.\n\nSection::::Track listing.\n\nBULLET::::1. Come Down\n", "In 1987, Soul Train Music Award for Best Rap - Single for \"Walk This Way\" (jointly awarded to both Run-D.M.C. and Aerosmith).\n\nIn 1989, the \"Toronto Star\" music critics took to look over the albums they had reviewed in the past 10 years to include in a list based on \"commercial impact to social import, to strictly musical merit.\" \"Raising Hell\" was placed at number four on the list, describing it as \"the record to move rap from the ghetto to the suburbs. Blame it or celebrate it, you can't deny Raising Hell's impact.\n", "\"Melody Maker\"s writers advocated the new forms of pop music of the late 1960s. \"By 1999, the 'quality' press was regularly carrying reviews of popular music gigs and albums\", which had a \"key role in keeping pop\" in the public eye. As more pop music critics began writing, this had the effect of \"legitimating pop as an art form\"; as a result, \"newspaper coverage shifted towards pop as music rather than pop as social phenomenon\".\n", "Section::::Reissues.\n\n\"How Could Hell Be Any Worse?\" has been reissued many times. It was first reissued in 1988 with a different catalogue number and Epitaph's then-current address. It was released on CD as part of the 1991 compilation \"80–85\", containing all of the band's material from 1981 to 1985 (except \"Into the Unknown\") in its entirety.\n", "The second edition uses exactly the same rating system as the first edition, the only difference being that in addition to a rating, the second edition also employs the pilcrow mark (¶) to indicate a title that was out of print at the time the guide was published. Many albums had their rating revised from the first edition; some artists had their ratings lowered (notably The Doors, Yes and Neil Young) as the book now offered a revisionist slant to rock's history, whilst others, such as Little Feat and Richard Hell And The Voidoids, garnered higher ratings from a re-evaluation of their work.\n", "Upon the album's tenth anniversary in May 2009, The Record Review featured the album as a part of its \"Ten Years Later\" feature, saying that \"ten years removed, \"The Soft Bulletin\" is still an undeniably essential listen that belongs in every record collection.\" Since late 2010, the album has been sporadically performed live in its entirety over the years, and on May 26, 2016, an orchestra was used to embellish sounds of the album while the band played their main instruments for the album at the concert.\n", "As the music industry and record production expanded during the 1980s, Robert Christgau found himself overwhelmed by records to listen to and review for his \"Consumer Guide\" column in \"The Village Voice\". In September 1990, he abandoned his original letter-grading scheme on a scale of A-plus to E-minus, which had B-plus records as the most commonly reviewed and grades rarely going lower than C-minus. Instead, he decided to focus on writing reviews for A-minus to A-plus albums, with A-minus becoming the most common and those that would have ranged from B-minus to C-plus largely ignored. This change was made because, as Christgau later said, \"most of my readers—not critics and bizzers, but real-life consumers—used my primary critical outlet for its putative purpose. They wanted to know what to buy.\"\n", "Section::::Reception and legacy.\n", "Ed Potton of \"The Times\" found \"Super Critical\" to be \"breezier and more coherent [than \"Sounds from Nowheresville\"], sticking mainly to the kind of insouciant disco-funk-pop that [The Ting Tings] do so well.\" Sputnikmusic's Raul Stanciu viewed the album as \"a short and rather sweet effort that might not launch them to the top of the charts once again, but at least confirms us they're not yet ready to fade into obscurity\", while commending The Ting Tings for \"creating a consistent record that not only manages to mend the damage done by its faulty predecessor, but also create a coherent, fun atmosphere.\" Virgin Media's Matthew Horton felt that \"what \"Super Critical\" misses is one really great tune. The closest it comes is 'Green Poison's soulful grind, strangely reminiscent of Stock Aitken & Waterman's 'Roadblock', yet no cigar. Otherwise this is just frothy fun, which is fine—but only fine.\"\n", "In a retrospective review for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine stated that Jackson \"approached\" \"Bad\" much the same way he approached \"Thriller\", which was to \"take the basic formula of the predecessor, expand it slightly, and move it outward.\" While the album \"rebounds with songs that prove mechanical can be tolerable if delivered with hooks and panache,\" it still made \"Bad\" feel like an \"artifact of its time instead a piece of music that transcends it\", according to Erlewine.\n", "The album was reissued and remastered by Fire in 2012 along with 1983's \"It\" and 1987's \"Freaks\". This re-release took several delays as the first stated release date was 8 August 2011 while the albums finally came out on 13 February 2012. An announcement in the interim stated that the albums would be remastered with new bonus tracks to be added to the track listings as well as new artwork and liner notes from music journalist Everett True.\n", "In 2008, the album was re-released in a Collector's Edition with a bonus disc, including the 17-minute complete version of \"Elegia\", which was only previously available on a limited edition disc of the 2002 box set \"Retro\" and, for the first time in digital format, the unedited 12″ mix of \"The Perfect Kiss\".\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "AllMusic called the album \"a milestone in subversive music matched only by Lou Reed's \"Metal Machine Music\"\". Pitchfork praised the album's originality, but gave it a low grade in terms of listenability.\n\nSection::::Legacy.\n", "Section::::Reissues.\n\nThis album frequently appeared at the top of Christian Music magazine readers polls of the \"album that people most wanted to see released on CD,\" until its eventual reissue on CD in 2000. It was listed at No. 63 in the book \"\" (Harvest House Publishers, 2001).\n", "Reacting to the state of pop music criticism, Miller suggested, \"Part of the problem is that a lot of vital pop music is made by 22-year-olds who enjoy shock value, and it's pathetic when their elders are cornered into unalloyed reverence.\" Miller suggested that critics could navigate this problem by being prepared \"to give young artists credit for terrific music without being intimidated into a frame of mind where dark subject matter always gets a passing grade,\" stating that a critic should be able to call a young artist \"a musical genius\" while \"in the same breath declaring that his or her lyrics are morally objectionable.\"\n", "The album has been reissued several times; the first was in 1994 by Atlantic Records. In 2004, Rhino Records issued a remastered edition with several previously unreleased tracks, including some from the band's sessions from Paris in late 1979.\n\nSection::::Release.:Reception.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-14617	When exhaling underwater, why does the air go up in loads of smaller bubbles rather than one big bubble?	There are multiple reasons. First of all, you can't exhale that fast. The most important thing is however the surface tension. Water "doesn't like" having big surfaces, so it wants to minimise the surface ot has with the bubble(s). The orb is the 3D body that has the smallest surface compared to its volume, so the water tries to form the big bubble into an orb. It doesn't work because the water is relatively dense and the bubble has high lift, so it brakes into smaller bubbles. However, in theory, if you somehow generate a huge, perfectly round air bubble, it will stay together.	[ "Fine bubble diffused aeration is able to maximize the surface area of the bubbles and thus transfer more oxygen to the water per bubble. Additionally, smaller bubbles take more time to reach the surface so not only is the surface area maximized but so are the number of seconds each bubble spends in the water, allowing it more time to transfer oxygen to the water. As a general rule, smaller bubbles and a deeper release point will generate a greater oxygen transfer rate.\n", "A major difference of low pressure dissolved air flotation and other flotation processes lies in the volumes of bubbles, amount of air and raising speeds. One macro bubble can be 1000 times bigger in volume compared to one micro bubble. And vice versa the number of micro bubbles can be 1000 fold in number compared to one macro bubble having same volume.\n", "BULLET::::2. The foam autogenously provides the packing within the column.\n\nJust as in gas-liquid absorption, the adoption of reflux at the top of the column can engender multiple equilibrium stages within the column. However, if one can control the rate at which the bubble size changes with height in the column, either by coalescence or Ostwald ripening, one can engineer an internal source of reflux within the column.\n", "The method in which the bubbles are introduced into the water stream and retention time are also important factors. The average retention time for a vertical unit is typically 4 to 5 minutes and 5 to 6 minutes for a horizontal unit.\n\nSection::::DGF pump.\n", "Normally, this process is relatively slow, because the activation energy for this process is high. The activation energy for a process like bubble nucleation depends on where the bubble forms. It is highest for bubbles that form in the liquid itself (homogeneous nucleation), and lower if the bubble forms on some other surface (heterogeneous nucleation). When the pressure is released from a soda bottle, the bubbles tend to form on the sides of the bottle. But because they are smooth and clean, the activation energy is still relatively high, and the process is slow. The addition of other nucleation sites provides an alternative pathway for the reaction to occur with lower activation energy, much like a catalyst. For instance dropping grains of salt or sand into the solution lowers the activation energy, and increases the rate of carbon dioxide precipitation. \n", "As one might expect, large, shallow explosions expand faster than deep, small ones.\n\nDeep explosions have longer oscillations.\n\nThe water pressure just outside the bubble varies dramatically.\n", "BULLET::::- The force balance in the bubble may be modified by a layer of surface active molecules which can stabilise a microbubble at a size where surface tension on a clean bubble would cause it to collapse rapidly.\n\nBULLET::::- This surface layer may vary in permeability, so that if the bubble is compressed it may become impermeable to diffusion at sufficient compression.\n", "Efforts are under way to develop a solution for removing the gas from these lakes and to prevent a build-up which could lead to another catastrophe. A team led by French scientist Michel Halbwachs began experimenting at Lake Monoun and Lake Nyos in 1990 using siphons to degas the waters of these lakes in a controlled manner. The team positions a pipe vertically in the lake with its upper end above the water surface. Water saturated with CO enters the bottom of the pipe and rises to the top. The lower pressure at the surface allows the gas to come out of solution. Only a small amount of water must be mechanically pumped initially through the pipe to start the flow. As saturated water rises, the CO comes out of solution and forms bubbles. The natural buoyancy of the bubbles draws the water up the pipe at high velocity resulting in a fountain at the surface. The degassifying water acts like a pump, drawing more water into the bottom of the pipe, and creating a self-sustaining flow. This is the same process which leads to a natural eruption, but in this case it is controlled by the size of the pipe.\n", "In fully closed-circuit rebreathers that use trimix diluents, the mix can be \"hyperoxic\" (meaning more oxygen than in air, as in enriched air nitrox) in shallow water, because the rebreather automatically adds oxygen to maintain a specific partial pressure of oxygen. Less commonly, hyperoxic trimix is sometimes used on open circuit scuba. Hyperoxic trimix is sometimes referred to as Helitrox, TriOx, or HOTx (High Oxygen Trimix) with the \"x\" in HOTx representing the mixture's fraction of helium as a percentage.\n\nSee breathing gas for more information on the composition and choice of gas blends.\n\nSection::::Blending.\n", "Some manufacturers such as Suunto have also devised approximations of Wienke's model. Suunto uses a modified haldanean nine-compartment model with the assumption of reduced off-gassing caused by bubbles. This implementation offers both a depth ceiling and a depth floor for the decompression stops. The former maximises tissue off-gassing and the latter minimises bubble growth. The model has been correlated and validated in a number of published articles using collected dive profile data.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Chemical and metallurgic engineers rely on bubbles for operations such as distillation, absorption, flotation and spray drying. The complex processes involved often require consideration for mass and heat transfer, and are modelled using fluid dynamics.\n\nThe star-nosed mole and the American water shrew can smell underwater by rapidly breathing through their nostrils and creating a bubble. \n\nSection::::Physics and chemistry.:Pulsation.\n", "When two bubbles merge, they adopt a shape which makes the sum of their surface areas as small as possible, compatible with the volume of air each bubble encloses. If the bubbles are of equal size, their common wall is flat. If they aren't the same size, their common wall bulges into the larger bubble, since the smaller one has a higher internal pressure than the larger one, as predicted by the Young–Laplace equation.\n", "BULLET::::- The density of the breathing gas is higher at depth, so the effort required to fully inhale and exhale has increased, making breathing more difficult and less efficient (high work of breathing). The higher gas density also causes gas mixing within the lung to be less efficient, thus increasing the dead space .\n\nBULLET::::- The diver is deliberately hypoventilating, known as \"skip breathing\".\n\nSection::::During diving.:Carbon dioxide retention.:Skip breathing.\n", "The oxygen window does not increase the rate of offgassing for a given concentration gradient of inert gas, but it reduces the risk of bubble formation and growth which depends on the total dissolved gas tension. Increased rate of offgassing is achieved by providing a larger gradient. The lower risk of bubble formation at a given gradient allows the increase of gradient without excessive risk of bubble formation. In other words, the larger oxygen window due to a higher oxygen partial pressure can allow the diver to decompress faster at a shallower stop at the same risk, or at the same rate at the same depth at a lower risk, or at an intermediate rate at an intermediate depth at an intermediate risk.\n", "BULLET::::2. The bubbles form a foam which travels up a column and is discharged to the foamate stream of foam fractionation.\n\nThe rate at which certain non-ionic molecules can adsorb to bubble surface can be estimated by solving the Ward-Tordai equation. The enrichment and recovery depend on the hydrodynamic condition of the rising foam, which is a complex system dependent upon bubble size distribution, stress state at the gas-liquid interface, rate of bubble coalescence, gas rate \"inter alia\". The hydrodynamic condition is described by the Hydrodynamic Theory of Rising Foam.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "An example of a non-Boussinesq flow is bubbles rising in water. The behaviour of air bubbles rising in water is very different from the behaviour of water falling in air: in the former case rising bubbles tend to form hemispherical shells, while water falling in air splits into raindrops (at small length scales surface tension enters the problem and confuses the issue).\n", "One of the ways foam is created is through dispersion, where a large amount of gas is mixed with a liquid. A more specific method of dispersion involves injecting a gas through a hole in a solid into a liquid. If this process is completed very slowly, then one bubble can be emitted from the orifice at a time as shown in the picture below.\n\nOne of the theories for determining the separation time is shown below; however, while this theory produces the theoretical data that matches with experimental data, detachment due to capillarity is accepted as a better explanation.\n", "The above explanation only holds for bubbles of one medium submerged in another medium (e.g. bubbles of gas in a soft drink); the volume of a membrane bubble (e.g. soap bubble) will not distort light very much, and one can only see a membrane bubble due to thin-film diffraction and reflection.\n\nSection::::Physics and chemistry.:Applications.\n\nNucleation can be intentionally induced, for example to create a bubblegram in a solid.\n\nIn medical ultrasound imaging, small encapsulated bubbles called contrast agent are used to enhance the contrast.\n", "Bubble (physics)\n\nA bubble is a globule of one substance in another, usually gas in a liquid. \n\nDue to the Marangoni effect, bubbles may remain intact when they reach the surface of the immersive substance.\n\nSection::::Common examples.\n\nBubbles are seen in many places in everyday life, for example:\n\nBULLET::::- As spontaneous nucleation of supersaturated carbon dioxide in soft drinks\n\nBULLET::::- As water vapor in boiling water\n\nBULLET::::- As air mixed into agitated water, such as below a waterfall\n\nBULLET::::- As sea foam\n\nBULLET::::- As a soap bubble\n\nBULLET::::- As given off in chemical reactions, e.g., baking soda + vinegar\n", "Smaller bubbles undergo isothermal pulsations. The corresponding equation for small bubbles of surface tension σ (and negligible liquid viscosity) is\n\nExcited bubbles trapped underwater are the major source of liquid sounds, such as inside our knuckles during knuckle cracking, and when a rain droplet impacts a surface of water. \n\nSection::::Physiology and medicine.\n", "The keys to good separation are both gravity and the creation of millions of very small bubbles. Based on Stokes' law, the size of the oil droplet and density of the droplet will affect the rate of rise to the surface. The larger and lighter the droplet, the faster it will rise to the surface. By attaching a small gas bubble to an oil droplet, the density of the droplet decreases, which increases the rate at which it will rise to the surface. Therefore, the smaller the gas bubbles created the smaller the oil droplet floated to the surface. Efficient flotation systems need to create as many small bubbles as possible. \n", "The Variable Permeability Model ordering hypothesis states that nuclei are neither created nor totally eliminated during the pressure cycle, and the initial ordering according to size is preserved. Therefore, each bubble count is determined by the properties and behaviour of a nominal \"critical\" nucleus which is at the threshold of bubble-formation – all larger nuclei will form bubbles, and all smaller nuclei will not.\n\nSection::::Bubble formation, growth and elimination.:Bubble distribution.\n", "It is used in several dive computers, particularly those made by Suunto, Aqwary, Mares, HydroSpace Engineering, and Underwater Technologies Center. It is characterised by the following assumptions: blood flow (perfusion) provides a limit for tissue gas penetration by diffusion; an exponential distribution of sizes of bubble seeds is always present, with many more small seeds than large ones; bubbles are permeable to gas transfer across surface boundaries under all pressures; the haldanean tissue compartments range in half time from 1 to 720 minutes, depending on gas mixture.\n", "At standard atmospheric pressure and low temperatures, no boiling occurs and the heat transfer rate is controlled by the usual single-phase mechanisms. As the surface temperature is increased, local boiling occurs and vapor bubbles nucleate, grow into the surrounding cooler fluid, and collapse. This is \"sub-cooled nucleate boiling\", and is a very efficient heat transfer mechanism. At high bubble generation rates, the bubbles begin to interfere and the heat flux no longer increases rapidly with surface temperature (this is the departure from nucleate boiling, or DNB).\n", "BULLET::::2. The bubble contents obey the ideal gas law\n\nBULLET::::3. The internal pressure remains uniform throughout the bubble\n\nBULLET::::4. No evaporation or condensation occurs inside the bubble\n\nThe fifth assumption, which changes between each formulation, pertains to the thermodynamic behavior of the liquid surrounding the bubble. These assumptions severely limit the models when the pulsations are large and the wall velocities reach the speed of sound.\n\nSection::::Bubble dynamics.:Keller-Miksis formulation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06306	Do you get electrocuted if you touch overhead electrical wires? Why?	> Wouldn't the wires be coated in rubber or something similar? They are not coated. To do so would be prohibitively expensive and would make them much heavier, requiring more structure to support them. Touching power lines absolutely can electrocute you, which I was under the impression was ubiquitously known.	[ "Overhead lines should cross the route of an aerial tramway only above it, if at all.\n\nThe necessary protection distances from overhead lines to the ropes of an aerial tramway are subject to regulations concerning the construction of aerial tramways and overhead lines. In the case of an undercrossing of an aerial tramway, the maximum safety distances between the overhead line and the floor of the aerial tramway cab must be followed absolutely.\n", "Low voltage overhead lines may use either bare conductors carried on glass or ceramic insulators or an aerial bundled cable system. The number of conductors may be anywhere between two (most likely a phase and neutral) up to as many as six (three phase conductors, separate neutral and earth plus street lighting supplied by a common switch); a common case is four (three phase and neutral, where the neutral might also serve as a protective earthing conductor).\n\nSection::::Train power.\n", "Use of the area below an overhead line is limited because objects must not come too close to the energized conductors. Overhead lines and structures may shed ice, creating a hazard. Radio reception can be impaired under a power line, due both to shielding of a receiver antenna by the overhead conductors, and by partial discharge at insulators and sharp points of the conductors which creates radio noise.\n\nIn the area surrounding the overhead lines it is dangerous to risk interference; e.g. flying kites or balloons, using ladders or operating machinery.\n", "Medium-voltage distribution lines may also use one or two shield wires, or may have the grounded conductor strung below the phase conductors to provide some measure of protection against tall vehicles or equipment touching the energized line, as well as to provide a neutral line in Wye wired systems.\n\nOn some power lines for very high voltages in the former Soviet Union, the ground wire is used for PLC-radio systems and mounted on insulators at the pylons.\n\nSection::::Conductors.:Insulated conductors and cable.\n", "Cables are arranged on poles with the most dangerous cables, that is, those carrying power, strung highest. Overhead cable systems also include a number of different components for managing signal cables. These include splicing systems that allow multi-conductor cables for distributing telephone signals and snowshoe-shaped devices for reversing the direction of cables.\n\nWhen metal-based telephone wires are strung on the same utility poles as the power lines, they can pick up noise from the power line. Modern fiber optic telephone cable has the advantage that it can be strung next to power lines without interference.\n", "High-voltage, high-current overhead power lines often use aluminum cable with a steel reinforcing core; the higher resistance of the steel core is of no consequence since it is located far below the skin depth where essentially no AC current flows.\n", "Conductors in exterior power systems may be placed overhead or underground. Overhead conductors are usually air insulated and supported on porcelain, glass or polymer insulators. Cables used for underground transmission or building wiring are insulated with cross-linked polyethylene or other flexible insulation. Large conductors are stranded for ease of handling; small conductors used for building wiring are often solid, especially in light commercial or residential construction.\n", "In the course of undercrossings the pylon picture is frequently changed, and because of its small height it is preferable to create an arrangement with conductors in one level. Sometimes at such crossings there can be problems because of the maximum pylon height allowed for flight safety reasons. If it is not possible at a given location for the pylons of the upper line to be built at a necessary height, the line running below it will be rebuilt on smaller pylons or replaced with an underground cable.\n", "For low speeds and in tunnels where temperatures are constant, fixed termination (FT) equipment may be used, with the wires terminated directly on structures at each end of the overhead line. The tension is generally about . This type of equipment sags on hot days and is taut on cold days.\n", "Overhead line crossing\n\nAn overhead line crossing is the crossing of an obstacle—such as a traffic route, a river, a valley or a strait—by an overhead power line. The style of crossing depends on the local conditions and regulations at the time the power line is constructed. Overhead line crossings can sometimes require extensive construction and can also have operational issues. In such cases, those in charge of construction should consider whether a crossing of the obstacle would be better accomplished by an underground or submarine cable.\n\nSection::::Crossings of roads and railway lines.\n", "Part of the Boston, Massachusetts Blue Line through the northeast suburbs uses overhead lines, as does the Green Line.\n\nSection::::Overhead catenary.:Height.\n\nThe height of overhead wiring can create hazards at level crossings, where it may be struck by road vehicles. Warning signs are placed on the approaches, advising drivers of the maximum safe height.\n", "To achieve good high-speed current collection, it is necessary to keep the contact wire geometry within defined limits. This is usually achieved by supporting the contact wire from a second wire known as the \"\" (in the US & Canada) or \"catenary\" (in the UK). This wire approximates the natural path of a wire strung between two points, a catenary curve, thus the use of \"catenary\" to describe this wire or sometimes the whole system. This wire is attached to the contact wire at regular intervals by vertical wires known as \"droppers\" or \"drop wires\". It is supported regularly at structures, by a pulley, link or clamp. The whole system is then subjected to mechanical tension.\n", "The power lines and their surroundings must be maintained by linemen, sometimes assisted by helicopters with pressure washers or circular saws which may work three times faster. However this work often occurs in the dangerous areas of the Helicopter height–velocity diagram, and the pilot must be qualified for this \"human external cargo\" method.\n\nSection::::Conductors.:Bundle conductors.\n", "Bundled conductors reduce the voltage gradient in the vicinity of the line. This reduces the possibility of corona discharge. At extra high voltage, the electric field gradient at the surface of a single conductor is high enough to ionize air, which wastes power, generates unwanted audible noise and interferes with communication systems. The field surrounding a bundle of conductors is similar to the field that would surround a single, very large conductor—this produces lower gradients which mitigates issues associated with high field strength. The transmission efficiency is improved as loss due to corona effect is countered.\n", "At crossings at which the aerial tramway runs above the power line, the line is frequently installed on special masts in the crossing range, which scaffold the line in the area of the aerial tramway crossing. Such a measure is not necessary according to power line regulations, but it is often done because, in case of aerial tramway failure, it is possible to rescue people from the tram without switching off the overhead line. Such constructions may be seen at 110 kV power line crossings of the Penkenbahn at Mayrhofen, the Patscherkofelbahn at Innsbruck and south of Zermatt.\n", "In principle, over- and undercrossings of aerial tramways are completely regulated. However, frequently at the range of the crossing section, special precautionary measures are taken. Thus, at overhead line crossings at which the overhead line runs above the rope of the aerial tramway, two catch ropes are occasionally installed to prevent the conductor from falling off the rope of the tramway in case a pylon or insulator were to break. Alternatively, auxiliary cross-bars can be installed on the pylons of the overhead line under the conductors, which prevent the conductor cables from falling in case of an insulator failure on the aerial tramway. Occasionally, the span field of the line over the aerial ropeway can be scaffolded with a rigid construction along its whole length, or at least for the span which crosses the aerial tramway.\n", "On overhead wires designed for trolley poles this is done by having a neutral section between the wires, requiring an insulator. The driver of the tram or trolleybus must turn off the power when the trolley pole passes through, to prevent arc damage to the insulator.\n", "Overhead insulated cables are rarely used, usually for short distances (less than a kilometer). Insulated cables can be directly fastened to structures without insulating supports. An overhead line with bare conductors insulated by air is typically less costly than a cable with insulated conductors.\n", "The construction of an SWA cable depends on the intended use. When the power cable needs to be installed in a public area, for example, a Low Smoke Zero Halogen (LSZH) equivalent, called SWA BS 6724 Cable must be used. After the King’s Cross fire in London in 1987 it became mandatory to use LSZH sheathing on all London Underground cables – a number of the fatalities were due to toxic gas and smoke inhalation. As a result, LSZH cables are now recommended for use in highly populated enclosed public areas. This is because they emit non-toxic levels of Halogen and low levels of smoke when exposed to fire. SWA Cable BS 6724 – which meets the requirements of British standard BS 6724 – has LSZH bedding and a black LSZH sheath.\n", "Alternatively, section breaks can be sited at the crossing point, so that the crossing is electrically dead.\n\nSection::::Crossings.:Australia.\n\nMany cities had trams and trolleybuses using trolley poles. They used insulated crossovers, which required tram drivers to put the controller into neutral and coast through. Trolleybus drivers had to either lift off the accelerator or switch to auxiliary power.\n\nIn Melbourne, Victoria, tram drivers put the controller into neutral and coast through section insulators, indicated by insulator markings between the rails.\n", "Section::::Breaks.:Gaps.\n\nOccasionally gaps may be present in the overhead lines, when switching from one voltage to another or to provide clearance for ships at moveable bridges, as a cheaper alternative for moveable overhead power rails. Electric trains coast across the gaps. To prevent arcing, power must be switched off before reaching the gap. Usually the pantograph must be lowered too.\n\nSection::::Overhead conductor rails.\n", "Unauthorized persons climbing on power pylons or electrical apparatus are also frequently the victims of electrocution. At very high transmission voltages even a close approach can be hazardous, since the high voltage may arc across a significant air gap.\n", "In some cases on bridges small crossing a wider waterway pylons or crossbars for the conductors can be mounted. Such a solution, which may lead to safety problems at bridge maintenance, was for example realized at the Danish Storstrøm Bridge.\n", "A more common approach is \"covered\" line wire. It is treated as bare cable, but often is safer for wildlife, as the insulation on the cables increases the likelihood of a large-wing-span raptor to survive a brush with the lines, and reduces the overall danger of the lines slightly. These types of lines are often seen in the eastern United States and in heavily wooded areas, where tree-line contact is likely. The only pitfall is cost, as insulated wire is often costlier than its bare counterpart. Many utility companies implement covered line wire as jumper material where the wires are often closer to each other on the pole, such as an underground riser/pothead, and on reclosers, cutouts and the like.\n", "Section::::Compact transmission lines.\n\nA compact overhead transmission line requires a smaller right of way than a standard overhead powerline. Conductors must not get too close to each other. This can be achieved either by short span lengths and insulating crossbars, or by separating the conductors in the span with insulators. The first type is easier to build as it does not require insulators in the span, which may be difficult to install and to maintain.\n\nExamples of compact lines are:\n\nBULLET::::- Lutsk compact overhead powerline\n\nBULLET::::- Hilpertsau-Weisenbach compact overhead line\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06955	Why is it that you need to be pregnant for you to be able to breastfeed? Why can’t all women breast feed without having been pregnant before?	Mammals only start producing milk part way through the pregnancy process (toward the end of it) and for a limited amount of time after giving birth. This can be extended by constant/regular milking to varying degrees of success based on species but even this has a limited duration. Humans being mammals have these same limitations.	[ "These techniques require the mother's commitment over a period of weeks or months. However, even when lactation is established, the supply may not be large enough to breastfeed exclusively. A supportive social environment improves the likelihood of success. As the mother's milk production increases, other feeding can decrease. Parents and other family members should watch the baby's weight gain and urine output to assess nutritional adequacy.\n", "The majority of mothers intend to breastfeed at birth. Many factors can disrupt this intent. Research done in the US shows that information about breastfeeding is rarely provided by a women's obstetricians during their prenatal visits and some health professionals incorrectly believe that commercially prepared formula is nutritionally equivalent to breast milk. Many hospitals have instituted practices that encourage breastfeeding, however a 2012 survey in the US found that 24% of maternity services were still providing supplements of commercial infant formula as a general practice in the first 48 hours after birth. \"The Surgeon General’s Call to Action to Support Breastfeeding\" attempts to educate practitioners. Breastfeeding support leads to increasing the duration and exclusivity of breastfeeding.\n", "Experts attribute high mortality rates and under nutrition amongst infants to the decreasing number of woman who breastfeed. This delay in breastfeeding initiation increases the risk of neonatal mortality. Experts suggest breastfeeding within the first day of birth until the infant is 6-months old. Promotion of breastfeeding during this period could potentially reduce the mortality rates by 16% if infant was breast fed since day one and 22% if the infant was breastfed within the first hour. Rates of breastfeeding initiation vary with ethnicity and socioeconomic situations. Studies suggest that college educated women over their 30 are more likely to initiate breastfeeding in comparison to other women who have different levels of educational attainment.\n", "Many people and even medical professionals mistakenly think that breastfeeding causes the breasts to sag (referred to as \"ptosis\"). As a result, some new parents are reluctant to nurse their infants. In February 2009, Cheryl Cole told British Vogue that she hesitated to breastfeed because of the effect it might have on her breasts. \"I want to breastfeed,\" she said, \"but I’ve seen what it can do, so I may have to reconsider.\" In actuality, breastfeeding is not considered to be a major contributor to ptosis of the breasts. In fact, the biggest factors affecting ptosis are cigarette smoking, a woman's body mass index (BMI), her number of pregnancies, her breast cup size before pregnancy, and age.\n", "Section::::Social factors.:Healthcare.\n\nSection::::Social factors.:Healthcare.:Breast surgery.\n\nBreastfeeding can generally be attempted after breast augmentation or reduction surgery, however prior breast surgery is a risk factor for low milk supply.\n\nA 2014 systemic review found that women who have breast implant surgery were less likely to exclusively breast feed, however it was based on only three small studies and the reasons for the correlation were not clear. \n", "An exclusively breastfed baby depends on breast milk completely so it is important for the mother to maintain a healthy lifestyle, and especially a good diet. Consumption of 1500–1800 calories per day could coincide with a weight loss of 450 grams (one pound) per week. While mothers in famine conditions can produce milk with highly nutritional content, a malnourished mother may produce milk with decreased levels of several micronutrients such as iron, zinc, and vitamin B. She may also have a lower supply than well-fed mothers.\n", "Breastfeeding triplets or larger broods is a challenge given babies' varying appetites. Breasts can respond to the demand and produce larger milk quantities; mothers have breastfed triplets successfully.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Induced lactation.\n\nInduced lactation, also called \"adoptive lactation\", is the process of starting breastfeeding in a woman who did not give birth. This usually requires the adoptive mother to take hormones and other drugs to stimulate breast development and promote milk production. In some cultures, breastfeeding an adoptive child creates milk kinship that built community bonds across class and other hierarchal bonds.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Re-lactation.\n", "Low-income mothers are more likely to have unintended pregnancies. Mothers whose pregnancies are unintended are less likely to breastfeed.\n", "Suckling as proxy indicator of infecundity rather than a direct, hormonal causal factor is supported in studies contrasting the nursing intensity hypothesis, which says that more intense (prolonged, frequent) breastfeeding will result in a longer period of lactational amenorrhea, and the metabolic load model, which posits that maternal energy availability will be the main factor determining postpartum amenorrhea and the timing of the return of ovarian function.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Lactation and energy availability.\n", "Through kinship theory, the occurrence of Prader-Willi Syndrome is theorized to result from the absence of the paternally derived gene, and the only copy is the maternally 'silent' copy. In this case, the child is expected to express behaviors which reduced maternal costs in evolutionary history. In particular, a reduction of infant feeding responses and low appetite over the period of years when the child would near completely rely on breastmilk from its mother would allow mothers to allocate their resources across themselves and multiple offspring. Breastfeeding an infant is estimated to cost around an additional 500 kcals per day, if additional energy is not consumed during lactation, body stores are used making breastfeeding a costly maternal endeavor. Low appetite in early age is followed by a sudden onset of appetite and feeding behaviors around age 2. In traditional subsistence communities, this corresponds with the age that children would be weaned from breastmilk and offered supplementary solid foods. It is likely that these weaning foods were less directly costly to the mother than breastfeeding, either because gathering these food items were less energetically costly for her to gather, or she could rely on social partners to assist her in gathering the food. Therefore, Prader-Willi allows us to see the roles of normally invisible imprinting effects which arose in relation to ancestral parental provisioning conflicts. In typically-developing individuals, the imprinted genes related to Prader-Willi and Angelman Syndrome are balanced in a \"tug-of-war\" designed by natural selection. However, when one of these genes is missing the balance is disrupted and the effects result in the phenotypes seen in these disorders. \n", "Many factors, including maternal, placental, and fetal factors, contribute to the cause of impaired fetal growth. There are a number of maternal factors, which include age, nutritional status, alcohol abuse, smoking, and medical conditions. Insufficient uteroplacental perfusion is an example of a placental factor. Chromosomal abnormalities and genetic diseases are examples of fetal factors.\n\nIdentification of the causes of SGA for individual cases aids health professionals in finding ways to handle each unique case. Nutritional counseling, education, and consistent monitoring can be helpful to assist women bearing SGA infants.\n", "Typically, a fetus develops from the viable zygote, resulting in an embryo. Gestation occurs in the woman's uterus until the fetus (assuming it is carried to term) is sufficiently developed to be born. In humans, gestation is often around 9 months in duration, after which the woman experiences labor and gives birth. This is not always the case, however, as some babies are born prematurely, late, or in the case of stillbirth, do not survive gestation. Usually, once the baby is born, the mother produces milk via the lactation process. The mother's breast milk is the source of antibodies for the infant's immune system, and commonly the sole source of nutrition for newborns before they are able to eat and digest other foods; older infants and toddlers may continue to be breastfed, in combination with other foods, which should be introduced from approximately six months of age.\n", "Besides the quality and frequency of breastfeeding, the nutritional status of mothers affects infant health. When mothers do not receive proper nutrition, it threatens the wellness and potential of their children. Well-nourished women are less likely to experience risks of birth and are more likely to deliver children who will develop well physically and mentally. Maternal undernutrition increases the chances of low-birth weight, which can increase the risk of infections and asphyxia in fetuses, increasing the probability of neonatal deaths. Growth failure during intrauterine conditions, associated with improper mother nutrition, can contribute to lifelong health complications. Approximately 13 million children are born with intrauterine growth restriction annually.\n", "It is widely assumed that if women’s healthcare providers encourage them to breastfeed, those who choose not to will experience more guilt. Evidence does not support this assumption. On the contrary, a study on the effects of prenatal breastfeeding counselling found that those who had received such counselling and chosen to formula-feed denied experiencing feelings of guilt. Women were equally comfortable with their subsequent choices for feeding their infant regardless of whether they had received encouragement to breastfeed.\n", "Most women that do not breastfeed use infant formula, but breast milk donated by volunteers to human milk banks can be obtained by prescription in some countries. In addition, research has shown that women who rely on infant formula could minimize the gap between the level of immunity protection and cognitive abilities a breastfed child benefits from versus the degree to which a bottle-fed child benefits from them. This can be done by supplementing formula-fed infants with bovine milk fat globule membranes (MFGM) meant to mimic the positive effects of the MFGMs which are present in human breast milk.\n", "Children who are born preterm have difficulty in initiating breast feeds immediately after birth. By convention, such children are often fed on expressed breast milk or other supplementary feeds through tubes or bottles until they develop satisfactory ability to suck breast milk. Tube feeding, though commonly used, is not supported by scientific evidence as of October 2016. It has also been reported in the same systematic review that by avoiding bottles and using cups instead to provide supplementary feeds to preterm children, a greater extent of breast feeding for a longer duration can subsequently be achieved.\n", "Other studies have indicated that breast feeding may be particularly important for children born Small for Gestational Age (SGA). A study by Slykerman et al. found that there was no association between breast feeding and higher intelligence in their full sample but that when looking only at SGA babies there was a significant increase in intelligence for those who had been breastfed over those who had not.\n", "Breastfeeding is the recommended method of feeding by all major infant health organizations. If breastfeeding is not possible or desired, bottle feeding is done with expressed breast-milk or with infant formula. Infants are born with a sucking reflex allowing them to extract the milk from the nipples of the breasts or the nipple of the baby bottle, as well as an instinctive behavior known as \"rooting\" with which they seek out the nipple. Sometimes a wet nurse is hired to feed the infant, although this is rare, especially in developed countries.\n", "However, the problem of malnutrition isn't simply solved by a mother choosing to breastfeed her child. Many infants who are breastfed have mothers who are severely undernourished themselves. If a mother doesn't have sufficient nutrients for herself, she is much less likely to have sufficient nutrients in her breast milk. Thus, breast milk from undernourished women is often lacking sufficient quantities of several vital vitamins and minerals like vitamin B6 and folic acid. This lack of nutrients can lead to a nutritional deficiency in the child being breastfed as well.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Additional factors.\n", "Section::::Health effects.:Baby.:Growth.\n\nThe average breastfed baby doubles its birth weight in 5–6 months. By one year, a typical breastfed baby weighs about 2-1/2 times its birth weight. At one year, breastfed babies tend to be leaner than formula-fed babies, which improves long-run health.\n", "It is possible for a mother to continue breastfeeding an older sibling while also breastfeeding a new baby; this is called \"tandem nursing\". During the late stages of pregnancy, the milk changes to colostrum. While some children continue to breastfeed even with this change, others may wean. Most mothers can produce enough milk for tandem nursing, but the new baby should be nursed first for at least the first few days after delivery to ensure that it receives enough colostrum.\n", "Tribal peoples around the world have breastfed many types of animal. Travelers in Guyana observed native women breastfeeding a variety of animals, including monkeys, opossums, pacas, agoutis, peccaries and deer. Native Canadians and Americans often breastfed young dogs; an observer commented that the Pima people of Arizona \"withdrew their breasts sooner from their own infants than from young dogs.\"\n", "Postpartum ovarian function and the return of fecundity depend heavily on maternal energy availability. This is due to the relatively consistent metabolic costs of milk production across populations, which fluctuate slightly but represent a significant cost to the mother. The metabolic load hypothesis states that women with more available energy or caloric/metabolic resources will likely resume ovarian function sooner, because breastfeeding represents a proportionally lower burden on their overall metabolic function. Women with less available energy experience a proportionally higher burden due to breastfeeding and therefore have less surplus metabolic energy to invest in continued reproduction. The metabolic load model is therefore consistent with the nursing intensity hypothesis, in that more intense nursing increases the relative metabolic burden of breastfeeding on the mother. It also takes into account the overall energy supply of the mother in determining whether she has enough caloric/metabolic resources available to her to make reproduction possible. If net energy supply is high enough, a woman will resume ovarian cycling sooner despite still breastfeeding the current infant.\n", "The frequency of breastfeeding varies amongst each mother-infant pair. Contributing factors are the age, weight, maturity, stomach capacity, and gastric emptying of the infant; as well as the storage capacity the mother has of breast milk. Typically, feedings occur eight to twelve times per day for breastfed infants. Early on, infants may not signal when they are hungry, so parents are taught to feed the infant every three hours during the day and every four hours during the night, even if waking the infant is required. The feedings will last 30–40 minutes in the beginning, or 15–20 minutes per breast if breastfeeding. As the infant matures, the feeding times shorten. Feeding often is important to promote normal growth, development, and milk production in mothers who are breastfeeding.\n", "The World Health Organization recommends that if a mother is unable to breastfeed, chooses not to breastfeed, or if her baby (often premature) shows signs that it isn't getting enough breast-milk, a healthy wet nurse or milk from a donor is a healthy alternative to formula. A special formula is manufactured for premature babies, although the World Health Organization recommends it only if breast-milk is medically not an option such as if a premature baby has to be fed formula through a tube to maintain a healthy weight. The World Health Organization advocates the importance of a baby being close to its mother whenever possible even if the mother does not breastfeed.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04848	What happens to submarines during tsunamis?	TL;DR: Not much, generally, when they're out to sea. They will get shoved or moved up and down. But that shoving process is usually slow and the sub doesn't bang into anything, so it survives just fine. A tsunami is a one or more very high-volume waves usually caused by an underground-under-water earthquake. A sudden drop or rise in one part of the sea floor when another part stays at the exact same level causes all of the water directly over the changing part to shift up or down... and when that's cubic MILES of water shifting even just an inch or two, it's a TREMENDOUS amount of energy. But it's not an instant and lethal shockwave like you can sometimes see in an in-air explosion [like this youtube clip]( URL_0 ). Usually the shifts that cause tidal waves come from miles deep in the rock underground, and the release of energy muted by the rock isn't so explosive as a result, kind of like how a distant thunderclap is a rumble rather than a sharp crack. So you get big volumes of water shifting up or down in waves with a very long time between their crests, and since the sub's in the middle of the water, it shifts up or down slowly with those waves too. But that doesn't sound so dangerous. Why do tsunamis destroy so much then? That's the result of when this very long wave interacts with land. The water is now actually contacting something besides more water... and that something - the coast - is fixed in place. So the tsunami causes the water to rise slowly, sure... but rise a LOT. And all that rising gets COMPRESSED at the shore and makes a tremendous wave that can really pile up high depending on local terrain underwater. And then all that water it contains causes it to wash everything it contacts back out to sea. And it's that massive washing-in and then washing-out effect that kills so many and destroys so much. So if the sub were to be very close to the coast, such as if it were heading into dock, it would get sucked in and out with the rest of the debris you see in all that wrecked-village footage... but subs usually stay far out to ocean where the water is so deep that they don't get washed into any rocks or anything.	[ "Section::::Hazards.\n\nThe primary hazards associated with submarine landslides are the direct destruction of infrastructure and tsunami.\n", "The effects of a submarine landslide on infrastructure can be costly and landslide generated tsunami can be both destructive and deadly.\n\nSection::::Prehistoric submarine landslides.\n\nBULLET::::- The Storegga Slide, Norway, ca. , ca. 8,000 years ago, a catastrophic impact on the contemporary coastal Mesolithic population\n\nBULLET::::- The Agulhas slide, ca. , off South Africa, post-Pliocene in age, the largest so far described\n\nBULLET::::- The Ruatoria Debris Avalanche, off North Island New Zealand, ca. 3,000 km³ in volume, 170,000 years ago.\n", "Section::::Decommissioning.\n\nDecommissioning nuclear-powered submarines has become a major task for US and Russian navies. After defuelling, U.S. practice is to cut the reactor section from the vessel for disposal in shallow land burial as low-level waste (see the \"ship-submarine recycling program\"). In Russia, whole vessels, or sealed reactor sections, typically remain stored afloat, although a new facility near Sayda Bay is to provide storage in a concrete-floored facility on land for some submarines in the far north.\n\nSection::::Future designs.\n", "The \"\"Edmund Fitzgerald\"\" episode of the 2010 television series \"Dive Detectives\" features the wave-generating tank of the National Research Council's Institute for Naval Technology in St. John's, and the tank's simulation of the effect of a rogue wave upon a scale model of \"Edmund Fitzgerald\". The simulation indicated such a rogue wave could almost completely submerge the bow or stern of the ship with water, at least temporarily.\n\nSection::::Theories on the cause of sinking.:Cargo-hold flooding theory.\n", "BULLET::::- A Project 670A Charlie I-class sub sank twice, once at sea from flooding during a test dive, then two years later, from flooding at her moorings. Sixteen crew died in the first incident. K-429 was raised after both sinkings, and was decommissioned two years after the second.\n\nSection::::Russia.\n\nBULLET::::- K-141 \"Kursk\": The Oscar II-class sub sank in the Barents Sea on August 12, 2000 after an explosion in the torpedo compartment. See Kursk submarine disaster. All 118 men on board were lost. All except the bow section was salvaged.\n", "The two USN submarines belonged to Submarine Force Atlantic, in the U.S. Atlantic Fleet. All five of the Soviet/Russian nuclear submarines that remain sunken belonged to the Northern Fleet, while the refloated was in the Pacific Fleet.\n", "Today, ships (and other objects of similar size) are sometimes sunk to help form artificial reefs, as was done with the former in 2006. It is also common for military organizations to use old ships as targets, in war games, or for various other experiments. As an example, the decommissioned aircraft carrier was subjected to surface and underwater explosions in 2005 as part of classified research to help design the next generation of carriers (the ), before being sunk with demolition charges.\n", "BULLET::::- On 5 February 1963, the French Navy light cruiser \"Jeanne d'Arc\" encountered a rogue wave while serving as the training ship of the French Naval Academy.\n\nBULLET::::- In 1966, the Italian liner \"Michelangelo\" was steaming toward New York City when a giant wave tore a hole in its superstructure, smashed heavy glass above the waterline, and killed a crewman and two passengers.\n\nBULLET::::- The \"Wilstar\", a Norwegian tanker, suffered structural damage from a rogue wave in 1974.\n", "As with a continental earthquake the severity of the damage is not often caused by the earthquake at the rift zone, but rather by events which are triggered by the earthquake. Where a continental earthquake will cause damage and loss of life on land from fires, damaged structures, and flying objects; a submarine earthquake alters the seabed, resulting in a series of waves, and depending on the length and magnitude of the earthquake, tsunami, which bear down on coastal cities causing property damage and loss of life.\n", "BULLET::::- Left to rust for 14 years after being decommissioned, this Soviet-era November-class submarine sank in the Barents Sea on August 28, 2003, when a storm ripped away the pontoons necessary to keep it afloat under tow. Nine of the 10 salvage men on board were killed.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Nuclear submarine accidents\n\nBULLET::::- List of sunken aircraft carriers\n\nBULLET::::- List of sunken battlecruisers\n\nBULLET::::- List of sunken battleships\n\nBULLET::::- List of military nuclear accidents\n\nBULLET::::- Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents\n\nSection::::References.\n\nSection::::References.:General.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2011 during the filming of \"Whale Wars\" the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society patrol vessel \"MV Brigitte Bardot\" was hit by a rogue wave on her way back to Fremantle. The wave snapped the pontoons requiring the crew to tie the damaged side down with straps. The vessel was escorted back to Fremantle by the \"MY Steve Irwin\" and the MV Shōnan \"Maru 2\" and repaired.\n", "Three were lost with all hands - the two from the United States Navy (129 and 99 lives lost) and one from the Russian Navy (118 lives lost), and these are also the three largest losses of life in a submarine. All sank as a result of accident except for , which was scuttled in the Kara Sea when proper decommissioning was considered too expensive. The Soviet submarine carried nuclear ballistic missiles when it was lost with all hands, but as it was a diesel-electric submarine, it is not included in the list.\n", "List of sunken nuclear submarines\n\nNine nuclear submarines have sunk, either by accident or scuttling. The Soviet Navy has lost five (one of which sank twice), the Russian Navy two, and the United States Navy (USN) two.\n", "The initial archaeological survey taskings have indicated that no scuttling charges have been fired by the crew, nor that there is any obvious battle damage to the hull. The M24 wreck site has retained a significant level of intactness despite being located underwater for 65 years. The hull has suffered some damage from contact with commercial fishing nets.\n\nSection::::Description.:Modifications and dates.\n\nThe date of construction is not known although one of the midgets recovered from the Sydney Harbour raid was reported to have been built in 1942.\n", "BULLET::::- A Project 667A Yankee I-class sub was damaged by a fire in a missile tube and explosion on October 3, 1986. It then sank suddenly while being towed after all surviving crewmen had transferred off. Six crew members were killed. Location: east of Bermuda in the North Atlantic Ocean.\n\nBULLET::::- K-278 \"Komsomolets\": The only Mike-class sub built sank due to a raging fire April 7, 1989. All but five crewmen evacuated before it sank. A total of 42 crew died, many from smoke inhalation and exposure to the cold waters of the Barents Sea, while 27 crew members survived.\n", "The 2001 documentary \"Mission Invisible\" about the Russian submarine \"Severstal\" was produced by Corona Films for Discovery Channel with the participation of ZED, France 5, ZDF, RTBF, TV5 Monde and the Scottish Screen Fund.\n\nIn 2008 National Geographic released a documentary about the scrapping of one of the Typhoons in the series \"Break It Down\". This boat is TK-13, which was scrapped over the time period 2007–2009.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of Soviet and Russian submarine classes\n\nBULLET::::- List of submarine classes in service\n\nBULLET::::- Future of the Russian Navy\n\nBULLET::::- Submarine-launched ballistic missile\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- The Spanish Deepwater Buoys Network, in January 2014, measured a wave height of . The data was taken at the buoy Vilán-Sisargas (Cape Vilan) in Galicia (Spain) during the winter storms, which were particularly severe in Atlantic waters.\n\nBULLET::::- MS \"Marco Polo\" was struck by a rogue wave on the English Channel (February 2014). An 85-year-old man was killed and a woman in her 70s injured.\n\nSection::::Quantifying the impact of rogue waves on ships.\n", "Montgomery-Swan has outlined the generic mechanism of ship failure when encountering a rogue wave:\n\nThe scenario is very simple: the weight of the ship accelerates her down the back slope of the previous wave, the bow sticks into the lower part of the front of the giant incoming wave, and thousands of tons of green water fall onto the fore part of the ship. What happens next depends on the structure of the vessel.\n", "Section::::Power sources.:Stirling engines.\n\nSince the late 1980s, Swedish shipbuilder Kockums has built a number of successful Stirling engine powered submarines. The submarines store compressed oxygen to allow more efficient and cleaner external fuel combustion when submerged, providing heat for the Stirling engine's operation. The engines are currently used on submarines of the and classes. and the Japanese submarine. These are the first submarines to feature Stirling air-independent propulsion (AIP), which extends the underwater endurance from a few days to several weeks.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "In April 2006, the German Navy's \"U-32\" sailed from the Baltic Sea to Rota, Spain in a journey lasting two weeks, covering without surfacing or snorkelling.\n\nThe Italian Navy's S 526 \"Todaro\" was deployed, for over six months in 2008, to the United States for CONUS 2008 exercise with United States Navy.\n\nThe Italian Navy's S 527 \"Scirè\" was deployed, for over five months in 2009, to the U.S. for CONUS 2009 exercise with United States Navy.\n", "Section::::Return to East Coast operations.\n", "In the event of damage to the main electrical distribution system, provision is made for one of the CP generators to be connected directly to one armature of the port motor, to provide some propulsion by alternative circuitry.\n\nSection::::Design and construction.:Regional variations.\n\nBULLET::::- Australia\n\nBULLET::::- Brazil\n\nBULLET::::- Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Chile\n\nSection::::Service.\n\nSection::::Service.:British service.\n", "Section::::Rescue operations.\n", "BULLET::::- On 7 November 1915 at 2:27 a.m., the British battleship suffered severe damage during a storm in the Pentland Firth when two large waves struck her in rapid succession. Water rose as high as the bottom of her lower foretop, filling it with water, sweeping her forward deck clear, smashing her forebridge – much of which was found in pieces on her upper deck – wrecking her chart house, shifting the roof of her conning tower, and flooding her forward main gun turret, mess decks, and flats. Five of her crew died, and 17 others suffered serious injuries.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04618	Why do intense emotional responses leave us feeling distinctly un-hungry/ unable to eat?	IIRC from another post, intense emotion gives a sort of fight-or-flight reaction, putting your energy into vital organs, like heart, lungs, and brain. Digestion takes energy, so the body directs that energy into other more important functions.	[ "Geliebter and Aversa (2003) conducted a study comparing individuals of three weight groups: underweight, normal weight and overweight. Both positive and negative emotions were evaluated. When individuals were experiencing positive emotional states or situations, the underweight group reporting eating more than the other two groups. As an explanation, the typical nature of underweight individuals is to eat less and during times of stress to eat even less. However, when positive emotional states or situations arise, individuals are more likely to indulge themselves with food.\n\nSection::::Impact.\n", "These biological factors can interact with environmental elements to further trigger hyperphagia. Frequent intermittent stressors trigger repeated, sporadic releases of glucocorticoids in intervals too short to allow for a complete return to baseline levels, leading to sustained and elevated levels of appetite. Therefore, those whose lifestyles or careers entail frequent intermittent stressors over prolonged periods of time thus have greater biological incentive to develop patterns of emotional eating, which puts them at risk for long-term adverse health consequences such as weight gain or cardiovascular disease.\n", "Emotional hunger does not originate from the stomach, such as with a rumbling or growling stomach, but tends to start when a person thinks about a craving or wants something specific to eat. Emotional responses are also different. Giving in to a craving or eating because of stress can cause feelings of regret, shame, or guilt, and these responses tend to be associated with emotional hunger. On the other hand, satisfying a physical hunger is giving the body the nutrients or calories it needs to function and is not associated with negative feelings.\n\nSection::::Major theories Behind Eating to Cope.\n", "Section::::In healthcare professionals.:Mental Health Professionals.\n\nMental health professionals are another group that often suffer from compassion fatigue, particularly when they treat those who have suffered extensive trauma. A study on mental health professionals that were providing clinical services to Katrina victims found that rates of negative psychological symptoms increased in the group. Of those interviewed, 72% reported experiencing anxiety, 62% experienced increased suspicion about the world around them, and 42% reported feeling increasingly vulnerable after treating the Katrina victims.\n", "The biological stress response may also contribute to the development of emotional eating tendencies. In a crisis, corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) is secreted by the hypothalamus, suppressing appetite and triggering the release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal gland. These steroid hormones increase appetite and, unlike CRH, remain in the bloodstream for a prolonged period of time, often resulting in hyperphagia. Those who experience this biologically instigated increase in appetite during times of stress are therefore primed to rely on emotional eating as a coping mechanism.\n\nSection::::Contributing factors.\n\nSection::::Contributing factors.:Negative affect.\n", "A study conducted by Bennett et al. found that emotional eating sometimes does not reduce emotional distress but instead enhances emotional distress by sparking feelings of intense guilt after an emotional eating session. Those that eat as a coping strategy are at an especially high risk of developing binge-eating disorder, and those with eating disorders are at a higher risk to engage in emotional eating as a means to cope. In a clinical setting, emotional eating can be assessed by the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire which contains a scale for restrained, emotional and external eating. Other questionnaires such as the Palatable Eating Motives Scale can determine reasons why a person eats tasty foods when they are not hungry; sub-scales include eating for reward enhancement, coping, social, and conformity. \n", "One way to combat emotional eating is to employ mindfulness techniques. For example, approaching cravings with a nonjudgmental inquisitiveness can help differentiate between hunger and emotionally-driven cravings. An individual may ask his or herself if the craving developed rapidly, as emotional eating tends to be triggered spontaneously. An individual may also take the time to note his or her bodily sensations, such as hunger pangs, and coinciding emotions, like guilt or shame, in order to make conscious decisions to avoid emotional eating.\n", "Macht (2008) described a five-way model to explain the reasoning behind stressful eating: (1) emotional control of food choice, (2) emotional suppression of food intake, (3) impairment of cognitive eating controls, (4) eating to regulate emotions, and (5) emotion-congruent modulation of eating. These break down into subgroups of: Coping, reward enhancement, social and conformity motive. Thus, providing an individual with are stronger understanding of personal emotional eating.\n\nSection::::Contributing factors.:Positive Affect.\n", "Section::::Contributing factors.:Biological and environmental factors.\n", "Section::::Contributing factors.:Related disorders.\n", "Social media and compassion fatigue are related by the bridge that media creates between its users and access to information. With all of the resources made available by the online world, most of its users tend to see tragic articles and stories on different social media on a daily basis. After a few hours, the overwhelming amount of information becomes emotionally draining for the human brain. The brain’s natural response is to deny or suppress emotion, or in other words, to shut down compassion. Over time, the ongoing anguish is capable of creating a gap in the brain, and every emotion starts to become heavy and tiring.\n", "Compulsive overeating, or emotional eating, is \"the tendency to eat in response to negative emotions\". Empirical studies have indicated that anxiety leads to decreased food consumption in people with normal weight and increased food consumption in the obese.\n\nMany laboratory studies showed that overweight individuals are more emotionally reactive and are more likely to overeat when distressed than people of normal weight. Furthermore, it was consistently found that obese individuals experience negative emotions more frequently and more intensively than do normal weight persons.\n", "For some people, emotional eating is a learned behavior. During childhood, their parents give them treats to help them deal with a tough day or situation, or as a reward for something good. Over time, the child who reaches for a cookie after getting a bad grade on a test may become an adult who grabs a box of cookies after a rough day at work. In an example such as this, the roots of emotional eating are deep, which can make breaking the habit extremely challenging. In some cases, individuals may eat in order to conform; for example, individuals may be told \"you have to finish your plate\" and the individual may eat past the point in which they feel satisfied.\n", "The stress response is a highly-individualized reaction and personal differences in physiological reactivity may also contribute to the development of emotional eating habits. Women are more likely than men to resort to eating as a coping mechanism for stress, as are obese individuals and those with histories of dietary restraint. In one study, women were exposed to an hour-long social stressor task or a neutral control condition. The women were exposed to each condition on different days. After the tasks, the women were invited to a buffet with both healthy and unhealthy snacks. Those who had high chronic stress levels and a low cortisol reactivity to the acute stress task consumed significantly more calories from chocolate cake than women with low chronic stress levels after both control and stress conditions. High cortisol levels, in combination with high insulin levels, may be responsible for stress-induced eating, as research shows high cortisol reactivity is associated with hyperphagia, an abnormally increased appetite for food, during stress. Furthermore, since glucocorticoids trigger hunger and specifically increase one's appetite for high-fat and high-sugar foods, those whose adrenal glands naturally secrete larger quantities of glucocorticoids in response to a stressor are more inclined toward hyperphagia. Additionally, those whose bodies require more time to clear the bloodstream of excess glucocorticoids are similarly predisposed.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "Emotional eating may qualify as avoidant coping and/or emotion-focused coping. As coping methods that fall under these broad categories focus on temporary reprieve rather than practical resolution of stressors, they can initiate a vicious cycle of maladaptive behavior reinforced by fleeting relief from stress. Additionally, in the presence of high insulin levels characteristic of the recovery phase of the stress-response, glucocorticoids trigger the creation of an enzyme that stores away the nutrients circulating in the bloodstream after an episode of emotional eating as visceral fat, or fat located in the abdominal area. Therefore, those who struggle with emotional eating are at greater risk for abdominal obesity, which is in turn linked to a greater risk for metabolic and cardiovascular disease.\n", "Goleman states that emotions \"make us pay attention right now—this is urgent—and gives us an immediate action plan without having to think twice. The emotional component evolved very early: Do I eat it, or does it eat me?\" The emotional response \"can take over the rest of the brain in a millisecond if threatened.\"\n\nAn amygdala hijack exhibits three signs: strong emotional reaction, sudden onset, and post-episode realization if the reaction was inappropriate.\n", "Emotional eating usually occurs when one is attempting to satisfy his or her hedonic drive, or the drive to eat palatable food to obtain pleasure in the absence of an energy deficit but can also occur when one is seeking food as a reward, eating for social reasons (such as eating at a party), or eating to conform (which involves eating because friends or family wants the individual to). When one is engaging in emotional eating, they are usually seeking out palatable foods (such as sweets) rather than just food in general. In some cases, emotional eating can lead to something called \"mindless eating\" during which the individual is eating without being mindful of what or how much they are consuming; this can occur during both positive and negative settings.\n", "Emotional eating can also be improved by evaluating physical facets like hormone balance. Female hormones, in particular, can alter cravings and even self-perception of one's body. Additionally, emotional eating can be exacerbated by social pressure to be thin. The focus on thinness and dieting in our culture can make young girls, especially, vulnerable to falling into food restriction and subsequent emotional eating behavior.\n\nEmotional eating disorder predisposes individuals to more serious eating disorders and physiological complications. Therefore, combatting disordered eating before such progression takes place has become the focus of many clinical psychologists.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Comfort food\n", "Emotional eating\n\nEmotional eating is defined as the \"propensity to eat in response to positive and negative emotions.\" While the term emotional eating often refers to eating as a means of coping with negative emotions, it also includes eating for positive emotions such as eating foods when celebrating an event or eating to enhance an already good mood. In these situations, emotions are still driving the eating but not in a negative way.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "There are numerous ways in which individuals can reduce emotional distress without engaging in emotional eating as a means to cope. The most salient choice is to minimize maladaptive coping strategies and to maximize adaptive strategies. A study conducted by Corstorphine et al. in 2007 investigated the relationship between distress tolerance and disordered eating. These researchers specifically focused on how different coping strategies impact distress tolerance and disordered eating. They found that individuals who engage in disordered eating often employ emotional avoidance strategies. If an individual is faced with strong negative emotions, they may choose to avoid the situation by distracting themselves through overeating. Discouraging emotional avoidance is thus an important facet to emotional eating treatment. The most obvious way to limit emotional avoidance is to confront the issue through techniques like problem solving. Corstorphine et al. showed that individuals who engaged in problem solving strategies enhance one's ability to tolerate emotional distress. Since emotional distress is correlated to emotional eating, the ability to better manage one's negative affect should allow an individual to cope with a situation without resorting to overeating.\n", "Stress affects food preferences. Numerous studies — granted, many of them in animals — have shown that physical or emotional distress increases the intake of food high in fat, sugar, or both, even in the absence of caloric deficits. Once ingested, fat- and sugar-filled foods seem to have a feedback effect that dampens stress related responses and emotions, as these foods trigger dopamine and opioid releases, which protect against the negative consequences of stress. These foods really are \"comfort\" foods in that they seem to counteract stress, but rat studies demonstrate that intermittent access to and consumption of these highly palatable foods creates symptoms that resemble opioid withdrawal, suggesting that high-fat and high-sugar foods can become neurologically addictive A few examples from the American diet would include: hamburgers, pizza, French fries, sausages and savory pasties. The most common food preferences are in decreasing order from: sweet energy-dense food, non-sweet energy-dense food then, fruits and vegetables. This may contribute to people's stress-induced craving for those foods.\n", "Compassion fatigue has also been called secondary victimization, secondary traumatic stress, vicarious traumatization, and secondary survivor. Other related conditions are rape-related family crisis and \"proximity\" effects on female partners of war veterans. Compassion fatigue has been called a form of burnout in some literature. However, unlike compassion fatigue, “burnout” is related to chronic tedium in careers and the workplace, rather than exposure to specific kinds of client problems such as trauma. fMRI-rt research suggests the idea of compassion without engaging in real-life trauma is not exhausting itself. According to these, when empathy was analyzed with compassion through neuroimaging, empathy showed brain region activations where previously identified to be related to pain whereas compassion showed warped neural activations.\n", "CBTraining contends that in any emotionally dependent relationship, people make emotional decisions rather than rational choices. When an emotionally dependent relationship occurs, it creates a belief-induced emotional state. When someone is in this state, they are incapable of making rational choices for more than a short period of time due to an emotion-driven subconscious process that overrides their conscious mind. This phenomenon explains why an overeater cannot resist having another bite... and another... and another, despite the fact that they are not physically hungry and they know that overeating is unhealthy.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03551	Why do the things that dont orbit in the same direction as the majority, orbit that way?	It could be a captured object, or it could have collided with another object which changed the orbit. Another objects orbit might be involved.	[ "BULLET::::- \"Floating\" objects in a spacecraft in LEO are actually in independent orbits around the Earth. If two objects are placed side-by-side (relative to their direction of motion), they will be orbiting the Earth in different orbital planes. Since all orbital planes pass through the center of the Earth, any two orbital planes intersect along a line. Therefore, two objects placed side-by-side (at any distance apart) will come together after one quarter of a revolution. If they are placed so they miss each other, they will oscillate past each other, with the same period as the orbit. This corresponds to an inward acceleration of 0.128 μ\"g\" per meter horizontal distance from the center at 400 km altitude. If they are placed one ahead of the other in the same orbital plane, they will maintain their separation. If they are placed one above the other (at different radii from the center of the Earth), they will have different potential energies, so the size, eccentricity, and period of their orbits will be different, causing them to move in a complex looping pattern relative to each other.\n", "Classification of any one mechanism is mainly based on the circumstances in the disk that enable the mechanism to efficiently transfer energy and / or angular momentum to and from planetary orbits. As the loss or relocation of material in the disk changes the circumstances, one migration mechanism will give way to another mechanism, or perhaps none. If there is no follow-on mechanism, migration (largely) stops and the stellar system becomes (mostly) stable.\n\nSection::::Types of migration.:Disk migration.\n", "For launch vehicles and artificial satellites, the orbital plane is a defining parameter of an orbit; as in general, it will take a very large amount of propellant to change the orbital plane of an object. Other parameters, such as the orbital period, the eccentricity of the orbit and the phase of the orbit are more easily changed by propulsion systems.\n", "For Hohmann transfer orbits, the initial orbit and the final orbit are 180 degrees apart. Because the transfer orbital plane has to include the central body, such as the Sun, and the initial and final nodes, this can require two 90 degree plane changes to reach and leave the transfer plane. In such cases it is often more efficient to use a \"broken plane maneuver\" where an additional burn is done so that plane change only occurs at the intersection of the initial and final orbital planes, rather than at the ends.\n\nSection::::Inclination entangled with other orbital elements.\n", "When there are more than two gravitating bodies it is referred to as an n-body problem. Most n-body problems have no closed form solution, although some special cases have been formulated.\n\nSection::::Orbital perturbations.:Light radiation and stellar wind.\n\nFor smaller bodies particularly, light and stellar wind can cause significant perturbations to the attitude and direction of motion of the body, and over time can be significant. Of the planetary bodies, the motion of asteroids is particularly affected over large periods when the asteroids are rotating relative to the Sun.\n\nSection::::Strange orbits.\n", "Section::::Features and interactions.:Gravitational interactions.:Perturbation and instability.\n", "BULLET::::- Tube orbit: An orbit near a massive black hole at the center of an axisymmetric galaxy. Similar to a pyramid orbit, except that one component of the orbital angular momentum is conserved; as a result, the eccentricity never reaches unity.\n\nSection::::Special classifications.\n\nBULLET::::- Sun-synchronous orbit: An orbit which combines altitude and inclination in such a way that the satellite passes over any given point of the planets's surface at the same local solar time. Such an orbit can place a satellite in constant sunlight and is useful for imaging, spy, and weather satellites.\n", "Trojan objects orbit 60° ahead of () or behind () a more massive object, both in orbit around an even more massive central object. The best known example are the asteroids that orbit ahead of or behind Jupiter around the Sun. Trojan objects do not orbit exactly at one of either Lagrangian points, but do remain relatively close to it, appearing to slowly orbit it. In technical terms, they librate around formula_3 = (±60°, ±60°). The point around which they librate is the same, irrespective of their mass or orbital eccentricity.\n\nSection::::Trojans.:Trojan minor planets.\n", "A launch is often restricted to certain launch windows. These windows depend upon the position of celestial bodies and orbits relative to the launch site. The biggest influence is often the rotation of the Earth itself. Once launched, orbits are normally located within relatively constant flat planes at a fixed angle to the axis of the Earth, and the Earth rotates within this orbit.\n", "Under the force of gravity, each member of a pair of such objects will orbit their mutual center of mass in an elliptical pattern, unless they are moving fast enough to escape one another entirely, in which case their paths will diverge along other planar conic sections. If one object is very much heavier than the other, it will move far less than the other with reference to the shared center of mass. The mutual center of mass may even be inside the larger object.\n", "A somewhat different, but equivalent, view of the situation may be noted by considering conservation of energy. It is a theorem of classical mechanics that a body moving in a time-independent potential field will have its total energy, \"E = T + V\", conserved, where \"E\" is total energy, \"T\" is kinetic energy (always non-negative) and \"V\" is potential energy, which is negative. It is apparent then, since \"V = -GM/R\" near a gravitating body of mass \"M\" and orbital radius \"R\", that seen from a \"stationary\" frame, V will be increasing for the region behind M, and decreasing for the region in front of it. However, orbits with lower total energy have shorter periods, and so a body moving slowly on the forward side of a planet will lose energy, fall into a shorter-period orbit, and thus slowly move away, or be \"repelled\" from it. Bodies moving slowly on the trailing side of the planet will gain energy, rise to a higher, slower, orbit, and thereby fall behind, similarly repelled. Thus a small body can move back and forth between a leading and a trailing position, never approaching too close to the planet that dominates the region.\n", "BULLET::::- Mean anomaly at epoch (\"M\").\n\nIn principle once the orbital elements are known for a body, its position can be calculated forward and backwards indefinitely in time. However, in practice, orbits are affected or perturbed, by other forces than simple gravity from an assumed point source (see the next section), and thus the orbital elements change over time.\n\nSection::::Orbital perturbations.\n", "Due to orbital mechanics, orbits are in a particular, largely fixed plane around the Earth, which coincides with the center of the Earth, and may be tilted with respect to the equator. The Earth rotates about its axis within this orbit, and the relative motion of the spacecraft and the movement of the Earth's surface determines the position that the spacecraft appears in the sky from the ground, and which parts of the Earth are visible from the spacecraft.\n", "According to the hierarchy model, the directions of the spin vectors should be distributed randomly. In hierarchy model, galaxies were first formed and then they obtained their angular momenta by tidal force while they were gathering gravitationally to form a cluster. Those galaxies grow by subsequent merging of proto-galactic condensations or even by merging of already fully formed galaxies. In this scheme, one could imagine that large irregularities like galaxies grew under the influence of gravities from small imperfections in the early universe.\n", "Section::::Features and interactions.:Atmospheric and magnetic interaction.\n", "BULLET::::- , are in the orbital plane and with in the direction to the pericenter (periapsis). is perpendicular to the plane of the orbit. is mutually perpendicular to and .\n\nThen, the transformation from the , , coordinate frame to the , , frame with the Euler angles , , is:\n\nwhere\n", "BULLET::::- Hyperbolic orbit: An orbit with the eccentricity greater than 1. Such an orbit also has a velocity in excess of the escape velocity and as such, will escape the gravitational pull of the planet and continue to travel infinitely until it is acted upon by another body with sufficient gravitational force.\n\nBULLET::::- Radial orbit: An orbit with zero angular momentum and eccentricity equal to 1. The two objects move directly towards or away from each other in a straight-line.\n", "Conservation is not always a full explanation for the dynamics of a system but is a key constraint. For example, a spinning top is subject to gravitational torque making it lean over and change the angular momentum about the nutation axis, but neglecting friction at the point of spinning contact, it has a conserved angular momentum about its spinning axis, and another about its precession axis. Also, in any planetary system, the planets, star(s), comets, and asteroids can all move in numerous complicated ways, but only so that the angular momentum of the system is conserved.\n", "List of orbits\n\nThe following is a list of types of orbits:\n\nSection::::Centric classifications.\n\nBULLET::::- Galactocentric orbit : An orbit about the center of a galaxy. The Sun follows this type of orbit about the galactic center of the Milky Way.\n\nBULLET::::- Heliocentric orbit: An orbit around the Sun. In the Solar System, all planets, comets, and asteroids are in such orbits, as are many artificial satellites and pieces of space debris. Moons by contrast are not in a heliocentric orbit but rather orbit their parent object.\n", "Orbital decay can occur due to tidal forces for objects below the synchronous orbit for the body they're orbiting. The gravity of the orbiting object raises tidal bulges in the primary, and since below the synchronous orbit the orbiting object is moving faster than the body's surface the bulges lag a short angle behind it. The gravity of the bulges is slightly off of the primary-satellite axis and thus has a component along the satellite's motion. The near bulge slows the object more than the far bulge speeds it up, and as a result the orbit decays. Conversely, the gravity of the satellite on the bulges applies torque on the primary and speeds up its rotation. Artificial satellites are too small to have an appreciable tidal effect on the planets they orbit, but several moons in the Solar System are undergoing orbital decay by this mechanism. Mars' innermost moon Phobos is a prime example, and is expected to either impact Mars' surface or break up into a ring within 50 million years.\n", "For the most efficient example mentioned above, targeting an inclination at apoapsis also changes the argument of periapsis. However, targeting in this manner limits the mission designer to changing the plane only along the line of apsides.\n", "It is often the case that the evolution function can be understood to compose the elements of a group, in which case the group-theoretic orbits of the group action are the same thing as the dynamical orbits.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nBULLET::::- The orbit of an equilibrium point is a constant orbit\n\nSection::::Stability of orbits.\n\nA basic classification of orbits is\n\nBULLET::::- constant orbits or fixed points\n\nBULLET::::- periodic orbits\n\nBULLET::::- non-constant and non-periodic orbits\n\nAn orbit can fail to be closed in two ways. \n", "Opposition (astronomy)\n\nIn positional astronomy, two astronomical objects are said to be in opposition when they are on opposite sides of the celestial sphere, as observed from a given body (usually Earth).\n", "Although the forces balance at these points, the first three points (the ones on the line between a certain large mass, e.g. a star, and a smaller, orbiting mass, e.g. a planet) are not stable equilibrium points. If a spacecraft placed at the Earth–Moon point is given even a slight nudge away from the equilibrium point, the spacecraft's trajectory will diverge away from the point. The entire system is in motion, so the spacecraft will not actually hit the Moon, but will travel in a winding path, off into space. There is, however, a semi-stable orbit around each of these points, called a halo orbit. The orbits for two of the points, and , are stable, but the halo orbits for through are stable only on the order of months.\n", "The time period for a complete orbit is dependent only on the semi-major axis, and is independent of eccentricity:\n\nwhere formula_24 is the standard gravitational parameter of the central body.\n\nThe orientation of the orbit in space is specified by three angles:\n\nBULLET::::- The \"inclination\" \"i\", of the orbital plane with the fundamental plane (this is usually a planet or moon's equatorial plane, or in the case of a solar orbit, the Earth's orbital plane around the Sun, known as the ecliptic.) Positive inclination is northward, while negative inclination is southward.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19960	What would fresh cell therapy do and is it like stem cell therapy?	> Is there any proof that it works? No. There is a lack of evidence and strong reasons to suspect it would be detrimental because, as you expected, those cells would be considered invaders by our immune system. The entire idea of such "therapy" is based on a primative "like cures like" philosophy which motivates other quack cures such as homeopathy. With the information available right now I would consider it yet another potentially harmful folk remedy.	[ "Another stem-cell therapy called Prochymal, was conditionally approved in Canada in 2012 for the management of acute graft-vs-host disease in children who are unresponsive to steroids. It is an allogenic stem therapy based on mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) derived from the bone marrow of adult donors. MSCs are purified from the marrow, cultured and packaged, with up to 10,000 doses derived from a single donor. The doses are stored frozen until needed.\n\nThe FDA has approved five hematopoietic stem-cell products derived from umbilical cord blood, for the treatment of blood and immunological diseases.\n", "Section::::Conditioning regimens.\n\nSection::::Conditioning regimens.:Myeloablative.\n", "Live cell therapy (or fresh cell therapy), developed in the ’30s by Niehans, involves harvesting fresh cells from sheep{New Zealand Black Sheep, is the breed he used]embryo and injecting them directly (intramuscular) into the person’s buttocks. There is no evidence it is useful for any health problem. There have been several instances of severe adverse effects including death.\n", "Section::::Conditioning regimens.:Non-myeloablative.\n", "Because of their gentler conditioning regimens, these transplants are associated with a lower risk of transplant-related mortality and therefore allow patients who are considered too high-risk for conventional allogeneic HSCT to undergo potentially curative therapy for their disease. The optimal conditioning strategy for each disease and recipient has not been fully established, but RIC can be used in elderly patients unfit for myeloablative regimens, for whom a higher risk of cancer relapse may be acceptable.\n\nSection::::Engraftment.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation.\n\nTransplantation of stem cells are taken from the bone marrow, peripheral blood or umbilical cord of healthy, matched donors. Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation (HSCT) involves intravenous infusion of stem cells to those who have either a damaged bone marrow or defective immune system. Transplantation is a simple process. Bone marrow product is infused through a central vein over a period of several hours. The hematopoietic cells are able to go to the bone marrow through tracking mechanisms. Patients who suffer from RD will now have more stem cells that can differentiate into immune cells.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Cytokine Therapy.\n", "Most CAR-T therapies under development as of 2017 involved taking T-cells from the person with cancer and applying gene therapy to those cells to activate them to attack the person's cancer; an autologous cell therapy approach. Cellectis' approach starts with T-cells taken from healthy donors (allogeneic or allograft) and modifying these base cells with gene editing to disable the gene that causes donor immune cells to attack their host (preventing graft vs host disease). The base cells can then be modified the same way other CAR-T therapeutics are.\n", "Gene therapy is a relatively new concept in the field of SCID. This therapy is currently undergoing clinical trial and has cured a small number of children suffering from X-linked SCID and recessive allele SCID. Gene therapy aims to correct the underlying genetic abnormality in SCID. In the case of RD, the genetic abnormality would be AK2 malfunction. Stem cells are taken from an affected child's blood or bone marrow. Then in laboratory conditions the stem cells are manipulated and corrected with gene technology. They are then injected back into the patient. Similarly, in bone transplant, stem cells are able to find their way back through tracking mechanisms.\n", "In England, the NHS will use the drug to treat children with ALL if earlier treatments including stem cell transplants have failed; it is expected to apply to between 15 and 20 children. The drug has been licensed to treat adults with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), but it had not been decided whether the NHS would use it.\n\nIt has undergone a phase 2 clinical study for relapsing/remitting B cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia. \n\nSection::::Manufacture.\n", "Section::::Veterinary medicine.\n", "This program support projects that are developing novel cellular or stem cell related therapeutic approaches to tissue repair and regeneration for specific diseases, possibly including; diabetes, heart disease, septic shock and lung disease\n\nClinical trial research agreements (CT):\n\nThis program is aimed at phase 1 or 2 human clinical trials. Projects must have Health Canada approval and be at the patient recruitment stage. Grants will be awarded for projects that if successful will show the incremental benefit to the patient, as well as an economic analysis of the potential cost of treatment compared to current best available standard of care.\n", "Besides cell therapy in vivo, the culture of human mesenchymal stem cells can be used in vitro for mass-production of exosomes, which are ideal vehicles for drug delivery.\n\nSection::::Induced progenitor stem cells.:Mesenchymal stem cells.:Dedifferentiated adipocytes.\n", "Regenerative medicine is a field of medical research developing treatments to repair or re-grow specific tissue in the body. Because a person’s own (autologous) amniotic stem cells can be safely infused back into that individual without being rejected by the body’s immune system - and because they have unique characteristics compared to other sources of stem cells - they are an increasing focus of regenerative medicine research.\n", "In November 2011 Geron announced it was halting the trial and dropping out of stem cell research for financial reasons, but would continue to monitor existing patients, and was attempting to find a partner that could continue their research. In 2013 BioTime, led by CEO Dr. Michael D. West, acquired all of Geron's stem cell assets, with the stated intention of restarting Geron's embryonic stem cell-based clinical trial for spinal cord injury research.\n", "A different trial is underway for a patch made of a porous substance onto which the stem cells are \"seeded\" in order to induce tissue regeneration in heart defects. Tissue was regenerated and the patch was well incorporated into the heart tissue. This is thought to be due, in part, to improved angiogenesis and reduction of inflammation. Although cardiomyocytes were produced from the mesenchymal stem cells, they did not appear to be contractile. Other treatments that induced a cardiac fate in the cells before transplanting had greater success at creating contractile heart tissue.\n\nSection::::Veterinary medicine.:Muscle repairs.:Nervous system repairs.\n", "Swiss doctor Paul Niehans, who was one of the fathers of cellular therapy, developed in 1931–1949 years the so-called Fresh cell therapy. Fresh cell therapy is mainly the use of live animal embryo organs cells which are injected into the patient with the purpose of achieving a revitalizing effect. These cells are generally extracted from sheep’s fetuses because in comparison to other animals, like pigs, rabbits and cows, sheep are clean animals and rarely contract diseases. Of course animal cells are not able to be included in human tissue, but they can secrete factors for rejuvenating. That's why this rejuvenation technology, despite the harsh criticism is practiced to this day.\n", "BULLET::::- Stem cell transplantation was found feasible in a phase I/II study in 21 patients with relapsing-remitting MS not responsive to interferon beta. It involves collecting some of the patient's own peripheral blood stem cells, giving low-intensity chemotherapy to eliminate auto-reactive lymphocytes, and then reinfusing the stem cells. Earlier studies in the secondary-progressive stage of MS have failed to shown reversal of neurological symptoms.\n\nBULLET::::- Amiselimod, S1P modulator\n", "In 2011 Neovasculgen was registered in Russia as the first-in-class gene-therapy drug for treatment of peripheral artery disease, including critical limb ischemia; it delivers the gene encoding for VEGF. Neovasculogen is a plasmid encoding the CMV promoter and the 165 amino acid form of VEGF.\n\nSection::::History.:2010s.:2012.\n\nThe FDA approved Phase 1 clinical trials on thalassemia major patients in the US for 10 participants in July. The study was expected to continue until 2015.\n", "Section::::Veterinary medicine.:Bone repair.\n", "An additional benefit of the use of deferasirox instead of desferoxamine is that, unlike desferoxamine, early studies have indicated that deferasirox does not have a significant impact on the growth and development of pediatric thalassemia patients. In a study by Cappellini et al. it was shown that children receiving the treatment displayed continual near-normal growth and development over a 5-year study period.\n\nSection::::Medication.:Deferasirox.:Side effects.\n", "Section::::Technology.:Dendritic cells.\n\nNorthwest Biotherapeutics currently has three different DCVax cancer treatments in various levels of clinical trial. All three utilize dendritic cells, one of many types of white blood cells. The basic principle behind the therapy is that if one injects or creates a large enough number of dendritic cells carrying mutant proteins matching a cancer, they excite enough T-cells and B-cells to overwhelm the cancer's defenses.\n\nSection::::Technology.:DCVax-L.\n", "TK cell therapy\n\nTK is an experimental cell therapy which may be used to treat high-risk leukemia. It is currently undergoing a Phase III clinical trial to determine efficacy and clinical usefulness.\n\nTK is currently being investigated in patients suffering from acute leukemia in first or subsequent complete remission and at high risk of relapse or in patients with relapsed disease who are candidates for haploidentical transplantation of hemopoietic stem cells (taken from a partially HLA-compatible family donor).\n\nSection::::Research.\n", "The use of stem cells for treatment has become a growing interest in the scientific community. Distinguishing between an ESC and its intermediate progenitor is nearly impossible, so research is now being done broadly on EPCs. One study showed that brief exposure to sevoflurane promoted growth and proliferation of EPCs. Sevoflurane is used in general anesthesia, but this finding shows the potential to induce endothelial progenitors. Using stem cells for cell replacement therapies is known as \"regenerative medicine\", which is a booming field that is now working on transplanting cells as opposed to bigger tissues or organs.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n", "Granulocyte colony stimulating factor (GCSF) are naturally occurring glycoproteins that stimulate white blood cell proliferation. Filgrastim is a synthetic form of GCSF produced in \"E.coli\". PBSC donors are given a course of GCSF prior to PBSC collection, this ensures a better outcome, as stem cell proliferation increases, thus increasing the number of peripheral stem cells in circulation.\n\nThe course is usually given over a 4-day period prior to PBSC collection. Mild bone pain usually results due to the excessive stem cell crowding within the bone marrow.\n\nSection::::Complications.\n", "Fully mature human red blood cells may be generated \"ex vivo\" by hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), which are precursors of red blood cells. In this process, HSCs are grown together with stromal cells, creating an environment that mimics the conditions of bone marrow, the natural site of red-blood-cell growth. Erythropoietin, a growth factor, is added, coaxing the stem cells to complete terminal differentiation into red blood cells. Further research into this technique should have potential benefits to gene therapy, blood transfusion, and topical medicine.\n\nSection::::Research.:Applications.:Regrowing teeth.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01563	Why does a Bachelor's in Math say it's one of Arts? Isn't math a science?	The "arts" referenced in the "Bachelor of the Arts" (BA) are the "liberal arts", defined as: > academic subjects such as literature, philosophy, mathematics, and social and physical sciences as distinct from professional and technical subjects Basically, all of your academic disciplines, other than business & engineering, fall under the "liberal arts". Many universities have a college of "arts & sciences" that covers them. When talking about "art" (music, painting, etc.), you're looking at a "Bachelor of the Fine Arts" (BFA).	[ "The term has also figured in higher education. For example, by 1889 students at Swarthmore College were sorted into two categories of study: \"Arts and Letters\" or \"Science and Engineering.\" Since 2010, course requirements at the University of Pennsylvania College of Arts and Sciences have included a \"sector\" (category) called \"Arts and Letters.\" The college defines the sector as including \"visual arts, literature and music, together with the criticism surrounding them.\"\n", "The shift in meaning for \"mathema\" is likely a result of the rapid categorization during the time of Plato and Aristotle of their \"mathemata\" in terms of education: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music (the quadrivium), which the Greeks found to create a \"natural grouping\" of mathematical (in the modern usage; \"doctrina mathematica\" in the ancient usage) precepts.\n", "The opinions of mathematicians on this matter are varied. Many mathematicians feel that to call their area a science is to downplay the importance of its aesthetic side, and its history in the traditional seven liberal arts; others feel that to ignore its connection to the sciences is to turn a blind eye to the fact that the interface between mathematics and its applications in science and engineering has driven much development in mathematics. One way this difference of viewpoint plays out is in the philosophical debate as to whether mathematics is \"created\" (as in art) or \"discovered\" (as in science). It is common to see universities divided into sections that include a division of \"Science and Mathematics\", indicating that the fields are seen as being allied but that they do not coincide. In practice, mathematicians are typically grouped with scientists at the gross level but separated at finer levels. This is one of many issues considered in the philosophy of mathematics.\n", "A mathematician, like a painter or poet, is a maker of patterns. If his patterns are more permanent than theirs, it is because they are made with ideas. \n\nMathematics is the art of giving the same name to different things. \n\nMathematics is the science of skillful operations with concepts and rules invented just for this purpose. [this purpose being the skillful operation ...] \n", "\"Mathematics\", first of all known as The Science of numbers which is classified in Arithmetic and Algebra, is classified as a formal science, has both similarities and differences with the empirical sciences (the natural and social sciences). It is similar to empirical sciences in that it involves an objective, careful and systematic study of an area of knowledge; it is different because of its method of verifying its knowledge, using \"a priori\" rather than empirical methods.\n\nSection::::Formal sciences.:Statistics.\n", "While the Ph.D. is the most common doctoral degree in the United States, the U.S. Department of Education and the National Science Foundation recognize numerous research-oriented doctoral degrees such as the D.A. as \"equivalent\", and do not discriminate between them.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Hymns and pantomime, embodied by Polyhymnia\n\nBULLET::::- Dance and chorus, embodied by Terpsichore\n\nBULLET::::- Comedy and idyllic poetry, embodied by Thalia\n\nBULLET::::- Astronomy, embodied by Urania\n\nIn medieval Christian Europe, universities taught a standard set of seven liberal arts, defined by early medieval philosophers such as Boethius and Alcuin of York and as such centered around philosophy. The definitions of these subjects and their practice was heavily based on the educational system of Greece and Rome. These seven arts were themselves split into two categories:\n", "\"Abstract Mathematics\" is what treats of magnitude or quantity, absolutely and generally conferred, without regard to any species of particular magnitude, such as arithmetic and geometry, In this sense, abstract mathematics is opposed to mixed mathematics, wherein simple and abstract properties, and the relations of quantities primitively considered in mathematics, are applied to sensible objects, and by that means become intermixed with physical considerations, such as in hydrostatics, optics, and navigation.\n", "There are many alternative names, of which the most common include College (or School) of\n\nBULLET::::- Arts and Humanities\n\nBULLET::::- Arts and Letters\n\nBULLET::::- Arts and Social Sciences\n\nBULLET::::- Letters\n\nBULLET::::- Letters and Science\n\nBULLET::::- Liberal Arts\n\nBULLET::::- Liberal Arts and Sciences\n", "Another attempt to systematically define art as a grouping of disciplines in antiquity is represented by the ancient Greek Muses. Each of the standard nine Muses symbolized and embodied one of nine branches of what the Greeks called \"techne\", a term which roughly means \"art\" but has also been translated as \"craft\" or \"craftsmanship\", and the definition of the word also included more scientific disciplines. These nine traditional branches were:\n\nBULLET::::- Epic poetry, embodied by Calliope\n\nBULLET::::- History, embodied by Clio\n\nBULLET::::- Music and lyric poetry, embodied by Euterpe\n\nBULLET::::- Love poetry, embodied by Erato\n\nBULLET::::- Tragedy, embodied by Melpomene\n", "The three classical branches of art are painting, sculpture and architecture. Music, theatre, film, dance, and other performing arts, as well as literature and other media such as interactive media, are included in a broader definition of the arts. Until the 17th century, \"art\" referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from crafts or sciences. In modern usage after the 17th century, where aesthetic considerations are paramount, the fine arts are separated and distinguished from acquired skills in general, such as the decorative or applied arts.\n", "Mathematics (disambiguation)\n\nMathematics is the science of reasoning.\n\nMathematics may also refer to:\n\nSection::::Music.\n\nBULLET::::- Mathematics (album), a 1985 album by Melissa Manchester\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mathematics\" (Cherry Ghost song), a song by Cherry Ghost\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mathematics\" (Mos Def song), a song by Mos Def\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mathematics\", a song by Little Boots from \"Hands\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mathematics\", an EP by the band The Servant\n\nSection::::Other uses.\n\nBULLET::::- Mathematics (producer), a hip hop producer\n\nBULLET::::- Microsoft Mathematics, an educational program designed for Microsoft Windows\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mathematics Magazine\", a publication of the Mathematical Association of America\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Math (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Mathematica (disambiguation)\n", "Science and engineering students in colleges and universities may be required to take multivariable calculus, differential equations, and linear algebra. Applied mathematics is also used in specific majors; for example, civil engineers may be required to study fluid mechanics, while \"math for computer science\" might include graph theory, permutation, probability, and proofs. Mathematics students would continue to study potentially any area.\n\nSection::::Standards.\n\nThroughout most of history, standards for mathematics education were set locally, by individual schools or teachers, depending on the levels of achievement that were relevant to, realistic for, and considered socially appropriate for their pupils.\n", "Mathematics and art\n\nMathematics and art are related in a variety of ways. Mathematics has itself been described as an art motivated by beauty. Mathematics can be discerned in arts such as music, dance, painting, architecture, sculpture, and textiles. This article focuses, however, on mathematics in the visual arts.\n", "In the early 2000's some Community colleges in Ontario were granted the ability to grant degrees and the B.A.A was adopted as the degree designation. The B.A.A designation is now used for all Degrees at Community Colleges in Ontario, but the Liberal Arts or Humanities component of the degree is not as strong compared to programs at universities due to funding and the difference in Policies for Colleges and Universities. \n\nNetherlands\n", "The word \"mathematics\" comes from Ancient Greek μάθημα (\"máthēma\"), meaning \"that which is learnt\", \"what one gets to know\", hence also \"study\" and \"science\". The word for \"mathematics\" came to have the narrower and more technical meaning \"mathematical study\" even in Classical times. Its adjective is (\"mathēmatikós\"), meaning \"related to learning\" or \"studious\", which likewise further came to mean \"mathematical\". In particular, (\"mathēmatikḗ tékhnē\"), , meant \"the mathematical art\".\n\nSimilarly, one of the two main schools of thought in Pythagoreanism was known as the \"mathēmatikoi\" (μαθηματικοί)—which at the time meant \"teachers\" rather than \"mathematicians\" in the modern sense.\n", "The power of mathematics lies in economy of expression of ideas, often in service to science. Horatio Burt Williams took note of the effect of this compact form in physics:\n\nIn mathematics \"per se\", the brevity is profound:\n\nWilliams cites Ampère as a scientist that summarized his findings with mathematics:\n\nThe significance of mathematics lies in the logical processes of the mind have been codified by mathematics:\n\nWilliams' essay was a Gibbs Lecture prepared for scientists in general, and he was particularly concerned that biological scientists not be left behind:\n\nSection::::The meanings of mathematics.\n", "There are also closely related disciplines that use science, such as engineering and medicine, which are sometimes described as applied sciences. The relationships between the branches of science are summarized by the following table.\n\nSection::::Branches of science.:Natural science.\n", "In response, Angoff said: \"Well, without mathematics there wouldn't be any engineering, no chemistry, no physics.\" Mencken responded: \"That's true, but it's reasonable mathematics. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, fractions, division, that's what real mathematics is. The rest is baloney. Astrology. Religion. All of our sciences still suffer from their former attachment to religion, and that is why there is so much metaphysics and astrology, the two are the same, in science.\"\n", "There are many examples of a particular idea appearing in different academic disciplines, all of which came about around the same time. One example of this scenario is the shift from the approach of focusing on sensory awareness of the whole, \"an attention to the 'total field, a \"sense of the whole pattern, of form and function as a unity\", an \"integral idea of structure and configuration\". This has happened in art (in the form of cubism), physics, poetry, communication and educational theory. According to Marshall McLuhan, this paradigm shift was due to the passage from the era of mechanization, which brought sequentiality, to the era of the instant speed of electricity, which brought simultaneity.\n", "Schools with separate applied mathematics departments range from Brown University, which has a large Division of Applied Mathematics that offers degrees through the doctorate, to Santa Clara University, which offers only the M.S. in applied mathematics. Research universities dividing their mathematics department into pure and applied sections include MIT. Brigham Young University also has an Applied and Computational Emphasis (ACME), a program that allows student to graduate with a Mathematics degree, with an emphasis in Applied Math. Students in this program also learn another skill (Computer Science, Engineering, Physics, Pure Math, etc.) to supplement their applied math skills.\n", "In the past in Canada a (BAA) Bachelor of Applied Arts was slotted into fields that were both technical and creative in nature, or did not fit any of the traditional curricula of a classic structure of a \"humanities\" style degree. In Canada the term originated with Ryerson University in Ontario and prior to the late 1990's most of the degrees were B.A.A., as opposed to a B.A. Ryerson changed to the traditional degree naming after the end of the 1990's. \n", "BULLET::::- the Trivium, considered the foundation of knowledge, and comprising the three basic elements of philosophy: grammar, logic, and rhetoric;\n\nBULLET::::- and the Quadrivium, comprising music, arithmetic, geometry and astronomy.\n\nAt this time, and continuing after the Renaissance, the word \"art\" in English and its cognates in other languages had not yet attained their modern meaning. One of the first philosophers to discuss art in the framework we understand today was Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, who described in his \"Lectures on Aesthetics\" a ranking of the five major arts from most material to most expressive:\n\nBULLET::::1. architecture\n\nBULLET::::2. sculpture\n", "It follows that, presently, the distinction between pure and applied mathematics is more a philosophical point of view or a mathematician's preference than a rigid subdivision of mathematics. In particular, it is not uncommon that some members of a department of applied mathematics describe themselves as pure mathematicians.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Ancient Greece.\n", "In the Middle Ages, the \"Artes Liberales\" (liberal arts) were taught in universities as part of the Trivium, an introductory curriculum involving grammar, rhetoric, and logic, and of the Quadrivium, a curriculum involving the \"mathematical arts\" of arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. The \"Artes Mechanicae\" (consisting of \"vestiaria –\" tailoring and weaving; \"agricultura\" – agriculture; \"architectura\" – architecture and masonry; \"militia\" and \"venatoria –\" warfare, hunting, military education, and the martial arts; \"mercatura\" – trade; \"coquinaria\" – cooking; and \"metallaria\" – blacksmithing and metallurgy) were practised and developed in guild environments. The modern distinction between \"artistic\" and \"non-artistic\" skills did not develop until the Renaissance. In modern academia, the arts are usually grouped with or as a subset of the humanities. Some subjects in the humanities are history, linguistics, literature, theology, philosophy, and logic.\n" ]	[ "Math is a science, not an art." ]	[ "Math is part of the liberal arts." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Math is a science, not an art." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Math is part of the liberal arts." ]
2018-01950	Newton's Cradle...	In physics, 99% (if not 100%) of the time, the answer to “does it go on forever” is no. Our universe just doesn’t like having things go on forever. Much of the cradle energy is transferred into heat. Some into light. Some even into gravitational wave energy. Eventually it will stop.	[ "Section::::Physics explanation.:Simple solution.\n", "Section::::Physics explanation.:Simple solution.:Other examples of this effect.\n", "Section::::Physics explanation.:Effect of different types of balls.\n", "Section::::Physics explanation.:Heat and friction losses.\n", "Newton's cradle\n\nNewton's cradle is a device that demonstrates conservation of momentum and energy using a series of swinging spheres. When one sphere at the end is lifted and released, it strikes the stationary spheres, transmitting a force through the stationary spheres that pushes the last sphere upward. The last sphere swings back and strikes the still nearly stationary spheres, repeating the effect in the opposite direction. The device is named after 17th-century English scientist Sir Isaac Newton. It is also known as Newton's Balls or Executive Ball Clicker.\n", "Section::::Physics explanation.:Effect of pressure waves.\n", "There is much confusion over the origins of the modern Newton's cradle. Marius J. Morin has been credited as being the first to name and make this popular executive toy. However, in early 1967, an English actor, Simon Prebble, coined the name \"Newton's cradle\" (now used generically) for the wooden version manufactured by his company, Scientific Demonstrations Ltd. After some initial resistance from retailers, they were first sold by Harrods of London, thus creating the start of an enduring market for executive toys. Later a very successful chrome design for the Carnaby Street store Gear was created by the sculptor and future film director Richard Loncraine.\n", "A typical Newton's cradle consists of a series of identically sized metal balls suspended in a metal frame so that they are just touching each other at rest. Each ball is attached to the frame by two wires of equal length angled away from each other. This restricts the pendulums' movements to the same plane.\n\nSection::::Operation.\n", "The cradle device with the largest diameter collision balls on public display was visible for more than a year in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, at the retail store American Science and Surplus (see photo). Each ball was an inflatable exercise ball in diameter (encased in steel rings), and was supported from the ceiling using extremely strong magnets. It was dismantled in early August 2010 due to maintenance concerns.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n", "In 2017, an episode of the \"Omnibus\" podcast, featuring \"Jeopardy!\" champion Ken Jennings and musician John Roderick, focused on the history of Newton's Cradle. Newton's cradle is also featured on the desk of Deputy White House Communications Director Sam Seaborn in \"The West Wing\".\n\nRock band Jefferson Airplane used the cradle on the 1968 album \"Crown of Creation\" as a rhythm device to create polyrhythms on an instrumental track.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Galilean cannon\n\nSection::::Literature.\n\nBULLET::::- B. Brogliato: \"Nonsmooth Mechanics. Models, Dynamics and Control\", Springer, 2nd Edition, 1999.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Further explanation\n", "Newton's cradle has been used more than 20 times in movies, often as a trope on the desk of a lead villain such as Paul Newman's role in \"The Hudsucker Proxy\", Magneto in \"X-Men\", and the Kryptonians in \"Superman II\". It was used to represent the unyielding position of the NFL towards head injuries in \"Concussion\". It has also been used as a relaxing diversion on the desk of lead intelligent/anxious/sensitive characters such as Henry Winkler's role in \"Night Shift\", Dustin Hoffman's role in \"Straw Dogs\", and Gwyneth Paltrow's role in \"Iron Man 2\". It was featured more prominently as a series of clay pots in \"Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead\", and as a row of 1968 Eero Aarnio bubble chairs with scantily-clad women in them in \"Gamer\". In \"Storks\", Hunter the CEO of Cornerstore has one not with balls, but with little birds.\n", "BULLET::::- Newton's cradle, a device that demonstrates conservation of momentum and energy via a series of swinging spheres\n\nBULLET::::- Rocker box, also known as a cradle used in mining to separate gold from alluvium\n\nBULLET::::- Suspended cradle, a platform for accessing the exterior of buildings, used by among others window cleaners\n\nSection::::A metaphor for humanity's origins.\n\nBULLET::::- Cradle of Humankind, a World Heritage Site near Johannesburg in South Africa, where many early hominid remains were discovered\n\nBULLET::::- Cradle of civilization, any of the various regions regarded as the earliest centers of civilization\n\nBULLET::::- Cradle of Liberty (disambiguation)\n\nSection::::Geography.\n", "Christiaan Huygens used pendulums to study collisions. His work, \"De Motu Corporum ex Percussione\" (On the Motion of Bodies by Collision) published posthumously in 1703, contains a version of Newton's first law and discusses the collision of suspended bodies including two bodies of equal mass with the motion of the moving body being transferred to the one at rest.\n\nThe principle demonstrated by the device, the law of impacts between bodies, was first demonstrated by the French physicist Abbé Mariotte in the 17th century. Newton acknowledged Mariotte's work, among that of others, in his \"Principia\".\n", "Section::::Applications.\n\nThe most common application is that of a desktop executive toy. Another use is as an educational physics demonstration, as an example of conservation of momentum and conservation of energy.\n\nA similar principle, the propagation of waves in solids, was used in the Constantinesco Synchronization gear system for propeller / gun synchronizers on early fighter aircraft.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The differential equations with the initial separations are needed if there is less than 10 µm separation (less than a width of a human hair) when using 100-gram steel balls with an initial 1 m/s strike speed.\n", "The largest cradle device in the world was designed by \"MythBusters\" and consisted of five one-ton concrete and steel rebar-filled buoys suspended from a steel truss. The buoys also had a steel plate inserted in between their two halves to act as a \"contact point\" for transferring the energy; this cradle device did not function well because concrete is not elastic so most of the energy was lost to a heat buildup in the concrete. A smaller scale version constructed by them consists of five chrome steel ball bearings, each weighing , and is nearly as efficient as a desktop model.\n", "Section::::Physics explanation.\n\nNewton's cradle can be modeled with simple physics and minor errors if you incorrectly assume the balls always collide in pairs. If one ball strikes four stationary balls that are already touching, the simplification can't explain the resulting movements in all five balls, which are not due to friction losses. For example, in a real Newton's cradle the fourth has some movement and the first ball has a slight reverse movement. All the animations in this article show idealized action (simple solution) that only occurs if the balls are not touching initially and only collide in pairs.\n", "Even when there is a small initial separation, a third ball may become involved in the collision if the initial separation is not large enough. When this occurs, the complete solution method described below must be used.\n", "Cradle\n\nCradle may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Cradle (bed)\n\nBULLET::::- Bassinet, a small bed, often on rockers, in which babies and small children sleep\n\nSection::::Mechanical devices.\n\nBULLET::::- Cradle (circus act), or aerial cradle or casting cradle used in an aerial circus act\n\nBULLET::::- Cradling (paintings), an art restoration technique to stabilise a painting on panel\n\nBULLET::::- Docking station, also known as a cradle for the connection of a mobile device\n\nBULLET::::- Ship cradle, for supporting a ship when dry docked\n\nBULLET::::- Grain cradle, an addition to the agricultural scythe to keep the grain stems aligned when mowing\n", "A cradle that best follows the simple solution needs to have an initial separation between the balls that are at least twice the distance that the surface of balls compresses, but most do not. This section describes the action when the initial separation is not enough and in subsequent collisions that involve more than 2 balls even when there is an initial separation. This solution simplifies to the simple solution when only 2 balls touch during a collision. It applies to all perfectly elastic identical balls that have no energy losses due to friction and can be approximated by materials such as steel, glass, plastic, and rubber.\n", "Steel does not compress much, but its elasticity is very efficient, so it does not cause much waste heat. The simple effect from two same-weight efficiently elastic colliding objects constrained to a straight path is the basis of the interesting effect seen in the cradle and gives an approximate solution to all its activities.\n", "Section::::Introduction.:Economics.\n", "For a sequence of same-weight elastic objects constrained to a straight path, the effect continues to each successive object. For example, when two balls are dropped to strike three stationary balls in a cradle, there is an unnoticed but crucial small distance between the two dropped balls, and the action is as follows: The first moving ball that strikes the first stationary ball (the second ball striking the third ball) transfers all its velocity to the third ball and stops. The third ball then transfers the velocity to the fourth ball and stops, and then the fourth to the fifth ball. Right behind this sequence is the first ball transferring its velocity to the second ball that just stopped, and the sequence repeats immediately and imperceptibly behind the first sequence, ejecting the fourth ball right behind the fifth ball with the same small separation that was between the two initial striking balls. If they are simply touching when they strike the third ball, precision requires the more complete solution below.\n", "Section::::Play.\n", "Cradle (bed)\n\nA cradle is an infant bed which rocks but is non-mobile. It is distinct from a typical bassinet which is a basket-like container on free-standing legs with wheels. A carbonized cradle was found in the remains of Herculaneum left from the destruction of the city by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01185	How does Drano work? Drain cleaners that unclog sinks and bathtubs.	Drano and many other such cleaners are basically lye which will dissolve oils and biological tissue, clearing clogs and allowing the remainder to go down the pipes. As you suspected it is a little of both.	[ "Drano\n\nDrano (styled as Drāno) is a drain cleaner product manufactured by S. C. Johnson & Son. \n\nSection::::Crystal Drano.\n\nAccording to the National Institutes of Health's Household Products Database, the crystal form is composed of:\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium hydroxide (lye), NaOH\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium nitrate, NaNO\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium chloride (salt), NaCl\n\nBULLET::::- Aluminium shards, Al\n\nAfter Drano crystals are added to water, the reaction works as follows:\n", "Advantages of hydro-mechanical drain cleaners are their eco-friendliness (most use only tap water), their ability to dislodge and remove clogs like sand or cat litter that 'back-fill when using a conventional snake, and their friendliness to plumbing joints. Unlike air-burst cleaners, hydro-mechanical drain cleaners do not pressurize plumbing joints. On some models of hydro-mechanical drain cleaner both hot and cold water can be used, providing added cleaning power for fat, protein, or other easily melting drain clogs.\n", "The D series vacuum cleaner is an instant success with GHI. Red Dot Award and other organisations approving this model for its excellent new filtration design and usage. SEBO also add the ET-1 power head option and handle remote control with the white D4 model called the \"D4 Premium\", and in late 2011, a commercial version known as the \"Professional D\" is also launched with an pigtail interchangeable industry manual cord, low eco friendly 1200 watt motor and a design specifically catered for the commercial market.\n", "Liquid Drano was introduced in response to Clorox's purchase of Liquid-Plumr in 1969. Originally, it was simply a liquid lye (sodium hydroxide). In the late 1970s, the product was reformulated as a combination of liquid lye and sodium hypochlorite. Sodium hypochlorite is used in low (5%) concentration as laundry bleach and in higher concentrations as a swimming pool disinfectant.\n\nLiquid Drano is marketed in several forms, including Drano Liquid Clog Remover, Drano Max Build-Up Remover, and Drano Dual-Force Foamer Clog Remover. All are variations on the basic Liquid Drano formula.\n\nSection::::Other Drano products.:Drano Foamer.\n", "BULLET::::- Chemical drain cleaners, plungers, handheld drain augers, air burst drain cleaners, and home remedy drain cleaners are typically applied to the problem of a clogged single drain, such as a sink, toilet, tub, or shower drain. An effective drain cleaner can remove soft obstructions (such as hair and grease) accumulating near the fixture's drain inlet.\n", "Some other vacuum cleaners include an electric mop in the same machine: for a dry and a later wet clean.\n\nThe iRobot company developed the Scooba, a robotic wet vacuum cleaner that carries its own cleaning solution, applies it and scrubs the floor, and vacuums the dirty water into a collection tank.\n\nSection::::Technology.\n", "BULLET::::- If more than one plumbing fixture is clogged then electric drain cleaners, battery powered drain cleaners, sewer jetters or such mechanical devices are usually required to clear obstructions along the entire length of the drain piping system, that is, from fixture drain inlets through the main building drains and lateral piping outside the building to the collector sewer mains.\n\nEach type of drain cleaner has advantages, disadvantages, and safety considerations as described below.\n\nSection::::Chemical drain cleaners.\n", "Air burst drain cleaners use accelerated carbon dioxide, air or other gas to rupture the clog membrane. Accelerated gas creates a force on standing water that can dislodge clogs that accumulate close to drain openings.\n\nAdvantages of air burst drain cleaners include the potential to immediately clear clogs and slow-running drains, in contrast to chemical cleaners that can take more time to work. Air burst cleaners can dislodge obstructions that are further away from drain openings than can a plunger, and in contrast to a drain augers do not risk scratching the ceramic surfaces of sinks, bathtubs and toilets.\n", "Electric drain cleaners, also called plumber's snakes, use the mechanical force of an electric motor to twist a flexible cable or spring in a clockwise direction and drive it into a pipe. Electric drain cleaners are commonly available with cable lengths of up to and can go as far as \n", "Sewer jetting is the process of shooting high powered streams of water through the drain, down into the sewer in order to blast away any debris blocking the passage of water. This is more effective than using a snake, blades, or even drain rods because, first the water is shot at such a high intensity that the force isn't even comparable to manual labour, secondly the water is much more capable of bending around curved or angular pipes to reach all the tight spots.\n", "Produces a continuous flow of approximately 3 gallons of aqueous ozone per minute which is then easily transferred for use in mop buckets, floor cleaners and auto scrubbers. It provides residue-free performance for a longer-lasting clean and low slip/fall hazard on even the smoothest floors\n\nBULLET::::- Dryer Jack\n\nThe Tersano Dryer Jack separates items being dried causing them to tumble to the centre of the drum sooner in the drying cycle.\n", "Scrubbing Bubbles\n\nScrubbing Bubbles is the brand name of a bathroom cleaner produced by S. C. Johnson & Son. The product was originally named Dow Bathroom Cleaner after the Dow Chemical Company, its manufacturer at the time. After some consumer product lines were sold to S.C. Johnson in 1997, the product had to be rebranded and took the name of the product's longtime \"Scrubbing Bubbles\" mascots (smiling anthropomorphic soap bubbles with brush bristles on their undersides creating lots of suds).\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Deepin comes with an installer named “Deepin Installer” that was created by Deepin Technology. The Installer was praised by Swapnil Bhartiya writing for \"linux.com\" as having \"the simplest installation procedure\" that was also \"quite pleasant.\" Writing for Forbes, Jason Evangelho complained about the installer requiring the user to select their location from a world map, though concluded by saying, \"Aside from my little time zone selection pet peeve, the installer is beautiful, brisk and very intuitive.\"\n\nSection::::DDE.\n", "In addition, the fluid bed simultaneously removes particulates down to very fine sub half micron diameters. System design varies from application to application as process operations, or pollution control needs, vary widely.\n\nSection::::Quenching.\n", "Enzymatic drain cleaners contain bacteria cultures and concentrated enzymes that react with organic residue that builds up on sewer pipes, dissolving the residue to help prevent slow-running drains. Most enzymatic drain cleaners are intended for general maintenance to maintain proper flow and are not intended to clear fully clogged drain pipes.\n\nAdvantages of enzymatic drain cleaners include relative safety for use in a wide range of plumbing fixtures, low environmental impact, low cost and ease of use.\n", "The treatment processes that can be used are in principle the same as those used for sewage treatment, except that they are usually installed on a smaller scale (decentralized level), often at household or building level:\n\nBULLET::::- Biological systems such as constructed wetlands or living walls and bioreactors or more compact systems such as membrane bioreactors which are a variation of the activated sludge process and is also used to treat sewage.\n\nBULLET::::- Mechanical systems (sand filtration, lava filter systems and systems based on UV radiation)\n", "Scooba 5900 was the first Scooba, it could be used with the Scooba Cleaning Solution, or other suitably conductive solutions, but was discontinued in favor of the Scooba 5800 version (basic floor washing model) which could also use plain water in its cleaning tank. iRobot shed several of the 5900's premium features to produce the lower-priced 5800 model. There were no changes to the basic floor cleaning machinery.\n\nThe Scooba 5800 could clean about per battery charge.\n\nSection::::Models.:Scooba 200 series.\n", "Portable sewer jetters and pressure washer sewer jetter attachments are primarily used by service personnel and homeowners to remove soft obstructions throughout the length of a building's sewer drain and to prevent the recurrence of clogs by cleaning the sides of drain pipes and flushing out residue. Pressure washer sewer jetter attachments are generally lower in cost and weight than electric drain cleaners with an equivalent reach, and can present a lower risk of scratching plumbing fixtures.\n", "Disadvantages of air burst drain cleaners include a limited cleaning range in pipes that do not contain standing water and, in general, ineffectiveness for unclogging blocked main sewer drains.\n\nSafety considerations for air burst drain cleaners include a requirement to wear eye protection and, when using an air burst cleaner that uses compressed gas cartridges, careful handling of unused cartridges.\n\nSection::::Home remedy drain cleaners.\n\nHome remedy drain cleaners include boiling water poured into drain openings to clear soap and hair clogs; or, baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) poured into a drain, followed by vinegar.\n", "Comodo System Utilities\n\nComodo System Utilities, also marketed as Comodo PC TuneUp, is a software suite by the Comodo Group, a software company known for Internet and network security software. .\n\nSection::::Overview.\n\nComodo System Utilities combines three cleaning utilities: Registry Cleaner, Disk Cleaner, and Privacy Cleaner. It includes the following programs: \n\nBULLET::::- Windows registry cleaner: Identifies, removes or repairs any corrupted entries or files\n\nBULLET::::- Disk cleaner: Frees up disk space and improve performance\n\nBULLET::::- Privacy cleaner: Deletes cookies, cache and history\n\nBULLET::::- SafeDelete: A trademarked product that deletes files that are determined to be safe to delete.\n", "Cleaning types usually include auto mode for general cleaning, scheduled mode, turbo (maximum clean), edge clean for skirting boards and corners, area cleaning mode for cleaning designated areas, spot or spiral mode for spot cleaning a particular zone, and remote mode, allowing the user to steer the robot to a particularly dirty spot.\n\nSection::::Main features.:Wet mopping.\n\nSome models can also mop for wet cleaning, autonomously vacuuming and wet-mopping a floor in one pass (sweep and mop combo).\n\nThe water could creep to the mop gradually, does the mopping as the human beings.\n", "About 50 Drackett salesmen carried glass plumbing around so they could do dramatic demonstrations of Drāno's action in department stores and in home shows.\n\nDrāno also contains salt which has been dyed. It does little to open drains, but is added for psychological appeal.\n\nSection::::History of Drāno.\n", "Section::::Inventor.\n\nIn 1991, he and his colleague Melanie Chartoff conceived the Grayway Rotating Drain, a graywater recycling device for reuse of shower and sink water in the home. The following year, they finished and patented the product with the help of Ronald K. Ford.\n\nSection::::Personal life.\n", "In the late 1990s and early 2000s, several companies developed robotic vacuum cleaners, a form of carpet sweeper usually equipped with limited suction power. Some prominent brands are Roomba, Neato, and bObsweep. These machines move autonomously while collecting surface dust and debris into a dustbin. They can usually navigate around furniture and come back to a docking station to charge their batteries, and a few are able to empty their dust containers into the dock as well. Most models are equipped with motorized brushes and a vacuum motor to collect dust and debris. While most robotic vacuum cleaners are designed for home use, some models are appropriate for operation in offices, hotels, hospitals, etc.\n", "Bambino Mio was founded in 1997 by husband and wife Guy and Jo Schanschieff, after noting similar businesses in New York and Australia. The couple set up a reusable nappy laundry service from their home in Northampton, UK, and started to sell reusable nappies (Cloth diapers) and associated products directly to parents through mail order under the name Bambino Mio.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-15714	Why does root mean squared not equal 0?	Because when you square positive numbers you get something > 0, and when you square negative numbers you also get something > 0. Average a bunch of these together, you're going to see a positive average.	[ "Subtleties can occur when taking the \"n\"th roots of negative or complex numbers. For instance:\n\nSince the rule formula_43 strictly holds for non-negative real radicands only, its application leads to the inequality in the first step above.\n\nSection::::Simplified form of a radical expression.\n\nA non-nested radical expression is said to be in simplified form if\n\nBULLET::::1. There is no factor of the radicand that can be written as a power greater than or equal to the index.\n\nBULLET::::2. There are no fractions under the radical sign.\n\nBULLET::::3. There are no radicals in the denominator.\n", "Since \"I\" is a positive constant:\n\nUsing a trigonometric identity to eliminate squaring of trig function:\n\nbut since the interval is a whole number of complete cycles (per definition of RMS), the sin terms will cancel out, leaving:\n\nA similar analysis leads to the analogous equation for sinusoidal voltage:\n\nWhere \"I\" represents the peak current and \"V\" represents the peak voltage.\n", "Electrical engineers often need to know the power, \"P\", dissipated by an electrical resistance, \"R\". It is easy to do the calculation when there is a constant current, \"I\", through the resistance. For a load of \"R\" ohms, power is defined simply as:\n", "From this it is clear that the RMS value is always greater than or equal to the average, in that the RMS includes the \"error\" / square deviation as well.\n\nPhysical scientists often use the term \"root mean square\" as a synonym for standard deviation when it can be assumed the input signal has zero mean, i.e., referring to the square root of the mean squared deviation of a signal from a given baseline or fit.\n", "When two data sets—one set from theoretical prediction and the other from actual measurement of some physical variable, for instance—are compared, the RMS of the pairwise differences of the two data sets can serve as a measure how far on average the error is from 0. The mean of the pairwise differences does not measure the variability of the difference, and the variability as indicated by the standard deviation is around the mean instead of 0. Therefore, the RMS of the differences is a meaningful measure of the error.\n\nSection::::In frequency domain.\n", "The above figure uses capital pi notation to show a series of multiplications. Each side of the equal sign shows that a set of values is multiplied in succession (the number of values is represented by \"n\") to give a total product of the set, and then the \"n\"th root of the total product is taken to give the geometric mean of the original set. For example, in a set of four numbers formula_13, the product of formula_14 is formula_15, and the geometric mean is the fourth root of 24, or ~ 2.213. The exponent formula_16 on the left side is equivalent to the taking \"n\"th root. For example, formula_17.\n", "Waveforms made by summing known simple waveforms have an RMS that is the root of the sum of squares of the component RMS values, if the component waveforms are orthogonal (that is, if the average of the product of one simple waveform with another is zero for all pairs other than a waveform times itself).\n\nwhere formula_9 refers to the direct current, or average, component of the signal and formula_10 is the alternating current component of the signal.\n\nSection::::In common waveforms.:In waveform combinations.:Average electrical power.\n", "BULLET::::- Secondly, in this situation, 0° (equivalently, 360°) is geometrically a better \"average\" value: there is lower dispersion about it (the points are both 1° from it, and 179° from 180°, the putative average).\n", "BULLET::::- formula_2, since a ground term of height up to \"h\"+1 can be obtained by composing any \"i\" ground terms of height up to \"h\", using an \"i\"-ary root function symbol. The sum has a finite value if there is only a finite number of constants and function symbols, which is usually the case.\n\nSection::::Formal definition.:Building formulas from terms.\n", "If a root of the process's characteristic equation is larger than 1, then it is called an explosive process, even though such processes are sometimes inaccurately called unit roots processes.\n\nThe presence of a unit root can be tested using a unit root test.\n\nSection::::Definition.\n\nConsider a discrete-time stochastic process formula_1, and suppose that it can be written as an autoregressive process of order \"p\":\n\nHere, formula_3 is a serially uncorrelated, zero-mean stochastic process with constant variance formula_4. For convenience, assume formula_5. If formula_6 is a root of the characteristic equation:\n", "where \"R\" represents the ideal gas constant, 8.314 J/(mol·K), \"T\" is the temperature of the gas in kelvins, and \"M\" is the molar mass of the gas in kilograms per mole. The generally accepted terminology for speed as compared to velocity is that the former is the scalar magnitude of the latter. Therefore, although the average speed is between zero and the RMS speed, the average velocity for a stationary gas is zero.\n\nSection::::In common waveforms.:Error.\n", "Kac, Erdös and others and other have shown that these results are insensitive to the distribution of the coefficients, if they are independent and have the same distribution with mean zero. However, if the variance of the th coefficient equal to formula_70 the expected number of real roots is formula_71\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Descartes' rule of signs\n\nBULLET::::- Marden's theorem\n\nBULLET::::- Newton's identities\n\nBULLET::::- Quadratic function#Upper bound on the magnitude of the roots\n\nBULLET::::- Real-root isolation\n\nBULLET::::- Root-finding algorithm#Roots of polynomials\n\nBULLET::::- Square-free polynomial\n\nBULLET::::- Vieta's formulas\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- .\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Taking \"q\"th powers of the \"x\", we are done for the inequality with positive \"q\"; the case for negatives is identical.\n\nSection::::Proof of power means inequality.:Inequality between any two power means.\n\nWe are to prove that for any \"p\" \"q\" the following inequality holds:\n\nif \"p\" is negative, and \"q\" is positive, the inequality is equivalent to the one proved above:\n\nThe proof for positive \"p\" and \"q\" is as follows: Define the following function: \"f\" : R → R formula_19. \"f\" is a power function, so it does have a second derivative:\n", "To estimate the slope coefficients, one should first conduct a unit root test, whose null hypothesis is that a unit root is present. If that hypothesis is rejected, one can use OLS. However, if the presence of a unit root is not rejected, then one should apply the difference operator to the series. If another unit root test shows the differenced time series to be stationary, OLS can then be applied to this series to estimate the slope coefficients.\n\nFor example, in the AR(1) case, formula_20 is stationary.\n", "RMS quantities such as electric current are usually calculated over one cycle. However, for some purposes the RMS current over a longer period is required when calculating transmission power losses. The same principle applies, and (for example) a current of 10 amps used for 12 hours each day represents an RMS current of 5 amps in the long term.\n", "Average power can also be found using the same method that in the case of a time-varying voltage, \"V\"(\"t\"), with RMS value \"V\",\n\nThis equation can be used for any periodic waveform, such as a sinusoidal or sawtooth waveform, allowing us to calculate the mean power delivered into a specified load.\n\nBy taking the square root of both these equations and multiplying them together, the power is found to be:\n", "However, if the current is a time-varying function, \"I\"(\"t\"), this formula must be extended to reflect the fact that the current (and thus the instantaneous power) is varying over time. If the function is periodic (such as household AC power), it is still meaningful to discuss the \"average\" power dissipated over time, which is calculated by taking the average power dissipation:\n\nSo, the RMS value, \"I\", of the function \"I\"(\"t\") is the constant current that yields the same power dissipation as the time-averaged power dissipation of the current \"I\"(\"t\").\n", "BULLET::::- formula_12 has three cube roots: formula_13, formula_14 and formula_15 with arguments formula_16 respectively. Of these, formula_14 has the least argument and hence in some contexts is considered the principal cube root, while in other contexts formula_13 is said to be the principal cube root because it is the only real one.\n\nBULLET::::- formula_19 has four fourth roots: formula_20 and formula_21, having arguments formula_22 and formula_23 respectively. So formula_24 is always considered the unique principal fourth root, because it is a positive real, which necessarily has the least argument possible: formula_25.\n", "We will prove weighted power means inequality, for the purpose of the proof we will assume the following without loss of generality:\n\nProof for unweighted power means is easily obtained by substituting \"w\" = 1/\"n\".\n\nSection::::Proof of power means inequality.:Equivalence of inequalities between means of opposite signs.\n\nSuppose an average between power means with exponents \"p\" and \"q\" holds:\n\napplying this, then:\n\nWe raise both sides to the power of −1 (strictly decreasing function in positive reals):\n", "BULLET::::- formula_5 is the stationary error process.\n\nThe task of the test is to determine whether the stochastic component contains a unit root or is stationary.\n\nSection::::Main tests.\n", "We get the inequality for means with exponents −\"p\" and −\"q\", and we can use the same reasoning backwards, thus proving the inequalities to be equivalent, which will be used in some of the later proofs.\n\nSection::::Proof of power means inequality.:Geometric mean.\n\nFor any \"q\" 0 and non-negative weights summing to 1, the following inequality holds:\n\nThe proof follows from Jensen's inequality, making use of the fact the logarithm is concave:\n\nBy applying the exponential function to both sides and observing that as a strictly increasing function it preserves the sign of the inequality, we get\n", "Any non-zero number considered as a complex number has \"n\" different \"complex roots of degree \"n\"\" (\"n\"th roots), including those with zero imaginary part, i.e. any real roots. The root of \"0\" is zero for all degrees \"n\", since . In particular, if \"n\" is even and \"x\" is a positive real number, one of its \"n\"th roots is positive, one is negative, and the rest (when \"n\" 2) are complex but not real; if \"n\" is even and \"x\" is a negative real, none of the \"n\"th roots is real. If \"n\" is odd and \"x\" is real, one \"n\"th root is real and has the same sign as \"x\", while the other (\"n\" − 1) roots are not real. Finally, if \"x\" is not real, then none of its \"n\"th roots is real.\n", "for all positive real numbers , and . Suppose we wish to find the minimal value of this function. First we rewrite it a bit:\n\nwith\n\nApplying the AM–GM inequality for , we get\n\nFurther, we know that the two sides are equal exactly when all the terms of the mean are equal:\n\nAll the points satisfying these conditions lie on a half-line starting at the origin and are given by\n\nSection::::Practical applications.\n", "An unresolved root, especially one using the radical symbol, is sometimes referred to as a \"surd\" or a \"radical\". Any expression containing a radical, whether it is a square root, a cube root, or a higher root, is called a \"radical expression\", and if it contains no transcendental functions or transcendental numbers it is called an algebraic expression.\n\nIn calculus, roots are treated as special cases of exponentiation, where the exponent is a fraction:\n", "Each version of the test has its own critical value which depends on the size of the sample. In each case, the null hypothesis is that there is a unit root, formula_9. The tests have low statistical power in that they often cannot distinguish between true unit-root processes (formula_9) and near unit-root processes (formula_17 is close to zero). This is called the \"near observation equivalence\" problem.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18600	How are solids able to flow?	They don't, you've been misinformed. People love to pass around the myth that glass is a liquid that just flows super slowly. The "evidence" for this is that windows on older homes are thicker at the bottom but that's just how windows were made back in the day. As for plastic, it has a relatively low melting point so it will transition to liquid and flow at low temps but at room temp it's definitely a solid	[ "Section::::Key application areas.:Process development.\n", "Section::::Function.:Capillary exchange.:Bulk flow.\n", "The region of space enclosed by open system boundaries is usually called a control volume. It may or may not correspond to physical walls. It is convenient to define the shape of the control volume so that all flow of matter, in or out, occurs perpendicular to its surface. One may consider a process in which the matter flowing into and out of the system is chemically homogeneous. Then the inflowing matter performs work as if it were driving a piston of fluid into the system. Also, the system performs work as if it were driving out a piston of fluid. Through the system walls that do not pass matter, heat () and work () transfers may be defined, including shaft work.\n", "The secondary flow along the floor of the bowl or cup can be seen by sprinkling heavy particles such as sugar, sand, rice or tea leaves into the water and then setting the water in circular motion by stirring with a hand or spoon. The boundary layer spirals inward and sweeps the heavier solids into a neat pile in the center of the bowl or cup. With water circulating in a bowl or cup, the primary flow is purely circular and might be expected to fling heavy particles outward to the perimeter. Instead, heavy particles can be seen to congregate in the center as a result of the secondary flow along the floor.\n", "Section::::Types of piston pumps.:Type : Single-cylinder piston pump with an off-center three way rotary gate valve.\n", "Suspensions are classified into the following groups; \"fine suspensions\" in which the particles are uniformly distributed within the liquid and \"coarse suspensions\" where particles ted to travel predominantly in the bottom half of a horizontal pipe at a lower velocity than the liquid and a significantly lower velocity than the liquid in a vertical pipe.\n\nSection::::Types of Multiphase flow.:Gas-solid pipeline flow.\n", "Mass flow\n\n\"This article is about the flow of fluids in biological systems. For use of \"mass flow\" in physics see Fluid Dynamics. For \"bulk flow\" in physics see Advection. For \"protein transport\" in cell biology see Bulk movement.\"\n", "Fluid flow through porous media\n\nIn fluid mechanics, fluid flow through porous media is the manner in which fluids behave when flowing through a porous medium, for example sponge or wood, or when filtering water using sand or another porous material. As commonly observed, some fluid flows through the media while some mass of the fluid is stored in the pores present in the media.\n\nSection::::Governing law.\n", "Common ways of incorporating nanoparticle self-assembly with a flow include Langmuir-Blodgett, dip coating, flow coating and spin coating.\n\nSection::::Processing.:Externally directed self-assembly.:Flow fields.:Macroscopic viscous flow.\n", "Flow chemistry\n\nIn flow chemistry, a chemical reaction is run in a continuously flowing stream rather than in batch production. In other words, pumps move fluid into a tube, and where tubes join one another, the fluids contact one another. If these fluids are reactive, a reaction takes place. Flow chemistry is a well-established technique for use at a large scale when manufacturing large quantities of a given material. However, the term has only been coined recently for its application on a laboratory scale. Often, microreactors are used.\n\nSection::::Batch vs. flow.\n\nSection::::Batch vs. flow.:Comparing parameter definitions in Batch vs Flow.\n", "BULLET::::1. \"Gas-liquid-solid flows:\" this type of system occurs in two-phase fluidised bed and gas lift chemical reactors where a gas-liquid reaction is promoted by solid catalyst particles suspended in the mixture. Another example is in froth flotation as a method to separate minerals and carry out gas-liquid reactions in the presence of a catalyst.\n", "Wispy annular flow is characterised by the liquid 'wisps' that exist in the annular flow regime. Presumably due to the coalescence of the large concentration of contained droplets in the liquid film covering the pipe. This regime occurs at high mass fluxes.\n\nSection::::Types of Multiphase flow.:Liquid-solid flow.\n\nHydraulic transport consists of flows in which solid particles are dispersed in a continuous liquid phase. They are often referred to as slurry flows. Applications include the transport of coals and ores to the flow of mud.\n", "If a tube is sufficiently narrow and the liquid adhesion to its walls is sufficiently strong, surface tension can draw liquid up the tube in a phenomenon known as capillary action. The height to which the column is lifted is given by Jurin's law:\n\nwhere\n\nBULLET::::- is the height the liquid is lifted,\n\nBULLET::::- is the liquid–air surface tension,\n\nBULLET::::- is the density of the liquid,\n\nBULLET::::- is the radius of the capillary,\n\nBULLET::::- is the acceleration due to gravity,\n", "Section::::Static interfaces.:Energy consideration.\n\nA deep property of capillary surfaces is the surface energy that is imparted by surface tension:\n\nwhere formula_38 is the area of the surface being considered, and the total energy is the summation of all energies. Note that \"every\" interface imparts energy. For example, if there are two different fluids (say liquid and gas) inside a solid container with gravity and other energy potentials absent, the energy of the system is\n", "Section::::Working principle.\n", "Albert Einstein's first paper, which was submitted to \"Annalen der Physik\" in 1900, was on capillarity.\n\nSection::::Phenomena and physics.\n", "In physics, a free surface flow is the surface of a fluid flowing that is subjected to both zero perpendicular normal stress and parallel shear stress. This can be the boundary between two homogeneous fluids, like water in an open container and the air in the Earth's atmosphere that form a boundary at the open face of the container. Computation of free surfaces is complex because of the continuous change in the location of the boundary layer. Conventional methods of computation are insufficient for such analysis. Therefore, special methods are developed for the computation of free surface flows.\n\nSection::::Introduction.\n", "Reactions can take place between two solids. However, because of the relatively small diffusion rates in solids, the corresponding chemical reactions are very slow in comparison to liquid and gas phase reactions. They are accelerated by increasing the reaction temperature and finely dividing the reactant to increase the contacting surface area.\n\nSection::::Reaction types.:Reactions at the solid\|gas interface.\n", "Both solids and liquids have free surfaces, which cost some amount of free energy to form. In the case of solids, the amount of free energy to form a given unit of surface area is called surface energy, whereas for liquids the same quantity is called surface tension. The ability of liquids to flow results in different behaviour in response to surface tension than in solids, although in equilibrium both will try to minimise their surface energy: liquids tend to form rounded droplets, whereas pure solids tend to form crystals. Gases do not have free surfaces, and freely diffuse.\n\nSection::::Modelling.\n", "The large majority of processing technology involves multiphase flow. A common example of multiphase flow in industry is a fluidized bed. This device combines a solid-liquid mixture and causes it to move like a fluid. Further examples include bubbly flow in nuclear reactors, gas-particle flow in combustion reactors and fiber suspension flows within the pulp and paper industry. It is estimated that half of production in a modern industrial society relies on a multiphase flow process.\n", "Section::::Types of piston pumps.:Type: Single-cylinder piston pump.:Operating features.\n", "This can be demonstrated at home. Partly fill a circular bowl or cup with water and sprinkle a little sand, rice or sugar into the water. Set the water in circular motion with a hand or spoon. The secondary flow will quickly sweep the solid particles into a neat pile in the center of the bowl or cup. The primary flow (the vortex) might be expected to sweep the solid particles to the perimeter of the bowl or cup, but instead the secondary flow along the floor of the bowl or cup sweeps the particles toward the center.\n", "Section::::Growth mechanism.\n\nSection::::Growth mechanism.:Catalyst droplet formation.\n", "Thus, for sufficiently large driving forces, the interface can move uniformly without the benefit of either a heterogeneous nucleation or screw dislocation mechanism. What constitutes a sufficiently large driving force depends upon the diffuseness of the interface, so that for extremely diffuse interfaces, this critical driving force will be so small that any measurable driving force will exceed it. Alternatively, for sharp interfaces, the critical driving force will be very large, and most growth will occur by the lateral step mechanism. \n\nSection::::Work.:Droplets and surfaces.\n", "In the most common case, the column contains one liquid stream and one gas stream. The liquid forms a thin film that covers the inner surface of the vessel, instead the gas stream is normally injected from the bottom of the column, so the two fluids are subjected to a counter-current exchange of matter and heat, that happens in correspondence of the gas-liquid interface.\n\nSometimes, the same equipment is used to achieve the co-current mass and heat transfer between two immiscible liquids.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n" ]	[ "Solids are able to flow.", "Solids are able to flow. " ]	[ "Solids do not flow, you've been misinformed.", "Solids aren't actually able to flow." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Solids are able to flow.", "Solids are able to flow. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Solids do not flow, you've been misinformed.", "Solids aren't actually able to flow." ]
2018-08064	how do flies avoid hitting each other in a swarm but will constantly slam into their own reflection in a mirror?	A fly on a collision course with another fly only needs to adjust its course slightly to pass harmlessly by the other fly. In contrast a fly approaching its own reflection would need to completely reverse its course as passing its reflection is impossible, something the fly probably cannot even comprehend. Instead the fly is confronted with an apparent oncoming fly which somehow perfectly predicts and matches its evasive maneuvers as it attempts to reach a place that simply doesn't exist. Of course it is going to fail, any attempt to pass through a mirror will result in striking its own reflection.	[ "It is also worth noting that the Cleaner Wrasses, when tested, spent a large amount of time with the mirror when they were first getting acquainted to it, without any training. The most important thing is that the Cleaner Wrasses performed scraping behavior with the colored mark, and they did not perform the same scraping behavior without the colored mark in the presence of the mirror, nor when they were with the mirror and had a transparent mark.\n\nSection::::Animals that have failed.\n", "Some animals' retinas act as retroreflectors (see \"tapetum lucidum\" for more detail), as this effectively improves the animals' night vision. Since the lenses of their eyes modify reciprocally the paths of the incoming and outgoing light the effect is that the eyes act as a strong retroreflector, sometimes seen at night when walking in wildlands with a flashlight.\n\nA simple retroreflector can be made by placing three ordinary mirrors mutually perpendicular to one another (a corner reflector). The image produced is the inverse of one produced by a single mirror. \n", "Section::::Animals that may pass.:Fish.\n\nTwo captive giant manta rays showed frequent, unusual and repetitive movements in front of a mirror suggested contingency checking. They also showed unusual self-directed behaviours when exposed to the mirror.\n", "BULLET::::- Pigeons can pass the mirror test after training in the prerequisite behaviors.\n\nSection::::Animals that have passed.:Ants.\n", "Manta rays repeatedly swim in front of the mirror, turning over to show their undersides and moving their fins. When in front of the mirror, they blow bubbles, an unusual behaviour. They do not try to socially interact with the mirror image, suggesting that they recognise that the mirror image is not another ray. However, a classic mirror test using marks on the rays’ bodies has yet to be done.\n\nSection::::Robots.\n\nIn 2012, early steps were taken to make a robot pass the mirror test.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n", "Section::::Animals that have passed.:Birds.\n", "Section::::Behavior.:Bet hedging.\n", "Section::::Animals that have failed.:Octopuses.\n\nBULLET::::- Octopuses oriented towards their image in a mirror, but there is no difference in their behaviour in this condition, compared with a view of other octopuses.\n\nSection::::Animals that may pass.\n\nSection::::Animals that may pass.:Gorillas.\n", "There is at least one vertebrate, the spookfish, whose eyes include reflective optics for focusing of light. Each of the two eyes of a spookfish collects light from both above and below; the light coming from above is focused by a lens, while that coming from below, by a curved mirror composed of many layers of small reflective plates made of guanine crystals.\n\nSection::::Types.:Compound eyes.\n", "B. F. Skinner found that Pigeons are capable of passing a highly modified mirror test after extensive training. In the experiment, a pigeon was trained to look in a mirror to find a response key behind it, which the pigeon then turned to peck to obtain food. Thus, the pigeon learned to use a mirror to find critical elements of its environment. Next, the pigeon was trained to peck at dots placed on its feathers; food was, again, the consequence of touching the dot. The latter training was accomplished in the absence of the mirror. The final test was placing a small bib on the pigeon—enough to cover a dot placed on its lower belly. A control period without the mirror present yielded no pecking at the dot. When the mirror was revealed, the pigeon became active, looked in the mirror and then tried to peck on the dot under the bib. However, untrained pigeons have never passed the mirror test.\n", "Pigs can use visual information seen in a mirror to find food, and show evidence of self-recognition when presented with their reflection. In an experiment, 7 of the 8 pigs tested were able to find a bowl of food hidden behind a wall and revealed using a mirror. The eighth pig looked behind the mirror for the food. BBC Earth also showed the foodbowl test, and the \"matching shapes to holes\" test, in the Extraordinary Animals series.\n", "BULLET::::2. Self-grooming: typical grooming behavior starts with hind legs rubbing against each other, and the abdomen and the wings follow after. The front legs start to rub the head, the mouth parts, and lastly the antennae. Additionally, it has been found that venom secretions, which are slightly antimicrobial, are smeared over the body through grooming, and this suggests that this habit, predominant in females, induces some sort of additional protection against possible pathogens.\n\nBULLET::::3. Flight: flight is characterized by complex hovering and swift changes in flight direction. Individuals keep their legs perfectly near their bodies and their abdomen fully extended.\n", "BULLET::::- Leaden flycatcher (as \"Todus rubecula\")\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "BULLET::::- The magical objects in the Harry Potter series (1997–2011) include the Mirror of Erised and two-way mirrors.\n\nBULLET::::- Under \"Appendix: Variant Planes & Cosmologies\" of the \"Dungeons & Dragons\" Manual Of The Planes (2000), is The Plane of Mirrors (page 204). It describes the Plane of Mirrors as a space existing behind reflective surfaces, and experienced by visitors as a long corridor. The greatest danger to visitors upon entering the plane is the instant creation of a mirror-self with the opposite alignment of the original visitor.\n", "Section::::Behaviour.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Escape response in insects.\n\nWhen house flies (\"Musca domestica\") encounter an aversive stimulus, they jump rapidly and fly away from the stimulus. A recent research suggests that the escape response in \"Musca domestica\" is controlled by a pair of compound eyes, rather than by the ocelli. When one of the compound eyes was covered, the minimum threshold to elicit an escape response increased. In short, the escape reaction of \"Musca domestica\" is evoked by the combination of both motion and light.\n", "BULLET::::- Plate W - Bass Flies - 389\n\nBULLET::::- Plate X - Bass Flies - 401\n\nBULLET::::- Plate Y - Bass Flies - 413\n\nBULLET::::- Plate Z - Bass Flies - 427\n\nBULLET::::- Plate AA - Bass Flies - 441\n\nBULLET::::- The Ondawa - 442\n\nBULLET::::- \"Up the Long Road\" - 443\n\nBULLET::::- Plate BB - Bass Flies - 457\n\nBULLET::::- Manchester - 459\n\nBULLET::::- Plate CC - Bass Flies - 469\n\nBULLET::::- Plate DD - Bass Flies - 479\n\nBULLET::::- Plate EE - Bass Flies - 489\n\nBULLET::::- Plate FF - Bass Flies - 503\n", "BULLET::::- Cleaner Wrasse have become the first fish ever to pass the mirror test. They can recognize themselves in a mirror, according to a study done in 2019. The Cleaner Wrasse, or \"Labroides dimidiatus\", is a tiny tropical reef fish who cleans other fish. When put through the mirror test, the Cleaner Wrasse showed all the behaviors of passing through the phases of the test. When provided with a colored tag in a modified mark test, the fish could see that in the mirror and attempted to scrape off this tag. They did this by scraping their bodies on the side of the mirror. Additionally, the fish did not try to remove the colored tag in the absence of a mirror, nor did they try to remove a transparent tag. This is considered a hallmark of cognition, and the Cleaner Wrasse remains the only fish to pass the mirror test. The experiment done by Masanori Kohda, et al. included many different aspects. Kohda and his team of scientists caught ten wild Cleaner Wrasses and put them into individual tanks, which were outfitted with mirrors. The fish were observed at first becoming aggressive with their reflections in the tanks, suggesting they may have viewed their reflection as another Cleaner Wrasse in its space. Eventually, the fish began to approach its own reflection in different ways, such as swimming towards it upside down. This is known as \"contingency testing,\" or directly interacting with its own reflection in order to determine if it is themselves or another fish. After the fish became acquainted with the mirrors, the researchers injected a benign brown gel into the skin of the fish. Some of these injections were in places that the fish would not have been able to see if they were not by a mirror, such as their throats, which is an important thing to note. The fish probably identified the colored marks as a parasite, and began using whatever surfaces were around to scrape it off of them. This suggests that the fish recognized the fish with the mark in the mirror as themselves. It is also important to note that when the fish had the colored mark but no mirror, they did not try to scrape it off. The same happened when the fish were injected with a transparent gel. The fish also looked in the mirror before and after scraping their throats as if to get a better look. However, there is some doubt and controversy when it comes to this finding. Gordon Gallup, who invented the mirror test, is an evolutionary psychologist at the State University of New York at Albany, and he says the Cleaner Wrasses' behavior can be attributed to something other than recognizing itself in a mirror. Gallup has argued that a Cleaner Wrasse's job in life is to be aware of ectoparasites on the bodies of other fish, and therefore it would be hyper-aware of the fake parasite that it noticed in the mirror, perhaps seeing it as a parasite that it needed to clean off of a different fish. Gallup also argues that the Cleaner Wrasse's strange positioning towards the mirror (swimming upside down and looking at itself from different angles) may be because it is learning how to manipulate the \"other fish\" that it wants to clean. He says that the scraping behavior of the fish is most likely the fish trying to call attention to the \"other fish\" that it has a parasite on its body. However, Kohda, who ran the study, says that because the fish checked itself in the mirror before and after the scraping, this means that the fish has self awareness and recognizes that its reflection belongs to its own body.\n", "BULLET::::- Plate L - Lake Flies - 199\n\nBULLET::::- Plate M - Trout Flies - 221\n\nBULLET::::- Plate N - Trout Flies - 239\n\nBULLET::::- Plate O - Trout Flies - 255\n\nBULLET::::- Equinox, the Edge of the Shadows - 261\n\nBULLET::::- Plate P - Trout Flies - 277\n\nBULLET::::- Plate Q - Trout Flies - 297\n\nBULLET::::- Plate R - Trout Flies - 315\n\nBULLET::::- Plate S - Trout Flies - 327\n\nBULLET::::- Plate T - Trout Flies - 349\n\nBULLET::::- Plate U - Trout Flies - 363\n\nBULLET::::- Plate V - Trout Flies - 379\n", "Section::::Animals that have passed.:Fish.\n", "BULLET::::- Microflyer - Micro flyers do the function like zooplankton on earth.\n\nBULLET::::- Mummy-nest Flyer - They are black flyers, with a tail that bends back to meet the front of the body (like scorpions, except the tail is curled under the body, not above). Unlike some flyers, they are not jet propelled, so they have to flap their wings to fly. They probably look like miniature versions of the gargantuan Ebony Blister-Wing Barlowe hypothesizes that the flyer was once part of the Mummy-nest and, as it matured, broke off from it and used its former body as a home.\n", "BULLET::::- Colorado, Utah, Wyoming and Idaho - 432\n\nBULLET::::- Montana - 448\n\nBULLET::::- Washington - 472\n\nBULLET::::- California - 482\n\nBULLET::::- Oregon - 492\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hic Habitat Felicitas\" - 510\n\nBULLET::::- Index of Plates and Flies - 515\n\nBULLET::::- List of Correspondents - 520\n\nBULLET::::- List of Illustrations\n\nBULLET::::- Disputing the Fly Question - Frontispiece\n\nBULLET::::- Stoneflies - 13\n\nBULLET::::- Drakes - 15\n\nBULLET::::- Caddis Flies - 17\n\nBULLET::::- Crane Flies and Spiders - 19\n\nBULLET::::- House Flies and Ants - 21\n\nBULLET::::- Beetles and Chrysopa - 23\n\nBULLET::::- Plate A - Hackles - 27\n", "Section::::Description.:Food sources.\n\nAdult blow flies are occasional pollinators, being attracted to flowers with strong odors resembling rotting meat, such as the American pawpaw or dead horse arum. Little doubt remains that these flies use nectar as a source of carbohydrates to fuel flight, but just how and when this happens is unknown. One study showed the visual stimulus a blow fly receives from its compound eyes is responsible for causing its legs to extend from its flight position and allow it to land on any surface.\n", "Section::::Anatomy and physiology.:Sensory and nervous system.:Sense organs.:Hearing.\n\nHearing is an important sensory system for most species of fish. Fish sense sound using their lateral lines and their ears.\n\nSection::::Anatomy and physiology.:Sensory and nervous system.:Cognition.\n\nNew research has expanded preconceptions about the cognitive capacities of fish. For example, manta rays have exhibited behavior linked to self-awareness in mirror test cases. Placed in front of a mirror, individual rays engaged in contingency testing, that is, repetitive behavior aiming to check whether their reflection's behavior mimics their body movement.\n\nWrasses have also passed the mirror test in a 2018 scientific study..\n", "Manta rays have the largest brains when it comes to fish. In 2016, Dr. Csilla Ari tested captive manta rays at the Atlantis Aquarium in the Bahamas by exposing them to a mirror. The manta rays appeared to be extremely interested in the mirror. They would behave strangely in front the mirror, including doing flips and moving their fins. They would also blow bubbles. They did not interact with the reflection as if it were another manta ray; they didn't try to socialize with it. However, only an actual mirror test can determine if they actually recognize their own reflection, or if they are just demonstrating exploratory behavior. A classic mirror test has yet to be done on manta rays.\n" ]	[ "Flies should run into each other in a swarm." ]	[ "Flies need to adjust their course slightly to pass harmlessly by another fly." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Flies should run into each other in a swarm.", "Flies should run into each other in a swarm." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Flies need to adjust their course slightly to pass harmlessly by another fly.", "Flies need to adjust their course slightly to pass harmlessly by another fly." ]
2018-20101	How do our bodies develop immunity to certain illnesses?	After the body fends of an infection the body produces what is called Memory cells that remember the infection if it ever gets into the body again and fends it off this time with greater success having the antibodies for the job	[ "The parts of the innate immune system have different specificity for different pathogens.\n\nSection::::Immune evasion.\n\nCells of the innate immune system prevent free growth of microorganisms within the body, but many pathogens have evolved mechanisms to evade it.\n", "Bacteria and fungi may form complex biofilms, protecting from immune cells and proteins; biofilms are present in the chronic \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\" and \"Burkholderia cenocepacia\" infections characteristic of cystic fibrosis.\n\nSection::::Immune evasion.:Viruses.\n", "When B cells and T cells are activated by a pathogen, memory B-cells and T- cells develop, and the primary immune response results. Throughout the lifetime of an animal, these memory cells will \"remember\" each specific pathogen encountered, and can mount a strong secondary response if the pathogen is detected again. The primary and secondary responses were first described in 1921 by English immunologist Alexander Glenny although the mechanism involved was not discovered until later.This type of immunity is both active and adaptive because the body's immune system prepares itself for future challenges. Active immunity often involves both the cell-mediated and humoral aspects of immunity as well as input from the innate immune system.\n", "Section::::Innate and adaptive immune systems.\n\nVertebrate immunity is dependent on both adaptive and innate immune systems. In vertebrates, the innate immune system is composed of cells such as neutrophils and macrophages (which also have a role in the adaptive immune system as antigen presenting cells), as well as molecular pathways such as the complement system which react to microbial non-self. The innate immune system enables a rapid inflammatory response that contains the infection, and it activates the adaptive immune system, which eliminates the pathogen and, through immunological memory, provides long term protection against reinfection.\n", "An immune system may contain innate and adaptive components. The innate system in mammalians, for example, is composed of primitive bone marrow cells that are programmed to recognise foreign substances and react. The adaptive system is composed of more advanced lymphatic cells that are programmed to recognise self-substances and don't react. The reaction to foreign substances is etymologically described as inflammation, meaning to set on fire. The non-reaction to self-substances is described as immunity, meaning to exempt or as immunotolerance. These two components of the immune system create a dynamic biological environment where \"health\" can be seen as a physical state where the self is immunologically spared, and what is foreign is inflammatorily and immunologically eliminated. \"Disease\" can arise when what is foreign cannot be eliminated or what is self is not spared.\n", "Microorganisms or toxins that successfully enter an organism encounter the cells and mechanisms of the innate immune system. The innate response is usually triggered when microbes are identified by pattern recognition receptors, which recognize components that are conserved among broad groups of microorganisms, or when damaged, injured or stressed cells send out alarm signals, many of which (but not all) are recognized by the same receptors as those that recognize pathogens. Innate immune defenses are non-specific, meaning these systems respond to pathogens in a generic way. This system does not confer long-lasting immunity against a pathogen. The innate immune system is the dominant system of host defense in most organisms.\n", "Section::::Brainstem.:Immunity.\n\nThe brain controls immunity both indirectly through HPA glucocorticoid secretions from the pituitary, and by various direct innervations.\n\nBULLET::::- Antibodies. There is sympathetic innervation of the thymus gland. Sympathetic control exists over antibody production, and the modulation of cytokine concentrations.\n\nBULLET::::- Cellular immunity. An intact sympathetic nervous system is required to maintain full cellular immunoregulation as denervated mice do not produce and activate, for example, splenic suppressor T cells, or thymic NKT cells.\n", "The innate immune system is common to all multicellular organisms and forms the first line of defense against pathogens. Infected cells recognize that they are under attack by detecting the pathogen directly through the Pathogen Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPS) which bind with the Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRR) on the host cells. Host cells also recognize the pathogen through effector-triggered immunity, whereby the host cells are alerted to the pathogen by the associated damage caused by pathogenic toxins or effectors.\n", "The production of different components of the immune system can be controlled as conditioned responses: \n\nBULLET::::- Antibodies\n\nBULLET::::- IL-2\n\nBULLET::::- B, CD8+ T cells and CD4+ naive and memory T cells, and granulocytes. Such conditioning in rats can last a year.\n\nNonimmune functions can also be conditioned:\n\nBULLET::::- Serum iron levels\n\nBULLET::::- The level of oxidative DNA damage\n\nBULLET::::- Insulin secretion\n\nBULLET::::- Blood glucose levels\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Autonomic nervous system\n\nBULLET::::- Homeostasis\n\nBULLET::::- Homeostatic emotion\n\nBULLET::::- Neurogastroenterology\n\nBULLET::::- Neuroendocrinology\n\nBULLET::::- Neuroimmunology\n\nBULLET::::- Parasympathetic nervous system\n\nBULLET::::- Peripheral nervous system\n\nBULLET::::- Psychoneuroimmunology\n\nBULLET::::- Sympathetic nervous system\n", "Any living organism can contract a virus by giving parasites the opportunity to grow. Parasites feed on the nutrients of another organism which allows the virus to thrive. Once the human body detects a virus, it then creates fighter cells that attack the parasite/virus; literally, causing a war within the body. A virus can affect any part of the body causing a wide range of illnesses such as the flu, the common cold, and sexually transmitted diseases. The flu is an airborne virus that travels through tiny droplets and is formally known as Influenza. Parasites travel through the air and attack the human respiratory system. People that are initially infected with this virus pass infection on by normal day to day activity such as talking and sneezing. When a person comes in contact with the virus, unlike the common cold, the flu virus affects people almost immediately. Symptoms of this virus are very similar to the common cold but much worse. Body aches, sore throat, headache, cold sweats, muscle aches and fatigue are among the many symptoms accompanied by the virus. A viral infection in the upper respiratory tract results in the common cold. With symptoms like sore throat, sneezing, small fever, and a cough, the common cold is usually harmless and tends to clear up within a week or so. The common cold is also a virus that is spread through the air but can also be passed through direct contact. This infection takes a few days to develop symptoms; it is a gradual process unlike the flu.\n", "Section::::Viruses and diseases.:Host resistance.:Adaptive immunity of animals.\n\nSpecific immunity to viruses develops over time and white blood cells called lymphocytes play a central role. Lymphocytes retain a \"memory\" of virus infections and produce many special molecules called antibodies. These antibodies attach to viruses and stop the virus from infecting cells. Antibodies are highly selective and attack only one type of virus. The body makes many different antibodies, especially during the initial infection; however, after the infection subsides, some antibodies remain and continue to be produced, often giving the host lifelong immunity to the virus.\n\nSection::::Viruses and diseases.:Host resistance.:Plant resistance.\n", "Section::::General principles.\n\nMicrobial symbiosis relies on interspecies communication.\n\nImmunity has been defined historically in multicellular organisms and occurs through their immune system. Immunity is achieved when the immune system resolves a biological contact with a cell that the system perceives as foreign with a steady state. The stimulus may be a microbe, a carcinogenic cell, a same species cell with different antigens, or cells from a different species. Immunity can occur by any degree in between elimination and tolerance of the cell or microbe.\n\nSection::::In the gastrointestinal tract.\n", "BULLET::::- Generation of responses that are tailored to maximally eliminate specific pathogens or pathogen-infected cells.\n\nBULLET::::- Development of immunological memory, in which pathogens are \"remembered\" through memory B cells and memory T cells.\n\nSection::::Lymphocytes.\n", "Section::::Inflammation.\n\nInflammation is one of the first responses of the immune system to infection or irritation. Inflammation is stimulated by chemical factors released by injured cells and serves to establish a physical barrier against the spread of infection, and to promote healing of any damaged tissue following the clearance of pathogens.\n", "The immune system protects organisms from infection with layered defenses of increasing specificity. In simple terms, physical barriers prevent pathogens such as bacteria and viruses from entering the organism. If a pathogen breaches these barriers, the innate immune system provides an immediate, but non-specific response. Innate immune systems are found in all plants and animals. If pathogens successfully evade the innate response, vertebrates possess a second layer of protection, the adaptive immune system, which is activated by the innate response. Here, the immune system adapts its response during an infection to improve its recognition of the pathogen. This improved response is then retained after the pathogen has been eliminated, in the form of an immunological memory, and allows the adaptive immune system to mount faster and stronger attacks each time this pathogen is encountered.\n", "Section::::Adaptive immune system.:Immunological memory.\n\nWhen B cells and T cells are activated and begin to replicate, some of their offspring become long-lived memory cells. Throughout the lifetime of an animal, these memory cells remember each specific pathogen encountered and can mount a strong response if the pathogen is detected again. This is \"adaptive\" because it occurs during the lifetime of an individual as an adaptation to infection with that pathogen and prepares the immune system for future challenges. Immunological memory can be in the form of either passive short-term memory or active long-term memory.\n\nSection::::Physiological regulation.\n", "Acquired immunity creates immunological memory after an initial response to a specific pathogen, and leads to an enhanced response to subsequent encounters with that pathogen. This process of acquired immunity is the basis of vaccination. Like the innate system, the acquired system includes both humoral immunity components and cell-mediated immunity components.\n", "Section::::Developing immunity.\n\nThe immune system recognizes vaccine agents as foreign, destroys them, and \"remembers\" them. When the virulent version of an agent is encountered, the body recognizes the protein coat on the virus, and thus is prepared to respond, by (1) neutralizing the target agent before it can enter cells, and (2) recognizing and destroying infected cells before that agent can multiply to vast numbers.\n", "Section::::Innate immune system.:Inflammation.\n", "Section::::Active.:Naturally acquired active immunity.\n\nNaturally acquired active immunity occurs when a person is exposed to a live pathogen and develops a primary immune response, which leads to immunological memory. This type of immunity is \"natural\" because deliberate exposure does not induce it. Many disorders of immune system function can affect the formation of active immunity such as immunodeficiency (both acquired and congenital forms) and immunosuppression.\n\nSection::::Active.:Artificially acquired active immunity.\n", "Section::::Evolution and other mechanisms.:Manipulation by pathogens.\n", "BULLET::::- heat, either increased local temperature, such as a warm feeling around a localized infection, or a systemic fever;\n\nBULLET::::- swelling of affected tissues, such as the upper throat during the common cold or joints affected by rheumatoid arthritis;\n\nBULLET::::- increased production of mucus, which can cause symptoms like a runny nose or a productive cough;\n\nBULLET::::- pain, either local pain, such as painful joints or a sore throat, or affecting the whole body, such as body aches; and\n\nBULLET::::- possible dysfunction of the organs or tissues involved.\n\nSection::::Complement system.\n", "Section::::Background.\n\nNeural targets that control thermogenesis, behavior, sleep, and mood can be affected by pro-inflammatory cytokines which are released by activated macrophages and monocytes during infection. Within the central nervous system production of cytokines has been detected as a result of brain injury, during viral and bacterial infections, and in neurodegenerative processes.\n\nFrom the US National Institute of Health:\n", "Classically, two types of effector CD4+ T helper cell responses can be induced by a professional APC, designated Th1 and Th2, each designed to eliminate different types of pathogens. The factors that dictate whether an infection triggers a Th1 or Th2 type response are not fully understood, but the response generated does play an important role in the clearance of different pathogens.\n", "BULLET::::2. what diseases you are exposed to. When exposed to a disease, your body can create further sub types of proteins that recognise the virus, and thus fine tune the immune response. Also after the disease is gone, cells which recognised it, tend to hang around in the body.\n\nBULLET::::3. immune memory. generally after one has had a disease, the cells whose genes recognise the disease, are allowed to persist for many years in the body.\n\nBULLET::::4. old age—there is some evidence, that cells with existing subtypes die off, and are not replaced by new subtypes.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13645	How are firefighters able to determine what caused a fire to start? Ex. A fire was started by a match or a lit cigarette. Wouldn't the evidence be burned up by that point?	Often fires burn away from the ignition point. Plus, fire forensics investigators study burn patterns, so they know from the scorch marks the location of the source of the fire and the likely ignition cause, based on the patterns they see in the burns. They might not, for example, know if the fire was started by a match or a cigarette, but they'll know that it's started by a small low-burning ignition source on the sofa as opposed to an electrical fault in the wall or rags doused in accelerant.	[ "When arsonists attack, there is very rarely much evidence left at the scene. However, arsonists usually use accelerants to speed up a blaze. Forensic scientists use technologies to heat samples taken from the scene causing any residue to separate. This sample is then analyzed to determine the chemical structure. Scientists also use other tests such as using liquid nitrogen gas to trap residue which are then analyzed using gas chromatography.\n\nThe investigator:\n\nBULLET::::- Receives the assignment and responsibilities\n\nBULLET::::- Plans the investigation and assembles tools, equipment, and personnel\n\nBULLET::::- Examines the scene and collects data\n", "Once the origin is determined the investigators must decide if fire accelerants were used at this scene. Often the first and most common way of determining if accelerants were used is by completing a visual inspection of the scene and specifically the origin. A trained investigator would look for cues like intense localized burning or pour patterns to indicate the use of accelerants.\n", "In common with many forensic disciplines, one of the early tasks of fire investigation is often to determine whether or not a crime has been committed. The difficulty of determining whether arson has occurred arises because fire often destroys the key evidence of its origin. Many fires are caused by defective equipment, such as shorting of faulty electrical circuits. Car fires can be caused by faulty fuel lines, and spontaneous combustion is possible where organic wastes are stored.\n\nA fire investigator looks at the fire remains, and obtains information to reconstruct the sequence of events leading up to the fire.\n", "Detecting the use of a fire accelerant at a crime scene can be the difference between classifying a fire as accidental or as an arson. Once a case is determined to be an arson, the detection of fire accelerants will hold strong evidentiary value which the prosecutor can use during the trial should someone be charged.\n\nSection::::Scene detection.\n", "When arsonists attack, there is very rarely much evidence left at the scene. However, arsonists usually use accelerants to speed up a blaze. Forensic scientists use technologies to heat samples taken from the scene causing any residue to separate. This sample is then analysed to determine the chemical structure. Scientists also use other tests such as using liquid nitrogen gas to trap residue which are then analysed using gas chromatography.\n\nSection::::Recommended practices.\n\nIn the United States, fire investigators often refer to \"\" (National Fire Protection Association).\n", "Certain aspects of a crime scene may manifest themselves only for brief periods. For instance, the distinctive smoke and odor an incendiary device emits may be evident only within the first few minutes. Those arriving on the scene later, when the blaze is fully fueled by the structure itself, might perceive no indicators of suspicious origin, and indeed might not search for such a device among the debris.\n", "As in other investigations, part of the investigator's job is to collect evidence from the scene to further the investigation. The samples collected by a fire investigator will be analyzed in a laboratory for the presence of any ILRs which could have been used as accelerants. Samples that are selected from the fire must be those that will have the highest likelihood of containing ILRs so they can ensure the laboratory results are an accurate representation of the scene.\n", "One of the challenging aspects of fire investigation is the multi-disciplinary basis of the investigator's job. As fires can be caused by or involve many ignition sources and fuels, fire investigators need to know not only the science of fire behavior, but also to have a working understanding of many different areas of study including construction, electricity, human behavior, and mechanical devices. For example, if there is a gas appliance at the origin of the fire, an investigator should know enough about appliances to either include or exclude it as a possible cause of the fire. Fire investigators sometimes work with forensic engineers, such as forensic electrical engineers when examining electrical appliances, household wiring, etc.\n", "Indicators of an incendiary fire or arson can lead fire investigators to look for the presence of fuel traces in fire debris. Burning compounds and liquids can leave behind evidence of their presence and use. Fuels present in areas they aren't typically found in can indicate an incendiary fire or arson. Investigators often use special dogs known as \"accelerant detection canines\" trained to smell ignitable liquids. Well-trained dogs can pinpoint areas for the investigator to collect samples. Fire debris submitted to forensic laboratories employ sensitive analytical instruments with GC-MS capabilities for forensic chemical analysis.\n\nSection::::Fire.:Types.\n", "Meanwhile, Charlie and Dr. Larry Fleinhardt (Peter MacNicol), Charlie's friend and colleague, discuss creating a \"fireprint\", a profile of the fires and the possible motives for them. Using records from the LAFD, Charlie and Larry learn that 17 fires over the past two years match the fireprint for the current fires. They then consult Professor Bill Waldie (Bill Nye) and reconstruct the lethal fire using a scaled model of the car dealership booth and a cigarette. When no reaction occurs, Charlie, Larry, and Bill realize that the fire was intentionally set. Back at Charlie's house, Charlie and Don's father, Alan Eppes (Judd Hirsch), suggests to Charlie and Larry that the fires at the car dealership are two separate fires instead of one fire as Charlie and Larry were considering.\n", "Once the isolation is complete the volatiles are detected using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) which will produce a chromatogram that will be interpreted by a fire chemist. The interpretation is completed by comparing the sample chromatograms with chromatograms from known ignitable liquid samples that were analyzed on the same instrument. The chemist will be able to identify the ignitable liquids present in the sample by matching the sample chromatogram to a standard chromatogram that contains the highest degree of similarity. After the analyst has finished interpreting the results they will have one of three conclusions. One could be that ILRs are present and their identities will be determined (ex. gasoline or Varsol). Another could be that ILRs are absent and the last could be that the sample was inconclusive and a reanalysis needs to be completed.\n", "BULLET::::- Collects, tests, evaluates, and documents evidence\n\nBULLET::::- Applies the scientific method to analyze the information obtained\n\nSection::::Spoliation.\n\nSpoliation is the destruction or alteration of evidence through intention or ignorance. The mere act of extinguishing a fire can destroy potential evidence of arson\n", "Determining the origin of a fire is often one of the first tasks that a fire investigator must complete while at the scene. This is completed because the origin will have the highest probability of containing any ILRs left from the use of fire accelerant. This is logical because accelerants would be the first materials ignited as they have a lower ignition temperature than any other materials. \n", "This left only the chemical testing for accelerant. The front porch was the only place where an accelerant was verified by laboratory tests, and a photograph taken of the house before the fire showed that a charcoal grill was there. Hurst speculated that it was likely that water sprayed by firefighters had spread the lighter fluid from the melted container. All twenty of the indications listed by Vasquez of an accelerant being used were rebutted by Hurst, who concluded there was \"no evidence of arson\" — the same conclusion reached by other fire investigators.\n", "Fire investigators, who are experienced firefighters trained in fire cause determinism, are dispatched to fire scenes, in order to investigate and determine whether the fire was a result of an accident or intentional. Some fire investigators have full law enforcement powers to investigate and arrest suspected arsonists.\n\nSection::::Occupational health and safety.\n\nSection::::Occupational health and safety.:Direct risks.\n\nSection::::Occupational health and safety.:Direct risks.:Fires.\n", "Fire investigation\n\nFire investigation, sometimes referred to as origin and cause investigation, is the analysis of fire-related incidents. After firefighters extinguish a fire, an investigation is launched to determine the origin and cause of the fire or explosion. Investigations of such incidents require a systematic approach and knowledge of basic fire science.\n\nSection::::Investigating fires.\n", "Within the Fire Prevention Division is the department's fire investigation unit. Five fire inspectors, lieutenants, and captains within the division are trained to perform origin & cause fire investigation duties for structure, vehicle, and other fires that occur within the jurisdictional limits of the fire department. The investigators are all Certified Fire and Explosion Investigators (CFEI) by the National Association of Fire Investigators. In addition, many have been certified as expert witnesses in court for their knowledge and expertise. In the case of an incendiary fire determination, the department's investigators work closely with Fort Lauderdale Police Department detectives, the Florida State Fire Marshal's Office Arson Investigators, and/or the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives\n", "In 2004, Gerald Hurst examined the arson evidence compiled by state deputy fire marshal Manuel Vasquez. Hurst individually discredited each piece of arson evidence, using publicly supported experiments backed by his re-creation of the elements in question, the most notable being the Lime Street fire, which created the unique 3-point burn patterns flashover.\n", "In order for a positive identification of a fire accelerant to occur both field work and laboratory analysis must take place. This is because when a fire accelerant is used only ignitable liquid residues (ILRs) remain at the scene. It is the chemist's job to identify these ILRs and the investigators job to determine if they were used as fire accelerants or just present at the scene under normal circumstances.\n\nSection::::Fire accelerant vs. ignitable liquid.\n", "Section::::Laboratory analysis.\n", "At another big fire, Jim comes across a statue of Vulcan (Roman god of fire) which the arsonist dropped, it being his inspiration. The arsonist gets it from Jim’s unlocked car where he put it. Mention of this statue later and the fact that Frank and Joan saw it in the antique shop window provide a strong lead so they get a search warrant. They do not find any bomb making equipment but Jim finds wood shavings which later analysis reveals to be the same wood as that used for the time bomb box.\n", "Lentini was scheduled to give testimony on behalf of the prosecution. However, after coming to the conclusion that similar conditions were caused in nearly identical fires, arson by way of accelerant could not be proven. Lentini would later state that he was changed by this discovery: \"I had come within 24 hours of giving testimony that could well have sent an innocent person to Florida's electric chair. Needless to say, I was chastened by the experience. My professional life was never the same again.\"\n", "Detection with portable hydrocarbon sniffers is a recent method which is more readily being used by investigators. These are handheld electronic devices that sample the vapors at a scene and will give a reading for the concentration of hydrocarbons it is detecting. By comparing the concentration of hydrocarbons in the area to known levels of ILR free areas an investigator will be able to determine if ILRs are present at the scene. They will then take samples from the areas that are showing the highest concentrations.\n\nSection::::Sample selection.\n", "Tests One and Two were fully instrumented with a high sensor density, including measurements of temperature, incident heat, gas velocities, smoke obscuration, wall temperature and structure deflection, among others. The tests varied in that Test One allowed the fire to develop freely to post-flashover conditions, while Test Two incorporated sensor-informed ventilation management and was extinguished before post-flashover conditions were attained. Both tests had approximately 300 sensors monitoring several different characteristics of the fire environment, but Test One had about 160 additional sensors monitoring the structural response.\n", "An article in \"Texas Monthly\" described the impact of Hurst's work, saying, \"If there was a moment when fire investigation began to emerge out of the dark age of hunches, untested hand-me-down arson indicators, and wives’ tales, it occurred when Hurst turned his attention to Cacy’s case.\"\n" ]	[ "Evidence of a fire's origin would be destroyed by the fire.", "The evidence of how a fire started will be burned up in the fire." ]	[ "Evidence of a fire's origin can be determined from the fire's burn patterns.", "Fire forensics investigators can often determine how a fire started by burn patterns." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Evidence of a fire's origin would be destroyed by the fire.", "The evidence of how a fire started will be burned up in the fire." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Evidence of a fire's origin can be determined from the fire's burn patterns.", "Fire forensics investigators can often determine how a fire started by burn patterns." ]
2018-03058	Why do old houses have that "old house" smell?	I know it's a cliché but houses are the people that live inside them. Years of cooking, different people's smells, pets, spills, burns, smoke, etc. all gets caught in the woodwork and insulation. Add to this basic wear and tear to the house itself (mold, weather, paint, garden chemicals, etc) and you get a "smell".	[ "One large old Monterey pine to the east of the house and side drive remains and other younger Monterey pines to the house's east. Otherwise apart from the many old elms on the garden's edges, the road and paddocks, some very old shrubs, such as common lilac (Syringa vulgaris cv.), Cotoneaster sp., fruit trees such as plum (Prunus domestica cv.), apple (Malus sylvestris cv.) at the rear, there is little more old planting.\n", "After the blaze died down, investigators noted the remains bore similarities to what was present after the original fire. Streaks on the floor called \"pour patterns\", which were often used as proof of accelerant usage, were seen in the second house as well.\n", "The oldest living organism in the churchyard is a veteran yew tree near the south gate. Its girth exceeds 13 feet and in February its male cones release drifts of pollen into the wind.\n\nSection::::Phone mast.\n", "'terms of disappointment, terms of a long and painful account, which has now been settled to the last cent. Houses suddenly left. Intact. With their potted geraniums, their grapevines climbing up the balconies. The smell-of wood-burning ovens still in the air. Elderly people who have nothing more to lose, slowly straggling along.,'\n", "Section::::In houses and structures.\n", "Old person smell\n\nOld person smell is the characteristic odor of elderly humans. Much like many animal species, human odor undergoes distinct stages based on chemical changes initiated through the aging process. Research suggests that this enables humans to determine the suitability of potential partners based on age, in addition to other factors.\n", "It is unknown exactly when the house was given its distinctive name but it has been attributed to \"all the mistletoe that just drooled from the trees.\"\n\nSection::::Restoration Efforts.\n", "However the changes in the 1970s introduced buildings that were much squarer, and plainer. In particular the loss of the old B28 Elizabethan Cottage, which had been profitably marketed by a Californian retailer as “Anne Hathaway’s Cottage”, was much regretted. The new B28 pair of Elizabethan cottages was a lot more “twee” than ever the original had been.\n", "BULLET::::- Front and back door lights\n\nBULLET::::- Tiling to rear (north) porch\n\nBULLET::::- Later bathroom fitout including installation of modern cistern to lavatory\n\nBULLET::::- Surface mounted services and power outlets\n\nBULLET::::- Contemporary floor finishes to wet areas\n\nBULLET::::- Later shelving in pantry and store.\n\nBULLET::::- 1914 2 almost symmetrical lily pilly trees on either side of the main gate were planted.\n", "The Washington Navy Yard is listed as a Superfund site, and the \"Admirals' Row\" group of homes suffer from nearby lead-contaminated soil, thought to be caused by lead-based paint, lead roofing, and lead water mains.\n\nSection::::History.:Haunting.\n", "Section::::Features.:First floor.\n\nBULLET::::1. SECOND ROOM The second room, as it was called in 1853, was a private family sitting room. The fireplace and grate are original. Furniture has been acquired based on an 1853 inventory of the house.\n", "The area surrounding Willowyards and its whisky bond are characterised by a black staining that covers all living and non-living surfaces to varying degrees. The research that first led to the scientific identification of the organism causing this black and velvety encrustation was partly carried out using samples from Willowyard. The organism causing what is commonly known as 'Warehouse Staining', is a black fungus, \"Baudoinia compniacensis\" which is harmless and feeds upon the 'Angels's Share' of alcohol evaporating from the whisky barrels.\n\nSection::::Demographics.\n", "The house has functioned as a paint shop until this day and still bears the Juul name. The long history of the house can be witnessed by entering the store. There's a paint bucket signed by most employees since 1880 and paint samples from a century.\n\nSection::::Architecture.\n", "The house was surrounded with cedars, oaks and magnolia trees, and at one time had an orange grove behind it. The home faces the Gulf of Mexico, and Spanish moss hangs from many of the large old trees on the property.\n", "BULLET::::- There is evidence of rising damp in areas of the coach house and main house, as it is considered that the damp-proof course with which the building was fitted has become ineffective in places;\n\nthere is evidence of fretting of mortar joints in brick courses close to the ground level; increased sub-floor ventilation and repair of joints required;\n\nBULLET::::- Excess watering of plants in garden beds close to the house should be avoided; and\n", "In 2012 the Monell Chemical Senses Center published a press release claiming that the human ability to identify information such as age, illness, and genetic suitability from odor is responsible for the distinctive \"old man smell\". Sensory neuroscientist Johan Lundström stated, \"Elderly people have a discernible underarm odor that younger people consider to be fairly neutral and not very unpleasant.\"\n\nOld person smell is known as in Japan, where it is of particular concern due to the high value placed on personal hygiene.\n", "The original house, built in 1801 and destroyed by fire in or before 1837, was a \"raised Creole house—brick on the first floor supporting a heavy-timber frame above\". At first, it was thought that this house was at the same site as, and the basis for, the current house, until, \"during the process [of the 2008 restoration], the bases of four symmetrically placed chimneys[,] surrounded by charred remains and fragments of brick and broken glass [glass dating to 1800], were discovered buried about 40 feet behind the [current] house.\"\n", "Due to its poor physical state, Drexel 4175 was rebound by conservators Carolyn Horton & Associates in 1981. The cover was separated and a new binding with marbled covers supplied.\n\nSection::::Content.\n", "One study suggested that old person smell may be the result of 2-nonenal, an unsaturated aldehyde which is associated with human body odor alterations during aging; however, there are other hypotheses. Another study failed to detect 2-nonenal at all, but found significantly increased concentrations of benzothiazole, dimethylsulphone, and nonanal on older subjects.\n", "In 2018 the majority of the front doors on the street are painted white. This is unlikely to have been the original finish as when new the grain and colour of wood was very much admired and was often left uncovered with just a sealing coat of varnish. As the original woodwork aged or became damaged the varnish would typically be replaced with an oil based brown or dark green paint.\n\nThe numbering of the houses skips over the number 13, but there is a 10a and 10b.\n", "It was after this that the great clean-up of London began. One by one, historical buildings which, during the previous two centuries had gradually completely blackened externally, had their stone facades cleaned and restored to their original appearance. Victorian buildings whose appearance changed dramatically after cleaning included the British Museum of Natural History. A more recent example was the Palace of Westminster, which was cleaned in the 1980s. A notable exception to the restoration trend was 10 Downing Street, whose bricks upon cleaning in the late 1950s proved to be naturally \"yellow\"; the smog-derived black colour of the façade was considered so iconic that the bricks were painted black to preserve the image. Smog caused by traffic pollution, however, does still occur in modern London.\n", "For the reader's ease of understanding, the archaic term \"whiffletree\" in the song below does not refer to a variety of tree, but, rather, to the cross shaped wooden bar that connects a harnessed draft horse or mule to the carriage which it pulls.\n\nSection::::\"The Old Grey Mare\".\n\npoem\n\nThe Old Grey Mare,\n\nIt ain’t what it used to be,\n\nAin’t what it used to be,\n\nAin’t what it used to be.\n\nThe old grey mare,\n\nIt ain’t what it used to be,\n\nMany long years ago.\n\nThe Old Grey Mare,\n\nIt kicked on the whiffletree,\n\nKicked on the whiffletree,\n", "On 27 February 1939 the new owner of the rectory, Captain W. H. Gregson, was unpacking boxes and accidentally knocked over an oil lamp in the hallway. The fire quickly spread and the house was severely damaged. After investigating the cause of the blaze the insurance company concluded that the fire had been started deliberately.\n", "New owners in the 1970s renovated the property and began restoring the grounds, which had become a \"wilderness\" overgrown with blackberries.\n", "BULLET::::- Internally, cracks have been identified in the house in similar location to those externally, although they are obscured by render, plaster and wallpaper and there are some signs of repair works;\n\nBULLET::::- Runoff from one of three downpipes on the house is collected in an underground tank; the underground tank is presumed to be brick lined and water may seep from the structure; further investigations are recommended in terms of its contribution to excess ground water;\n\nBULLET::::- Cracking is evident on all four elevations of the coach house with the east wall the most severely damaged;\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01934	Why do dextro and levo isomers show such different properties?	For most purposes they will have the same properties, until they start interacting with other things that are isomers themselves. You can imagine two keys that are mirror images for each other that don’t fit in the same lock. It’s more or less the same thing going on, but scaled down to a very tiny size.	[ "BULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-3,4-dimethylnonane\n\nSection::::With nonane backbone.:Diethyl.\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Diethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Diethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Diethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,6-Diethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,7-Diethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,4-Diethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,5-Diethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,6-Diethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5,5-Diethylnonane\n\nSection::::With nonane backbone.:Methyl+Propyl.\n\nBULLET::::- 2-Methyl-4-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Methyl-4-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Methyl-4-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Methyl-4-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Methyl-4-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2-Methyl-5-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Methyl-5-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Methyl-5-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Methyl-5-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2-Methyl-6-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Methyl-6-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2-Methyl-3-(1-methylethyl)nonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2-Methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)nonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)nonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)nonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)nonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)nonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2-Methyl-5-(1-methylethyl)nonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Methyl-5-(1-methylethyl)nonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Methyl-5-(1-methylethyl)nonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Methyl-5-(1-methylethyl)nonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2-Methyl-6-(1-methylethyl)nonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Methyl-6-(1-methylethyl)nonane\n\nSection::::With nonane backbone.:Butyl.\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Butylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-(1-Methylpropyl)nonane (or 5-\"sec\"-Butylnonane)\n\nBULLET::::- 5-(2-Methylpropyl)nonane (or 5-Isobutylnonane)\n\nBULLET::::- 4-(1,1-Dimethylethyl)nonane (or 4-\"tert\"-Butylnonane)\n\nBULLET::::- 5-(1,1-Dimethylethyl)nonane (or 5-\"tert\"-Butylnonane)\n\nSection::::With octane backbone.\n\nSection::::With octane backbone.:Pentamethyl.\n", "BULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,5,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,5,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-3,3,4-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-3,3,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-3,4,4-trimethyloctane\n\nSection::::With octane backbone.:Diethyl+Methyl.\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Diethyl-2-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Diethyl-4-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Diethyl-5-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Diethyl-6-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Diethyl-2-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Diethyl-3-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Diethyl-4-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Diethyl-5-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Diethyl-6-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Diethyl-2-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Diethyl-3-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Diethyl-4-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Diethyl-5-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,6-Diethyl-2-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,6-Diethyl-3-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,6-Diethyl-4-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,4-Diethyl-2-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,4-Diethyl-3-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,4-Diethyl-5-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,5-Diethyl-2-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,5-Diethyl-3-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,5-Diethyl-4-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,6-Diethyl-2-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,6-Diethyl-3-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5,5-Diethyl-2-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5,5-Diethyl-3-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5,6-Diethyl-2-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 6,6-Diethyl-2-methyloctane\n\nSection::::With octane backbone.:Dimethyl+Propyl.\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2-Dimethyl-4-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3-Dimethyl-4-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4-Dimethyl-4-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,5-Dimethyl-4-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,6-Dimethyl-4-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,7-Dimethyl-4-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Dimethyl-4-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Dimethyl-4-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Dimethyl-4-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,6-Dimethyl-4-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,5-Dimethyl-4-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2-Dimethyl-5-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3-Dimethyl-5-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4-Dimethyl-5-propyloctane\n", "Morphine and most of its derivatives do not exhibit optical isomerism, although some more distant relatives like the morphinan series (levorphanol, dextorphan and the racemic parent chemical dromoran) do, and as noted above stereoselectivity in vivo is an important issue.\n", "BULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-6,6-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,2-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,3-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,4-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,5-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,6-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,7-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,8-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-3,3-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-3,4-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-3,5-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-3,6-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-3,7-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-4,5-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-4,6-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-5,5-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-5,6-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,2-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,3-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,4-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,5-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,6-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,7-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,8-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-3,3-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-3,4-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-3,5-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-3,6-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-3,7-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-4,4-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-4,5-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-4,6-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,2-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,3-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,4-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,5-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,6-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,7-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-3,3-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-3,4-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-3,5-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-3,6-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-4,4-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,2-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,3-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,4-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,5-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,6-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,7-dimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-3,3-dimethylnonane\n", "Isomers of natural tetrahydrocannabinol:\n\nBULLET::::- tetrahydrocannabinol, the following isomers and their stereochemical variants:\n\nBULLET::::- (9R)-Δ-tetrahydrocannabinol — 7,8,9,10-tetrahydro-6,6,9-trimethyl-3-pentyl-6H-dibenzo[b,d]pyran-1-ol\n\nBULLET::::- (9R,10aR)-Δ-tetrahydrocannabinol — (9R,10aR)-8,9,10,10a-tetrahydro-6,6,9-trimethyl-3-pentyl-6H-dibenzo[b,d]pyran-1-ol\n\nBULLET::::- (6aR,9R,10aR)-Δ-tetrahydrocannabinol — (6aR,9R,10aR)-6a,9,10,10a-tetrahydro-6,6,9-trimethyl-3-pentyl-6H-dibenzo[b,d]pyran-1-ol\n\nBULLET::::- (6aR,10aR)-Δ-tetrahydrocannabinol — (6aR,10aR)-6a,7,10,10a-tetrahydro-6,6,9-trimethyl-3-pentyl-6H-dibenzo[b,d]pyran-1-ol\n\nBULLET::::- (6aR,9R)-Δ-tetrahydrocannabinol — 6a,7,8,9-tetrahydro-6,6,9-trimethyl-3-pentyl-6H-dibenzo[b,d]pyran-1-ol\n\nBULLET::::- (6aR,10aR)-Δ-tetrahydrocannabinol — (6aR,10aR)-6a,7,8,9,10,10a-hexahydro-6,6-dimethyl-9-methylene-3-pentyl-6H-dibenzo[b,d]pyran-1-ol\n\nDissociatives:\n\nBULLET::::- eticyclidine (PCE)\n\nBULLET::::- rolicyclidine (PHP, PCPy)\n\nBULLET::::- tenocyclidine (TCP)\n\nErgolines:\n\nBULLET::::- LSD\n\nThe stereoisomers of substances in Schedule I are also controlled, unless specifically excepted, whenever the existence of such\n\nstereoisomers is possible within the specific chemical designation.\n\nSalts of all the substances covered by the four schedules, whenever the existence of such salts is possible, are also under international control.\n", "BULLET::::- 5,6-Diethyl-2-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5,6-Diethyl-3-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5,7-Diethyl-2-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6,6-Diethyl-2-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6,6-Diethyl-3-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6,7-Diethyl-2-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7,7-Diethyl-2-methylnonane\n\nSection::::With nonane backbone.:Dimethyl+Propyl.\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2-Dimethyl-4-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3-Dimethyl-4-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4-Dimethyl-4-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,5-Dimethyl-4-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,6-Dimethyl-4-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,7-Dimethyl-4-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,8-Dimethyl-4-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Dimethyl-4-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Dimethyl-4-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Dimethyl-4-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,6-Dimethyl-4-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,7-Dimethyl-4-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,5-Dimethyl-4-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,6-Dimethyl-4-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5,5-Dimethyl-4-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5,6-Dimethyl-4-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2-Dimethyl-5-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3-Dimethyl-5-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4-Dimethyl-5-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,5-Dimethyl-5-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,6-Dimethyl-5-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,7-Dimethyl-5-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,8-Dimethyl-5-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Dimethyl-5-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Dimethyl-5-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Dimethyl-5-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,6-Dimethyl-5-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,7-Dimethyl-5-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,4-Dimethyl-5-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,5-Dimethyl-5-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,6-Dimethyl-5-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2-Dimethyl-6-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3-Dimethyl-6-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4-Dimethyl-6-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,5-Dimethyl-6-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,6-Dimethyl-6-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,7-Dimethyl-6-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Dimethyl-6-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Dimethyl-6-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Dimethyl-6-propylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,6-Dimethyl-6-propylnonane\n", "BULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,3,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,3,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,3,7-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,4,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,4,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,4,7-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,5,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,5,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,5,7-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,6,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-3,3,4-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-3,3,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-3,3,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-3,4,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-3,4,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-3,5,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-3,5,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-4,5,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,2,3-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,2,4-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,2,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,2,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,2,7-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,3,3-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,3,4-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,3,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,3,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,3,7-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,4,4-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,4,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,4,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,5,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,6,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-3,3,4-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-3,3,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-3,3,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-3,4,4-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-3,4,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,2,3-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,2,4-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,2,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,2,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,2,7-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,3,3-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,3,4-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,3,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,3,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,4,4-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,4,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,4,6-trimethyloctane\n", "Also, for artificial compounds, including medicines, in case of chiral drugs, the two enantiomers sometimes show remarkable difference in effect of their biological actions. Darvon (dextropropoxyphene) is a painkiller, whereas its enantiomer, Novrad (levopropoxyphene) is an anti-cough agent. In case of penicillamine, the (\"S\"-isomer used in treatment of primary chronic arthritis, whereas the (\"R\")-isomer has no therapeutic effect as well as being highly toxic. In some cases the less therapeutically active enantiomer can cause side effects. For example, (\"S\"-naproxen is an analgesic but the (\"R\"-isomer cause renal problems. The naturally occurring plant form of alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) is RRR-α-tocopherol whereas the synthetic form (all-racemic vitamin E, or dl-tocopherol) is equal parts of the stereoisomers RRR, RRS, RSS, SSS, RSR, SRS, SRR and SSR with progressively decreasing biological equivalency, so that 1.36 mg of dl-tocopherol is considered equivalent to 1.0 mg of d-tocopherol.\n", "BULLET::::- 3,4-Diethyl-3,4-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Diethyl-3,5-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Diethyl-4,5-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Diethyl-2,2-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Diethyl-2,3-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Diethyl-2,4-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Diethyl-2,5-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Diethyl-2,6-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Diethyl-3,4-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Diethyl-3,5-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Diethyl-4,4-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,4-Diethyl-2,2-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,4-Diethyl-2,3-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,4-Diethyl-2,5-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,4-Diethyl-2,6-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,4-Diethyl-3,3-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,4-Diethyl-3,5-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,5-Diethyl-2,2-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,5-Diethyl-2,3-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,5-Diethyl-2,4-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,5-Diethyl-2,5-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,5-Diethyl-3,3-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 5,5-Diethyl-2,2-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 5,5-Diethyl-2,3-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 5,5-Diethyl-2,4-dimethylheptane\n\nSection::::With heptane backbone.:Triethyl.\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3,4-Triethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3,5-Triethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4,4-Triethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4,5-Triethylheptane\n\nSection::::With heptane backbone.:Trimethyl+Propyl.\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,3-Trimethyl-4-propylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,4-Trimethyl-4-propylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,5-Trimethyl-4-propylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,6-Trimethyl-4-propylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,3-Trimethyl-4-propylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,4-Trimethyl-4-propylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,5-Trimethyl-4-propylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,6-Trimethyl-4-propylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4,5-Trimethyl-4-propylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4,6-Trimethyl-4-propylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,5,5-Trimethyl-4-propylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3,4-Trimethyl-4-propylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3,5-Trimethyl-4-propylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4,5-Trimethyl-4-propylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,3-Trimethyl-3-(1-methylethyl)heptane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,4-Trimethyl-3-(1-methylethyl)heptane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,5-Trimethyl-3-(1-methylethyl)heptane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,6-Trimethyl-3-(1-methylethyl)heptane\n", "The stereoselective nature of most biochemical reactions meant that different enantiomers of a chemical may have different properties and effects on a person. Many psychotropic drugs show differing activity or efficacy between isomers, e.g. amphetamine is often dispensed as racemic salts while the more active dextroamphetamine is reserved for refractory cases or more severe indications; another example is methadone, of which one isomer has activity as an opioid agonist and the other as an NMDA antagonist.\n", "BULLET::::- 2,5-Dimethyl-5-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,6-Dimethyl-5-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Dimethyl-5-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Dimethyl-5-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Dimethyl-5-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,4-Dimethyl-5-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2-Dimethyl-3-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3-Dimethyl-3-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4-Dimethyl-3-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,5-Dimethyl-3-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,6-Dimethyl-3-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,7-Dimethyl-3-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2-Dimethyl-4-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3-Dimethyl-4-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4-Dimethyl-4-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,5-Dimethyl-4-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,6-Dimethyl-4-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,7-Dimethyl-4-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Dimethyl-4-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Dimethyl-4-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Dimethyl-4-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,6-Dimethyl-4-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,5-Dimethyl-4-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2-Dimethyl-5-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3-Dimethyl-5-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4-Dimethyl-5-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,5-Dimethyl-5-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,6-Dimethyl-5-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Dimethyl-5-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Dimethyl-5-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Dimethyl-5-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,4-Dimethyl-5-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nSection::::With octane backbone.:Ethyl+Propyl.\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-4-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-4-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-4-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-5-propyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-4-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-4-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-4-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-5-(1-methylethyl)octane\n\nSection::::With octane backbone.:Butyl+Methyl.\n\nBULLET::::- 2-Methyl-4-(1-methylpropyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Methyl-4-(1-methylpropyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 2-Methyl-4-(2-methylpropyl)octane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-(1,1-Dimethylethyl)-2-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-(1,1-Dimethylethyl)-3-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-(1,1-Dimethylethyl)-4-methyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-(1,1-Dimethylethyl)-5-methyloctane\n", "In trials performed on rats, it has been found that after subcutaneous administration of phenmetrazine, both optical isomers are equally effective in reducing food intake, but in oral administration the levo isomer is more effective. In terms of central stimulation however, the dextro isomer is about 4 times as effective in both methods of administration.\n\nSection::::Chemistry.\n", "BULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-3,3,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-3,3,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-3,4,4-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-3,4,5-trimethylnonane\n\nSection::::With nonane backbone.:Diethyl+Methyl.\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Diethyl-2-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Diethyl-4-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Diethyl-5-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Diethyl-6-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Diethyl-7-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Diethyl-2-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Diethyl-3-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Diethyl-4-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Diethyl-5-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Diethyl-6-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Diethyl-7-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Diethyl-2-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Diethyl-3-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Diethyl-4-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Diethyl-5-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Diethyl-6-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,5-Diethyl-7-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,6-Diethyl-2-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,6-Diethyl-3-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,6-Diethyl-4-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,6-Diethyl-5-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,6-Diethyl-6-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,7-Diethyl-2-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,7-Diethyl-3-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,7-Diethyl-4-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,7-Diethyl-5-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,4-Diethyl-2-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,4-Diethyl-3-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,4-Diethyl-5-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,4-Diethyl-6-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,5-Diethyl-2-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,5-Diethyl-3-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,5-Diethyl-4-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,5-Diethyl-5-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,5-Diethyl-6-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,6-Diethyl-2-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,6-Diethyl-3-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,6-Diethyl-4-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,6-Diethyl-5-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,7-Diethyl-2-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,7-Diethyl-3-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5,5-Diethyl-2-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5,5-Diethyl-3-methylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 5,5-Diethyl-4-methylnonane\n", "Dextroamphetamine (the dextrorotary enantiomer) and levoamphetamine (the levorotary enantiomer) have identical pharmacodynamics, but their binding affinities to their biomolecular targets vary. Dextroamphetamine is a more potent agonist of TAAR1 than levoamphetamine. Consequently, dextroamphetamine produces roughly three to four times more central nervous system (CNS) stimulation than levoamphetamine; however, levoamphetamine has slightly greater cardiovascular and peripheral effects.\n\nSection::::History, society, and culture.\n", "BULLET::::- 2,4,4,5,7-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4,4,6,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4,5,5,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4,5,6,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,5,5,6,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3,4,4,5-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3,4,4,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3,4,5,5-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3,4,5,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3,4,6,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3,5,5,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4,4,5,5-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4,4,5,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nSection::::With octane backbone.:Ethyl+Trimethyl.\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-2,2,3-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-2,2,4-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-2,2,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-2,2,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-2,2,7-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-2,3,4-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-2,3,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-2,3,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-2,3,7-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-2,4,4-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-2,4,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-2,4,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-2,4,7-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-2,5,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-2,5,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-2,5,7-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-2,6,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-2,6,7-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-3,4,4-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-3,4,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-3,4,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-3,5,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-3,5,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-3,6,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-4,4,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-4,4,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-4,5,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-4,5,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,2,3-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,2,4-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,2,5-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,2,6-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,2,7-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,3,3-trimethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,3,4-trimethyloctane\n", "BULLET::::- 2,2,3,3,4-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,3,3,5-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,3,3,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,3,3,7-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,3,4,4-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,3,4,5-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,3,4,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,3,4,7-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,3,5,5-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,3,5,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,3,5,7-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,3,6,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,3,6,7-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,3,7,7-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,4,4,5-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,4,4,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,4,4,7-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,4,5,5-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,4,5,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,4,5,7-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,4,6,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,4,6,7-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,4,7,7-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,5,5,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,5,5,7-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,5,6,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,5,6,7-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,6,6,7-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,3,4,4-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,3,4,5-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,3,4,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,3,4,7-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,3,5,5-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,3,5,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,3,5,7-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,3,6,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,3,6,7-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,4,4,5-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,4,4,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,4,4,7-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,4,5,5-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,4,5,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,4,5,7-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,4,6,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,4,6,7-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,5,5,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,5,5,7-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,5,6,6-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4,4,5,5-Pentamethyloctane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4,4,5,6-Pentamethyloctane\n", "BULLET::::- 3,6,6-Trimethyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,6,7-Trimethyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,7,7-Trimethyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,4,5-Trimethyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,4,6-Trimethyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,4,7-Trimethyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,5,5-Trimethyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,5,6-Trimethyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,5,7-Trimethyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 4,6,6-Trimethyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 5,5,6-Trimethyldecane\n\nSection::::With decane backbone.:Ethyl+Methyl.\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-2-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-3-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-4-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-5-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-6-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-7-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-8-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-3-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-4-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-5-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-6-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-7-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-3-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-4-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-5-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-6-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-3-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-4-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-3-methyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 8-Ethyl-2-methyldecane\n\nSection::::With decane backbone.:Propyl.\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Propyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Propyldecane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-(1-Methylethyl)decane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-(1-Methylethyl)decane\n\nSection::::With nonane backbone.\n\nSection::::With nonane backbone.:Tetramethyl.\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,3,3-Tetramethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,3,4-Tetramethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,3,5-Tetramethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,3,6-Tetramethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,3,7-Tetramethylnonane\n", "Section::::With dodecane backbone.:Ethyl.\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyldodecane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyldodecane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyldodecane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyldodecane\n\nSection::::With undecane backbone.\n\nSection::::With undecane backbone.:Trimethyl.\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,3-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,4-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,5-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,6-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,7-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,8-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,9-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,2,10-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,3-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,4-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,5-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,6-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,7-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,8-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,9-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,3,10-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4,4-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4,5-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4,6-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4,7-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4,8-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4,9-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,4,10-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,5,5-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,5,6-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,5,7-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,5,8-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,5,9-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,5,10-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,6,6-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,6,7-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,6,8-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,6,9-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,6,10-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,7,7-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,7,8-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,7,9-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,8,8-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,8,9-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 2,9,9-Trimethylundecane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3,4-Trimethylundecane\n", "These direct cardiac effects include decreased heart rate (i.e. cardiovascular depression), decreased contractility, and decreased electrical conductivity (i.e., increased PR, AH, HV, and QRS intervals). These effects appear to be due to their local anesthetic activity and are not reversed by naloxone. Widening of the QRS complex appears to be a result of a quinidine-like effect of propoxyphene, and sodium bicarbonate therapy appears to have a positive direct effect on the QRS dysrhythmia.\n\nSeizures may result from either opioid or local anesthetic effects. Pulmonary edema may result from direct pulmonary toxicity, neurogenic/anoxic effects, or cardiovascular depression.\n", "BULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,2,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,2,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,2,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,2,8-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,3,3-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,3,4-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,3,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,3,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,3,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,3,8-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,4,4-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,4,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,4,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,4,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,5,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,5,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,5,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,6,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-2,7,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-3,3,4-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-3,3,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-3,3,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-3,3,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-3,4,4-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-3,4,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-3,4,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-3,5,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-3,5,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 6-Ethyl-4,4,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,2,3-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,2,4-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,2,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,2,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,2,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,2,8-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,3,3-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,3,4-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,3,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,3,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,3,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,4,4-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,4,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,4,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,4,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,5,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,5,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,5,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,6,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-2,6,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 7-Ethyl-3,3,4-trimethylnonane\n", "BULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-3,4,4,5-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-3,4,5,5-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,2,3,3-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,2,3,4-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,2,3,5-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,2,3,6-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,2,4,5-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,2,4,6-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,2,5,6-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,2,6,6-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,3,3,4-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,3,3,5-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,3,3,6-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,3,4,5-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,3,4,6-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,3,5,5-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,3,5,6-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,4,5,5-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-3,3,4,5-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-3,3,5,5-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,2,3,3-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,2,3,4-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,2,3,5-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,2,3,6-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,2,4,4-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,2,4,5-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,2,4,6-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,2,5,6-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,3,3,4-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,3,3,5-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,3,3,6-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,3,4,4-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,3,4,5-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-2,4,4,5-tetramethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 5-Ethyl-3,3,4,4-tetramethylheptane\n\nSection::::With heptane backbone.:Diethyl+Dimethyl.\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Diethyl-2,2-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Diethyl-2,4-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Diethyl-2,5-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Diethyl-2,6-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Diethyl-4,4-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Diethyl-4,5-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,3-Diethyl-5,5-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Diethyl-2,2-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Diethyl-2,3-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Diethyl-2,4-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Diethyl-2,5-dimethylheptane\n\nBULLET::::- 3,4-Diethyl-2,6-dimethylheptane\n", "BULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-3,4,4-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-3,4,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-3,4,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-3,4,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-3,5,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-3,5,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-3,5,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-3,6,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-3,6,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-3,7,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-4,4,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-4,4,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-4,4,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-4,5,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-4,5,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-4,5,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-4,6,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-4,6,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-5,5,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-5,5,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 3-Ethyl-5,6,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,2,3-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,2,4-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,2,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,2,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,2,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,2,8-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,3,3-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,3,4-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,3,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,3,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,3,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,3,8-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,4,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,4,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,4,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,4,8-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,5,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,5,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,5,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,5,8-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,6,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,6,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,6,8-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-2,7,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-3,3,4-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-3,3,5-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-3,3,6-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-3,3,7-trimethylnonane\n\nBULLET::::- 4-Ethyl-3,4,5-trimethylnonane\n", "Section::::Diastereomers.\n\nDiastereomers are stereoisomers not related through a reflection operation. They are not mirror images of each other. These include meso compounds, \"cis\"–\"trans\" isomers, E-Z isomers, and non-enantiomeric optical isomers. Diastereomers seldom have the same physical properties. In the example shown below, the meso form of tartaric acid forms a diastereomeric pair with both levo and dextro tartaric acids, which form an enantiomeric pair.\n", "Isomers having different medical properties are common; for example, the placement of methyl groups. In substituted xanthines, theobromine, found in chocolate, is a vasodilator with some effects in common with caffeine; but, if one of the two methyl groups is moved to a different position on the two-ring core, the isomer is theophylline, which has a variety of effects, including bronchodilation and anti-inflammatory action. Another example of this occurs in the phenethylamine-based stimulant drugs. Phentermine is a non-chiral compound with a weaker effect than that of amphetamine. It is used as an appetite-reducing medication and has mild or no stimulant properties. However, a different atomic arrangement gives dextromethamphetamine, which is a stronger stimulant than amphetamine.\n", "The proper name for this molecule is either \"trans\"-2-fluoro-3-methylpent-2-ene because the alkyl groups that form the backbone chain (i.e., methyl and ethyl) reside across the double bond from each other, or (Z)-2-fluoro-3-methylpent-2-ene because the highest-priority groups on each side of the double bond are on the same side of the double bond. Fluoro is the highest-priority group on the left side of the double bond, and ethyl is the highest-priority group on the right side of the molecule.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Dextro and Levo Isomers have different properties." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "They have similar properties until they react with other things." ]
2018-11737	How come when you swim in the ocean, salt water irritates your eyes but when you cry it doesn’t?	The ocean is very salty compared to your tears. Theres other crap in oceans as well like microbes and pollution and tiny suspended air bubbles/particles. Probably sand in there as well. Id say its mostly just really salty	[ "Water in the eye can alter the optical properties of the eye and blur vision. It can also wash away the tear fluid—along with it the protective lipid layer—and can alter corneal physiology, due to osmotic differences between tear fluid and freshwater. Osmotic effects are made apparent when swimming in freshwater pools, because the osmotic gradient draws water from the pool into the corneal tissue (the pool water is hypotonic), causing edema, and subsequently leaving the swimmer with \"cloudy\" or \"misty\" vision for a short period thereafter. The edema can be reversed by irrigating the eye with hypertonic saline which osmotically draws the excess water out of the eye.\n", "Section::::Missions.:Mission in the Aegean Sea: December 2015 to March 2016.\n\nHaving received a \"tidal wave of support\" in donations following the death of Alan Kurdi, MOAS expanded its mission to the Aegean Sea between December 2015 and April 2016.\n", "You Can Cry\n\n\"You Can Cry\" is a song by American music producer Marshmello and American rapper Juicy J, featuring guest vocals from British singer James Arthur. Written and produced by Marshmello, with additional writing from Juicy J, Charlie Puth and Christian Rich, it was released by Joytime Collective on May 4, 2018.\n\nSection::::Release and composition.\n", "Light rays bend when they travel from one medium to another; the amount of bending is determined by the refractive indices of the two media. If one medium has a particular curved shape, it functions as a lens. The cornea, humours, and crystalline lens of the eye together form a lens that focuses images on the retina. The human eye is adapted for viewing in air. Water, however, has approximately the same refractive index as the cornea (both about 1.33), effectively eliminating the cornea's focusing properties. When immersed in water, instead of focusing images on the retina, they are focused behind the retina, resulting in an extremely blurred image from hypermetropia.\n", "Feinberg had said claimants would have to surrender their right to sue BP to receive payments beyond emergency disbursements. The deadline to apply for emergency payments expired 23 November. But after Gulf residents complained that the emergency payments were so small that they felt pushed into a hurried settlement to get more money, Feinberg made a concession. Under the new rules (beginning 24 November and lasting until 23 August 2013), businesses and individuals may request compensation once a quarter while they decide whether to permanently settle their claim. Still, the claims process has its critics. Alabama Rep. Jo Bonner asked the Justice Department to investigate the claims facility and to assume direct oversight of the process, saying he had no more trust in the new process than he had in the emergency-payment program. Feinberg had said he would hire his own adjusters, but according to Rep. Bonner, he is still using the same ones as when BP administered the fund. A spokeswoman for Feinberg said the hiring process of new adjusters was under way.\n", "The presence of chlorine in traditional swimming pools can be described as a combination of free available chlorine (FAC) and combined available chlorine (CAC). While FAC is composed of the free chlorine that is available for sanitizing the water, the CAC includes chloramines, which are formed by the reaction of FAC with amines (introduced into the pool by human perspiration, saliva, mucus, urine, and other biologics). Chloramines are responsible for the \"chlorine smell\" of pools, as well as skin and eye irritation. These problems are the result of insufficient levels of free available chlorine, and indicate a pool that must be \"shocked\" by the addition of 5-10 times the normal amount of chlorine. In saltwater pools , the generator uses electrolysis to continuously produce free chlorine. It also burns off chloramines in the same manner as traditional shock (oxidizer). As with traditionally chlorinated pools, saltwater pools must be monitored in order to maintain proper water chemistry. Low chlorine levels can be caused by insufficient salt, incorrect (low) chlorine-generation setting on the SWG unit, higher-than-normal chlorine demand, low stabilizer, sun exposure, insufficient pump speed, or mechanical issues with the chlorine generator. Salt count can be lowered due to splash-out, backwashing, and dilution via rainwater.\n", "Marlins manager Jack McKeon called Burnett into his office and broke the news. Burnett shook his hand, gathered up his belongings, and left. Burnett has since apologized, saying:\n", "One possible case in the southern hemisphere is Tropical Cyclone Kelvin in 2018. Shortly after making landfall over Western Australia, Kelvin developed a clear eye and continued strengthening despite moving over the Great Sandy Desert, where most tropical cyclones rapidly weaken.\n\nTropical Storm Alberto of 2018 is another example of the brown ocean effect. The storm sustained its strength as a Tropical Depression after landfall, lasting for an additional three days after its landfall. Alberto became one of only eleven cyclones to reach Lake Huron as a tropical depression.\n", "In addition, the only recorded recovery of gas hydrates in the Gulf of Mexico from depths greater than 66 fbsf (20 mbsf) occurred at DSDP Site 618 in Orca basin. The recovery of biogenic methane hydrate from Orca basin is also significant due to the high salinity values, which at the sediment/water interface were nearly 5 times as high as those found in the Red Sea (with salinity values of 240-260 PSU). The values decreased rapidly with depth to about 98 fbsf (30 mbsf) before becoming constant (48-56 PSU). The hydrate recovered from both sites in Orca Basin were in the range of 85-121 fbsf (26-37 mbsf) and are physical evidence of the decreased salinity levels.\n", "During one scene inside the former gas chamber at the Majdanek concentration camp, Liron Artzi, a partially sighted lawyer from Tel Aviv, is overcome with emotion. Her dog Petel responds to her distress by licking the tears from her face. Artzi described it as a \"powerful experience\" in a later interview, saying \"Petel understood what was going on. It was like she was telling me ‘I am here with you in every moment.’\"\n", "Light rays bend when they travel from one medium to another; the amount of bending is determined by the refractive indices of the two media. If one medium has a particular curved shape, it functions as a lens. The cornea, humours, and crystalline lens of the eye together form a lens that focuses images on the retina. Our eyes are adapted for viewing in air. Water, however, has approximately the same refractive index as the cornea (both about 1.33), so immersion effectively eliminates the cornea's focusing properties. When our eyes are in water, instead of focusing images on the retina, they now focus them far behind the retina, resulting in an extremely blurred image from hypermetropia.\n", "BULLET::::- Haloclines, or strong, vertical salinity gradients. For instance where fresh water enters the sea, the fresh water floats over the denser saline water and may not mix immediately. Sometimes visual effects, such as shimmering and reflection, occur at the boundary between the layers, because the refractive indices differ.\n", "Section::::Distinction from traditional pool chlorination.\n", "Lacritin stimulated secretion of tear proteins lipocalin and lactoferrin from monkey lacrimal acinar cells does not appear to be mediated by Ca, unlike the agonist carbachol. When monkey lacrimal acinar cells are stressed with inflammatory cytokines (as occurs in dry eye), carbachol loses its capacity to promote the secretion of lipocalin. However, lacritin stimulates lipocalin secretion even in the presence of stress.\n\nSection::::Distribution.\n\nSection::::Distribution.:Species.\n", "For crying to be described as sobbing, it usually has to be accompanied by a set of other symptoms, such as slow but erratic inhalation, occasional instances of breath holding and muscular tremor.\n", "Bone conduction plays a major role in underwater hearing when the head is in contact with the water (not inside a helmet), but human hearing underwater, in cases where the diver’s ear is wet, is less sensitive than in air.\n", "Section::::Controversy.:Lika Mutal's Response to Controversy.\n", "Rabbi Johanan taught that God does not rejoice in the downfall of the wicked. Rabbi Johanan interpreted the words \"zeh el zeh\" in the phrase \"And one did not come near the other all the night\" in to teach that when the Egyptians were drowning in the sea, the ministering angels wanted to sing a song of rejoicing, as associates the words \"zeh el zeh\" with angelic singing. But God rebuked them: \"The work of my hands is being drowned in the sea, and you want to sing songs?\" Rabbi Eleazar replied that a close reading of shows that God does not rejoice personally, but does make others rejoice.\n", "As mentioned above, a refractive cornea is only useful out of water. In water, there is little difference in refractive index between the vitreous fluid and the surrounding water. Hence creatures that have returned to the water—penguins and seals, for example—lose their highly curved cornea and return to lens-based vision. An alternative solution, borne by some divers, is to have a very strongly focusing cornea.\n\nSection::::Types.:Non-compound eyes.:Reflector eyes.\n", "Rabbi Johanan taught that God does not rejoice in the downfall of the wicked. Rabbi Johanan interpreted the words \"zeh el zeh\" in the phrase \"And one did not come near the other all the night\" in to teach that when the Egyptians were drowning in the sea, the ministering angels wanted to sing a song of rejoicing, as associates the words \"zeh el zeh\" with angelic singing. But God rebuked them: \"The work of my hands is being drowned in the sea, and you want to sing songs?\" Rabbi Eleazar replied that a close reading of shows that God does not rejoice personally, but does make others rejoice.\n", "Section::::Missions.:2015 Mission in the Central Mediterranean.\n\nMOAS continued to operate in the Central Mediterranean Sea between May and September 2015, during which time it assisted almost 9,000 refugees, bringing its total number of lives saved until the end of 2015 to 12,000.\n\nDoctors Without Borders partnered with MOAS from May to September 2015 on board the MY \"Phoenix\" where they cared for 6,985 people rescued at sea after rescue by MOAS. The 6 person team included logistics, publicity and medical teams who cared for migrants on board the \"Phoenix\" needing treatment for conditions ranging from dehydration to gunshot wounds.\n", "BULLET::::- KJV: \"The earth is moved at the noise of their fall, at the cry the noise thereof was heard in the Red sea.\"\n\nBULLET::::- other translations:\n\nBULLET::::- NJPS: \"At the sound of their downfall The earth shall shake; The sound of screaming Shall be heard at the Sea of Reeds.\"\n\nBULLET::::- A translation of this text does not occur at this point in the Septuagint. An approximate correspondence is found at Jeremiah 29:21, referring to just \"the sea\".\n", "After sitting out all of 2017, Reyes began rehabbing in 2018. In a rehab start on May 19 with the Springfield Cardinals he pitched 7 scoreless innings, allowing only one hit and striking out 13, tying Springfield's team record. On May 24 during a rehab start with the Memphis Redbirds, Reyes struck out nine consecutive batters, making him the first pitcher in Pacific Coast League history to strike out nine batters in a row. In four total rehab starts between Springfield, the Peoria Chiefs, Palm Beach Cardinals and Memphis, he pitched 23 scoreless innings in which he struck out 44, walked seven, and gave up only seven hits. \n", "There shone one woman, and none but she.\n\nAnd finding life for her love's sake fail,\n\nBeing fain to see her, he bade set sail,\n\nTouched land, and saw her as life grew cold,\n\nAnd praised God, seeing; and so died he./poem\n\npoemDied, praising God for his gift and grace:\n\nFor she bowed down to him weeping, and said\n\n\"Live\"; and her tears were shed on his face\n\nOr ever the life in his face was shed.\n\nThe sharp tears fell through her hair, and stung\n\nOnce, and her close lips touched him and clung\n", "But ASR is not limited to the intertidal environment. Most tropical and temperate fish species living in stagnant waters engage in ASR during hypoxia. One study looked at 26 species representing eight families of non-air breathing fishes from the North American great plains, and found that all but four of them performed ASR during hypoxia. Another study looked at 24 species of tropical fish common to the pet trade, from tetras to barbs to cichlids, and found that all of them performed ASR. An unusual situation in which ASR is performed is during winter, in lakes covered by ice, at the interface between water and ice or near air bubbles trapped underneath the ice.\n" ]	[ "If swimming in the ocean causes irritation in the eyes, then crying should also cause irritation." ]	[ "The ocean is much more salty than tears, other particles in the ocean would cause much more irritation as well. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If swimming in the ocean causes irritation in the eyes, then crying should also cause irritation.", "If swimming in the ocean causes irritation in the eyes, then crying should also cause irritation." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The ocean is much more salty than tears, other particles in the ocean would cause much more irritation as well. ", "The ocean is much more salty than tears, other particles in the ocean would cause much more irritation as well. " ]
2018-13483	Why do stairs always exhaust me so easily if I’m in pretty good shape?	You need to output a lot of energy, more than you might realize, compared to walking a similar speed on flat ground. When walking, it takes energy to get your body moving. But the only thing holding you back afterwards is inefficiency in moving your own bones/muscles. Think of how easy it is to get a bike moving on a flat surface, then glide without pedaling very much. Or how efficient trains are, which can maintain momentum instead of needing to start/stop wastefully. Each stair you climb requires enough energy to move your body mass that distance directly against the force of gravity. There is no equivalent force directly opposing your movement while walking/jogging on a flat surface.	[ "It is easy to incorporate endurance, flexibility and strength activities into your daily routine for active living. Activities such as normal household chores can fit into more than one of the above categories, and it is simple enough to switch to using the stairs instead of taking the elevators at work.\n\nSection::::Recommendations.\n", "However, a basic straight flight of stairs is easier to design and construct than one with landings or winders. Although the rhythm of stepping is not interrupted in a straight run, which may offset the increased fall risk by helping to prevent a misstep in the first place, many stairs will require landings or winders to comply with safety standards in the Building Regulations.\n", "Stair climbing\n\nStair climbing is the climbing of a flight of stairs. It is often described as a \"low-impact\" exercise, often for people who have recently started trying to get in shape. \n\nA common exhortation in health pop culture is \"Take the stairs, not the elevator\".\n\nSection::::Energy expenditure.\n", "In one study based on mean oxygen uptake and heart rate, researchers estimated that ascending a 15 cm (5.9 inches) step expends 0.46 kJ (0.11 kcal) for the average person, and descending a step expends 0.21 kJ (0.05 kcal). The study concluded that stair-climbing met the minimum requirements for cardiorespiratory benefits, and considered stair-climbing suitable for promotion of physical activity.\n\nSection::::Competitive sport.\n", "Though the muscle is doing a negative amount of mechanical work, (work is being done \"on\" the muscle), chemical energy (in fat, glucose or ATP) is nevertheless consumed, although less than would be consumed during a concentric contraction of the same force. For example, one expends more energy going up a flight of stairs than going down the same flight.\n", "\"The Jazz Man\" is the story of a nine-year-old boy named Zeke, who lives with his parents on the top floor of a brownstone in Harlem. The story begins with Zeke remembering an old home he used to live in down South. He later explains how the five flights of stairs he usually walked up to get home made his \"legs ache beat hot and fast when he first came to live there.\" Over time, he got used to the stairs, but the stairs still troubled his mother. At night, when she returned from work, he would often hear her struggling to climb up the long flights of stairs.\n", "Sliding backwards feet first is the safest approach to descending stairs due to the fact that the midline of the body is closer to the staircase providing an even weight distribution on all four limbs . This might explain why it is exceptionally difficult for older people to descend stairs, because their midline is so far way due to longer arms and legs.\n", "BULLET::::- Participants in Philadelphia's monthly Critical Mass bike ride generally finish up by cycling to the Rocky Steps, hoisting their bicycles, running up the steps, then lifting their bikes above their heads.\n\nBULLET::::- In a Reebok campaign, Allen Iverson, then with the Philadelphia 76ers, ran up the steps while dribbling a basketball.\n\nBULLET::::- In the \"Boy Meets World\" episode, \"The Witches of Pennbrook\" Eric says that he and Jack are going to run up the steps and had been planning it for months.\n", "Section::::Biomechanics.:Ground reaction force.\n", "Spiral stairs have the disadvantage of being very steep - only if they are tight or are otherwise not supported by a center column. This is because of two reasons:\n", "On average in this study, infants learned to crawl and cruise before learning to ascend stairs independently. Infants were able to climb up the stairs before they could walk, but walking tended to come before independent stair descent. While most of the infants had prior stair experience, the presence or absence of stairs in the home did not influence the onsets of crawling, cruising or stair descent. However, lack of exposure to stairs resulted in a significant time-lag between first learning to ascend and to descend. Differences in housing types created a so-called 'suburban advantage' (i.e. houses with stairs versus flats/apartments without).\n", "Level, unobstructed landings should be provided at the top and bottom of every flight. The width and length being at least that of the width of the stairs and can include part of the floor. A door may swing across the landing at the bottom of the flight but must leave a clear space of at least across the whole landing\n\nTapered steps – \n\nThere are special rules for stairs with tapered steps as shown in the image Example of Winder Stairs above\n\nAlternate tread stairs can be provide in space saving situations\n\nGuarding – \n", "This energy expenditure is very large compared to the basal resting metabolic rate of the adult human body. This rate varies somewhat with size, gender and age but is typically between 45 W and 85 W.\n\nSection::::Metabolic changes.\n\nSection::::Metabolic changes.:Rapid energy sources.\n", "Nicolas-François Blondel in the last volume of his \"Cours d'architecture\" (1675–1683) was the first known person to establish the ergonomic relationship of tread and riser dimensions. He specified that 2 x riser + tread = step length.\n\nIt is estimated that a noticeable mis-step occurs once in 7,398 uses and a minor accident on a flight of stairs occurs once in 63,000 uses. Stairs can be a hazardous obstacle for some, so some people choose to live in residences without stairs so that they are protected from injury.\n", "Other research suggests that infants’ descent strategies may be related to their cognitive abilities. This is why most parents teach their children to back down stairs, even though it’s the safest it is also the most cognitively difficult descent strategy.\n\nSection::::Records.\n\nBULLET::::- On 28 September 2014, Christian Riedl climbed Tower 185 in Frankfurt, Germany 71 times in 12 hours for a total of 43,128 ft (13.14 km).\n\nBULLET::::- From 5–6 October 2007, Kurt Hess climbed Esterli Tower in Switzerland 413 times in less than 24 hours for a total of 60,974 ft (18.585 km).\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Tower Running\n\nBULLET::::- Stair climbing sport\n", "An annual competition, 'Girnar Arohan Spardha', is held in Junagadh, India, and involves a race to climb and descend the steps of the Girnar mountain.\n\nSection::::Infants and safe stair descent.\n\nFalling down a flight of stairs or just a couple of steps is very common during infants’ first exposure to stair descent. Infants are more likely to fall down stairs than any other age group. In the United States, approximately 73,000 children between the ages of 6 months and 2 years have reported injury on stairs or steps in 2009.\n", "Mas was born in Artà.\n\nSection::::Career.:Quick-Step Floors (2017–present).\n\nSection::::Career.:Quick-Step Floors (2017–present).:2017.\n", "Section::::Gait Training Using Assistive Devices.:Stairs.\n\nSection::::Gait Training Using Assistive Devices.:Stairs.:Ascending Stairs.\n", "There is a false legend saying that many decades ago, a survey of the health of students was taken, and as Hertford College's students were the heaviest, the college closed off the bridge to force them to take the stairs, giving them extra exercise. However, if the bridge is not used, the students actually climb fewer stairs than if they do use the bridge.\n\nSection::::Building.\n", "Section::::Cardiovascular changes.\n\nSeveral recent studies have indicated that eccentric exercise as in walking down hill has greater beneficial effects on insulin sensitivity, lipid profiles and physical fitness than walking up hill. One study used stairs and elevators\n\nSection::::Sources.\n\nBULLET::::- Aagaard, Per, \"The Use of Eccentric Strength Training to Enhance Maximal Muscle Strength, Explosive Force (RDF) and Muscular Power - Consequences for Athletic\", \"The Open Sports Sciences Journal\", 2010, Volume 3, pp. 52–55.\n", "Energy efficiency in level-ground transport is quantified in terms of the dimensionless \"specific cost of transport\", which is the amount of energy required to carry a unit weight a unit distance. Passive dynamic walkers such as the Cornell Efficient Biped have the same specific cost of transport as humans, 0.20. Not incidentally, passive dynamic walkers have human-like gaits. By comparison, Honda's biped ASIMO, which does not utilize the passive dynamics of its own limbs, has a specific cost of transport of 3.23.\n\nThe current distance record for walking robots, 65.17 km, is held by the passive dynamics based Cornell Ranger.\n", "The pupils came from California, Missouri and Iowa. Girls of delicate constitutions were sent to the Institution, and they became healthier and strong. Beginning very cautiously with the practice of the mildest forms of muscular movement a few minutes each day, they soon were able to practice two or three hours a day in vigorous gymnastic exercises. Many young ladies came with the condition that they were not to go up stairs, for they were not able to ascend a flight of stairs. Almost without exception, within a few months, those most delicate girls found themselves able to practice the more active gymnastic exercises for more than two hours a day, and on occasions walked . Careful measurements of the size of the chest under the arms, of the waist, shoulders, and arms, were made when the pupils entered the school. It was found that the average gain in a single year's training was about in the chest, and much in the same proportion about the waist, arms, and shoulders. All learned to walk with grace and dignity. The progress of the pupils in all the intellectual departments of the school, which were as broad and complete as in any institution in the U.S., was singularly rapid.\n", "The \"Scala Sancta\" may only be ascended on the knees. For common use, the staircase is flanked by four additional staircases, two on each side, constructed circa 1589. In 1724, Pope Benedict XIII covered the marble stairs in wood for their protection, since the marble had been significantly worn away by the many pilgrims ascending the stairs over time. The stairs remained covered until 2019, when they were briefly exposed during a restoration.\n\nSection::::Decoration.\n", "Although the RMR of any person may deviate from the reference value, MET can be thought of as an index of the intensity of activities: for example, an activity with a MET value of 2, such as walking at a slow pace (e.g., 3 km/h) would require twice the energy that an average person consumes at rest (e.g., sitting quietly).\n", "In a study comparing rats active at high altitude versus rats active at sea level, with two sedentary control groups, it was observed that muscle fiber types changed according to homeostatic challenges which led to an increased metabolic efficiency during the beta oxidative cycle and citric acid cycle, showing an increased utilization of ATP for aerobic performance.\n" ]	[ "If a person is in good shape, they should not be exhausted by walking up stairs." ]	[ "Walking up the stairs causes a massive output of energy, that will cause people to exert more energy than they'd expect. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If a person is in good shape, they should not be exhausted by walking up stairs.", "If a person is in good shape, they should not be exhausted by walking up stairs." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Walking up the stairs causes a massive output of energy, that will cause people to exert more energy than they'd expect. ", "Walking up the stairs causes a massive output of energy, that will cause people to exert more energy than they'd expect. " ]
2018-03826	Why do advertisers hold so much power? A lot of sites like Reddit are trying to be "advertiser friendly", to make money, but do advertisements really pay that much? Are ads really so useful to to the company that they will splash that much money?	For many entertainment platforms, advertisers are the only source of income, or the extreme majority of their income. If the advertisers are unhappy, than there is no money, than there is no show/website/ect.	[ "Contextual advertising has made a major impact on earnings of many websites. Because the advertisements are more targeted, they are more likely to be clicked, thus generating revenue for the owner of the website (and the server of the advertisement). A large part of Google's earnings is from its share of the contextual advertisements served on the millions of webpages running the AdSense program.\n", "Online advertisers can collect data on their ads' effectiveness, such as the size of the potential audience or actual audience response, how a visitor reached their advertisement, whether the advertisement resulted in a sale, and whether an ad actually loaded within a visitor's view. This helps online advertisers improve their ad campaigns over time.\n\nSection::::Benefits of online advertising.:Formatting.\n", "There are many different facets to interactive advertising, including varying methods and types. Using many different types of cognitive tools and advert presentations, organizations can enhance the impact of their campaigns with this type of advertising. According to Thorson (1996), all advertisements can be classified into one of five basic categories, including product/service, public service announcement, issue, corporate and political. Advert types also interact with the user's motives to influence outcomes, or consumer responses, reinforcing the need for Interactive Advertising as a means of persuading potential consumers and target audiences.\n", "In marketing, \"attribution\" is the measurement of effectiveness of particular ads in a consumer's ultimate decision to purchase. Multiple ad impressions may lead to a consumer \"click\" or other action. A single action may lead to revenue being paid to multiple ad space sellers.\n\nSection::::Compensation methods.:Other performance-based compensation.\n", "As of March 2018, Facebook and Google were estimated to hold a combined market share of just under 60% of the U.S. online marketing space. In the last quarter of 2018, Facebook reported an online advertising revenue of $16.9 billion. Facebook allows businesses to advertise throughout its website, using its in-depth knowledge of user demographics and interests to ensure that any given advertisement has a good chance of reaching its specific target audience. Facebook charges a fee for every advertisement click, known as cost per click. Facebook also allows businesses to increase the visibility of their advertisements beyond users who follow or like them; Facebook charges a fee based on the number of people a given advertisement reaches.\n", "With advancements in digital communications channels, marketing communications allow for the possibility of two-way communications where an immediate consumer response can be elicited. Digital communications tools include: websites, blogs, social media, email, mobile, and search engines as a few examples. It is important for an advertising campaign to carefully select channels based on where their target consumer spends time to ensure market and advertising efforts are maximized.\n\nSection::::Modern day implications to the advantages & disadvantages of traditional media channels.\n", "Using the Internet as the main medium for interactive advertising to study the methods, types and outcomes, we can then sound out the different user or advertiser controlled aspects.\n\nSection::::User generated/controlled aspects.\n", "Functions, Internet motives and mode are the main factors of user controlled aspects. In fact, a number of researchers and practitioners argue that consumers have more control on the Internet than do advertisers (Roehm & Haugtvedt, 1999). Some have gone so far as to argue that interactive marketing and advertising techniques will not work unless practitioners \"step into the shoes\" of and approach the Internet from the consumer's vantage point (Cross & Smith, 1997).\n\nSection::::Advertiser controlled aspects.\n", "Publishers can offer advertisers the ability to reach customizable and narrow market segments for targeted advertising. Online advertising may use geo-targeting to display relevant advertisements to the user's geography. Advertisers can customize each individual ad to a particular user based on the user's previous preferences. Advertisers can also track whether a visitor has already seen a particular ad in order to reduce unwanted repetitious exposures and provide adequate time gaps between exposures.\n\nSection::::Benefits of online advertising.:Coverage.\n\nOnline advertising can reach nearly every global market, and online advertising influences offline sales.\n\nSection::::Benefits of online advertising.:Speed.\n", "The first type of relationship between a website and an advertiser was a straightforward, direct partnership. This partnership model implies that the advertiser promoting a product or service pays the website (also known as a publisher) directly for a certain amount of ad impressions. As time went on, publishers began creating thousands of websites, leading to millions of pages with unsold ad space. This gave rise to a new set of companies called Ad Networks. The ad network acted as a broker, buying unsold ad space from multiple publishers and packaged them into audiences to be sold to advertisers. This second wave of advertiser-publisher relationships rapidly gained popularity as it was convenient and useful for buyers who often found themselves paying a lower price yet receiving enhanced targeting capabilities through ad networks.\n", "There are different types of ad servers. There is an ad server for publishers that helps them to launch a new ad on a website by listing the highest ads' price on its and to follow the ad's growth by registering how many users it has reached. There is an ad server for advertisers that helps them by sending the ads in the form of HTML codes to each publisher. In this way, it is possible to open the ad in every moment and make changes of frequency for example, at all times. Lastly, there is an ad server for ad networks that provides information as in which network the publisher is registering an income and which is the daily revenue.\n", "Display advertising conveys its advertising message visually using text, logos, animations, videos, photographs, or other graphics. Display advertisers frequently target users with particular traits to increase the ads' effect. Online advertisers (typically through their ad servers) often use cookies, which are unique identifiers of specific computers, to decide which ads to serve to a particular consumer. Cookies can track whether a user left a page without buying anything, so the advertiser can later retarget the user with ads from the site the user visited.\n", "Advertising revenue\n\nAdvertising revenue is the monetary income that individuals and businesses earn from displaying paid advertisements on their websites, social media channels, or other platforms surrounding their internet-based content. In September 2018, the U.S Internet advertising market was estimated to be worth $111 billion, with market share being held mostly between Google, Facebook, Amazon, and Microsoft. These companies earn revenue through online advertising but also have initiated pathways for individual users and social media \"influencers\" to earn an income. Individuals and businesses can earn advertising revenue through advertisement networks such as Google AdSense, YouTube monetization, or Outbrain.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "Advertisers have a wide variety of ways of presenting their promotional messages, including the ability to convey images, video, audio, and links. Unlike many offline ads, online ads also can be interactive. For example, some ads let users input queries or let users follow the advertiser on social media. Online ads can even incorporate games.\n\nSection::::Benefits of online advertising.:Targeting.\n", "In online display advertising, display ads generate awareness quickly. Unlike search, which requires someone to be aware of a need, display advertising can drive awareness of something new and without previous knowledge. Display works well for direct response. Display is not only used for generating awareness, it's used for direct response campaigns that link to a landing page with a clear 'call to action'.\n", "The fastest growing media outlet for advertising is the Internet. Compared to spending in other media, the rate of spending for Internet advertising is experiencing tremendous growth and in the U.S. trails only newspaper and television advertising in terms of total spending. Internet advertising's influence continues to expand and each year more major marketers shift a larger portion of their promotional budget to this medium. Two key reasons for this shift rest with the Internet's ability to: (1) narrowly target an advertising message and, (2) track user response to the advertiser's message.\n", "Cost per mille, often abbreviated to CPM, means that advertisers pay for every thousand displays of their message to potential customers (mille is the Latin word for thousand). In the online context, ad displays are usually called \"impressions.\" Definitions of an \"impression\" vary among publishers, and some impressions may not be charged because they don't represent a new exposure to an actual customer. Advertisers can use technologies such as web bugs to verify if an impression is actually delivered.\n", "More recently, companies have sought to merge their advertising messages into editorial content or valuable services. Examples include Red Bull's Red Bull Media House streaming Felix Baumgartner's jump from space online, Coca-Cola's online magazines, and Nike's free applications for performance tracking. Advertisers are also embracing social media and mobile advertising; mobile ad spending has grown 90% each year from 2010 to 2013.\n\nSection::::Delivery methods.\n\nSection::::Delivery methods.:Display advertising.\n", "With the advent of the ad server, marketing through the Internet opened new frontiers for advertisers and contributed to the \"dot-com\" boom of the 1990s. Entire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue, offering everything from coupons to free Internet access. At the turn of the 21st century, a number of websites, including the search engine Google, started a change in online advertising by emphasizing contextually relevant ads based on an individual's browsing interests. This has led to a plethora of similar efforts and an increasing trend of interactive advertising.\n", "Section::::19th century.\n\nIn June 1836, Émile de Girardin editor of the Paris newspaper \"La Presse\" was the first to rely on paid advertising to lower its price, extend its readership and increase its profitability. His formula was soon copied by all titles.\n", "In order to set realistic and achievable advertising objectives, most advertisers try to link advertising or communications objectives with the communications effects. Rossiter and Bellman have argued that, for advertising purposes, five communications effects should be considered, namely:\n", "In 2016, Internet advertising revenues in the United States surpassed those of cable television and broadcast television. In 2017, Internet advertising revenues in the United States totaled $83.0 billion, a 14% increase over the $72.50 billion in revenues in 2016.\n\nMany common online advertising practices are controversial and, as a result, have been increasingly subject to regulation. Online ad revenues also may not adequately replace other publishers' revenue streams. Declining ad revenue has led some publishers to place their content behind paywalls.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The advertising business model has also been adapted in recent years. In media for equity, advertising is not sold, but provided to start-up companies in return for equity. If the company grows and is sold, the media companies receive cash for their shares.\n", "Across the industry, media outlets have been re-evaluating where the value in media content lies, with a corresponding increase in government development programs, corporate benefactors and other special interests funding or cross-funding media content. These kinds of funding have been common historically in international broadcasting, and they typically influence actual media content, framing, and the ‘red lines’ different from professional principles that reporters feel unable to cross. While larger media companies have relied on attracting their own advertisers online, many online intermediaries such as Google Ads now exist, which effectively has meant that small online media companies can get some revenues without having to have dedicated facilities—although the requirements of platforms like Facebook for video content, and the power to change news feeds without consultation do compromise editorial autonomy. In addition, the media organization concerned can no longer exert strong control over what advertisements are shown, nor can it benefit from accessing full audience data to strengthen its own revenue prospects.\n", "With the advent of the ad server, online advertising grew, contributing to the \"dot-com\" boom of the 1990s. Entire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue, offering everything from coupons to free Internet access. At the turn of the 21st century, some websites, including the search engine Google, changed online advertising by personalizing ads based on web browsing behavior. This has led to other similar efforts and an increase in interactive advertising.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00870	What is the difference between sterling and regular silver?	Fine silver, consists of 99.9% pure silver. On the other hand, sterling silver consists of approximately 92.5%. [Source]( URL_0 )	[ "Sterling silver\n\nSterling silver is an alloy of silver containing 92.5% by weight of silver and 7.5% by weight of other metals, usually copper. The sterling silver standard has a minimum millesimal fineness of 925.\n", "Junk-silver coins are also available as sterling silver coins, which were officially minted until 1919 in the United Kingdom and Canada and 1945 in Australia. These coins are 92.5% silver and are in the form of (in decreasing weight) Crowns, Half-crowns, Florins, Shillings, Sixpences, and threepence. The tiny threepence weighs 1.41 grams, and the Crowns are 28.27 grams (1.54 grams heavier than a US $1). Canada produced silver coins with 80% silver content from 1920 to 1967.\n", "All United States 1965-1970 and one half of the 1975-1976 Bicentennial San Francisco proof and mint set Kennedy half dollars are \"clad\" in a silver alloy and contain 40% silver.\n", "\"Fine silver\", for example 99.9% pure silver, is relatively soft, so silver is usually alloyed with copper to increase its hardness and strength. Sterling silver is prone to tarnishing, and elements other than copper can be used in alloys to reduce tarnishing, as well as casting porosity and firescale. Such elements include germanium, zinc, platinum, silicon, and boron. Recent examples of alloys using these metals include argentium, sterlium, sterilite and silvadium.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sterling silver\" has a millesimal fineness of 925. The sterling silver alloy is 92.5% pure silver and 7.5 per cent copper or other metals.\n\nBULLET::::- \"88 zolotnik Russian silver\" has the equivalent millesimal fineness of 916[6]. The alloy contains 91.66% pure silver and 8.34 per cent copper or other metals. (The description of the zolotnik is above.)\n", "Quarters\n\nBULLET::::- Liberty Head \"Barber\" (1892–1916) -- 90-percent silver\n\nBULLET::::- Standing Liberty (1916–1930) -- 90-percent silver\n\nBULLET::::- Washington (1932, 1934–1964) -- 90-percent silver\n\nDimes\n\nBULLET::::- Liberty Head \"Barber\" (1892–1916) -- 90-percent silver\n\nBULLET::::- Winged Liberty Head \"Mercury\" (1916–1945) -- 90-percent silver\n\nBULLET::::- Roosevelt (1946–1964) -- 90-percent silver\n\nNickels\n\nBULLET::::- Jefferson \"Wartime\" (1942 (partial)-1945) -- 35-percent silver\n\nSection::::Common U.K. coins.\n\nThe most commonly collected junk-silver U.K. coins were minted before 1946 and include Edward VII, George V and George VI crowns; as well as Victoria, Edward VII, George V and George VI half crowns, florins, shillings, six pences, and three pences.\n", "Sterling\n\nSterling may refer to:\n\nSection::::Common meanings.\n\nBULLET::::- Sterling silver, a grade of silver\n\nBULLET::::- Pound sterling, the currency of the United Kingdom\n\nSection::::Places.\n\nBULLET::::- United Kingdom\n\nBULLET::::- Stirling, a Scottish city whose alternative historical spelling is Sterling\n\nBULLET::::- United States\n\nBULLET::::- Sterling, Alaska, a census-designated place\n\nBULLET::::- Sterling, Colorado, a city\n\nBULLET::::- Sterling, Connecticut, a town\n\nBULLET::::- Sterling, Georgia\n\nBULLET::::- Sterling, Idaho\n\nBULLET::::- Sterling, Illinois, a city\n\nBULLET::::- Sterling, Indiana\n\nBULLET::::- Sterling, Iowa\n\nBULLET::::- Sterling, Kansas, a city\n\nBULLET::::- Sterling, Massachusetts, a town\n\nBULLET::::- Sterling, Michigan, a village\n\nBULLET::::- Sterling Center, Minnesota, an unincorporated community\n", "One of the earliest attestations of the term is in Old French form \"esterlin\", in a charter of the abbey of Les Préaux, dating to either 1085 or 1104. The English chronicler Orderic Vitalis (1075 – 1142) uses the Latin forms \"libræ sterilensium\" and \"libræ sterilensis monetæ\". The word in origin refers to the newly introduced Norman silver penny.\n", "Silver was mostly removed from U.S. coinage by 1965 and the dollar became a free-floating fiat currency without a commodity backing defined in terms of real gold or silver. The US Mint continues to make silver $1-denomination coins, but these are not intended for general circulation.\n\nSection::::Relationship to the troy pound.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Fine silver\" has a millesimal fineness of 999. Also called pure silver, or three nines fine, fine silver contains 99.9% silver, with the balance being trace amounts of impurities. This grade of silver is used to make bullion bars for international commodities trading and investment in silver. In the modern world, fine silver is understood to be too soft for general use.\n", "Gold and silver prices for the years 2016 to 2019 (in the table above) is based on information from www.macrotrends.net on the 10th of June 2019.\n", "Between 1987 and 2012 a series of bullion coins, the Britannia, was issued, containing , , , and of fine gold at a millesimal fineness of 916 (22 carat) and with face values of £100, £50, £25, and £10.\n\nSince 2013 Britannia bullion contains of fine gold at a millesimal fineness of 999 (24 carat).\n", "The hallmark for sterling silver varies from nation to nation, often using distinctive historic symbols, although Dutch and UK Assay offices no longer strike their traditional hallmarks exclusively in their own territories and undertake assay in other countries using marks that are the same as those used domestically.\n\nSection::::United Kingdom and Ireland.\n", "Weighted sterling\n\nWeighted sterling or weighted silver refers to items such as cutlery, candlesticks, candy dishes, salt and pepper shakers, and trophies that instead of being made of solid silver, are in fact a cored composite of other materials. Wax, plaster, copper, or lead is used in the base to give the item strength, stability, and heft. Encapsulating items with a silver skin on the visible exterior greatly reduces cost. Manufacturers of such composite items are required by law to label them as “Weighted Sterling Silver” to ensure unwary consumers are not misled into believing the items are sterling silver.\n", "The Kennedy half dollar is a United States coin that has been minted since 1964. In the first year of production the coins were minted in 90% silver and 10% copper (90% silver). From 1965 through 1970, the coins were minted in a clad composition of mostly silver outer layers and a mostly copper inner layer (40% silver). After 1970, the coins are minted in a copper–nickel clad composition. From 1992 to 2018, 90% silver coins were made for inclusion in special \"Limited Edition\" silver proof sets. Beginning 2019 coins in the special silver proof sets are produced from pure (.9999) silver.\n", "Britannia silver is considerably softer than sterling, and after complaints from the trade, sterling silver was again authorised for use by silversmiths from 1 June 1720, and thereafter Britannia silver has remained an optional standard for hallmarking in the United Kingdom and Ireland.\n\nSince the hallmarking changes of 1 January 1999, Britannia silver has been denoted by the millesimal fineness hallmark 958, with the symbol of Britannia being applied optionally.\n", "BULLET::::- 99.90% 1990 Australian Silver Kookaburra (minted by the Perth Mint)\n\nBULLET::::- 99.90% 1993 Australian Silver Kangaroo (minted by the Royal Australian Mint)\n\nBULLET::::- 95.80% 1997 British Silver Britannia (from 1997, proof version only. Public issue from 1998)\n\nBULLET::::- 99.90% 2008 Austrian Silver Vienna Philharmonic\n\nBULLET::::- 99.90% 2009 Russian George the Victorious\n\nBULLET::::- 99.90% 2011 Armenian Noah's Ark\n\nSection::::Modern Silver Minting.:Silver rounds.\n", "From 2013 the gold coins have a millesimal fineness of .9999 (or 24 carat gold). Until 2012 the gold coins have a millesimal fineness of .917 (91.7% or 22 carat gold) with the non-gold component being copper until 1989 and silver from 1990.\n\n2013– Gold Britannia specifications (gold content, and approx total weight)\n\n1987–2012 Gold Britannia specifications (gold content, not total weight)\n\nSection::::Silver Britannia.\n\nSince 2013 the silver coins have been produced with a millesimal fineness of .999 (99.9% silver). Mass 31.21 g and Diameter 38.61 mm.\n", "Between 1997 and 2012 silver bullion coins have also been produced under the name “Britannias”. The alloy used was Britannia silver (millesimal fineness 958). The silver coins were available in , , , and sizes. Since 2013 the alloy used is silver at a (millesimal fineness 999). \n\nIn 2016 the Royal Mint launched a series of 10 Queen's Beasts bullion coins, one for each beast available in both gold and silver.\n\nThe Royal Mint also issues silver, gold and platinum proof sets of the circulating coins, as well as gift products such as gold coins set into jewellery.\n", "Argentium sterling silver\n\nArgentium silver is a brand of modern tarnish-resistant silver alloys, containing either 93.5% or 96% silver. Argentium alloys replace some of the copper in the traditional sterling silver alloy (92.5% silver + 7.5% copper) with the metalloid germanium. Argentium's patents refer to percentages of zinc and boron present in Argentium silver. Both Argentium alloys exceed the standard required for hallmarking as sterling silver and Argentium silver 960 meets the standard for hallmarking as Britannia silver (95.84% silver).\n\nSection::::Origins and description.\n", "Each silver ETF, ETN, and CEF has a different structure outlined in its prospectus. Such instruments do not necessarily hold physical silver. For example, silver ETNs generally track the price of silver using derivatives. All exchange-traded silver instruments, including those that hold physical silver for the benefit of the investor, carry risks beyond those inherent in the precious metal itself. The most popular silver ETF (iShares Silver Trust, symbol SLV) has been compared with mortgage-backed securities due to its complexity.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Gold exchange-traded product\n\nBULLET::::- Platinum as an investment\n\nBULLET::::- Silver as an investment\n", "Britannia silver coins contain one troy ounce of silver and have a face value of £2. Silver Britannias also are issued in fractional sizes of one-half, one-quarter, and one-tenth of a troy ounce and with face values of £1, 50p, and 20p respectively. Like the gold coins in 2013 two additional sizes were introduced, a five-ounce coin of face value £10, and a fractional size of one-twentieth of face value 10p.\n\nSection::::Gold Britannia.\n", "BULLET::::- Odd weight retail bars – These bars cost less and generally have a wider spread, due to the extra work it takes to calculate their value and the extra risk due to the lack of a good brand name.\n\nBULLET::::- 1 kilogram bars (32.15 oz troy)\n\nBULLET::::- 100 gram bars (3.215 oz troy)\n\nBULLET::::- 10 oz troy bars (311 g) and 1 oz troy bars (31.1 g), which are the least expensive (other than fractional bars) and normally collected in bulk by collectors and small-scale investors.\n", "BULLET::::- Use as surgical and medical instruments as early as Ur, Hellenistic-era Egypt and Rome, and their use continued until largely replaced in Western countries in the mid to late 20th century by cheaper, disposable plastic items and sharper, more durable steel ones. Sterling's natural malleability is an obvious physical advantage, but it is also naturally aseptic.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Britannia silver\" has a millesimal fineness of at least 958. The alloy is 95.84% pure silver and 4.16 per cent copper or other metals. The Britannia standard was developed in Britain in 1697 to help prevent British sterling silver coins from being melted to make silver plate. It was obligatory in Britain between 1697 and 1720, when the sterling silver standard was restored. It became an optional standard thereafter.\n\nBULLET::::- The \"French 1st standard\" has a milessimal fineness of 950. The French 1st alloy is 95% silver and 5 per cent copper or other metals.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01500	If all bananas are said to be clones, why is there different kinds of bananas?	The standard grocery store banana is made from cloned plants. But there are other strains of bananas as well, some are local and not good for transportation, others don't taste good or etc.	[ "A well known occurrence of disease susceptibility in crops lacking diversity concerns the 'Gros Michel', a seedless banana that saw world marketing in the 1940s. As the market demand became high for this particular cultivar, growers and farmers began to use the Gros Michel banana almost exclusively. Genetically, these bananas are clones, and because of this lack of genetic diversity, are all susceptible to a single fungus, \"Fusarium oxysporum\" (Panama disease); large areas of the crop were destroyed by the fungus in the 1950s. 'Gros Michel' has been replaced by the current main banana on the market, the 'Cavendish', which in turn is (2015) at risk of total loss to a strain of the same fungus, 'Tropical Race 4'.\n", "While in no danger of outright extinction, the most common edible banana cultivar Cavendish (extremely popular in Europe and the Americas) could become unviable for large-scale cultivation in the next 10–20 years. Its predecessor 'Gros Michel', discovered in the 1820s, suffered this fate. Like almost all bananas, Cavendish lacks genetic diversity, which makes it vulnerable to diseases, threatening both commercial cultivation and small-scale subsistence farming. Some commentators remarked that those variants which could replace what much of the world considers a \"typical banana\" are so different that most people would not consider them the same fruit, and blame the decline of the banana on monogenetic cultivation driven by short-term commercial motives.\n", "One disadvantage of most seedless crops is a significant reduction in the amount of genetic diversity in the species. As genetically identical clones, a pest or disease that affects one individual is likely capable of affecting each of its clones. For example, the vast majority of commercially produced bananas are cloned from a single source, the \"Cavendish\" cultivar, and those plants are currently threatened worldwide by a newly discovered fungal disease to which they are highly susceptible.\n", "BULLET::::- Mysore banana\n\nBULLET::::- Pisang Raja subgroup\n\nBULLET::::- Pisang Raja banana\n\nBULLET::::- Plantain subgroup\n\nBULLET::::- French plantain\n\nBULLET::::- Green French banana\n\nBULLET::::- Horn plantain & Rhino Horn banana\n\nBULLET::::- Nendran banana\n\nBULLET::::- Pink French banana\n\nBULLET::::- Tiger banana\n\nBULLET::::- Pome subgroup\n\nBULLET::::- Pome banana\n\nBULLET::::- Prata-anã banana (Dwarf Brazilian banana, Dwarf Prata)\n\nBULLET::::- Silk subgroup\n\nBULLET::::- Latundan banana (Silk banana, Apple banana)\n\nBULLET::::- Others\n\nBULLET::::- Pisang Seribu banana\n\nBULLET::::- plu banana\n\nSection::::Cultivars.:Musa section.:AABB Group.\n\nTetraploid cultivars of \"Musa\" × \"paradisiaca\"\n\nBULLET::::- Kalamagol banana\n\nBULLET::::- Pisang Awak (Ducasse banana)\n\nSection::::Cultivars.:Musa section.:AB Group.\n\nDiploid cultivars of \"Musa\" × \"paradisiaca\"\n", "In 1955, Norman Simmonds and Ken Shepherd revised the classification of modern edible bananas based on their genetic origins. Their classification depends on how many of the characteristics of the two ancestral species (\"Musa acuminata\" and \"Musa balbisiana\") are exhibited by the cultivars. Most banana cultivars which exhibit purely or mostly \"Musa acuminata\" genomes are dessert bananas, while hybrids of \"M. acuminata\" and \"M. balbisiana\" are mostly cooking bananas or plantains.\n", "The term \"clone\" is used in horticulture to refer to descendants of a single plant which were produced by vegetative reproduction or apomixis. Many horticultural plant cultivars are clones, having been derived from a single individual, multiplied by some process other than sexual reproduction. As an example, some European cultivars of grapes represent clones that have been propagated for over two millennia. Other examples are potato and banana. Grafting can be regarded as cloning, since all the shoots and branches coming from the graft are genetically a clone of a single individual, but this particular kind of cloning has not come under ethical scrutiny and is generally treated as an entirely different kind of operation.\n", "An alternative approach divides bananas into dessert bananas and cooking bananas, with plantains being one of the subgroups of cooking bananas. Triploid cultivars derived solely from \"M. acuminata\" are examples of \"dessert bananas\", whereas triploid cultivars derived from the hybrid between \"M. acuminata\" and \"M. balbinosa\" (in particular the plantain subgroup of the AAB Group) are \"plantains\". Small farmers in Colombia grow a much wider range of cultivars than large commercial plantations. A study of these cultivars showed that they could be placed into at least three groups based on their characteristics: dessert bananas, non-plantain cooking bananas, and plantains, although there were overlaps between dessert and cooking bananas.\n", "Almost all cultivated plantains and many cultivated bananas are triploid cultivars of \"M.\" × \"paradisiaca\". It is believed that Southeast Asian farmers first domesticated \"M. acuminata\". When the cultivated plants spread north-west into areas where \"M. balbisiana\" was native (see map), hybrids between the two species occurred and were then developed further into a wide range of cultivars.\n", "Given the narrow range of genetic diversity present in bananas and the many threats via biotic (pests and diseases) and abiotic (such as drought) stress, conservation of the full spectrum of banana genetic resources is ongoing. Banana germplasm is conserved in many national and regional gene banks, and at the world's largest banana collection, the International \"Musa\" Germplasm Transit Centre (ITC), managed by Bioversity International and hosted at KU Leuven in Belgium. \"Musa\" cultivars are usually seedless, and options for their long-term conservation are constrained by the vegetative nature of the plant's reproductive system. Consequently, they are conserved by three main methods: \"in vivo\" (planted in field collections), \"in vitro\" (as plantlets in test tubes within a controlled environment), and by cryopreservation (meristems conserved in liquid nitrogen at -196 °C). Genes from wild banana species are conserved as DNA and as cryopreserved pollen and banana seeds from wild species are also conserved, although less commonly, as they are difficult to regenerate. In addition, bananas and their crop wild relatives are conserved \"in situ\" (in wild natural habitats where they evolved and continue to do so). Diversity is also conserved in farmers' fields where continuous cultivation, adaptation and improvement of cultivars is often carried out by small-scale farmers growing traditional local cultivars.\n", "In global commerce in 2009, by far the most important cultivars belonged to the triploid AAA group of \"Musa acuminata\", commonly referred to as Cavendish group bananas. They accounted for the majority of banana exports, despite only coming into existence in 1836. The cultivars Dwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain (Chiquita Banana) gained popularity in the 1950s after the previous mass-produced cultivar, Gros Michel (also an AAA group cultivar), became commercially unviable due to Panama disease, caused by the fungus \"Fusarium oxysporum\" which attacks the roots of the banana plant. Cavendish cultivars are resistant to the Panama disease, but in 2013 there were fears that the black sigatoka fungus would in turn make Cavendish bananas unviable.\n", "Until the 1950's, the Gros Michel cultivar of banana represented almost all bananas consumed in the United States because of their taste, small seeds, and efficiency to produce. Their small seeds, while more appealing than the large ones in other Asian cultivars, were not suitable for planting. This meant that all new banana plants had to be grown from the cut suckers of another plant. As a result of this asexual form of planting, all bananas grown had identical genetic makeups which gave them no traits for resistance to \"Fusarium wilt\", a fungal disease that spread quickly throughout the Caribbean where they were being grown. By the beginning of the 1960's, growers had to switch to growing the Cavendish banana, a cultivar grown in a similar way. This cultivar is under similar disease stress since all the bananas are clones of each other and could easily succumb as the Gros Michel did.\n", "A recent development is the use of \"somaclones\" in banana cultivation. Micropropagation involves growing plants from very small amounts of source tissue, sometimes even a single cell, under sterile conditions using artificial techniques to induce growth. The purpose of micropropagation is often to produce a large number of genetically identical offspring. However, by inducing mutations through various means, it is possible to produce plants which differ slightly from the \"parent\" plant and from each other (\"somaclonal variations\"). By growing on these somaclones and selecting those with desirable features, new cultivars can be produced which are very similar to an existing cultivar, but differ in one or two features, such as disease resistance. Somaclones may only be distinguishable by genetic analysis.\n", "With plants, some somatic mutations can be propagated without the need for seed production, for example, by grafting and stem cuttings. These type of mutation have led to new types of fruits, such as the \"Delicious\" apple and the \"Washington\" navel orange.\n", "The following is a list of banana cultivars and the groups into which they are classified. Almost all modern cultivated varieties (cultivars) of edible bananas and plantains are hybrids and polyploids of two wild, seeded banana species, \"Musa acuminata\" and \"Musa balbisiana\". Cultivated bananas are almost always seedless (parthenocarpic) and hence sterile, so they are propagated vegetatively (cloned). They are classified into groups according to a genome-based system introduced by Ernest Cheesman, Norman Simmonds, and Ken Shepherd, which indicates the degree of genetic inheritance from the two wild parents and the number of chromosomes (ploidy). Cultivars derived from \"Musa acuminata\" are more likely to be used as dessert bananas, while those derived from \"Musa balbisiana\" and hybrids of the two are usually plantains or cooking bananas.\n", "Since vegetatively propagated plants are clones, they are important tools in plant research. When a clone is grown in various conditions, differences in growth can be ascribed to environmental effects instead of genetic differences.\n\nSection::::Sexual reproduction.\n", "Even though it is no longer viable for large scale cultivation, Gros Michel is not extinct and is still grown in areas where Panama disease is not found. Likewise, Dwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain are in no danger of extinction, but they may leave supermarket shelves if disease makes it impossible to supply the global market. It is unclear if any existing cultivar can replace Cavendish bananas, so various hybridisation and genetic engineering programs are attempting to create a disease-resistant, mass-market banana. One such strain that has emerged is the Taiwanese Cavendish, also known as the Formosana.\n\nSection::::Modern cultivation.:Ripening.\n", "Cavendish cultivars are distinguished by the height of the plant and features of the fruits, and different cultivars may be recognized as distinct by different authorities. The most important clones for fruit production include: 'Dwarf Cavendish', 'Grande Naine', 'Lacatan' (\"bungulan\"), 'Poyo', 'Valéry', and 'Williams' under one system of cultivar classification. Another classification includes: 'Double', 'Dwarf Cavendish', 'Extra Dwarf Cavendish', 'Grande Naine', 'Pisang Masak Hijau' (syn 'Lacatan'), and 'Giant Cavendish' as a group of several difficult to distinguish cultivars (including 'Poyo', 'Robusta', 'Valéry', & 'Williams'). 'Grande Naine' is the most important clone in international trade, while 'Dwarf Cavendish' is the most widely grown clone. 'Grande Naine' is also known as Chiquita banana.\n", "Section::::Diseases.\n\nBananas are parthenocarpic and reproduce through conventional vegetative reproduction rather than through sexual reproduction. Development of disease resistance depends on mutations occurring in the propagation units, and hence evolves more slowly than in seed-propagated crops. The development of resistant varieties has therefore been the only alternative to protect the fruit trees from tropical and subtropical diseases like bacterial wilt and Fusarium wilt, commonly known as Panama disease. (See External links below.)\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Banana Cultivar Groups\n\nBULLET::::- Banana industry\n\nBULLET::::- Musa (genus)\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Can This Fruit Be Saved? (June 2005 Popular Science article)\n", "Today, navel oranges continue to be propagated through cutting and grafting. This does not allow for the usual selective breeding methodologies, and so all navel oranges can be considered fruits from that single, nearly two-hundred-year-old tree: they have exactly the same genetic make-up as the original tree and are, therefore, clones. This case is similar to that of the common yellow seedless banana, the Cavendish, or that of the Granny Smith apple. On rare occasions, however, further mutations can lead to new varieties.\n\nSection::::Varieties.:Navel oranges.:Cara cara navels.\n", "Triploid cultivars of \"Musa\" × \"paradisiaca\". This group contains the Plantain subgroup, composed of \"true\" plantains or African Plantains - whose centre of diversity is Central and West Africa, where a large number of cultivars were domesticated following the introduction of ancestral Plantains from Asia, possibly 2000–3000 years ago.\n\nThe Iholena and Maoli-Popo'ulu subgroups are referred to as Pacific plantains.\n\nBULLET::::- Iholena subgroup - \"subgroup of cooking bananas domesticated in the Pacific region\"\n\nBULLET::::- Maoli-Popo'ulu subgroup - \"subgroup of cooking bananas domesticated in the Pacific region\"\n\nBULLET::::- Maqueño banana\n\nBULLET::::- Popoulu banana\n\nBULLET::::- Mysore subgroup - \"cooking and dessert bananas\"\n", "One major impediment to breeding bananas is polyploidy; Gros Michel and Cavendish bananas are triploid and thus attempts at meiosis in the plant's ovules cannot produce a viable gamete. Only rarely does the first reduction division in meiosis in the plants' flowers tidily fail completely, resulting in a euploid triploid ovule, which can be fertilized by normal haploid pollen from a diploid banana variety; a whole stem of bananas would contain only a few seeds and sometimes none. As a result, the resulting new banana variety is tetraploid, and thus contains seeds; the market for bananas is not accustomed to bananas with seeds.\n", "Section::::Genetic Monocultures.:Historic Examples of Monocultures.\n\nSection::::Genetic Monocultures.:Historic Examples of Monocultures.:Irish Potato Famine.\n\nIn Ireland, exclusive use of one variety of potato, the \"lumper\", led to the Great Famine of 1845-1849. Lumpers provided inexpensive food to feed the Irish masses. Potatoes were propagated vegetatively with little to no genetic variation. \n\nWhen \"Phytophthora infestans\" arrived in Ireland from the Americas in 1845, the lumper had no resistance to the disease, leading to the nearly complete failure of the potato crop across Ireland.\n\nSection::::Genetic Monocultures.:Historic Examples of Monocultures.:Bananas.\n", "Section::::Culture issues.\n\nThe wide range of countries in which bananas grow predicates an incredible diversity in the cultures of those producing the banana worldwide. Issues with GMO acceptance rates have been identified by a Ugandan study, suggesting that other cultures may also be averse to converting their local crops to the FB920 cultivar despite the observed advantages.\n\nSection::::Constraints to wider adoption.\n", "\"M. acuminata\" was later introduced into mainland Indochina into the range of another ancestral wild banana species - \"Musa balbisiana\", a hardier species of lesser genetic diversity than \"M. acuminata\". Hybridization between the two resulted in drought-resistant edible cultivars. Modern edible banana and plantain cultivars are derived from permutations of hybridization and polyploidy of the two.\n\nSection::::Ornamental.\n", "Cheesman noted in 1948 of bananas \"\"Some botanists have regarded the seedless forms as ranking with the fertile species and have bestowed Latin binomials upon them. Others have preferred to regard them as varieties of one mythical \"species\" (usually called \"Musa sapientum\") which is supposed to exist somewhere in the wild and fertile condition … Such mistakes... are not peculiar to the genus \"Musa\", but they are unusually conspicuous in this group\"\". \"Giving a seed-bearing wild species the status of subspecies to a seedless cultivar is a good example of the stultifying effect formal nomenclature has had on crop taxonomy.\" \n" ]	[ "All bananas are clones.", "If bananas are clones, then there shouldn't be any other banana types. " ]	[ "Standard grocery store bananas are clones.", "Other strains of bananas exist as well, but aren't good for transportation. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "All bananas are clones.", "If bananas are clones, then there shouldn't be any other banana types. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Standard grocery store bananas are clones.", "Other strains of bananas exist as well, but aren't good for transportation. " ]
2018-01881	Why does snow covered roads get those small long bumps in areas where cars are breaking?	The same effect occurs in the corners on dirt roads. Vehicles are supported by springs which oscillate up and down when the forces at the wheels change. On corners, or other places where vehicles regularly slow down, when brakes are applied two things happen. First, the tire slows its rotation which causes it to scrape a small amount of snow or dirt forward. Secondly, the front of the vehicle will dip slightly as the brakes cause a torque about the front axle. The suspension oscillates slightly after the initial compression and ever so slightly pushes the front back up. This allows the tire to roll over the small amount of dirt or snow that had been pushed forward. The wheel goes over that first bump and down behind it where it strikes more firmly, giving more grip and the process repeats but now with a more distinct oscillation in the suspension. The oscillation of future cars is set up by the bumps created by the first car and the bumps get deeper and the bumpy section gets longer. These sections of road are often referred to as washboard roads due to their texture.	[ "BULLET::::- In higher rainfall areas, the increased camber required to drain water, and open drainage ditches at the sides of the road, often cause vehicles with a high centre of gravity, such as trucks and off-road vehicles, to overturn if they do not keep close to the crown of the road\n\nBULLET::::- Excess dust permeates door-opening rubber moulding breaking the seal\n\nBULLET::::- Lost binder in the form of road dust, when mixed with rain, will wear away the painted surfaces of vehicles\n", "Section::::Materials.\n\nTo improve traction and melt ice or snow, winter service vehicles spread granular or liquid ice melting chemicals and grit, such as sand or gravel.\n", "Frost law\n\nFrost laws are seasonal restrictions on traffic weight limits and speeds on roadways subject to thaw weakening.\n\nIn climates that experience below-freezing temperatures, damage to roads from thaw-weakening have led to many US states, Canadian provinces and other jurisdictions to enact laws that restrict vehicle loads during spring months, when road structures are thawing from above in a manner that limits water from escaping the soil structure, thereby weakening the pavement underpinnings.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Similar processes can act on asphalt pavements, contributing to various forms of cracking and other distresses, which, when combined with traffic and the intrusion of water, accelerate rutting, the formation of potholes, and other forms of pavement roughness.\n\nSection::::Volumetric expansion.\n", "To increase the road's load capacity and its resistance to wear, water can be added onto the snow surface, resulting in a denser pavement and the formation of an ice cap. Ultimately, with a sufficient amount of flooding, an ice layer of significant thickness can be built, for a higher quality road in terms of effectiveness and load bearing capacity. Ice aggregate, typically collected from a nearby frozen lake, is also used on uneven terrain - it is flooded and allowed to freeze.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Winter road\n\nBULLET::::- Ice road\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::- In the late-19th century roading engineers began to cater for cyclists by building separate lanes alongside roadways.\n\nSection::::Design.\n\nRoad design is part of highway engineering. Structural road design is designing a road for its environment in order to extend its longevity and reduce maintenance. The Shell pavement design method is used in many countries for the design of new asphalt roadsides.\n\nSection::::Road terminology.\n\nBULLET::::- Adverse camber: where a road slopes towards the outside of a bend, increasing the likelihood that vehicles travelling at speed will skid or topple. Usually only a temporary situation during road maintenance.\n", "In order to provide a smooth surface the paver should proceed at a constant speed and have a consistent stockpile of material in front of the screed. Increase in material stockpile or paver speed will cause the screed to rise resulting in more asphalt being placed therefore a thicker mat of asphalt and an uneven final surface. Alternatively a decrease in material or a drop in speed will cause the screed to fall and the mat to be thinner.\n", "Section::::Dangers.\n\nBoth types of snowsqualls are very dangerous for motorists and airplanes or generally any traveler unfortunate enough to get stuck in one. The change in conditions is very sudden, and slippery conditions and abrupt loss of visibility due to whiteouts often cause multiple-vehicle collisions. In the case of lake effect snow, heavy amounts of snow can accumulate in short periods of time, possibly causing road closures and paralyzing cities. For instance, on January 9, 2015, a localized, heavy snow squall caused a 193-vehicle pile-up on I-94 highway near Galesburg, Michigan.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Convection\n\nBULLET::::- Shower\n", "BULLET::::- Cold in-place recycling. Bituminous pavement is ground or milled into small particles. The asphalt millings are blended with a small amount of asphalt emulsion or foamed bitumen, paved and compacted, allowed to cure for seven to ten days, then overlaid with asphalt.\n", "Cargill SafeLane is a proprietary pavement surface treatment that absorbs anti-icing brines, to be released during a storm or other icing event. It also provides a high-friction surface, increasing traction.\n", "If the snow-cover is substantial, then the shoulder (including the rumble strip) is usually partially snow-covered as the snowplow's wing-blade doesn't clear the entire shoulder. Vehicles going off the road usually collide with the shoulder snow bank or go into a snow-filled ditch which reduces the possibility of serious damage and injury. In these situations, the rumble strip effectiveness can be negated but the crash implications are mitigated by the snow bank.\n\nSection::::Deterioration.:Pavement deterioration.\n", "The impact of snowdrifts on transportation can be more significant than the snowfall itself, such as in the USA during the Great Blizzard of 1978. Snowdrifts are many times found at or on roads, as the crest of the roadbed or the furrows along the road create the disruption to the wind needed to shed its carried snow. Snow fences may be employed on the windward side of the road to intentionally create a drift before the snow-laden wind reaches the road.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Blizzard\n\nBULLET::::- Lake-effect snow\n\nBULLET::::- Snow\n\nBULLET::::- Snow removal\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Section::::Reflective raised pavement markers.\n\nIn the United States, Canada, and Australia, these plastic devices commonly have two angled edges facing drivers and containing one or more corner reflector strips. In areas where snowplowing is frequent, conventional markers are placed in a shallow groove cut in the pavement, or specially designed markers are used which include a protective metal casting that is embedded in recesses in the pavement, allowing the marker to protrude slightly above the pavement surface for increased visibility, much like a cat's eye. \n", "BULLET::::- The primary embrittlement mechanism of plastics is gradual loss of plasticizers, usually by overheating or aging.\n\nBULLET::::- The primary embrittlement mechanism of asphalt is by oxidation, which is most severe in warmer climates. Asphalt pavement embrittlement can lead to various forms of cracking patterns, including longitudinal, transverse, and block (hexagonal). Asphalt oxidation is related to polymer degradation, as these materials bear similarities in their chemical composition.\n\nSection::::Glasses and Ceramics.\n", "Water trapped under the pavement softens the subbase and subgrade, making the road more vulnerable to traffic loads. Water under the road freezes and expands in cold weather, causing and enlarging cracks. In spring thaw, the ground thaws from the top down, so water is trapped between the pavement above and the still-frozen soil underneath. This layer of saturated soil provides little support for the road above, leading to the formation of potholes. This is more of a problem for silty or clay soils than sandy or gravelly soils. Some jurisdictions pass frost laws to reduce the allowable weight of trucks during the spring thaw season and protect their roads.\n", "Due to the normal cross slope and the interaction with grade, road sections with insufficient drainage gradient are few and short. Still, they account for an unacceptable number of skid accidents. These hot spots are found at the entrances and exits of banked curves, where the cross slope changes direction in order to create superelevation. As the outside edge of the curve is raised (or superelevated) to create the bank, it passes through a point where the cross slope is absolutely flat. If there is not enough longitudinal grade, water will collect at these spots. This takes place at the beginnings and ends of curves to the left in countries with right hand traffic, and curves to the right in countries with left hand traffic.\n", "Most roads are cambered (crowned), that is, made so that they have rounded surfaces, to reduce standing water and ice, primarily to prevent frost damage but also increasing traction in poor weather. Some sections of road are now surfaced with porous bitumen to enhance drainage; this is particularly done on bends. These are just a few elements of highway engineering. As well as that, there are often grooves cut into the surface of cement highways to channel water away, and rumble strips at the edges of highways to rouse inattentive drivers with the loud noise they make when driven over. In some cases, there are raised markers between lanes to reinforce the lane boundaries; these are often reflective. In pedestrian areas, speed bumps are often placed to slow cars, preventing them from going too fast near pedestrians.\n", "Many other instances have been reported of heavy construction equipment vanishing into muskeg in the spring as the frozen muskeg beneath the vehicle thawed. Construction in muskeg-laden areas sometimes requires the complete removal of the soil and filling with gravel. If the muskeg is not completely cleared to bedrock, its high water content will cause buckling and distortion from winter freezing, much like permafrost.\n", "The term \"black ice\" in the United States is often incorrectly used to describe any type of ice that forms on roadways, even when standing water on roads turns to ice as the temperature falls below freezing. Correctly defined, black ice is formed on relatively dry roads, rendering it invisible to drivers. It occurs when the textures present in all pavements very slightly below the top of the road surface contain water or moisture, thereby presenting a dry surface to tires until that water or moisture freezes and expands; drivers then find they are riding above the road surface on a honeycombed invisible sheet of ice.\n", "BULLET::::- Milled-in, applied to existing hardened asphalt or concrete roads.\n\nBULLET::::- Formed, a corrugated form is pressed into fresh concrete.\n\nBULLET::::- Raised plastic or ceramic units, fastened to asphalt or concrete pavement and often with a reflector built into the edge. Botts' dots are a common installation.\n", "When frozen in winter, the waterway crossings can be built up with auger holes to flood and thicken the crossing. The act of clearing snow quickly makes ice thicker by exposing the road directly to subfreezing air (temperatures as low as ). In the summer, after the ice melts, effects of the roads can still be seen from overhead in a bush plane, as bare strips remain on the lake floor where the ice blocked light and prevented plants and algae from growing.\n", "Both new and old roads often have insufficient drainage gradient at the entrance and exit of sharp outercurves, causing water pooling in rain and forming local surprising ice spots in cold climate. \n\nA large study in Sweden (see the linked \"Analysis of single vehicle accidents with fatal outcome\" below) showed that fatal single crashes are 5 times more common in outercurves, than in innercurves. This extreme overrisk is considered strongly related to improper banking and insufficient drainage gradient at outercurves.\n", "BULLET::::- Raveling: aggregate becoming separated from the binder and loose on the road\n\nBULLET::::- Bleeding: the binder (asphalt) coming up to the surface of the road\n\nBULLET::::- Rutting: formation of low spots in pavement along the direction of travel usually in the wheel path\n\nBULLET::::- Shoving: a washboard like effect transverse to the direction of travel\n\nBULLET::::- Ride quality: uneven road surface such as swells, bumps, sags, or depressions\n\nBULLET::::- Damage: resulting from accidents and/or fires\n\nIt can also be used to control or change the height of part or all of the road.\n", "When rumble strips are installed on a very narrow paved shoulder, sometimes sand and gravel can fill the rumble strip which is usually a problem in the winter and early spring.\n", "The shoulder is usually slightly narrower than a full traffic lane. In some cases, particularly on older rural roadways, shoulders that initially existed were hardened with gravel rather than being paved with asphalt or concrete. In Britain, motorway shoulders are now paved, but are still known as 'hard shoulders.' Older, gravel shoulders have sometimes been termed soft shoulders by comparison. Because the paved surface ends at that point, they are less safe if they need to be used for emergency maneuvers. Notably, the section of Ontario Highway 401 between Windsor and London had soft shoulders with a sharp slope which was blamed for facilitating vehicle rollovers, if drivers accidentally drifted off the paved section of the road and then overreacted after hitting the gravel. Modern practice is to build a continuous paved shoulder whenever possible.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-17099	If you're getting a normal amount of sleep, like 9hrs, does it matter if it's not from let's say 11PM to 8AM but rather from 3AM to 12PM?	Really good book by a renowned sleep scientist called “Sleep: The Myth of 8 Hours, the Power of Naps... and the New Plan to Recharge Your Body and Mind” . I think he would argue that no it’s not the same because you’re sleeping against humans natural circadian rhythm . Either way if you’re interested it’s a short interesting read or I’m sure you can find some lectures .	[ "Dement advises against doing these evaluations at night when sleep onset latency can naturally be lower, particularly in older people. Instead, he suggests testing sleep onset latency during the day, ideally at 10:00 a.m., 12:30 p.m. and 3:00 p.m. A sleep onset latency of 0 to 5 minutes indicates severe sleep deprivation, 5 to 10 minutes is \"troublesome,\" 10 to 15 minutes indicates a mild but \"manageable\" degree of sleep debt, and 15 to 20 minutes is indicative of \"little or no\" sleep debt.\n\nSection::::Biomarkers of sleepiness.\n", " Melatonin taken an hour or so before the usual bedtime may induce sleepiness. Taken this late, it does not, of itself, affect circadian rhythms, but a decrease in exposure to light in the evening is helpful in establishing an earlier pattern. In accordance with its phase response curve (PRC), a very small dose of melatonin can also, or instead, be taken some hours earlier as an aid to resetting the body clock; it must then be small enough not to induce excessive sleepiness.\n", "Treatment, a set of management techniques, is specific to DSPD. It is different from treatment of insomnia, and recognizes the patients' ability to sleep well on their own schedules, while addressing the timing problem. Success, if any, may be partial; for example, a patient who normally awakens at noon may only attain a wake time of 10 or 10:30 with treatment and follow-up. Being consistent with the treatment is paramount.\n", "One set of recommendations relates to the timing of sleep. For adults, getting less than 7–8 hours of sleep is associated with a number of physical and mental health deficits, and therefore a top sleep hygiene recommendation is allowing enough time for sleep. Clinicians will frequently advise that these hours of sleep are obtained at night instead of through napping, because while naps can be helpful after sleep deprivation, under normal conditions naps may be detrimental to nighttime sleep. Negative effects of napping on sleep and performance have been found to depend on duration and timing, with shorter midday naps being the least disruptive. There is also focus on the importance of awakening around the same time every morning and generally having a regular sleep schedule.\n", "Such recommendations may cast individuals with different natural sleep patterns as lazy or unmotivated when it is a much different matter for a person with a longer or delayed sleep cycle to get up earlier in the morning than for a person with an advanced sleep cycle. In effect, the person accustomed to a later wake time is being asked not to wake up an hour early but 3–4 hours early, while waking up \"normally\" may already be an unrecognized challenge imposed by the environment.\n", "Modafinil (brand name Provigil) is a stimulant approved in the US for treatment of shift-work sleep disorder, which shares some characteristics with DSPD. A number of clinicians prescribe it for DSPD patients, as it may improve a sleep-deprived patient's ability to function adequately during socially desirable hours. It is generally not recommended to take modafinil after noon; modafinil is a relatively long-acting drug with a half-life of 15 hours, and taking it during the later part of the day can make it harder to fall asleep at bedtime.\n", "In some cases there are major differences in how different people use the same word; for example, some people use \"by evening\" to mean 6PM and others use it to mean midnight. Psycholinguists have shown that when people speak to each other, they agree on a common interpretation via lexical alignment; this is not something which NLG systems can yet do.\n", "Affected people often report that while they do not get to sleep until the early morning, they do fall asleep around the same time every day. Unless they have another sleep disorder such as sleep apnea in addition to DSPD, patients can sleep well and have a normal need for sleep. However, they find it very difficult to wake up in time for a typical school or work day. If they are allowed to follow their own schedules, e.g. sleeping from 4:00 am to 1:00 pm, their sleep is improved and they may not experience excessive daytime sleepiness. Attempting to force oneself onto daytime society's schedule with DSPD has been compared to constantly living with jet lag; DSPD has, in fact, been referred to as \"social jet lag\".\n", "A strict schedule and good sleep hygiene are essential in maintaining any good effects of treatment. With treatment, some people with mild DSPD may sleep and function well with an earlier sleep schedule. Caffeine and other stimulant drugs to keep a person awake during the day may not be necessary and should be avoided in the afternoon and evening, in accordance with good sleep hygiene. A chief difficulty of treating DSPD is in \"maintaining\" an earlier schedule after it has been established. Inevitable events of normal life, such as staying up late for a celebration or deadline, or having to stay in bed with an illness, tend to reset the sleeping schedule to its intrinsic late times.\n", "Practice of sleep hygiene and knowledge of sleep hygiene practices can be assessed with measures such as the Sleep Hygiene Index, Sleep Hygiene Awareness and Practice Scale, or the Sleep Hygiene Self-Test. For younger individuals, sleep hygiene can be assessed by the Adolescent Sleep Hygiene Scale or the Children's Sleep Hygiene Scale.\n\nSection::::Recommendations.\n\nClinicians choose among recommendations for improving sleep quality for each individual and counselling is presented as a form of patient education.\n\nSection::::Recommendations.:Sleep schedule.\n", "A sleep diary, also called sleep log or sleep journal, kept by a patient at home for at least two weeks, while subjective, may help determine the extent and nature of sleep disturbance and the level of alertness in the normal environment. A parallel journal kept by a parent or bed partner, if any, can also be helpful. Sleep logs can also be used for self-monitoring and in connection with behavioral and other treatment. The image at the top of this page, with nighttime in the middle and the weekend in the middle, shows a layout that can aid in noticing trends\n", "The strength of research support for each recommendation varies; some of the more robustly researched and supported recommendations include the negative effects of noisy sleep environments, alcohol consumption in the hours before sleep, engaging in mentally difficult tasks before sleep, and trying too hard to fall asleep. There is a lack of evidence for the effects of certain sleep hygiene recommendations, including getting a more comfortable mattress, removing bedroom clocks, not worrying, and limiting liquids. Other recommendations, such as the effects of napping or exercise, have a more complicated evidence base. The effects of napping, for example, seem to depend on the length and timing of napping, in conjunction with how much cumulative sleep an individual has had in recent nights.\n", "Diagnosis of any type of circadian rhythm sleep disorder must be distinguished from normal adjustments a person makes in reaction to a schedule change. The sleep disruptions must be persistent and recurring and lead to social or occupational problems. People who prefer unusually late or early sleep schedules or people adjusting to a new sleep schedule should not receive this diagnosis unless they meet the other criteria.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Definition.\n", "Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, in particular in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Blue LED lighting suppresses melatonin production five times more than the orange-yellow high-pressure sodium (HPS) light; a metal halide lamp, which is white light, suppresses melatonin at a rate more than three times greater than HPS. Depression symptoms from long term nighttime light exposure can be undone by returning to a normal cycle.\n\nSection::::Human health.:Effect of drugs.\n", "According to each culture, there is often an understanding about what is considered an acceptable degree of punctuality. Usually, a small amount of lateness is acceptable; this is commonly about ten or fifteen minutes in Western cultures, but this is not the case in such instances as doctor's appointments or school lessons. In some cultures, such as Japanese society, and settings, such as military ones, expectations may be much stricter.\n", "Another tool is the Multiple Sleep Latency Test (MSLT), which has been used since the 1970s. It is used to measure the time it takes from the start of a daytime nap period to the first signs of sleep, called sleep latency. The test is based on the idea that the sleepier people are, the faster they will fall asleep.\n", "Other additional ways to classify the nature of a patient's sleep and biological clock are the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire and the Munich ChronoType Questionnaire, both of which have fairly strong correlations with accurately reporting phase advanced or delayed sleep. Questionnaires like the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) and the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) help gauge the severity of sleep disruption. Specifically, these questionnaires can help the professional assess the patient's problems with sleep latency, undesired early-morning wakefulness, and problems with falling or staying asleep.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "A sleep diary should be kept to aid in diagnosis and for chronicling the sleep schedule during treatment. Other ways to monitor the sleep schedule are actigraphy or use of a Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP) machine that can log sleeping times\n\nThe following are possible warning signs:\n\nBULLET::::- sleeping off and on in a series of naps during the day and at night, with no regular pattern but with normal total sleep time,\n\nBULLET::::- difficulty getting restorative sleep, and\n\nBULLET::::- excessive daytime sleepiness.\n", "Night Shift is a display mode introduced in iOS 9.3. The mode shifts the colors of the device's display to be warmer, similar to F.lux, a popular program for Microsoft Windows and Apple macOS computers. When enabled, it uses the device's clock and geographic location to determine when to turn the feature on or off. Optionally, the user can set a manual schedule, or not have a schedule at all. For ease of access, there is a new Night Shift toggle in the Control Center. The settings for Night Shift are located under \"Display and Brightness\" in the Settings app, and on top of enabling the feature and setting a schedule, the user can also set the warmth of the display.\n", "Treatment of the delayed sleep phase type depends on the severity of the case. Mild cases may be addressed by an individual simply adhering to strict sleep and wake times. Severe cases may require incremental changes in sleep time, where a person sleeps 15 to 30 minutes earlier each day until an appropriate pattern is reached. Other methods of altering delayed sleep patterns include prescribing a night of sleep deprivation or the use of chronotherapy, a method in which sleep is delayed for three hours each night until the sleep pattern is rotated around the clock.\n", "Work areas must have at least a value of 200 equivalent melanopic lux present for 75% or more work stations between the hours of 9:00 A.M. and 1:00 P.M. for each day of the year when daylight is incorporated into calculations. If daylight is not taken into account all workstations require lighting at the value of 150 equivalent melanopic lux or greater.\n", "Learning areas require either that light models which may incorporate daylighting have an equivalent melanoopic lux of 125 at at least 75% of desks for at least four hours per day or ambient lights maintain the standard lux recommendations set forth by Table 3 of the IES-ANSI RP-3-13.\n", "Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as jet lag, with its associated symptoms of fatigue, disorientation, and insomnia.\n\nA number of other disorders, for example bipolar disorder and some sleep disorders such as delayed sleep phase disorder (DSPD), are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms.\n", "DSPD is diagnosed by a clinical interview, actigraphic monitoring, and/or a sleep diary kept by the patient for at least two weeks. When polysomnography is also used, it is primarily for the purpose of ruling out other disorders such as narcolepsy or sleep apnea. If a person can adjust to a normal daytime schedule on their own, with just the help of alarm clocks and will-power, the diagnosis is not given.\n", "One study suggests that, for those working a night shift (such as 23:00 to 07:00), it may be advantageous to sleep in the evening (14:00 to 22:00) rather than the morning (08:00 to 16:00). The study's evening sleep subjects had 37% fewer episodes of attentional impairment than the morning sleepers.\n\nThere are four major determinants of cognitive performance and alertness in healthy shift-workers. They are: circadian phase, sleep inertia, acute sleep deprivation and chronic sleep deficit. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "A normal amount of sleep per day may be 9 hours." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Recommend reading the book: \"Sleep: The Myth of 8 Hours, the Power of Naps...\" written by a sleep scientist." ]
2018-03015	Why do broken bones still hurt if they aren't set back into place?	There could be nerve damage in the surrounding tissue. Bone is also covered by a thin membrane called periosteum, which can also be torn or stretched by the broken bone.	[ "The most common sites of preserved injury and disease in theropod dinosaur in the ribs and tail vertebrae. The least common sites of preserved injury are the cranium and forelimb in about equal frequency. The least common sites of preserved pathology are the weight-bearing bones like the tibia, femur and sacrum. The lack of preserved injuries in skeletal elements like femora suggests that they were selected by evolution for resistance to breakage.\n", "Fracture in bone could occur because of an acute injury (monotonic loading) or fatigue (cyclic loading). Generally, bone can withstand physiological loading conditions, but aging and diseases like osteoporosis that compromise the hierarchical structure of bone can contribute to bone breakage. Furthermore, the analysis of bone fracture is complicated by the bone remodeling response, where there is a competition between microcrack accumulation and the remodeling rate. If the remodeling rate is slower than the rate microcracks accumulate, bone fracture can occur. \n\nFurthermore, the orientation and location of the crack matters because bone is anisotropic.\n\nSection::::Bone fracture.:Bone characterization.\n", "Mouse and other animal models are being heavily used to determine the neuron tissue densities in bone and mechanisms for maintenance of bone pain. This information is pertinent to determining the biological and physiological components of pain in the bone. By creating a detailed map relating the types of nerves going through the different sections of bone, it is possible to pin-point locations in the bone that are at a higher risk of being susceptible to bone pain.\n", "In normal bone, fractures occur when there is significant force applied, or repetitive trauma over a long time. Fractures can also occur when a bone is weakened, such as with osteoporosis, or when there is a structural problem, such as when the bone remodels excessively (such as Paget's disease) or is the site of the growth of cancer. Common fractures include wrist fractures and hip fractures, associated with osteoporosis, vertebral fractures associated with high-energy trauma and cancer, and fractures of long-bones. Not all fractures are painful. When serious, depending on the fractures type and location, complications may include flail chest, compartment syndromes or fat embolism.\n", "Section::::Fractography.\n\nJoint propagation can be studied using the techniques of fractography in which characteristic marks such as hackles and plumose structures can be used to determine propagation directions and, in some cases, the principal stress orientations.\n\nSection::::Shear fractures versus joints.\n", "Section::::Mechanical stress and activity indicators.:Injury and workload.\n\nFractures to bones during or after excavation will appear relatively fresh, with broken surfaces appearing white and unweathered. Distinguishing between fractures around the time of death and post-depositional fractures in bone is difficult, as both types of fractures will show signs of weathering. Unless evidence of bone healing or other factors are present, researchers may choose to regard all weathered fractures as post-depositional.\n", "The talus is most commonly fractured by two methods. The first is hyperdorsiflexion, where the neck of the talus is forced against the tibia and fractures. The second is jumping from a height - the body is fractured as the talus transmits the force from the foot to the lower limb bones.\n", "Doctors will often also measure the size of each defect. Defects smaller than 2 cm, for example, are considered to be small. It is also important to remember that although the amount of damage is an important factor, the location of the defect(s) can also influence the symptoms you are getting in terms of pain and function and their repair options available.\n", "The talus bone lacks a good blood supply. Because of this, healing a broken talus can take longer than most other bones. One with a broken talus may not be able to walk for many months without crutches and will further wear a walking cast or boot of some kind after that.\n", "Tensile fractures are almost always referred to as \"joints\", which are fractures where no appreciable slip or shear is observed.\n", "Crack deflection and twist occurs due to osteons, the structural unit of cortical bone. Osteons have a cylindrical structure and are approximately 0.2 mm in diameter. As the crack tip reaches an osteon, crack propagation is deflected along the lateral surface of the osteon slowing crack growth. Because osteons are larger scale, than both collagen fibers and uncracked \"ligaments, crack deflection through osteons are one of the major toughening mechanisms of bone. \n\nSection::::Bone fracture.:Bone characterization.:Extrinsic mechanisms.:Micro-cracking.\n", "An arthroscope can be used at the time of fixation to evaluate for soft-tissue injury. Structures at risk include the triangular fibrocartilage complex and the scapholunate ligament. Scapholunate injuries in radial styloid fractures where the fracture line exits distally at the scapholunate interval should be considered. TFCC injuries causing obvious DRUJ instability can be addressed at the time of fixation.\n", "In this kind of reduction, holes are drilled into uninjured areas of bones around the fracture and special bolts or wires are screwed into the holes. Outside the body, a rod or a curved piece of metal with special ball-and-socket joints joins the bolts to make a rigid support. The fracture can be set in the proper anatomical configuration by adjusting the ball-and-socket joints. Since the bolts pierce the skin, proper cleaning to prevent infection at the site of surgery must be performed.\n", "Section::::Causes.\n\nOpen fractures can occur due to direct impacts such as high-energy physical forces (trauma), motor vehicular accidents, firearms, and falls from height. Indirect mechanisms include twisting (torsional injuries) and falling from a standing position. These mechanisms are usually associated with substantial degloving of the soft-tissues, but can also have a subtler appearance with a small poke hole and accumulation of clotted blood in the tissues. Depending on the nature of the trauma, it can cause different types of fractures:\n\nSection::::Causes.:Common fractures.\n", "These joints are synarthroses. It is normal for many of the bones of the skull to remain unfused at birth. The fusion of the skull's bones at birth is known as craniosynostosis. The term \"fontanelle\" is used to describe the resulting \"soft spots\". The relative positions of the bones continue to change during the life of the adult (though less rapidly), which can provide useful information in forensics and archaeology. In old age, cranial sutures may ossify (turn to bone) completely.\n", "Section::::Importance of joints.\n", "Crush injuries are the most common form of injuries, followed by falls from standing height, and road traffic accidents. Open fractures tend to occur more often in males than females at the ratio of 7 to 3 and the age of onset of 40.8 and 56 years respectively. In terms of anatomy location, fractures of finger phalanges are the most common one at the rate of 14 per 100,000 people per year in the general population, followed by fracture of tibia at 3.4 per 100,000 population per year, and distal radius fracture at 2.4 per 100,000 population per year. Infection rates for Gustilo Grade I fractures is 1.4%, followed by 3.6% for Grade II fractures, 22.7% for Grade IIIA fractures, and 10 to 50% of Grade IIIB and IIIC fractures.\n", "In 2001, Ralph E. Molnar published a survey of pathologies in theropod dinosaur bone. He found pathological features in 21 genera from 10 families. Pathologies were found in theropods of all body size although they were less common in fossils of small theropods, although this may be an artifact of preservation. They are very widely represented throughout the different parts of theropod anatomy. The most common sites of preserved injury and disease in theropod dinosaurs are the ribs and tail vertebrae. Despite being abundant in ribs and vertebrae, injuries seem to be \"absent... or very rare\" on the bodies' primary weight supporting bones like the sacrum, femur, and tibia. The lack of preserved injuries in these bones suggests that they were selected by evolution for resistance to breakage. The least common sites of preserved injury are the cranium and forelimb, with injuries occurring in about equal frequency at each site. Most pathologies preserved in theropod fossils are the remains of injuries like fractures, pits, and punctures, often likely originating with bites. Some theropod paleopathologies seem to be evidence of infections, which tended to be confined only to small regions of the animal's body. Evidence for congenital malformities have also been found in theropod remains. Such discoveries can provide information useful for understanding the evolutionary history of the processes of biological development. Unusual fusions in cranial elements or asymmetries in the same are probably evidence that one is examining the fossils of an extremely old individual rather than a diseased one.\n", "Section::::Clinical significance.\n\nA number of diseases can affect bone, including arthritis, fractures, infections, osteoporosis and tumours. Conditions relating to bone can be managed by a variety of doctors, including rheumatologists for joints, and orthopedic surgeons, who may conduct surgery to fix broken bones. Other doctors, such as rehabilitation specialists may be involved in recovery, radiologists in interpreting the findings on imaging, and pathologists in investigating the cause of the disease, and family doctors may play a role in preventing complications of bone disease such as osteoporosis.\n", "Evidence from the skeletal remains shows that the majority of joints were affected by eburnation, including the jaw, ankles, wrists, and elbows, in addition to the hips and knees. There are a few ways for eburnation to occur: the continual movement of those joints, ingestion of a specific fungus that consumes cartilage or a combination of the two. The presence of bone in the joints is another way in which osteoarthritis presents itself. In the case of the Stillwater Marsh people, it seems more likely that continual movement of the joints, making bone come through the tissue layers, is the cause of their osteoarthritis.\n", "The analysis of fracture in biological materials is complicated by multiple factors such as anisotropy, complex loading conditions, and the biological remodeling response and inflammatory response. \n\nSection::::Bone fracture.\n\n\"For the medical perspective, see bone fracture.\"\n", "The initial evaluation for open fractures is to rule out any other life-threatening injuries. Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) is the initial protocol to rule out such injuries. Once the patient is stabilised, orthopedic injuries can be evaluated. Mechanism of injury is important to know the amount energy that is transferred to the patient and the level of contamination. Every limb should be exposed to evaluate any other hidden injuries. Characteristics of the wound should be noted in detail. Neurology and the vascular status of the affected limb is important to rule our any nerve or blood vessels injuries. High index of suspicion of compartment syndrome should be maintained for leg and forearm fractures.\n", "Articular cartilage has a very limited capacity for self repair. Small damage does not repair itself and can often get worse over time. As cartilage is aneural and avascular (lack of nerve and blood supply, respectively), shallow damage often does not trigger pain.\n", "A history of a broken bone is usually apparent. The patient complains of persistent pain at the fracture site and may also notice abnormal movement or clicking at the level of the fracture. An x-ray plate of the fractured bone shows a persistent radiolucent line at the fracture. Callus formation may be evident but callus does not bridge across the fracture. If there is doubt about the interpretation of the x-ray, stress x-rays, tomograms or CT scan may be used for confirmation.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n\nThe reasons for non-union are\n\nBULLET::::- avascular necrosis (the blood supply was interrupted by the fracture)\n", "Fracture of biological materials\n\nFracture of biological materials may occur in biological tissues making up the musculoskeletal system, commonly called orthopedic tissues: bone, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons. Bone and cartilage, as load-bearing biological materials, are of interest to both a medical and academic setting for their propensity to fracture. For example, a large health concern is in preventing bone fractures in an aging population, especially since fracture risk increases ten fold with aging. Cartilage damage and fracture can contribute to osteoarthritis, a joint disease that results in joint stiffness and reduced range of motion. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-21827	Why there aren’t hot air blowers for snow removal	Snow melts into water, which freezes into ice. Ice is slippery, more dangerous than snow. Also, heating elements are very energy inefficient. The alternative is infrared, which would be prohibitively expensive. Far more practical just to push the stuff out the way. Rich neighborhoods where I'm from have heated driveways. Very nice.	[ "Section::::Safety issues.\n", "Jet engines and other gas turbines are used for large scale propelling and melting of snow over rails and roads. These blowers first were used in Russia and Canada in the 1960s as the large amounts of snow fall were becoming problematic for their train tracks and road ways, and were later introduced into the U.S. by the Boston Transportation Authority.\n", "Depending on the design, snowblowers can be pressed into service blowing other things, such as water.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Snow blowers range from the very small, capable of removing only a few inches (a few more cm) of light snow in an path, to the very large, mounted onto heavy-duty winter service vehicles and capable of moving wide, or wider, swaths of heavy snow up to deep. \n", "BULLET::::- Conventional air source heat pumps lose their capacity as the external temperatures fall below 5 degrees Celsius (about 41 degrees Fahrenheit). CC-ASHPs (see above) may operate efficiently in temperatures as low as −30C, although they may not be as efficient in cooling during the summer season as conventional air source heat pumps. If a conventional air source heat pump is used in colder climates, the system needs an auxiliary source of heat to supplement the heat pump in the event of extremely cold temperatures or when it is simply too cold for the heat pump to work at all.\n", "Most modern machines mitigate this problem by including a safety system known as the \"Dead man's switch\" to prevent the mechanism from rotating when the operator is not at the controls. They are mandatory in some jurisdictions.\n\nSection::::Jet-engine snow blowers.\n", "Air source heat pumps are relatively easy and inexpensive to install and have therefore historically been the most widely used heat pump type. However, they suffer limitations due to their use of the outside air as a heat source. The higher temperature differential during periods of extreme cold leads to declining efficiency. In mild weather, COP may be around 4.0, while at temperatures below around 0 °C (32 °F) an air-source heat pump may still achieve a COP of 2.5. The average COP over seasonal variation is typically 2.5-2.8, with exceptional models able to exceed this in mild climates.\n", "BULLET::::- An Auxiliary Heat/Emergency Heat system, for example a traditional furnace, is also important if the heat pump is malfunctioning or being repaired. In colder climates, split-system heat pumps matched with gas, oil or pellet fuel furnaces will work even in extremely cold temperatures.\n\nSection::::Controversy.\n", "In colder climates, where winter temperatures regularly drop below freezing, then \"frost coils\" or \"pre-heat\" coils are often employed as a first stage of air treatment to ensure that downstream filters or chilled water coils are protected against freezing. The control of the frost coil is such that if a certain off-coil air temperature is not reached then the entire air handler is shut down for protection.\n\nSection::::Components.:Humidifier.\n\nHumidification is often necessary in colder climates where continuous heating will make the air drier, resulting in uncomfortable air quality and increased static electricity. Various types of humidification may be used:\n", "Although air knives powered by compressed plant air are used in a wide variety of industrial applications, industrial blower-powered air knives have proven to reduce the energy usage versus compressed air knives by 50–75% for most applications. Blower-powered air knife systems came of age with the advent of the 1987 Montreal Protocol, which started the clock on the worldwide phase-out of atmospheric ozone depleting CFC’s (chlorofluorocarbons) then used as cleaning agents in many industries.\n", "While heat pumps with backup systems other than electrical resistance heating are often encouraged by electric utilities, air source heat pumps are a concern for winter-peaking utilities if electrical resistance heating is used as the supplemental or replacement heat source when the temperature drops below the point that the heat pump can meet all of the home's heat requirement. Even if there is a non-electric backup system, the fact that efficiencies of ASHPs decrease with outside temperatures is a concern to electric utilities. The drop in efficiency means their electrical load increases steeply as temperatures drop. A study in Canada's Yukon Territory, where diesel generators are used for peaking capacity, noted that widespread adoption of air source heat pumps could lead to increased diesel consumption if the increased electrical demand due to ASHP use exceeds available hydroelectric capacity Notwithstanding those concerns, the study did conclude that ASHPs are a cost effective heating alternative for Yukon residents.\n", "Section::::Equipment.:Jet-powered snow blower.\n", "Snow blowers, also known as rotating snowplows or snow cutters, can be used in place of snowplows on winter service vehicles. A snow blower consists of a rapidly spinning auger which cuts through the snow, forcing it out of a funnel attached to the top of the blower. Snow blowers typically clear much faster than plows, with some clearing in excess of of snow per hour, and can cut through far deeper snow drifts than a snowplow can. In addition, snow blowers can remove snow from the roadway completely, rather than piling it at the side of the road, making passage easier for other road users and preventing the windrow from blocking driveways.\n", "There are many application, environmental, efficiency and duty cycle aspects to consider when choosing between compressors and blowers. Compressed air, which is least efficient when used for air knives discharging into free air, allows for use of primary plant air. The piping sizes supplying the air knives can be as little as diameter, so they are ideal for confined spaces. Blower-powered air knives must be larger in size along with larger diameter supply piping, but the efficiency improvement over compressed air is easily justified with the electrical power cost savings.\n", "Section::::Snowplow invention.\n", "An air source heat pump requires an outdoor unit containing moving mechanical components including fans which produce noise. In 2013, the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) started work on standards for protection from noise pollution caused by heat pump outdoor units. Although the CEN/TC 113 Business Plan outset was that \"consumers increasingly require a low acoustic power of these units as the users and their neighbours now reject noisy installations\", no standards for noise barriers or other means of noise protection had been developed by January 2016.\n", "Ski resorts have a strong interest in producing snow, even when the ambient temperature is as high as 20 °C. The dimensions and power expenditure of known snow-production equipment depend on humidity and wind conditions. This snow-making equipment is based on the freezing of water droplets which are sprayed into air before they reach the ground surface, and requires an ambient temperature lower than −4 °C.\n", "A \"standard\" domestic air source heat pump can extract useful heat down to about . At colder outdoor temperatures the heat pump is less efficient; it could be switched off and the premises heated using only supplemental heat (or emergency heat) if the supplemental heating system is large enough. There are specially designed heat pumps that, while giving up some performance in cooling mode, will provide useful heat extraction to even lower outdoor temperatures.\n\nSection::::In cold climates.\n", "The simplest and lowest cost open-cycle cooling systems, known as swamp coolers in the south-west United States, do not even need power for a compressor, merely a blower fan, so humidified cooled air is simply vented into the living space. Portable free-standing units can be obtained at discount stores for less than $200. However, if these systems are improperly implemented the drawbacks are multiple and severe.\n", "The next step in the snowmaking process is to add air using an air plant. This plant is often a building which contains electric or diesel industrial air compressors the size of a van or truck. However, in some instances air compression is provided using diesel-powered, portable trailer-mounted compressors which can be added to the system. Many fan-type snow guns have on-board electric air compressors, which allows for cheaper, and more compact operation. A ski area may have the required high-output water pumps, but not an air pump. Onboard compressors are cheaper and easier than having a dedicated pumping house. The air is generally cooled and excess moisture is removed before it is sent out of the plant. Some systems even cool the water before it enters the system. This improves the snowmaking process as the less heat in the air and water, the less heat must be dissipated to the atmosphere to freeze the water. From this plant the air travels up a separate pipeline following the same path as the water pipeline.\n", "All-electric heat pump systems have an electric furnace or electric resistance heat, or strip heat, which typically consists of rows of electric coils that heat up. A fan blows over the heated coils and circulates warm air throughout the home. This serves as an adequate heating source, but as temperatures go down, electricity costs rise. Electrical service outages pose the same threat as to central forced-air systems and pump-based boilers, but woodstoves and non-electric fireplace inserts can mitigate this risk. Some ASHPs can be coupled to solar panels as primary energy source, with a conventional electric grid as backup source.\n", "Air source heat pumps can last for over 20 years with low maintenance requirements. There are numerous heat pumps from the 1970s and 1980s in the United States that are still in service in 2012, even in places where winters are extremely cold. Few moving parts reduce maintenance requirements. However, the outdoor heat exchanger and fan must be kept free from leaves and debris. Heat pumps have more moving parts than an equivalent electric resistance heater or fuel burning heater. Ground source heat pumps have fewer moving parts than air source heat pumps as they do not need fans or defrosting mechanisms and are located indoors. The ground array for a ground source installation should last for over 100 years.\n", "While such systems were once common in cold areas, after several fires caused by systems running too high a percentage of antifreeze, the regulatory authority in the United States effectively banned new antifreeze installations. A sunset date of 2022 applies to older antifreeze systems in the USA . This regulatory action has greatly increased costs and reduced options for cold weather sprinkler systems.\n\nSection::::Types.:Dry pipe systems.\n", "The key considerations in snow production are increasing water and energy efficiency and increasing the environmental window in which snow can be made.\n\nSnowmaking plants require water pumps and sometimes air compressors when using lances, that are both very large and expensive. The energy required to make artificial snow is about 0.6 - 0.7 kW h/m³ for lances and 1 - 2 kW h/m³ for fan guns. The density of artificial snow is between 400 and 500 kg/m³ and the water consumption for producing snow is roughly equal to that number.\n", "An air source heat pump designed specifically for very cold climates can extract useful heat from ambient air as cold −30 °C (−22 °F). Manufacturers include Mitsubishi and Fujitsu. One Mitsubishi model provides heat at −35 °C, but the Coefficient of performance (COP) drops to 0.9, indicating that resistance heating would be more efficient at that temperature. At −30 °C, the COP is 1.1, according to the manufacturer's data, although the manufacturer's marketing literature also claims a minimum COP of 1.4 and performance to −30 °C. Although air source heat pumps are less efficient than well-installed ground source heat pumps in cold conditions, air source heat pumps have lower initial costs and may be the most economic or practical choice. A study by Natural Resources Canada found that cold climate air source heat pumps (CC-ASHPs) do work in Canadian winters, based on testing in Ottawa, Ontario in late December 2012 to early January 2013 using a ducted CC-ASHP. (The report does not explicitly state whether backup heat sources should be considered for temperatures below −30 °C. The record low for Ottawa is −36 °C.) The CC-ASHP provided 60% energy (though not energy cost) savings compared to natural gas, when considering only energy efficiency in the home. When considering energy efficiency in electricity generation however, more energy would be used with the CC-ASHP, relative to natural gas heating, in provinces or territories (Alberta, Nova Scotia, and the Northwest Territories) where coal-fired generation was the predominant method of electricity generation. (The energy savings in Saskatchewan were marginal. Other provinces use primarily hydroelectric and/or nuclear generation.) Despite the significant energy savings relative to gas in provinces not relying primarily on coal, the higher cost of electricity relative to natural gas (using 2012 retail prices in Ottawa, Ontario) made natural gas the less expensive energy source. (The report did not calculate the cost of operation in the province of Quebec, which has lower electricity rates, nor did it show the impact of time of use electricity rates.) The study found that in Ottawa a CC-ASHP cost 124% more to operate than the natural gas system. However, in areas where natural gas is not available to homeowners, 59% energy cost savings can be realized relative to heating with fuel oil. The report noted that about 1 million residences in Canada (8%) are still heated with fuel oil. The report shows 54% energy cost savings for CC-ASHPs relative to electric baseboard resistance heating. Based on these savings, the report showed a five-year payback for converting from either fuel oil or electric baseboard resistance heating to a CC-ASHP. (The report did not specify whether that calculation considered the possible need for an electrical service upgrade in the case of converting from fuel oil. Presumably no electrical service upgrade would be needed if converting from electric resistance heat.) The report did note greater fluctuations in room temperature with the heat pump due to its defrost cycles.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01049	How does a Chinese Buffet remain profitable offering unlimited food and multiple choices for $7.99 when a single dish for delivery is $7.99?	Very cheap labor Low rent High volume (lots of paying customers) Food bought cheap and in bulk	[ "In 2015, China's online food ordering and delivery market grew from 0.15 billion Yuan to 44.25 billion Yuan.\n\nAs of September 2016, online delivery accounted for about 3 percent of the 61 billion U.S. restaurant transactions.\n\nSection::::Service Types.\n\nSection::::Service Types.:Restaurant-controlled.\n", "Section::::Customer opinion.\n", "In Brazil, \"comida a quilo\" or \"comida por quilo\" — literally, \"food by [the] kilo\" — restaurants are common. This is a cafeteria style buffet in which diners are billed by the weight of the food selected, excluding the weight of the plate. Brazilian cuisine's \"rodízio\" style is all-you-can-eat, having both non-self-service and self-service variations.\n\nIn Hong Kong, the \"cha chaan teng buffet\" is a relatively new variation on traditional low-cost Chinese snack and coffee shops.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"all-you-can-eat\" buffet is more free-form; customers pay a fixed fee and then can help themselves to as much food as they wish to eat in a single meal. This form is found often in restaurants, especially in hotels. In some countries, this format is popular for \"Sunday brunch\" buffets.\n\nBULLET::::- A so-called Mongolian barbecue buffet format allows diners to collect various thinly-sliced raw foods and add flavorings, which are then stir-fried on a large griddle by a restaurant cook.\n", "In 2016, Subway closed hundreds of restaurants in the U.S., experiencing a net loss in locations for the first time. However, with 26,744 locations, it remained the most ubiquitous restaurant chain in the U.S. (with McDonald's in the #2 spot).\n", "In the US, there are numerous Chinese-American cuisine-inspired buffet restaurants, as well as those serving primarily traditional American fare. Also, South Asian cuisine (notably in Indian restaurants), pan-Asian cuisine, and Mediterranean cuisine are increasingly available in the buffet format, and sushi has also become more popular at buffets. In some regions of the US, Brazilian-style \"churrascaria\" barbecue buffets served \"rodízio\" style are becoming popular.\n\nLas Vegas and Atlantic City are famous for all-you-can-eat buffets with a very wide range of foods on offer, and similar ones have also become common in casinos elsewhere in the US.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Pacific Dining Car was a family business for 98 years, which can explain that this restaurant did not change much on food recipe compare to original from generation to generation. And it still remains opening time to 24 hours in every day.\n", "Fei Du Du Cha Chaan Teng, owned by Stephen Cheng in Tsuen Wan, was the first restaurant letting consumers order buffet on 1 March 2013 which creates a new dining trend. \n", "In Australia, buffet chains such as Sizzler serve a large number of patrons with carvery meats, seafood, salads and desserts. Cruise operators in Sydney, conduct Sydney Harbour sightseeing cruises with continental buffets having multiple seafood options. Buffets are also common in Returned and Services League of Australia (RSL) clubs and some motel restaurants.\n", "Alternatively, diners may serve themselves for most prepared selections, but a carvery station for roasted meats is staffed. Some buffet formats also feature staffed stations where crepes, omelettes, noodle soups, barbecued meats, or sushi are custom prepared at the request of individual diners.\n\nSection::::All-you-can-eat.\n\nThe all-you-can-eat restaurant was introduced in Las Vegas by Herbert \"Herb\" Cobb McDonald in 1946. \n", "BULLET::::- A variation occurs in a dim sum house, where seated patrons make their selections from wheeled carts containing different plates of food which the staff circulate through the restaurant. Another variation is a conveyor belt sushi restaurant, where seated patrons select dishes from a continuously-moving conveyor belt carrying a variety of foods. In another variation, Brazilian \"rodízio\" style buffets feature roving waiters serving \"churrascaria\" barbecued meats from large skewers directly onto the seated diners' plates.\n", "As a compromise between self-service and full table service, a staffed buffet may be offered: diners carry their own plate or tray along the buffet line and are given a portion by a server at each station, which may be selected or skipped by the diner. This method is prevalent at catered meetings where diners are not paying specifically for their meal.\n", "In March 2018, the Toronto based mobile App Ritual adopted an aggressive strategy of sign up incentives to capture a significant portion of the City of London young professional lunch market. At the time of writing, the long term success of this strategy remains unclear. Ritual however has also attracted controversy by allowing random strangers to access users precise work place location and eating habits.\n\nSection::::Service Types.:Online Food App Services.:Food Riders.\n", "The People's Restaurant group slashed menu prices in an attempt to attract customers. The only outcome of this was less money going through the tills. It would appear that Little Chef completely ignored the competition it was faced with, not to mention the fact that restaurants had become run down and staffed minimally.\n\nSection::::History.:2008–2018.\n", "The downside of this exclusive approach is that items that are high in gross profit are typically the highest priced items on the menu and they typically are on the high end of the food cost percentage scale. This approach works fine in price inelastic markets like country clubs and fine dining white table cloth restaurants. However, in highly competitive markets, which most restaurants reside, think Applebee's, Chili's, Olive Garden, price points are particularly critical in building customer counts. In addition, food cost cannot be ignored completely. If food cost increases, total costs must increase enough to lower the overall fixed cost percentage or the bottom line will not improve. This is not a recommended strategy for neighborhood restaurant with average checks under $15.\n", "BULLET::::- Brewers Fayre – all locations have different themed buffets every day\n\nBULLET::::- Cabalen\n\nBULLET::::- Chi Chis\n\nBULLET::::- Chuck-A-Rama\n\nBULLET::::- Cici's Pizza\n\nBULLET::::- Cosmo\n\nBULLET::::- Fresh Choice (defunct)\n\nBULLET::::- Furr's\n\nBULLET::::- Gatti's Pizza\n\nBULLET::::- Godfather's Pizza\n\nBULLET::::- Golden Corral\n\nBULLET::::- Happy Joe's – some locations have a buffet\n\nBULLET::::- Hometown Buffet\n\nBULLET::::- Hoss's Steak and Sea House\n\nBULLET::::- HuHot Mongolian Grill – create your own stir-fry\n\nBULLET::::- Infinito's Pizza – south-central Pennsylvania\n\nBULLET::::- John's Incredible Pizza\n\nBULLET::::- KFC – select locations only\n\nBULLET::::- Magistic Cruises\n\nBULLET::::- Mandarin Restaurant\n\nBULLET::::- Moo Moo Restaurant\n", "Nowadays, many dim sum restaurants have instead adopted a paper-based à la carte ordering system. This method allows only those items which have been ordered to be prepared in the kitchen, reducing the need for leftovers as well as minimizing waste food or ingredients. A few restaurants use both approaches to serving, making use of push-trolleys during peak hours and switching to on-demand ordering in less busier periods.\n", "Competition in the food service segment is also becoming increasingly fierce as restaurants look to attract diners from other types of restaurants in order to increase their own traffic. Competitors who have not kept up through menu innovation or by offering new services have felt the strongest pressure competitively. Restaurants that demonstrate innovation and creativity to improve convenience and service will be those that achieve differentiation from competitors. Moreover, those restaurants that are able to provide new concepts that can appeal to a wider variety of customers will also realize increased returns.\n", "Buyers sometimes have better information about how much benefit they can extract from a service. For example, an all-you-can-eat buffet restaurant that sets one price for all customers risks being adversely selected against by high appetite and hence, the least profitable customers. The restaurant has no way of knowing whether a given customer has a high or low appetite. The customer is the only one who knows if they have a high or low appetite. In this case the high appetite customers are more likely to use the information they have and to go to the restaurant.\n", "Several competitors ended up following Subway's success with the $5 footlongs, including Pizza Hut, Arby's, and KFC, which introduced similar round price points. Many consumer goods outside of the restaurant industry have also adopted round price points as well.\n", "BULLET::::- Asia de Cuba Miami: \"Miami New Times\" Best Restaurant for Cocktails 2009\n\nBULLET::::- Bar Basque: \"New York Magazine\" Where to Eat 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Bar Basque: 2011 Zagat Survey Best New York City Hot Spots\n\nBULLET::::- Blue Door Fish: 2011 \"Miami New Times\" Best Seafood on the Beach\n\nBULLET::::- China Grill New York: Zagat Survey Best New York City Power Lunch Restaurants\n\nBULLET::::- China Grill New York: Zagat Survey Best New York City Asian Restaurants\n\nBULLET::::- China Grill Miami Beach: Zagat Survey Best Pan-Asian Restaurants\n\nBULLET::::- Ed's Chowder House: \"New York Magazine\" Where to Eat 2010\n", "When Zippy's Kaimuki restaurant opened, Charles would transport huge pots of chili in his station wagon. Now, food is being prepared by Food Solutions International in Waipio and is sent to the different Zippy's around the islands.\n\nSection::::Menu.\n", "BULLET::::- Some hot pot restaurants offer all-you-can-eat buffets, in which diners order plates of thinly-sliced raw foods and flavorings, and cook them in boiling pots of soup at their tables.\n\nBULLET::::- A salad bar is commonly offered in delicatessens and supermarkets, in which customers help themselves to lettuce and other salad ingredients, then pay by weight. Sometimes only cold foods are offered, but often warmed or hot foods are available at a \"hot foods bar\", possibly at a different price by weight.\n", "At the time of its startup, restaurateurs and café owners had been known to be slow to adapt to technology advancements. However, aided by the rise in 3G and WiFi internet access, this trend had been slowly changing.\n\nSection::::Services.\n\nSection::::Services.:For users.\n", "In British Columbia, a form of buffet known as the Chinese smörgåsbord developed in pre-railway Gastown (the settlement that became Vancouver) when Scandinavian loggers and millworkers encouraged their Chinese cooks to turn a sideboard into a steamtable instead of bringing plates of single dishes to the dining table. Following the introduction of the automobile and the drive-in restaurant, Chinese take-out service was augmented by Chinese drive-ins, including the now-vanished Dragon Inn chain, which was also known for its smörgåsbord.\n" ]	[ "If a single meal is 7.99, then buffet spots should not be able to remain profitable offering the unlimited food for the same price." ]	[ "The buffet acquires the space, food, and labor for very cheap, and because food is offered so cheap, they acquire a large volume of paying customers." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If a single meal is 7.99, then buffet spots should not be able to remain profitable offering the unlimited food for the same price.", "If a single meal is 7.99, then buffet spots should not be able to remain profitable offering the unlimited food for the same price." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The buffet acquires the space, food, and labor for very cheap, and because food is offered so cheap, they acquire a large volume of paying customers.", "The buffet acquires the space, food, and labor for very cheap, and because food is offered so cheap, they acquire a large volume of paying customers." ]
2018-05099	Why is the exact place of the Kaaba so important?	It ties into the direction of prayer, or [Qibla]( URL_2 ), originally it was said that Muslims faced towards the Temple Mount of Jerusalem for prayer until one day Muhammad received a revelation from God to face towards Mecca and the sacred mosque in the city for the prayer, the Kaaba. The origin of the [Kaaba]( URL_0 ) its-self is the subject of some debate among Islamic and non-Islamic scholars. The Islamic interpretation is that tha Kaaba was origionally a temple dedicated to God by his angles so they could worship him. When Adam and Eve were on the Earth, a [ White Stone]( URL_1 ) fell from the sky and showed where he was to build an alter to god. The alter/temple was then later rebuilt by Abraham and Ismael and once again dedicated to god. Over time the tradition holds, the people of the area strayed from the true faith and fell into polytheism and idolatry (the Kaaba would famously become home to more than 300 idols), so when Muhammad became the prophet, he sought to cleanse the temple and rededicated it to the faith of the true god. One interesting thing is that the Qibla change I mentioned came when Muhammad and his early followers were still in exile in Medina. It would be another four or five years before they would be allowed to return to Mecca and it would be some time before Muhammad settled. TL:DR : Islamic tradition holds that the Kaaba was the first temple to God and later Muhammad received a revelation to pray in that direction.	[ "During Muhammad's lifetime (570–632 CE), the \"Kaaba\" was considered a holy site by the local Arabs. Muhammad took part in the reconstruction of the \"Kaaba\" after its structure was damaged due to floods around 600 CE. Ibn Ishaq's \"Sirat Rasūl Allāh\", one of the biographies of Muhammad (as reconstructed and translated by Guillaume), describes Muhammad settling a quarrel between Meccan clans as to which clan should set the Black Stone cornerstone in place.\n", "Section::::History.:Independent views on origin.:Diodorus Siculus.\n\nBased on an earlier report by Agatharchides of Cnidus, Diodorus Siculus mentions a temple along the Red Sea coast, \"which is very holy and exceedingly revered by all Arabians\". Edward Gibbon believed that this was the Kaaba. However, Gibbon had misread the source: Diodorus puts the temple too far north for it to have been Mecca.\n\nSection::::History.:Independent views on origin.:Others.\n", "Section::::The Jamatkhana as a place of gathering and Prayer.\n", "The Sacred Mosque is the focal point of the Hajj and Umrah pilgrimages that occur in the month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the Islamic calendar and at any time of the year, respectively. The Hajj pilgrimage is one of the Pillars of Islam, required of all able-bodied Muslims who can afford the trip. In recent times, about 1.8 million Muslims perform the Hajj every year.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"Ka‘bah\" is a cuboid-shaped building in the center of the Great Mosque and one of the most sacred sites in Islam. It is the focal point for Islamic rituals like prayer and pilgrimage.\n\nBULLET::::- The Black Stone is the eastern cornerstone of the Kaaba and plays a role in the pilgrimage.\n\nBULLET::::- The Station of Abraham is a rock that reportedly has an imprint of Abraham's foot and is kept in a crystal dome next to the Kaaba.\n", "The Quran contains several verses regarding the origin of the \"Kaaba\". It states that the \"Kaaba\" was the first House of Worship, and that it was built by Ibrahim and Ishmael on Allah's instructions.\n", "Jerusalem became holy to Muslims, third after Mecca and Medina. The Al-Aqsa Mosque, which translates to \"farthest mosque\" in sura Al-Isra in the Quran and its surroundings are addressed in the Quran as \"the holy land\". Muslim tradition as recorded in the ahadith identifies al-Aqsa with a mosque in Jerusalem. The first Muslims did not pray toward Kaaba, but toward Jerusalem (this was the \"qibla\" for 13 years): the qibla was switched to Kaaba later on to fulfill the order of Allah of praying in the direction of Kaaba (Quran, Al-Baqarah 2:144–150). Another reason for its significance is its connection with the Miʿrāj, where, according to traditional Muslim, Muhammad ascended through the Seven heavens on a winged mule named Buraq, guided by the Archangel Gabriel, beginning from the Foundation Stone on the Temple Mount, in modern times under the Dome of the Rock.\n", "Before the rise of Islam the Ka'aba, and Mecca (previously known as Bakkah), were revered as a sacred sanctuary and was a site of pilgrimage. Some identify it with the Biblical \"valley of Baca\" from Psalms 84 (). At the time of Muhammad (AD 570–632), his tribe the Quraysh was in charge of the Kaaba, which was at that time a shrine containing hundreds of idols representing Arabian tribal gods and other religious figures. Muhammad earned the enmity of his tribe by claiming the shrine for the new religion of Islam that he preached. He wanted the Kaaba to be dedicated to the worship of the one God alone, and all the idols were evicted. The Black Stone (al-Hajar-ul-Aswad), still present at the Kaaba was a special object of veneration at the site. According to tradition the text of seven especially honoured poems were suspended around the Ka'aba.\n", "The \"Kaaba\" was thought to be at the center of the world, with the Gate of Heaven directly above it. The \"Kaaba\" marked the location where the sacred world intersected with the profane; the embedded Black Stone was a further symbol of this as a meteorite that had fallen from the sky and linked heaven and earth.\n", "According to the \"Encyclopædia Britannica\", \"before the rise of Islam it was revered as a sacred sanctuary and was a site of pilgrimage.\" According to German historian Eduard Glaser, the name \"\"Kaaba\"\" may have been related to the southern Arabian or Ethiopian word \"\"mikrab\"\", signifying a temple. Again, Crone disputes this etymology.\n", "In Samaritan literature, the Samaritan Book of the Secrets of Moses (Asatir) claims that Ishmael and his eldest son Nebaioth built the \"Kaaba\" as well as the city of Mecca. \"The Secrets of Moses\" or Asatir book was suggested by some opinion to have been compiled in the 10th century, while another opinion in 1927 suggested that it was written no later than the second half of the 3rd century BCE.\n\nSection::::History.:Pre-Islamic Era.\n", "According to the Quran, Abraham together with his son Ishmael raised the foundations of a house, which has been identified by commentators as the \"Kaaba\". God showed Abraham the exact site, very near to what is now the Well of Zamzam, where Abraham and Ishmael began work on the construction of the \"Kaaba\". After Abraham had built the \"Kaaba\", an angel brought to him the Black Stone, a celestial stone that, according to tradition, had fallen from Heaven on the nearby hill Abu Qubays. The Black Stone is believed to be the only remnant of the original structure made by Abraham.\n", " Islam's holiest structure, the \"Kaaba\" (within the Al-Haram Mosque) in the city of Mecca, though an ancient temple (in the sense of a \"house of God\"), may be seen as a shrine due to it housing a venerated relic called the \"Hajar al-Aswad\" and also being the focus of the world's largest pilgrimage practice, the Hajj. A few yards away, the mosque also houses the \"Maqam Ibrahim\" (\"Abraham's station\") shrine containing a petrosomatoglyph (of feet) associated with the patriarch and his son Ishmael's building of the Kaaba in Islamic tradition. The Green Dome sepulcher of the Islamic prophet Muhammad (where his burial chamber also contains the tombs of his friend Abu Bakr and close companion Umar) in Medina, housed in the Masjid an-Nabawi (\"The Mosque of the Prophet\"), occurs as a greatly venerated place and important as a site of pilgrimage among Muslims.\n", "To maintain peace among the perpetually warring tribes, Mecca was declared a sanctuary where no violence was allowed within of the \"Kaaba\". This combat-free zone allowed Mecca to thrive not only as a place of pilgrimage, but also as a trading center.\n", "While Abraham was building the \"Kaaba\", an angel brought to him the Black Stone which he placed in the eastern corner of the structure. Another stone was the Maqam-e-Ibrahim (literally the Station of Abraham) where Abraham stood for elevation while building the structure. The Black Stone and the Maqam-e-Ibrahim are believed by Muslims to be the only remnant of the original structure made by Abraham as naturally the remaining structure had to be demolished and rebuilt several times over history for maintenance purposes. After the construction was complete, God enjoined the descendants of Ishmael to perform an annual pilgrimage: the Hajj and the Korban, sacrifice of cattle. The vicinity of the shrine was also made a sanctuary where bloodshed and war were forbidden.\n", "Some of the rituals performed by pilgrims are symbolic of historical incidents. For example, the incident of Hagar's search for water is emulated by Muslims as they run between the two hills of Safa and Marwah.\n\nThe Hajj is associated with the life of the Islamic prophet Muhammad from the 7th century, but the ritual of pilgrimage to Mecca is considered by Muslims to stretch back thousands of years to the time of Prophet Ibrahim.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Islamic views on origin.\n", "Because of the holiness of Noble Sanctuary itself—being a place where David and Solomon had prayed—Umar constructed a small prayer house in the southern corner of its platform, taking care to avoid allowing the Rock to come between the mosque and the direction of Kaaba so that Muslims would face only Mecca when they prayed.\n\nSection::::Religious significance in Islam.:Religious status.\n", "The Al-Aqsa Mosque is sacred because it was the \"first of the two Qiblas\". Islamic tradition holds that Muhammad led prayers towards this site until the seventeenth month after the emigration, when God directed him to turn towards the Kaaba.\n", "BULLET::::13. Marble stripe marking the beginning and end of each circumambulation.\n\nBULLET::::- A panoramic digital reconstruction of the interior can be seen on Google Streetview.\n\nBULLET::::- A virtual reality model of the interior and exterior can be seen on Sketchfab Virtual Reality.\n\nSection::::Religious significance.\n\nThe \"Kaaba\" is the holiest site in Islam, and is often called by names such as \"the House of God\".\n\nSection::::Religious significance.:Qibla.\n\nThe \"Qibla\" is the direction faced during prayer. It is the focal point for prayer. The direction faced during prayer is the direction of where the \"Kaaba\" is.\n\nSection::::Religious significance.:Pilgrimage.\n", "\"In the same way as the Ka'bah was built and protected with the birth of every prophet, in this country, too, in the same way as this country was before with Iman-Islam, may You [Allah] reinstate that state. And even though this mosque is small , let it be filled with the prayers as at the Ka'bah. To all those who belong there, to all those who come here, render their prayers as though it were at the Ka'bah. To all those who pray at this ka'bah, give them benefit as though they had performed Hajj, the pilgrimage, to all those who pray. Ya Rahman, please fulfill this prayer. Wherever they pray the prayer is to Allah. Wherever they turn, it is toward You, Ya Allah. It is a prayer of plenitude. May you make this grow all the time. In every heart. In the heart of every child. Amin. Amin. May You keep this lamp burning.\"\n", "Muslims initially considered Jerusalem as their \"qibla\", or prayer direction, and faced toward it while offering prayers; however, pilgrimage to the \"Kaaba\" was considered a religious duty though its rites were not yet finalized. During the first half of Muhammad's time as a prophet while he was at Mecca, he and his followers were severely persecuted which eventually led to their migration to Medina in 622 CE. In 624 CE, the direction of the qiblah was changed from Jerusalem to the \"Kaaba\" in Mecca. In 628 CE, Muhammad led a group of Muslims towards Mecca with the intention of performing the minor pilgrimage (\"Umrah\") at the \"Kaaba\", although he wasn't allowed by the people of Mecca. He secured a peace treaty with them, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, which allowed the Muslims to freely perform pilgrimage at the \"Kaaba\" from the following year.\n", "In Islamic tradition, pilgrimage was introduced during the time of prophet Ibrahim (Abraham). According to tradition, by God's command, Abraham left his wife Hajira (Hajar) and his son Ishmael (Ismail) alone in the desert of ancient Mecca with little food and water that soon ended. Mecca was then an uninhabited place. In search of water, Hajira desperately ran seven times between the two hills of Safa and Marwah but found none. Back in despair to Ishmael, she saw the baby scratching the ground with his leg and a water fountain underneath. Because of the presence of water, tribes started to settle in Mecca, Jurhum being the first such tribe to arrive. When grown up, Ishmael married in the tribe and started living with them. The Quran states that Ibrahim, along with his son Ishmael, raised the foundations of a house that is identified by most commentators as the Kaaba. After the placing of the Black Stone in the Eastern corner of the Kaaba, Ibrahim received a revelation in which Allah told the aged prophet that he should now go and proclaim the pilgrimage to mankind. The Quran refers to these incidents in and . Islamic scholar Shibli Nomani mentions that the house raised by Abraham was 27 feet high, 96 feet long, and 66 feet wide.\n", "The Kaaba ( \"\" , \"The Cube\"), also referred to as \"al-Kaʿbah al-Musharrafah\" (, the Holy Ka'bah), is a building at the center of Islam's most important mosque, Great Mosque of Mecca (, The Sacred Mosque), in the Hejazi city of Mecca, Saudi Arabia. It is the most sacred site in Islam. It is considered by Muslims to be the \"Bayt Allāh\" (, \"House of God\"), and has a similar role to the Tabernacle and Holy of Holies in Judaism. Its location determines the \"qiblah\" (, direction of prayer). Wherever they are in the world, Muslims are expected to face the \"Kaaba\" when performing \"Salah\", the Islamic prayer.\n", "During the Hajj of 930 CE, the Qarmatians attacked Mecca, defiled the Zamzam Well with the bodies of pilgrims and stole the Black Stone, taking it to the oasis region of Eastern Arabia known as al-Aḥsāʾ, where it remained until the Abbasids ransomed it in 952 CE. The basic shape and structure of the \"Kaaba\" have not changed since then.\n", "Ibn Kathir, the famous commentator on the Quran, mentions two interpretations among the Muslims on the origin of the \"Kaaba\". One is that the shrine was a place of worship for Angels before the creation of man. Later, a house of worship was built on the location by Adam and Eve which was lost during the flood in Noah's time and was finally rebuilt by Abraham and Ishmael as mentioned later in the Quran. Ibn Kathir regarded this tradition as weak and preferred instead the narration by Ali ibn Abi Talib that although several other temples might have preceded the \"Kaaba\", it was the first \"House of God\", dedicated solely to Him, built by His instruction and sanctified and blessed by Him as stated in Quran 22:26–29. A Hadith in Sahih al-Bukhari states that the \"Kaaba\" was the First Mosque on Earth, and the Second Mosque was the Temple in Jerusalem.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21868	Are coalitions possible in the voting system of the United States?	So, while it is theoretically possible, the way that US elections are held make it effectively impossible for third parties to get elected to higher office. Unless we switch to ranked voting, and remove the "first past the post" rules, third parties will not be able to get serious support in the US.	[ "Powerful parties can also act in an oligocratic way to form an alliance to stifle the growth of emerging parties. Of course, such an event is rare in coalition governments when compared to two-party systems, which typically exist because of stifling of the growth of emerging parties, often through discriminatory nomination rules regulations and plurality voting systems, and so on.\n", "The temporary collaboration of two or more separate parties with a set goal and common purpose can be viewed as a coalition in international relations. Coalition competitions are represented in international political dynamics . In international relations, a coalition can be an \"ad hoc\" grouping of nations united for specific purposes. Although persons and groups form coalitions for many and varied reasons, the most common purpose is to combat a common threat or to take advantage of a certain opportunity, resulting in the often temporary nature of coalitions. The common threat or existence of opportunity is what gives rise to the coalition and allows it to exist as all parties involved see the benefit in working together. Such collaborative processes allow the actors of the coalition to advance forward towards their overall goal or accomplish the task that the coalition was formed around. The behavior and dynamics of a coalitions in international relations are created by commonalties and differences within the groups joining together. Rationality, group dynamics, and gender are all contributing factors of coalitional behaviors in an international security framework.\n", "Countries which often operate with coalition cabinets include: the Nordic countries, the Benelux countries, Australia, Austria, Cyprus, France, Germany, Greece, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kenya, Kosovo, Lithuania, Latvia, Lebanon, Nepal, New Zealand, Pakistan, Thailand, Trinidad and Tobago, Turkey and Ukraine. Switzerland has been ruled by a coalition of the four strongest parties in parliament from 1959 to 2008, called the \"Magic Formula\". Between 2010 and 2015, the United Kingdom also operated a formal coalition between the Conservative and the Liberal Democrat parties, but this was unusual: the UK usually has a single-party majority government.\n", "Although most parliamentary governments go long periods of time without a no confidence vote, Italy, Israel, and the French Fourth Republic have all experienced difficulties maintaining stability. When parliamentary systems have multiple parties, and governments are forced to rely on coalitions, as they often do in nations that use a system of proportional representation, extremist parties can theoretically use the threat of leaving a coalition to further their agendas.\n", "BULLET::::3. After spending so many thousands of cores of public money in holding an election if no stable government can be formed due to the complexities that arise for not getting the absolute majority by any of the parties taking a part in the election,in such a circumstances forming of the alliance or coalition government is the only alternative left to avoid spending of public money again by holding another election.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Active political alliances.\n\nBULLET::::- Argentina: Cambiemos\n\nBULLET::::- Armenia: My Step Alliance\n\nBULLET::::- Australia: Liberal/National Coalition\n\nBULLET::::- Bulgaria: Coalition for Bulgaria, United Patriots\n\nBULLET::::- Croatia: People's Coalition\n", "In Germany, for instance, coalition government is the norm, as it is rare for either the Christian Democratic Union of Germany together with their partners the Christian Social Union in Bavaria (CDU/CSU), or the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), to win an unqualified majority in a national election. Thus, at the federal level, governments are formed with at least two parties. For example, Helmut Kohl's CDU governed for years in coalition with the Free Democratic Party (FDP); from 1998 to 2005 Gerhard Schröder's SPD was in power with the Greens; and from 2009 Angela Merkel, CDU/CSU was in power with the FDP.\n", "Coalition government stands as an alternative model to majoritarian governance, the latter being characterized by winner-take-all \"first-past-the-post\" electoral systems that favor clear distinctions between winners and losers. Not only can coalitions of legislative groups form governments in parliamentary systems but they can form in divisions of power as well. The most usual analyses of coalitions in politics deal with the formation of multiparty cabinets in parliamentary regimes. In Germany, every administration has been a multiparty coalition since the conclusion of the Second World War, an example of a coalition government creation in a parliamentary government. When different winning coalitions can be formed in a parliament, the party composition of the government may depend on the bargaining power of each party and the presence, or not, of a dominant party.\n", "The Cambridge Dictionary defines coalition as \"the joining together of different political parties or groups for a particular purpose, usually for a limited time, or a government that is formed in this way\".\n\nSection::::History.:International relations.\n", "Section::::History.:Civil society.\n", "\"Grand coalitions\" of the two large parties also occur, but these are relatively rare, as large parties usually prefer to associate with small ones. However, if none of the larger parties can receive enough votes to form their preferred coalition, a grand coalition might be their only choice for forming a government. This was the situation in Germany in 2005 when Angela Merkel became Chancellor: in early elections, the CDU/CSU did not garner enough votes to form a majority coalition with the FDP; similarly the SPD and Greens did not have enough votes to continue with their formerly ruling coalition. A grand coalition government was subsequently forged between the CDU/CSU and the SPD. Partnerships like these typically involve carefully structured cabinets. The CDU/CSU ended up holding the Chancellery while the SPD took the majority of cabinet posts. Parties frequently make statements ahead of elections which coalitions they categorically reject, similar to election promises or shadow cabinets in other countries.\n", "Coalition (disambiguation)\n\nA coalition is a pact or treaty among individuals or groups, during which they cooperate in joint action, each in their own self-interest, joining forces together for a common cause.\n\n\"Coalition\" may also refer to: \n\nSection::::Politics.\n\nBULLET::::- Coalition (Australia), a group of centre-right parties, consisting primarily of the Liberal Party of Australia and the National Party of Australia\n\nBULLET::::- Coalition (Chile), a coalition in Chile formed in 1891 after the Chilean Civil War\n\nBULLET::::- Coalition (Colombia), a conservative political party in Colombia\n\nBULLET::::- Coalition (Netherlands), a historic coalition between three confessional parties of the Netherlands\n", "By contrast to alliances, coalitions are what might be termed ‘partnerships of unequals’ since comparative political, economic, and military might, or more particularly the extent to which a nation is prepared to commit, dictates who will lead, who is in the inner circle, and who will have influence. Coalitions generally occur as an unplanned reply to situations of danger, uncertainty, or supernatural events they are also nonpermanent integrations directed at interim objectives. In terms of participation coalitions are, by their nature, more of a \"come as you are, wear what you want, leave when you want party\".\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "For the purposes of this list, coalitions can come in two forms. The first is produced by two or more parties joining forces after fighting elections separately to form a majority government. However, some coalitions (or alliances) are already decided before elections to give the parties the best chance of immediate government after the election.\n\nSection::::Europe.\n\nSection::::Europe.:Countries.\n\nBULLET::::- Albania: Socialist Party of Albania, Socialist Movement for Integration, Unity for Human Rights Party, Demochristian Party of Albania.\n\nBULLET::::- Belgium: Christian Democratic and Flemish, Reformist Movement, Open Flemish Liberals and Democrats.\n\nBULLET::::- Bulgaria: GERB, United Patriots\n", "Section::::Size Principle and Minimal Size Coalitions.\n", "Its office is based in Paris and its president is Christian Renoux (France).\n\nSection::::Members of the International Coalition.\n\nNational Coalitions (11) :\n\nBULLET::::- Comitato italiano per il Decennio (Italy)\n\nBULLET::::- Coordination béninoise pour la Décennie (Benin)\n\nBULLET::::- Coordination canadienne pour la Décennie (Canada) \"observing member\"\n\nBULLET::::- Coordination congolaise pour la Décennie (Democratic Republic of Congo) \"observing member\"\n\nBULLET::::- Coordination française pour la Décennie (France)\n\nBULLET::::- Coordination marocaine pour la Décennie (Morocco)\n\nBULLET::::- Coordination togolaise pour la Décennie (Togo)\n\nBULLET::::- Kooperation für des Frieden (Germany) \"observing member\"\n\nBULLET::::- Österreichisches Netzwerk für Frieden und Gewaltfreiheit (Austria)\n", "Section::::Use of Game Theory.\n", "Section::::Grand coalitions by country.:Czech Republic.\n\nAfter the Velvet Revolution, there has been a government of socialists (ČSSD) with Prime Minister Miloš Zeman tolerated by the right-wing ODS, it has been call the government of \"The opposition deal\".\n\nSection::::Grand coalitions by country.:European Union.\n", "An alternative arrangement is a looser alliance of parties, exemplified by Sweden. There the long-governing Social Democrats have ruled with more or less formal support from other parties – in the mid-20th century from Agrarians, after 1968 from Communists, and more recently from Greens and ex-Communists – and have thus been able to retain executive power and (in practice) legislative initiative. This is also common in Canada, where nine elections from 1921 to 2005 effectively produced minority federal governments. The parties can rarely cooperate enough to establish a formal coalition, but operate under a loose agreement instead.\n", "In civil society, \"coalition\" connotes a group effort or a population of people coming together who believe strongly in their cause. The term also describes alliances between civil society organizations, such as labor unions, community organizations, and religious institutions. In France, for example, workers from different sectors and unions band together to aid each other in communicating a point. This coalition of unions is often very effective as it causes massive inconvenience to the country. The formation of coalitions such as the Community-Labor Coalition have proven to be an important strategy for social change in many contexts. In social groups, a coalition often forms from private citizens uniting behind a common goal or purpose. Many of these private citizen groups form grassroots organizations, such as the Christian Coalition, which is the largest grassroots political group in America. Activist groups in civil society are also viewed as coalitions for their respective cause. These activists are joined together by their belief in what they hope to achieve or accomplish.\n", "Section::::Netherlands.\n\nIn the Netherlands, the coalition usually comprises two or three parties. Ever since the Netherlands adopted proportional representation in 1918, no party has even come close to winning an outright majority in the House of Representatives. Thus, the formation process is at least as, if not more, important than the election itself.\n", "The House of Freedoms was also supported by Unitalia, by Italy Again and by the National Democratic Party and talks with Sicilian Alliance failed.\n\nBerlusconi launched The People of Freedom in late 2007; this was joined by FI, AN and minor parties, and continued its alliance with the LN.\n\nSection::::2008 general election.\n\nIn the 2008 general election the coalition was composed of three parties:\n\nThe coalition had four regional partners:\n\nSection::::2013 general election.\n\nIn the 2013 general election the coalition was composed of nine parties. \n\nThe coalition had eight regional partners:\n", "Democratic Coalition\n\nDemocratic Coalition may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Democratic Coalition (Greece) (1936, \"), a former electoral alliance\n\nBULLET::::- Democratic Coalition (Greece, 2015) (\"), an electoral alliance\n\nBULLET::::- Democratic Coalition (Hungary) (est. 2011, \"), a political party in Hungary\n\nBULLET::::- Democratic Coalition of Namibia (1994-2009)\n\nBULLET::::- British Columbia Democratic Coalition (2004-2005), a coalition of provincial parties in Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Coalition démocratique de Montréal (1989-2001), a former municipal party in Quebec, Canada\n\nBULLET::::- New Zealand Democratic Coalition (1996), a proposed party in New Zealand\n\nBULLET::::- Slovak Democratic Coalition (1997-2002, \", SDK), a former political party in Slovakia\n", "In Spain, the term \"grand coalition\" is typically used to refer to any hypothetical government formed between the centre-right to right-wing People's Party (PP) and the centre-left Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE). No such a coalition government as ever been formed at the national level, though it was proposed by then-Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy during the 2015–2016 government formation process. Rajoy's own investiture on 29 October 2016 was allowed through the abstention of PSOE's MPs in what was dubbed as a \"covert grand coalition\", in reference to PSOE's tolerance of Rajoy's minority government through punctual agreements until the re-election of Pedro Sánchez as party leader in June 2017.\n", "In contrast, external coalitions consist of people that are members of different organizations who collaborate their efforts to achieve an overall objective. For example, in order to prevent gun violence and advocate gun control, several groups, unions, and nonprofit organizations banded to form the Coalition to Stop Gun Violence. External coalitions base their confidence in gaining credibility on inviting unlikely partners who wish to attain the same end goal, but the reasons to achieve these goals differ.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Government and politics.\n", "Section::::In non-communist regimes.:Bulgaria.\n\nThe BSP and other leftist parties in Bulgaria have been members of the leftist electoral alliance Coalition for Bulgaria since 1991.\n\nSection::::In non-communist regimes.:Germany.\n\nThe Christian Democratic Union of Germany does not contest elections in Bavaria, where its place is taken by the somewhat more conservative and Catholic-influenced Christian Social Union. They form a common CDU/CSU bloc in the Bundestag.\n\nSection::::In non-communist regimes.:Hungary.\n\nChristian Democratic People's Party is the coalition partner of the ruling party Fidesz, and runs with Fidesz on a joint electoral list.\n\nSection::::In non-communist regimes.:Mexico.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00664	How come high magnitude earthquakes off the coast do not always cause huge Tsunamis.. What are the factors?	It depends on how the plates move. If plates are sliding past each other, e.g. one North and the other South, then a slip doesn't displace any water = no Tsunami. If one plate is subducting under the other, then when the fault slips the top plate pops up, which displaces a bunch of water = Tsunami.	[ "Slower than normal rupture propagation is associated with the presence of relatively mechanically weak material in the fault zone. This is particularly the case for some megathrust earthquakes, where the rupture velocity is about 1.0 km per second. These tsunami earthquakes are dangerous because most of the energy release happens at lower frequencies than normal earthquakes and they lack the peaks of seismic wave activity that would alert coastal populations to a possible tsunami risk. Typically the surface wave magnitude for such an event is much smaller than moment magnitude as the former does not capture the longer wavelength energy release. The 1896 Sanriku earthquake went almost unnoticed, but the associated tsunami killed more than 22,000 people.\n", "Tsunamis are an often underestimated hazard in the Mediterranean Sea and parts of Europe. Of historical and current (with regard to risk assumptions) importance are the 1755 Lisbon earthquake and tsunami (which was caused by the Azores–Gibraltar Transform Fault), the 1783 Calabrian earthquakes, each causing several tens of thousands of deaths and the 1908 Messina earthquake and tsunami. The tsunami claimed more than 123,000 lives in Sicily and Calabria and is among the most deadly natural disasters in modern Europe. The Storegga Slide in the Norwegian Sea and some examples of tsunamis affecting the British Isles refer to landslide and meteotsunamis predominantly and less to earthquake-induced waves.\n", "The 1960 Valdivia earthquake (\"M\" 9.5), 1964 Alaska earthquake (\"M\" 9.2), 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake (\"M\" 9.2), and 2011 Tōhoku earthquake (\"M\"9.0) are recent examples of powerful megathrust earthquakes that generated tsunamis (known as teletsunamis) that can cross entire oceans. Smaller (\"M\" 4.2) earthquakes in Japan can trigger tsunamis (called local and regional tsunamis) that can devastate stretches of coastline, but can do so in only a few minutes at a time.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Landslides.\n", "By contrast, megatsunamis are caused by giant landslides and other impact events. This could also refer to a meteorite hitting an ocean. Underwater earthquakes or volcanic eruptions do not normally generate such large tsunamis, but landslides next to bodies of water resulting from earthquakes can, since they cause a large amount of displacement. If the landslide or impact occurs in a limited body of water, as happened at the Vajont Dam (1963) and Lituya Bay (1958) then the water may be unable to disperse and one or more exceedingly large waves may result.\n", "Slow earthquakes should not be confused with tsunami earthquakes, in which relatively slow rupture velocity produces tsunami out of proportion to the triggering earthquake. In a tsunami earthquake, the rupture propagates along the fault more slowly than usual, but the energy release occurs on a similar timescale to other earthquakes.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Teletsunamis can be generated several different ways, the most common being earthquakes with magnitudes higher than 7.5. Vertical displacement on a thrust fault is more likely to produce a teletsunami than lateral displacement from strike-slip fault. Because of this, subduction zones, which occur when dense oceanic crust burrows underneath less-dense continental crust, are at greater risk of producing teletsunamis. The Pacific coast of North America is an example of a subduction zone: it includes the Cascadia subduction zone, which lies off the coasts of British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and Northern California. The regions around the Aleutian Islands and Gulf of Alaska are also capable of producing large offshore earthquakes and thus large tsunamis.\n", "The source area of this earthquake has a relatively high coupling coefficient surrounded by areas of relatively low coupling coefficients in the west, north, and south. From the averaged coupling coefficient of 0.5–0.8 in the source area and the seismic moment, it was estimated that the slip deficit of this earthquake was accumulated over a period of 260–880 years, which is consistent with the recurrence interval of such great earthquakes estimated from the tsunami deposit data. The seismic moment of this earthquake accounts for about 93% of the estimated cumulative moment from 1926 to March 2011. Hence, earthquakes with magnitudes about 7 since 1926 in this area only had released part of the accumulated energy. In the area near the trench, the coupling coefficient is high, which could act as the source of the large tsunami.\n", "In tsunami prone regions, strong earthquakes serve as familiar warnings, and this is especially true for earthquakes in Indonesia. Previous estimates of the tsunami hazard for the Java coastline may have minimized the risk to the area, and to the northwest along the Sumatran coast, the risk is substantially higher for tsunami, especially near Padang. Previous events along the coast of Java in 1921 and again in 1994 illustrate the need for an accurate assessment of the threat. The July 2006 earthquake had an unusually slow rupture velocity which resulted in minor shaking on land for around three minutes, but the intensity was very light relative to the size of the tsunami that followed.\n", "Ordinarily, subduction earthquakes under magnitude 7.5 on the Richter magnitude scale do not cause tsunamis, although some instances of this have been recorded. Most destructive tsunamis are caused by earthquakes of magnitude 7.5 or more.\n\nSection::::Effects of earthquakes.:Floods.\n\nFloods may be secondary effects of earthquakes, if dams are damaged. Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam rivers, which collapse and cause floods.\n", "Steep cliffs on the Cape Verde Islands have been caused by catastrophic debris avalanches. These have been common on the submerged flanks of ocean island volcanoes and more can be expected in the future.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami\n\nBULLET::::- Cumbre Vieja\n\nBULLET::::- La Palma\n\nBULLET::::- List of historical tsunamis\n\nBULLET::::- Minoan eruption\n\nBULLET::::- Tsunamis in lakes\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- BBC 2 TV; 2000. Transcript \"Mega-tsunami; Wave of Destruction\", Horizon. First screened 21.30 hrs, Thursday, 12 October 2000.\n", "Section::::Identifying tsunami earthquakes.\n\nStandard methods of giving early warnings for tsunamis rely on data that will not typically identify a tsunami earthquake as tsunamigenic and therefore fail to predict possibly damaging tsunamis.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:1896 Sanriku.\n", "Section::::Tectonic setting.\n\nThe island of Java is the most densely populated island on Earth, and is vulnerable to both large earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, due to its location near the Sunda Trench, a convergent plate boundary where the Australian tectonic plate is subducting beneath Indonesia. Three great earthquakes occurred in the span of three years to the northwest on the Sumatra portion of the trench. The 2004 M9.15 Sumatra–Andaman, the 2005 M8.7 Nias–Simeulue, and the 2007 M8.4 Mentawai earthquakes produced the largest release of elastic strain energy since the 1957/1964 series of shocks on the Aleutian/Alaska Trench.\n", "Some meteorological conditions, especially rapid changes in barometric pressure, as seen with the passing of a front, can displace bodies of water enough to cause trains of waves with wavelengths comparable to seismic tsunamis, but usually with lower energies. These are essentially dynamically equivalent to seismic tsunamis, the only differences being that meteotsunamis lack the transoceanic reach of significant seismic tsunamis and that the force that displaces the water is sustained over some length of time such that meteotsunamis cannot be modelled as having been caused instantaneously. In spite of their lower energies, on shorelines where they can be amplified by resonance, they are sometimes powerful enough to cause localised damage and potential for loss of life. They have been documented in many places, including the Great Lakes, the Aegean Sea, the English Channel, and the Balearic Islands, where they are common enough to have a local name, \"rissaga\". In Sicily they are called \"marubbio\" and in Nagasaki Bay, they are called \"abiki\". Some examples of destructive meteotsunamis include 31 March 1979 at Nagasaki and 15 June 2006 at Menorca, the latter causing damage in the tens of millions of euros.\n", "BULLET::::- 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. In March 2011, the largest earthquake ever recorded in Japan struck off the Sanriku coast, setting off a tsunami. The 9.0-magnitude quake near Tohoku was comparable in scale to undersea seismic events near Indonesia in 2004 (3rd largest on record) and near Chile in 2010 (6th largest). It caused 15,889 deaths, 6,152 injured, and 2,609 people missing across twenty prefectures, with an estimated $235 billion in property damage.\n", "Section::::Minor tsunamis (less than 1 metre) from significant earthquakes.\n\nThere have been numerous minor tsunamis caused by significant large earthquakes. Examples of these are the 1848 Lower Wairau Valley quake, 1922 Vallenar earthquake, 1922 Rangiora quake, 1923 Kanto quake, 1950 Bay of Plenty quake, 1952 Severo-Kurilsk tsunami, 1964 Alaska earthquake, 1976 Kermadecs, 1977 Tongo, 1981 Maquare Ridge, 1982 and 1986 Kermadecs, 1994 Kuril Islands earthquake, 1995 Kobe, 1998 Balleny Island, 1998 Papua New Guinea earthquake, 2001 southern Peru earthquake and 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami.\n", "Earthquakes are a major factor in the creation of tsunami waves. As interplate earthquakes result in an immediate release of stress along a fault, they produce significant seismic energy and can cause seafloor uplift, generating large waves as the energy from the sudden slip along the fault is transferred to the overlying water body. However, the majority of interplate earthquakes are not intense enough to create tidal waves, with most tsunamis being caused by intraplate earthquakes or tsunami earthquakes due to their comparatively slow stress release regimes and proximity to the surface of the Earth.\n\nSection::::Major interplate earthquakes.\n", "Megathrust earthquakes are almost exclusive to tectonic subduction zones and are often associated with the Pacific and Indian Oceans. These subduction zones are not only responsible for megathrust earthquakes, but are also largely responsible for the volcanic activity associated with the Pacific Ring of Fire. \n\nSince the earthquakes associated with these subduction zones deform the ocean floor, they often generate a significant series of tsunami waves. Subduction zone earthquakes are also known to produce intense shaking and ground movements for significant periods of time that can last for up to 5-6 minutes.\n", "In the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami drawback was not reported on the African coast or any other east-facing coasts that it reached. This was because the wave moved downwards on the eastern side of the fault line and upwards on the western side. The western pulse hit coastal Africa and other western areas.\n", "Not every large earthquake can cause tsunamis. Only shallow earthquakes with strong tectonic movements can generate tsunamis. Only one in four earthquakes occurring in the Pacific Ocean meet these criteria, which can explain the low frequency of the earthquake-generated tsunamis in the Bohai Sea.\n\nSection::::History.:Regional cooperation and establishment.\n", "In the word of a report prepared by the U.S. Geological Survey for the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission the threat of mega-tsunamis is: \"exaggerated.\" Lost in much of the popular reporting was that 25 meter waves hitting Florida was only in the worst-case scenario, and that with \"more modest assumptions\" the calculated height was only 3 to 8 meters. At almost the same time a physical modeling study at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, though not mentioning Ward and Day, examined the same worst-case scenario, and predicted that \"the maximum wave amplitude off the U.S. east coast would be less than one meter.\"\n", "All waves have a positive and negative peak; that is, a ridge and a trough. In the case of a propagating wave like a tsunami, either may be the first to arrive. If the first part to arrive at the shore is the ridge, a massive breaking wave or sudden flooding will be the first effect noticed on land. However, if the first part to arrive is a trough, a drawback will occur as the shoreline recedes dramatically, exposing normally submerged areas. The drawback can exceed hundreds of metres, and people unaware of the danger sometimes remain near the shore to satisfy their curiosity or to collect fish from the exposed seabed.\n", "Tsunami earthquakes can be influenced by both the presence of (and lack of) sediment at the subduction zone, and can be categorized as either aftershocks of megathrust earthquakes, like the M7 June 22, 1932 Cuyutlán event in Mexico, or as standalone events that occur near the upper portion of a plate interface. Northwestern University professor Emile Okal imparts that in the aftershock scenario, they can occur as a result of stress transfer from a mainshock to an accretionary wedge or a similar environment with \"deficient mechanical properties\", and as standalone events they can occur in the presence of irregular contacts at the plate interface in a zone that lacks sediment.\n", "These tsunamis are of high damage potential due to being within a lake, making them of a near field source. This means a vast decrease in warning times, resulting in organised emergency evacuations after the generation of the tsunami being virtually impossible, and due to low lying shores even small waves lead to substantial flooding. Planning and education of residents needs to be done beforehand, so that when an earthquake is felt they know to head to higher ground and what routes to take to get there.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Earthquakes.:Lake Tahoe.\n", "Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the sudden or abrupt movement of large volumes of water—including when an earthquake occurs at sea. In the open ocean the distance between wave crests can surpass , and the wave periods can vary from five minutes to one hour. Such tsunamis travel 600–800 kilometers per hour (373–497 miles per hour), depending on water depth. Large waves produced by an earthquake or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal areas in a matter of minutes. Tsunamis can also travel thousands of kilometers across open ocean and wreak destruction on far shores hours after the earthquake that generated them.\n", "There were also cases where large differences between estimated intensities by the Earthquake Early Warning system and the actual intensities occurred in the aftershocks and triggered earthquakes. Such discrepancies in the warning were attributed by the JMA to the system's inability to distinguish between two different earthquakes that happened at around same time, as well as to the reduced number of reporting seismometers due to power outages and connection fails. The system's software was subsequently modified to handle this kind of situation.\n\nSection::::Tsunami.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01496	Why is refined sugar/high fructose corn syrup still so common as an added sugar despite far more healthy alternative sweeteners?	Because sugar is cheap, addictive, and easy to manufacture. Sweeteners dont have the addictibe quality that manufacturers of food products want. Also sweeteners may not be healthier, we dont really know the long term affects such as the links to asthma, cancer, allergies, mihranes etc.	[ "In the U.S., HFCS is among the sweeteners that mostly replaced sucrose (table sugar) in the food industry. Factors in the rise of HFCS use include production quotas of domestic sugar, import tariffs on foreign sugar, and subsidies of U.S. corn, raising the price of sucrose and lowering that of HFCS, making it cheapest for many sweetener applications. The relative sweetness of HFCS 55, used most commonly in soft drinks, is comparable to sucrose. HFCS (and/or standard corn syrup) is the primary ingredient in most brands of commercial \"pancake syrup\", as a less expensive substitute for maple syrup.\n", "HFCS is easier to handle than granulated sucrose, although some sucrose is transported as solution. Unlike sucrose, HFCS cannot be hydrolyzed, but the free fructose in HFCS may produce hydroxymethylfurfural when stored at high temperatures; these differences are most prominent in acidic beverages. Soft drink makers such as Coca-Cola and Pepsi continue to use sugar in other nations but transitioned to HFCS for U.S. markets in 1980 before completely switching over in 1984. Large corporations, such as Archer Daniels Midland, lobby for the continuation of government corn subsidies.\n", "In the United States, domestically produced corn syrup and high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) are often used in American-made processed and mass-produced foods, candies, soft drinks and fruit drinks to increase profit margins.\n\nGlucose syrup was the primary corn sweetener in the United States prior to the expanded use of HFCS production. HFCS is a variant in which other enzymes are used to convert some of the glucose into fructose. The resulting syrup is sweeter and more soluble. Corn syrup is also available as a retail product.\n", "Most countries, including Mexico, use sucrose, or table sugar, in soft drinks. In the U.S., soft drinks, including Coca-Cola, are typically made with HFCS. Some Americans seek out drinks such as Mexican Coca-Cola in ethnic groceries because they prefer the taste over that of HFCS-sweetened Coca-Cola. Kosher Coca-Cola, sold in the U.S. around the Jewish holiday of Passover, also uses sucrose rather than HFCS and is highly sought after by people who prefer the original taste. While these are simply opinions, a 2011 study further backed up the idea that people enjoy sucrose (table sugar) more than HFCS. The study, conducted by Michigan State University, included a 99-member panel that evaluated yogurt sweetened with sucrose (table sugar), HFCS, and different varieties of honey for likeness. The results showed that, overall, the panel enjoyed the yogurt with sucrose (table sugar) added more than those that contained HFCS or honey.\n", "BULLET::::- Cost and shelf life – Many sugar substitutes are cheaper than sugar in the final food formulation. Sugar substitutes are often lower in total cost because of their long shelf-life and high sweetening intensity. This allows sugar substitutes to be used in products that will not perish after a short period of time.\n\nSection::::Use.:Acceptable daily intake levels.\n", "\"High-intensity sweeteners\" – one type of sugar substitute – are compounds with many times the sweetness of sucrose, common table sugar. As a result, much less sweetener is required and energy contribution is often negligible. The sensation of sweetness caused by these compounds (the \"sweetness profile\") is sometimes notably different from sucrose, so they are often used in complex mixtures that achieve the most intense sweet sensation.\n", "and the price of corn is kept low through government subsidies paid to growers. High-fructose corn syrup became an attractive substitute, and is preferred over cane sugar among the vast majority of American food and beverage manufacturers. Soft drink makers such as Coca-Cola and Pepsi use sugar in other nations, but switched to high-fructose corn syrup in the United States in 1984.\n\nThe average American consumed approximately of high-fructose corn syrup in 2008, versus of sucrose.\n", "There is debate over whether HFCS presents greater health risks than other sweeteners. The number of uses and exports of HFCS from American producers have grown steadily during the early 21st century.\n\nSection::::Food.\n", "Cane and beet sugars have been used as the major sweetener in food manufacturing for centuries. However, with the development of HFCS, a significant shift occurred in the type of sweetener consumption in certain countries, particularly the United States. Contrary to the popular belief, however, with the increase of HFCS consumption, the total fructose intake relative to the total glucose intake has not dramatically changed. Granulated sugar is 99.9%-pure sucrose, which means that it has equal ratio of fructose to glucose. The most commonly used forms of HFCS, HFCS-42, and HFCS-55, have a roughly equal ratio of fructose to glucose, with minor differences. HFCS has simply replaced sucrose as a sweetener. Therefore, despite the changes in the sweetener consumption, the ratio of glucose to fructose intake has remained relatively constant.\n", "Section::::History.:United States.\n\nSince 1789, the U.S. sugar industry has had trade protection against tariffs imposed by foreign-produced sugar, while subsidies to corn growers cheapen the primary ingredient in HFCS, corn. Industrial users looking for cheaper replacements rapidly adopted HFCS in the 1970s.\n", "The cost of sugar in the US started to rise in the late 1970s and into the 1980s due to government-imposed tariffs, prompting soft drink manufacturers to switch to high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) as a cheaper alternative to sugar. (Diet drinks were not included, because they have long been flavored with artificial sweeteners; the switch from saccharin to aspartame around the same time was an unrelated move.) By the mid-1980s, all of the major soft drink brands switched to HFCS for their North American products, with the original formula of Coca-Cola being one of the last holdouts. In most countries, sugar is still used rather than HFCS.\n", "In the European Union (EU), HFCS, known as isoglucose in sugar regime, is subject to a production quota. In 2005, this quota was set at 303,000 tonnes; in comparison, the EU produced an average of 18.6 million tonnes of sugar annually between 1999 and 2001.\n\nSection::::History.:Japan.\n\nIn Japan, HFCS is manufactured mostly from imported U.S. corn, and the output is regulated by the government. For the period from 2007 to 2012, HFCS had a 27–30% share of the Japanese sweetener market.\n\nSection::::Health.\n", "In recent years it has been hypothesized that the increase of high-fructose corn syrup usage in processed foods may be linked to various health conditions, including metabolic syndrome, hypertension, dyslipidemia, hepatic steatosis, insulin resistance, and obesity. However, there is to date little evidence that high-fructose corn syrup is any unhealthier, calorie for calorie, than sucrose or other simple sugars. The fructose content and fructose:glucose ratio of high-fructose corn syrup do not differ markedly from clarified apple juice. Some researchers hypothesize that fructose may trigger the process by which fats are formed, to a greater extent than other simple sugars. However, most commonly used blends of high-fructose corn syrup contain a nearly one-to-one ratio of fructose and glucose, just like common sucrose, and should therefore be metabolically identical after the first steps of sucrose metabolism, in which the sucrose is split into fructose and glucose components. At the very least, the increasing prevalence of high-fructose corn syrup has certainly led to an increase in added sugar calories in food, which may reasonably increase the incidence of these and other diseases.\n", "Glucose syrup was the primary corn sweetener in the United States prior to the expanded use of high fructose corn syrup production. HFCS is a variant in which other enzymes are used to convert some of the glucose into fructose. The resulting syrup is sweeter and more soluble. Corn syrup is also available as a retail product.\n\nIf mixed with sugar, water, and cream of tartar, corn syrup can be used to make sugar glass.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Candy corn\n\nBULLET::::- High-fructose corn syrup\n\nBULLET::::- High-maltose corn syrup\n\nBULLET::::- List of syrups\n\nBULLET::::- Maple syrup\n\nBULLET::::- Mizuame\n\nBULLET::::- Molasses\n", "Sugar substitute\n\nA sugar substitute is a food additive that provides a sweet taste like that of sugar while containing significantly less food energy than sugar-based sweeteners, making it a zero-calorie or low-calorie sweetener. Artificial sweeteners may be derived through manufacturing of plant extracts or processed by chemical synthesis. Sugar alcohols such as erythritol, xylitol, and sorbitol are derived from sugars. In 2017, sucralose was the most common sugar substitute used in the manufacture of foods and beverages; it had 30% of the global market, which was projected to be valued at $2.8 billion by 2021. \n", "One consumer concern about HFCS is that processing of corn is more complex than used for “simpler” or “more natural” sugars, such as fruit juice concentrates or agave nectar, but all sweetener products derived from raw materials involve similar processing steps of pulping, hydrolysis, enzyme treatment, and filtration, among other common steps of sweetener manufacturing from natural sources. In the contemporary process to make HFCS, an \"acid-enzyme\" step is used in which the cornstarch solution is acidified to digest the existing carbohydrates, then enzymes are added to further metabolize the cornstarch and convert the resulting sugars to their constituents of fructose and glucose. Analyses published in 2014 showed that HFCS content of fructose was consistent across samples from 80 randomly selected carbonated beverages sweetened with HFCS.\n", "Public relations of high fructose corn syrup\n\nCritics and competitors of high fructose corn syrup (HFCS), notably the sugar industry, have for many years used various public relations campaigns to claim the sweetener causes certain health conditions, despite the lack of scientific evidence that HFCS differs nutritionally from sugar. The HFCS industry has tried to respond to these campaigns with their own efforts.\n\nSection::::Labeling as \"natural\".\n", "One consequence of the emphasis on reformulation has been to stimulate the development of new food ingredients that may be used in place of sugar, especially in the technically more difficult changes to foods. These go well beyond the familiar “artificial” sweeteners to include new “natural” sweeteners, superior polyols, better dextrins, improved oligo/poly-saccharides, sweet proteins, flavour enhancers, modifiers of taste receptors, and even new forms of sugar itself. As a result, new mass-market products with much reduced sugar contents, or even sugarfree, may become widespread.\n", "BULLET::::- Cane juice, syrup, molasses, and raw sugar, which has many regional and commercial names including demerara, jaggery, muscovado, panela, piloncillo, turbinado sugar, Florida Crystals and Sucanat, are all made from sugarcane (\"Saccharum\" spp.).\n\nBULLET::::- Sweet sorghum syrup is made from the sugary juice extracted from the stalks of \"Sorghum\" spp., especially \"S. bicolor\".\n\nBULLET::::- Mexican or maize sugar can be made by boiling down the juice of green maize stalks.\n\nBULLET::::- Agave nectar is made from the sap of \"Agave\" spp., including tequila agave (\"Agave tequilana\").\n\nBULLET::::- Birch syrup is made from the sap of Birch trees (\"Betula\" spp.).\n", "Because of its similar sugar profile and lower price, HFCS has been used illegally to \"stretch\" honey. Assays to detect adulteration with HFCS use differential scanning calorimetry and other advanced testing methods.\n\nSection::::Production.\n\nSection::::Production.:Process.\n", "BULLET::::- HFCS 90 has some niche uses, but is mainly mixed with HFCS 42 to make HFCS 55.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In May 2010, Hunt's removed high-fructose corn syrup from its ketchup due to buyer preference as a result of health concerns, but has since put High Fructose Corn Syrup back in their ketchup. Heinz now offers a ketchup made with sugar instead of HFCS called \"Simply Heinz.\"\n", "In 1969, cyclamate was banned for sale in the US by the Food and Drug Administration. As of 2018, there is no strong evidence that non-sugar sweeteners are either unsafe or result in improved health outcomes.\n", "A system of sugar tariffs and sugar quotas imposed in 1977 in the United States significantly increased the cost of imported sugar and U.S. producers sought cheaper sources. High-fructose corn syrup, derived from corn, is more economical because the domestic U.S. price of sugar is twice the global price\n", "The progressive loss of worldwide importance of NCS is a typical case of the displacement of a traditional product by an industrialized alternative, in this case by refined sugar and other caloric and non-caloric sweeteners, as judged from the decreasing relative importance of NCS within caloric sweetener consumption. This is part of broader changes in global food consumption patterns characterized by a large increase in refined foods, especially fats, sugar and flours. This pattern, part of a more general nutrition transition, has been linked to the development of diseases such as obesity, diabetes and strokes, which have taken on epidemic proportions in many countries. Increasing recognition of the negative impacts of current dominant diets and sedentary behavioral patterns may help reverse such a pattern and hopefully allow better health upon aging. \"Natural\" and \"organic\" products appear increasingly popular, attaining significant market shares in many countries. Conversely, refined and \"industrial\" products tend to be negatively perceived, among them specially refined sugar and non-caloric sweeteners. This might open opportunities for the revival of NCS consumption.\n" ]	[ "Refined sugar and corn syrup should be used less often because healthier options such as artificial sweeteners exist." ]	[ "Sugar is cheap and addictive, sweeteners don't possess the addictive quality and sweeteners may also not be healthier than regular sugar as people don't quite know the long term effects yet." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Refined sugar and corn syrup should be used less often because healthier options such as artificial sweeteners exist.", "Refined sugar and corn syrup should be used less often because healthier options such as artificial sweeteners exist." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Sugar is cheap and addictive, sweeteners don't possess the addictive quality and sweeteners may also not be healthier than regular sugar as people don't quite know the long term effects yet.", "Sugar is cheap and addictive, sweeteners don't possess the addictive quality and sweeteners may also not be healthier than regular sugar as people don't quite know the long term effects yet." ]
2018-03301	How do coaches find enough people that 1) have similarly missing limbs 2) desire and skill to be an athlete and 3) live within reasonable distance from each other to hold practices so they can win the paralimbpics?	> paralimbpics First it is "Paralympics". > 3) live within reasonable distance from each other to hold practices This isn't a limiting factor. Athletes who are driven and can perform well enough to be Olympic level will move to be close to each other and train together. It isn't generally a part-time thing, it is what they do professionally every day.	[ "While still involved in professional wheelchair basketball, Peter began mentoring youth, and specifically those who were paralyzed. In 2012, while training in Europe for the Paralympics, he flew back to visit with and introduce a recently paralyzed First Nations teen to wheelchair sports. During his playing a wish of his was to continue mentoring youth and he has been able to mentor youth through many inspirational and motivational speeches for children. This includes a speech for a training camp geared towards Aboriginal youth and at a “mini we day” at a public school, which included a “we stand together” campaign to raise awareness about Aboriginal youth in their schools.\n", "This classification is for disability athletics. This classification is one of several classifications for athletes with spinal cord injuries. Similar classifications are T51, T52, T53 and T54. Jane Buckley, writing for the Sporting Wheelies, describes the athletes in this classification as: \" Wheelchair athlete with normal arms and hands. No or limited trunk function. No leg function.\" The Australian Paralympic Committee defines this classification as being for \"Athletes with normal upper limb function, with no abdominal or lower spinal strength (poor sitting balance). Some interference in their ability to perform long and forceful strokes. E.g. high level paraplegia.\" The International Paralympic Committee defined this class in 2011 as \"These athletes will have normal arm muscle power with no abdominal or lower spinal muscle activity. Use different techniques to compensate for lack of abdominal musculature including lying horizontal. When the paces quickens in a race, their acceleration is slower than the T54 class. In general when acceleration occurs, the trunk rises off the legs due to a lack of abdominal muscles to hold the trunk down. Usually have to interrupt the pushing cycle to adjust the compensator. Equivalent activity limitation to person with complete cord injury at cord level T1-7.\" \n", "Manns is a wheelchair tennis player. She started playing the sport in 2005, and debuted with the national team in 2006. Prior to taking up tennis, she played wheelchair basketball. She switched sports because it was easier to find local competitors in Port Macquarie. She was invited to a Melbourne training camp after head tennis coach Greg Crump her she was switching sports. Crump continues to coach her when she represents Australia. In training, she has competed against able bodied players from her local club.\n", "Due to technologic advances in prosthetics, many amputees live active lives with little restriction. Organizations such as the Challenged Athletes Foundation have been developed to give amputees the opportunity to be involved in athletics and adaptive sports such as Amputee Soccer.\n", "This classification is for track and jump events in disability athletics. This classification is one of several classifications for athletes with spinal cord injuries. Similar classifications are T51, T52 and T53. The International Paralympic Committee defined this class in 2011 as, \"These athletes will have normal arm muscle power with a range of trunk muscle power extending from partial trunk control to normal trunk control. Athletes who compete in this group may have significant leg muscle power. These athletes have reasonable to normal trunk control which allows them to hold their trunk down when the propulsion force is applied to the push rim. Usually do not interrupt the pushing cycle to adjust the compensator. Can shift direction of the chair by sitting up and applying a trunk rotational force to the chair. Equivalent activity limitation to person with complete cord injury at cord level T8-S4.\" \n", "Sportspeople in this class use wheelchairs on a regular basis as a result of reduced muscle function. \"ACSM's Primary Care Sports Medicine\" defines LAF1 as a medical class as \"[s]evere involvement of the four limbs -- for example, MS, muscular dystrophy (MD), juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (JRA) with contractures\" As a functional class, \"ACSM's Primary Care Sports Medicine\" defines LAF1 as \"use of wheelchair with reduced function of muscle strength and/or spasticity in throwing arm, and poor sitting balance.\" Medically, this class includes people with severe multiple scleroris, muscular dystrophy, and juvenile rheumatoid arthritis with contractures. This means they have severe issues with all four limbs. In terms of functional classification, this means the sportsperson uses a wheelchair, has poor sitting balance and has reduced strength or spasticity in their throwing arm. Sportspeople with muscular dystrophy in this class have a number of factors that can make sports participation difficult. This includes poor pulmonary function, and potentially having restrictive lung disease values.\n", "T53 is disability sport classification for disability athletics. The class includes people with a number of different types of disabilities including spinal cord injuries. People in this class have full use of their arms but have no or limited trunk function. Similar classifications are T51, T52, and T54. People in this class have a functional upper limbs, but limited trunk usage and limited lower limb functionality. During classification, they both undergo a bench test of muscle strength and demonstrate their skills in athletics. People in this class include Tanni Grey-Thompson (GBR), Samantha Kinghorn (GBR), Angie Ballard (AUS) and Richard Colman (AUS).\n", "Every Summer, the group puts together cross-functional teams including designers, engineers, and occupational therapists, that are paired with a 'client' who has a disability. The teams then have 10 weeks of research, design, and development to put together a solution for their client. The group has mainly worked with those suffering from spinal and neurological issues for their designs.\n", "Kappes, began working with a new tandem pilot internationally in 2008, Jon Norfolk sacrificed his career as a member of Great Britain's able-bodied squad in order to work with Paralympians, and had to take a three-year break from competition in order to qualify. Kappes and Norfolk beat Simon Jackson and Storey to win the sprint and kilo (Achieving Worlds Best - 1.02.06) events at the 2008 VISA Paralympic World Cup.\n\nRiding with Storey once more at the 2008 Summer Paralympics, Kappes won gold at the Kilo and the Sprint.\n", "Active in fund raising from an early age, O'Kelly-Kennedy took a group of children with missing limbs to the 2000 Paralympic Games in Sydney, where she saw the Australia women's national wheelchair basketball team, known as the Gliders, in action for the first time, and was inspired to take up wheelchair basketball. She entered the University of Illinois on a half-scholarship in 2005, and won three US National Championships with its Women's team.\n", "Manns won a bronze medal at the 2006 FESPIC Games in Kuala Lumpur, in her first appearance as a member of Australia's national team. She won three golds at the 2007 Arafura Games, in the mixed team, doubles and in the singles events. In 2010, she peaked in the rankings at seventeenth in the world in the singles event. Because of financial problems that prevented her from traveling, she was unable to compete for a while and her ranking fell to sixty-third in the world. In 2011, she played in several tournaments in South America, including competitions in Baranquilla, Santiago, Minas Gerais and Buneos Aires. In Minas Gerais and Buneos Aires, she made the finals in the women's wheelchair singles. In Baranquilla and Santiago, she made the semi-finals in the women's wheelchair singles. She won the women's wheelchair doubles event with Argentine partner Andrea Medrano in Santiago and Baranquilla. Following these events, she improved her world ranking to number thirty. By April 2011, she had been selected as a member of Australia's Shadow Paralympic Squad ahead of the 2012 Summer Paralympics.\n", "This classification is for disability athletics. This classification is one of several classifications for athletes with spinal cord injuries. Similar classifications are T51, T52, T53 and T54 Jane Buckley, writing for the Sporting Wheelies, describes the athletes in this classification as: \" Wheelchair athlete with good shoulder, elbow and wrist function. Limited finger movements. No leg or trunk function. \" The Australian Paralympic Committee defines this classification as being for people with \"Damage to spinal cord in the higher parts of the back. Substantially impaired or no trunk function; minimal or no leg function. Pushing power comes from elbow extensions, and appears close to normal except for use of modified gloves to compensate for grip.\" The International Paralympic Committee defined this in 2011 as \"These athletes will usually have normal shoulder, elbow and wrist muscle power, poor to normal muscle of the finger flexors and extensors with there being wasting of the intrinsic muscles of the hands. Use shoulders, elbows and wrist for propulsion. Usually have no trunk function. May use gloving techniques similar to the next two classes. Equivalent activity limitation to person with complete cord injury at cord level C7-8\" \n", "The International Paralympic Committee defined this classification on their website in July 2016 as, \" Athletes typically have full function of the arms but no abdominal or lower spinal muscle activity (grade 0)\". For the related field classification, F53, International Paralympic Committee defined this classification on their website in July 2016,\"Athletes have full muscle power at their shoulder, elbow and wrist in the throwing arm. Muscle power in the finger flexor and extensor muscles is functional, but there is always some weakness and resulting wasting of the intrinsic muscles of the hand. The grip on the implement is close to able-bodied and force can be imparted to the implement when throwing. The non-throwing hand grips the pole on the throwing frame.. An athlete with partial to full trunk control but with a throwing arm that fits the F52 profile is appropriately placed in this class.\" \n", "Wheelchair Track Clinic\n\nThe \"Wheelchair Track Clinic\" or \"Track Camp\" is a two-day wheelchair racing track clinic held in partnership with Challenged Athletes Foundation (CAF). The clinic is led by Adam Bleakney, Head Coach, Wheelchair Track & Road Racing, at the University of Illinois. During the clinic, participants work on the following aspects of wheelchair racing:\n\nBULLET::::- Top Speed & SS Acceleration (asphalt and/or tail)\n\nBULLET::::- Rolling Acceleration\n\nBULLET::::- Stroke Mechanics Goal Setting Session\n\nBULLET::::- Lactate & Speed Reserve\n\nBULLET::::- SS & Endurance & Stamina\n\nBULLET::::- Equipment Race Tactics\n", "Peter began as a program coordinator at the B.C. Wheelchair Sports Association while he was still competing professionally in basketball. Here, he began as a camp counselor and moved up to his current position. He organizes many of the junior sport camps, where he motivates children in wheelchairs to pursue healthy lifestyles and sport participation. One of the youth campers can recall that “when he plays with us, it makes me want to do the best I can”. He ensures that every child participates and he brings in his gold medals to show his accomplishments due to his hard work. Along with being a role model for basketball, he also began competitive wheelchair tennis and continues to participate in sport.\n", "In high school, Kastor won three California state cross country titles and two CIF California State Meet titles at 3200 meters while running for Agoura High School in Agoura Hills, California. She also competed in the Foot Locker Cross Country Championships all four years of her prep career, and competed in both the North American Youth Maccabi Games and the Pan-American Maccabiah while in high school.\n\nAt the University of Arkansas she was a four-time SEC champion and an eight-time All-American. Post-collegiately, Kastor ran under coaches Joe Vigil and Terrence Mahon (currently head of the Mammoth Lakes, California training group).\n", "Camal is a teacher in Little Falls, New Jersey. As a coach he has produced many junior national, senior national and international competitors. Camal received a 2012 Firefighter Award for Valor from the Paterson Fire Department in Paterson, New Jersey. Camal injured his back as a result of his duties as a firefighter.\n", "What makes this teams unique, besides all players having an amputated extremity, is the courage and strength present to challenge a long-standing negative view on disability in Haiti. During an interview, athlete Wilfrid Macena, who is a prosthetic technician at Project Medishare said, “I talk to the amputee patients and let them know that one day, they can be like me. I tell them that I can walk, I can drive, and I have learned to run...there are so many things I can do with my new leg and that they will be able to do these things one day. I let them know they can have a new life. That if you are an amputee it doesn’t mean your life is over.”\n", "In 2010, she was appointed as the part-time handcycling coach with Cycling Australia Paracycling High Performance Program and was a cycling coach on the Australian team at the 2012 London Paralympics. Banks moved to the United Kingdom in 2012 to take up a five-year contract as British Athletics Institute Coach for Wheelchair Racing. Whilst in this position she was responsible for all wheelchair racing aspects of the British Athletics World Class and Talent Development Programs and coached Hannah Cockcroft to three gold medals at the 2016 Rio Paralympics and eight gold medals at three IPC Athletics World Championships. She also coached Richard Chiassaro, Toby Gold and Stephen Osborne during this time.\n", "Finding the right fit for a child is the most important aspect in creating an environment where the athlete can learn as well as succeed with all the confidence it takes to achieve their goals. Many parents stated that their children started in community-based programs with other children in their community. Once they grew up, though, the disparity in motor skills between children with and without developmental handicaps became too great for their children to succeed. Many parents say their children can't succeed in community-based programs because instructors don't understand the Self-Determination Theory. The instructors must be able to set goals for their children in achievable amounts, much like coaches in the Special Olympics do.\n", "After London, Basketball Australia decided to appoint a full-time head coach for the Gliders for the first time. A selection panel chaired by Basketball Australia's General Manager of High Performance, Steven Icke that also included Rollers' head coach Ettridge, former Australian Opals head coach Jan Stirling and the General Manager of Sport at the Australian Paralympic Committee, Michael Hartung, chose Kyle. In announcing his appointment, the Chief Executive Officer of Basketball Australia, Kristina Keneally, said that \"in Tom, we have a coach who has the ability to lead the team to future success and understands the expectations on the Gliders program.\" Gould became his assistant coach, and Jane Kyle became the team manager. Troy Sachs also became an assistant coach in 2014. At the 2014 Women's World Wheelchair Basketball Championship though, the Gliders came a disappointing sixth. The Gliders did not qualify for the 2016 Paralympic Games in Rio de Janeiro after finishing second to China at the 2015 Asia Oceania Qualifying Tournament. In August 2016, David Gould succeeded him as the Gliders' coach. Kyle went to Rio as assistant coach of the Rollers.\n", "She worked part-time at his design firm, Shelton, Mindel & Associates, best known for its design of the Polo Ralph Lauren headquarters in New York City. In 2013, Bennett (re-styled as Laura Bennett Shelton) relocated her family and business to the Laros estate in Bethlehem, PA, a house on property originally belonging to her husband's maternal grandfather, Depression-era textile manufacturer R.K. Laros. After her relocation to Pennsylvania, Bennett Shelton took up archery, and within six months was competing at a world-class level, even participating in the 2014 World Indoor Archery Championships.\n\nSection::::\"Project Runway\".\n", "Ahead of the 2016–2017 season, Chen traveled to Canton, Michigan, to have his programs choreographed by Marina Zueva. \"I spent a week there, and we hit it off really well. We talked it over and thought it'd be a good idea to go to Michigan and work on PCS a little bit.\" By September 2016, six months after his hip surgery, Zueva and Oleg Epstein were coaching him in Canton. In preparation for his international senior debut, he started to train the 4Lz and 4F.\n", "Section::::Competitive career.\n\nSection::::Competitive career.:Wheelchair Basketball.\n", "Assistive devices such as wheelchairs have a substantial effect on the quality of life of the patient, and careful selection is important. Teaching the patient how to transfer from different positions, such as from a wheelchair into bed, is an important part of therapy, and devices such as sliding transfer boards and grab bars can assist in these tasks. Individuals who are able to transfer independently from their wheelchair to the driver's seat using a sliding transfer board may be able to return to driving in an adapted vehicle. Complete independence with driving also requires the ability to load and unload one's wheelchair from the vehicle. In addition to acquiring skills such as wheelchair transfers, individuals with a spinal cord injury can greatly benefit from exercise reconditioning. In the majority of cases, spinal cord injury leaves the lower limbs either entirely paralyzed, or with insufficient strength, endurance, or motor control to support safe and effective physical training. Therefore, most exercise training employs the use of arm crank ergometry, wheelchair ergometry, and swimming. In one study, subjects with traumatic spinal cord injury participated in a progressive exercise training program, which involved arm ergometry and resistance training. Subjects in the exercise group experienced significant increases in strength for almost all muscle groups when compared to the control group. Exercisers also reported less stress, fewer depressive symptoms, greater satisfaction with physical functioning, less pain, and better quality of life. Physical therapists are able to provide a variety of exercise interventions, including, passive range of motion exercises, upper body wheeling (arm crank ergometry), functional electrical stimulation, and electrically stimulated resistance exercises all of which can improve arterial function in those living with SCI. Physical therapists can improve the quality of life of individuals with spinal cord injury by developing exercise programs that are tailored to meet individual patient needs. Adapted physical activity equipment can also be used to allow for sport participation: for example, sit-skiis can be used by individuals with a spinal cord injury for cross-country or downhill skiing.\n" ]	[ "Athletes need to live close enough to each other.", "It is improbable that coaches should be able to find many athletes within the same area to compete on the same team within paralimbpics. " ]	[ "Athletes can travel from all over to get to the competition. ", "Locations of athletes aren't limiting factors because athletes are able to relocate and most likely will in order to compete." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Athletes need to live close enough to each other.", "It is improbable that coaches should be able to find many athletes within the same area to compete on the same team within paralimbpics. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Athletes can travel from all over to get to the competition. ", "Locations of athletes aren't limiting factors because athletes are able to relocate and most likely will in order to compete." ]
2018-08403	How can I cool a swimming pool from 83 degrees to 73 degrees?	One method that I have seen used in outback Australia (where a swimming pool can get to blood heat) is to use a fountain to provide evaporative cooling. The fountain can be in the pool or next to it. If next to the pool, the water should be collected and returned to the pool.	[ "Temperature-controlled warm-water therapy pools are used to perform aquatic bodywork. For example, Watsu requires a warm-water therapy pool that is approximately chest deep (depending on height of the therapist) and temperature-controlled to about 35 °C (95 °F).\n\nSection::::Facilities, equipment, and supplies.:Dry-water massage tables.\n", "BULLET::::- fill the cylinders in a water bath. The higher thermal conductivity of water compared to air means that heat in the cylinder is more quickly removed from the cylinder as it fills. For this to produce accurate results, the filling must be slow enough to avoid a significant temperature rise. This is very slow.\n", "A number of materials contract on heating within certain temperature ranges; this is usually called negative thermal expansion, rather than \"thermal contraction\". For example, the coefficient of thermal expansion of water drops to zero as it is cooled to 3.983 °C and then becomes negative below this temperature; this means that water has a maximum density at this temperature, and this leads to bodies of water maintaining this temperature at their lower depths during extended periods of sub-zero weather. Also, fairly pure silicon has a negative coefficient of thermal expansion for temperatures between about 18 and 120 kelvins.\n", "Section::::Career.\n", "A bath of ice and water will maintain a temperature 0 °C since the melting point of water is 0 °C. However, adding a salt such as sodium chloride will lower the temperature through the property of Freezing-point depression. Although the exact temperature can be hard to control, the weight ratio of salt to ice influences the temperature:\n\nBULLET::::- −10 °C can be achieved with a 1 to 2.5 ratio by weight of calcium chloride hexahydrate to ice.\n\nBULLET::::- −20 °C can be achieved with a 1 to 3 ratio by weight of sodium chloride to ice.\n", "In order to maintain temperatures above −77 °C, a solvent with a freezing point above −77 °C must be used. When dry ice is added to acetonitrile then the bath will begin cooling. Once the temperature reaches −41 °C, the acetonitrile will freeze. Therefore, dry ice must be added slowly to avoid freezing the entire mixture. In these cases, a bath temperature of −55 °C can be achieved by choosing a solvent with a similar freezing point (n-octane freezes at −56 °C).\n\nSection::::Traditional cooling baths.:Liquid nitrogen baths above −196 °C.\n", "In gas blending, high temperatures are easily produced, by adiabatic heating, simply by decanting high-pressure gas into lower pressure pipes or cylinders. The pressure falls as the gas leaves the opened valve but then increases when the gas encounters obstructions such as a cylinder or a bend, constriction or particle in the pipe-work.\n", "Section::::Energy balance.\n", "BULLET::::- fill the cylinders with 5 to 20% more gas (as pressure readings) than required. If the overfill (in pressure while hot) is well judged, when the cylinder cools the final pressure will be within the tolerance of the required pressure. This is relatively quick, but requires good judgement based on experience, or measurement of the temperature of the gases in the cylinder after each stage of the mixing, and corrections must be made to allow for the influence of the temperature.\n\nSection::::Quantities and accuracy.:Gas analysis.\n", "Section::::Music video.\n\nThe music video, directed by Chris Cunningham, was shot primarily in a scuba diving pool and shows band members performing the song underwater. Some scenes were shot in a swamp-like area and show Brian Molko singing the lyrics with just his head above the surface of the water. Later band members revealed that this video was extremely hard to shoot and they would never make one underwater again.\n\nSection::::Live performance history.\n", "Section::::Technical difficulties.\n\nSection::::Technical difficulties.:Dissolved gases.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ice bath\" method: The reference junction block is immersed in a semi-frozen bath of distilled water at atmospheric pressure. The precise temperature of the melting point phase transition acts as a natural thermostat, fixing formula_6 to 0 °C.\n", "For mid-season operation the water is partially cooled by the compressor and partially by the ambient temperatures. The percentage of Free Cooling achieved mid-season is dependent on seasonal temperatures although partial Free Cooling commences when the ambient air temperature is below the process return water temperature. The water is partially cooled through the Free Cooler then flows through the chillers to achieve the required set point temperature.\n\nSection::::Seasons.:Winter operation.\n", "Nathan Todd Cool is the author of \"The WetSand WaveCast Guide to Surf Forecasting\", a comprehensive book on surf forecasting. He is also the author of \"Cherished Memories\", \"Rhythm of the Ocean\", and \"The Four Keys to Successful Design\", which received the Editors Choice Award from iUniverse.\n\nCool is also the author of \"Is it Hot in Here\", a book on climate change, which was adopted as part of the Earth Sciences curriculum at Loyola Marymount University in 2007.\n", "Pool boiling is boiling at a stagnant fluid. Its behavior is well characterized by Nukiyama boiling curve, which shows the relation between the amount of surface superheat and applied heat flux on the surface. With the varying degrees of the superheat, the curve is composed of natural convection, onset of nucleate boiling, nucleate boiling, critical heat flux, transition boiling, and film boiling. Each regime has a different mechanism of heat transfer and has different correlation for heat transfer coefficient.\n\nSection::::Multi-phase heat transfer.:Flow boiling.\n", "Some facilities use once-through cooling (OTC) systems which do not reduce temperature as effectively as the above systems. For example, the Potrero Generating Station in San Francisco (closed in 2011), used OTC and discharged water to San Francisco Bay approximately 10 °C (20 °F) above the ambient bay temperature.\n\nSection::::Sources and control of thermal pollution.:Urban runoff.\n", "Unfortunately, it takes a great deal of energy to heat water, as one may experience when waiting to boil a gallon of water on a stove. For this reason, tankless on-demand water heaters require a powerful energy source. A standard 120-V, 15-ampere rated wall electric outlet, by comparison, only sources enough power to warm a disappointingly small amount of water: about per minute at temperature elevation.\n\nSection::::Thermodynamics and economics.:US minimum requirements.\n", "For \"T\" = 333 K to 423 K: \"A\" = 7.0917; \"B\" = 1668.21; \"C\" = 45.1.\n", "The thermal resistance from the base of the fins to the air, formula_10, can be calculated by the following formulas:\n\nThe flow rate can be determined by the intersection of the heat sink system curve and the fan curve. The heat sink system curve can be calculated by the flow resistance of the channels and inlet and outlet losses as done in standard fluid mechanics text books, such as Potter, et al. and White.\n\nOnce the heat sink base and fin resistances are known, then the heat sink thermal resistance, formula_26 can be calculated as:\n", "Regardless of who provides it, the chilled water (between 4° and 7°C (39-44 °F)) is pumped through an air handler, which captures the heat from the air, then disperses the air throughout the area to be cooled.\n\nSection::::Site generated.\n", "BULLET::::- fill the cylinder to the required pressure, let the cylinder cool and measure the gas pressure and then repeat the process until the correct pressure is achieved. The cooling interval needed depends on the ambient temperature. This step must be followed for each component of the mixture.\n", "Section::::Disadvantages.:Chemistry.\n", "Section::::Calibration.:Equivalent temperature.\n", "The Barkan Method is a style of Hatha Yoga that originated from a lineage in Calcutta, India. Jimmy Barkan, founder/owner was first certified by Ghosh’s College of India from Calcutta, India and was Bikram Yoga’s most senior teacher.\n", "The cold water that is put into a water heating device can be preheated using the reclaimed thermal energy from a shower so that the input water doesn't need as much energy to be heated before being used in a shower, dishwasher, or sink. The water entering a storage tank is usually close to 11 °C but by recovering the energy in the hot water from a bath or dishwasher, the temperature of the water entering the holding tank can be elevated to 25 °C, saving energy required to increase the temperature of a given amount of water by 14 °C. This water is then heated up a little further to 37 °C before leaving the tank and going to the average shower.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00376	What causes the audible electric 'buzzing' sound from high voltage power lines?	It's oxygen molecules being charged with electricity. When the charged particles give back that energy they emit light and with a high enough charge the energy transformation of these particles can also be heard as a buzzing sound. The extreme example would be lightning - particles charged up to a million volt that will make a big boom when discharging, that is the thunder you will hear accompanying the lightning bolt.	[ "Section::::Corona breakdown.:Appearance.\n\nCorona is sometimes seen as a bluish glow around high voltage wires and heard as a sizzling sound along high voltage power lines. Corona also generates radio frequency noise that can also be heard as ‘static’ or buzzing on radio receivers. Corona can also occur naturally as “St. Elmo's Fire” at high points such as church spires, treetops, or ship masts during thunderstorms.\n\nSection::::Corona breakdown.:Ozone generation.\n", "Around high-voltage power lines, hum may be produced by corona discharge.\n\nIn the realm of sound reinforcement (as in public address systems and loudspeakers), electric hum is often caused by induction. This hum is generated by oscillating electric currents induced in sensitive (high gain or high impedance) audio circuitry by the alternating electromagnetic fields emanating from nearby mains-powered devices like power transformers. The audible aspect of this sort of electric hum is produced by amplifiers and loudspeakers.\n", "Treeing has been a long-term failure mechanism for buried polymer-insulated high voltage power cables, first reported in 1969. In a similar fashion, 2D trees can occur along the surface of a highly stressed dielectric, or across a dielectric surface that has been contaminated by dust or mineral salts. Over time, these partially conductive trails can grow until they cause complete failure of the dielectric. Electrical tracking, sometimes called \"dry banding\", is a typical failure mechanism for electrical power insulators that are subjected to salt spray contamination along coastlines. The branching 2D and 3D patterns are sometimes called Lichtenberg figures.\n", "Section::::Causes.\n\nElectric hum around transformers is caused by stray magnetic fields causing the enclosure and accessories to vibrate. Magnetostriction is a second source of vibration, in which the core iron changes shape minutely when exposed to magnetic fields. The intensity of the fields, and thus the \"hum\" intensity, is a function of the applied voltage. Because the magnetic flux density is strongest twice every electrical cycle, the fundamental \"hum\" frequency will be twice the electrical frequency. Additional harmonics above 100 Hz or 120 Hz will be caused by the non-linear behavior of most common magnetic materials.\n", "Electromagnetically excited acoustic noise and vibration\n\nElectromagnetically excited acoustic noise is audible sound directly produced by materials vibrating under the excitation of electromagnetic forces. \n\nSome examples of electromagnetically excited acoustic noise include the hum of transformers, the whine of some rotating electric machines, or the buzz of fluorescent lamps. The hissing of high voltage transmission lines is due to corona discharge, not magnetism. \n", "BULLET::::- Stray voltage is defined as \"A voltage resulting from the normal delivery and/or use of electricity (usually smaller than 10 volts) that may be present between two conductive surfaces that can be simultaneously contacted by members of the general public and/or their animals. Stray voltage is caused by primary and/or secondary return current, and power system induced currents, as these currents flow through the impedance of the intended return pathway, its parallel conductive pathways, and conductive loops in close proximity to the power system. Stray voltage is not related to power system faults, and is generally not considered hazardous.\"\n", "Carbon can act, at first, like a high resistivity dust in the precipitator. Higher voltages can be required in order for corona generation to begin. These higher voltages can be problematic for the TR-Set controls. The problem lies in onset of corona causing large amounts of current to surge through the (low resistivity) dust layer. The controls sense this surge as a spark. As precipitators are operated in spark-limiting mode, power is terminated and the corona generation cycle re-initiates. Thus, lower power (current) readings are noted with relatively high voltage readings.\n", "Electrical treeing\n\nIn electrical engineering, treeing is an electrical pre-breakdown phenomenon in solid insulation. It is a damaging process due to partial discharges and progresses through the stressed dielectric insulation, in a path resembling the branches of a tree. Treeing of solid high-voltage cable insulation is a common breakdown mechanism and source of electrical faults in underground power cables.\n\nSection::::Other occurrences and causes.\n", "Flicker may be produced, for example, if a steel mill uses large electric motors or arc furnaces on a distribution network, or frequent starting of an elevator motor in an office building, or if a rural residence has a large water pump starting regularly on a long feeder system. The likelihood of flicker increase as the size of the changing load becomes larger with respect to the prospective short-circuit current available at the point of common connection.\n\nSection::::Measurement of flicker.\n\nThe requirements of a flicker measurement equipment are defined in the international electro-technical standard IEC 61000-4-15.\n", "Section::::Common ground loops.:Ground currents on signal cables.\n\nGround noise is electronic noise on the ground wires or busses of an electronic circuit. In audio, radio, and digital equipment it represents an undesirable condition since the noise can get into the signal path of the device, appearing as interference in the output. Like other types of electronic noise it can manifest in audio equipment as a hum, hiss, distortion or other unwanted sound in the speakers, in analog video equipment as on the screen, and in digital circuits and control systems as erratic or faulty operation or computer crashes.\n", "Brush discharge\n\nA brush discharge is an electrical disruptive discharge similar to a corona discharge that takes place at an electrode with a high voltage applied to it, embedded in a nonconducting fluid, usually air. It is characterized by multiple luminous writhing sparks, plasma streamers composed of ionized particles, which repeatedly strike out from the electrode into the air, often with a crackling sound. The streamers spread out in a fan shape, giving it the appearance of a \"brush\".\n", "Compact high frequency inverter-converter transformers developed in the early 1990s are used, especially when low Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) is needed, such as in locations near high-fidelity sound equipment. At the typical frequency of these solid state transformers, the plasma electron-ion recombination time is too long to extinguish and reignite the plasma at each cycle, unlike the case at power line frequency. The plasma does not broadcast high frequency switching noise and remains ionized continually, becoming radio noise free.\n", "Partial discharge in air causes the \"fresh air\" smell of ozone during thunderstorms or around high-voltage equipment. Although air is normally an excellent insulator, when stressed by a sufficiently high voltage (an electric field of about 3 x 10 V/m or 3 kV/mm), air can begin to break down, becoming partially conductive. Across relatively small gaps, breakdown voltage in air is a function of gap length times pressure. If the voltage is sufficiently high, complete electrical breakdown of the air will culminate in an electrical spark or an electric arc that bridges the entire gap.\n", "BULLET::::- Contact voltage is defined as \"A voltage resulting from abnormal power system conditions that may be present between two conductive surfaces that can be simultaneously contacted by members of the general public and/or their animals. Contact voltage is caused by power system fault current as it flows through the impedance of available fault current pathways. Contact voltage is not related to normal system operation and can exist at levels that may be hazardous.\"\n\nSection::::Definitions.:Working definition.\n", "The insulating liquid is in contact with the internal components. Gases, formed by normal and abnormal events within the transformer, are dissolved in the oil. By analyzing the volume, types, proportions, and rate of production of dissolved gases, much diagnostic information can be gathered. Since these gases can reveal the faults of a transformer, they are known as \"fault gases\". Gases are produced by oxidation, vaporization, insulation decomposition, oil breakdown and electrolytic action.\n\nSection::::Sampling.\n\nSection::::Sampling.:Oil sample tube.\n", "The frequency of the noise depends on the nature of electromagnetic forces (quadratic or linear function of electrical field or magnetic field) and on the frequency content of the electromagnetic field (in particular if a DC component is present or not).\n\nSection::::Electromagnetic noise and vibrations in electric machines.\n", "The other major source of hum in audio equipment is shared impedances; when a heavy current is flowing through a conductor (a ground trace) that a small-signal device is also connected to. All practical conductors will have a finite, if small, resistance, and the small resistance present means that devices using different points on the conductor as a ground reference will be at slightly different potentials. This hum is usually at the second harmonic of the power line frequency (100 Hz or 120 Hz), since the heavy ground currents are from AC to DC power supplies that rectify the mains waveform. See also ground loop.\n", "Stray voltage is generally discovered during routine electrical work, or as a result of a customer complaint or shock incident. A growing number of utilities in urban areas now conduct routine periodic and systematic active tests for stray voltage (or more specifically, contact voltage) for public safety reasons. Some incipient electrical faults may also be discovered during routine work or inspection programs which are not specifically focused on stray voltage.\n", "BULLET::::- Random or repetitive variations in the RMS voltage between 90 and 110% of nominal can produce a phenomenon known as \"flicker\" in lighting equipment. Flicker is rapid visible changes of light level. Definition of the characteristics of voltage fluctuations that produce objectionable light flicker has been the subject of ongoing research.\n\nBULLET::::- Abrupt, very brief increases in voltage, called \"spikes\", \"impulses\", or \"surges\", generally caused by large inductive loads being turned off, or more severely by lightning.\n", "The mechanism by which a PTU works is by surging, PTUs self-start by pure mechanical influence alone resulting from the delta-pressure between the two hydraulic systems it is connected to. Consequently, a PTU accelerates very rapidly under the delta-P induced load, and then stops just as suddenly once the pressure equalizes. Each pressure surge may only be a second long, causing a stop-start mode of operation.\n\nIn practice, this results in a 'whoosh-whoosh' sudden spool up and spool down, which produces a loud noise than can be likened to a barking dog.\n", "Since that time, the term “stray voltage” has had at least two very different definitions. This situation is cause for confusion among utilities, regulators, and the public. The term \"stray voltage\" is commonly used for all unwanted electrical leakage, by both the general public and many electrical utility professionals. Other more esoteric phenomenon that also result in elevated voltages on normally non-energized surfaces, are also referred to as “stray voltage.” Examples are voltage due to capacitive coupling, current induced by power lines, EMF, lightning, earth potential rise, and problems stemming from open (disconnected) neutrals.\n\nSection::::Origins.\n\nSection::::Origins.:Coupled voltages.\n", "A corona discharge is an electrical discharge brought on by the ionization of a fluid such as air surrounding a conductor that is electrically charged. Spontaneous corona discharges occur naturally in high-voltage systems unless care is taken to limit the electric field strength. A corona will occur when the strength of the electric field (potential gradient) around a conductor is high enough to form a conductive region, but not high enough to cause electrical breakdown or arcing to nearby objects. It is often seen as a bluish (or another color) glow in the air adjacent to pointed metal conductors carrying high voltages, and emits light by the same property as a gas discharge lamp.\n", "The anticipated inductance of the power line for the intended installation of the EUT also plays a role in identifying the correct type of LISN needed for testing. For example, a connection in a building will often use 50 µH inductor, whereas in automobile measurement standards a 5 µH inductor is used to emulate a shorter typical wire length.\n\nSection::::Functions of an LISN.:Isolation of the power source noise.\n", "AC-powered appliances can give off a characteristic hum, often called \"mains hum\", at the multiples of the frequencies of AC power that they use (see Magnetostriction). It is usually produced by motor and transformer core laminations vibrating in time with the magnetic field. This hum can also appear in audio systems, where the power supply filter or signal shielding of an amplifier is not adequate.\n", "Section::::Tin whisker examples and incidents.:Millstone Nuclear Power Plant.\n\nOn April 17, 2005, the Millstone Nuclear Power Plant in Connecticut was shut down due to a \"false alarm\" that indicated an unsafe pressure drop in the reactor's steam system when the steam pressure was actually nominal. The false alarm was caused by a tin whisker that short circuited the logic board that was responsible for monitoring the steam pressure lines in the power plant.\n\nSection::::Tin whisker examples and incidents.:Toyota accelerator position sensors false positive.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01710	How did scientists measure the age of the universe if spacetime is relative?	Measuring the age of the universe doesn't really involve relativity because we're not comparing reference frames from different observers. If have 2 observers in 2 different reference frames, they might not agree on the age of the universe, but that's not really useful information for us. The main way we've measured the age of the universe is by measuring it's rate of expansion and working backwards. The further away an object is, the faster it's accelerating away from us. From this, we were able to make a model of the universe's expansion, and work backwards to when it was first expanding.	[ "This measurement is made by using the location of the first acoustic peak in the microwave background power spectrum to determine the size of the decoupling surface (size of the universe at the time of recombination). The light travel time to this surface (depending on the geometry used) yields a reliable age for the universe. Assuming the validity of the models used to determine this age, the residual accuracy yields a margin of error near one percent.\n\nSection::::Planck.\n", "Note that the comoving distance is recovered from the transverse comoving distance by taking the limit formula_21, such that the two distance measures are equivalent in a flat universe.\n\nAge of the universe is formula_22, and the time elapsed since redshift formula_1 until now is\n\nSection::::Alternative terminology.\n", "The standard model of cosmology is based on a model of space-time called the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (\"FLRW\") metric. A metric provides a measure of distance between objects, and the FLRW metric is the exact solution of Einstein's field equations if some key properties of space such as homogeneity and isotropy are assumed to be true. The FLRW metric very closely matches overwhelming other evidence, showing that the universe has expanded since the Big Bang.\n", "The space probes WMAP, launched in 2001, and Planck, launched in 2009, produced data that determines the Hubble constant and the age of the universe independent of galaxy distances, removing the largest source of error.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Age of the Earth\n\nBULLET::::- Anthropic principle\n\nBULLET::::- Cosmic Calendar (age of universe scaled to a single year)\n\nBULLET::::- Cosmology\n\nBULLET::::- Dark Ages Radio Explorer\n\nBULLET::::- Expansion of the universe\n\nBULLET::::- Hubble Deep Field\n\nBULLET::::- Illustris project\n\nBULLET::::- Multiverse\n\nBULLET::::- Observable universe\n\nBULLET::::- Redshift observations in astronomy\n\nBULLET::::- Static universe\n\nBULLET::::- \"The First Three Minutes\" (1977 book by Steven Weinberg)\n", "There are two main ways for establishing a reference point for the cosmic time. The most trivial way is to take the present time as the cosmic reference point (sometimes referred to as the lookback time).\n", "In 2018, an international team used light from two quasars (one whose light was generated approximately eight billion years ago and the other approximately twelve billion years ago) as the basis for their measurement settings. This experiment pushed the timeframe for when the settings could have been mutually determined to at least 7.8 billion years in the past, a substantial fraction of the superdeterministic limit (that being the creation of the universe 13.8 billion years ago).\n\nSection::::Loopholes.\n", "Although light and objects within spacetime cannot travel faster than the speed of light, in this case it was the metric governing the size and geometry of spacetime itself that changed in scale. Changes to the metric are not limited by the speed of light.\n\nThere is good evidence that this happened, and it is widely accepted that it did take place. But the exact reasons \"why\" it happened are still being explored. So a range of models exist that explain why and how it took place - it is not yet clear which explanation is correct.\n", "Calculating the age of the universe is accurate only if the assumptions built into the models being used to estimate it are also accurate. This is referred to as strong priors and essentially involves stripping the potential errors in other parts of the model to render the accuracy of actual observational data directly into the concluded result. Although this is not a valid procedure in all contexts (as noted in the accompanying caveat: \"based on the fact we have assumed the underlying model we used is correct\"), the age given is thus accurate to the specified error (since this error represents the error in the instrument used to gather the raw data input into the model).\n", "In 2015, the Planck Collaboration estimated the age of the universe to be billion years, slightly higher but within the uncertainties of the earlier number derived from the WMAP data. By combining the Planck data with external data, the best combined estimate of the age of the universe is old.\n\nSection::::Assumption of strong priors.\n", "The Grand Unification Epoch is the era in time in the chronology of the universe where no elementary particles existed, and the three gauge interactions of the Standard Model which define the electromagnetic, weak, and strong interactions or forces, are merged into one single force. Convention says that 3 minutes after the Big Bang, protons and neutrons began to come together to form the nuclei of simple elements. Whereas, loop quantum gravity theories places the origin and the age of elementary particles and the age of Lorentz invariance, beyond 13.799 ± 0.021 billion years ago.\n", "The age problem was eventually thought to be resolved by several developments between 1995-2003: firstly, a large program with the Hubble Space Telescope measured the Hubble constant at 72 (km/s)/Mpc with 10 percent uncertainty. Secondly, measurements of parallax by the Hipparcos spacecraft in 1995 revised globular cluster distances upwards by 5-10 percent; this made their stars brighter than previously estimated and therefore younger, shifting their age estimates down to around 12-13 billion years. Finally, from 1998-2003 a number of new cosmological observations including supernovae, cosmic microwave background observations and large galaxy redshift surveys led to the acceptance of dark energy and the establishment of the Lambda-CDM model as the standard model of cosmology. The presence of dark energy implies that the universe was expanding more slowly at around half its present age than today, which makes the universe older for a given value of the Hubble constant. The combination of the three results above essentially removed the discrepancy between estimated globular cluster ages and the age of the universe.\n", "NASA's Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) project's nine-year data release in 2012 estimated the age of the universe to be years (13.772 billion years, with an uncertainty of plus or minus 59 million years).\n\nHowever, this age is based on the assumption that the project's underlying model is correct; other methods of estimating the age of the universe could give different ages. Assuming an extra background of relativistic particles, for example, can enlarge the error bars of the WMAP constraint by one order of magnitude.\n", "The age of the universe as estimated from the Hubble expansion and the CMB is now in good agreement with other estimates using the ages of the oldest stars, both as measured by applying the theory of stellar evolution to globular clusters and through radiometric dating of individual Population II stars.\n", "WMAP's measurements played a key role in establishing the current Standard Model of Cosmology: the Lambda-CDM model. The WMAP data are very well fit by a universe that is dominated by dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant. Other cosmological data are also consistent, and together tightly constrain the Model. In the Lambda-CDM model of the universe, the age of the universe is billion years. The WMAP mission's determination of the age of the universe is to better than 1% precision. The current expansion rate of the universe is (see Hubble constant) . The content of the universe currently consists of ordinary baryonic matter; cold dark matter (CDM) that neither emits nor absorbs light; and of dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant that accelerates the expansion of the universe. Less than 1% of the current content of the universe is in neutrinos, but WMAP's measurements have found, for the first time in 2008, that the data prefer the existence of a cosmic neutrino background with an effective number of neutrino species of . The contents point to a Euclidean flat geometry, with curvature (formula_1) of . The WMAP measurements also support the cosmic inflation paradigm in several ways, including the flatness measurement.\n", "The discovery of microwave cosmic background radiation announced in 1965 finally brought an effective end to the remaining scientific uncertainty over the expanding universe. It was a chance result from work by two teams less than 60 miles apart. In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson were trying to detect radio wave echoes with a supersensitive antenna. The antenna persistently detected a low, steady, mysterious noise in the microwave region that was evenly spread over the sky, and was present day and night. After testing, they became certain that the signal did not come from the Earth, the Sun, or our galaxy, but from outside our own galaxy, but could not explain it. At the same time another team, Robert H. Dicke, Jim Peebles, and David Wilkinson, were attempting to detect low level noise which might be left over from the Big Bang and could prove whether the Big Bang theory was correct. The two teams realized that the detected noise was in fact radiation left over from the Big Bang, and that this was strong evidence that the theory was correct. Since then, a great deal of other evidence has strengthened and confirmed this conclusion, and refined the estimated age of the universe to its current figure.\n", "Recalling our two observers from different ages: the time in their experiments is shifted by 100 years. If the time when the older observer did the experiment was \"t\", the time of the modern experiment is \"t\"+100 years. Both observers discover the same laws of physics. Because light from hydrogen atoms in distant galaxies may reach the earth after having traveled across space for billions of years, in effect one can do such observations covering periods of time almost all the way back to the Big Bang, and they show that the laws of physics have always been the same.\n", "Apart from the Planck satellite, the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) was instrumental in establishing an accurate age of the universe, though other measurements must be folded in to gain an accurate number. CMB measurements are very good at constraining the matter content Ω and curvature parameter Ω. It is not as sensitive to Ω directly, partly because the cosmological constant becomes important only at low redshift. The most accurate determinations of the Hubble parameter \"H\" come from Type Ia supernovae. Combining these measurements leads to the generally accepted value for the age of the universe quoted above.\n", "In inflationary models of cosmology, times before the end of inflation (roughly 10 second after the Big Bang) do not follow the same timeline as in traditional big bang cosmology. Models that aim to describe the universe and physics during the Planck epoch are generally speculative and fall under the umbrella of \"New Physics\". Examples include the Hartle–Hawking initial state, string landscape, string gas cosmology, and the ekpyrotic universe.\n\nSection::::Very early universe.:Grand unification epoch.\n", "Section::::Very early universe.:Electroweak epoch.\n\nDepending on how epochs are defined, and the model being followed, the electroweak epoch may be considered to start before or after the inflationary epoch. In some models it is described as including the inflationary epoch. In other models, the electroweak epoch is said to begin after the inflationary epoch ended, at roughly 10 seconds.\n", "In physical cosmology, the age of the universe is the time elapsed since the Big Bang. The current measurement of the age of the universe is billion (10) years within the Lambda-CDM concordance model. The uncertainty has been narrowed down to 21 million years, based on a number of studies which all gave extremely similar figures for the age. These include studies of the microwave background radiation, and measurements by the \"Planck\" spacecraft, the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe and other probes. Measurements of the cosmic background radiation give the cooling time of the universe since the Big Bang, and measurements of the expansion rate of the universe can be used to calculate its approximate age by extrapolating backwards in time.\n", "On March 17, 2014, astrophysicists of the BICEP2 collaboration announced the detection of inflationary gravitational waves in the B-mode power spectrum which was interpreted as clear experimental evidence for the theory of inflation. However, on June 19, 2014, lowered confidence in confirming the cosmic inflation findings was reported and finally, on February 2, 2015, a joint analysis of data from BICEP2/Keck and Planck satellite concluded that the statistical \"significance [of the data] is too low to be interpreted as a detection of primordial B-modes\" and can be attributed mainly to polarized dust in the Milky Way.\n", "The anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background on different angular scales can also be used to study reionization. Photons undergo scattering when there are free electrons present, in a process known as Thomson scattering. However, as the universe expands, the density of free electrons will decrease, and scattering will occur less frequently. In the period during and after reionization, but before significant expansion had occurred to sufficiently lower the electron density, the light that composes the CMB will experience observable Thomson scattering. This scattering will leave its mark on the CMB anisotropy map, introducing secondary anisotropies (anisotropies introduced after recombination). The overall effect is to erase anisotropies that occur on smaller scales. While anisotropies on small scales are erased, polarization anisotropies are actually introduced because of reionization. By looking at the CMB anisotropies observed, and comparing with what they would look like had reionization not taken place, the electron column density at the time of reionization can be determined. With this, the age of the universe when reionization occurred can then be calculated.\n", "In 2015, it was reported that such shifts had been detected in the CMB. Moreover, the fluctuations corresponded to neutrinos of almost exactly the temperature predicted by Big Bang theory ( compared to a prediction of 1.95K), and exactly three types of neutrino, the same number of neutrino flavours currently predicted by the Standard Model.\n\nSection::::Early universe.:Possible formation of primordial black holes.\n", "If one has accurate measurements of these parameters, then the age of the universe can be determined by using the Friedmann equation. This equation relates the rate of change in the scale factor \"a\"(\"t\") to the matter content of the universe. Turning this relation around, we can calculate the change in time per change in scale factor and thus calculate the total age of the universe by integrating this formula. The age \"t\" is then given by an expression of the form\n", "The early accuracy, however, was poor. The results were argued by some to have been plagued by systematic error and possibly confirmation bias, although modern reanalysis of the dataset suggests that Eddington's analysis was accurate. The measurement was repeated by a team from the Lick Observatory in the 1922 eclipse, with results that agreed with the 1919 results and has been repeated several times since, most notably in 1953 by Yerkes Observatory astronomers and in 1973 by a team from the University of Texas. Considerable uncertainty remained in these measurements for almost fifty years, until observations started being made at radio frequencies. \n" ]	[ "Spacetime being relative affects computation of age of universe.", "Because space time is relative, scientists shouldn't of been able to measure the age of the universe. " ]	[ "Spacetime being relative does not affect the computation of the age of the universe. ", "Measuring the universe doesn't exactly involve relativity, because reference frames are not compared from different observers." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Spacetime being relative affects computation of age of universe.", "Because space time is relative, scientists shouldn't of been able to measure the age of the universe. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Spacetime being relative does not affect the computation of the age of the universe. ", "Measuring the universe doesn't exactly involve relativity, because reference frames are not compared from different observers." ]
2018-22239	Why do phone batteries seem to die faster in colder weather?	Because lithium ion batteries perform worse in the cold. They need some heat in order for the ion flow (which makes the battery work) to work properly.	[ "When exposed to high temperatures, the lithium-ion batteries in smartphones are easily damaged and can fail faster than expected, in addition to letting the device run out of battery too often. Debris and other contaminants that enter through small cracks in the phone can also infringe on smartphone life expectancy. One of the most common factors that causes smartphones and other electronic devices to die quickly is physical impact and breakage, which can severely damage the internal pieces.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "Irreversible damage from polarity reversal is a particular danger, even when a low voltage-threshold cutout is employed, when the cells vary in temperature. This is because capacity significantly declines as the cells are cooled. This results in a lower voltage under load of the colder cells.\n\nSection::::Discharge.:Self-discharge.\n", "The Optimus 7 has a tendency to heat to a high temperature, while the handset is left to run an application for an extended period of time. This behavior has also been noted during charging. Due to the device's metal battery cover, the handset tends to retain any heat generated.\n\nIt has also been reported that after reaching high temperatures, the phone can reboot. Upon rebooting, the phone can hang on LG startup logo indefinitely, or until the user resets the device manually.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- LG Quantum\n\nBULLET::::- Windows Phone\n\nSection::::Comparable Devices.\n\nBULLET::::- LG Quantum\n\nBULLET::::- HTC HD7\n", "Low temperature reduces primary cell capacity but the effect is small for low drains. A cell may deliver 80% of its capacity if discharged over 300 hours at , but only 20% of capacity if discharged at a 50-hour rate at that temperature. Lower temperature also reduces cell voltage.\n\nSection::::Cell types.\n\nSection::::Cell types.:Primary (non-rechargeable).\n\nLarge zinc–air batteries, with capacities up to 2,000 ampere–hours per cell, are used to power navigation instruments and marker lights, oceanographic experiments and railway signals.\n", "Section::::Categories and types of batteries.:Cell performance.\n\nA battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over lifetime due to many factors including internal chemistry, current drain, and temperature. At low temperatures, a battery cannot deliver as much power. As such, in cold climates, some car owners install battery warmers, which are small electric heating pads that keep the car battery warm.\n\nSection::::Capacity and discharge.\n", "BULLET::::- In South Africa the code on a battery to indicate production date is part of the casing and cast into the bottom left of the cover. The code is Year and week number. (YYWW) e.g. 1336 is for week 36 in the year 2013.\n\nSection::::Use and maintenance.\n\nExcess heat is a main cause of battery failures, as when the electrolyte evaporates due to high temperatures, decreasing the effective surface area of the plates exposed to the electrolyte, and leading to sulfation. Grid corrosion rates increase with temperature. Also low temperatures can lead to battery failure. \n", "Manufacturers recommend storage of zinc–carbon batteries at room temperature; storage at higher temperatures reduces the expected service life. Zinc-carbon batteries may be frozen without damage; manufacturers recommend that they be returned to normal room temperature before use, and that condensation on the battery jacket must be avoided. By the end of the 20th century, the storage life of zinc–carbon cells had improved fourfold over expected life in 1910.\n\nSection::::Durability.\n", "When handled improperly, or if manufactured defectively, some rechargeable batteries can experience thermal runaway resulting in overheating. Sealed cells will sometimes explode violently if safety vents are overwhelmed or nonfunctional. Especially prone to thermal runaway are lithium-ion batteries, most markedly in the form of the lithium polymer battery. Reports of exploding cellphones occasionally appear in newspapers. In 2006, batteries from Apple, HP, Toshiba, Lenovo, Dell and other notebook manufacturers were recalled because of fire and explosions. The Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) of the U.S. Department of Transportation has established regulations regarding the carrying of certain types of batteries on airplanes because of their instability in certain situations. This action was partially inspired by a cargo bay fire on a UPS airplane.\n", "For downhill skiing or winter biking, rechargeable nickel metal or lithium batteries are generally used. If not recharged properly, \"battery memory\" will shorten the battery's capability to recharge. There are two types of lithium batteries: Li-ion & Li-Polymer, which use several types of heating technologies including copper wire, nichrome wire, metal \"mesh\" systems, carbon-embedded fabric, carbon fibers and very thin flexible heating technologies that can be printed onto substrate. This has allowed for extra features to be added such as temperature sensors, Bluetooth integration and the ability to control the temperature from a smartphone. \n", "Lithium-ion batteries operate best at certain temperatures. The Model S motor, controller and battery temperatures are controlled by a liquid cooling/heating circuit. Waste heat from the motor heats the battery in cold conditions, and battery performance is reduced until a suitable battery temperature is reached.\n", "Due to freezing-point depression, the electrolyte is more likely to freeze during winter weather as the battery discharges and the concentration of sulfuric acid decreases.\n\nSection::::Electrochemistry.:Ion motion.\n", "Smart cards have the same size as a credit card, but they contain a microchip that can be used to access information, give authorization, or process an application. These cards can go through harsh production conditions, with temperatures in the range of 130 to 150 °C, in order to complete the high temperature, high pressure lamination processes. These conditions can cause other batteries to fail because of degassing or degradation of organic components within the battery. Thin film lithium ion batteries have been shown to withstand temperatures of -40 to 150 °C. This use of thin film lithium ion batteries is hopeful for other extreme temperature applications.\n", "High temperatures can also cause failure in connectors, resulting in an \"avalanche\" of failuresambient temperature increases, leading to a decrease in insulation resistance and increase in conductor resistance; this increase generates more heat, and the cycle repeats.\n", "Section::::Lifetime.:Self-discharge.\n\nDisposable batteries typically lose 8 to 20 percent of their original charge per year when stored at room temperature (20–30 °C). This is known as the \"self-discharge\" rate, and is due to non-current-producing \"side\" chemical reactions that occur within the cell even when no load is applied. The rate of side reactions is reduced for batteries stored at lower temperatures, although some can be damaged by freezing.\n", "BULLET::::- The battery draining issue of mobile operators can be eliminated by means of energy efficiency of the networks resulting in prolongation of the battery life of handsets\n\nBULLET::::- New applications and services can be created to enhance user experience or provide additional features:\n\nBULLET::::- In Connected car case the use of Femtocells has been proposed as a safety feature (c.f. patent application EP2647257B1 by Valentin A. Alexeev)\n\nFemtocells can be used to give coverage in rural areas.\n\nSection::::Standardised architectures.\n", "All the preceding types have water-based electrolytes, which limits the maximum voltage per cell. The freezing of water limits low temperature performance. The lithium battery, which does not (and cannot) use water in the electrolyte, provides improved performance over other types; a rechargeable lithium-ion battery is an essential part of many mobile devices.\n", "BULLET::::- Wiring issues: the wires to the cell may develop high resistance, e.g. due to corrosion. Alternatively, parallel current paths can be formed by ingress of moisture. In both cases the signal develops offset (unless all wires are affected equally) and accuracy is lost.\n", "NiCd cells, if used in a particular repetitive manner, may show a decrease in capacity called \"memory effect\". The effect can be avoided with simple practices. NiMH cells, although similar in chemistry, suffer less from memory effect.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Environmental conditions.\n", "Section::::Categories and types of batteries.:Cell types.:Molten salt.\n\nMolten salt batteries are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten salt as electrolyte. They operate at high temperatures and must be well insulated to retain heat.\n\nSection::::Categories and types of batteries.:Cell types.:Reserve.\n", "BULLET::::- 27 January – A report from the EU's Joint Research Centre concludes that if global temperatures rise by 4 °C, the flood risk in countries representing more than 70% of the global population and of the global GDP will increase by more than 500%.\n\nBULLET::::- 30 January – News reports that a new safe battery has been invented. It is based on solid lithium, and is claimed to have twice the storage capacity of lithium-ion batteries. It is featured on a newly released PBS NOVA TV program entitled \"Search for the Super Battery\".\n\nSection::::Events.:February.\n\nBULLET::::- 1 February\n", "The temperature coefficient can be reduced by shifting to an unsaturated design, the predominant type today. However, an unsaturated cell's output decreases by some 80 microvolts per year, which is compensated by periodic calibration against a saturated cell.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of battery types\n\nSection::::Literature.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Practical Electricity\" by W. E. Ayrton and T. Mather, published by Cassell and Company, London, 1911, pp 198–203\n\nBULLET::::- , \"\"Voltaic cell\"\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Standard Cells, Their Construction, Maintenance, and Characteristics\" by Walter J. Hamer, National Bureau of Standards Monograph 84, January 15, 1965.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Standard Cells for E.M.F. Determinations\n", "The operating life of a zinc–air cell is a critical function of its interaction with its environment. The electrolyte loses water more rapidly in conditions of high temperature and low humidity. Because the potassium hydroxide electrolyte is deliquescent, in very humid conditions excess water accumulates in the cell, flooding the cathode and destroying its active properties. Potassium hydroxide also reacts with atmospheric carbon dioxide; carbonate formation eventually reduces electrolyte conductivity. Miniature cells have high self-discharge once opened to air; the cell's capacity is intended to be used within a few weeks.\n\nSection::::Discharge properties.\n", "Battery service life and efficacy is affected by operating temperature. Efficacy is determined by comparing the service life achieved by the battery as a percentage of its service life achieved at 20 °C versus temperature. Ohmic load and operating temperature often jointly determine a battery's discharge rate. Moreover, if the expected operating temperature for a primary battery deviates from the typical 10 °C to 25 °C range, then operating temperature \"will often have an influence on the type of battery selected for the application\". Energy reclamation from partially depleted lithium sulfur dioxide battery has been shown to improve when \"appropriately increasing the battery operating temperature\".\n", "Extreme winter cold often causes poorly insulated water pipes to freeze. Even some poorly protected indoor plumbing may rupture as frozen water expands within them, causing property damage. Fires, paradoxically, become more hazardous during extreme cold. Water mains may break and water supplies may become unreliable, making firefighting more difficult.\n", "In the battery used for electric vehicles, Nominal battery performance is usually specified for working temperatures somewhere in the +20 °C to +30 °C range; however, the actual performance can deviate substantially from this if the battery is operated at higher or, in particular, lower temperatures, so some electric cars have heating and cooling for their batteries.\n\nSection::::Methodologies.\n\nSection::::Methodologies.:Heat sinks.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03404	Why can't the Internet be made completely secure	There is always a trade off between security and usability. Take for example a login to a webpage: This list goes from low security - high usability to high security - low usability 1) only put in your username 2) put in your username and a password 3) username/password and mobile phone code generator 4) smartcard + pin (need smardcard reader etc) 5) send a copy of your ID everytime you will login 6) drive to Website HQ and personally ask for a login.. You see.. especially the last 2 are secure.. but no one wants to do things like this in reality. The more secure you make something the harder it is to use or to develop/operate (in most cases).	[ "However, developers of software and hardware are faced with many challenges in developing a system that can be both user friendly, accessible 24/7 on almost any device and be truly secure. Security leaks happen, even to individuals and organizations that have security measures in place to protect their data and information (e.g., firewalls, encryption, strong passwords). The complexities of creating such a secure system come from the fact that the behaviour of humans is not always rational or predictable. Even in a very-well secured computer system, a malicious individual can telephone a worker and pretend to be a private investigator working for the software company, and ask for the individual's password, a dishonest process called \"phishing\". As well, even with a well-secured system, if a worker decides to put the company's electronic files on a USB drive to take them home to work on them over the weekend (against many companies' policies), and then loses this USB drive, the company's data may be compromised. Therefore, developers need to make systems that are intuitive to the user in order to have information security and system security.\n", "The end-to-end encryption paradigm does not directly address risks at the communications endpoints themselves, such as the technical exploitation of clients, poor quality random number generators, or key escrow. E2EE also does not address traffic analysis, which relates to things such as the identities of the end points and the times and quantities of messages that are sent.\n\nSection::::Security.:SSL/TLS.\n", "The disadvantage with the end-to-end method is, it may fail to cover all traffic. With encryption on the router level or VPN, a single switch encrypts all traffic, even UDP and DNS lookups. With end-to-end encryption on the other hand, each service to be secured must have its encryption \"turned on\", and often every connection must also be \"turned on\" separately. For sending emails, every recipient must support the encryption method, and must exchange keys correctly. For Web, not all web sites offer https, and even if they do, the browser sends out IP addresses in clear text.\n", "Keeping a web server safe from intrusion is often called \"Server Port Hardening\". Many technologies come into play to keep information on the internet safe when it is transmitted from one location to another. For instance TLS certificates (or \"SSL certificates\") are issued by certificate authorities to help prevent internet fraud. Many developers often employ different forms of encryption when transmitting and storing sensitive information. A basic understanding of information technology security concerns is often part of a web developer's knowledge.\n", "Without sufficient budgetary considerations for all the above—in addition to the money allotted to standard regulatory, IT, privacy, and security issues—an information security management plan/system can not fully succeed.\n\nSection::::Relevant standards.\n", "The end-to-end encryption paradigm does not directly address risks at the communications endpoints themselves. Each user's computer can still be hacked to steal his or her cryptographic key (to create a MITM attack) or simply read the recipients’ decrypted messages both in real time and from log files. Even the most perfectly encrypted communication pipe is only as secure as the mailbox on the other end. Major attempts to increase endpoint security have been to isolate key generation, storage and cryptographic operations to a smart card such as Google's Project Vault. However, since plaintext input and output are still visible to the host system, malware can monitor conversations in real time. A more robust approach is to isolate all sensitive data to a fully air gapped computer. PGP has been recommended by experts for this purpose: However, as Bruce Schneier points out, Stuxnet developed by US and Israel successfully jumped air gap and reached Natanz nuclear plant's network in Iran. To deal with key exfiltration with malware, one approach is to split the Trusted Computing Base behind two unidirectionally connected computers that prevent either insertion of malware, or exfiltration of sensitive data with inserted malware.\n", "Proposed solutions vary. Large security companies like McAfee already design governance and compliance suites to meet post-9/11 regulations, and some, like Finjan have recommended active real-time inspection of programming code and all content regardless of its source. Some have argued that for enterprises to see Web security as a business opportunity rather than a cost centre, while others call for \"ubiquitous, always-on digital rights management\" enforced in the infrastructure to replace the hundreds of companies that secure data and networks. Jonathan Zittrain has said users sharing responsibility for computing safety is far preferable to locking down the Internet.\n\nSection::::Privacy.\n", "One can argue that both layer 2 and layer 3 encryption methods are not good enough for protecting valuable data like passwords and personal emails. Those technologies add encryption only to parts of the communication path, still allowing people to spy on the traffic if they have gained access to the wired network somehow. The solution may be encryption and authorization in the application layer, using technologies like SSL, SSH, GnuPG, PGP and similar.\n", "With many communications taking place over long distance and mediated by technology, and increasing awareness of the importance of interception issues, technology and its compromise are at the heart of this debate. For this reason, this article focuses on communications mediated or intercepted by technology.\n\nAlso see \"Trusted Computing\", an approach under present development that achieves security in general at the potential cost of compelling obligatory trust in corporate and government bodies.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nIn 1898, Nikola Tesla demonstrated a radio controlled boat in Madison Square Garden that allowed secure communication between transmitter and receiver.\n", "Typical server-based communications systems do not include end-to-end encryption. These systems can only guarantee protection of communications between clients and servers, not between the communicating parties themselves. Examples of non-E2EE systems are Google Talk, Yahoo Messenger, Facebook, and Dropbox. Some such systems, for example LavaBit and SecretInk, have even described themselves as offering \"end-to-end\" encryption when they do not. Some systems that normally offer end-to-end encryption have turned out to contain a back door that subverts negotiation of the encryption key between the communicating parties, for example Skype or Hushmail.\n", "BULLET::::- It is difficult to efficiently transfer information between networks having different levels of security classification. Although multi-level security systems provide part of the solution, human intervention and decision-making is still needed to determine what specific data can and cannot be transferred.\n", "One significant disadvantage is that cardholders are likely to see their browser connect to unfamiliar domain names as a result of vendors' MPI implementations and the use of outsourced ACS implementations by issuing banks, which might make it easier to perform phishing attacks on cardholders.\n\nSection::::American Express SafeKey.\n", "A method to authenticate the communicating parties to each other is generally needed to prevent this type of attack. Variants of Diffie–Hellman, such as STS protocol, may be used instead to avoid these types of attacks.\n\nSection::::Security.:Practical attacks on Internet traffic.\n", "The 2013 mass surveillance disclosures made it more widely known that IIS is particularly bad in supporting perfect forward secrecy (PFS), especially when used in conjunction with Internet Explorer. Possessing one of the long term asymmetric secret keys used to establish a HTTPS session should not make it easier to derive the short term session key to then decrypt the conversation, even at a later time. Diffie–Hellman key exchange (DHE) and elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman key exchange (ECDHE) are in 2013 the only ones known to have that property. Only 30% of Firefox, Opera, and Chromium Browser sessions use it, and nearly 0% of Apple's Safari and Microsoft Internet Explorer sessions.\n", "BULLET::::- If services like file shares, access to printers etc. are available on the local net, it is advisable to have authentication (i.e. by password) for accessing it (one should never assume that the private network is not accessible from the outside). Correctly set up, it should be safe to allow access to the local network to outsiders.\n\nBULLET::::- With the most popular encryption algorithms today, a sniffer will usually be able to compute the network key in a few minutes.\n", "Also, it is important that everything works with the fewest privileges possible (see the principle of least privilege). For example, a Web server that runs as the administrative user (\"root\" or admin) can have the privilege to remove files and users that do not belong. A flaw in such a program could put the entire system at risk, whereas a Web server that runs inside an isolated environment and only has the privileges for required network and filesystem functions, cannot compromise the system it runs on unless the security around it is in itself also flawed.\n", "It is important to note that most cryptographic techniques are trivially breakable if keys are not exchanged securely or, if they actually were so exchanged, if those keys become known in some other way— burglary or extortion, for instance. An actually secure channel will not be required if an insecure channel can be used to securely exchange keys, and if burglary, bribery, or threat aren't used. The eternal problem has been and of course remains—even with modern key exchange protocols—how to know when an insecure channel worked securely (or alternatively, and perhaps more importantly, when it did not), and whether anyone has actually been bribed or threatened or simply lost a notebook (or a notebook computer) with key information in it. These are hard problems in the real world and no solutions are known—only expedients, jury rigs, and workarounds.\n", "The consequences of a successful attack range from loss of confidentiality to loss of system integrity, air traffic control outages, loss of aircraft, and even loss of life.\n\nSection::::Systems at risk.:Consumer devices.\n", "Information security must protect information throughout its lifespan, from the initial creation of the information on through to the final disposal of the information. The information must be protected while in motion and while at rest. During its lifetime, information may pass through many different information processing systems and through many different parts of information processing systems. There are many different ways the information and information systems can be threatened. To fully protect the information during its lifetime, each component of the information processing system must have its own protection mechanisms. The building up, layering on and overlapping of security measures is called \"defense in depth.\" In contrast to a metal chain, which is famously only as strong as its weakest link, the defense in depth strategy aims at a structure where, should one defensive measure fail, other measures will continue to provide protection.\n", "Section::::Limitations, attacks, and countermeasures.\n\nEncryption is an important tool but is not sufficient alone to ensure the security or privacy of sensitive information throughout its lifetime. Most applications of encryption protect information only at rest or in transit, leaving sensitive data in cleartext and potentially vulnerable to improper disclosure during processing, such as by a cloud service for example. Homomorphic encryption and secure multi-party computation are emerging techniques to compute on encrypted data; these techniques are general and Turing complete but incur high computational and/or communication costs.\n", "Access to protected information must be restricted to people who are authorized to access the information. The computer programs, and in many cases the computers that process the information, must also be authorized. This requires that mechanisms be in place to control the access to protected information. The sophistication of the access control mechanisms should be in parity with the value of the information being protected; the more sensitive or valuable the information the stronger the control mechanisms need to be. The foundation on which access control mechanisms are built start with identification and authentication.\n", "From 2005 to 2009, the greatest and growing threats to personal and corporate data derived from exploits of users' personal computers. Organized cyber-criminals have found it more profitable to internally exploit the many weak personal and work computers than to attack through heavily fortified perimeters. One common example is stealing small business's online banking account access.\n\nSection::::Solutions.\n\nTo eliminate the end node problem, only allow authenticated users on trusted remote computers in safe environments to connect to your network/cloud. There are many ways to accomplish this with existing technology, each with different levels of trust.\n", "Generally, designs that work well do not rely on being secret. Often, secrecy reduces the number of attackers by demotivating a subset of the threat population. The logic is that if there is an increase in complexity for the attacker, the increased attacker effort to compromise the target. While this technique implies reduced inherent risks, a virtually infinite set of threat actors and techniques applied over time will cause most secrecy methods to fail. While not mandatory, proper security usually means that everyone is allowed to know and understand the design \"because it is secure\". This has the advantage that many people are looking at the computer code, which improves the odds that any flaws will be found sooner (see Linus's Law). Attackers can also obtain the code, which makes it easier for them to find vulnerabilities as well.\n", "This work began in 1991 as a theoretical investigation by the Networking Research Laboratory on the formal meaning of a protocol layer satisfying an upper interface specification as a service provider and a lower interface specification as a service consumer . The Networking Research Laboratory received a grant from the National Security Agency in June 1991 to investigate how to apply their theory of modules and interfaces to security verification. At that time, there were three well-known authentication systems built (MIT's Kerberos) or being developed (DEC's SPX and IBM's KryptoKnight). All of these systems suffered from a common drawback, namely, they did not export a clean and easy-to-use interface that could be readily used by Internet applications. For example, it would take a tremendous amount of effort to “kerberize” an existing distributed application.\n", "However, it is not practical for millions of users who want to communicate or message securely to physically meet with each recipient users, and it is also not practical for millions of software users who need to physically meet with hundreds of software developers or authors, whose software or file signing PGP/GPG public Key they want to verify and trust and ultimately use in their computers. Therefore, one or more trusted third-party authority (TTPA) type of entity or group need to be available for users and be usable by users, and such entity/group need to be capable of providing trusted-verification or trust-delegation services for millions of users around the world, at any time.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09399	If there is a ninth planet in our solar system ten times more massive than the Earth, why haven't we found it yet?	The thing about galaxies (clusters of stars) is that they are by definition very bright objects. And we detect exoplanets typically by pointing a telescope at a star and waiting for something to pass between the star and us. Any planet further than us from the sun will never pass between us and the sun - and will not give off any light. At this point, you're talking about a needle in a haystack a very very very very long ways away.	[ "In 2005, astronomer Mike Brown and his team announced the discovery of (later named after the Greek goddess of discord and strife), a trans-Neptunian object then thought to be just barely larger than Pluto. Soon afterwards, a NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory press release described the object as the \"tenth planet\".\n", "In April 2017, using data from the SkyMapper telescope at Siding Spring Observatory, citizen scientists on the Zooniverse platform reported four candidates for Planet Nine. These candidates will be followed up on by astronomers to determine their viability. The project, which started on 28 March 2017, completed their goals in less than three days with around five million classifications by more than 60,000 individuals.\n\nSection::::Attempts to predict location.\n\nSection::::Attempts to predict location.:Cassini measurements of Saturn's orbit.\n", "Section::::Detection attempts.:Ongoing searches.\n", "This makes \" a notably large body for how late it has been discovered, being the fifth largest plutino in the Solar System, after , Orcus, , and Ixion, and the largest discovered since Orcus in 2004. It is unknown exactly why no surveys had discovered it previously, as it is neither in a particularly dense region of the sky, nor far enough south that most northern hemisphere-based surveys would ignore it, being only 5–6° south of the celestial equator. It seems unlikely that any body as large as this one remains undetected in the plutino region.\n\nSection::::Physical characteristics.:Rotation period.\n", "BULLET::::- Neptune, the ninth-closest planet to the Sun from 1979 to 1999 (while Pluto was closer to the Sun)\n\nBULLET::::- Pluto, the ninth planet from its discovery in 1930 until its reclassification as a dwarf planet in 2006\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Secret of the Ninth Planet\", a science fiction novel by Donald A. Wollheim\n\nBULLET::::- First planet (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Second planet (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Third planet (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Fourth planet (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Fifth planet (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Sixth planet (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Seventh planet (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Eighth planet (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Tenth planet (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Eleventh planet\n\nBULLET::::- Twelfth planet (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Planet X (disambiguation)\n", "Some of them, such as Quaoar, Sedna, and Eris, were heralded in the popular press as the tenth planet, failing to receive widespread scientific recognition. The announcement of Eris in 2005, an object then thought of as 27% more massive than Pluto, created the necessity and public desire for an official definition of a planet.\n", "In 2014, based on similarities of the orbits of a group of recently discovered extreme trans-Neptunian objects, astronomers hypothesized the existence of a super-Earth planet, 2 to 15 times the mass of the Earth and beyond 200 AU with possibly a high inclined orbit at some 1,500 AU. In 2016, further work showed this unknown distant planet is likely on an inclined, eccentric orbit that goes no closer than about 200 AU and no farther than about 1,200 AU from the Sun. The orbit is predicted to be anti-aligned to the clustered extreme trans-Neptunian objects. Because Pluto is no longer considered a planet by the IAU, this new hypothetical object has become known as Planet Nine.\n", "The Solar System contains no known super-Earths, because Earth is the largest terrestrial planet in the Solar System, and all larger planets have both at least 14 times the mass of Earth and thick gaseous atmospheres without well-defined rocky or watery surfaces; that is, they are either gas giants or ice giants, not terrestrial planets. In January 2016, the existence of a hypothetical super-Earth ninth planet in the Solar System, referred to as Planet Nine, was proposed as an explanation for the orbital behavior of six trans-Neptunian objects, but it is speculated also be an ice giant like Uranus or Neptune.\n", "BULLET::::- \"\" (1999), computer game: A tenth planet called Dark Planet is not discovered for some time because it was obscured by the Kuiper belt.\n", "This undiscovered super-Earth-sized planet would have a predicted mass of five to ten times that of the Earth, and an elongated orbit 400 to 800 times as far from the Sun as the Earth. Konstantin Batygin and Michael E. Brown suggest that Planet Nine could be the core of a giant planet that was ejected from its original orbit by Jupiter during the genesis of the Solar System. Others propose that the planet was captured from another star, was once a rogue planet, or that it formed on a distant orbit and was pulled into an eccentric orbit by a passing star.\n", "Section::::Planet X.:Further searches for Planet X.\n\nAfter 1978, a number of astronomers kept up the search for Lowell's Planet X, convinced that, because Pluto was no longer a viable candidate, an unseen tenth planet must have been perturbing the outer planets.\n", "Section::::Detection attempts.:Searches of existing data.\n", "BULLET::::- Eris, which came very close to being considered the tenth planet, after Pluto; it is 27% more massive than Pluto and of similar size\n\nBULLET::::- Many other trans-Neptunian objects discovered at this time, such as Haumea, Makemake, Quaoar (the biggest object found since Pluto and Charon themselves) and Sedna\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Planet X (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- First planet (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Second planet (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Third planet (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Fourth planet (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Fifth planet (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Sixth planet (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Seventh planet (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Eighth planet (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Ninth planet (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Eleventh planet\n\nBULLET::::- Twelfth planet (disambiguation)\n", "Due to its extreme distance from the Sun, Planet Nine would reflect little sunlight, potentially evading telescope sightings. It is expected to have an apparent magnitude fainter than 22, making it at least 600 times fainter than Pluto. If Planet Nine exists and is close to perihelion, astronomers could identify it based on existing images. At aphelion, the largest telescopes would be required, but if the planet is currently located in between, many observatories could spot Planet Nine. Statistically, the planet is more likely to be close to its aphelion at a distance greater than 600 AU. This is because objects move more slowly when near their aphelion, in accordance with Kepler's second law. A 2019 study estimated that Planet Nine, if it exists, may be smaller and closer than originally thought. This would make the hypothetical planet brighter and easier to spot, with an apparent magnitude of 21–22. According to University of Michigan professor Fred Adams, within the next 10 to 15 years, Planet Nine will either be observable or enough data will have been gathered to rule out its existence.\n", "The idea that a planet-sized object will collide with or closely pass by Earth in the near future is not supported by any scientific evidence and has been rejected by astronomers and planetary scientists as pseudoscience and an Internet hoax. Such an object would have destabilised the orbits of the planets to the extent that their effects would be easily observable today. Astronomers have hypothesized many planets beyond Neptune, and though many have been disproved, there are some that remain viable candidates such as Planet Nine. All the current candidates are in orbits that keep them well beyond Neptune throughout their orbit, even when they are closest to the Sun.\n", "As of the end of 2018, no observation of Planet Nine had been announced. While sky surveys such as Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) and Pan-STARRS did not detect Planet Nine, they have not ruled out the existence of a Neptune-diameter object in the outer Solar System. The ability of these past sky surveys to detect Planet Nine were dependent on its location and characteristics. Further surveys of the remaining regions are ongoing using NEOWISE and the 8-meter Subaru Telescope. Unless Planet Nine is observed, its existence is purely conjectural. Several alternative theories have been proposed to explain the observed clustering of TNOs.\n", "Because the planet is predicted to be visible in the Northern Hemisphere, the primary search is expected to be carried out using the Subaru Telescope, which has both an aperture large enough to see faint objects and a wide field of view to shorten the search. Two teams of astronomers—Batygin and Brown, as well as Trujillo and Sheppard—are undertaking this search together, and both teams expect the search to take up to five years. Brown and Batygin initially narrowed the search for Planet Nine down to roughly 2,000 square degrees of sky near Orion, a swath of space that Batygin thinks could be covered in about 20 nights by the Subaru Telescope. Subsequent refinements by Batygin and Brown have reduced the search space to 600–800 square degrees of sky. In December 2018, they spent 4 half–nights and 3 full nights observing with the Subaru Telescope.\n", "Ninth planet (disambiguation)\n\nNinth planet is a concept relating to planets beyond Neptune after the reclassification of Pluto.\n\nNinth planet or Planet Nine may also refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Planet Nine, a hypothetical large ninth planet in the Solar System\n\nBULLET::::- Planet 9 (record label)\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 2 Pallas, a asteroid, the ninth planet in chronological discovery order from 1802 until its reclassification as a minor planet in the 1850s\n\nBULLET::::- Jupiter, considered the ninth-closest planet to the Sun from 1807 to 1845 as a result of the discovery of minor planets\n", "In 2010, Gonzalo Tancredi presented a report to the IAU evaluating a list of 46 candidates for dwarf planet status based on light-curve-amplitude analysis and the assumption that the object was more than in diameter. Some diameters are measured, some are best-fit estimates, and others use an assumed albedo of 0.10. Of these, he identified 15 as dwarf planets by his criteria (including the four accepted by the IAU), with another nine being considered possible. To be cautious, he advised the IAU to \"officially\" accept as dwarf planets the top three not yet accepted: Sedna, Orcus, and Quaoar. Although the IAU had anticipated Tancredi's recommendations, as of 2013, they have not responded.\n", "BULLET::::- Gliese 436 b: This planet was one of the first Neptune-mass planets discovered, in August 2004. In May 2007, a transit was found, revealed as the smallest and least massive transiting planet yet at 22 times that of Earth. Its density is consistent with a large core of an exotic form of solid water called \"hot ice\", which would exist, despite the planet's high temperatures, because the planet's gravity causes water to be extremely dense.\n", "The planet is estimated to have 5 to 10 times the mass of Earth and a radius of 2 to 4 times Earth's. Brown thinks that if Planet Nine exists, its mass is sufficient to clear its orbit of large bodies in 4.6 billion years, the age of the Solar System, and that its gravity dominates the outer edge of the Solar System, which is sufficient to make it a planet by current definitions. Astronomer Jean-Luc Margot has also stated that Planet Nine satisfies his criteria and would qualify as a planet if and when it is detected.\n", "HAT-P-33b\n\nHAT-P-33b is a planet in the orbit of HAT-P-33, which lies 1,310 light years away from Earth. Its discovery was reported in June 2011, although it was suspected to be a planet as early as 2004. The planet is about three-fourths the mass of Jupiter, but is almost eighty percent larger than Jupiter is; this inflation has, as with the discovery of similar planets WASP-17b and HAT-P-32b, raised the question of what (other than temperature) causes these planets to become so large.\n", "Section::::Alternative hypotheses.:Shepherding by a massive disk.\n", "Section::::Detection attempts.\n\nSection::::Detection attempts.:Visibility and location.\n", "Section::::Constraints on additional planets.\n\nAs of 2016 the following observations severely constrain the mass and distance of any possible additional Solar System planet:\n\nBULLET::::- An analysis of mid-infrared observations with the \"WISE\" telescope have ruled out the possibility of a Saturn-sized object (95 Earth masses) out to 10,000 AU, and a Jupiter-sized or larger object out to 26,000 AU. \"WISE\" has continued to take more data since then, and NASA has invited the public to help search this data for evidence of planets beyond these limits, via the Backyard Worlds: Planet 9 citizen science project.\n" ]	[ "It should be easy to find a massive planet in the Earth's solar system that hasn't been found yet." ]	[ "Planets further from the sun than Earth will never pass between Earth and the sun and don't give off light, so it's like finding a needle in a haystack." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It should be easy to find a massive planet in the Earth's solar system that hasn't been found yet.", "It should be easy to find a massive planet in the Earth's solar system that hasn't been found yet." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Planets further from the sun than Earth will never pass between Earth and the sun and don't give off light, so it's like finding a needle in a haystack.", "Planets further from the sun than Earth will never pass between Earth and the sun and don't give off light, so it's like finding a needle in a haystack." ]
2018-04888	how do drug addicts end up using their drug of choice, without becoming addicted to all drugs?	As a former drug addict (heroin for 7 years) I can give my experience as an answer also the education I've learned from rehabs and groups. Cross addiction (switching your drug of choice or addictions) is extremely common. This is mainly because of the drugs mechanism in our brains, releasing dopamine primarily. As long as we get the intended affect we are satisfied. But, different drugs have different nuanced feelings. Drug addicts tend to be trying to mask mental health problems, trauma, etc. it also can be a reflection of that person's personality. Heroin suited me because it dulled everything down. Made it so I couldn't feel anything. Alcohol didn't do it for me, neither did cocaine. But, I did end up becoming addicted to methamphetamine as well which Is completely different than heroin. The reason I got addicted to it as well is because of the massive dopamine it releases. At this point my "old" brain is doing all the thinking, my frontal lobe which makes rational decisions is shut off and my brain just craves dopamine. At this point it is less of a choice and more of a need. This is how addicts become addicted to many drugs. It's all about the brain taking over and demanding the release of these chemicals by any means nessecary. While a person's prefference over drugs remain. The effect will always prevail. All addicts have the potential to be addicted to a different drug. That is why in treatment for heroin, I was told not to drink alcohol. Because our brains will eventually adapt and still try and use something to release dopamine because at this point our addicted brains have been rewired and conditioned to want drugs. There are many cases of people entering rehab for one drug only to come back addicted to something else. It's less about the drug and more about the affect on the brain.	[ "According to Khantzian's view of addiction, drug users compensate for deficient ego function by using a drug as an \"ego solvent\", which acts on parts of the self that are cut off from consciousness by defense mechanisms. According to Khantzian, drug dependent individuals generally experience more psychiatric distress than non-drug dependent individuals, and the development of drug dependence involves the gradual incorporation of the drug effects and the need to sustain these effects into the defensive structure-building activity of the ego itself. The addict's choice of drug is a result of the interaction between the psychopharmacologic properties of the drug and the affective states from which the addict was seeking relief. The drug's effects substitute for defective or non-existent ego mechanisms of defense. The addict's drug of choice, therefore, is not random.\n", "When an individual falls victim to drug addiction, they will undergo the five stages of addiction which are the first use, the continued use, tolerance, dependence, and addiction. The first use stage, is the stage where individuals experiment with drugs and alcohol. This is the stage where individuals will partake in drug use because of curiosity, peer pressure, emotional problems etc. They discover how the drug will make them feel. In the continued use stage, individuals know how the drug makes them feel and is likely to notice that they're not getting “high” as quickly as they use to. In the tolerance stage, the brain and the body have adjusted to the drug and it takes longer to get the “high” an individual is seeking. Tolerance arrives after a period of continued use and is one of the first warning signs of addiction. In the dependence stage, the brain becomes accustomed to the drug and doesn't function well without it. Substance abusers become physically ill without the use of drugs and will begin to develop symptoms of withdrawal. This is sign that the addiction is beginning to take hold of the individual. In the addiction stage, individuals find it impossible to stop using drugs even if they do not enjoy it or if their behavior has caused problems within an individual's life.\n", "Section::::Motivational patterns.\n\nDrugs (especially opioids and stimulants) can change the motivational patterns of a person and lead to desocialization and degradation of personality. Acquisition of the drugs some times involves black market activities and leads to criminal social circle.\n\nSection::::Institutional patterns.\n", "For most of these disorders, in relation to polysubstance dependence, there is a vicious cycle that those with a dependence go through. First, Ingesting the drug creates a need for more, which creates a dopamine surge, which then creates pleasure. As the dopamine subsides, the pleasure adds to the emotional and physical pain and triggers stress transmitters, which in turn creates a craving, which must then be medicated, and thus the cycle begins again. However, the next time they use, more of the drug will need to be used to get to the same degree of intoxication .\n", "Both of these drugs induce increased locomotor activity acutely, escalated self-administration chronically, and dysphoria when the drug is taken away. Although their effects on structural plasticity are opposite, there are two possible explanations as to why these drugs still produce the same indicators of addiction: Either these changes produce the same behavioral phenotype when any change from baseline is produced, or the critical changes that cause the addictive behavior cannot be quantified by measuring dendritic spine density.\n", "Meanwhile, Duncan's work focuses on the difference between recreational and problematic drug use. Data obtained in the Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study demonstrated that only 20% of drug users ever experience an episode of drug abuse (Anthony & Helzer, 1991), while data obtained from the National Comorbidity Study demonstrated that only 15% of alcohol users and 15% of illicit drug users ever become dependent. A crucial determinant of whether a drug user develops drug abuse is the presence or absence of negative reinforcement, which is experienced by problematic users, but not by recreational users. According to Duncan, drug dependence is an avoidance behavior, where an individual finds a drug that produces a temporary escape from a problem, and taking the drug is reinforced as an operant behavior.\n", "In other words, repeated, deliberate use of the drug plays a role in the eventual compulsory drug-taking and/or habitual drug-taking associated with addiction. Another theory suggests that through repeated use of the drug, individuals become sensitized to drug-associated stimuli which may result in compulsive motivation and desire for the drug.\n", "The assignment of incentive salience to stimuli is dysregulated in addiction. Addictive drugs are intrinsically rewarding (i.e., pleasurable) and therefore function as primary positive reinforcers of continued drug use that are assigned incentive salience. During the development of an addiction, the repeated association of otherwise neutral and even non-rewarding stimuli with drug consumption triggers an associative learning process that causes these previously neutral stimuli to act as conditioned positive reinforcers of addictive drug use (i.e., these stimuli start to function as drug cues). As conditioned positive reinforcers of drug use, these previously neutral stimuli are assigned incentive salience (which manifests as a craving) – sometimes at pathologically high levels due to reward sensitization – which can transfer to the primary reinforcer (e.g., the use of an addictive drug) with which it was originally paired. Thus, if an individual remains abstinent from drug use for some time and encounters one of these drug cues, a craving for the associated drug may reappear. For example, anti-drug agencies previously used posters with images of drug paraphernalia as an attempt to show the dangers of drug use. However, such posters are no longer used because of the effects of incentive salience in causing relapse upon sight of the stimuli illustrated in the posters.\n", "Defences against feeling both of the two contradictory emotions include psychological repression, isolation and displacement. Thus, for example, an analytic patient's love for his father might be quite consciously experienced and openly expressed—while his \"hate\" for the same object might be heavily repressed and only indirectly expressed, and thus only revealed in analysis. A drug addict may feel ambivalently about their drug of choice; they are aware of their drug use as a negative-impact agent in their lives (socially, financially, physically, etc.) while simultaneously seeking and using the drug because of the positive-impact results they receive from the drug's usage (the \"high\"). (More recent discourse of addiction as a mental health concern and chemically-induced/encoded \"imperative\", rather than as a behavioral \"choice\", complicates the notion of ambivalence as it relates to addiction.)\n", "According to the concept of similar attitudes across different drugs (\"common liability to addiction\"), a number of personal, social, genetic and environmental factors can lead to a generally increased interest in various drugs. The sequence of first-time use would then depend on these factors. Violations of the typical sequence of first-time drug usage give credit to this theory. For example, in Japan, where cannabis use is uncommon, 83.2% of the users of illicit drugs did not use cannabis first. The concept received additional support from a large-scale genetic analysis that showed a genetic basis for the connection of the prevalence of cigarette smoking and cannabis use during the life of a person.\n", "Section::::Influence.:Role in the opioid epidemic.\n", "According to addiction researcher Martin A. Plant, many people go through a period of self-redefinition before initiating recreational drug use. They tend to view using drugs as part of a general lifestyle that involves belonging to a subculture that they associate with heightened status and the challenging of social norms. Plant says, “From the user's point of view there are many positive reasons to become part of the milieu of drug taking. The reasons for drug use appear to have as much to do with needs for friendship, pleasure and status as they do with unhappiness or poverty. Becoming a drug taker, to many people, is a positive affirmation rather than a negative experience.”\n", "BULLET::::- \"Land of Addicts? An Empirical Investigation of Habit-Based Asset Pricing Models\" (2009): The winner of \"The Richard Stone Prize in Applied Econometrics\"\n", "An additional cognitively-based model of substance abuse recovery has been offered by Aaron Beck, the father of cognitive therapy and championed in his 1993 book \"Cognitive Therapy of Substance Abuse\". This therapy rests upon the assumption addicted individuals possess core beliefs, often not accessible to immediate consciousness (unless the patient is also depressed). These core beliefs, such as \"I am undesirable,\" activate a system of addictive beliefs that result in imagined anticipatory benefits of substance use and, consequentially, craving. Once craving has been activated, permissive beliefs (\"I can handle getting high just this one more time\") are facilitated. Once a permissive set of beliefs have been activated, then the individual will activate drug-seeking and drug-ingesting behaviors. The cognitive therapist's job is to uncover this underlying system of beliefs, analyze it with the patient, and thereby demonstrate its dysfunctional. As with any cognitive-behavioral therapy, homework assignments and behavioral exercises serve to solidify what is learned and discussed during treatment.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nThe condition gradually improves over a period of time which can range from six months to several years in more severe cases.\n\nLonger term and heavier use substance abusers have caused damage to the nervous system, where, after cessation of the primary substance of abuse, the opioid receptors may become favorable to any potential agonist. This places longer term and heavier use substance abusers at risk to become addicted to any other agonist with very little use of the secondary agonist. Abstinence from all agonists, sometimes taking multiple years, is required for full recovery. \n", "Another example can be seen in diabetes insipidus, in which the kidneys become insensitive to arginine vasopressin.\n\nSection::::Downregulation and upregulation in drug addiction.\n\nFamily-based, adoption, and twin studies have indicated that there is a strong ( 50%) heritable component to vulnerability to substance abuse addiction.\n", "Possibly the most widely accepted cause of addictions is the self-medication hypothesis, that views drug addiction as a form of coping with stress through negative reinforcement, by temporarily alleviating awareness of or concerns over the stressor. Substance users learn that the effects of each type of drug work to relieve or better painful states. They use drugs as a form of self-medication to deal with difficulties of self-esteem, relationships, and self-care. Individuals with substance use disorders often are overwhelmed with emotions and painful situations and turn to substances as a coping method.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Sociocultural.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms.:Reward system.:Mesocorticolimbic pathway.\n\nUnderstanding the pathways in which drugs act and how drugs can alter those pathways is key when examining the biological basis of drug addiction. The reward pathway, known as the mesolimbic pathway, or its extension, the mesocorticolimbic pathway, is characterized by the interaction of several areas of the brain.\n", "The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services estimates that more than a quarter of Part D participants stop following their prescribed regimen of drugs when they hit the doughnut hole.\n", "The reward pathway, also called the mesolimbic system of the brain, is the part of the brain that registers reward and pleasure. This circuit reinforces the behavior that leads to a positive and pleasurable outcome. In drug addiction, the drug-seeking behaviors become reinforced by the rush of dopamine that follows the administration of a drug of abuse. The effects of drugs of abuse on the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the nucleus accumbens (NAc) have been studied extensively.\n", "The driving principle behind ORT is the program's capacity to facilitate a resumption of stability in the user's life, while the patient experiences reduced symptoms of drug withdrawal and less intense drug cravings; a strong euphoric effect is not experienced as a result of the treatment drug. In some countries (not the US, or Australia), regulations enforce a limited time period for people on ORT programs that conclude when a stable economic and psychosocial situation is achieved. (People with HIV/AIDS or hepatitis C are usually excluded from this requirement.) In practice, 40–65% of patients maintain abstinence from additional opioids while receiving opioid replacement therapy and 70–95% are able to reduce their use significantly. Along with this is a concurrent elimination or reduction in medical (improper diluents, non-sterile injecting equipment), psychosocial (mental health, relationships), and legal (arrest and imprisonment) issues that can arise from the use of illegal opioids. Clonidine or lofexidine can help treat the symptoms of withdrawal.\n", "One approach with limited applicability is the sober coach. In this approach, the client is serviced by the provider(s) in his or her home and workplace—for any efficacy, around-the-clock—who functions much like a nanny to guide or control the patient's behavior.\n\nSection::::Counseling.:Twelve-step programs.\n", "\"Cue-induced wanting\" or \"cue-triggered wanting\", a form of craving that occurs in addiction, is responsible for most of the compulsive behavior that addicts exhibit. During the development of an addiction, the repeated association of otherwise neutral and even non-rewarding stimuli with drug consumption triggers an associative learning process that causes these previously neutral stimuli to act as conditioned positive reinforcers of addictive drug use (i.e., these stimuli start to function as drug cues). As conditioned positive reinforcers of drug use, these previously neutral stimuli are assigned incentive salience (which manifests as a craving) – sometimes at pathologically high levels due to reward sensitization – which can transfer to the primary reinforcer (e.g., the use of an addictive drug) with which it was originally paired.\n", "The driving principle behind ORT is the program's capacity to facilitate a resumption of stability in the user's life, while they experience reduced symptoms of withdrawal symptoms and less intense drug cravings; however, a strong euphoric effect is not experienced as a result of the treatment drug. In some countries (not the US, UK, Canada, or Australia), regulations enforce a limited time period for people on ORT programs that conclude when a stable economic and psychosocial situation is achieved. (Patients suffering from HIV/AIDS or Hepatitis C are usually excluded from this requirement.) In practice, 40–65% of patients maintain complete abstinence from opioids while receiving opioid replacement therapy, and 70–95% are able to reduce their use significantly, while experiencing a concurrent elimination or reduction in medical (improper diluents, non-sterile injecting equipment), psychosocial (mental health, relationships), and legal (arrest and imprisonment) issues that can arise from the use of illicit opioids.\n", "West Huddleston, NADCP executive director, described the individuals to whom drug court programs are targeted: \"long histories of addiction...multiple treatment failures...multiple times on probation...served previous jail or prison sentences...driven by their addiction\". \n\nWhen people without addiction and past criminal behavior are placed in an intensive treatment program, they tend to rebel and become defiant because the therapy is of no benefit to them and they feel they don't deserve the restrictions placed on their behavior.\n\nSection::::Content of the show.:Success stories.\n" ]	[ "Drug addicts are only addicted to their drug of choice.", "Drug addicts typically use one drug of choice, and don't become addicted to every drug. " ]	[ "Drug addicts can be cross addicted.", "Cross addiction is actually very common and many drug addicts switch between multiple different drugs as time passes. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Drug addicts are only addicted to their drug of choice.", "Drug addicts typically use one drug of choice, and don't become addicted to every drug. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Drug addicts can be cross addicted.", "Cross addiction is actually very common and many drug addicts switch between multiple different drugs as time passes. " ]
2018-14145	Why can our eyes only focus on one thing at a time?	Basically, the shape of our eyes and size of our retina is what plays a part in this. We have a lens that bends light. Ideally, the eye is shaped so that a lot of this light is funneled into our retina. Our retina feeds heavily into the optic nerve which sends information to the brain for processing. The drawback of this system is that the farther away from the retina the light hits, the less information we can pick up. So our brains get used to keeping our eyes trained on things we need to focus on and gather the most information from by keeping our center of vision on them. Secondly, Looking at a page of a book but not focusing on anything in particular isnt useful to our brains because there's a ton of information on them, but our brains arent suited to the task of quickly processing it all at once. We have to process and understand it piece by piece. Even if we could physically bring an entire page into visual focus, you would still have to process it word by word.	[ "Researchers have long suggested that there appears to be a processing bottleneck preventing the brain from working on certain key aspects of both tasks at the same time (e.g., ). Many researchers believe that the cognitive function subject to the most severe form of bottlenecking is the planning of actions and retrieval of information from memory. Psychiatrist Edward M. Hallowell has gone so far as to describe multitasking as a “mythical activity in which people believe they can perform two or more tasks simultaneously as effectively as one.”\n", "Section::::Research.:Continuous partial attention.\n\nAuthor Steven Berlin Johnson describes one kind of multitasking: “It usually involves skimming the surface of the incoming data, picking out the relevant details, and moving on to the next stream. You’re paying attention, but only partially. That lets you cast a wider net, but it also runs the risk of keeping you from really studying the fish.\" Multimedia pioneer Linda Stone coined the phrase \"continuous partial attention\" for this kind of processing. Continuous partial attention is multitasking where things do not get studied in depth.\n", "Giesbrecht and Di Lollo (1998) suggest that the attentional blink over target 2 results when the person is busy processing target 1. It is suggested that anything increasing the difficulty of processing of the first target will result in a greater attentional blink.\n\nSection::::Theories.:The Attentional Capacity Theory.\n", "It is debated in research on visual spatial attention whether it is possible to split attention across different areas in the visual field. The ‘spotlight’ and ‘zoom-lens’ accounts postulate that attention uses a single unitary focus. Therefore, spatial attention can only be allocated to adjacent areas in the visual field and consequently cannot be split. This was supported by an experiment that altered the spatial cueing paradigm by using two cues, a primary and a secondary cue. It was found that the secondary cue was only effective in focusing attention when its location was adjacent to the primary cue. In addition, it has been demonstrated that observers are unable to ignore stimuli presented in areas situated between two cued locations. These findings have proposed that attention cannot be split across two non-contiguous regions. However, other studies have demonstrated that spatial attention can be split across two locations. For example, observers were able to attend simultaneously to two different targets located in opposite hemifields. Research has even suggested that humans are able to focus attention across two to four locations in the visual field. Another perspective is that spatial attention can be split only under certain conditions. This perspective suggests that the splitting of spatial attention is flexible. Research demonstrated that whether spatial attention is unitary or divided depends on the goals of the task. Therefore, if dividing attention is beneficial to the observer then a divided focus of attention will be utilised.\n", "According to the ‘spotlight’ metaphor, the focus of attention is analogous to the beam of a spotlight. The moveable spotlight is directed at one location and everything within its beam is attended and processed preferentially, while information outside the beam is unattended. This suggests that the focus of visual attention is limited in spatial size and moves to process other areas in the visual field.\n\nSection::::Distribution of spatial attention.:Zoom-lens metaphor.\n", "Much of this multitasking is not inherently coupled or coordinated, except by the user. For example, a user may be browsing the Web, listening to music playing video games, using e-mail, or talking on the phone while watching TV. More directly coordinated forms of media multitasking are emerging in the form of \"coactive media\" and particularly \"coactive TV\".\n\nSection::::Cognitive distraction.\n", "One of the main difficulties in establishing whether spatial attention can be divided is that a unitary focus model of attention can also explain a number of the findings. For example, when two non-contiguous locations are attended to, it may not be that attention has been split between these two locations but instead it may be that the unitary focus of attention has expanded. Alternatively, the two locations may not be attended to simultaneously and instead the area of focus is moving quickly from one location to another. Consequently, it appears very difficult to prove undoubtedly that spatial attention can be split.\n", "Broadbent and Broadbent (1987) discovered the attentional blink when they used a rapid serial visual presentation task to look at the recognition of multiple target words. Results showed that following the presence of a target, attentional processing is restricted and people can’t report the items that came after the target, however the presence of the item that comes after the target usually misses attentional blindness. This concludes that when two targets are shown within 500 milliseconds of one another and they are separated by one or more distractors, the second target usually falls within an attentional blink and will not be seen.\n", "Duncan et al. (1996) suggest that the target 1 takes over parts of our attentional capacity, leading to a deficit of processing or recognizing target 2 when presented immediately after target 1. This theory suggests that the time for which target 1 continues to occupy attentional capacity is related directly to the difficulty of processing target 2.\n\nSection::::Theories.:The Two-Stage Processing Theory.\n", "Section::::Research.:The brain's role.\n", "Multitasking, seen through cognitive flexibility and set-shifting, requires decentration so that attention may be shifted between multiple salient objects or situations. As well, decentration is essential to reading and math skills in order for children to move beyond the individual letters and to the words and meanings presented.\n\nSection::::Other Research.\n", "Section::::Humans.:Individuals with disabilities.\n", "Human multitasking\n\nHuman multitasking is an apparent human ability to perform more than one task, or activity, at the same time. An example of multitasking is taking a phone call while driving a car. Multitasking can result in time wasted due to human context switching and apparently causing more errors due to insufficient attention. If one becomes proficient at two tasks it is possible to rapidly shift attention between the tasks and perform the tasks well/proficiently.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "Another theory to account for simultanagnosia involves deficits in \"attentional disengaging,\" and this impairment affects shifts of attention in any direction. When confronted with several objects, the patient's attention becomes \"locked\" onto one object, and he has difficulty disengaging his attention from this object to another one. As a result of this \"sticky fixation,\" patients with simultanagnosia can perceive only one object at a time.\n\nSection::::Proposed theories for mechanism of action.:Slowed visual attention.\n", "In the beginning of the 19th century, it was thought that people were not able to attend to more than one stimulus at a time. However, with research contributions by Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet this view was changed. Hamilton proposed a view of attention that likened its capacity to holding marbles. You can only hold a certain amount of marbles at a time before it starts to spill over. His view states that we can attend to more than one stimulus at once. William Stanley Jevons later expanded this view and stated that we can attend to up to four items at a time.\n", "Linda Stone, a tech writer and consultant, coined the term continuous partial attention in 1998 to describe a modern adaptive behavior of continuously dividing one's attention. Stone has clarified that continuous partial attention is not the same as multi-tasking. Where multi-tasking is driven by a conscious desire to be productive and efficient, CPA is an automatic process motivated only by \"a desire to be a live node on the network\" or by the willingness to connect and stay connected, scanning and optimizing opportunities, activities and contacts in an effort to not miss anything that is going on. \n", "Dyadic joint attention is a conversation-like behavior that individuals engage in. This is especially true for human adults and infants, who engage in this behavior starting at two months of age. Adults and infants take turns exchanging facial expressions, noises, and in the case of the adult, speech.\n\nShared gaze occurs when two individuals are simply looking at an object. Shared gaze is the lowest level of joint attention.\n", "A study by Remington, Johnston, & Yantis (1992) found that attention is involuntarily drawn away from a given task when a visual stimulus interferes. In this study, participants were presented with four boxes; they were told that an image would precede a letter that they were to memorize. The conditions were either to attend to the same box, a different one, all four, or to focus on the center. However, even though they were told to not attend to a certain box, the participant was consistently drawn to the image before the letter in all cases, resulting in a longer response time in all conditions except for the same. The results prove that there is a consistent need for vision to dominate the other senses, and attention is immediately drawn away by it in a controlled setting.\n", "As an alternative, resource theory has been proposed as a more accurate metaphor for explaining divided attention on complex tasks. Resource theory states that as each complex task is automatized, performing that task requires less of the individual's limited-capacity attentional resources. Other variables play a part in our ability to pay attention to and concentrate on many tasks at once. These include, but are not limited to, anxiety, arousal, task difficulty, and skills.\n\nSection::::Simultaneous.\n", "Section::::Multitasking and divided.\n\nMultitasking can be defined as the attempt to perform two or more tasks simultaneously; however, research shows that when multitasking, people make more mistakes or perform their tasks more slowly. Attention must be divided among all of the component tasks to perform them. In divided attention, individuals attend or give attention to multiple sources of information at once at the same time or perform more than one task.\n", "Vergence control is important in being able to see 3D images. Thus it may help to concentrate on converging/diverging the two eyes to shift images that reach the two eyes, instead of trying to see a clear, focused image. Although the lens adjusts reflexively in order to produce clear, focused images, voluntary control over this process is possible. The viewer alternates instead between converging and diverging the two eyes, in the process seeing \"double images\" typically seen when one is drunk or otherwise intoxicated. Eventually the brain will successfully match a pair of patterns reported by the two eyes and lock onto this particular degree of convergence. The brain will also adjust eye lenses to get a clear image of the matched pair. Once this is done, the images around the matched patterns quickly become clear as the brain matches additional patterns using roughly the same degree of convergence.\n", "According to Pylyshyn, the spotlight/zoom-lens model cannot tell the complete story of visual perception. He argues that a pre-attentive mechanism is needed to individuate objects upon which a spotlight of attention could be directed in the first place. Furthermore, results of multiple object tracking studies (discussed below) are \"incompatible with the proposal that items are accessed by moving around a single spotlight of attention.\" Visual indexing theory addresses these limitations.\n\nSection::::Theoretical context.:Descriptive view of visual representation.\n", "The second model is called the zoom-lens model and was first introduced in 1986. This model inherits all properties of the spotlight model (i.e., the focus, the fringe, and the margin), but it has the added property of changing in size. This size-change mechanism was inspired by the zoom lens one might find on a camera, and any change in size can be described by a trade-off in the efficiency of processing. The zoom-lens of attention can be described in terms of an inverse trade-off between the size of focus and the efficiency of processing: because attentional resources are assumed to be fixed, then it follows that the larger the focus is, the slower processing will be of that region of the visual scene, since this fixed resource will be distributed over a larger area. It is thought that the focus of attention can subtend a minimum of 1° of visual angle, however the maximum size has not yet been determined.\n", "The vast majority of current research on human multitasking is based on performance of doing two tasks simultaneously, usually that involves driving while performing another task, such as texting, eating, or even speaking to passengers in the vehicle, or with a friend over a cellphone. This research reveals that the human attentional system has limits for what it can process: driving performance is worse while engaged in other tasks; drivers make more mistakes, brake harder and later, get into more accidents, veer into other lanes, and/or are less aware of their surroundings when engaged in the previously discussed tasks.\n", "Section::::Disproportionality and distraction.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02537	how can the radius of the observable universe be 46 billion light years while the universe itself is only 13 billion years old?	The universe itself is expanding still and doing so faster than the speed of light. Where nothing inside the universe can move faster than the speed of light, the expansion of it can. (In my very limited understanding) Where something was observed at point A and now at point B they can tell that the expansion is X.	[ "Cosmologists distinguish between the observable universe and the global universe. The observable universe consists of the part of the universe that can, in principle, be observed by light reaching Earth within the age of the universe. It encompasses a region of space that currently forms a ball centered at Earth of estimated radius . This does not mean the universe is 46.5 billion years old; instead the universe is measured to be 13.8 billion years old, but space itself has also expanded, causing the size of the observable universe to be larger than the distance traversible by light over the duration of its current age. Assuming an isotropic nature, the observable universe is similar for all contemporary vantage points.\n", "formula_1.\n\nWMAP nine-year results combined with other measurements give the redshift of photon decoupling as \"z\" = , which implies that the scale factor at the time of photon decoupling would be . So if the matter that originally emitted the oldest CMBR photons has a \"present\" distance of 46 billion light-years, then at the time of decoupling when the photons were originally emitted, the distance would have been only about 42 \"million\" light-years.\n\nSection::::Size.:Misconceptions on its size.\n", "According to calculations, the current \"comoving distance\"—proper distance, which takes into account that the universe has expanded since the light was emitted—to particles from which the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) was emitted, which represent the radius of the visible universe, is about 14.0 billion parsecs (about 45.7 billion light-years), while the comoving distance to the edge of the observable universe is about 14.3 billion parsecs (about 46.6 billion light-years), about 2% larger. The radius of the observable universe is therefore estimated to be about 46.5 billion light-years and its diameter about 28.5 gigaparsecs (93 billion light-years, ). The total mass of ordinary matter in the universe can be calculated using the critical density and the diameter of the observable universe to be about 1.5 × 10 kg. In November 2018, astronomers reported that the extragalactic background light (EBL) amounted to 4 × 10 photons.\n", "The proper distance—the distance as would be measured at a specific time, including the present—between Earth and the edge of the observable universe is 46 billion light-years (14 billion parsecs), making the diameter of the observable universe about 93 billion light-years (28 billion parsecs). The distance the light from the edge of the observable universe has travelled is very close to the age of the Universe times the speed of light, , but this does not represent the distance at any given time because the edge of the observable universe and the Earth have since moved further apart. For comparison, the diameter of a typical galaxy is 30,000 light-years (9,198 parsecs), and the typical distance between two neighboring galaxies is 3 million light-years (919.8 kiloparsecs). As an example, the Milky Way is roughly 100,000–180,000 light-years in diameter, and the nearest sister galaxy to the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, is located roughly 2.5 million light-years away.\n", "This distance is the time (in years) that it took light to reach the observer from the object multiplied by the speed of light. For instance, the radius of the observable universe in this distance measure becomes the age of the universe multiplied by the speed of light (1 light year/year) i.e. 13.8 billion light years. Also see misconceptions about the size of the visible universe.\n\nSection::::Details.:Etherington's distance duality.\n\nThe Etherington's distance-duality equation is the relationship between the luminosity distance of standard candles and the angular-diameter distance. It is expressed as follows: formula_39\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Big Bang\n", "Section::::Size.\n\nThe comoving distance from Earth to the edge of the observable universe is about 14.26 gigaparsecs (46.5 billion light-years or ) in any direction. The observable universe is thus a sphere with a diameter of about 28.5 gigaparsecs (93 billion light-years or ). Assuming that space is roughly flat (in the sense of being a Euclidean space), this size corresponds to a comoving volume of about ( or ).\n", "BULLET::::- 14 Em – 1,500 light years – Approximate thickness of the plane of the Milky Way galaxy at the Sun's location\n\nBULLET::::- 14.2 Em – 1,520 light years – Diameter of the NGC 604\n\nBULLET::::- 30.8568 Em – 3,261.6 light years – 1 kiloparsec\n\nBULLET::::- 31 Em – 3,200 light years – Distance to Deneb according to \"Hipparcos\"\n\nBULLET::::- 46 Em – 4,900 light years – Distance to OGLE-TR-56, the first extrasolar planet discovered using the transit method\n\nBULLET::::- 47 Em – 5,000 light years – Distance to the Boomerang nebula, coldest place known (1 K)\n", "Many secondary sources have reported a wide variety of incorrect figures for the size of the visible universe. Some of these figures are listed below, with brief descriptions of possible reasons for misconceptions about them.\n\nBULLET::::- 13.8 billion light-years\n\nBULLET::::- 15.8 billion light-years\n\nBULLET::::- 27.6 billion light-years\n\nBULLET::::- 78 billion light-years\n\nBULLET::::- 156 billion light-years\n\nBULLET::::- 180 billion light-years\n\nSection::::Large-scale structure.\n", "BULLET::::- 130 Ym – redshift 1000 – 13.8 billion light years – Distance (LTD) to the source of the cosmic microwave background radiation; radius of the observable universe measured as a LTD\n\nBULLET::::- 260 Ym – 27.4 billion light years – Diameter of the observable universe (double LTD)\n\nBULLET::::- 440 Ym – 46 billion light years – Radius of the universe measured as a comoving distance\n\nBULLET::::- 590 Ym – 62 billion light years – Cosmological event horizon: the largest comoving distance from which light will ever reach us (the observer) at any time in the future\n", "The metric expansion of space is of a kind completely different from the expansions and explosions seen in daily life. It also seems to be a property of the universe as a whole rather than a phenomenon that applies just to one part of the universe or can be observed from \"outside\" it.\n", "Over time, the Universe and its contents have evolved; for example, the relative population of quasars and galaxies has changed and space itself has expanded. Due to this expansion, scientists on Earth can observe the light from a galaxy 30 billion light-years away even though that light has traveled for only 13 billion years; the very space between them has expanded. This expansion is consistent with the observation that the light from distant galaxies has been redshifted; the photons emitted have been stretched to longer wavelengths and lower frequency during their journey. Analyses of Type Ia supernovae indicate that the spatial expansion is accelerating.\n", "BULLET::::- 53 Em – 5,600 light years – Distance to the globular cluster M4 and the extrasolar planet PSR B1620-26 b within it\n\nBULLET::::- 61 Em – 6,500 light years – Distance to Perseus Spiral Arm (next spiral arm out in the Milky Way galaxy)\n\nBULLET::::- 71 Em – 7,500 light years – Distance to Eta Carinae\n\nSection::::100 exametres.\n\nTo help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists distances starting at 100 Em (10 m or 11,000 light years).\n", "One of the biggest puzzles in contemporary cosmology is why the expansion of the Universe is accelerating. About seventy percent of the Universe today consists of so-called dark energy that counteracts gravity's attractive force and causes this acceleration. Very little is known about what dark energy is. CHIME is in the process of making precise measurements of the acceleration of the Universe to improve the knowledge of how dark energy behaves. The experiment is designed to observe the period in the Universe's history during which the standard ΛCDM model predicts that dark energy began to dominate the energy density of the Universe and when decelerated expansion transitioned to acceleration.\n", "BULLET::::- 150 Em – 16,000 light years – Diameter of the Small Magellanic Cloud, a dwarf galaxy orbiting the Milky Way\n\nBULLET::::- 200 Em – 21,500 light years – Distance to OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb, the most distant and the most Earth-like planet known\n\nBULLET::::- 240 Em – 25,000 light years – Distance to the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy\n\nBULLET::::- 260 Em – 28,000 light years – Distance to the center of the Galaxy\n\nBULLET::::- 830 Em – 88,000 light years – Distance to the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy\n\nSection::::1 zettametre.\n", "The most distant astronomical object yet announced as of 2016 is a galaxy classified GN-z11. In 2009, a gamma ray burst, GRB 090423, was found to have a redshift of 8.2, which indicates that the collapsing star that caused it exploded when the universe was only 630 million years old. The burst happened approximately 13 billion years ago, so a distance of about 13 billion light-years was widely quoted in the media (or sometimes a more precise figure of 13.035 billion light-years), though this would be the \"light travel distance\" (\"see\" Distance measures (cosmology)) rather than the \"proper distance\" used in both Hubble's law and in defining the size of the observable universe (cosmologist Ned Wright argues against the common use of light travel distance in astronomical press releases on this page, and at the bottom of the page offers online calculators that can be used to calculate the current proper distance to a distant object in a flat universe based on either the redshift \"z\" or the light travel time). The proper distance for a redshift of 8.2 would be about 9.2 Gpc, or about 30 billion light-years. Another record-holder for most distant object is a galaxy observed through and located beyond Abell 2218, also with a light travel distance of approximately 13 billion light-years from Earth, with observations from the Hubble telescope indicating a redshift between 6.6 and 7.1, and observations from Keck telescopes indicating a redshift towards the upper end of this range, around 7. The galaxy's light now observable on Earth would have begun to emanate from its source about 750 million years after the Big Bang.\n", "The observable universe is currently 1.38 (13.8 billion) years old. This time is in the Stelliferous Era. About 155 million years after the Big Bang, the first star formed. Since then, stars have formed by the collapse of small, dense core regions in large, cold molecular clouds of hydrogen gas. At first, this produces a protostar, which is hot and bright because of energy generated by gravitational contraction. After the protostar contracts for a while, its center will become hot enough to fuse hydrogen and its lifetime as a star will properly begin.\n", "BULLET::::- 12.1 Tm – 70 to 90 AU – Distance to termination shock (\"Voyager 1\" crossed at 94 AU)\n\nBULLET::::- 12.9 Tm – 86.3 AU – Distance to 90377 Sedna in March 2014\n\nBULLET::::- 13.2 Tm – 88.6 AU – Distance to \"Pioneer 11\" in March 2014\n\nBULLET::::- 14.1 Tm – 94.3 AU – Estimated radius of the solar system\n\nBULLET::::- 14.4 Tm – 96.4 AU – Distance to Eris in March 2014 (now near its aphelion)\n\nBULLET::::- 15.1 Tm – 101 AU – Distance to heliosheath\n", "The figures quoted above are distances \"now\" (in cosmological time), not distances \"at the time the light was emitted\". For example, the cosmic microwave background radiation that we see right now was emitted at the time of photon decoupling, estimated to have occurred about years after the Big Bang, which occurred around 13.8 billion years ago. This radiation was emitted by matter that has, in the intervening time, mostly condensed into galaxies, and those galaxies are now calculated to be about 46 billion light-years from us. To estimate the distance to that matter at the time the light was emitted, we may first note that according to the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric, which is used to model the expanding universe, if at the present time we receive light with a redshift of \"z\", then the scale factor at the time the light was originally emitted is given by\n", "BULLET::::- Dark energy: What is the cause of the observed accelerated expansion (de Sitter phase) of the universe? Why is the energy density of the dark energy component of the same magnitude as the density of matter at present when the two evolve quite differently over time; could it be simply that we are observing at exactly the right time? Is dark energy a pure cosmological constant or are models of quintessence such as phantom energy applicable?\n\nBULLET::::- Baryon asymmetry: Why is there far more matter than antimatter in the observable universe?\n", "The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological description of the development of the Universe. Under this theory, space and time emerged together ago and the energy and matter initially present have become less dense as the Universe expanded. After an initial accelerated expansion called the inflationary epoch at around 10 seconds, and the separation of the four known fundamental forces, the Universe gradually cooled and continued to expand, allowing the first subatomic particles and simple atoms to form. Dark matter gradually gathered forming a foam-like structure of filaments and voids under the influence of gravity. Giant clouds of hydrogen and helium were gradually drawn to the places where dark matter was most dense, forming the first galaxies, stars, and everything else seen today. It is possible to see objects that are now further away than 13.799 billion light-years because space itself has expanded, and it is still expanding today. This means that objects which are now up to 46.5 billion light-years away can still be seen in their distant past, because in the past when their light was emitted, they were much closer to the Earth.\n", "BULLET::::- The nearest large galaxy cluster, the Virgo Cluster, is about 16.5 Mpc (54 million light-years) from the Earth.\n\nBULLET::::- The galaxy RXJ1242-11, observed to have a supermassive black hole core similar to the Milky Way's, is about 200 Mpc (650 million light-years) from the Earth.\n\nBULLET::::- The galaxy filament Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, currently the largest known structure in the universe, is about 3 Gpc (10 billion light-years) across.\n\nBULLET::::- The particle horizon (the boundary of the observable universe) has a radius of about 14.0 Gpc (46 billion light-years).\n\nSection::::Volume units.\n", "BULLET::::- 1.2 Ym – 127 million light years – Distance to the closest observed gamma ray burst GRB 980425\n\nBULLET::::- 1.3 Ym – 137 million light years – Distance to the Centaurus Cluster of galaxies, the nearest large supercluster\n\nBULLET::::- 1.9 Ym – 201 million light years – Diameter of the Local Supercluster\n\nBULLET::::- 2.3 Ym – 225 to 250 million light years – Distance light travels in vacuum in one galactic year\n\nBULLET::::- 2.8 Ym – 296 million light years – Distance to the Coma Cluster\n", "As the Universe expands, the energy density of electromagnetic radiation decreases more quickly than does that of matter because the energy of a photon decreases with its wavelength. At around 47,000 years, the energy density of matter became larger than that of photons and neutrinos, and began to dominate the large scale behavior of the universe. This marked the end of the radiation-dominated era and the start of the matter-dominated era.\n", "The light took much longer than 4 billion years to reach us though it was emitted from only 4 billion light years away, and, in fact, the light emitted towards the Earth was actually moving \"away\" from the Earth when it was first emitted, in the sense that the metric distance to the Earth increased with cosmological time for the first few billion years of its travel time, and also indicating that the expansion of space between the Earth and the quasar at the early time was faster than the speed of light. None of this surprising behavior originates from a special property of metric expansion, but simply from local principles of special relativity integrated over a curved surface.\n", "It may seem obvious that distance is measured by a straight line, but in many cases it is not. For example, long haul aircraft travel along a curve known as a \"great circle\" and not a straight line, because that is a better metric for air travel. (A straight line would go through the earth). Another example is planning a car journey, where one might want the shortest journey in terms of travel time - in that case a straight line is a poor choice of metric because the shortest distance by road is not normally a straight line, and even the path nearest to a straight line will not necessarily be the quickest. A final example is the internet, where even for nearby towns, the quickest route for data can be via major connections that go across the country and back again. In this case the metric used will be the shortest time that data takes to travel between two points on the network.\n" ]	[ "If the radius of the universe is 46 billion light years, then it should not be possible for the universe to only be 13 billion years old. " ]	[ "The universe is constantly expanding faster than the speed of light, and nothing else can actually expand faster than the speed of light, which allows the radius of the universe to be 46 billion light years, and the actual age to be 13 billion years old. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If the radius of the universe is 46 billion light years, then it should not be possible for the universe to only be 13 billion years old. ", "If the radius of the universe is 46 billion light years, then it should not be possible for the universe to only be 13 billion years old. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The universe is constantly expanding faster than the speed of light, and nothing else can actually expand faster than the speed of light, which allows the radius of the universe to be 46 billion light years, and the actual age to be 13 billion years old. ", "The universe is constantly expanding faster than the speed of light, and nothing else can actually expand faster than the speed of light, which allows the radius of the universe to be 46 billion light years, and the actual age to be 13 billion years old. " ]
2018-11152	Why is there such a drastic difference in US Employment rate, at 60.4%, and US unemployment rate, at 4.1%? Why are these calculated at such massively different percentages?	Because Children, the Retired, and the Disabled do not count as being unemployed. Neither do non-working college students. Unemployment only tracks abled bodied adults who are looking for work but unable to find it.	[ "BULLET::::- Another measure of workforce participation is the civilian employment-to-population ratio (EM Ratio), which fell from its 2007 pre-crisis peak of approximately 63% to 58% by November 2010 and partially recovered to 60% by May 2016. This is computed as the number of persons employed divided by the civilian population. This measure is also affected by demographics.\n", "Section::::Recent employment trends.\n\nThere are a variety of measures used to track the state of the U.S. labor market. Each provides insight into the factors affecting employment. The Bureau of Labor Statistics provides a \"chartbook\" displaying the major employment-related variables in the economy. Members of the Federal Reserve also give speeches and Congressional testimony that explain their views of the economy, including the labor market.\n", "Statistics for the U.S. economy as a whole hide variations among groups. For example, in January 2008 U.S. unemployment rates were 4.4% for adult men, 4.2% for adult women, 4.4% for Caucasians, 6.3% for Hispanics or Latinos (all races), 9.2% for African Americans, 3.2% for Asian Americans, and 18.0% for teenagers. Also, the U.S. unemployment rate would be at least 2% higher if prisoners and jail inmates were counted.\n\nThe unemployment rate is included in a number of major economic indexes including the United States' Conference Board's Index of Leading Indicators a macroeconomic measure of the state of the economy.\n", "During the 41 months from January 2010 to May 2013, there were 19 months where the unemployment rate declined. On average, 179,000 jobs were created in those months. The median job creation during those months was 166,000.\n\nSection::::Analytical perspectives.:International labor force size comparisons.\n\nThe U.S. civilian labor force was approximately 155 million people during October 2012. This was the world's third largest, behind China (795.5 million) and India (487.6 million). The entire European Union employed 228.3 million.\n\nSection::::Analytical perspectives.:Effect of disability recipients on labor force participation measures.\n", "Unemployment can be measured in several ways. A person is defined as unemployed in the United States if they are jobless, but have looked for work in the last four weeks and are available for work. People who are neither employed nor defined as unemployed are not included in the labor force calculation. For example, as of September 2017, the unemployment rate in the United States was 4.2% or 6.8 million people, while the government's broader U-6 unemployment rate, which includes the part-time underemployed was 8.3%. Both of these rates were below the November 2007 level that preceded the Great Recession. These figures were calculated with a civilian labor force of approximately 159.6 million people, relative to a U.S. population of approximately 326 million people. The unemployment rates (U-3 and U-6) fell steadily from 2010 to 2018.\n", "The Natural rate of unemployment refers to the rate of unemployment due to structural or supply-side factors alone. Cyclical factors, such as government stimulus or austerity policies, cause the actual unemployment rate to vary around the natural rate. Economists debate the natural rate of unemployment. During February 2011, Federal Reserve economists estimated it may have increased from the historical rate of around 5% to as high as 6.7%. CBO estimated the rate of a closely related measure called NAIRU at 5.2%, up from 4.8%.\n\nSection::::Domestic factors.:Demographics and labor force participation rate.\n", "BULLET::::- BLS Chartbook on Employment Measures – December 2016\n\nBULLET::::- Bloomberg-Fed Chair Janet Yellen's Employment Dashboard-August 2015\n\nBULLET::::- Bureau of Labor Statistics\n\nBULLET::::- US Unemployment Data – Current and historical unemployment data by various demographics\n\nBULLET::::- Historical US Unemployment Rate Chart – interactive chart for U.S. unemployment rate data – 1948 to present including subcategories\n\nBULLET::::- BLS-Job Openings and Labor Turnover Survey-October 2013\n\nBULLET::::- FRB Atlanta-Labor Force Participation Dynamics-Interactive Data\n\nBULLET::::- Other resources\n\nBULLET::::- Federal Reserve Bank of Saint Louis – Making Sense of Unemployment Data – February, 2016\n\nBULLET::::- Unemployment Benefits Comparison By State\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bureau of Labor Statistics\n\nBULLET::::- Economy of the United States\n\nBULLET::::- Income inequality in the United States\n\nBULLET::::- Job Creation Index\n\nBULLET::::- Jobs created during U.S. presidential terms\n\nBULLET::::- Unemployment benefits in the United States\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Graphs and data\n\nBULLET::::- Bloomberg-Fed Chair Janet Yellen's Employment Dashboard-August 2015\n\nBULLET::::- Bureau of Labor Statistics\n\nBULLET::::- U.S. unemployment data – current and historical unemployment data by various demographics\n\nBULLET::::- Historical U.S. unemployment rate chart – interactive chart for U.S. unemployment rate, data 1948 to present, including subcategories\n\nBULLET::::- BLS-Job Openings and Labor Turnover Survey-October 2013\n", "BULLET::::- Labor force measures are based on the civilian noninstitutional population 16 years old and over. (Excluded are persons under 16 years of age, all persons confined to institutions such as nursing homes and prisons, and persons on active duty in the Armed Forces.)\n\nBULLET::::- The labor force is made up of the employed and those defined as unemployed. Expressed as a formula, the labor force equals employed plus unemployed persons.\n", "Analyzing the true state of the U.S. labor market is very complex and a challenge for leading economists, who may arrive at different conclusions. For example, the main gauge, the unemployment rate, can be falling (a positive sign) while the labor force participation rate is falling as well (a negative sign). Further, the reasons for persons leaving the labor force may not be clear, such as aging (more people retiring) or because they are discouraged and have stopped looking for work. The extent to which persons are not fully utilizing their skills is also difficult to determine when measuring the level of underemployment.\n", "The Congressional Budget Office estimated that the U.S. was approximately 2.5 million workers below full employment as of the end of 2015 and 1.6 million at December 31, 2016, mainly due to lower labor force participation. As of May 2018, there were more job openings (6.6 million) than people defined as unemployed (6.0 million) in the U.S.\n\nSection::::Definitions of unemployment.\n\nThe U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics has defined the basic employment concepts as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- People with jobs are employed.\n\nBULLET::::- People who are jobless, looking for jobs within the last 4 weeks, and available for work are unemployed.\n", "The US government counts the \"unemployed\" as \"people who don’t have a job\" but have \"actively looked for one in the previous four weeks, and are available for work.\" A 2018 \"Bloomberg\" article described the \"disguised unemployed\", including workers described as \"marginally attached\" workers who are looking for work but have not actively in the last month. The \"disguised unemployed\" include \"discouraged\" workers who stopped looking because there were no jobs during the \"deep and long recession\". Others include 4.7 million part-time workers who want full time jobs. The government counts the \"unemployed\" as \"people who don’t have a job\" but have \"actively looked for one in the previous four weeks, and are available for work.\" In 2014, then-Federal Reserve chief Janet Yellen, said that because of the depth and length of the depression which created so many \"long-term unemployed\"—representing 1/3 of jobless workers, the \"high number of people who are working part-time even though they want full-time jobs\", and the number of people who voluntarily quit, \"we shouldn't focus only on the unemployment rate.\" By 2014, labor force participation rate had fallen to 63% in the US, the \"lowest level in a generation\".\n", "Unemployed persons. All those who, (1) have no employment during the reference week; (2) are available for work, except for temporary illness; and (3) have made specific efforts, such as contacting employers, to find employment sometime during the past 4-week period.\n\nParticipant rate This represents the proportion of the population that is in the labor force.\n", "Section::::Obtaining data.:Off-shoring statistics.\n\nThe Department of Labor's Employment and Training Administration (ETA) prepares an annual report on those petitioning for trade adjustment assistance, due to jobs lost from international trade. This represents a fraction of jobs actually off-shored and does not include jobs that are placed overseas initially or the collateral impact on surrounding businesses when, for example, a manufacturing plant moves overseas. During 2011, there were 98,379 workers covered by petitions filed with ETA. The figure was 280,873 in 2010, 201,053 in 2009 and 126,633 in 2008.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bureau of Labor Statistics\n", "The Department of Labor's Employment and Training Administration (ETA) prepares an annual report on those petitioning for trade adjustment assistance, due to jobs lost from international trade. This represents a fraction of jobs actually off-shored and does not include jobs that are placed overseas initially or the collateral impact on surrounding businesses when, for example, a manufacturing plant moves overseas. During 2014, there were approximately 68,000 workers covered by petitions filed with ETA. During 2011, there were 98,379 workers covered by petitions filed with ETA. The figure was 280,873 in 2010, 201,053 in 2009 and 126,633 in 2008.\n", "BULLET::::- Employment to population ratios (i.e., number employed divided by civilian population) were roughly equal at 65% and 64%, respectively in 2000, but fell more for native-born (6 percentage points, to 59%) than foreign-born (2 percentage points, to 62%).\n", "BULLET::::- LU1: Unemployment rate: [persons in unemployment / labour force] x 100\n\nBULLET::::- LU2: Combined rate of time-related underemployment and unemployment: [(persons in time-related underemployment + persons in unemployment) / labour force]\n\nx 100\n\nBULLET::::- LU3: Combined rate of unemployment and potential labour force: [(persons in unemployment + potential labour force) / (extended labour force)] x 100\n\nBULLET::::- LU4: Composite measure of labour underutilization: [(persons in time-related underemployment + persons in unemployment + potential\n\nlabour force) / (extended labour force)] x 100\n\nSection::::Measurement.:European Union (Eurostat).\n", "From January 2012 to January 2013, Italy experienced the largest increase in its unemployment rate (+2.1 percentage points), followed by the Netherlands (+1.0 percentage point), and France (+0.6 percentage point). Over that same period, Canada experienced the largest decrease in its unemployment rate (−0.5 percentage points), followed by the United States (−0.4 percentage point).\n", "There is a trend towards more workers in alternative (part-time or contract) work arrangements rather than full-time; the percentage of workers in such arrangements rose from 10.1% in 2005 to 15.8% in late 2015. This implies all of the net employment growth in the U.S. economy (9.1 million jobs between 2005 and 2015) occurred in alternative work arrangements, while the number in traditional jobs slightly declined.\n\nSection::::Analytical perspectives.:What job creation rate is required to lower the unemployment rate?\n\nSection::::Analytical perspectives.:What job creation rate is required to lower the unemployment rate?:Estimates.\n", "BULLET::::- From the November 2007 pre-crisis peak total employment month to December 2009 trough or low point, the U.S. lost 11,306 full-time jobs but added 2,704 part-time jobs, a net loss of 8,602 jobs total.\n\nBULLET::::- From the December 2009 crisis total employment trough to May 2013, the U.S. added 5,669 full-time jobs and added 237 part-time jobs, a total of 5,906 jobs.\n\nBULLET::::- From the November 2007 pre-crisis peak total employment month to May 2013, the U.S. lost 5,637 full-time jobs and added 2,941 part-time jobs, a net loss of 2,696 jobs total.\n\nSection::::Other factors.:Job quality trends.\n", "FRED has gathered many of the employment statistics on one page for easy access:\n\nBULLET::::- FRED-Unemployment Series\n\nSection::::Obtaining data.:Unemployment rate forecasts.\n", "The U.S. Federal Reserve tracks a variety of labor market metrics, which affect how it sets monetary policy. One \"dashboard\" includes nine measures, only three of which had returned to their pre-crisis (2007) levels as of June 2014. The Fed also publishes a \"Labor market conditions index\" that includes a score based on 19 other employment statistics.\n\nSection::::Recent employment trends.:Pace of recovery.\n", "The ratio of job seekers to job openings is another indicator used to analyze unemployment trends. The number of unemployed persons per job opening rose from 2.9 in 2003 to 6.7 at its peak in July 2009, before falling to 3.1 in April 2013. EPI reported in June 2013 that: \"In today's economy, unemployed workers far outnumber job openings in every sector...This demonstrates that the main problem in the labor market is a broad-based lack of demand for workers—and not, as is often claimed, available workers lacking the skills needed for the sectors with job openings.\" However, recent trends have shown a slow decline in unemployment due to changes in the environment; financing is essential from promoting sustainable development according to the UN.\n", "BULLET::::- The unemployment rate (U-3), measured as the number of persons unemployed divided by the civilian labor force, rose from 5.0% in December 2007 to peak at 10.0% in October 2009, before steadily falling to 4.7% by December 2016 and then to 3.9% by December 2018. This measure excludes those who have not looked for work in the last 4 weeks and all other persons not considered as part of the labor force, which can distort its interpretation if a large number of working-aged persons become discouraged and stop looking for work.\n", "The FRED database contains a variety of employment statistics organized as data series. It can be used to generate charts or download historical information. Data series include labor force, employment, unemployment, labor force participation, etc. The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) also releases employment statistics. Some popular data series include:\n\nBULLET::::- FRED – Civilian Labor Force\n\nBULLET::::- FRED – Civilian Labor Force Participation Rate CIVPART\n\nBULLET::::- FRED – Civilian Unemployment Rate UNRATE\n\nBULLET::::- FRED – Civilian Unemployed UNEMPLOY\n\nJob creation in the U.S. is typically measured by changes in the \"Total Non-Farm\" employees.\n\nBULLET::::- FRED – Total Non-Farm Employment\n" ]	[ "US unemployment rate is a percentage of the total population." ]	[ "US unemployment rate only tracks able bodied adults who are looking for work, it does not factor in children, the retired, and the disabled." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "US unemployment rate is a percentage of the total population.", "US unemployment rate is a percentage of the total population." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "US unemployment rate only tracks able bodied adults who are looking for work, it does not factor in children, the retired, and the disabled.", "US unemployment rate only tracks able bodied adults who are looking for work, it does not factor in children, the retired, and the disabled." ]
2018-06470	when someone describes a pickup as "1/2 ton" or "3/4 ton", what does that mean?	they don't mean much today. but back in the day, it was their towing capacity. today, they're just a general classification. meaning full ton can tow more than 3/4 ton can tow more than 1/2 ton. there's really no standardization for what these mean. it's like a compact, midsize, full size sedan. you just know that one is bigger than the other, generally.	[ "Towing and payload capacity ratings for Rounded-Line C/K-Series pickups varied, depending on how they were configured. Factors such as engine and transmission combination, differential gear ratio, curb weight, and whether the pickup was two-wheel drive or four-wheel drive decided how much the pickup could safely tow or haul.\n", "The term pickup is of unknown origin. It was used by Studebaker in 1913 and by the 1930s, \"pick-up\" (hyphenated) had become the standard term. In Australia and New Zealand, \"ute\", short for utility vehicle, is used for both pickups and coupé utilities. In South Africa, people of all language groups use the term \"bakkie\", a diminutive of \"bak\", Afrikaans for bowl/container, due to the cargo area's similarities with a bowl.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Scania 4-series\n\nThe Scania 4-series, is a truck model range which was introduced by Scania in 1995. It was the successor of the 3-series and it came in five engine combinations, three cabs and four chassis types. The 4-series was succeeded by the PRT-range in Europe in 2004, but production continued in Brazil until 2007.\n\nSection::::Designations.\n\nBULLET::::- Engine size\n", "Similar schemes exist for vans and SUVs (e.g. a 1-ton Dodge Van or a -ton GMC Suburban), medium duty trucks (e.g. the 1-ton Ford ) and some military vehicles, like the ubiquitous deuce-and-a-half.\n\nSection::::United States.:Notes on weight classes.:Class 8.\n", "Section::::United States.:Notes on weight classes.\n\nSection::::United States.:Notes on weight classes.:\"Ton\" rating.\n\nWhen light-duty trucks were first produced in the United States, they were rated by their payload capacity in tons (e.g., -, - and 1-ton). Over time, payload capacities for most domestic pickup trucks have increased while the ton titles have stayed the same. The now-imprecise ton rating is presently used to compare standard sizes, rather than actual capacities.\n", "Section::::1010-Series.\n", "Section::::1000D-Series.\n", "The \"Motorific Truck\" series included the Fire Patrol Pumper, Mighty Hauler Dump Truck, Mighty Mixer Cement Truck, Refrigerator Van, Tri-Cola Delivery, Thruway Service Wrecker, Stake Truck, Highway Maintenance, Troop Transport, and Tractor Trailer.\n", "BULLET::::- MK14: A flatbed which is long and features locks for ISO containers. The MK14 can hold a single twenty-foot equivalent unit (TEU) sized container, or three SIXCON units (pump or tank modules). There are also accommodations for tie-down hooks and ratchet straps for securing cargo. When equipped with a tow bar, two MK14s can be joined and towed by a single MK48 power unit. This is referred to as a \"Tandem Tow\" or \"TT\".\n\nBULLET::::- MK15: Recovery vehicle capable of recovering LVSs, MTVRs and Humvees.\n", "This has led to categorizing trucks similarly, even if their payload capacities are different. Therefore, the Chevrolet Colorado/GMC Canyon, Ford Ranger, Honda Ridgeline, Nissan Frontier, and Toyota Tacoma are called \"quarter-ton\" pickups. The Chevrolet Silverado/GMC Sierra 1500, Ford F-150, Nissan Titan, Ram 1500, and Toyota Tundra are called \"half-ton\" pickups (-ton). The Chevrolet Silverado/GMC Sierra 2500, Ford F-250, and Ram 2500 are called \"three-quarter-ton\" pickups. The Cheverolet Silverado/GMC Sierra 3500, Ford F-350, and Ram 3500 are known as \"one ton\" pickups.\n", "Small trucks use the same type of transmissions as almost all cars, having either an automatic transmission or a manual transmission with synchromesh (synchronizers). Bigger trucks often use manual transmissions without synchronizers, saving bulk and weight, although synchromesh transmissions are used in larger trucks as well. Transmissions without synchronizers, known as \"crash boxes\", require double-clutching for each shift, (which can lead to repetitive motion injuries), or a technique known colloquially as \"floating\", a method of changing gears which doesn't use the clutch, except for starts and stops, due to the physical effort of double clutching, especially with non-power-assisted clutches, faster shifts, and less clutch wear.\n", "Section::::Types of vehicles used in trucking.:Panel van.\n\nThe panel van does come in various sizes. As small as a mini-van and up to having a fairly large box on the bed of a truck. These are seen as box trucks.\n\nSection::::Types of vehicles used in trucking.:HotShot.\n\nThe Hotshot vehicle or truck is essentially a pick-up with a larger load capacity than a personal truck. Hotshots are typically single axle 1-ton to 3-ton trucks, which can be either a dual or single tire.\n\nSection::::Truck drivers.\n\nSection::::Truck drivers.:Definition.\n", "BULLET::::- M881: M880 fitted with additional 100-amp 24-volt generator\n\nBULLET::::- M882: M881 fitted with additional 60-amp 24-volt generator and communications equipment\n\nBULLET::::- M883: M881 fitted with slide-in shelter kit\n\nBULLET::::- M884: M880 fitted with 100-amp 24-volt generator and slide-in shelter kit with tie-downs\n\nBULLET::::- M885: M880 fitted with slide-in shelter kit with tie-downs\n\nBULLET::::- M886: M880 ambulance\n\nBULLET::::- M887: M880 maintenance\n\nBULLET::::- M888: M880 telephone maintenance\n\nBULLET::::- M890: Standard 4×2 pickup\n\nBULLET::::- M891: M890 fitted with additional 60-amp 24-volt generator\n\nBULLET::::- M892: M890 fitted with additional 60-amp 24-volt generator and communications kit\n\nBULLET::::- M893: M890 ambulance version\n\nSection::::General Motors.\n", "BULLET::::- MK16: Fifth-wheel is designed to tow the M870 family of semi-trailers. It is the shortest of the FPU/RBU combinations, creating a smaller turning radius. This is useful, as when towing an M870 trailer, it becomes the Marine Corps' longest tactical vehicle.\n", "Closed cab, two seater pickups with a nominal carrying capacity of a . Some portion of these models were manufactured with winch, at least of the , the (pictured), and the , reducing the payload to — but no distinct model number was assigned for such units. The engine displacement was increased to the T-215's volume of mid-series, after engine No. 42001.\n\nSection::::Descriptions — Half-ton WC series.:-ton Trucks, Open Cab.\n\nWC-3, WC-13, WC-21\n", "Tow balls come in various sizes depending on the load they carry and the country of operation:\n\nBULLET::::- (ISO standard)\n\nBULLET::::- heavy duty\n\nBULLET::::- heavy-duty gooseneck\n", "Section::::Design Brief.:Amphibious.\n", "Dodge Cummins pickups from the \"First Generation\" that are not equipped with an overdrive transmission commonly have the 3.07:1 Dana 61 front axle because the higher gears are necessary to achieve reasonable road speeds at the low 2500 rpm governed speed of the Cummins engine in those pickups.\n", "CMVs are defined by the FMCSA as vehicles engaged in interstate commerce that are used to transport passengers or property: vehicles with a gross vehicle weight of or more; those designed or used to transport more than 8 passengers (including the driver) for compensation; vehicles designed or used to transport more than 15 passengers (including the driver) without compensation; or those used to transport hazardous materials in quantities requiring the vehicle to be marked or placarded under hazardous materials regulations.\n", "Pickup truck\n\nA pickup truck is a light-duty truck having an enclosed cab and an open cargo area with low sides and tailgate. Once a work tool with few creature comforts, in the 1950s consumers began purchasing pickups for lifestyle reasons, and by the 1990s, less than 15% of owners reported use in work as the pickup truck's primary purpose. Today in North America, the pickup is mostly used as a passenger car and accounts for about 18% of total vehicles sold in the United States.\n", "Another configuration is called a triple transfer train, consisting of a \"B\" and \"C\" box. These are common on Nevada and Utah Highways, but not in California. Depending on the axle arrangement, a triple transfer can haul up to with a special permit in certain American states. , a triple transfer costs a contractor about $105 an hour, while a A/B configuration costs about $85 per hour.\n\nTransfer dump trucks typically haul between of aggregate per load, each truck is capable of 3–5 loads per day, generally speaking.\n\nSection::::Types.:Truck and pup.\n", "It is variously known as a \"transport\" in Canada; \"semi\" or \"single\" in Australia and New Zealand; \"semi\", \"tractor-trailer\", \"big rig\", or \"eighteen-wheeler\" in the United States; and \"articulated lorry\", abbreviated \"artic\", in the United Kingdom, Ireland and New Zealand.\n\nSection::::Regional configurations.\n\nSection::::Regional configurations.:North America.\n\nIn North America, the combination vehicles made up of a powered truck and one or more semitrailers are known as \"semis\", \"semitrailers\", \"tractor-trailers\", \"big rigs\", \"semi trucks\", \"eighteen-wheelers\", or \"semi-tractor trailers\".\n", "Mack DM series dump trucks appeared prominently in \"Die Hard with a Vengeance\" (the third movie in the series).\n\n\"Maximum Overdrive\" (1986) is a horror tale of machinery come to life which includes a truck stop with various vehicles.\n\nDuring a chase scene from the 1997 film Fire Down Below, Steven Seagal's character is rammed and chased by a Mack truck.\n\nA Mack M915 (LHRT) Line-Haul Replacement Tractor (military version of the Mack Granite GU713 10-wheeler) with a (military version M970 fuel tanker) semi-trailer, was the vehicle mode for Megatron in \"\".\n", "In 1991, the U.S. military began replacing the -ton, ten-wheeled (6x6 and 6x4) trucks, that were originally classified as 'light-heavy' in WW II, and 'medium duty' later in their service life, with a significantly different design: the four-wheeled (4x4), cab over engine \"light medium\", but equally -ton rated, LMTV variants of the Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles (FMTV) .\n", "Section::::Types.:Winter service vehicles.\n\nMany \"winter service vehicles\" are based on dump trucks, to allow the placement of ballast to weigh the truck down or to hold sodium or calcium chloride salts for spreading on snow and ice covered surfaces. Plowing is severe service and needs heavy-duty trucks.\n\nSection::::Types.:Roll-off trucks.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17401	Why are some drugs (like cocaine) sniffed instead of orally taken?	Cocaine is a drug that has a very poor bioavailability (aka a lot of it is not absorbed or is metabolized quickly) when taken orally, and is also eliminated very quickly. Similar logic applies for morphine/heroin As such, other routes of administration, such as snorting or IV administration, are popular.	[ "Oral administration is often denoted \"PO\" from \"per os\", the Latin for \"by mouth\".\n\nSection::::Choice of routes.:Local.\n\nBy delivering drugs almost directly to the site of action, the risk of systemic side effects is reduced. However, skin irritation may result, and for some forms such as creams or lotions, the dosage is difficult to control.\n\nSection::::Choice of routes.:Inhalation.\n\nInhaled medications can be absorbed quickly and act both locally and systemically. Proper technique with inhaler devices is necessary to achieve the correct dose. Some medications can have an unpleasant taste or irritate the mouth.\n", "Detection in saliva tests begins almost immediately upon use of the following substances, and lasts for approximately the following times:\n\nBULLET::::- Alcohol: 6-12 h\n\nBULLET::::- Marijuana: 1-24h\n\nA disadvantage of saliva based drug testing is that it is not approved by FDA or SAMHSA for use with DOT / Federal Mandated Drug Testing. Oral fluid is not considered a bio-hazard unless there is visible blood; however, it should be treated with care.\n\nSection::::Types.:Sweat drug screen.\n", "Next, the sample must be made testable. Urine and oral fluid can be used \"as is\" for some tests, but other tests require the drugs to be extracted from urine. Strands of hair, patches, and blood must be prepared before testing. Hair is washed in order to eliminate second-hand sources of drugs on the surface of the hair, then the keratin is broken down using enzymes. Blood plasma may need to be separated by centrifuge from blood cells prior to testing. Sweat patches are opened and the sweat collection component is removed and soaked in a solvent to dissolve any drugs present.\n", "The detection windows depend upon multiple factors: drug class, amount and frequency of use, metabolic rate, body mass, age, overall health, and urine pH. For ease of use, the detection times of metabolites have been incorporated into each parent drug. For example, heroin and cocaine can only be detected for a few hours after use, but their metabolites can be detected for several days in urine. The chart depicts the longer detection times of the metabolites.\n", "Drug checking\n\nDrug checking or pill testing, as it is known in the Southern Hemisphere, is a way to reduce the harm from drug consumption by allowing users to find out the content and purity of substances that they intend to consume. This empowers users to make safer choices: to avoid more dangerous substances, to use smaller quantities, and to avoid dangerous combinations. \n", "The presence of specific drugs can also be detected through immunoassy testing strips. Testing strips for fentanyl can detect a few tens of nanograms of the substance at a price of a few dollars per test.\n", "Buccal administration\n\nBuccal administration is a topical route of administration by which drugs held or applied in the buccal () area (in the cheek) diffuse through the oral mucosa (tissues which line the mouth) and enter directly into the bloodstream. Buccal administration may provide better bioavailability of some drugs and a more rapid onset of action compared to oral administration because the medication does not pass through the digestive system and thereby avoids first pass metabolism.\n", "BULLET::::- Obtaining excretions or materials that leave the body anyway, such as urine, stool, sputum, or vomitus, by direct collection as they exit. A sample of saliva can also be collected from the mouth.\n\nBULLET::::- Excision (cutting out), a common method for the removal of solid or soft tissue samples.\n", "Self-administration of heroin and cocaine is used to screen drugs for possible effects in reducing drug-taking behavior, especially reinstatement of drug seeking after extinction. Drugs with this effect may be useful for treating people with drug addiction by helping them establish abstinence or reducing their probability or relapsing to drug use after a period of abstinence.\n", "A number of different analyses (defined as the unknown substance being tested for) are available on Urine Drug Screens.\n\nSection::::Methodologies.:Spray drug testing.\n\nSpray (sweat) drug test kits are non-invasive. It is a simple process to collect the required specimen, no bathroom is needed, no laboratory is required for analysis, and the tests themselves are difficult to manipulate and relatively tamper-resistant. The detection window is long and can detect recent drug use within several hours.\n", "Oral administration\n\nOral administration is a route of administration where a substance is taken through the mouth. Per os (P.O.) is sometimes used as an abbreviation for medication to be taken orally. Many medications are taken orally because they are intended to have a systemic effect, reaching different parts of the body via the bloodstream, for example.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "Oral fluid or saliva testing results for the most part mimic that of blood. The only exceptions are THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) and benzodiazepines. Oral fluid will likely detect THC from ingestion up to a maximum period of 6–12 hours. This continues to cause difficulty in oral fluid detection of THC and benzodiazepines.\n\nBreath air for the most part mimics blood tests as well. Due to the very low levels of substances in the breath air, liquid chromatography—mass spectrometry has to be used to analyze the sample according to a recent publication wherein 12 analytes were investigated.\n", "Some drugs are inactive in the digestive tract, but this can be avoided if held between the upper lip and gum. This prevents the substances from getting swallowed with salivation, as would normally occur between the lower lip and gum, permitting slow release of the drug to prolong the duration of action.\n", "Forensic scientists have said that around 80% of all British banknotes contain traces of drugs. A 1999 study found even higher levels of contamination in the London area; of 500 notes tested, only four had no traces of cocaine. Most of the banknotes showed only low levels of contamination, suggesting they had merely been in contact with contaminated notes, but 4% of the notes in the study showed higher levels, which the researchers suggested was the result of either being handled by people under the influence of cocaine (which is excreted in skin oils), or by being used directly to snort the drug.\n", "In 2009 Pink, et al., reported that saliva testing had become so widespread that it had begun to replace urine testing as the standard for detecting illicit drugs and prescription medications. Shin, et al., reported in 2008 that salivary detection of ethanol and three of its metabolites (methanol, ethylene glycol, and diethylene glycol) had “relatively high sensitivity and specificity” and that such testing facilitates rapid diagnosis of alcohol intoxication. A 2002 study demonstrated that there was good agreement between saliva and breath ethanol analysis, and that chromatographic saliva ethanol assay is “specific…[and] shows good accuracy and precision.” In 2011 Vindenes, et al., investigated the viability of drug abuse monitoring using saliva, comparing this method to urine drug detection. Researchers found that several drug metabolites were detected more frequently in saliva than in urine; this was true for 6-monoacetylmorphine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, and N-desmethyldiazepam. This same study showed that saliva testing could detect other drug metabolites, as well, although not as frequently as urine testing; this was the case for morphine, other benzodiazepines, cannabis, and cocaine.\n", "BULLET::::- insufflation: also known as \"sniffing\", or \"snorting\", this method involves the user placing a powder in the nostrils and breathing in through the nose, so that the drug is absorbed by the mucous membranes. Drugs that are \"sniffed\", or \"snorted\", include powdered amphetamines, cocaine, heroin, ketamine and MDMA. Additionally, snuff tobacco\n", "Covert administration of medication typically involves mixing the medication with food or drink. This can have an impact on the absorption of the drug. Absorption of some medicines, such as antibiotics, can be reduced when mixed with food, particularly dairy products. Some medicines are incompatible with various minerals including calcium, iron, magnesium, and zinc, all of which may reduce absorption. Crushing slow-releasing tablets or enteric coated medicines may also reduce absorption of the medicines.\n", "In recent years, the use of presumptive test kits in the criminal justice system has come under great scrutiny due to the lack to forensic studies, questioned reliability, rendering of false positives with legal substances, and wrongful arrests.\n\nSection::::Types.:Saliva drug screen / Oral fluid-based drug screen.\n\nSaliva / oral fluid-based drug tests can generally detect use during the previous few days. Is better at detecting very recent use of a substance. THC may only be detectable for 2–24 hours in most cases. On site drug tests are allowed per the Department of Labor.\n", "Laboratory-based drug testing is done in two steps. The first step is the screening test, which is an immunoassay based test applied to all samples. The second step, known as the confirmation test, is usually undertaken by a laboratory using highly specific chromatographic techniques and only applied to samples that test positive during the screening test. Screening tests are usually done by immunoassay (EMIT, ELISA, and RIA are the most common). A \"\" drug testing method which could provide screening test capabilities to field investigators has been developed at the University of Illinois.\n", "Drugs often associated with a particular route of administration. Many drugs can be consumed in more than one way. For example, marijuana can be swallowed like food or smoked, and cocaine can be \"sniffed\" in the nostrils, injected, or, with various modifications, smoked.\n\nBULLET::::- inhalation: all intoxicative inhalants (see below) that are gases or solvent vapours that are inhaled through the trachea, as the name suggests\n", "Body cavity searches may also be conducted at some international border crossings such as the U.S. Customs and Border Protection when they suspect international travelers of hiding contraband—such as drugs—in their alimentary canal (digestional tract).\n\nSection::::Procedure.\n", "A common misconception is that a drug test that is testing for a class of drugs, for example, opioids, will detect all drugs of that class. However, most opioid tests will not reliably detect oxycodone, oxymorphone, meperidine, or fentanyl. Likewise, most benzodiazepine drug tests will not reliably detect lorazepam. However, urine drug screens that test for a specific drug, rather than an entire class, are often available.\n", "There are three main sites where drug excretion occurs. The kidney is the most important site and it is where products are excreted through urine. Biliary excretion or fecal excretion is the process that initiates in the liver and passes through to the gut until the products are finally excreted along with waste products or feces. The last main method of excretion is through the lungs (e.g. anesthetic gases).\n\nExcretion of drugs by the kidney involves 3 main mechanisms:\n\nBULLET::::- Glomerular filtration of unbound drug.\n", "Due to improved measurement methods pharmaceuticals may be detected today in concentrations that probably have been present already for decades but could not be measured before. Many pharmaceuticals are (after consumption) excreted or washed off: investigations have shown excretion rates between 30% and 70% of orally taken substances and even higher rates considering externally applied ointments or gel. \n", "Drug tests can detect cotinine in the blood, urine, or saliva. Salivary cotinine concentrations are highly correlated to blood cotinine concentrations, and can detect cotinine in a low range, making it the preferable option for a less invasive method of tobacco exposure testing. Urine cotinine concentrations average four to six times higher than those in blood or saliva, making urine a more sensitive matrix to detect low-concentration exposure.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01588	Why are court cases named (e.g. “Roe v. Wade”) instead of just given an alphanumeric code? Are all cases that go through courts given a name or just the famous ones? Is it the same practice in all countries?	"Roe v. Wade" refers to Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973). The "full name" is "Jane Roe, et al. v. Henry Wade, District Attorney of Dallas County". US court cases are generally identified as "plaintiff versus defendant" (or, in criminal cases, e.g. "state versus accused"), but are also identified by numbers. In the above, 410 refers to volume 410 of the SCOTUS' collected cases, and Roe v. Wade is case 113 in that volume. Famous cases become known by the "short form" of plaintiff vs. defendant.	[ "In most systems, the governing body responsible for overseeing the courts assigns a unique number/letter combination or similar designation to each case in order to track the various disputes that are or have been before it. The outcome of the case is recorded, and can later be reviewed by obtaining a copy of the documents associated with the designation previously assigned to the case.\n", "When lower federal court opinions are cited, the citation includes the name of the court. This is placed in the parentheses immediately before the year. Some examples:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Geary v. Visitation of Blessed Virgin Mary School\", 7 F.3d 324 (3d Cir. 1993) – a 1993 case in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glassroth v. Moore\", 229 F. Supp. 2d 1290 (M.D. Ala. 2002) – a 2002 case in the U.S. District Court for the Middle District of Alabama\n", "Section::::Austrian case law.\n\nSimilar rules apply to Austrian case law. Decisions by the Supreme Court (\"Oberster Gerichtshof\") can be cited to the official collections (SZ for private law and SSt for criminal law) or to law reviews. In the case of the official collections, other than in Germany, the cite normally does not refer to the page number, but to the number of the case, e.g. SZ 82/123 (referring to case number 123 in volume 82 of the official collection of private law cases).\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Like the United States Supreme Court, some very old state case citations include an abbreviation of the name of either the private publisher or the reporter of decisions, a state-appointed officer who originally collected and published the cases. For example, in \"Hall v. Bell\", 47 Mass. (6 Met.) 431 (1843), the citation is to volume 47 of \"Massachusetts Reports\", which, like \"United States Reports\", was started in the latter half of the 19th century and incorporated into the series a number of prior editions originally published privately, and began numbering from that point; \"6 Met.\" refers to the 6th volume that had originally been published privately by Theron Metcalf. An example of a case cited to a reporter that has not been subsequently incorporated into an officially published series is \"Pierson v. Post\", 3 Cai. 175 (N.Y. Sup. Ct. 1804), reported in volume 3 of \"Caines' Reports\", page 175, named for George Caines, who had been appointed to report New York cases; the case was before the New York Supreme Court of Judicature (now defunct). Most states gave up this practice in the mid-to-late 19th century, but Delaware persisted until 1920.\n", "It is not general practice to cite case names, since the names of parties are anonymized. However, in some areas of law (e.g. corporate law), where the name of a party (usually the company involved in the case) is generally known, some cases have gained notoriety under that name (e.g. the \"Holzmüller\" decision). Other cases, especially in criminal law, have become known under names emphasising the peculiar story that made them notorious, such as the or the . In such cases, it may be helpful for readers to render that name, even though it is entirely optional and such case names are not official.\n", "BULLET::::- The abbreviated name of the court is included inside the parenthesis before the year if the name of the court is not obvious from the reporter. This rule comes into play because certain reporters, such as members of the West National Reporter System, publish opinions originating from multiple courts. In this example, the name of the court (United States Supreme Court) is obvious (since only decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court are published in \"United States Reports\") and is thus omitted as a matter of convention.\n", "List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 422\n\nThis is a list of all the United States Supreme Court cases from volume 422 of the \"United States Reports\":\n\nBULLET::::- \"Intercounty Constr. Corp. v. Walter\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"United States v. Louisiana\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rogers v. United States\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rondeau v. Mosinee Paper Corp.\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cort v. Ash\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"United States v. Citizens & Southern Nat. Bank\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Twentieth Century Music Corp. v. Aiken\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"United States v. Hale\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"United States v. Alaska\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Erznoznik v. City of Jacksonville\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"United States v. Nobles\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Administrator, Federal Aviation Administration v. Robertson\",\n", "Starting in 2004, the court also publishes the BVerfGK collection, containing decisions made only by a \"Kammer\", a specific part of the court.\n\nThe so-called for example could be cited\n\nin full and\n\nin short.\n\nFor the meaning of the different case numbers of the BVerfG see .\n\nIf decisions are not yet published by the court, or will not be published at all, law journals can be cited, e.g.,\n", "BULLET::::- \"Roe v. Wade\", 410 U.S. 113, 158, 93 S. Ct. 705, 729, 35 L. Ed. 2d 147, 180 (1973).\n\nBut in its opinions, the Court usually provides a direct pin cite only to the official reporter. The two unofficial reporters, when they reprint the Court's opinions, add on parallel cites to each other, but do not add pin cites. Therefore, a citation to \"Roe v. Wade\" in a later Supreme Court decision as viewed on Lexis or Westlaw would appear as follows:\n", "For the citation of \"The Law Reports\" of the Incorporated Council of Law Reporting, see Law Reports. These have been published since 1865. They have always been split into a number of different series, the current series being the Appeal Cases (AC), Chancery (Ch), Family (Fam), and Queen's Bench (QB) (or King's Bench—KB—depending on the monarch of the time). These four series are cited in preference to all others in court.\n\nThe table below is an incomplete list of law reports other than \"The Law Reports\", nominate reports and reprints.\n", "Lawyers use an abbreviated format to cite cases, in the form \" U.S. , ()\", where is the volume number, is the page number on which the opinion begins, and is the year in which the case was decided. Optionally, is used to \"pinpoint\" to a specific page number within the opinion. For instance, the citation for \"Roe v. Wade\" is 410 U.S. 113 (1973), which means the case was decided in 1973 and appears on page 113 of volume 410 of \"U.S. Reports\". For opinions or orders that have not yet been published in the preliminary print, the volume and page numbers may be replaced with \"___\".\n", "The \"Style of Cause\" is italicized as in all other countries and the party names are separated by \"v\" (English) or \"c\" (French). Prior to 1984 the appellant party would always be named first. However, since then case names do not switch order when the case is appealed.\n\nUndisclosed parties to a case are represented by initials (e.g., \"R v RDS\"). Criminal cases are prosecuted by the Crown, which is always represented by \"R\" for \"Regina\" (queen) or \"Rex\" (king). Constitutional references are always entitled \"\"Reference re\"\" followed by the subject title.\n", "List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 390\n\nThis is a list of all the United States Supreme Court cases from volume 390 of the \"United States Reports\":\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hardin v. Kentucky Util. Co.\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Schneider v. Smith\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Epton v. New York\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Knight v. Board of Regents of Univ. of State of N. Y.\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paulaitis v. Paulaitis\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wetter v. Indianapolis\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bogart v. State Bar of Cal.\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cross v. United States Bd. of Parole\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Crepeault v. Vermont\", (per curiam)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Benton v. Maryland\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Von Cleef v. New Jersey\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Shipley v. California\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Proner v. United States\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anderson v. Urban Renewal & Community Development Agency of Paducah\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Byers v. Oklahoma City\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"White v. United States\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Moya v. DeBaca\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dillard v. Family Court, Queens Cty.\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rosado v. Wyman\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lindsay v. Kelley\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Atlas Engine Works, Inc. v. NLRB\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"House v. United States\", (per curiam)\n", "BULLET::::- Even though only some decisions of the U.S. Courts of Appeal are considered \"published\" (those appearing in \"Federal Reporter\"), Thomson West has recently started making available all decisions officially considered \"unpublished\" in a separate publication called \"Federal Appendix\" (abbreviated \"F. App'x\").\n", "List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 229\n\nThis is a list of all the United States Supreme Court cases from volume 229 of the \"United States Reports\":\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bauer & Cie. v. O'Donnell\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gorman v. Littlefield\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Barrett v. Indiana\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Big Vein Coal Co. of W. Va. v. Read\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Detroit United R. Co. v. Detroit\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Barry v. United States\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"United States v. Chandler-Dunbar Water Power Co.\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lewis Blue Point Oyster Cultivation Co. v. Briggs\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Shelton v. King\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chicago, R. I. & P. R. Co. v. Dowell\",\n", "The \"Supreme Court Cases (SCC)\" published supplementary reports for a few years in the early 1990s. Those citations looked like this:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Federation of Mining Associations v. State of Rajasthan\" 1992 Supp (2) SCC 239, which points to page 239 of the Second Supplementary Volume of the SCC reports in the year 1992. From 1996 the Supplementary Volumes were numbered in sequence after the regular volumes.\n\nThe SCC also have a separate series of subject-based reporting of the decisions of the Supreme Court:\n", "List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 385\n\nThis is a list of all the United States Supreme Court cases from volume 385 of the \"United States Reports\":\n\nBULLET::::- \"Senfour Investment Co. v. King County\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Jones v. Association of Bar of City of New York\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Morris Park, Inc. v. Buck\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Baltimore & Ohio R. Co. v. United States\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Buchanan v. Rhodes\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Jordan v. Menomonee Falls\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bennett v. United States\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Annbar Associates v. West Side Redevelopment Corp.\", (per curiam)\n", "List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 232\n\nThis is a list of all the United States Supreme Court cases from volume 232 of the \"United States Reports\":\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hawley v. City of Malden\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Barrett v. City of New York\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Platt v. City of New York\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"United States v. Regan\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Swift v. McPherson\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"National Safe Deposit Co. v. Stead\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"United States v. Buchanan\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lapina v. Williams\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gila Valley, G. & N. R. Co. v. Hall\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bank of Arizona v. Thomas Haverty Co.\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ross v. Day\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Barnes v. Alexander\",\n", "List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 244\n\nThis is a list of all the United States Supreme Court cases from volume 244 of the \"United States Reports\":\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ewing v. United States ex rel. Fowler Car Co.\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Kronprinzessin Cecilie\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chicago Life Ins. Co. v. Cherry\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gulf, C. & S. F. R. Co. v. Texas Packing Co.\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Van Dyke v. Geary\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Toledo Railways & Light Co. v. Hill\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Meisukas v. Greenough Red Ash Coal Co.\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"American Express Co. v. United States Horse Shoe Co.\",\n", "BULLET::::- \"Factortame case\" (1990): the European Court of Justice ruled that the House of Lords was required to suspend an \"Act\" of Parliament that infringed EC law.\n\nBULLET::::- \"R v R\" [1991]: the House of Lords invalidated the defence of \"marital rape\" to reflect a changing \"view\" in society.\n\nSection::::Landmark decisions in the United States.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Capelouto v. Orkin Exterminating Co. of Fla.\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Maslowsky v. Cassidy\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bookcase, Inc. v. Leary\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Guy v. Tahash\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neumann v. New York\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"McClellan v. Huston\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cross v. Bruning\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wakin v. Pennsylvania\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Boyden v. May\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bradford v. Helman\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spiesel v. Roos\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bradford v. Postel\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kemp v. Hults\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Phelper v. Decker\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"McGill v. Ryals\", (per curiam)\n", "\"Sebastian Hongray v. Union of India\":\n\nBULLET::::- AIR 1984 SC 571 – \"AIR\" refers to the \"All India Reporter\", \"1984\" is the year of judgement (AIR does not use a volume-based classification), \"SC\" refers to the Supreme Court of India, and \"571\" is the first page number of the report within the volume;\n\nBULLET::::- (1984) 1 SCC 339 – \"1984\" is the year of publication, \"1\" is the volume number of the reporter, \"SCC\" stands for \"Supreme Court Cases\" (the name of the reporter), and \"339\" is the first page number of the report within the volume; and\n", "List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 220\n\nThis is a list of all the United States Supreme Court cases from volume 220 of the \"United States Reports\":\n\nBULLET::::- \"Virginia v. West Virginia\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"United States v. Atchison, T. & S. F. R. Co.\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hipolite Egg Co. v. United States\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lindsley v. Natural Carbonic Gas Co.\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"In re Eastern Cherokees\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Taylor v. Leesnitzer\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern R. Co. v. United States\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Flint v. Stone Tracy Co.\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eliot v. Freeman\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Zonne v. Minneapolis Syndicate\",\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ex parte Oklahoma\",\n", "BULLET::::- \"Garcia v. Morales\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kirkpatrick v. Preisler\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nave v. Seattle\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glouner v. Superior Court of Cal., County of Los Angeles\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bogart v. Traynor\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Webster v. Lee County Dist. Court\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hunter v. New York\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Roosevelt Raceway, Inc. v. County of Nassau\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nehring v. DeKalb\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Federated Department Stores, Inc. v. Gerosa\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Duddleston v. Grills\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Droste v. Kerner\", (per curiam)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Illinois Central R. Co. v. United States\", (per curiam)\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01308	Why when we become self-aware of something, such as blinking, we have an increased urge to do it?	Take a second to think about blinking. Now that you’re thinking about it, you probably stopped blinking to see what would happen. In this time, you may have missed several blinks that would’ve happened naturally and not really even been noticed. Now, you’re brain is going to go “oh crap, I didn’t blink! Let me make up for it right now!” and you’ll blink several times to “get caught up” from the blinks you “missed.” Now that your brain has reset itself on blinking, you’ll think “have o blinked enough? Maybe I should throw in a couple more JUST IN CASE,” this the increased urge to do it.	[ "A reflex blink occurs in response to an external stimulus, such as contact with the cornea or objects that appear rapidly in front of the eye. A reflex blink is not necessarily a conscious blink either; however it does happen faster than a spontaneous blink. Reflex blink may occur in response to tactile stimuli (e.g. corneal, eyelash, skin of eyelid, contact with eyebrow), optical stimuli (e.g. dazzle reflex, or menace reflex) or auditory stimuli (e.g., menace reflex)\n\nSection::::Types of blink.:Voluntary blink.\n", "Through this study, Pennypacker confirmed the observation of external inhibition on the human level. External inhibition was especially observed when the tone (external stimulus) was introduced during the acquisition phase, which was the interval right after the paired CS-UCS trials. The conditioned response, blinking reflex, was observed to be in decline (inhibited) compared to the rate during conditioning.\n", "Voluntary blink is larger amplitude than Reflex blink, with the use of all 3 divisions of the orbicularis oculi muscle.\n\nSection::::Blinking in everyday life.\n\nSection::::Blinking in everyday life.:Children.\n", "In February 2004, a team of researchers at the Institute led by Tania Singer published research showing that it is possible for one human to feel another’s pain and that the same regions of the brain are activated in the empathizer and the empathisee. In July 2005, a team of researchers at the Institute led by Davina Bristow published the results of research funded by the Wellcome Trust in \"Current Biology\" which demonstrated that parts of the human brain are temporarily \"switched off\" when blinking.\n", "Menace reflex\n\nThe menace response is one of three forms of blink reflex. It is the reflex blinking that occurs in response to the rapid approach of an object. The reflex comprises blinking of the eyelids, in order to protect the eyes from potential damage, but may also include turning of the head, neck, or even the trunk away from the optical stimulus that triggers the reflex.\n", "In a study done by and his colleagues students had to watch a movie. One group did so with a pen between their teeth while the other group had to hold the pen with their lips. The first group interpreted the movie funnier than the second, because the muscles responsible for smiling were used and then made the brain release hormones related to being happy. These studys show that facial expressions are not only the result of emotions but can also be their cause. \n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Pennypacker suggested that following the introduction of any novel stimuli, a period of excitation occurs between the conditioned stimulus (red light) and its conditioned response (blinking), called an induction period. Thus, if the external stimulus was presented earlier in the acquisition phase, the observed decline in blinking would be even less than if the external stimulus was presented later. Pennypacker also suggested that it may be possible that an external stimulus that was introduced too late to affect the conditioned stimulus may externally inhibit the unconditioned stimulus. However, the study failed to confirm the presence of induction immediately after the tone (external stimulus) was introduced, and there was no evidence that external stimulus had any effect on reflexive blinking when presented halfway through the interval, aside from isolated cases. He suggests that the difference between the induction effect observed in a preliminary study and the current study are due to the use of visual external stimulus during a preliminary study and presenting the external stimulus instead of the conditioned stimulus; compared to the use of an auditory external stimulus and presentation of the tone in addition to the conditioned stimulus. Another suggestion is that the external stimulus was not intense enough to produce an inductive effect. \n", "on average 100–150 milliseconds according to UCL researcher and between 100–400 ms according to the Harvard Database of Useful Biological Numbers. Closures in excess of 1000 ms were defined as microsleeps.\n\nGreater activation of dopaminergic pathways dopamine production in the striatum is associated with a higher rate of spontaneous eye blinking. Conditions in which there is reduced dopamine availability such as Parkinson's disease have reduced eye blink rate, while conditions in which it is raised such as schizophrenia have an increased rate.\n\nSection::::Types of blink.\n\nThere are three types of blink.\n\nSection::::Types of blink.:Spontaneous blink.\n", "Spontaneous blinking which is done without external stimuli and internal effort. This type of blinking is conducted in the pre-motor brain stem and happens without conscious effort, like breathing and digestion.\n\nSection::::Types of blink.:Reflex blink.\n", "Section::::Blinking in everyday life.:Adults.\n", "BULLET::::- In a Continuous performance task an association was found between higher dispositional mindfulness and more stable maintenance of sustained attention.\n\nBULLET::::- In an EEG study, the Attentional blink effect was reduced, and P3b ERP amplitude decreased in a group of participants who completed a mindfulness retreat. The incidence of reduced attentional blink effect relates to an increase in detectability of a second target. This may have been due to a greater ability to allocate attentional resources for detecting the second target, reflected in a reduced P3b amplitude.\n", "There have also been studies using images as emotional stimuli. Emotionally negative pictures preceding the target by 2 items were found to induce greater deficits in processing the target stimuli than neutral pictures did. Thus, it seems that emotional information can elicit attentional biases which temporarily prevent awareness of actively sought out stimuli.\n\nSection::::Meditation.\n", "In \"Think!: Why Crucial Decisions Can't Be Made in the Blink of an Eye\" (Simon and Schuster, 2006), Michael LeGault argues that \"Blinklike\" judgments are not a substitute for critical thinking. He criticizes Gladwell for propagating unscientific notions:\n", "Aleister Crowley had also argued that the key to magic was an altered state of consciousness, whether attained through meditation, sexual practices or the use of drugs. However, the real breakthrough of the early chaos magicians was the realisation that there are many states of exhaustion, arousal or inhibition that cause consciousness to briefly \"blink\", sidestepping the need for years of meditative attainment.\n\nThree main types of gnosis are described in chaos magic texts:\n", "Section::::Function and anatomy.:Central nervous system's control.\n\nThough one may think that the stimulus triggering blinking is dry or irritated eyes, it is most likely that it is controlled by a \"blinking center\" of the globus pallidus of the lenticular nucleus—a body of nerve cells between the base and outer surface of the brain. Nevertheless, external stimuli can contribute. The orbicularis oculi is a facial muscle; therefore its actions are translated by the facial nerve root. The levator palpebrae superioris’ action is sent through the oculomotor nerve. The duration of a blink is\n", "This hypothesis is consistent with the results of their study in which participants were instructed to detect animal targets in RSVP sequences, and then report their identities and locations. While participants were able to detect the targets in most trials, they were often subsequently unable to identify or localize them. Furthermore, when two targets were presented in quick succession, participants displayed a significant attentional blink when required to identify the targets, but the attentional blink was mostly eliminated among participants only required to only detect them. Evans & Treisman explain these results by with the hypothesis that the attentional blink occurs because the identification stage requires attentional resources, while the detection stage does not.\n", "BULLET::::- Blinking - Blinking is also a natural response that can occur for no other reason than having dry eyes. It can also be the result of a person feeling greater levels of stress. Rapid blinking can indicate arrogance while reduced blinking can move towards a stare.\n\nBULLET::::- Winking - Winking can indicate that two people understand something without using words. It can mean \"hello\" or it can be a sign of flirtation.\n", "Blinking may have other functions since it occurs more often than necessary just to keep the eye lubricated. Researchers think blinking may help us disengage our attention; following blink onset, cortical activity decreases in the dorsal network and increases in the default-mode network, associated with internal processing. Blink speed can be affected by elements such as fatigue, eye injury, medication, and disease. The blinking rate is determined by the \"blinking center\", but it can also be affected by external stimulus.\n", "There are at least three types of awareness: agency awareness, goal awareness, and sensorimotor awareness, which may also be conscious or not. For example, in agency awareness you may be aware that you performed a certain action yesterday, but are not now conscious of it. In goal awareness you may be aware that you must search for a lost object, but are not now conscious of it. In sensorimotor awareness, you may be aware that your hand is resting on an object, but are not now conscious of it.\n", "When working on computer screens people tend to blink less which leads to the eyes drying out faster. Reminding people to blink or do blinking exercises is achieved via static reminders (such as eyeleo).\n\nReal-time feedback based blink reminders (such as VisionProtect) actively measure the blinking rate of the user and notify the user via visual/audial alert. The effectiveness of real-time feedback based blink reminder systems is proven in a study by Osamu Fukushima and Masao Saito.\n", "The precise adaptive significance behind the attentional blink is unknown, but it is thought to be a product of a two-stage visual processing system attempting to allocate episodic context to targets. In this two-stage system, all stimuli are processed to some extent by an initial parallel stage, and only salient ones are selected for in-depth processing, in order to make optimum use of limited resources at a late serial stage.\n", "Section::::Neurobiological basis.:Body.\n\nBodily (self-)awareness is related to proprioception and visualization\n\nSection::::Neurobiological basis.:Body.:Health.\n", "As naturopathic medicine taps into a deep mystical yearning to be healed by nature, \"Blink\" exploits popular new-age beliefs about the power of the subconscious, intuition, even the paranormal. \"Blink\" devotes a significant number of pages to the so-called theory of mind reading. While allowing that mind-reading can \"sometimes\" go wrong, the book enthusiastically celebrates the apparent success of the practice, despite hosts of scientific tests showing that claims of clairvoyance rarely beat the odds of random chance guessing.\n\nNobel prize winner Daniel Kahneman, author of \"Thinking, Fast and Slow\" which speaks to rationality's advantages over intuition, says:\n", "Blink: The Power of Thinking Without Thinking\n\nBlink: The Power of Thinking Without Thinking (2005) is Malcolm Gladwell's second book. It presents in popular science format research from psychology and behavioral economics on the adaptive unconscious: mental processes that work rapidly and automatically from relatively little information. It considers both the strengths of the adaptive unconscious, for example in expert judgment, and its pitfalls, such as stereotypes.\n\nSection::::Summary.\n", "When AB is tested, most often the stimuli presented are inanimate objects. But research shows that not only do inanimate stimuli effect AB but human faces do as well. Despite the hypothesis that configural and featural information are processed by separate channels, thus avoiding AB, human faces in all different configurations, are still processed and affected by AB.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02166	How does a mobile phone "try" to find a signal?	A mobile phone generally does a couple of things when it is just kinda lounging around: 1. It has to tell the world where it is - this is so that the tower can route incoming calls to the phone. This is done with an amount of power based on its current "status" of connection. So...power consumption here is _variable_, based on signal strength. 2. When it doesn't have a connection, it will attempt to do so. This "find a connection" signal is sent out at _full power_. It does this after anytime it's lost its connection to a cell. So...no, it's not just listening passively - it's initiating and maintaining conversations with cells, so to speak.	[ "When a mobile is \"searching\", it is attempting to find pilot signals on the network by tuning to particular radio frequencies, and performing a cross-correlation across all possible PN phases. A strong correlation peak result indicates the proximity of a BTS.\n", "In active mode, the StingRay will force each compatible cellular device in a given area to disconnect from its service provider cell site (e.g., operated by Verizon, AT&T, etc.) and establish a new connection with the StingRay. In most cases, this is accomplished by having the StingRay broadcast a pilot signal that is either stronger than, or made to appear stronger than, the pilot signals being broadcast by legitimate cell sites operating in the area. A common function of all cellular communications protocols is to have the cellular device connect to the cell site offering the strongest signal. StingRays exploit this function as a means to force temporary connections with cellular devices within a limited area.\n", "Mobile phones are commonly used to collect location data. While the phone is turned on, the geographical location of a mobile phone can be determined easily (whether it is being used or not) using a technique known as multilateration to calculate the differences in time for a signal to travel from the mobile phone to each of several cell towers near the owner of the phone.\n\nThe movements of a mobile phone user can be tracked by their service provider and if desired, by law enforcement agencies and their governments. Both the SIM card and the handset can be tracked.\n", "As the phone user moves from one cell area to another cell while a call is in progress, the mobile station will search for a new channel to attach to in order not to drop the call. Once a new channel is found, the network will command the mobile unit to switch to the new channel and at the same time switch the call onto the new channel.\n", "Once the SIM card is loaded into the phone and the phone is powered on, it will search for the nearest mobile phone mast (also called a Base Transceiver Station/BTS) with the strongest signal in the operator's frequency band. If a mast can be successfully contacted, then there is said to be coverage in the area. The phone then identifies itself to the network through the control channel. Once this is successfully completed, the phone is said to be attached to the network.\n", "If there is no ongoing communication or the communication can be interrupted, it is possible for the mobile unit to spontaneously move from one cell to another and then notify the base station with the strongest signal.\n\nSection::::Mobile phone network.:Cellular frequency choice in mobile phone networks.\n", "Section::::Types of transmitter hunts.:Mobile transmitter hunts.\n", "BULLET::::- the radio link used by the phones is a digital link with extensive error correction and detection in the digital protocol\n\nBULLET::::- sufficient operation of mobile phone in tunnels when supported by split cable antennas\n\nBULLET::::- local repeaters inside complex vehicles or buildings\n", "Another common reason is when a phone is taken into an area where wireless communication is unavailable, interrupted, interfered with, or jammed. From the network's perspective, this is the same as the mobile moving out of the coverage area.\n", "BULLET::::2. Collision Avoidance: if another node was heard, we wait for a period of time (usually random) for the node to stop transmitting before listening again for a free communications channel.\n", "Once a mobile has found a strong pilot channel, it listens to the sync channel and decodes a Sync Channel Message to develop a highly accurate synchronization to system time. At this point the mobile knows whether it is roaming, and that it is \"in service\". \n", "Section::::Known attacks.:Devices.:Smartphones.\n\nSmartphones are of particular interest for electromagnetic side-channel attacks. Since the advent of mobile phone payment systems such as Apple Pay, e-commerce systems have become increasingly commonplace. Likewise, the amount of research dedicated to mobile phone security side channel attacks has also increased. Currently most attacks are proofs of concept that use expensive lab-grade signal processing equipment. One of these attacks demonstrated that a commercial radio receiver could detect mobile phone leakage up to three meters away.\n", "Every mobile phone has the requirement to optimize the reception. If there is more than one base station of the subscribed network operator accessible, it will always choose the one with the strongest signal. An IMSI-catcher masquerades as a base station and causes every mobile phone of the simulated network operator within a defined radius to log in. With the help of a special identity request, it is able to force the transmission of the IMSI.\n\nSection::::Functionalities.:Tapping a mobile phone.\n", "In 2007, StingRay devices assisted the Oakland Police Department in Oakland, California in making 21 arrests, and in 2008, 19 arrests were made in unison with the use of StingRay devices.\n\nStingRay devices are often used in combination with Hailstorm towers that jam the mobile phone signals forcing phones to drop down from 4G and 3G network bands to older, more insecure 2G bands.\n", "Zambia: In collaboration with the UC Santa Barbara’s Mobility Management and Networking Laboratory (Moment Lab) a cellular network was deployed to study the economic feasibility of bringing cellular networks to remote regions. The deployment of the network provided the remote village of Macha in Zambia with the capability of making and receiving calls and sending and receiving local SMS messages. The network also allowed for outgoing global calls and outgoing global SMS text messages on a trial basis.\n", "In IS-95 inter-frequency handovers and older analog systems such as NMT it will typically be impossible to test the target channel directly while communicating. In this case, other techniques have to be used such as pilot beacons in IS-95. This means that there is almost always a brief break in the communication while searching for the new channel followed by the risk of an unexpected return to the old channel.\n", "Official firmware from the manufacturer, have been independently released by\n\nBULLET::::- T-Mobile Hungary\n\nBULLET::::- T-Mobile Sweden\n\nBULLET::::- T-Mobile UK\n\nAs of June 2010, T-Mobile has provided some firmware releases for the Pulse:\n\nBULLET::::- November 2009 Open Source Code released\n\nBULLET::::- November 2009 Pulse firmware download\n\nBULLET::::- December 2009 Increased stability; Improved audio\n\nBULLET::::- May 2010 2.1 available in Hungary as an update\n\nBULLET::::- August 2010 2.1 available in the UK as an update (T-Mobile has since removed this update from their site for further bug testing due to a SMS issue.)\n\nBULLET::::- September 2010 2.1 Source Code released\n", "BULLET::::- Cabir: This malware infects mobile phones running on Symbian OS and was first identified in June 2004. When a phone is infected, the message 'Caribe' is displayed on the phone's screen and is displayed every time the phone is turned on. The worm then attempts to spread to other phones in the area using wireless Bluetooth signals, although the recipient has to confirm this manually.\n\nBULLET::::- Duts: This parasitic file infector virus is the first known virus for the Pocket PC platform. It attempts to infect all EXE files that are larger than 4096 bytes in the current directory.\n", "Radio fingerprinting\n\nRadio fingerprinting is a process that identifies a cellular phone or any other radio transmitter by the \"fingerprint\" that characterizes its signal transmission and is hard to imitate. An electronic fingerprint makes it possible to identify a wireless device by its radio transmission characteristics. Radio fingerprinting is commonly used by cellular operators to prevent cloning of cell phones — a cloned device will have a same numeric equipment identity but a different radio fingerprint.\n", "BULLET::::- 2010 - Nokia C7: First Symbian NFC phone announced. NFC feature was enabled by software update in 2011.\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 - Samsung Nexus S: First Android NFC phone shown\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 - Nice, France launches the \"Nice City of contactless mobile\" project, providing inhabitants with NFC mobile phones and bank cards, and a \"bouquet of services\" covering transportation, tourism and student's services\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 - Google I/O \"How to NFC\" demonstrates NFC to initiate a game and to share a contact, URL, app or video.\n", "When the mobile phone or data device is turned on, it registers with the mobile telephone exchange, or switch, with its unique identifiers, and can then be alerted by the mobile switch when there is an incoming telephone call. The handset constantly listens for the strongest signal being received from the surrounding base stations, and is able to switch seamlessly between sites. As the user moves around the network, the \"handoffs\" are performed to allow the device to switch sites without interrupting the call.\n", "The technology of locating is based on measuring power levels and antenna patterns and uses the concept that a powered mobile phone always communicates wirelessly with one of the closest base stations, so knowledge of the location of the base station implies the cell phone is nearby.\n", "Samsung M910 Intercept\n\nThe Samsung SPH-M910 (marketed as the Samsung Intercept) is an Android smartphone manufactured by Samsung. It was released on July 11, 2010, for Sprint in the United States, and was also released on Sprint Nextel-owned prepaid cell phone company Virgin Mobile on October 4, 2010.\n", "U-TDOA\n\nU-TDOA, or Uplink-Time Difference of Arrival, is a wireless location technology that relies on sensitive receivers typically located at the cell towers to determine the location of a mobile phone.\n\nSection::::How does U-TDOA work?\n\nU-TDOA determines location based on the time it takes a signal to travel from a mobile phone to each of the sensitive receivers called Location Measurement Units (LMUs). By using the timing information from multiple LMUs, U-TDOA calculates the mobile phone’s location, using a technique called multilateration.\n", "BULLET::::- : A communication device for the Buddy and an extra power source or the Phone Braver. Its model number is AD-S003.\n\nSection::::Characters.:Police.\n\nThe is the branch of the Police who are investigating high-tech crimes and the events relating to the \"walking cellphones.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-22096	why do some microphones have a metal mesh, some have a flat cloth and some have a sponge?	In my understanding the basic aim of all those solutions is to reduce wind noise. The basic foam acts as a windscreen, with higher density foams being able to function in more challenging conditions. In addition they can have "windjammers" which are furry covers designed to cut down more energetic exterior winds. Higher end mics can add a "blimp" or a metal cage to which foam can be attached, allowing the microphone greater isolation within the protected area of the foam. You may also be referring to the "pop filter", a screen placed in front of the microphone to block the explosive rushes of air from the mouth when saying some phonemes. Nylon is inexpensive but can be delicate and difficult to clean, while metal is more expensive, durable, and generally easier to clean. However there is some reports that metals may interfere with some microphones via proximity, and while metal is theoretically stiffer and may block pops better it isn't clear which is superior.	[ "In the studio and on stage, pop-screens and foam shields can be useful for reasons of hygiene, and protecting microphones from spittle and sweat. They can also be useful coloured idents. On location the basket shield can contain a suspension system to isolate the microphone from shock and handling noise.\n", "The transmitter pack to which the microphone is attached may also need to be hidden under a person's clothing. Transmitter pouches are held on with elastic straps and serve to keep the transmitter hidden in various places where clothing provides a non-revealing space, such as high around the waist in the space created at the spine just above the belt line, inside the thigh under a skirt or dress, about the ankles under a pant leg, or even on the inside of a boot.\n\nSection::::Academia.\n", "Some microphones use other connectors, such as a 5-pin XLR, or mini XLR for connection to portable equipment. Some lavalier (or \"lapel\", from the days of attaching the microphone to the news reporters suit lapel) microphones use a proprietary connector for connection to a wireless transmitter, such as a radio pack. Since 2005, professional-quality microphones with USB connections have begun to appear, designed for direct recording into computer-based software.\n\nSection::::Connectors.:Impedance-matching.\n", "There are two main types of microelectrodes used for single-unit recordings: glass micropipettes and metal electrodes. Both are high-impedance electrodes, but glass micropipettes are highly resistive and metal electrodes have frequency-dependent impedance. Glass micropipettes are ideal for resting- and action-potential measurement, while metal electrodes are best used for extracellular spike measurements. Each type has different properties and limitations, which can be beneficial in specific applications.\n\nSection::::Types of microelectrodes.:Glass micropipettes.\n", "Traditionally the large side-address studio microphone has been strung in a \"cat's cradle\" mount, using fabric-wound rubber elastic elements to provide isolation. These designs still find some favour, although the elements tend to deteriorate, and sag with time. Newer designs, such as Rycote's \"USM\" lyre, use plastic elastomers, and patented spring shapes to reduce this problem.\n", "Generally there are three wireless microphone types: handheld, plug-in and bodypack:\n\nBULLET::::- Handheld looks like a 'normal' wired microphone, may have a bigger body to accommodate the transmitter and battery pack.\n\nBULLET::::- Plug-in, plug-on, slot-in, or cube-style transmitters attach to the bottom of a standard microphone, thus converting it to wireless operation (see below).\n\nBULLET::::- Bodypack is a small box housing the transmitter and battery pack, but not the microphone itself. It is attachable to clothing or on the body and has a wire going into a headset, a lavalier microphone or a guitar.\n", "Section::::Mounting techniques.\n", "Compared to handheld mics you get superior convenience, small size, unrestrictive fit on a person and the sound quality they can back up your performance, speeches or recordings.\n", "Moleskin is also commonly used in video and/or audio productions when using a lavalier microphone. When further concealment of a lavalier microphone is needed in these types of productions, it can be worn underneath a layer or layers of the singer's clothing. This would normally cause the microphone to pick up the unwanted noises of the singer's clothing rubbing up against the body and top of the lavalier. Attaching a small strip of moleskin around the microphone body will dramatically reduce the amount of noise created by the singer's clothing and, consequently, reduces the amount of unwanted noise picked up by the lavalier microphone.\n", "Section::::Varieties.:Liquid.\n", "Wider dynamic range came with the introduction of the first compander wireless microphone, offered by Nady Systems in 1976. Todd Rundgren and the Rolling Stones were the first popular musicians to use these systems live in concert. Nady joined CBS, Sennheiser and Vega in 1996 to receive a joint Emmy Award for \"pioneering [the] development of the broadcast wireless microphone\".\n\nSection::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n\nThe advantages are:\n\nBULLET::::- Greater freedom of movement for the artist or speaker\n\nBULLET::::- Avoidance of cabling problems common with wired microphones, caused by constant moving and stressing the cables\n", "BULLET::::- Operation time is limited relative to battery life; it is shorter than a normal condenser microphone due to greater drain on batteries from transmitting circuitry, and from circuitry giving extra features, if present.\n\nBULLET::::- Noise or dead spots (places where it doesn't work, especially in non-diversity systems)\n\nBULLET::::- Limited number of operating microphones at the same time and place, due to the limited number of radio channels (frequencies).\n\nBULLET::::- Higher cost in proportion to fewer other features\n\nSection::::Techniques.\n", "There are two microphones in each AirPod: one at ear level, facing outward, and another at the bottom of the stem.\n", "BULLET::::- ½\" 12 threads per inch (tpi) BSW used in older German and European stands\n\nBULLET::::- ⅜″ 16 threads per inch (tpi) BSW (uncommon in the U.S., used in the rest of the world)\n\nBULLET::::- ¼″ 20 threads per inch (tpi) BSW (uncommon in the U.S., used in the rest of the world)\n\nVarious male/female adapters are available to connect dissimlar sizes. Note: A compatible ¼″ 20 tpi UNC is common in photography tripods\n\nSection::::Bottomless microphone stand.\n", "More recently, since the 2010s, there has been increased interest and research into making piezoelectric MEMS microphones which are a significant architectural and material change from existing condenser style MEMS designs.\n\nSection::::Varieties.:Speakers as microphones.\n", "An improvised pop shield, functionally identical to the professional units, can be made with material from tights or stockings stretched over a kitchen sieve, embroidery hoop or a loop of wire such as a bent clothes hanger. It is important that the pop shield not be attached directly to the microphone as vibrations will be transmitted from the shield to the mic.\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "Some models have adjustable gain on the microphone itself to be able to accommodate different level sources, such as loud instruments or quiet voices. Adjustable gain helps to avoid clipping and maximize signal to noise ratio.\n\nSome models have adjustable squelch, which silences the output when the receiver does not get a strong or quality signal from the microphone, instead of reproducing noise. When squelch is adjusted, the threshold of the signal quality or level is adjusted.\n\nSection::::Products.\n", "Section::::Polar patterns.:Boundary or \"PZM\".\n", "Section::::Polar patterns.:Shotgun.\n", "Section::::Varieties.:Ribbon.\n", "In television and documentary applications, the lavalier will typically be clipped to an article of the subject's clothing, such as a tie, jacket or collar. In narrative motion picture usage, lavs are almost always hidden under clothing to conceal the fact that the person is mic'ed. The boom microphone typically sounds \"better\" and more natural than a lavalier mic and is always a soundperson's first choice; however, for exterior location shooting, it often may be more practical to use a lavalier. One such situation would be during a wide shot that forces the boom operator to keep a distance from the speaker that isn't close enough to achieve a good signal-to-noise ratio with the microphone. In that instance, a lav mic hidden on the speaker due to its proximity would achieve good signal-to-noise ratio for recording of speech. When lavalier microphones need to be concealed under clothing, the possibility of material scratching against the microphone is a certain risk. To minimize this problem, sound recordists sometimes wrap the head of the microphones in moleskin or place it inside a hollow-centered, column-shaped sponge and place it under a placard, behind a button, or within the knot of a tie.\n", "For quality of sound and soundness of quality-control this ... is in a class with ... industry-standard-setting productions. I usually don't pay much attention to producers of records in my reviews but since the liner notes of this ... (and others in this \"SM5000 Series\") credit producer Anton Kwiatkowski's \"award-winning\" microphone techniques, and the results are so unfailingly excellent as to be thoroughly identifiable with his work, his name deserves mention.\n\nSection::::Freelance Work: 1981 - Present.\n", "The MZ-M200 Walkman was Sony's MZ-RH1 with a powered stereo microphone included. The MZ-RH1 was targeted to a more general customer on Sony's consumer electronics sites and comes with no microphone bundle. The microphone was included to enable Hi-MD as a field recorder, and the higher price reflects the added value of the microphone.\n", "Section::::History.:Subsequent Microphones releases and performances.\n", "Section::::History.:Dissolution.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02296	Why does orange juice after brushing my teeth with mint tooth paste feel like the gods are punishing me?	Orange juice is very sour and very sweet. Your tooth paste temporarily makes you unable to taste sweetness. Without the sweet there to balance it, the sourness of orange juice becomes kinda overwhelming. [A similar thing happens with the miracle berry, which blocks sour and salty tastes]( URL_0 )	[ "Mint is a young girl who also happens to be the princess of the world of dreams and magic. The natural environment of her world is only a reflection of the dreams of the people on Earth. It is now in danger as people lose faith in their dreams and let darkness enter their hearts; this is causing the environment of Mint's world to wither and die.\n", "Section::::Music video and promotion.\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.\n", "Although it is used in many consumer products, mint may cause allergic reactions in some people, inducing symptoms such as abdominal cramps, diarrhea, headaches, heartburn, tingling or numbing around the mouth, anaphylaxis or contact dermatitis.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Insecticides.\n\nMint oil is also used as an environmentally friendly insecticide for its ability to kill some common pests such as wasps, hornets, ants, and cockroaches.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Room scent and aromatherapy.\n", "The leaf, fresh or dried, is the culinary source of mint. Fresh mint is usually preferred over dried mint when storage of the mint is not a problem. The leaves have a warm, fresh, aromatic, sweet flavor with a cool aftertaste, and are used in teas, beverages, jellies, syrups, candies, and ice creams. In Middle Eastern cuisine, mint is used on lamb dishes, while in British cuisine and American cuisine, mint sauce and mint jelly are used, respectively.\n", "After using toothpaste, orange juice and other juices have an unpleasant taste. Sodium lauryl sulfate alters taste perception. It can break down phospholipids that inhibit taste receptors for sweetness, giving food a bitter taste. In contrast, apples are known to taste more pleasant after using toothpaste. Distinguishing between the hypotheses that the bitter taste of orange juice results from stannous fluoride or from sodium lauryl sulfate is still an unresolved issue and it is thought that the menthol added for flavor may also take part in the alteration of taste perception when binding to lingual cold receptors.\n\nSection::::Safety.:Whitening toothpastes.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Prostanthera cruciflora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera cryptandroides\" - Wollemi mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera cuneata\" – alpine mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera decussata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera densa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera denticulata\" – rough mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera discolor\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera eckersleyana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera eriocalyx\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera eurybioides\" – Monarto mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera florifera\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera galbraithiae\" – Wellington mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera granitica\" – granite mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera grylloana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera hindii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera hirtula\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera howelliae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera incana\" - velvet mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera incisa\" – cut-leaved mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera incurvata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera junonis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera lanceolata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera laricoides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera lasianthos\" – Victorian Christmas bush\n", "BULLET::::- 1/2 cup white vinegar\n\nBULLET::::- A small bunch of fresh mint, washed\n\nBULLET::::- 2 small seedless cucumbers, washed, peeled and shredded\n\nBULLET::::- Lime rind (optional)\n\nMethod:\n\nBULLET::::- In a heavy-bottom pot combine sugar and water. Place on medium heat and stir till sugar is dissolved. Reduce heat and gently boil for 10–15 minutes.\n\nBULLET::::- Add 1/2 cup of vinegar and simmer for 25–30 minutes or until it thickens. Taste and adjust the level of sweetness or sourness of the syrup.\n\nBULLET::::- In the last minute or two add a few fresh mint leaves to the syrup.\n", "Section::::Release.\n", "In March 2011 Peppersmith launched a new range of mint products. Like the gum the Fresh Mints are made from real English mint are sugar free, contain no artificial flavours, colours, preservatives or aspartame and are also accredited by the British Dental Health Foundation.\n\nIn 2014 Peppersmith disappointed many customers by switching from a natural chicle gum base to an industry-standard polymer gum base.\n\nThe three Fresh Mints flavours available are 'Fine English Peppermint', 'Sicilian Lemon and Fine English Peppermint' and 'Eucalyptus and Fine English Peppermint'.\n\nSection::::Awards.\n", "Rolaids tablets come in many different flavors, including original peppermint, cherry, freshmint, fruit, tropical, punch, cool mint, berry, and apple.\n\nSection::::2010 recall.\n", "Mint essential oil and menthol are extensively used as flavorings in breath fresheners, drinks, antiseptic mouth rinses, toothpaste, chewing gum, desserts, and candies, such as mint (candy) and mint chocolate. The substances that give the mints their characteristic aromas and flavors are menthol (the main aroma of peppermint and Japanese peppermint) and pulegone (in pennyroyal and Corsican mint). The compound primarily responsible for the aroma and flavor of spearmint is -carvone.\n\nMints are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including buff ermine moths.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Traditional medicine and cosmetics.\n", "In August 2005, the variety of the mint which comes in \"mixed berries\" and \"cool mint\" flavors was changed to be sweetened with sucralose. In the Netherlands the flavors mint, licorice and fruit are also available in the sugar-free variety.\n\nAustralian varieties of Mentos are Mint, Fruit, Strong Mint, Berry Blast, Spearmint, Grape, Cola, Sour Mix, Tropical, Pineapple and Mocktail (piña colada and mojito). Four novel flavors feature in the \"New Rainbow\" variety rollpack: Kiwi, Cranberry, Caramel and Yuzu (a Korean/Japanese sour mandarin flavor). Mentos Gum is also available in Peppermint, Spearmint and Orangemint.\n", "Section::::Background and composition.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Prostanthera linearis\" – narrow-leaved mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera lithospermoides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera magnifica\" – magnificent mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera marifolia\" – Seaforth mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera megacalyx\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera melissifolia\" – balm mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera microphylla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera monticola\" – monkey mint-bush, buffalo mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera nanophylla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera nivea\" – snowy mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera nudula\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera ovalifolia\" – mint bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera palustris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera parvifolia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera patens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera pattila\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera pedicellata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera petrophila\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera phylicifolia\" – spiked mint-bush\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera porcata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera prostantheroides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera prunelloides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prostanthera rhombea\" - sparkling mint-bush\n", "Mint is a necessary ingredient in Touareg tea, a popular tea in northern African and Arab countries. Tea in Arab countries is popularly drunk this way. Alcoholic drinks sometimes feature mint for flavor or garnish, such as the mint julep and the mojito. \"Crème de menthe\" is a mint-flavored liqueur used in drinks such as the grasshopper.\n", "BULLET::::1. Reduction of sugar intake: \"G. sylvestre\" extracts taken in the form of lozenges, mouthwash, or tea diminishes the consumption of sweet foods and overall caloric intake. Extracts (formulated as a mint lozenge) reduced the desire for high-sugar foods and the pleasant taste of candy. Research also suggests that \"Gymnema sylvestre\" extracts reduce cravings for sugar. In a double-blind study, participants who received a gymnemic acid lozenge declined candy (before tasting it) more often than the placebo group.\n", "Section::::Local variants.\n\nIn the western United States, \"yerba buena\" most often refers to the species \"Clinopodium douglasii\" (synonyms: \"Satureja douglasii\", \"Micromeria douglasii\"), but may also refer to \"Eriodictyon californicum\", which is not a member of the mint family.\n\nIn parts of Central America \"yerba buena\" often refers to Eau de Cologne mint, a true mint sometimes called \"bergamot mint\" with a strong citrus-like aroma that is used medicinally and as a cooking herb and tea. \n", "Section::::Critical response.\n", "If salvia is smoked, then the main effects are experienced quickly. The most intense 'peak' is reached within a minute or so and lasts for 1–5 minutes, followed by a gradual tapering off. At 5–10 minutes, less intense yet still noticeable effects typically persist, giving way to a returning sense of the everyday and familiar until back to baseline after about 15 to 20 minutes.\n\nSection::::Ingestion.:Modern methods.:Quid chewing.\n", "It is grown in Hungary for essential oil and menthol production. It also contains a significant amount of pulegone.\n\nThe leaves have a distinct peppermint smell when pinched or crushed as the plant contains aromatic oils. The leaves can be picked at any time during plant growth, and may be dried. They are used in making mint jelly, mint tea, and mint leaf candy. First nations people use mint tea for bad breath or toothache, or to cure hiccups. The mint can also be used for fox or lynx bait.\n", "The sweet-blocking effect of \"G. sylvestre\" lasts from 15 to 50 minutes and may even persist for several hours. Gymnemic acids apparently have no long-term effects on taste and they do not influence bitter, salty, and sour taste perception.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "BULLET::::1. \"Minthostachys acris\" - Peru\n\nBULLET::::2. \"Minthostachys acutifolia\" - Bolivia\n\nBULLET::::3. \"Minthostachys andina\" - La Paz region of Bolivia\n\nBULLET::::4. \"Minthostachys diffusa\" - La Paz region of Bolivia\n\nBULLET::::5. \"Minthostachys dimorpha\" - Peru\n\nBULLET::::6. \"Minthostachys elongata\" - Tarija region of Bolivia\n\nBULLET::::7. \"Minthostachys fusca\" - La Paz region of Bolivia\n\nBULLET::::8. \"Minthostachys glabrescens\" - Ecuador\n\nBULLET::::9. \"Minthostachys latifolia\" - Peru, Bolivia\n\nBULLET::::10. \"Minthostachys mollis\" - Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru\n\nBULLET::::11. \"Minthostachys ovata\" - Bolivia\n\nBULLET::::12. \"Minthostachys rubra\" - Ecuador\n\nBULLET::::13. \"Minthostachys salicifolia\" - Peru\n\nBULLET::::14. \"Minthostachys septentrionalis\" - Venezuela, Colombia\n\nBULLET::::15. \"Minthostachys setosa\" - Bolivia\n", "Doses for chewing vastly exceed doses used for smoking. By calculating the concentrations per leaf (\"an average concentration of 2.45 mg per gram\" of leaf), the average weight per leaf (\"about 50 g\" per 20 leaves, or 2.5g/leaf), and the standard dose for chewing (about 8-28 leaves), the doses can range from about 50 mg to 172 mg.\n\nSection::::Ingestion.:Modern methods.\n\nModern methods of ingestion include smoking or chewing the leaf, or using a tincture, as described in the following sections.\n\nSection::::Ingestion.:Modern methods.:Smoking.\n", "Found in numerous species of mint, (including peppermint, spearmint, and watermint), the naturally-occurring compound menthol is a weak KOR agonist owing to its antinociceptive, or pain blocking, effects in rats. In addition, mints can desensitize a region through the activation of TRPM8 receptors (the 'cold'/menthol receptor).\n\nSection::::Ligands.:Natural agonists.:\"Salvia divinorum\".\n\nThe key compound in \"Salvia divinorum\", salvinorin A, is known as a powerful, short-acting KOR agonist.\n\nSection::::Ligands.:Natural agonists.:Ibogaine.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03194	How Did the 1995 Sarin Gas Attack in Tokyo Only Kill 12?	I believe a big part of it was the way they chose to deliver the Sarin. They used liquid sarin in plastic bags wrapped in newspaper, which they punctured so that it would evaporate out into the air. So it wasn't as deadly as if they'd flooded the place with Sarin gas, so the vast majority of the victims weren't severely effected by the gas.	[ "The fatalities included Yutaka Kobayashi, a 23-year-old salaryman, and Mii Yasumoto, a 29-year-old medical school student.\n\nSection::::Investigation.\n\nPolice received an anonymous tip implicating Aum Shinrikyo after the gas attacks but the sect was not officially implicated in the incident until after the later Tokyo subway sarin attack. One section of the tip read, \"Matsumoto was definitely an experiment of sorts. The result of this experiment in an open space: seven dead, over 200 injured. If sarin is released in an enclosed space, say, a crowded subway it is easy to imagine a massive catastrophe.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Matsumoto incident (1994); Sarin gas attack carried out by members of the Aum Shinrikyo group killed 7 people and injured approximately 200\n\nBULLET::::- Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway (1995); attack carried out by members of the Aum Shinrikyo group killed 12 and injured 1,034\n\nBULLET::::- Marshall Applewhite (d. 1997)\n\nBULLET::::- Moscow theater hostage crisis (2002); to end the crisis, the Federal Security Service (FSB) pumped an undisclosed chemical agent into the building's ventilation system, killing 40 militants and 133 hostages\n", "By mid-afternoon, the mildly affected victims had recovered from vision problems and were released from hospital. Most of the remaining patients were well enough to go home the following day, and within a week only a few critical patients remained in hospital. The death toll on the day of the attack was eight, with four more dying subsequently.\n\nSeveral of those affected were exposed to sarin only by helping those who had been directly exposed. Among these were passengers on other trains, subway workers and health care workers.\n", "On the day of the attack, ambulances transported 688 patients and nearly five thousand people reached hospitals by other means. In total, 278 hospitals saw 5,510 patients – 17 of whom were deemed critical, 37 severe, and 984 moderately ill with vision problems. Most of those reporting to hospitals were the \"worried well\", who had to be distinguished from those who were ill. The categorization was that a moderate casualty just had miosis (excessive constriction of the pupil), a severe casualty was short of breath or had muscular twitching or gastrointestinal problems as well as miosis, and a severe or critical casualty required intensive care unit care.\n", "Witnesses have said that subway entrances resembled battlefields. Several of those affected by sarin went to work in spite of their symptoms, not realizing that they had been exposed to sarin. Most of the victims sought medical treatment as the symptoms worsened and as they learned of the actual circumstances of the attacks via news broadcasts.\n", "At 11:30 pm, Matsumoto police received an urgent report from paramedics that multiple casualties were being transported to hospital. The patients were suffering from darkened vision, eye pain, headaches, nausea, diarrhoea, miosis, and numbness in their hands. Some victims described having seen a fog with a pungent and irritating smell floating by. A total of 274 people were treated. Five dead residents were discovered in their apartments, and two died in hospital immediately after admission. An eighth victim, Sumiko Kono, remained in a coma for 14 years and died in 2008.\n", "On the morning of March 20, 1995, the Tokyo subway system was hit by synchronized chemical attacks on five trains. Using simple lunch-box-sized dispensers to release a mixture containing the military nerve agent sarin, members of the Aum Shinrikyo religious cult killed twelve people and injured about 5,000 others. The incident was unusual because the cult was using nerve gas that it had made in its own facilities; however, using unsophisticated means to disperse this low-quality agent, the attackers produced results less impressive than those achieved with ordinary explosives in the attacks on the Madrid and London transport systems in 2004 and 2005.\n", "It was life frozen. Life had stopped, like watching a film and suddenly it hangs on one frame. It was a new kind of death to me. (…) The aftermath was worse. Victims were still being brought in. Some villagers came to our chopper. They had 15 or 16 beautiful children, begging us to take them to hospital. So all the press sat there and we were each handed a child to carry. As we took off, fluid came out of my little girl's mouth and she died in my arms.\n", "As there was a severe shortage of antidotes in Tokyo, sarin antidote stored in rural hospitals as an antidote for herbicide/insecticide poisoning was delivered to nearby Shinkansen stations, where it was collected by a Ministry of Health official on a train bound for Tokyo.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.:Defense offered by American scholars.\n", "Due to it being a warm evening, many residents had left their windows open while they slept – the first emergency call was made at 11:09pm. Within an hour, a mass disaster caused by an unknown toxic gas had been declared. Fifty-eight people were hospitalised, of whom eight people died, and an additional 253 people sought medical care at outpatient clinics.\n", "Again, the group did not attempt to purify the resulting product, which resembled a foul-smelling brown slurry. Further failed attacks on individuals were attempted in 1993 and 1994 using botulinum – first using a homemade sprayer mounted to a car, and then by mixing with juice – but neither had any effects. Five days before the sarin attack on the Tokyo subways, botulinum was dispersed in a failed attack on Kasumigaseki station – a dissident member had replaced the active compound with water, but the cult had failed to acquire an active strain of \"C. botulinum\".\n", "The Japanese police had already discovered at Aum's main compound back in March a sophisticated chemical weapons laboratory that was capable of producing thousands of kilograms a year of the poison.\n\nLater investigation showed that Aum not only created the sarin used in the subway attacks, but had committed previous chemical and biological weapons attacks, including a previous attack with sarin that killed eight people and injured 144.\n", "Section::::Attack.:Hibiya Line.\n\nSection::::Attack.:Hibiya Line.:Tōbu Dōbutsu Kōen-bound.\n\nToru Toyoda and his driver Katsuya Takahashi were assigned to release sarin on the northeast-bound Hibiya Line.\n", "Section::::Attack.:Chiyoda Line.\n\nThe team of Ikuo Hayashi and Tomomitsu Niimi were assigned to drop and puncture two sarin packets on the Chiyoda Line. Hayashi was the perpetrator and Niimi was his getaway driver. On the way to Sendagi Station, Niimi purchased newspapers to wrap the sarin packets in—the Japan Communist Party's \"Akahata\" and the Sōka Gakkai's \"Seikyo Shimbun\".\n", "When the facility developed leaks, buckets were used to contain spills; several technicians inhaled fumes on repeated occasions, developing 'symptoms ranging from nosebleeds to convulsions', and toxic chemicals leaked from the site and into the soil. Citizens lodged complaints about foul smells several times, with the cult claiming that the US Army had assaulted the complex with poison gas. An accident at the plant in November 1994 would eventually force the suspension of the production of chemical agents.\n", "St. Luke's International Hospital in Tsukiji was one of very few hospitals in Tokyo at that time to have the entire building wired and piped for conversion into a \"field hospital\" in the event of a major disaster. This proved to be a very fortunate coincidence as the hospital was able to take in most of the 600+ victims at Tsukiji Station, resulting in no fatalities at that station.\n", "To aid in this, Tsuchiya was ordered by Endo to produce sarin again on 18 March - due to a lack of normal precursors as a result of the chemical destruction process, the sarin produced was of a lower quality and caused the normally colourless sarin to appear brown. 30 kg of the chemical was manufactured and stored in a large container, from which it was decanted into plastic bags. Later forensic analysis found that the sarin utilised in the attack was roughly half as pure as that used in the Matsumoto attack.\n\nSection::::Attack.\n", "On the morning of 20 March 1995, Aum members released a binary chemical weapon, most closely chemically similar to sarin, in a coordinated attack on five trains in the Tokyo subway system, killing 13 commuters, seriously injuring 54 and affecting 980 more. Some estimates claim as many as 6,000 people were injured by the sarin. It is difficult to obtain exact numbers since many victims are reluctant to come forward.\n", "On 27 November 2004, all the Aum trials concluded, excluding Asahara's, as the death sentence of Seiichi Endo was upheld by Japan's Supreme Court. As a result, among a total of 189 members indicted, 13 were sentenced to death, five were sentenced to life in prison, 80 were given prison sentences of various lengths, 87 received suspended sentences, two were fined, and one was found not guilty.\n", "The day after the attack, dead fish were found in a pond near the scene. The bodies of dogs, birds, and a large number of caterpillars were found in the area. Grass and trees had withered and the trees' leaves had discoloured. Nearly all of the casualties had been discovered within a radius of 150 metres from the centre, near the pond. People near open windows or in air-conditioned rooms had been exposed to the gas. Forensic investigation using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry revealed that the poison was the nerve agent sarin.\n", "He was subsequently ordered to produce a small amount – within a month, the necessary equipment had been ordered and installed, and 10-20g of sarin had been produced via synthetic procedures derived from the five-step DHMP process as originally described by IG Farben in 1938, and as used by the Allies after World War II.\n", "The Satyan-7 facility was declared ready for occupancy by September 1993 with the capacity to produce about 40–50 litres of sarin, being equipped with 30L capacity mixing flasks within protective hoods, and eventually employing 100 Aum members; the UN would later estimate the value of the building and its contents at $30 million.\n\nDespite the safety features and often state-of-the-art equipment and practices, the operation of the facility was very unsafe - one analyst would later describe the cult as having 'a high degree of book learning, but virtually nothing in the way of technical skill'.\n", "Toyoda was twenty-seven at the time of the attack. He studied Applied Physics at University of Tokyo's Science Department and graduated with honors. He also held a master's degree, and was about to begin doctoral studies when he joined Aum, where he belonged to the Chemical Brigade in their Ministry of Science and Technology.\n\nToyoda was sentenced to death. The appeal of his death sentence was rejected by the Tokyo High Court on July 28, 2003, and was upheld by the Supreme Court on November 6, 2009. Toyoda was executed by hanging at Tokyo Detention Center on 26 July 2018.\n", "Survivors said the gas at first smelled of sweet apples and reported that people died in a number of ways, suggesting a combination of toxic chemicals. Some of the victims \"just dropped dead\" while others \"died of laughing,\" while still others took a few minutes to die, first \"burning and blistering\" or coughing up green vomit. Many were injured or perished in the panic that followed the attack, especially those who were blinded by the chemicals. \n", "Section::::Background.:Chemical weapon production.\n\nTsuchiya had established a small laboratory in their Kamikuishiki complex in November 1992. After initial research (done at Tsukuba University, where he had previously studied chemistry), he suggested to Hideo Murai – a senior Aum advisor who had tasked him with researching chemical weapons in November 1992, out of fear that the cult would soon be attacked with them – that the most cost-effective substance to synthesise would be sarin.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01441	If aluminum cans are recyclable, then why do you never see scratches or scuff marks, or bends on the aluminum when buying a new can of soda?	They are not reused, they are recycled. This means they are melted down to liquid aluminum, and new cans made.	[ "The easy-open aluminum end for beverage cans was developed by Alcoa in 1962 for the Pittsburgh Brewing Company and is now used in nearly all of the canned beer market.\n\nSection::::Recycling.\n\nAluminum cans are often made with recycled aluminum; approximately 68% of a standard North American can is recycled aluminum. In 2012, 92% of the aluminum beverage cans sold in Switzerland were recycled. Cans are the most recycled beverage container, at a rate of 69% worldwide.\n", "The vast amount of aluminium used means that even small percentage losses are large expenses, so the flow of material is well monitored and accounted for financial reasons. Efficient production and recycling benefits the environment as well.\n\nSection::::Process for beverage cans.\n\nAluminium beverage cans are usually recycled by the following method:\n\nBULLET::::1. Cans are first divided from municipal waste, usually through an eddy current separator, and cut into small, equally sized pieces to lessen the volume and make it easier for the machines that separate them.\n", "Section::::Recycled Materials vs New Materials.:Aluminum.\n\nAluminum offers the most savings, with cans from recycled material requiring as little as 4% of the energy required to make the same cans from bauxite ore. Metals don't degrade as they're recycled in the same way plastics and paper do, fibers shortening every cycle, so many metals are prime candidates for recycling, especially considering their high value per ton compared to other recyclables.\n\nSection::::Recycled Materials vs New Materials.:Plastics.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nA common practice since the early 1900s and extensively capitalized during World War II, aluminium recycling is not new. It was, however, a low-profile activity until the late 1960s, when the exploding popularity of aluminium beverage cans finally placed recycling into the public consciousness.\n", "In many parts of the world a deposit can be recovered by turning in empty plastic, glass, and aluminium containers. Scrap metal dealers often purchase aluminium cans in bulk, even when deposits are not offered. Aluminium is one of the most cost-effective materials to recycle. When recycled without other metals being mixed in, the can–lid combination is perfect for producing new stock for the main part of the can—the loss of magnesium during melting is made up for by the high magnesium content of the lid. Also, reducing ores such as bauxite into aluminium requires large amounts of electricity, making recycling cheaper than producing new metal.\n", "Brazil recycles 98.2% of its aluminium can production, equivalent to 14.7 billion beverage cans per year, ranking first in the world, more than Japan's 82.5% recovery rate. Brazil has topped the aluminium can recycling charts eight years in a row.\n\nSection::::Secondary aluminium recycling.\n", "Aluminium recycling is the process by which scrap aluminium can be reused in products after its initial production. The process involves simply re-melting the metal, which is far less expensive and energy-intensive than creating new aluminium through the electrolysis of aluminium oxide (), which must first be mined from bauxite ore and then refined using the Bayer process. Recycling scrap aluminium requires only 5% of the energy used to make new aluminium from the raw ore. For this reason, approximately 36% of all aluminium produced in the United States comes from old recycled scrap. Used beverage containers are the largest component of processed aluminum scrap, and most of it is manufactured back into aluminium cans.\n", "Cans can be made with easy open features. Some cans have screw caps for pouring liquids and resealing. Some have hinged covers or slip-on covers for easy access. Paint cans often have a removable plug on the top for access and for reclosing.\n\nSection::::Recycling.\n\nSteel from cans and other sources is the most recycled packaging material. Around 65% of steel cans are recycled. In the United States, 63% of steel cans are recycled, compared to 52% of aluminium cans. In Europe the recycling rate in 2016 is 79,5%.\n", "Sources for recycled aluminium include aircraft, automobiles, bicycles, boats, computers, cookware, gutters, siding, wire, and many other products that need a strong lightweight material, or a material with high thermal conductivity. As recycling does not transmute the element, aluminium can be recycled indefinitely and still be used to produce any product for which new aluminium could have been used.\n\nSection::::Advantages.\n", "One issue is that the top of the can is made from a blend of aluminum and magnesium to increase its strength. When the can is melted for recycling, the mixture is unsuitable for either the top or the bottom/side. Instead of mixing recycled metal with more aluminum (to soften it) or magnesium (to harden it), a new approach uses annealing to produce an alloy that works for both.\n", "Aluminium dross recycling\n\nAluminium dross, a byproduct of the aluminium smelting process, can be mechanically recycled to separate the residual aluminium metal from the aluminium oxide.\n\nSection::::Thermo-mechanical metal extraction.\n\nThe mechanical process of recycling does not use any toxic chemicals previously used in the process of extracting the valuable aluminium in the dross.\n", "Recovery of the metal through recycling has become an important task of the aluminium industry. Recycling was a low-profile activity until the late 1960s, when the growing use of aluminium beverage cans brought it to public awareness. Recycling involves melting the scrap, a process that requires only 5% of the energy used to produce aluminium from ore, though a significant part (up to 15% of the input material) is lost as dross (ash-like oxide). An aluminium stack melter produces significantly less dross, with values reported below 1%.\n", "Aluminium cans are coated internally to protect the aluminium from oxidizing. Despite this coating, trace amounts of aluminium can be degraded into the liquid, the amount depending on factors such as storage temperature and liquid composition. Chemical compounds used in the internal coating of the can include types of epoxy resin.\n", "Steel is a permanent material (a steel can can be recycled again and again without loss of quality). Recycling a single can saves the equivalent power for one laundry load, 1 hour of TV or 24 hours of lighting (10W LED bulb). \n\nSteel beverage cans are recycled by being melted down in an electric arc furnace or basic oxygen furnace. \n", "Section::::Metals.\n\nSection::::Metals.:Aluminium.\n\nAluminium is one of the most efficient and widely recycled materials. Aluminium is shredded and ground into small pieces or crushed into bales. These pieces or bales are melted in an aluminium smelter to produce molten aluminium. By this stage, the recycled aluminium is indistinguishable from virgin aluminium and further processing is identical for both. This process does not produce any change in the metal, so aluminium can be recycled indefinitely.\n", "Metals can be converted in a number of ways dependently on their characteristics.\n\nAluminium can be reused for cans as well as for aeroplanes, and the processing phase can occur in diverse ways. Aluminium processing facilities are mostly domestic, but there are also exports. Vietnam represents the major importer (8% of the total collected).\n\nCans receive similar treatments, but can be either reconverted in cans ex-novo, or being adapted into construction materials.\n\nSection::::Current management system.:Recovery and reuse.:Recycling.:Construction and demolition.\n", "In the late 1960s, governments became aware of waste from the industrial production; they enforced a series of regulations favoring recycling and waste disposal. Söderberg anodes, which save capital and labor to bake the anodes but are more harmful to the environment (because of a greater difficulty in collecting and disposing of the baking fumes), fell into disfavor, and production began to shift back to the pre-baked anodes. The aluminium industry began promoting the recycling of aluminium cans in an attempt to avoid restrictions on them. This sparked recycling of aluminium previously used by end-consumers: for example, in the United States, levels of recycling of such aluminium increased 3.5 times from 1970 to 1980 and 7.5 times to 1990. Production costs for primary aluminium grew in the 1970s and 1980s, and this also contributed to the rise of aluminium recycling. Closer composition control and improved refining technology diminished the quality difference between primary and secondary aluminium.\n", "Most steel cans also carry some form of recycling identification such as the Metal Recycles Forever Mark Recyclable Steel and the Choose Steel campaign logo . There is also a campaign in Europe called Every Can Counts, encouraging can recycling in the workplace \n\nSection::::Recycling.:Sustainability and recycling of steel beverage cans.:Smaller carbon footprint.\n", "From an ecological perspective, steel may be regarded as a closed-loop material: post-consumer waste can be collected, recycled and used to make new cans or other products. Each tonne of scrap steel recycled saves 1.5 tonnes of CO, 1.4 tonnes of iron ore and 740kg of coal. Steel is the world’s most recycled material, with more than 85% of all the world’s steel products being recycled at the end of their life: an estimated 630 million tonnes of steel scrap were recycled in 2017, saving 945 million tonnes of CO. \n\nSection::::Recycling.:Sustainability and recycling of steel beverage cans.:Steel can recycling.\n", "According to Alcoa Aluminum Company, in 2015 about 34 cans are required to achieve a weight of one pound. The unstated assumption is that most of those will be the typical 12-ounce can. Wise Recycling in Pensacola, FL also reported that the price they paid for aluminum cans varied, based on the published price of aluminum in the commodities market. They denied that there was a seasonal price fluctuation, and stated that the nationally published commodity price was the sole determining factor in what they paid. Some recycle centers pay a slightly higher price (normally 2 cents) for 100 pounds or more of cans, while others pay the same price regardless of the weight being submitted.\n", "Section::::An example of a recycling facility.\n\nAn operating aluminium dross recycling plant (news coverage) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t_z8jlDgdCU\n\nSection::::Products that can be made with the residual.\n\nA variety of products can be made from the residual aluminium dross after it is recycled into aluminium oxide. See more information on aluminium oxide. Aluminium oxide has a variety of industrial uses which includes being used in paint, dye, concrete, explosives, and fertilizer.\n\nSection::::Dross recycling is different.\n", "Metals are inherently recyclable, so in principle, can be used over and over again, minimizing these negative environmental impacts and saving energy. For example, 95% of the energy used to make aluminium from bauxite ore is saved by using recycled material.\n", "Deposits were introduced on aluminum cans in 1996, on PET bottles in 2008, and on glass bottles in 2012. Almost all soft drinks are covered by the program, in addition to water, beer, cider, long drinks, sport drinks, juice, and liquor/spirits/wine sold by Alko. Milk is exempt. The system is administered by Suomen palautuspakkaus Oy (abbr. Palpa), which is a private consortium of beverage importers and manufacturers. In 2016, aluminum cans were recovered at a rate of 96%, PET bottles 92%, and one-way glass 88%. The deposit values for these containers are as follows: \n\nBULLET::::- Plastic <0.5L: €0.10\n", "Recycling aluminium uses about 5% of the energy required to create aluminium from bauxite; the amount of energy required to convert aluminium oxide into aluminium can be vividly seen when the process is reversed during the combustion of thermite or ammonium perchlorate composite propellant. \n\nAluminium die extrusion is a specific way of getting reusable material from aluminium scraps but does not require a large energy output of a melting process. In 2003, half of the products manufactured with aluminium were sourced from recycled aluminium material.\n\nSection::::Advantages.:Environmental savings.\n", "The recycling of aluminium generally produces significant cost savings over the production of new aluminium, even when the cost of collection, separation and recycling are taken into account. Over the long term, even larger national savings are made when the reduction in the capital costs associated with landfills, mines, and international shipping of raw aluminium are considered.\n\nSection::::Advantages.:Energy savings.\n" ]	[ "Recycled cans should show signs of wear.", "When cans are recycled they should show signs of previous use." ]	[ "The cans are completely melted down to a pure metal to be re made into a fesh can. ", "When cans are recycled they are melted and then recreated into new cans, eliminating signs of previous use." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Recycled cans should show signs of wear.", "When cans are recycled they should show signs of previous use." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The cans are completely melted down to a pure metal to be re made into a fesh can. ", "When cans are recycled they are melted and then recreated into new cans, eliminating signs of previous use." ]
2018-11239	What stops a website from using my credit card and taking all my money?	Because it's a crime and they will be charged. More importantly, the credit card company will not work with them again.	[ "Section::::Profits, losses, and punishment.:Credit card companies.\n\nTo prevent being \"charged back\" for fraud transactions, merchants can sign up for services offered by Visa and MasterCard called Verified by Visa and MasterCard SecureCode, under the umbrella term 3-D Secure. This requires consumers to add additional information to confirm a transaction.\n\nOften enough online merchants do not take adequate measures to protect their websites from fraud attacks, for example by being blind to sequencing. In contrast to more automated product transactions, a clerk overseeing \"card present\" authorization requests must approve the customer's removal of the goods from the premises in real time.\n", "BULLET::::3. \"commercial\" websites which clearly do a substantial volume of business over the Internet, and through which customers in any location can immediately engage in business with the website owner, definitely provide a basis for jurisdiction.\n\nSection::::Property as a basis for jurisdiction.\n", "Virtual currencies lack many of the regulations and consumer protections that legal tender currencies have. Under U.S. law, a cardholder of a credit card is protected from liability in excess of $50 if the card was used for an unauthorized transaction.\n", "For the affected customer, blocking of a domain name is a far bigger problem than a registrar refusing to provide a service; typically, the registrar keeps full control of the domain names in question. In the case of a European travel agency, more than 80 .com websites were shut down without any court process and held by the registrar since then. The travel agency had to rebuild the sites under the .net top-level domain instead.\n", "Since there is no way to regulate overseas payment processors, section 5365 of the Act allows the United States and state attorneys general to bring civil actions in federal court. The courts have the power to issue temporary restraining orders and preliminary and permanent injunctions to prevent restricted transactions. The only problem with this enormous power is that it is, again, practically useless against payment processors who are entirely overseas. The Act provides for limited civil remedies against \"interactive computer services.\" An Internet service provider can be ordered to remove sites and block hyperlinks to sites that are transmitting money to unlawful gambling sites. ISPs are under no obligation to monitor whether its patrons are sending funds to payment processors or even directly to gambling sites. But once it receives notice from a U.S. Attorney or a state attorney general, the ISP can be forced to appear at a hearing to be ordered to sever its links.\n", "If an account is subject to fraud or unauthorized use, PayPal puts the \"Limited Access\" designation on the account. PayPal has had several notable cases in which the company has frozen the account of users such as Richard Kyanka, owner of the website Something Awful, in September 2005, Cryptome in March 2010, or April Winchell, the owner of Regretsy, in December 2011. The account was reinstated, and PayPal apologized and donated to her cause.\n", "BULLET::::1. \"passive\" websites, which merely provide information, will almost never provide sufficient contacts for jurisdiction. Such a website will only provide a basis for jurisdiction if the website itself constitutes an intentional tort such as slander or defamation, \"and\" if it is directed at the jurisdiction in question;\n\nBULLET::::2. \"interactive\" websites, which permit the exchange of information between website owner and visitors, \"may\" be enough for jurisdiction, depending on the website's level of interactivity and commerciality, and the number of contacts which the website owner has developed with the forum due to the presence of the website;\n", "Such a notice and assessment would provide \"actual knowledge\" of criminality by a platform, meaning that a platform would no longer be able to rely upon the defence available as part of the E-Commerce Directive that they are an intermediary \"hosting\" content without an awareness of it. Therefore, although a notice sent by CTIRU to a platform - requesting the removal of content - may request compliance on a voluntary basis, such a notice may also act to ensure that a platform is able to be considered as a \"publisher\" of the content for the purposes of future legal action if the notice is not complied with.\n", "(i) a service provider, as that term is defined in section 512(k)(1) of title 17, United States Code, or other operator of a domain name system server shall take reasonable steps that will prevent a domain name from resolving to that domain name's Internet protocol address;\n\n(ii) a financial transaction provider, as that term is defined in section 5362(4) of title 31, United States Code, shall take reasonable measures, as expeditiously as practical, to prevent--\n\n(I) its service from processing transactions for customers located within the United States based on purchases associated with the domain name; and\n", "Many forums also provide related computer crime services such as phishing kits, malware and spam lists. They may also act as a distribution point for the latest fraud tutorials either for free or commercially. ICQ was at one point the instant messenger of choice due to its anonymity as well as MSN clients modified to use PGP. Carding related sites may be hosted on botnet based fast flux web hosting for resilience against law enforcement action.\n", "Stephen and Theodora \"Cissy\" McComb, owners of Cisero’s Ristorante and Nightclub in Park City, Utah, were allegedly fined for a breach for which two forensics firms could not find evidence as having occurred: \"The PCI system is less a system for securing customer card data than a system for raking in profits for the card companies via fines and penalties. Visa and MasterCard impose fines on merchants even when there is no fraud loss at all, simply because the fines 'are profitable to them'.\"\n", "A 2014 report from Group-IB suggested that Russian cybercriminals could be making as much as $680 million a year based on their market research.\n\nIn December 2014 the Tor based Tor Carding Forum closed following a site hack, with its administrator 'Verto' directing users to migrate to the Evolution darknet market's forums which would go on to be the largest darknet market exit scam ever seen.\n", "Law professor Jason Mazzone wrote, \"Damages are also not available to the site owner unless a claimant 'knowingly materially' misrepresented that the law covers the targeted site, a difficult legal test to meet. The owner of the site can issue a counter-notice to restore payment processing and advertising, but services need not comply with the counter-notice.\"\n", "The Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) also prohibits the storage of CSC (and other sensitive authorisation data) post transaction authorisation. This applies globally to anyone who stores, processes or transmits card holder data.\n", "While many systems are in place by the card provider to identify fraud, the card holder is left with the ultimate responsibility. Preemptive steps to reduce chances of fraud include installing anti-virus software, keeping and maintaining current records, and reviewing statements and charges regularly. The objective is to provide a first defense in spotting fraudulent charges. Exercising caution on online sites, especially suspicious or non-established sites, as well as in foreign countries is also advisable. The legitimacy of websites should be verified. Checking with the Better Business Bureau is a first step to see how that company has established themselves. Once on a website, the user can check what security or encryption software the website utilizes. A padlock to the left of the URL, can sometimes be found to signify additional security is being implemented. A physical address for the company, or sending an email to one of the contact addresses can further verify the reliability of the company. Even on trusted sites, it is important to be diligent that one has not navigated away from that site. Other safe practices include being cautious of account number distribution, keeping credit cards separate from a wallet or purse, keeping constant sight of credit cards, and never signing receipts with blank spaces above the total. On accounts in which one has saved card information, it is important to have a strong password with a mix of numbers and symbols. Using different passwords for different sites, is also strongly encouraged.\n", "Identity theft has become a rising issue. Scam artists often create sites with popular domain names such as \"ebay\" in order to attract unknowing eBay customers. These sites will ask for personal information including credit card numbers. Numerous cases have been documented in which users find unknown charges on their credit card statements and withdrawals in their bank statements after purchasing something online. Unfortunately, websites often have a liability statement claiming that they are not responsible for any losses or damages. Furthermore, illegal or restricted products and services have been found on auction sites. Anything from illegal drugs, pirated works, prayers, and even sex have appeared on such sites. Although most of these items are blacklisted, some still find their way onto the internet.\n", "Under section 5364, Federal regulators have 270 days from the date this bill is signed into law to come up with regulations to identify and block money transactions to gambling sites. The regulations will require everyone connected with a \"designated payment system\" to i.d. and block all restricted transactions. The Act allows the federal regulators to exempt transactions where it would be impractical to require identifying and blocking. This obviously applies to paper checks. Banks have no way now of reading who the payee is on paper checks and cannot be expected to go into that business.\n", "For the vast majority of payment systems accessible on the public Internet, baseline authentication (of the financial institution on the receiving end), data integrity, and confidentiality of the electronic information exchanged over the public network involves obtaining a certificate from an authorized certification authority (CA) who provides public-key infrastructure (PKI). Even with transport layer security (TLS) in place to safeguard the portion of the transaction conducted over public networks—especially with payment systems—the customer-facing website itself must be coded with great care, so as not to leak credentials and expose customers to subsequent identity theft. \n", "The UIGEA does not expressly prohibit Internet gambling, but it does make it illegal for an online gambling business to knowingly accept fund transfers. The Bitcoin gambling sites are currently circumventing this legislation by keeping their funds in bitcoin cryptocurrency wallets. However, in order for these sites to exchange their Bitcoins for a fiat currency they must use a financial exchange, so even by receiving their earnings with Bitcoin, the online gambling sites may come into jurisdiction of the UIGEA if the gambling business accepts payment through \"(i) automated clearing house (ACH) systems, (ii) card systems, (iii) check collection systems, (iv) money transmitting businesses, and (v) wire transfer systems.\"\n", "Section::::Mitigating the Risk of Internet Fraud.\n\nBusinesses selling goods and services online bear a large portion of internet fraud costs -- accord to the 2017 LexisNexis study, fraud costs as a percentage of revenues for online retail (physical goods) and eCommerce (digital goods) are 2.17% and 2.39% respectively, with online gift card fraud being an area of special concern.\n", "On July 2, 2009, 11pm, the entire web infrastructure for Authorize.Net (main website, merchant gateway website, etc.) went offline and stayed down all morning July 3, 2009. None of the over 200,000 merchants who use Authorize.Net payment gateway were able to process credit cards. Authorize.Net's phone numbers were closed July 3 because of the July 4th holiday as previously announced on their website (though the website was down at the time). Other companies that have nearby offices have reported to the media that there was a fire. Authorize.net started a Twitter account that morning, but did not update their phones to give notice to customers until July 5 when they reopened phones.\n", "The Illegal Gambling Business Act may also prohibit Bitcoin gambling sites because the act broadly prohibits all gambling businesses that are in (i) \"violation of the law of a State or political subdivision in which it is conducted; (ii) involves five or more persons who conduct, finance, manage, supervise, direct, or own all or part of such business; and (iii) has been or remains in substantially continuous operation for a period in excess of thirty days or has a gross revenue of $2,000 in any single day.\" Under IRS regulations Bitcoin and other VCs are treated as property, so losses and gains must be calculated to determine the value of the virtual currency. If an online gambling business earned the value of at least $2,000 dollars in Bitcoin \"in any single day\", they may fall under this act.\n", "StormPay no longer accepts credit cards, no doubt due to the massive wave of billing disputes and subsequent chargebacks that occurred as a result of the massive account freezes previously mentioned. The only way to fund a StormPay account is via e-check, which provides none of the consumer protections against fraud and misuse that are statutorily provided to credit card holders.\n", "On 31 January 2006, StormPay formally announced on its website that it would not allow itself to be used on any site which also offered another payment processor, such as PayPal or e-gold. The justification of this move was to prevent the transfer of funds between payment processors, which would increase the likelihood and untraceability of fraudulent money. However, this move was also seen by some as the first step in establishing a monopoly over its niche market. As a result, many autosurf websites elected to remove other payment options, while others elected to remove StormPay. This occurred despite the fact that StormPay, at one time, provided members with the option to fund their StormPay accounts via e-gold.\n", "According to the indictment, many vendors redirected traffic and potential purchases of their products to their own websites in order to complete the transaction. Each individual who owned a website has their website listed in the indictment. Some vendors occasionally gave out free credit card dumps or compromised PayPal logins for fun, to showcase their products.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08667	How can documentaries like "Dope" on Netflix find and interview people doing clearly illegal things?	I’m currently doing a doco on what some people have described as a “weed cult”. The way we found them was after doing a doco on hypnotherapy a buddy of mine was talking to a client of the therapist. They told him about the cult and then blew him off for months he got the info. I don’t know how they get away with it. Last time they had anyone film in their “church” they got raided.	[ "During the shooting of an interview with three drug dealers in Beek, Netherlands for the third season of the show, local police invaded their home and arrested the men whilst the camera was rolling. According to local newspaper \"De Limburger\", police had been monitoring one of the dealers and thus found out about the scheduled interview. The two filmmakers present were interrogated but released shortly after. According to police, firearms found on the table were fake, as was a large portion of the alleged drugs.\n", "Dope (Netflix series)\n\nDope is an American documentary web television series airing since on Netflix. The show revolves around the production, logistics, sale and consumption of drugs. Camera teams follow law enforcement as well as users and dealers of various drugs.\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "BULLET::::- This (Illegal) American Life - Documentary about people living unlawfully in the United States, exploring the life of a senior UCLA student and a strawberry picker.\n\nBULLET::::- Narco Bling (2012) Documentary about the spoils of the drug cartels of Sinaloa, Mexico.\n\nBULLET::::- Missionaries of Hate - A Documentary about the influence of American religious in making homosexuality a crime punishable by death in Uganda.\n\nBULLET::::- The OxyContin Express - A documentary about prescription drug (opioids) abuse in the United States.\n\nBULLET::::- Rape on the Reservation - A documentary about the Native American women raped in Indian reserves.\n", "In Guatemala, Bilheimer facilitated the arrest of trafficker Ortiz by renting a car for the police to use, in order to film the arrest as part of \"Not My Life\". Bilheimer said that, during the making of the film, he and his crew were surprised to discover that traffickers employ similar methods of intimidation across the globe, \"almost as if there were ... unwritten bylaws and tactics ... The lies are the same.\"\n\nSection::::Production.:Editing.\n", "BULLET::::- Produced the 1995 documentary \"8th Cannabis Cup\", starring the Cannabis Cup Band, directed by Beth Lasch\n\nBULLET::::- Produced the 1996 documentary \"9th Cannabis Cup\", starring John Trudell and Murphy's Law, directed by John Veit\n\nBULLET::::- Produced the 1999 documentary \"11th Cannabis Cup\", starring John Sinclair and the Blues Scholars, directed by Steven Hager\n\nBULLET::::- Produced the 2000 documentary \"Grow Secrets of the Dutch Masters\" directed by Steven Hager\n\nBULLET::::- Co-produced the 2002 indie comedy \"Potluck\", featuring Frank Adonis, Theo Kogan, Jason Mewes and Tommy Chong and directed by Alison Thompson\n", "The documentary took five years to finish (2004–2009). It is the debut film for Franzen, a graduate of University of Iowa and founder of Atlanta-based production company Changing Images, and Kembrew McLeod, a professor specializing in copyright law at University of Iowa.\n\nSection::::Featured artists.\n\nArtists that appear in the documentary:\n\nBULLET::::- Aesop Rock\n\nBULLET::::- Shock G\n\nBULLET::::- Bobbito García\n\nBULLET::::- Chuck D\n\nBULLET::::- Clyde Stubblefield\n\nBULLET::::- De La Soul\n\nBULLET::::- DJ Pam the Funkstress of The Coup\n\nBULLET::::- DJ Qbert\n\nBULLET::::- Paul D. Miller aka DJ Spooky, That Subliminal Kid\n\nBULLET::::- Eclectic Method\n\nBULLET::::- El-P\n\nBULLET::::- Eyedea & Abilities\n", "Section::::Premieres and release.\n\nThe DVD of \"Druglawed\" was sold in limited release from February 2015. It was sold for the first time at the 'underworld premiere' in Auckland. It was released world wide on VHX in April 2015 in conjunction with its first screening in Dunedin on 20 April 2015. The official New Zealand premiere took place on 24 May 2015 at Q Theatre in Auckland under the auspices of the Documentary Edge Festival, where the film received a nomination for Best New Zealand Feature Documentary.\n\nSection::::Film festival selection.\n", "The Workshop has an ongoing partnership with the PBS program Frontline. Productions include \"Flying Cheap\" a documentary about the impact of the major carriers’ reliance on regional airlines and their pilots, which won a Screen Actors Guild Award for writing; a follow-up, “Flying Cheaper,” a follow-up about the impact of outsourcing maintenance on planes; and “Lost in Detention,” a documentary that chronicled the administration’s enforcement policy, which has deported 400,000 people annually the last two years and put thousands in detention centers with legal representation, often splitting up families in which the children are U.S. citizens. In 2012 and 2013, the Workshop also co-produced \"Big Sky, Big Money,\" which chronicles campaign finance in Montana; \"The Digital Campaign,\" about the 2012 presidential race; and \"Hunting the Nightmare Bacteria,\" a look at the pervasive problem of drug resistant infestions in hospitals. \n", "Section::::Cases.:Documentary work with Beth Holloway.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Kendall Jenner and Tyler, the Creator Take Over the Vogue Set\" (2016): Behind the scenes of Vogue photoshoot featuring Tyler, the Creator, Travis \"Taco\" Bennett, Aramis Hudson, Na-Kel Smith, Ryder McLaughlin, and Tucker Tripp filmed by Mikey Alfred.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cherry Bomb Documentary\" (2017)\n\nBULLET::::- \"It's Yours: A Story of Hip Hop and the Internet\" (2018): Alfred worked on the film during the post production stages.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Illegal Civ Barcelona\" (2018): Alfred films and edits skate trip to Barcelona for Illegal Civilization YouTube page featuring Kevin White, Olan Prenatt, Ryder McLaughlin, and Aramis Hudson.\n", "BULLET::::- Boies is representing filmmaker Michael Moore regarding a Treasury Department investigation into Moore's trip to Cuba while filming for \"Sicko\".\n", "BULLET::::- Reporter Douglas McGray interviews a college student in California with good grades, an excellent work ethic, but no possible way to get a legal job. She's lived in the U.S. since she was little, but her parents are undocumented; and she is, too. Most of her friends and teachers don't even know. Douglas McGray is a fellow at the New America Foundation.\n\nBULLET::::- Show description: Stories of people trying to recover from damage to their reputations—sometimes caused by others, sometimes self-inflicted.\n", "BULLET::::- 2015 7x7 Magazine: 2015 Hot 20\n\nBULLET::::- 2014 Santa Barbara International Film Festival: Best Documentary Film Award [Nominated] (The Village of Peace)\n\nBULLET::::- 2013 SXSW: Narrative Feature Competition Award [Nominated] (Licks)\n\nSection::::Filmography.\n\nSection::::Filmography.:Feature Films.\n\nBULLET::::- Unbanned: The Legend of AJ1 (2019) - consulting editor\n\nBULLET::::- Licks (2016) - editor, sound designer\n\nBULLET::::- The Village of Peace (2014) - editor\n\nSection::::Filmography.:Short Films.\n\nBULLET::::- When I Get Home [Starring Solange Knowles] (2019) - editor\n\nBULLET::::- Mr. Happy [Starring Chance The Rapper] (2015) - editor, sound designer\n\nSection::::Filmography.:Music Video Editor.\n\n2019\n\nBULLET::::- Solange Knowles - \"Almeda\"\n", "After it premiered at the Venice Film Festival in September 2017, Netflix acquired the rights to the Vice Films documentary \",\" about Jim Carrey's portrayal of the late Andy Kaufman in the movie \"Man on the Moon.\" The film was directed by Chris Smith and produced by Spike Jonze.\n\nSection::::Properties.:\"The Vice Guide to Everything\".\n", "Section::::Documentaries.:\"A Dog Named Gucci\".\n", "BULLET::::- February 26, 2016, Simms spoke to host Sheila Coles on CBC's Morning Edition talking about his experience with racism in Canada.\n\nSection::::Broadcast.\n\nSimms spent 10 months as a cameraman and associate producer documenting the lives of gang-involved youth from Jane and Finch for CBC's the fifth estate in the Gemini Award-nominated Lost in the Struggle. The film featured Vietnamese-Canadian rapper, Chuckie Akenz.\n\nBULLET::::- Lost in the Struggle: The Next Chapter (associate producer) (CBC Television, \"the fifth estate\", 2012)\n\nBULLET::::- If Justice Fails (actor) (CBC Television, the fifth estate, 2007)\n", "It was shown on Showtime from 2008 to 2010 and won several awards for best feature documentary at film festivals in the United States. For instance, in 2007, the film won Artivist Film Festival's Best Feature, International Human Rights Award. The documentary has also been shown in other countries, like South Africa, Canada and Australia.\n\nSection::::Career.:Film and video production.:American Drug War 2: Cannabis Destiny.\n", "BULLET::::- 2010: \"\" (TV Series) – 1 episode: Episode #3.16\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: \"Noma at Boiling Point\" (TV Movie documentary)\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: \"\" (TV Series documentary) – 1 episode: Japan: Cook It Raw\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: \"The Mind of a Chef\" (TV Series documentary) – 3 episodes: Rene, Chef, Buddies\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: \"La última película\" (Documentary)\n\nBULLET::::- 2014: \"Finding Gaston\" (Documentary)\n\nBULLET::::- 2015: \"Noma: My Perfect Storm\" (Documentary)\n\nBULLET::::- 2016: \"Ants on a Shrimp\" (Documentary)\n\nBULLET::::- 2016: \"Noma: Australia\" (TV Series documentary) – 3 episodes: Episode #1.1, Episode #1.2, Episode #1.3\n", "BULLET::::- 2010: \"Certified Dopeboy 2: The Re-Up\" (hosted by DJ Scream)\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: \"Certified Dopeboy Vol. 3: Supply & Demand\" (hosted by DJ 007)\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: \"Certified Dopeboy Vol. 4\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: \"Certified Dopeboy Vol. 5: The Cook Up\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: \"Blow\" (hosted by DJ 5150)\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: \"Blow 2\" (hosted by DJ 5150)\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: \"Blow 3\" (hosted by DJ Scream & DJ 5150)\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: \"Blow 3.5 Grams\"(hosted by Traps N Trunks & DJ Mic Tee)\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: \"The Come Up\" (hosted by Traps N Trunks)\n\nBULLET::::- 2014: \"Arm & Hammer\" (hosted by Traps N Trunks)\n", "In a letter written to the BBC Trust on the case by the BBC’s Director General, Mark Thompson, the Director General said that investigative journalists should themselves be protected from allegations made against them. Thompson stated:\n\n“There are inherent difficulties in requiring journalists, who operate alone, to demonstrate, unequivocally, that filmed footage is genuine and that safeguards must be put in place to protect journalists from claims of fraud which may themselves be false but which are impossible authoritatively to disprove.”\n\nSection::::Personal life.\n", "Pelton has shown how he gets access and world exclusive interviews in his TV series The World's Most Dangerous Places for the Discovery Channel, investigating and reporting from the inside the drug business in Colombia and Peru, the \"mafia\" in Georgia and Turkey, and bounty hunting in Mexico.\n\nSection::::Career.:Television series.\n", "In 2005, O’Sullivan worked as an Associate Producer on a series of motorsports documentaries featuring the likes of Travis Pastrana (star of MTV's \"Nitro Circus\"), Nate Adams, and Andy Bell. The films—entitled \"The Enduro at Erzberg\", \"Freestyle Prague\", and \"Travis Pastrana's Baja Diaries\"—aired on the network now known as NBCSN in 2006.\n", "Section::::ONDCP Director.:Paid anti-drug messages in TV programs.\n", "BULLET::::- \"I'm Black in Britain\", Central Television, 1993; 30-minute documentary investigating racism in Britain. Interviewees include John Tyndall of National Front. Interviewer and Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Designer Babies\", Central Television 1993. 30-minute documentary on Vitro Fertilization. Interviewees included Patrick Steptoe CBE & Professor Robert Winston. Co Producer and Interviewer\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Cook Report\", Central Television 1994. 30-minute current affairs programme. Investigative Reporter\n\nBULLET::::- \"An Eye on X\", Windrush Productions for Carlton Television/ACGB 1995. Short film on micro sculptor Willard Wigan. Producer and Director\n", "America Undercover (TV series documentary) – 1992\n\nSection::::Producer.\n\nSection::::Producer.:Movies.\n\nBULLET::::- Country Justice (TV) – 1997\n\nBULLET::::- 1996 The Lottery (TV) – 1996\n\nBULLET::::- Gregory K (TV) – 1993\n\nBULLET::::- In Defense of a Married Man (TV) – 1990\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Ryan White Story\" (TV) – 1989\n\nBULLET::::- Strange Voices (TV) – 1987\n\nBULLET::::- The George McKenna Story (TV) – 1986\n\nBULLET::::- Adam: His Song Continues (TV) – 1986\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (TV) 1983\n\nBULLET::::- \"Adam\" (TV) – 1983\n\nBULLET::::- A Long Way Home (TV) – 1981\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Jayne Mansfield Story\" (TV) – 1980\n\nBULLET::::- Marathon (TV) – 1980\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03277	How do computers still keep the date and time, even if they’re not connected to any power source at all?	There is a CMOS battery on the motherboard that keeps the clock ticking, even when powered off.	[ "With current technology, most modern computers keep track of local civil time, as do many other household and personal devices such as VCRs, DVRs, cable TV receivers, PDAs, pagers, cell phones, fax machines, telephone answering machines, cameras, camcorders, central air conditioners, and microwave ovens.\n", "None of the current Raspberry Pi models have a built-in real-time clock, so they are unable to keep track of the time of day independently. Instead, a program running on the Pi can retrieve the time from a network time server or from user input at boot time, thus knowing the time while powered on. To provide consistency of time for the file system, the Pi automatically saves the current system time on shutdown, and re-loads that time at boot.\n", "RTCs often have an alternate source of power, so they can continue to keep time while the primary source of power is off or unavailable. This alternate source of power is normally a lithium battery in older systems, but some newer systems use a supercapacitor, because they are rechargeable and can be soldered. The alternate power source can also supply power to battery backed RAM.\n\nSection::::Timing.\n", "The following table lists epoch dates used by popular software and other computer-related systems. The time in these systems is stored as the quantity of a particular time unit (days, seconds, nanoseconds, etc.) that has elapsed since a stated time (usually midnight UTC at the beginning of the given date).\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- System time\n\nBULLET::::- Unix epoch\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Critical and Significant Dates (J. R. Stockton), an extensive list of dates that are problematic for various operating systems and computing devices\n", "Modern personal computer motherboards have a backup battery to run the real-time clock circuit and retain configuration memory while the system is turned off. This is often called the CMOS battery or BIOS battery. The original IBM AT through to the PS/2 range, used a relatively large primary lithium battery, compared to later models, to retain the clock and configuration memory. These early machines required the backup battery to be replaced periodically due to the relatively large power consumption. Some manufacturers of clone machines used a rechargeable battery to avoid the problems that could be created by a failing battery. Modern systems use a coin style primary battery. In these later machines, the current draw is almost negligible and the primary batteries usually outlast the system that they support. It is rare to find rechargeable batteries in such systems.\n", "To reduce the problem, many devices designed to operate on household electricity incorporate a battery backup to maintain the time during power outages and during times of disconnection from the power supply. More recently, some devices incorporate a method for automatically setting the time, such as using a broadcast radio time signal from an atomic clock, getting the time from an existing satellite television or computer connection, or by being set at the factory and then maintaining the time from then on with a quartz movement powered by an internal rechargeable battery.\n", "On 17 September 2042, at 23:53:57.370496 TAI, the Time of Day Clock (TODC) on the S/370 IBM mainframe and its successors, including the current zSeries, will roll over. The UTC time will be a few seconds earlier, due to leap seconds.\n", "Most digital clocks use electronic mechanisms and LCD, LED, or VFD displays; many other display technologies are used as well (cathode ray tubes, nixie tubes, etc.). After a reset, battery change or power failure, these clocks without a backup battery or capacitor either start counting from 12:00, or stay at 12:00, often with blinking digits indicating that the time needs to be set. Some newer clocks will reset themselves based on radio or Internet time servers that are tuned to national atomic clocks. Since the advent of digital clocks in the 1960s, the use of analog clocks has declined significantly.\n", "Most first-generation personal computers did not keep track of dates and times. These included systems that ran the CP/M operating system, as well as early models of the Apple II, the BBC Micro, and the Commodore PET, among others. Add-on peripheral boards that included real-time clock chips with on-board battery back-up were available for the IBM PC and XT, but the IBM AT was the first widely available PC that came equipped with date/time hardware built into the motherboard. Prior to the widespread availability of computer networks, most personal computer systems that did track system time did so only with respect to local time and did not make allowances for different time zones.\n", "Microcontrollers operating within embedded systems (such as the Raspberry Pi, Arduino, and other similar systems) do not always have internal hardware to keep track of time. Many such controller systems operate without knowledge of the external time. Those that require such information typically initialize their base time upon rebooting by obtaining the current time from an external source, such as from a time server or external clock, or by prompting the user to manually enter the current time.\n\nSection::::Implementation.\n", "Many Apple iOS devices with the Clock application running crashed at 00:00:00 on 1 January 2014.\n\nSection::::Year 2015.\n\nSeveral older Samsung mobile phones with Agere chipsets (such as Samsung SGH-C170) would refuse to change dates beyond 31 December 2014; the date would automatically change to 2015, but would revert to the base date in the event of a power cycle (loss of battery power). The workaround is to use the year 1987 in lieu of 2015 as compatible with the leap year cycle to display the correct day of the week, date and month on the main screen.\n\nSection::::Year 2019.\n", "Reading from the registers will always return the time of day. In order to avoid a carry error while fetching the time, reading the hours register will immediately halt register updating, with no effect on internal timekeeping accuracy. Once the tenths register has been read, updating will resume. It is possible to read any register other than the hours register \"on the fly,\" making the use of a running TOD clock as a timer a practical application. If the hours register is read, however, it is essential to subsequently read the tenths register. Otherwise, all TOD registers will remain \"frozen.\"\n", "The time reference used by a time server could be another time server on the network or the Internet, a connected radio clock or an atomic clock. The most common true time source is a GPS or GPS master clock. Time servers are sometimes multi-purpose network servers, dedicated network servers, or dedicated devices. All a dedicated time server does is provide accurate time.\n", "An existing network server (e.g. a file server) can become a time server with additional software. The NTP homepage provides a free and widely used reference implementation of the NTP server and client for many popular operating systems. The other choice is a dedicated time server device.\n", "Another major use of embedded systems is in communications devices, including cell phones and Internet appliances (routers, wireless access points, etc.) which rely on storing an accurate time and date and are increasingly based on UNIX-like operating systems. For example, the bug makes some devices running 32-bit Android crash and not restart when the time is changed to that date.\n", "Such representation of time is mainly for internal use. On systems where date and time are important in the human sense, software will nearly always convert this internal number into a date and time representing a human calendar.\n\nSection::::Epoch in satellite-based time systems.\n", "This means that for NTP the rollover will be invisible for most running systems, since they will have the correct time to within a very small tolerance. However, systems that are starting up need to know the date within no more than 68 years. Given the large allowed error, it is not expected that this is too onerous a requirement. One suggested method is to set the clock to no earlier than the system build date or the release date of the current version of the NTP software. Many systems use a battery-powered hardware clock to avoid this problem.\n", "The date fields in the root block (and other blocks) are structured in the form of DAYS, MINS and TICKS. The DAYS field contains the number of days since January 1. 1978. MINS is the number of minutes that have passed since midnight and TICKS are expressed in 1/50s of a second. A day value of zero is considered illegal by most programs. Since the DAYS value is stored as a 32-bit number, the Amiga filesystem does not have an inherent Year 2000 problem or Year 2038 problem.\n", "Computing epochs are nearly always specified as midnight Universal Time on some particular date.\n\nSection::::Variation in detail.\n", "The time stamp counter can be used to time instructions accurately which can be exploited in the Meltdown and Spectre security vulnerabilities. However if this is not available other counters or timers can be used, as is the case with the ARM processors vulnerable to this type of attack.\n\nSection::::Other architectures.\n\nOther processors also have registers which count CPU clock cycles, but with different names. For instance, on the AVR32, it is called the Performance Clock Counter (PCCNT) register. SPARC V9 provides the\n\ncodice_19 register.\n\nARMv7 and\n\nARMv8 architectures provide a generic\n", "The memory battery (aka motherboard, CMOS, real-time clock (RTC), clock battery) is generally a CR2032 lithium coin cell. This cell battery has an estimated life of 3 years when power supply unit (PSU) is unplugged or when the PSU power switch is turned off. This battery type, contrary to popular belief, is not rechargeable and trying to do so may result in an explosion. Motherboards have circuitry preventing batteries from being charged and discharged when a motherboard is powered on. Other common battery cell types can last significantly longer or shorter periods, such as the smaller CR2016 which will generally last about 40% less time than CR2032. Higher temperatures and longer power-off time will shorten battery cell life. When replacing battery cell, the system time and CMOS BIOS settings may revert to default values. Unwanted BIOS reset may be avoided by replacing battery cell with PSU power switch turned on and plugged into electric socket on the wall. On ATX motherboards, turning on power switch on PSU, will supply 5V standby power to the motherboard to keep CMOS memory energized during computer turned off period.\n", "Electronic time clock machines are manufactured in many designs by companies in China and sold under various brand names in places around the world, with accompanying software to extract the data from a single time clock machine, or several machines, and process the data into reports. In most cases local suppliers offer technical support and in some cases installation services.\n", "BULLET::::- Given the extended recording times of data loggers, they typically feature a mechanism to record the date and time in a timestamp to ensure that each recorded data value is associated with a date and time of acquisition in order to produce a sequence of events. As such, data loggers typically employ built-in real-time clocks whose published drift can be an important consideration when choosing between data loggers.\n", "The PandaBoard has a real-time clock, but it does not have a battery to save the time when power is removed. As an alternative, a software clock can set the clock time at bootup based on the time of the last modification to the file system so that times stored in files will be more reasonable. NTP can set the correct date and time if the PandaBoard has network access to an NTP server.\n\nSection::::Features.:Similar products.\n", "Players of games or apps which are programmed to impose waiting periods are running into this problem when they attempt to work around the waiting period on devices which harbor the coding, by manually setting their devices to a date past 19 January 2038, but are unable to do so, since a 32-bit Unix time format is being used.\n\nSection::::Vulnerable systems.\n\nEmbedded systems that use dates for either computation or diagnostic logging are most likely to be affected by the 2038 bug.\n" ]	[ "When a computer is powered off, it shouldn't be able to keep record of a date and time." ]	[ "The CMOS battery attached to the motherboard keep the clock ticking even when the computer is powered off. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "When a computer is powered off, it shouldn't be able to keep record of a date and time.", "When a computer is powered off, it shouldn't be able to keep record of a date and time." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The CMOS battery attached to the motherboard keep the clock ticking even when the computer is powered off. ", "The CMOS battery attached to the motherboard keep the clock ticking even when the computer is powered off. " ]
2018-14987	How does fish get to isolated pool or high up a waterfall?	In north America, if it's trout, bass or bluegill, it's most likely introduced by humans, especially explorers and frontiersmen of European origin. For example URL_0 In generic terms, some fish can swim up stream very well, that waterfall might not have always existed, geological and climate changes may have occurred.	[ "Salmon regularly migrate thousands of miles to and from their breeding grounds.\n\nSalmon spend their early life in rivers, and then swim out to sea where they live their adult lives and gain most of their body mass. After several years wandering huge distances in the ocean where they mature, most surviving salmons return to the same natal rivers to spawn. Usually they return with uncanny precision to the river where they were born: most of them swim up the rivers until they reach the very spawning ground that was their original birthplace. \n", "In a 2003 study, Atlantic salmon and sea-run brown trout/sea trout spawning in the Numedalslågen River and 51 of its tributaries in southeastern Norway was unhindered by beavers. In a restored, third-order stream in northern Nova Scotia, beaver dams generally posed no barrier to Atlantic salmon migration except in the smallest upstream reaches in years of low flow where pools were not deep enough to enable the fish to leap the dam or without a column of water over-topping the dam for the fish to swim up.\n", "While trout can be caught with a normal rod and reel, fly fishing is a distinctive method developed primarily for trout, and now extended to other species. Understanding how moving water shapes the stream channel makes it easier to find trout. In most streams, the current creates a riffle-run-pool pattern that repeats itself over and over. A deep pool may hold a big brown trout, but rainbows and smaller browns are likely found in runs. Riffles are where you will find small trout, called troutlet, during the day and larger trout crowding in during morning and evening feeding periods.\n", "River trout are very faithful to their habitat (i.e. they live only at one spot and do not migrate), leaving it only to reproduce. Even after being disturbed they will return to their traditional sites. The adult river trout requires its own territory. During the day it is hidden in the shadows of the river bank, facing upstream.\n", "A fish ladder, also known as a fishway, fish pass or fish steps, is a structure on or around artificial and natural barriers (such as dams, locks and waterfalls) to facilitate diadromous fishes' natural migration. Most fishways enable fish to pass around the barriers by swimming and leaping up a series of relatively low steps (hence the term \"ladder\") into the waters on the other side. The velocity of water falling over the steps has to be great enough to attract the fish to the ladder, but it cannot be so great that it washes fish back downstream or exhausts them to the point of inability to continue their journey upriver.\n", "BULLET::::- Pools are smoother and look darker than the other areas of the stream. The deep, slow-moving water generally has a bottom of silt, sand, or small gravel. Pools make good midday resting spots for medium to large trout.\n", "The falls are a barrier to upstream migration of some fish species. For example, the Warner sucker is only found downstream from the falls while the falls divide the creek's native redband trout into two distinct populations, one above the falls and another below. However, the falls do not appear to be a barrier for brook trout or hatchery fish released in Deep Creek.\n", "In the Malili Lakes of Sulawesi, Indonesia, one species of sailfin silverside (\"Telmatherina sarasinorum\") is an egg predator. They often follow courting pairs of the closely related species \"T. antoniae\". When those pairs lay eggs, \"T. sarasinorum\" darts in and eats the eggs. On four different occasions in the field (out of 136 observation bouts in total), a male \"T. sarasinorum\" who was following a pair of courting \"T. antoniae\" eventually chased off the male \"T. antoniae\" and took his place, courting the heterospecific female. That female released eggs, at which point the male darted to the eggs and ate them.\n", "Section::::Fish arches.\n", "Alternatively, the fish may have originated in fresh water and moved from a nearby river into a subterranean water current or cave system in response to seasonal changes. Subsequent heavy rains wash the fish up out of this habitat and the water recedes to leave the fish stranded.\n\nSection::::Explanation.:Father Subirana miracle.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Fishing and trading.\n\nFor 15,000 years, native peoples gathered at Wyam to fish and exchange goods. They built wooden platforms out over the water and caught salmon with dipnets and long spears on poles as the fish swam up through the rapids and jumped over the falls. Historically, an estimated fifteen to twenty million salmon passed through the falls every year, making it one of the greatest fishing sites in North America.\n", "Section::::Distribution and habitat.\n\nThey are found in the northeastern United States and eastern Canada, where it inhabits clear streams, lakes, and ponds. They predominately prefers swift currents, however they can also be found in well oxygenated pools. As their name suggests they are often found at the base of waterfalls. Before the introduction of fish such as smallmouth bass, largemouth bass, and brown trout the Fallfish was the apex predator in many streams.\n\nSection::::Diet and predation.\n", "A vertical-slot fish passage is similar to a pool-and-weir system, except that each \"dam\" has a narrow slot in it near the channel wall. This allows fish to swim upstream without leaping over an obstacle. Vertical-slot fish passages also tend to handle reasonably well the seasonal fluctuation in water levels on each side of the barrier. Recent studies suggest that navigation locks have a potential to be operated as vertical slot fishways to provide increased access for a range of biota, including poor swimmers.\n", "Fishing season has begun and park ranger J. Audubon Woodlore goes out on the lake to check on the anglers. Humphrey the Bear is trying to catch some fish, but cannot seem to hold onto one once he catches it. Woodlore sees the fish disappearing before his eyes, so he decides to stock the lake some more. As he heads to the fish hatchery, he sees Humphrey with a few fishing nets and rods, and asks him what he is doing. When the bear tells him that he is going to catch some fish, Woodlore takes the rods and nets and tells him to \"Go fish like a bear!\" At the hatchery, Woodlore selects an envelope of fish eggs from a collection of eggs from such trout species as dolly vardens and rainbows. He fills a tub with water and inserts the eggs into it. In a matter of seconds, several fishes pop up out of the water like plants out of soil.\n", "BULLET::::- Fish screen – A fish screen is designed to prevent fish from swimming or being drawn into an aqueduct, cooling water intake, dam or other diversion on a river, lake or waterway where water is taken for human use.\n\nBULLET::::- Migration – Many types of fish migrate on a regular basis, on time scales ranging from daily to annually or longer, and over distances ranging from a few metres to thousands of kilometres.\n", "Section::::Description and history.\n", "There are suggestions that during the rainy season, juveniles migrate downstream and that after 2 months, mature adults travel back upstream to spawn at the headwaters in the dry season. It would seem more likely that adult fish access headwaters during high water conditions.\n\nSection::::Conservation.\n\nThis species is another mahseer currently assigned as Data Deficient by the IUCN. The vast majority of scientific work done on this species has been conducted on stock produced by artificial breeding, with assumptions made about the ecology of wild stocks. \n", "A fish elevator or fish lift, as its name implies, breaks with the ladder design by providing a sort of elevator to carry fish over a barrier. It is well suited to tall barriers. With a fish elevator, fish swim into a collection area at the base of the obstruction. When enough fish accumulate in the collection area, they are nudged into a hopper that carries them into a flume that empties into the river above the barrier.\n", "Section::::Ecology.\n\nIn addition to the stress factors induced by trying to survive in summer in decreasing and warming waters, some pools have very low oxygen levels, exacerbated at night by the lack of the photosynthetic oxygen produced by plants, and often lower at the pool base where the fish feed, or under the mats of algae that tend to accumulate. Under these circumstances, the fish may resort to \"surface skimming\", a behaviour that allows them to obtain enough oxygen at the interface of water and air.\n", "Fish are captured by cornering them in shallow water, usually against the bank or under logs. They take advantage when bodies of water begin to dry up in the summer or early fall and gorge themselves on the resulting high concentrations of fish and tadpoles. They were surprisingly unsuccessful at seizing either live or dead fish under water.\n", "Broadly, there are three types of fish habitats in the Mekong: i) the river, including all the main tributaries, rivers in the major flood zone, and the Tonle Sap, which altogether yield about 30% of wild catch landings; ii) rain-fed wetlands outside the river-floodplain zone, including mainly rice paddies in formerly forested areas and usually inundated to about 50 cm, yielding about 66% of wild catch landings; and iii) large water bodies outside the flood zone, including canals and reservoirs yielding about 4% of wild catch landings.\n", "BULLET::::1. Wedged – held by the mesh around the body.\n\nBULLET::::2. Gilled – held by mesh slipping behind the opercula.\n\nBULLET::::3. Tangled – held by teeth, spines, maxillaries, or other protrusions without the body penetrating the mesh.\n\nMost often fish are gilled. A fish swims into a net and passes only part way through the mesh. When it struggles to free itself, the twine slips behind the gill cover and prevents escape.\n", "Section::::Biology and fish.\n", "It would seem reasonable to think that the regular spacing and size uniformity of fish in schools would result in hydrodynamic efficiencies. However, experiments in the laboratory have failed to find any gains from the hydrodynamic lift created by the neighbours of a fish within a school, though it is still thought that efficiency gains do occur in the wild. Landa (1998) argues that the leader of a school constantly changes, because while being in the body of a school gives a hydrodynamic advantage, being the leader means you are the first to the food.\n\nSection::::Predator avoidance.\n", "This suggestion was acted upon and in 1889 the first non-native fish were stocked into Yellowstone waters, a practice that continued until 1955 and helped create the angling experience Yellowstone National Park is renowned for.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Waterfalls that are in existence have always been there." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Waterfalls may have been created by geological or climate change." ]
2018-15458	how do parasitic worms get treated with medicine in our body and what happens to their corpses	Depends on the type of parasite but the general idea is that you make yourself uninhabitable be it through poisoning them or isolating them. What happens to their corpses depends on where in the body they die. Generally they get their sustenance from our bowels because that's where they could leech most efficiëntly. You'd lose them when you go poopie.	[ "Another medication administered to kill worm infections has been pyrantel pamoate. For some parasitic diseases, there is no treatment and, in the case of serious symptoms, medication intended to kill the parasite is administered, whereas, in other cases, symptom relief options are used. Recent papers have also proposed the use of viruses to treat infections caused by protozoa.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "Section::::Use in medicine.:Diagnosis.:Human stool samples.\n", "Section::::Use in medicine.:Diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Use in medicine.:Diagnosis.:Environmental samples.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nTreatment for \"Toxocara cati\" infections in cats is rather simple. There are a number of anthelmintics that will kill the adult worms, including emodepside, fenbendazole, milbemycin, and moxidectin. However, most drugs are ineffective against the immature parasites. Consequently, infected cats will usually need multiple doses administered in two or three week intervals in order to fully eradicate the worms.\n\nSection::::\"T. cati\" infection in humans.\n", "In 2007, Dr. Jorge Correale et al. studied the effects of parasitic infection on multiple sclerosis (MS). Dr. Correale evaluated several MS patients infected with parasites, comparable MS patients without parasites, and similar healthy subjects over the course of 4.6 years. During the study, the MS patients that were infected with parasites experienced far less effects of MS than the non-infected MS patients.\n\nSection::::Effects of parasitic worms.:Negative effects.\n\nSection::::Effects of parasitic worms.:Negative effects.:Vaccination.\n", "The process of larval maturation in the host can take from about two weeks up to four months, depending on the helminth species.\n\nThe following table shows the principal morphological and reproductive distinctions for three helminth groups:\n\nDraft genomes for all categories of helminth have been sequenced in recent years and are available through the ParaSite sub-portal of WormBase.\n\nSection::::Use in medicine.\n", "The best way to treat this condition in humans is with surgery, as most drug treatments are unsuccessful at getting rid of the larval stages. \n\nIn animals, infections with \"Spirometra\" species can be treated with praziquantel at 7.5 mg/kg, PO, for 2 consecutive days. \"Spirometra\" species infections in cats can also be treated with a single dose of praziquantel at 30 mg/kg, SC, IM, or PO. Mebendazole at 11 mg/kg, PO, has also been successful. Taking an infected animal to a vet is the best option for ridding a pet of any developmental stage. \n", "Treatment must be carefully monitored for inflammation reactions to the dying worms, especially if they have moved into the brain. In some cases the worms can be surgically removed and in other Albendazole with steroids is administered to reduce the inflammation. It must be ensured that vomiting is not induced because it could cause reverse peristalsis.\n", "BULLET::::- Hand-washing with soap at critical times and nail clipping to decrease reinfection rates, although further research is needed to develop and implement similar interventions at scale\n\nBULLET::::- Programs combining anthelmintic drug administration with interventions to increase environmental sanitation (such as decreasing fecal contamination)\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nDrugs are frequently used to kill parasites in the host. In earlier times, turpentine was often used for this, but modern drugs do not poison intestinal worms directly. Rather, anthelmintic drugs now inhibit an enzyme that is necessary for the worm to make the substance that prevents the worm from being digested.\n", "The presence of parasitic worms burrowed in the neural tissue of the human central nervous system (CNS) causes obvious complications. All of the following result in damage to the CNS:\n\nBULLET::::1. Direct mechanical damage to neural tissue from the worms' motion\n\nBULLET::::2. Toxic byproducts such as nitrogenous waste\n\nBULLET::::3. Antigens released by dead and living parasites\n\nSection::::Eosinophilic meningitis.\n", "Symptoms of parasites may not always be obvious. However, such symptoms may mimic anemia or a hormone deficiency. Some of the symptoms caused by several worm infestations can include itching affecting the anus or the vaginal area, abdominal pain, weight loss, increased appetite, bowel obstructions, diarrhea, and vomiting eventually leading to dehydration, sleeping problems, worms present in the vomit or stools, anemia, aching muscles or joints, general malaise, allergies, fatigue, nervousness. Symptoms may also be confused with pneumonia or food poisoning.\n\nThe effects caused by parasitic diseases range from mild discomfort to death.\n", "Lymph node aspirate and chylous fluid may also yield microfilariae. Medical imaging, such as CT or MRI, may reveal \"filarial dance sign\" in the chylous fluid; X-ray tests can show calcified adult worms in lymphatics. The DEC provocation test is performed to obtain satisfying numbers of parasites in daytime samples. Xenodiagnosis is now obsolete, and eosinophilia is a nonspecific primary sign.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "In 1978, having identified a successful treatment for a type of worms affecting horses, Campbell realised that similar treatments might be useful against related types of worms that affect humans. In 1981, Merck carried out successful Phase 1 treatment trials in Senegal and France on river blindness. Taken orally, the drug paralyses and sterilises the parasitic worm that causes the illness. Merck went on to study the treatment of elephantiasis. The research of Satoshi Ōmura, William Campbell, and their co-workers created a new class of drugs for the treatment of parasites.\n", "Diagnosis is made by examination of the fæces and the detection of eggs. Adult worms are easily identified from other helminths by their distinctive appearance. The eggs are readily distinguished from those of other trematodes by their rhomboid shape and distinct green colour. Patients do not often directly show any symptoms, and if one appears, it indicates that the infection is already at a very high level. There is no prescribed treatment, but the traditional practice of soap enema has been very effective in removing the worms. It works to flush the flukes from the colon which removes the parasite entirely, as it does not reproduce within the host. Some drugs that have been proven effective are tetrachloroethylene, at a dosage of 0.1 mg/kg on an empty stomach, and a more preferred drug, praziquantel, which eliminates the parasite with 3 doses at 25 mg/kg in one day. Mebendazole was found to be efficient in deworming the parasite from a Nigerian girl who was shedding thousands of parasite eggs in stools even with a single dose of 500 mg. Prevention of this disease is not difficult when simple sanitary measures are taken. Night soil should never be used as a fertilizer because it could contain any number of parasites. Vegetables should be washed thoroughly, and meat properly cooked.\n", "Elephantiasis affects mainly the lower extremities, while the ears, mucous membranes, and amputation stumps are affected less frequently. However, different species of filarial worms tend to affect different parts of the body; \"Wuchereria bancrofti\" can affect the legs, arms, vulva, breasts, and scrotum (causing hydrocele formation), while \"Brugia timori\" rarely affects the genitals. Those who develop the chronic stages of elephantiasis are usually free from microfilariae (amicrofilaraemic), and often have adverse immunological reactions to the microfilariae, as well as the adult worms.\n", "Past cases have demonstrated that simple removal of the worms from upper respiratory area led to a cessation of symptoms and was a sufficient cure with or without antihelmintics. No lasting pathological tissue damage was reported.\n\nThus far, no reinfection mechanism for \"M. laryngeus\" has been posited, so all adult worms found inside a human must be the result of ingested embryonated eggs, larvae, or adult worms. Most of the time, only one pair of worms is found, but occasionally, the patient may have multiple pairs that must all be removed.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "BULLET::::1. Microscope detection of L1 larvae in feces\n\nBULLET::::2. Microscope detection of eggs or larvae in the coughed up sputum or bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from affected animal\n\nBULLET::::3. Blood serology test for worm antigens (available in some countries / states)\n\nSection::::Treatment of lungworm infections.\n", "Section::::Prevention of infestation and infection.:Pharmaceutical drugs and vaccines.\n\nInfections with \"Trypanosoma\" species are treated, either prophylactically or to treat acute cases with synthetic chemical drugs such as diminazine. Infections with nematode worms causing filariosis may be treated with the avermectin class of biologically derived drugs (macrocyclic lactones) such as ivermectin, doramectin, moxidectin. There are commercially available vaccines to protect animals against bluetongue, and African horse sickness\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Myiasis: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USA.\n\nBULLET::::- Myiasis: biology and taxonomy, Natural History Museum, London.\n\nBULLET::::- Biting fly prevention and control; Illinois Department of Public Health\n", "Section::::Treatments.\n\nThe standard of care is administration of antifilarial drugs, most commonly Ivermectin or diethyl-carbamazine (DEC). The most efficacious dose in all nematode and parasitic infections is 200 µg/kg of ivermectin. There has also been other various anthelminthic drugs used, such as mebendazole, levamisole, albendazole and thiabendazole. In worst-case scenarios, surgery may be necessary to remove nematodes from the abdomen or chest. However, mild cases usually do not require treatment.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nDiagnosis done by stool examination is difficult when adult worms are not present because the eggs are hard to distinguish from C.sinensis.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nPraziquantel, a quinolone derivative. The effect of praziquantel on H. heterophyes causes deep lesions on their teguments, and when exposed to praziquantel over a longer period of time leads to even deeper lesions.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Roberts, Larry, and John Janovy. \"Gerald D. Schmidt & Larry S. Roberts' Foundations of Parasitology.\" 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009. 291-92. Print.\n", "Although sparse in blood of persons in developed countries, eosinophils are often elevated in individuals in rural developing countries where intestinal parasitism is prevalent and metabolic syndrome rare. We speculate that eosinophils may have evolved to optimize metabolic homeostasis during chronic infections by ubiquitous intestinal parasites….\n\nSection::::Use in medicine.:Levels of infectiousness.\n", "Humans are incidental hosts of this roundworm, and may become infected through ingestion of larvae in raw or undercooked snails or other vectors, or from contaminated water and vegetables. The larvae are then transported via the blood to the central nervous system, where they are the most common cause of eosinophilic meningitis, a serious condition that can lead to death or permanent brain and nerve damage. Angiostrongyliasis is an infection of increasing public health importance, as globalization contributes to the geographic spread of the disease.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Management.\n\nOne treatment for sparganosis is praziquantel, administered at a dose of 120 to 150 mg/kg body weight over 2 days; however, praziquantel has had limited success. In general, infestation by one or a few sparganum larvae is often best treated by surgical removal.\n\nDNA analysis of rare worms removed surgically can provide genome information to identify and characterise each parasite; treatments for the more common tapeworms can be cross-checked to see whether they are also likely to be effective against the species in question.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nMetagonimiasis is diagnosed by eggs seen in feces. Only after antihelminthic treatment will adult worms be seen in the feces, and then can be used as part of a diagnostic procedure. A 1993 analysis of the efficacy of ELISA tests to diagnose metagonimiasis implied that simultaneous screening of specific antibodies to several parasite agents are important in serological diagnosis of acute parasitic disease and more research should be done on the efficacy of these methods of diagnosis.\n", "Other risks that can lead people to acquire parasites are walking with barefeet, inadequate disposal of feces, lack of hygiene, close contact with someone carrying specific parasites, and eating undercooked foods, unwashed fruits and vegetables or foods from contaminated regions.\n\nParasites can also be transferred to their host by the bite of an insect vector, i.e. mosquito, bed bug, fleas.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nParasitic infections can usually be treated with antiparasitic drugs.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03832	Why is the mouth so much more high maintenance compared to the rest of the body?	Our modern diet leads to a lot of bacterial activity in the mouth, much more than our ancestors (with a low-sugar diet) usually had. To be fair, the female genitals also require a lot of maintenance, perhaps as much as the mouth or more.	[ "Human mouth\n\nIn human anatomy, the mouth is the first portion of the alimentary canal that receives food and produces saliva. The oral mucosa is the mucous membrane epithelium lining the inside of the mouth.\n\nIn addition to its primary role as the beginning of the digestive system, in humans the mouth also plays a significant role in communication. While primary aspects of the voice are produced in the throat, the tongue, lips, and jaw are also needed to produce the range of sounds included in human language.\n", "The tongue is attached to the floor of the mouth by a ligamentous band called the frenum and this gives it great mobility for the manipulation of food (and speech); the range of manipulation is optimally controlled by the action of several muscles and limited in its external range by the stretch of the frenum. The tongue's two sets of muscles, are four intrinsic muscles that originate in the tongue and are involved with its shaping, and four extrinsic muscles originating in bone that are involved with its movement.\n\nSection::::Components.:Mouth.:Tongue.:Taste.\n", "As stated, the position of maximal closure in the presence of teeth is referred to as maximum intercuspidation, and the vertical jaw relationship in this position is referred to as the vertical dimension of occlusion. With the loss of teeth, there is a decrease in this vertical dimension, as the mouth is allowed to overclose when there are no teeth present to block further upward movement of the mandible towards the maxilla. This may contribute, as explained above, to a sunken-in appearance of the cheeks, because there is now \"too much\" cheek than is needed to extend from the maxilla to the mandible when in an overclosed position. If this situation is left untreated for many years, the muscles and tendons of the mandible and the TMJ may manifest with altered tone and elasticity.\n", "The mouth is the first part of the upper gastrointestinal tract and is equipped with several structures that begin the first processes of digestion. These include salivary glands, teeth and the tongue. The mouth consists of two regions; the vestibule and the oral cavity proper. The vestibule is the area between the teeth, lips and cheeks, and the rest is the oral cavity proper. Most of the oral cavity is lined with oral mucosa, a mucous membrane that produces a lubricating mucus, of which only a small amount is needed. Mucous membranes vary in structure in the different regions of the body but they all produce a lubricating mucus, which is either secreted by surface cells or more usually by underlying glands. The mucous membrane in the mouth continues as the thin mucosa which lines the bases of the teeth. The main component of mucus is a glycoprotein called mucin and the type secreted varies according to the region involved. Mucin is viscous, clear, and clinging. Underlying the mucous membrane in the mouth is a thin layer of smooth muscle tissue and the loose connection to the membrane gives it its great elasticity. It covers the cheeks, inner surfaces of the lips, and floor of the mouth.\n", "Section::::Medical Conditions affecting Oral Health.\n\nA number of physiological changes happen to the geriatric population with age. The gastrointestinal, renal, cardiovascular, respiratory, and immune systems often decrease in efficiency, and this impacts upon the entire body, including oral health.\n\nAlong with physiological changes, physical ones involve reduced bone and muscle mass Mobility can be decreased due to osteoarthritis, and a variety of audio and visual changes such as cataracts, macular degeneration, and hearing loss can make communication, patient education and oral health care increasingly difficult to maintain.\n", "Some serious and possibly life-threatening diseases have been found to be connected to oral hygiene. These diseases are not passed through saliva, but are still influenced by the mouth's ecology and bacteria. Streptococcus mutans, a common oral bacteria discussed above, is a pathogen that causes pneumonia, sinusitis, otitis media, and meningitis.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "When an individual's mouth is at rest, the teeth in the opposing jaws are nearly touching; there is what is referred to as a \"freeway space\" of roughly 2–3 mm. However, this distance is partially maintained as a result of the teeth limiting any further closure past the point of maximum intercuspidation. When there are no teeth present in the mouth, the natural vertical dimension of occlusion is lost and the mouth has a tendency to overclose. This causes the cheeks to exhibit a \"sunken-in\" appearance and wrinkle lines to form at the commissures. Additionally, the anterior teeth, when present, serve to properly support the lips and provide for certain aesthetic features, such as an acute nasiolabial angle.\n", "The muscles acting on the lips are considered part of the muscles of facial expression. All muscles of facial expression are derived from the mesoderm of the second pharyngeal arch, and are therefore supplied (motor supply) by the nerve of the second pharyngeal arch, the facial nerve (7th cranial nerve). The muscles of facial expression are all specialized members of the panniculus carnosus, which attach to the dermis and so wrinkle, or dimple the overlying skin. Functionally, the muscles of facial expression are arranged in groups around the orbits, nose and mouth.\n\nThe muscles acting on the lips:\n\nBULLET::::- Buccinator\n", "In chewing insects, adductor and abductor muscles extend from inside the cranium to within the bases of the stipites and cardines much as happens with the mandibles in feeding, and also in using the maxillae as tools. To some extent the maxillae are more mobile than the mandibles, and the galeae, laciniae, and palps also can move up and down somewhat, in the sagittal plane, both in feeding and in working, for example in nest building by mud-dauber wasps.\n", "The teeth and the periodontium (i.e. the tissues that support the teeth) are innervated by the maxillary and mandibular divisions of the trigeminal nerve. Maxillary (upper) teeth and their associated periodontal ligament are innervated by the superior alveolar nerves, branches of the maxillary division, termed the posterior superior alveolar nerve, anterior superior alveolar nerve, and the variably present middle superior alveolar nerve. These nerves form the superior dental plexus above the maxillary teeth. The mandibular (lower) teeth and their associated periodontal ligament are innervated by the inferior alveolar nerve, a branch of the mandibular division. This nerve runs inside the mandible, within the inferior alveolar canal below the mandibular teeth, giving off branches to all the lower teeth (inferior dental plexus). The oral mucosa of the gingiva (gums) on the facial (labial) aspect of the maxillary incisors, canines and premolar teeth is innervated by the superior labial branches of the infraorbital nerve. The posterior superior alveolar nerve supplies the gingiva on the facial aspect of the maxillary molar teeth. The gingiva on the palatal aspect of the maxillary teeth is innervated by the greater palatine nerve apart from in the incisor region, where it is the nasopalatine nerve (long sphenopalatine nerve). The gingiva of the lingual aspect of the mandibular teeth is innervated by the sublingual nerve, a branch of the lingual nerve. The gingiva on the facial aspect of the mandibular incisors and canines is innervated by the mental nerve, the continuation of the inferior alveolar nerve emerging from the mental foramen. The gingiva of the buccal (cheek) aspect of the mandibular molar teeth is innervated by the buccal nerve (long buccal nerve).\n", "Saliva contributes to the digestion of food and to the maintenance of oral hygiene. Without normal salivary function the frequency of dental caries, gum disease (gingivitis and periodontitis), and other oral problems increases significantly.\n\nSection::::Functions.:Lubricant.\n\nSaliva coats the oral mucosa mechanically protecting it from trauma during eating, swallowing, and speaking. Mouth soreness is very common in people with reduced saliva (xerostomia) and food (especially dry food) sticks to the inside of the mouth.\n\nSection::::Functions.:Digestion.\n", "The oral cavity serves as the starting point of the digestive track and facilitates breathing as a channel for airflow to the lungs. The borders of the oral cavity include the lips in the front, cheeks on the side, mylohyoid muscle/associated soft tissue below, soft and hard palate above, and the oropharynx at the back. The most important structures within the mouth include teeth for chewing and the tongue for speech and assistance with swallowing. The oral cavity is lined with specialized mucosa containing salivary glands that moisten food, breakdown sugars, and humidify air prior to entering the lungs. The roots of the upper teeth are anchored into a bone called the maxilla, more commonly known as the hard palate, at ridges called the alveolar process. The roots of the lower teeth are anchored into a bone called the mandible, more commonly known as the jaw, at their respective alveolar processes. The surface of the oral cavity between the teeth and the inner side of the lips are called the oral vestibule.\n", "There are three sets of salivary glands: the parotid, the submandibular and the sublingual glands. The (exocrine) glands secrete saliva for proper mixing of food and provides enzymes to start chemical digestion. Saliva helps to hold together the formed bolus which is swallowed after chewing. Saliva is composed primarily of water, ions, salivary amylase, lysozymes, and trace amounts of urea.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Mouth.:Tongue.\n", "Modiolus (face)\n\nIn facial anatomy, the modiolus is a chiasma of facial muscles held together by fibrous tissue, located lateral and slightly superior to each angle of the mouth. It is important in moving the mouth, facial expression and in dentistry. It is extremely important in relation to stability of lower denture, because of the strength and variability of movement of the area. It derives its motor nerve supply from the facial nerve, and its blood supply from labial branches of the facial artery.\n", "Dentists also encourage prevention of oral diseases through proper hygiene and regular, twice yearly, checkups for professional cleaning and evaluation. Oral infections and inflammations may affect overall health and conditions in the oral cavity may be indicative of systemic diseases, such as osteoporosis, diabetes, celiac disease or cancer. Many studies have also shown that gum disease is associated with an increased risk of diabetes, heart disease, and preterm birth. The concept that oral health can affect systemic health and disease is referred to as \"oral-systemic health\".\n\nSection::::Education and licensing.\n", "Section::::Diseases.\n\nSection::::Diseases.:Diseases transmitted through saliva.\n\nEach day numerous bacteria grow in a person's mouth. Though bacteria and saliva can be beneficial to one's health, both can also cause problems. Many diseases are related to oral bacteria. Proper oral care and habits can protect against and reduce the effects of some harmful bacteria.\n", "The mouth consists of two regions, the vestibule and the oral cavity proper. The mouth, normally moist, is lined with a mucous membrane, and contains the teeth. The lips mark the transition from mucous membrane to skin, which covers most of the body.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Oral cavity.\n", "As well as its role in supplying digestive enzymes, saliva has a cleansing action for the teeth and mouth. It also has an immunological role in supplying antibodies to the system, such as immunoglobulin A. This is seen to be key in preventing infections of the salivary glands, importantly that of parotitis.\n", "The tongue is an important accessory organ in the digestive system. The tongue is used for crushing food against the hard palate, during mastication and manipulation of food for softening prior to swallowing. The epithelium on the tongue’s upper, or dorsal surface is keratinised. Consequently, the tongue can grind against the hard palate without being itself damaged or irritated.\n\nSection::::In humans.:Function.:Speech.\n\nThe intrinsic muscles of the tongue enable the shaping of the tongue which facilitates speech.\n\nSection::::In humans.:Function.:Intimacy.\n", "Saliva consists of proteins (for example; mucins) that lubricate and protect both the soft and hard tissues of the oral cavity. Mucins are the principal organic constituents of mucus, the slimy visco-elastic material that coats all mucosal surfaces.\n\nBULLET::::- Buffering\n\nIn general, the higher the saliva flow rate, the faster the clearance and the higher the buffer capacity, hence better protection from dental caries. Therefore, people with a slower rate of saliva secretion, combined with a low buffer capacity, have lessened salivary protection against microbes.\n\nBULLET::::- Pellicle formation\n", "The muscles and overlying skin are supplied by branches of the external carotid artery (the facial artery and Superior labial artery.\n\nSection::::Relevant anatomy.:Lymph drainage.\n\nSubmandibular/submental-Under the chin\n\nSection::::Principles of Reconstruction.\n\nBULLET::::- Preserve sensation of the lips\n\nBULLET::::- Maintain oral competence\n\nBULLET::::- Continuity of vermilion border\n\nBULLET::::- Sufficient oral access (not too small, microstoma)\n\nBULLET::::- Adequate lip appearance\n\nSection::::Types of defects.\n", "The function of the salivary glands is to secrete saliva, which has a lubricating function, which protects the oral mucosa of the mouth during eating and speaking. Saliva also contains digestive enzymes (e.g. salivary amylase) and has antimicrobial action and acts as a buffer. Persons with reduced salivary flow or hyposalivation often suffer from dry mouth or xerostomia, which can result in severe dental caries (tooth decay) as a result of the loss of the protective effects of saliva.\n", "Section::::Development.\n\nSection::::Development.:Aging.\n\nAging of salivary glands show some structural changes, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Decrease in volume of acinar tissue\n\nBULLET::::- Increase in fibrous tissue\n\nBULLET::::- Increase in adipose tissue\n\nBULLET::::- Ductal hyperplasia and dilation\n\nIn addition, there are also changes in salivary contents: \n\nBULLET::::- Decrease in concentration of secretory IgA\n\nBULLET::::- Decrease in the amount of mucin\n\nHowever, there is no overall change in the amount of saliva secreted.\n\nSection::::Function.\n\nSalivary glands secrete saliva which has many benefits for the oral cavity and health in general. These benefits include:\n\nBULLET::::- Protection\n", "This motor program continuously adapts to changes in food type or occlusion. This adaptation is a learned skill that may sometimes require relearning to adapt to loss of teeth or to dental appliances such as dentures.\n\nIt is thought that conscious mediation is important in the limitation of parafunctional habits as most commonly, the motor program can be excessively engaged during periods of sleep and times of stress. It is also theorized that excessive input to the motor program from myofascial pain or occlusal imbalance can contribute to parafunctional habits.\n\nSection::::Nutrition and health.\n", "Several studies have examined salivary flow rate in individuals and found parotid and submandibular salivary flow ranging from 5 to 15 times lower than average. This is consistent with the salivary glands being of ectodermal origin, although some findings have suggested that there is also mesodermal input.\n\nSection::::Presentation.:Teeth.\n" ]	[ "The mouth is more high mantienance than all other body parts. " ]	[ "There are other body parts that require as much or possibly even more than the mouth." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The mouth is more high mantienance than all other body parts. ", "The mouth is more high mantienance than all other body parts. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "There are other body parts that require as much or possibly even more than the mouth.", "There are other body parts that require as much or possibly even more than the mouth." ]
2018-00400	how do people put oxygen in a oxygen tank?	> how do people put oxygen in a oxygen tank? The first step is to isolate the oxygen. In an industrial scale this is usually done by compressing air, allowing it to cool, then letting it expand in order to cool even more. Different gasses precipitate out at different temperatures which means they can be distilled into nearly pure forms. At that point liquid oxygen can be shipped around and oxygen tanks filled from pressurized containers.	[ "Breathing oxygen is delivered from the storage tank to users by use of the following methods: oxygen mask, nasal cannula, full face diving mask, diving helmet, demand valve, oxygen rebreather, built in breathing system (BIBS), oxygen tent, and hyperbaric oxygen chamber.\n", "Hoses or tubing connect an oxygen mask to the oxygen supply. Hoses are larger in diameter than tubing and can allow greater oxygen flow. When a hose is used it may have a ribbed or corrugated design to allow bending of the hose while preventing twisting and cutting off the oxygen flow. The quantity of oxygen delivered from the storage tank to the oxygen mask is controlled by a valve called a regulator. Some types of oxygen masks have a breathing bag made of plastic or rubber attached to the mask or oxygen supply hose to store a supply of oxygen to allow deep breathing without waste of oxygen with use of simple fixed flow regulators.\n", "Section::::Hoses and tubing and oxygen regulators.\n", "The earliest known oxygen rebreather was patented on 17 June 1808 by \"Sieur\" Touboulic from Brest, mechanic in Napoleon's Imperial Navy, but there is no evidence of any prototype having been manufactured. This early rebreather design worked with an oxygen reservoir, the oxygen being delivered progressively by the diver himself and circulating in a closed circuit through a sponge soaked in limewater. The earliest practical rebreather relates to the 1849 patent from the Frenchman Pierre Aimable De Saint Simon Sicard.\n", "The unit consists of a back mounted casing, containing its: carbon dioxide scrubber, oxygen supply, diluent supply (both spherical flasks), a mechanical ratio regulator, electronic PPO2 monitoring, and all of the valves and fittings. The remainder of the breathing loop consists of a pair of chest mounted counter lungs connected by the usual loop of wide corrugated breathing tubes running from and to the top of the backpack. It has a small bailout cylinder horizontally across the bottom of the backpack casing which is plumbed directly into the divers breathing loop.\n", "Section::::Closed-circuit oxygen rebreathers.\n", "BULLET::::- 1808: on June 17, \"Sieur\" from Brest, a mechanic in Napoleon's Imperial Navy, patented the oldest known oxygen rebreather, but there is no evidence of any prototype having been manufactured. This early rebreather design worked with an oxygen reservoir, the oxygen being delivered progressively by the diver himself and circulating in a closed circuit through a sponge soaked in limewater. Touboulic called his invention \"Ichtioandre\" (Greek for 'fish-man').\n\nBULLET::::- 1849: Pierre-Aimable de Saint Simon Sicard (a chemist) made the first practical oxygen rebreather. It was demonstrated in London in 1854.\n", "One component of the heart-lung machine is the oxygenator. The oxygenator component serves as the lung, and is designed to expose the blood to oxygen and remove carbon dioxide. It is disposable and contains about 2–4 m² of a membrane permeable to gas but impermeable to blood, in the form of hollow fibers. Blood flows on the outside of the hollow fibers, while oxygen flows in the opposite direction on the inside of the fibers. As the blood passes through the oxygenator, the blood comes into intimate contact with the fine surfaces of the device itself. Gas containing oxygen and medical air is delivered to the interface between the blood and the device, permitting the blood cells to absorb oxygen molecules directly.\n", "Oxygen is rarely held at pressures higher than , due to the risks of fire triggered by high temperatures caused by adiabatic heating when the gas changes pressure when moving from one vessel to another. Medical use liquid oxygen \"airgas\" tanks are typically .\n", "BULLET::::- In an episode of the Adult Swim cartoon series \"Metalocalypse\" (2006-2013), the other members of the band submerge guitarist Toki in a \"liquid oxygen isolation chamber\" while recording an album in the Mariana Trench.\n\nBULLET::::- In an episode of the Syfy Channel show \"Eureka\" (2006-2012), Sheriff Jack Carter is submerged in a tank of \"oxygen rich plasma\" to be cured of the effects of a scientific accident.\n", "Recharging is done through a connector which is supplied with the unit for this purpose, and which connects to the main cylinder valve to decant air for a top-up. This is usually done by the diver before the dive. A button gauge is provided to allow the diver to check the pressure.\n", "Oxygen can be separated by a number of methods, including chemical reaction and fractional distillation, and then either used immediately or stored for future use. The main types of sources for oxygen therapy are:\n\nBULLET::::1. Liquid storage – Liquid oxygen is stored in chilled tanks until required, and then allowed to boil (at a temperature of 90.188 K (−182.96 °C)) to release oxygen as a gas. This is widely used at hospitals due to their high usage requirements, but can also be used in other settings. See Vacuum Insulated Evaporator for more information on this method of storage.\n", "So, additions of lime are added to dilute sulfur in the metal bath. Also, aluminum or silicon may be added to remove oxygen. Other trimming alloy additions might be added at the end of the step. After sulfur levels have been achieved the slag is removed from the AOD vessel and the metal bath is ready for tapping. The tapped bath is then either sent to a stir station for further chemistry trimming or to a caster for casting.\n", "An SCBA typically has three main components: a high-pressure tank (e.g., , about 150 to 374 atmospheres), a pressure regulator, and an inhalation connection (mouthpiece, mouth mask or face mask), connected together and mounted to a carrying frame.\n\nA self-contained breathing apparatus may fall into one of two categories: open-circuit or closed-circuit.\n\nSection::::Closed-circuit SCBA.\n", "At 14, Wells made his first surface-supplied diving system from a spray painting compressor powered by a motor-scooter engine, and later built an oxygen rebreather from surplus aircraft respirator parts based on diagrams in the U.S. Navy Diving Manual, which he used for several years. He later switched to open circuit air diving and taught scuba diving while in college.\n\nWells received his PhD in physiology from Scripps Institution of Oceanography (University of California, San Diego). His thesis is titled \"Pressure and Hemoglobin Oxygenation\".\n", "Contrary to popular belief scuba divers very rarely carry oxygen tanks. The vast majority of divers breathe air or nitrox stored in a diving cylinder. A small minority breathe trimix, heliox or other exotic gases. Some of these may carry pure oxygen for accelerated decompression or as a component of a rebreather. Some shallow divers, particularly naval divers, use oxygen rebreathers or have done so historically.\n", "Section::::Oxygen delivery to divers.:Built-in breathing system.\n", "Section::::Delivery.:High flow oxygen delivery.\n\nIn cases where the person requires a high concentration of up to 100% oxygen, a number of devices are available, with the most common being the non-rebreather mask (or reservoir mask), which is similar to the partial rebreathing mask except it has a series of one-way valves preventing exhaled air from returning to the bag. There should be a minimum flow of 10 L/min. The delivered F (Inhalation volumetric fraction of molecular oxygen) of this system is 60–80%, depending on the oxygen flow and breathing pattern.\n", "Various devices are used for administration of oxygen. In most cases, the oxygen will first pass through a pressure regulator, used to control the high pressure of oxygen delivered from a cylinder (or other source) to a lower pressure. This lower pressure is then controlled by a flowmeter, which may be preset or selectable, and this controls the flow in a measure such as litres per minute (lpm). The typical flowmeter range for medical oxygen is between 0 and 15 lpm with some units able to obtain up to 25 liters per minute. Many wall flowmeters using a Thorpe tube design are able to be dialed to \"flush\" which is beneficial in emergency situations.\n", "Section::::Delivery.:Exhalation filters for oxygen masks.\n", "Emergency sharing of breathing gas may be done by sharing a single demand valve, or by the donor providing a demand valve to the receiver, and another for their own use. The gas supply for the second demand valve may be from the same scuba set or from a separate cylinder. The preferred technique of air sharing is donation of a demand valve that is not needed by the donor.\n", "Inflatable pipe purging systems are the most commonly used, where two inflatable bags (known as dams) are connected by an inert gas tube about 20” (500 mm) in length with one dam placed either side of the weld.\n\nThe space between the dams is filled with inert gas that flushes out the air. The residual oxygen is measured by a weld purge monitor until it reaches the desired level for welding to begin.\n\nSection::::Closing tube and pipe welds.\n", "Oxygen firebreak\n\nAn oxygen firebreak, also known as a fire stop valve or fire safety valve, is a thermal fuse designed to extinguish a fire in the delivery tube being used by a patient on oxygen therapy and stop the flow of oxygen if the tube is accidentally ignited. Oxygen firebreaks are fitted into the oxygen delivery tubing close to the patient, typically around the patient’s sternum where the two nasal cannula tubes join and connect to the delivery tubing.\n\nSection::::Home oxygen fires.\n", "Section::::Architecture of a rebreather.:Gas sources.\n\nA rebreather must have a source of oxygen to replenish that consumed by the diver. Depending on the rebreather design variant, the oxygen source will either be pure or a breathing gas mixture which is almost always stored in a gas cylinder. In a few cases oxygen is supplied as liquid oxygen or from a chemical reaction.\n", "Addition of gas to compensate for compression during descent is usually done by an automatic diluent valve.\n\nSection::::System variants.:Rebreathers using an absorbent that releases oxygen.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-20595	Where does the UK's military budget come from, and is the tax we pay involved at all?	From taxes; the tax you [British people] pay is involved in that it's the source of the money.	[ "BULLET::::- English local authorities, under the supervision of the Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government\n\nBULLET::::- Scottish local authorities, under the supervision of the Cabinet Secretary for Finance, Employment and Sustainable Growth\n\nBULLET::::- Welsh local authorities, under the supervision of the Minister for Local Government and Communities\n\nBULLET::::- Northern Ireland local authorities, under the supervision of the Minister of the Environment\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Barnett Formula\n\nBULLET::::- Fiscal autonomy for Scotland\n\nBULLET::::- History of the English fiscal system\n\nBULLET::::- Taxation in the United Kingdom\n\nBULLET::::- United Kingdom budget, the budget of the UK government\n", "Dannatt criticised a remnant \"Cold War mentality\", with military expenditures based on retaining a capability against a direct conventional strategic threat; He said currently only 10% of the MOD's equipment programme budget between 2003 and 2018 was to be invested in the \"land environment\" – at a time when Britain was engaged in land–based wars in Afghanistan and Iraq.\n", "In July 2010, whilst seeking cuts of up to 25 per cent in government spending to tackle the deficit, Osborne insisted the £20 billion cost of building four new Vanguard-class submarine to bear Trident missiles had to be considered as part of the Ministry of Defence's core funding, even if that implied a severe reduction in the rest of the Ministry's budget. Liam Fox, the Secretary of State for Defence, warned that if Trident were to be considered core funding, there would have to be severe restrictions in the way that the UK operated militarily.\n", "In 2013 it was found that the Ministry of Defence had overspent on its equipment budget by £6.5bn on orders that could take up to 39 years to fulfil. The Ministry of Defence has been criticised in the past for poor management and financial control, investing in projects that have taken up to 10 and even as much as 15 years to be delivered.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Defence Review\n\nBULLET::::- The Lancaster House Treaties (2010)\n\nBULLET::::- Stabilisation Unit\n\nBULLET::::- United Kingdom budget\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n", "Budgets are usually set once every year and are announced in the House of Commons by the Chancellor of the Exchequer. The 2017 budget took place on Wednesday 22 November 2017, and the Chancellor presented the 2018 budget on Monday 29 October 2018. Since 2017 the United Kingdom budget has taken place in the Autumn in order to allow major tax changes to occur annually, well before the start of the fiscal year.\n\nSection::::Budget process.\n", "The government reserves the right to submit \"Supplementary Estimates\" in the spring and winter of a given fiscal year to update its agencies' spending totals for the current financial year and report any governmental re-organizations. When an agency submits a Supplementary Estimate, it is customary to also submit an \"Estimate Memorandum\" to the agency's relevant oversight committee in Parliament describing and justifying the changes. This condenses two functions – reporting supplemental spending requests and agency re-organizations.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Countries of the United Kingdom by GVA per capita\n\nBULLET::::- United Kingdom national debt\n\nBULLET::::- Budget Day\n", "When the fund was created, the majority of its funding, £823 million out of £1,033 million, was transferred from the Department for International Development budget to the fund, £739 million of which was then administered by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office and £42 million by the Ministry of Defence. The 2015 UK Aid policy stated that the CSSF would be increased to £1.3 billion by 2019/20. The funds available through the previous Conflict Pool were £180 million in 2014/15, so there has been a very substantial funding increase in this area with the creation of the CSSF.\n", "The organisation had a civilian and military workforce of around 29,000 (77 per cent civilian and 23 per cent military), in the UK and abroad. DE&S operates as a single Top Level Budget. As of 2008 the DE&S workforce was around 24,500, further reducing under the 'PACE' business improvement programme to around 21,000 by 2012. Of this, around 8,000 posts have been housed at Abbey Wood since 2012.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "For the 2018/19 financial year the National Audit Office found that spending on the nuclear deterrent will cost £5.2 billion, or 14% of the defence budget, with £600 million of contingency funding used. Costs were projected at about £51 billion over the following 10 years, £2.9 billion above the projected budget which already anticipated finding £3 billion of savings, which the \"Daily Telegraph\" described as a £6 billion shortfall.\n", "BULLET::::- Military aid to the civil community\n\nBULLET::::- Training and logistic assistance to the civil power\n\nSection::::Types of assistance.:Military aid to other government departments.\n\nMilitary aid to other government departments covers assistance provided by the armed forces to urgent work of national importance or in maintaining supplies and services essential to the life, health and safety of the community, such as \"Operation Fresco\" during the UK firefighter dispute 2002–2003. MAGD is controlled under orders made under section 2 of the \"Emergency Powers Act 1964\".\n\nSection::::Types of assistance.:Military aid to the civil power.\n", "No official Policy. The Ministry of Defence is in charge, but offsets go through UKTI, UK Trade & Investment, under the Minister of State for Trade, Investment and Business. In 2007 the Prime Minister announced a change, transferring responsibility for defense trade from the Defence Export Services Organization (DESO) to UK Trade and Investment (UKTI). Since April 2008 UKTI DSO (Defence & Security Organization) has responsibility for supporting both defense and security exports. The general threshold is 10 million GBP, but through bilateral agreements with Germany and France, has been reciprocally set to 50 million GBP. The offset is generally around 100%, no multipliers. .\n", "BULLET::::- Provision of two medium scale maritime task groups with the Fleet Air Arm\n\nBULLET::::- Delivery of the UK Commando force\n\nBULLET::::- Contribution of assets to the Joint Helicopter Command\n\nBULLET::::- Maintenance of standing patrol commitments\n\nBULLET::::- Provision of mine counter measures capability to United Kingdom and allied commitments\n\nBULLET::::- Provision of hydrographic and meteorological services deployable worldwide\n\nBULLET::::- Protection of Britain and EU's Exclusive Economic Zone\n\nSection::::Naval bases.:Current deployments.\n", "Osborne also allocated £100 million of new money for science, financed by the bank levy, £80 million of which would be invested in new research centres in Daresbury, Norwich and Cambridge, and the remainder would be for projects in Harwell.\n\n£100 million would be allocated to repairing potholes in England, following the severe winter, and £200 million to regional railways, including the construction of the Ordsall Chord in Manchester and the double-tracking of the line between and .\n\nBritain's role in the military intervention in Libya would be financed entirely by the Treasury and Treasury reserve.\n", "The distribution of personnel between the services and categories of service on 1 January 2019 was as follows:\n\n, there were a total of 9,330 Regular service personnel stationed outside of the United Kingdom, 3,820 of those were located in Germany. 138,040 Regular service personnel were stationed in the United Kingdom, the majority located in the South East and South West of England with 37,520 and 36,790 Regular service personnel, respectively.\n\nSection::::Today.:Defence expenditure.\n", "Budget of the United Kingdom\n\nThe Autumn Budget of the British Government is an annual budget set by HM Treasury for the following financial year, with the revenues to be gathered by HM Revenue and Customs and the expenditures of the public sector, in compliance with government policy. The budget is one of two statements given by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, with the Spring Statement being given the following year.\n", "The Defence Committee – Third Report \"Defence Equipment 2009\" cites an article from the \"Financial Times\" website stating that the Chief of Defence Materiel, General Sir Kevin O'Donoghue, had instructed staff within Defence Equipment and Support (DE&S) through an internal memorandum to re-prioritise the approvals process to focus on supporting current operations over the next three years; deterrence related programmes; those that reflect defence obligations both contractual or international; and those where production contracts are already signed. The report also cites concerns over potential cuts in the defence science and technology research budget; implications of inappropriate estimation of Defence Inflation within budgetary processes; underfunding in the Equipment Programme; and a general concern over striking the appropriate balance over a short-term focus (Current Operations) and long-term consequences of failure to invest in the delivery of future UK defence capabilities on future combatants and campaigns. The then Secretary of State for Defence, Bob Ainsworth MP, reinforced this re-prioritisation of focus on current operations and had not ruled out \"\"major shifts\"\" in defence spending. In the same article, the First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff, Admiral Sir Mark Stanhope, acknowledged that there was not enough money within the defence budget and it is preparing itself for tough decisions and the potential for cutbacks. According to figures published by the London \"Evening Standard\" the defence budget for 2009 is \"\"more than 10% overspent\"\" (figures cannot be verified) and the paper states that this had caused Gordon Brown to say that the defence spending must be cut. The MOD has been investing in IT to cut costs and improve services for its personnel. As of 2017 there is concern that defence spending may be insufficient to meet defence needs.\n", "Section::::Ministry of Defence.\n\nThe Ministry of Defence maintains a number civilian agencies in support of the British Armed Forces. Although they are civilian, they play a vital role in supporting Armed Forces operations, and in certain circumstances are under military discipline:\n\nBULLET::::- The Royal Fleet Auxiliary (RFA) operates 12 ships which primarily serve to replenish Royal Navy warships at sea, and also augment the Royal Navy's amphibious warfare capabilities through its three vessels. It is manned by 1,850 civilian personnel and is funded and run by the Ministry of Defence.\n", "PPBS requires Planners focus on operational requirements, programmers link the plans to a six-year financial plan (known as a Future Years Defense Plan (FYDP)), and budgeters prepare a two-year Congressional budget. While each step contains more detailed financial data, the two-year Congressional budget stems from the six-year Future Years Defense Plan, which is based on the even longer term Defense Plan.\n\nSection::::Literature.\n\nBULLET::::- Department of Education and Science, London, England. (1970).\"Output Budgeting for the Department of Education and Science\", Pendragon House, Inc. 176 p.\n", "On 14 January 1970 the building was grade I listed by English Heritage as a building of exceptional interest.\n\nSection::::Redevelopment.\n\nSection::::Redevelopment.:Contract.\n", "BULLET::::- A direct response from Secretary of State for Defence Michael Fallon, that \"Our Armed Forces are anything but 'feeble'\". Fallon reiterated the government position that the international aid for law enforcement and women's rights budget should also be taken into account, as he said that \"Those who belittle our Armed Forces’ efforts fail to recognise that our national security depends on tackling the causes of instability, not just treating the symptoms.\"\n", "According to the International Institute for Strategic Studies and the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, the United Kingdom has the sixth- or seventh-largest defence budget in the world. For comparisons sake, this sees Britain spending more in absolute terms than France, Germany, India or Japan, a similar amount to that of Russia, but less than China, Saudi Arabia or the United States. In September 2011, according to Professor Malcolm Chalmers of the Royal United Services Institute, current \"planned levels of defence spending should be enough for the United Kingdom to maintain its position as one of the world's top military powers, as well as being one of NATO-Europe's top military powers. Its edge – not least its qualitative edge – in relation to rising Asian powers seems set to erode, but will remain significant well into the 2020s, and possibly beyond.\" The Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 committed to spending 2% of GDP on defence and announced a £178 billion investment over ten years in new equipment and capabilities.\n", "The Review Body is to have regard for the need for the pay of the Armed Forces to be broadly comparable with pay levels in civilian life. Its reports and recommendations are submitted jointly to the Secretary of State for Defence and the Prime Minister.\n", "The second largest source of government revenue is National Insurance contributions (NICs). NICs are payable by employees, employers and the self-employed and in the 2010–2011 tax year £96.5 billion was raised, 21.5 percent of the total collected by HMRC.\n", "In addition, the MOD is responsible for the administration of the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia in Cyprus.\n\nSection::::Property portfolio.\n\nThe Ministry of Defence is one of the United Kingdom's largest landowners, owning 227,300 hectares of land and foreshore (either freehold or leasehold) at April 2014, which was valued at \"about £20 billion\". The MOD also has \"rights of access\" to a further 222,000 hectares. In total, this is about 1.8% of the UK land mass. The total annual cost to support the defence estate is \"in excess of £3.3 billion\".\n", "The Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 included £178 billion investment in new equipment and capabilities. The review set a defence policy with four primary missions for the Armed Forces:\n\nBULLET::::- Defend and contribute to the security and resilience of the UK and Overseas Territories.\n\nBULLET::::- Provide the nuclear deterrent.\n\nBULLET::::- Contribute to improved understanding of the world through strategic intelligence and the global defence network.\n\nBULLET::::- Reinforce international security and the collective capacity of our allies, partners and multilateral institutions.\n\nThe review stated the Armed Forces will also contribute to the government’s response to crises by being prepared to:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01279	If human cells get changed so often, why do scars retain for a long time?	Imagine your body as a house where the blueprints were lost during construction. One day, the neighbor's kid manages to smack a baseball through a window. It's pretty easy to tell that there is a shattered window that needs replacement within a window frame even without the blueprints. You get some new glass, install it, and the house looks as good as new. Now, think of the damage if a distracted driver plows a truck though the wall to your living room, taking out a large chunk of wall and an entire window frame. Your first concern is to seal the hole so that the inside of your house is not exposed to the outside. With the hole sealed, you realize that you don't remember what the original wall and window looked like and you don't have the blueprints. You can repair what you can based on the edges but it may look very off both physically and functionally. The seal probably lacks the same insulation and the actual window, but at least nothing can get in or out. This is a scar. Your body only can regenerate (repair back to the new state) parts when it knows what it is based on its surroundings. If it takes too much damage, it won't be able to correctly regenerate and seals it with a scar. The cell replacement acts constantly but can only swap out what is already there. Since there are no blueprints, it cannot make what it doesn't know.	[ "Proteins and cell surface receptors found in the ECM differ in fetal and adult wound healing. This is due to the early up regulation of cell adhesion proteins such as fibronectin and tenascin in the fetus. During early gestation in the fetal wounds of rabbits, the production of fibronectin occurs around 4 hours after wounding, much faster than in adult wounds where expression of fibronectin does not occur until 12 hours post wounding. The same pattern can be seen in the deposition of tenascin. It is this ability of the fetal fibroblast to quickly express and deposit fibronectin and tenascin, which ultimately allows cell migration and attachment to occur, resulting in an organised matrix with less scarring.\n", "The myofibroblasts make up a high proportion of the fibroblasts proliferating in the postembryonic wound at the onset of healing. In the rat model, for instance, myofibroblasts can constitute up to 70% of the fibroblasts, and is responsible for fibrosis on tissue.\n\nGenerally, the myofibroblasts disappear from the wound within 30 days, but can stay around in pathological cases in hypertrophy, such as keloids. Myofibroblasts have plasticity and in mice can be transformed into fat cells, instead of scar tissue, via the regeneration of hair follicles.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "The tissue injury in SCARs is initiated principally by CD8 or CD4 T cells. Once drug-activated, these lymphocytes elicit immune responses to self tissues that can result in SCARs drug reactions by mechanisms which vary with the type of disorder that develops. Salient elements mediating tissue injury for each type of disorder include:\n", "Analysis using microarrays has also shown that gene expression profiles greatly differ between scar free fetal wounds and postnatal wounds with scar formation. In scarlesss wound healing there is a significant up-regulation in genes associated with cell growth and proliferation, thought to be a major contributing factor to the rapid wound closure seen in the foetus. Whilst wound healing in the fetus has been shown to be completely scarless in an age-dependent manner, adult mammals do not have complete scar free healing but have retained some regenerative properties. Adult regeneration is limited to a number of organs, most notably, the liver.\n", "The fibroblast involved in scarring and contraction is the myofibroblast, which is a specialized contractile fibroblast. These cells express α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA).\n\nThe myofibroblasts are absent in the first trimester in the embryonic stage where damage heals scar free; in small incisional or excision wounds less than 2 mm that also heal without scarring; and in adult unwounded tissues where the fibroblast in itself is arrested; however, the myofibroblast is found in massive numbers in adult wound healing which heals with a scar.\n", "Section::::Fetal vs adult healing in humans.:Role of the extracellular matrix and its components.\n", "Any injury does not become a scar until the wound has completely healed; this can take many months, or years in the worst pathological cases, such as keloids. To begin to patch the damage, a clot is created; the clot is the beginning process that results in a provisional matrix. In the process, the first layer is a provisional matrix and is not scar. Over time, the wounded body tissue then overexpresses collagen inside the provisional matrix to create a collagen matrix. This collagen overexpression continues and crosslinks the fiber arrangement inside the collagen matrix, making the collagen dense. This densely packed collagen, morphing into an inelastic whitish collagen scar wall, blocks off cell communication and regeneration; as a result, the new tissue generated will have a different texture and quality than the surrounding unwounded tissue. This prolonged collagen-producing process results in a fortuna scar.\n", "Up until about 2000, the classic paradigm of wound healing, involving stem cells restricted to organ-specific lineages, had never been seriously challenged. Since then, the notion of adult stem cells having cellular \"plasticity\" or the ability to differentiate into non-lineage cells has emerged as an alternative explanation. To be more specific, hematopoietic progenitor cells (that give rise to mature cells in the blood) may have the ability \"de-differentiate\" back into hematopoietic stem cells and/or \"transdifferentiate\" into non-lineage cells, such as fibroblasts.\n\nSection::::Research and development.:Stem cells and cellular plasticity.\n", "Section::::Scar free healing in nature.\n", "Section::::Primary scar molecular inducers.:Upregulation of nestin intermediate filament protein.\n", "Another difference between the healing of embryonic and adult wounds is due to the role of fibroblast cells. Fibroblasts are responsible for the synthesis of the ECM and collagen. In the fetus, fibroblasts are able to migrate at a faster rate than those found in the adult wound. Fetal fibroblasts can also proliferate and synthesize collagen simultaneously, in comparison to adult fibroblasts where collagen synthesis is delayed. It is this delay in both collagen deposition and migration, which is likely to contribute to formation of a scar in the adult.\n", "Reparation of tissue in the mammalian fetus is radically different than the healing mechanisms observed in a healthy adult. During early gestation fetal skin wounds have the remarkable ability to heal rapidly and without scar formation. Wound healing itself is a particularly complex process and the mechanisms by which scarring occurs involves inflammation, fibroplasia, the formation of granulation tissue and finally scar maturation. Since the observation of scar free healing was first reported in the early fetus more than three decades ago, research has focused intently on the underlying mechanisms which separate scarless fetal wound repair from normal adult wound healing.\n", "In 2013 it was proven in pig tissue that full thickness micro columns of tissue, less than 0.5mm in diameter could be removed and that the replacement tissue, was regenerative tissue, not scar. The tissue was removed in a fractional pattern, with over 40% of a square area removed; and all of the fractional full thickness holes in the square area healed without scarring. In 2016 this fractional pattern technique was also proven in human tissue.\n\nSection::::History of human tissue regeneration.:History of regeneration techniques.:Regeneration with materials.\n", "Astrocytes can heal partially the lesion leaving a scar. These scars (sclerae) are the known plaques or lesions usually reported in MS. A repair process, called remyelination, takes place in early phases of the disease, but the oligodendrocytes are unable to completely rebuild the cell's myelin sheath. Repeated attacks lead to successively less effective remyelinations, until a scar-like plaque is built up around the damaged axons.\n", "Section::::Continued regeneration in adult humans.\n\nThere are few examples of regeneration in humans continuing after fetal life in to adulthood. Generally, adult wound healing involves fibrotic processes causing wound contraction which may lead to the formation of scar tissue. In regeneration, however, completely new tissue is synthesized. This can lead to scar free healing where the function and structure of the organ is reinstated. However organ regeneration is not yet fully understood.\n\nTwo types of regeneration in human adults are currently recognised; spontaneous and induced.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Collagen synthesis.:Fibroblasts.\n\nThe scarring is created by fibroblast proliferation, a process that begins with a reaction to the clot.\n", "Drugs can cause SCARs by subverting the antigen presentation pathways which recognize and trigger immune responses to non-self epitopes (i.e. antigens) on foreign proteins. These proteins are taken up by antigen-presenting cells (APC) and degraded into small peptides. The peptides are inserted into a groove on HLA proteins that are part of major histocompatibility complexes (i.e. MHC) and presented to T cell receptors (TCR) on nearby cytotoxic T cells (i.e. CD8 T cells) or T helper cells (i.e. CD4 T cells). T cell receptors are heterologous; only a small fraction of them can bind a particular epitope on presented peptides and this binding is restricted to non-self epitopes. Upon binding a non-self epitope on a presented peptide, a T cell receptor becomes active in stimulating its parent cell to mount one of two types of immune responses based on whether the APC presenting the peptide is professional or non-professional in type. Non-professional APC include all nucleated cells; these cells load the processed peptides onto MHC class I (i.e. HLA-A, HLA-B, or HLA-C) proteins and thereon present the peptides to CD8 T cells. Those CD8 T cells whose T cell receptors bind an non-self epitope on the peptides are stimulated to attack cells or pathogens expressing this epitope. Professional APC are dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells. They load processed peptides onto MHC class II (i.e. HLA-DM, HLA-DO, HLA-DP, HLA-DQ, or HLA-DR) proteins and thereon present the peptides to CD4 T cells. Those CD4 T cells whose T cell receptors bind a non-self epitope on presented peptides are stimulated to orchestrate various immune reactions that attack soluble proteins, pathogens, and host cells and tissues that express the non-self epitope. SCARs-inducing drugs can act through these pathways to cause CD8 or CD4 T cells to mount immune responses that are inappropriately directed against bodily tissues. Four models propose the underlying mechanisms by which SCARs-inducing drugs may activate T cells to mount immune responses against self:\n", "Multipotent adult stem cells have the capacity to be self-renewing and give rise to different cell types. Stem cells give rise to progenitor cells, which are cells that are not self-renewing, but can generate several types of cells. The extent of stem cell involvement in cutaneous (skin) wound healing is complex and not fully understood.\n", "Section::::Fetal vs adult healing in humans.:Immune system cells and inflammatory response.\n\nOne of the major differences between embryonic scar-free healing wounds and adult scar-forming wounds is the role played by the cells of the immune system and the inflammatory response.\n\nTable 1: Summary of the major differences identified between fetal and adult wound healing.\n", "A scar is the product of the body's repair mechanism after tissue injury. If a wound heals quickly within two weeks with new formation of skin, minimal collagen will be deposited and no scar will form. When the extracellular matrix senses elevated mechanical stress loading, tissue will scar, and scars can be limited by stress shielding wounds. Small full thickness wounds under 2mm reepithelize fast and heal scar free. Deep second-degree burns heal with scarring and hair loss. Sweat glands do not form in scar tissue, which impairs the regulation of body temperature. Elastic fibers are generally not detected in scar tissue younger than 3 months old. In scars rete pegs are lost; through a lack of rete pegs scars tend to shear easier than normal tissue.\n", "When a normal wound heals, the body produces new collagen fibres at a rate which balances the breakdown of old collagen. Hypertrophic scars are red and thick and may be itchy or painful. They do not extend beyond the boundary of the original wound, but may continue to thicken for up to six months. They usually improve over one or two years, but may cause distress due to their appearance or the intensity of the itching; they can also restrict movement if they are located close to a joint.\n", "Section::::Scar versus scar free healing.\n\nScarring takes place in response to damaged or missing tissue following injury due to biological processes or wounding: it is a process that occurs in order to replace the lost tissue. The process of scarring is complex, it involves the inflammatory response and remodelling amongst other cell activities. Many growth factors and cytokines are also involved in the process, as well as extracellular matrix interactions. Mast cells are one cell type which act to promote scarring.\n", "Collagen deposition is important because it increases the strength of the wound; before it is laid down, the only thing holding the wound closed is the fibrin-fibronectin clot, which does not provide much resistance to traumatic injury. Also, cells involved in inflammation, angiogenesis, and connective tissue construction attach to, grow and differentiate on the collagen matrix laid down by fibroblasts.\n", "Section::::Fetal vs adult healing in humans.\n", "Section::::Fetal vs adult healing in humans.:Intrauterine environment.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-06104	Why is it so difficult to fake a convincing sneeze?	A true sneeze involves a lot of involuntary reflexes and muscles you either can't or basically never utilize voluntary control over. Thus accurately recreating it is extremely difficult to impossible.	[ "Section::::Risks.:Medical procedures.\n\nUncontrollable fits of sneezing are common in patients under propofol sedation who undergo periocular or retrobulbar injection. A sneeze by a sedated patient often occurs upon insertion of a needle into or around their eye. The violent and uncontrollable movement of the head during a reflexive sneeze has potential to cause damage within the patient's eye if the needle is not removed before the sneeze occurs.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Section::::Risks.\n\nSneezing generally does not present any particular risks to the individual, and is usually more an annoyance than a risk of injury. The fits of sneezing brought about by the photic sneeze reflex can, however, have dangerous implications during certain scenarios and activities, such as operating a vehicle, or while undergoing operations (dental, optical) and having bright lights directed towards the patient's face.\n\nSection::::Risks.:Disease transmission.\n", "For example, a lack of crinkles around the eyes suggests a potentially fake smile. At one point, researchers believed that making a genuine smile was nearly impossible to do on command. When you're smiling joyfully, they crinkle. When you're faking it, they don't. If someone's trying to look happy but really isn't, you won't see the wrinkles. More recently, a study from Northeastern University researchers found that people could do a pretty good job of faking a Duchenne smile, even when they weren't feeling especially happy.\n", "BULLET::::- Hector \"Hiccup\" Denardo: Sneeze's best friend (and sometimes not-so-willing test subject), Hiccup Denardo, is a hypochondriac who comes from a large family. He is constantly worried about getting sick, usually going to extremes to prevent becoming ill. He earned his nickname because he tends to get the hiccups whenever he is nervous or excited.\n", "Proven methods to reduce sneezing generally advocate reducing interaction with irritants, such as keeping pets out of the house to avoid animal dander; ensuring the timely and continuous removal of dirt and dust particles through proper housekeeping; replacing filters for furnaces and air-handling units; air filtration devices and humidifiers; and staying away from industrial and agricultural zones. Some people, however, find sneezes to be pleasurable and would not want to prevent them.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Risks.:Vehicle operation.\n", "BULLET::::- Human image synthesis since the early 2000s has improved beyond the point of human's inability to tell a real human imaged with a real camera from a simulation of a human imaged with a simulation of a camera.\n\nBULLET::::- 2D video forgery techniques were presented in 2016 that allow near real-time counterfeiting of facial expressions in existing 2D video.\n", "Examples of preventive techniques are: the deep exhalation of the air in the lungs that would otherwise be used in the act of sneezing, holding the breath in while counting to ten or gently pinching the bridge of the nose for several seconds.\n", "During surgeries in and around the eye, such as corneal transplant surgery, the patient often requires injection of a local anesthetic into the eye. In patients who show the photic sneeze reflex, an injection into the eye, such as that undergone in a retrobulbar or peribulbar block, can often elicit a sneeze from the patient. During these procedures, the patient may be sedated prior to the periocular injection. The patient begins to sneeze just as the needle is inserted into the eye, often resulting in the anesthesiologist having to remove the needle before injecting the local anesthetic in order to avoid damaging the patient's eye.\n", "speech synthesis is verging on being completely indistinguishable from a real human's voice.\n\nAdobe Voco takes approximately 20 minutes of the desired target's speech and after that it can generate sound-alike voice with even phonemes that were not present in the training material. The software poses ethical concerns as it allows to steal other peoples voices and manipulate them to say anything desired.\n\nThis increases the stress on the disinformation situation coupled with the facts that \n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Optic-trigeminal summation.\n\nStimulation of the ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve may enhance the irritability of the maxillary branch, resulting in an increased probability of sneezing. This is similar to the mechanism by which photophobia develops by persistent light exposure relaying signals through the optic nerve and trigeminal nerve to produce increased sensitivity in the ophthalmic branch. If this increased sensitivity occurred in the maxillary branch instead of the ophthalmic branch, a sneeze could result instead of photophobia.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Parasympathetic generalization.\n", "Contour Crafting was selected as one of the top 25 out of more than 4000 candidate inventions by the History Channel Modern Marvels program and the National Inventor’s Hall of Fame; and has been identified as one of the major disruptive technologies of our time.\n", "The speech synthesis is verging on being completely indistinguishable from a real human's voice with the 2016 introduction of audio generation software Adobe Voco, a prototype slated to be a part of the Adobe Creative Suite and DeepMind WaveNet, a prototype from Google.\n\nAbility to steal and manipulate other peoples voices raises obvious ethical concerns.\n\nThis coupled with the fact that (as of 2016) techniques which allow near real-time counterfeiting of facial expressions in existing 2D video have been believably demonstrated increases the stress on the disinformation situation.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Motion-capture acting\n\nBULLET::::- Internet manipulation\n\nBULLET::::- Propaganda techniques\n", "When the trigeminal nerve is directly stimulated, there is the possibility that increased light sensitivity in the ocular nerve could result. An example of directly stimulating would be plucking an eyebrow or pulling hair. In many people who show the photic sneeze reflex, even this direct stimulation can lead to a photic sneeze which is why we find it easier to sneeze while looking at a bright light.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Propofol-induced inhibitory suppression.\n", "A study conducted by the School of Optometry at the University of Alabama at Birmingham found that females represent 67% of photic sneezers, and Caucasians represent 94%. The study also found statistically significant correlations between photic sneezing and the presence of a deviated nasal septum. The study also showed that photic sneezing is more likely to be acquired than inherited.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.:Response to periocular injection.\n", "While this phenomenon is poorly understood, recent research has shown that antihistamines being used to treat rhinitis due to seasonal allergies may also reduce the occurrence of photic sneezes in people affected by both conditions.\n\nThose affected by photic sneezing may find relief by shielding their eyes and/or faces with hats, scarves, and sunglasses.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Symptoms.:Sneezing after eating.\n", "Mime therapy was introduced in the Netherlands in 1980. It was initially designed to treat facial palsy by improving symmetry of the face both at rest and during movement. It was then later observed that people who had post-facial palsy synkinesis also benefited from this therapy. It wasn’t until 2003 that Beurskens and Heymans were able to experimentally conclude that mime therapy was indeed a good treatment choice for synkinesis. Furthermore, later studies by Beurskens et al. have shown that benefits obtained from mime therapy are stable one year after therapy. \n", "Contour Crafting was selected as one of the top 25 out of more than 4000 candidate inventions by the History Channel Modern Marvels program and the National Inventor’s Hall of Fame; and has been identified as one of the major disruptive technologies of our time. Contour Crafting has been exhibited at numerous museums worldwide.\n", "A fit of sneezing while operating a vehicle can cause the operator to lose control of that vehicle, resulting in injury to the person, and damage to the vehicle and/or surroundings. In particular, photic sneezing poses a considerable risk to pilots, due to the frequent presence of bright sunlight and the precise reactions needed to successfully control the aircraft. For the pilot of a fighter aircraft, if an uncontrollable fit of sneezing were to occur during aerial combat, the pilot could be incapacitated when his or her situational awareness needs to be greatest. A plane landing on an aircraft carrier or shoreline also requires precise movements and quick reflexes. The reflection of the sun from surrounding water has a high probability of producing at least one photic sneeze for pilots who have the reflex. Any amount of sneezing while attempting to land could cause the pilot to lose control, potentially resulting in disaster.\n", "Section::::Production.\n\nThe film contains a number of primitive special effects, including the use of wires to move objects when the uncle sneezes, and the balancing of the camera on a rocking board to give the impression that the world is swaying in the penultimate shot. The dramatic final scene, in which the uncle explodes, was achieved by stopping the camera and replacing the actor with a small smoke-emitting device.\n", "Section::::Efficacy in animal models.\n", "In certain parts of Eastern Asia, particularly in Chinese culture, Korean culture, Japanese culture and Vietnamese culture, a sneeze without an obvious cause was generally perceived as a sign that someone was talking about the sneezer at that very moment. This can be seen in the \"Book of Songs\" (a collection of Chinese poems) in ancient China as early as 1000 BC, and in Japan this belief is still depicted in present-day manga and anime. In China, Vietnam, South Korea, and Japan, for instance, there is a superstition that if talking behind someone's back causes the person being talked about to sneeze; as such, the sneezer can tell if something good is being said (one sneeze), something bad is being said (two sneezes in a row), even if someone is in love with them (three sneezes in a row) or if this is a sign that they are about to catch a cold (multiple sneezes).\n", "Frank conducted a study in 2011 with Carolyn M. Hurley called \"Executing Facial control During Deception situations.\" With this study they looked at strategies used by liars to save their face. Research to that date had not shown whether deceivers could suppress elements of their facial expressions. The study looked at smiling versus eyebrow moving on command during deception. He found participants reduced rate of smiling but less for eyebrow moving.\n", "The music was composed and orchestrated by the Australian composer, Nicole Brady. It was performed by The Orchestra of Vienna and Moravian Philharmonic, with solos performed by Martin Penicka (cello) and Nicole Brady (piano).\n\nSection::::Accolades.\n\nBULLET::::- Hyart Film Festival - Best Animation\n\nBULLET::::- Park City Film Music Festival - Jury Choice Gold Medal for Excellence\n\nBULLET::::- High Desert Shorts International Film Festival - Best Animation\n\nBULLET::::- Canadian International Film Festival - Award of Excellence\n\nBULLET::::- Kids First! Film Festival - Second, Independent Short, Ages 5–8\n\nBULLET::::- Australian Effects and Animation Festival - Finalist\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-12750	How do artists pay taxes when they have world tours?	They owe taxes to each country they perform in. Since it is pretty easy to figure out what they made form each individual performance (since the number of tickets sold and the artist's cut are both known amounts) it is fairly straight forward to calculate their income earned at any given venue.	[ "the main taxing jurisdiction may exempt foreign-source income from tax,\n\nthe main taxing jurisdiction may exempt foreign-source income from tax if tax had been paid on it in another jurisdiction, or above some benchmark to not include tax haven jurisdictions,\n\nthe main taxing jurisdiction may tax the foreign-source income but give a credit for foreign jurisdiction taxes paid.\n\nSection::::India.:Rajasthan no-tax policy.\n", "In determining who his or her \"employers\" were for purposes of this statute, the taxpayer must only consider those employers that paid the taxpayer an amount equal to or greater than $200 for the taxpayer's performance. See I.R.C. § 62(b)(2). As a result of this, relatively unknown artists who are paid less than $200 per performance are not allowed to take this exception. Artists who are sometimes paid an amount equal to or greater than $200 and other times paid less than that amount can only claim the instances on which he or she received over $200.\n", "During 1999, Brock issued a slew of archive recordings through Voiceprint Records to generate money to pay off an outstanding Inland Revenue tax bill. No permission from the other musicians was sought, although they did duly receive accounting and royalties once the outstanding bill was settled, leading to several members complaining about this activity, and former manager Douglas Smith commenting \"I think it's wrong. As a human being and as a manager, I have to get the permission of all the artists involved before I would do a deal.\" \n", "In 1997, Amil formed the girl group Major Coins with Liz Leite and Monique. At that time, Amil was not interested in being a solo artist and was uncertain about pursuing a career as a rapper, and later said \"I never looked at it as going beyond me being known in the streets.\" When Jay-Z requested that Leite provide vocals for \"It's Like That\" from his third studio album \"Vol. 2... Hard Knock Life\" (1998), Amil accompanied her to the recording studio. Jay-Z asked Amil to freestyle during the sessions, and her vocals were featured on the album single \"Can I Get A...\". He later encouraged her to become a solo artist.\n", "Desperate to resume his music career and sign a record deal, Brent takes a month of unpaid leave and uses money from his pension to pay his fellow band members (Foregone Conclusion), his rapper friend Dom, Dan the sound engineer (whom he boldly offers double what he earns at the studio), a PR consultant, and many other costs, to arrange a tour of venues around Berkshire.\n", "The OECD Model Income Tax treaty of 1930, lies as the foundation by which Loan-Out corporation structures may be utilised. Under Article 17, the model outlines the manner in which athletes, celebrities, or artists operating across numerous countries, and therefore earning income under numerous taxation systems, may only be taxed in their home jurisdiction's source of income, even without an established corporate body. This rationale was initiated due to the difficulties of taxing individuals who operate on numerous contracts, such as professional sportspeople or artists.\n", "Entertainers must be part of an entertainment group to obtain a P-1 visa. Individual artists cannot usually obtain a P-1 visa, except when joining the rest of their foreign entertainment group already in the United States. Like athletes, entertainers must be \"internationally recognized\" as outstanding in their area to be granted P visas, and have a sustained period of achievement no less than one year. Additionally, a minimum for 75 percent of the group's individual members must have a substantial relationship to the group, generally satisfied by at least one year of membership.\n", "It would then be responsible for using that money to pay the artist's royalty - a fee that, at the superstar level, can come close to equaling the licensing royalty the company is apt to get from a label.\n", "In some cases, for example Germany, an openly tax-like use is made of the \"royalties\"; Half of the money collected is redistributed to fund public programs.\n", "On the opposite end of the spectrum, artists who have an AGI more than $16,000 in a taxable year before this deduction are not allowed to take this deduction. This excludes well-known performing artists who make a large amount of income from playing shows from deducting their income therefrom.\n\nThis $16,000 cap has not been raised since 1986, meaning very few artists actually take advantage of the deduction due to inflation. The deduction was intended for performers who pay their own airfare to and from engagements and who have the difficulty of spreading deductions over schedule C and schedule A.\n", "Article 14 of the Rome Convention set a minimum term for the protection of performers' rights of twenty years from the end of the year in which the performance was made: the TRIPS Agreement (Art. 14.5) has extended this to fifty years. In the European Union, performers' rights last for fifty years from the end of the year of the performance, unless a recording of the performance was published in which case they last for fifty years from the end of the year of publication (Art. 3(100\n", "Moreover, states with income taxes hope to withhold royalty income for \"performances\" inside those states rather than in the state where a composer/songwriter lives or the Performing Rights Society is located. In practice, state income tax accounting is very difficult to regulate. Notable is Colorado's law, which requires each Performing Rights Society to disclose its entire catalog.\n\nState Performing Rights Society Laws:\n\nBULLET::::- Colorado HB17-1092\n\nBULLET::::- Florida Statutes 501.93\n\nBULLET::::- Michigan Royalty Practices Act\n\nBULLET::::- Washington State Dept. of Licensing\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Choquette, Frederic, \"The Returned Value of PROs\", \"Music Business Journal\", Berklee College of Music, May 2011\n", "When Dad asked Farian for 100,000 marks he was told to sign some papers. He signed away everything – image rights, royalties, the lot. My father lost everything. We had to move in with my grandmother in the Netherlands and live on welfare. After that, Dad started getting angry a lot. But Mum was very smart and realised if you own the name you can use it. Farian had not registered Boney M all over the world. So that’s why Dad could perform in certain countries.\n", "Most treaties provide mechanisms eliminating taxation of residents of one country by the other country where the amount or duration of performance of services is minimal but also taxing the income in the country performed where it is not minimal. Most treaties also provide special provisions for entertainers and athletes of one country having income in the other country, though such provisions vary highly. Also most treaties provide for limits to taxation of pension or other retirement income.\n\nSection::::Tax exemptions.\n", "BULLET::::- In early 1970s, some members of The Rolling Stones used trusts and offshore companies to avoid payment of British taxes. According to a 2006 article in the \"Daily Mail\", their holding company was in Holland, where there is no direct tax on royalties, and there were also offices in the Caribbean. The article also says that \"they have been tax exiles ever since - meaning they cannot make Britain their main home\" and that \"The Rolling Stones have paid just 1.6% tax on their earnings of £242 million over the past 20 years.\" The article also suggests that other performing artists have adopted the same financial arrangements.\n", "In the US it is important for musicians to get legal business licenses. These can be obtained at a city hall or local government center. The business license will require the tracking of sales, wages, and gigs. A tax ID is also necessary for all businesses. Musicians that fail to comply with the tax ID process and do not report their profits and losses to the government can face serious consequences with the IRS.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Hill, Iain; Kemp, Chris (Eds). \"Health & Safety Aspects in the Live Music Industry\", Cambridge: Entertainment Technology Press.\n", "I travelled to Japan and was set to stay out of the UK for a year and earn the largest fees yet for a solo performer, and all tax-free. At the time the UK tax for us was 98%. During that Japanese tour I had a gentle breakdown, which made me decide to break the tax exile. Millions were at stake. My father, my agent they pleaded for me not to step onto the BOAC jet bound for London. I did and went back to my little cottage in the woods. Two days later a young woman came seeking a cottage to rent. It was Linda.\n", "The duration of the economic rights of performers lasts for 95 years starting from the year following the publication of the fixed performance, or 120 years starting from the year following the completion of the performance if the performance is not published within 25 years after its creation.\n\nIn addition to these economic rights, performers have moral rights identical to those of copyright owners which cannot be waived, are perpetual, and are independent of the economic rights.\n\nSection::::Neighboring rights.:Sound recordings producers' rights.\n\nProducers of sound recordings have the following exclusive economic rights:\n", "Expression C also defines the term 'profit' for this analysis; it is the profit before tax during the royalty-bearing period and \"not\" that of the post-royalty period. Thus, taxation rates do not come into play and it is possible to evaluate the impact of royalties independent of territory.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Tax Exile\" (1989) is the title of a novel by Guy Bellamy.\n\nBULLET::::- In various versions of \"The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy\" by Douglas Adams, the rock star Hotblack Desiato is reported as \"spending a year dead for tax reasons\". Also, the character Veet Voojagig \"was finally sent into tax exile, which is the usual fate reserved for those who are determined to make a fool of themselves in public.\"\n", "Performance rights (in their current form) subsisting in sound recordings did not exist until 1994 (with respect to their producers) or 1996 (with respect to their performers). Performer's performances that occurred in a WTO member country only received protection after 1995. Effective September 1, 1997, performance rights were extended to performances captured on communication signals. Subject to that, such performances will fall into the public domain:\n", "Section::::India.\n\nIn India, Entertainment Tax is a tax imposed by the government on feature films getting a wide release in the country and are reduced from gross collections, major commercial shows and big private festivals. The amount after deducting entertainment tax is known as net.\n\nIn Delhi, movie tickets, large commercial shows and large private festival celebrations may incur an entertainment tax.\n", "In the U.S., recording artists earn royalties amounting to 10%–25% (of the suggested retail price of the recording depending on their popularity but such is before deductions for \"packaging\", \"breakage\", \"promotion sales\" and holdback for \"returns\", which act to significantly reduce net royalty incomes.\n", "To qualify for this deduction, a taxpayer must fit certain criteria:\n\nBULLET::::- The taxpayer must have worked as a performing artist for at least two employers,\n\nBULLET::::- the amount of the deduction must exceed ten percent of the taxpayer's gross income that is attributed to those performances, and\n\nBULLET::::- the adjusted gross income of the taxpayer, not counting this exception, does not exceed $16,000. See I.R.C. § 62(b)(1).\n", "After the 2000 Major League Baseball season, Alex Rodriguez signed what was then the largest contract in American sports history, a ten-year contract worth $252 million, with the Texas Rangers. The tax collecting authorities of other states were notified alongside the public, and would separately demand that Rodriguez's employer withhold the tax due from his salary and remit it to each of them. Even though the state of Texas did not have an income tax, he still had to pay the various state income taxes applied to each away game in each location except for Florida, Illinois, Washington state, and Washington, D.C. (as an American League player, he would visit the three states every season). It is estimated that Rodriguez paid $520,000 a year for state income taxes outside his own state. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00945	Why does entropy always go up?	Because it's more likely than it going down. No, seriously, that's the answer. Entropy is essentially the number of ways you get the same answer when doing a bunch of random things. For example, you roll two dice. There's two different ways to get 11 (65,56), but 5 different ways to get 8 (62,53,44,35,26). And, as it happens, 8 is more probable than 11, for precisely the reason that there's more outcomes that give 8 than 11. The highest entropy state is simply the most likely to happen. So as for why entropy always increases, imagine you have 10 dice. Currently, they total 20. You then grab one at random and reroll it. Since they currently total 20, there's more dice that are 3 or below than there are 4 and above. So it's more likely you grabbed a low die than a high die, which means this new roll will be more likely to increase the total than decrease it (it's about twice as likely). If you keep doing this, the total will increase until it reaches 35, at which point there are roughly as many high dice as low dice. And sure enough, 35 is the most likely outcome of rolling 10 dice--the highest entropy state. Now you might notice that there is still a chance that the die you rolled is less than the previous roll. And that's true--the total sometimes goes down after a roll, even though on average it gets closer to 35. However, that's because we only looked at 10 dice. In physics, we look at systems with a trillion trillion dice, and reroll a billion trillion of them at a time. If there are about twice as many low dice as high dice (just like before), this reroll is trillions of trillions of times more likely to increase the total than decrease it. And at that point, rather than say there's less than a 1:1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 chance that the entropy goes down, we just say that it always goes up. (That's actually a ridiculous overestimate for the scenario given--I would hit the character limit trying to write all the zeros in the real probability. Physical systems usually have more like a 1:10^(200) chance of having the entropy go down, which is still unimaginably less likely than the 1:10^(24) shown above.)	[ "However, as calculated in the example, the entropy of the system of ice and water has increased more than the entropy of the surrounding room has decreased. In an isolated system such as the room and ice water taken together, the dispersal of energy from warmer to cooler always results in a net increase in entropy. Thus, when the \"universe\" of the room and ice water system has reached a temperature equilibrium, the entropy change from the initial state is at a maximum. The entropy of the thermodynamic system is a measure of how far the equalization has progressed.\n", "We know that \"S S\"; but we can now no longer be certain that it is greater than \"S = S\". This then leaves open the possibility for fluctuations in \"S\". The thermodynamic entropy may go \"down\" as well as up. A more sophisticated analysis is given by the entropy Fluctuation Theorem, which can be established as a consequence of the time-dependent MaxEnt picture.\n", "In a thermodynamic system, differences in pressure, density, and temperature all tend to equalize over time. For example, consider a room containing a glass of melting ice as one system. The difference in temperature between the warm room and the cold glass of ice and water is equalized as heat from the room is transferred to the cooler ice and water mixture. Over time the temperature of the glass and its contents and the temperature of the room achieve balance. The entropy of the room has decreased. However, the entropy of the glass of ice and water has increased more than the entropy of the room has decreased. In an isolated system, such as the room and ice water taken together, the dispersal of energy from warmer to cooler regions always results in a net increase in entropy. Thus, when the system of the room and ice water system has reached temperature equilibrium, the entropy change from the initial state is at its maximum. The entropy of the thermodynamic system is a measure of how far the equalization has progressed.\n", "This criterion can then be used to explain how it is possible for the entropy of an open or closed system to decrease during a spontaneous process. A decrease in system entropy can only occur spontaneously if the entropy change of the surroundings is both positive in sign and has a larger magnitude than the entropy change of the system:\n\nand\n\nIn many processes, the increase in entropy of the surroundings is accomplished via heat transfer from the system to the surroundings (i.e. an exothermic process).\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Following on from the above, it is possible (in a thermal context) to regard lower entropy as an indicator or measure of the \"effectiveness\" or \"usefulness\" of a particular quantity of energy. This is because energy supplied at a higher temperature (i.e. with low entropy) tends to be more useful than the same amount of energy available at a lower temperature. Mixing a hot parcel of a fluid with a cold one produces a parcel of intermediate temperature, in which the overall increase in entropy represents a \"loss\" which can never be replaced.\n", "Section::::Explanation.\n\nThe concept of thermodynamic entropy arises from the second law of thermodynamics. This law of entropy increase quantifies the reduction in the capacity of a system for change or determines whether a thermodynamic process may occur. For example, heat always flows from a region of higher temperature to one with lower temperature until temperature becomes uniform.\n", "Yet, an increase in the number of physical states corresponding to each logical state means that, for an observer who is keeping track of the logical state of the system but not the physical state (for example an \"observer\" consisting of the computer itself), the number of possible physical states has increased; in other words, entropy has increased from the point of view of this observer.\n", "The rate of entropy production, denoted by formula_2, is a key element of the second law of thermodynamics for open inhomogeneous systems which reads\n", "As an example, for a glass of ice water in air at room temperature, the difference in temperature between a warm room (the surroundings) and cold glass of ice and water (the system and not part of the room), begins to equalize as portions of the thermal energy from the warm surroundings spread to the cooler system of ice and water. Over time the temperature of the glass and its contents and the temperature of the room become equal. In other words, the entropy of the room has decreased as some of its energy has been dispersed to the ice and water.\n", "The term entropy, which is now a key element in the study of randomness, was coined by Rudolf Clausius in 1865 as he studied heat engines in the context of the second law of thermodynamics. Clausius was the first to state \"entropy always increases\".\n", "In the context of entropy, \"\"perfect internal disorder\"\" is synonymous with \"equilibrium\", but since that definition is so far different from the usual definition implied in normal speech, the use of the term in science has caused a great deal of confusion and misunderstanding.\n\nLocally, the entropy can be lowered by external action. This applies to machines, such as a refrigerator, where the entropy in the cold chamber is being reduced, and to living organisms. This local decrease in entropy is, however, only possible at the expense of an entropy increase in the surroundings.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "There are many irreversible processes that result in an increase of the entropy. See: Entropy production. One of them is mixing of two or more different substances, occasioned by bringing them together by removing a wall that separates them, keeping the temperature and pressure constant. The mixing is accompanied by the entropy of mixing. In the important case of mixing of ideal gases, the combined system does not change its internal energy by work or heat transfer; the entropy increase is then entirely due to the spreading of the different substances into their new common volume.\n", "According to this theory our universe (or, rather, its accessible part, a radius of 46 billion light years around our location) evolved from a tiny, totally uniform volume (a portion of a much bigger universe), which expanded greatly; hence it was highly ordered. Fluctuations were then created by quantum processes related to its expansion, in a manner supposed to be such that these fluctuations are uncorrelated for any practical use. This is supposed to give the desired initial conditions needed for the Second Law of Thermodynamics.\n", "Most identities in chemical thermodynamics arise from application of the first and second laws of thermodynamics, particularly the law of conservation of energy, to these state functions.\n\nThe 3 laws of thermodynamics:\n\nBULLET::::1. The energy of the universe is constant.\n\nBULLET::::2. In any spontaneous process, there is always an increase in entropy of the universe.\n\nBULLET::::3. The entropy of a perfect crystal (well ordered) at 0 Kelvin is zero.\n\nSection::::Chemical energy.\n", "In relation to the earth's atmospheric energy transport process, according to Tuck (2008), \"On the macroscopic level, the way has been pioneered by a meteorologist (Paltridge 1975, 2001).\" Initially Paltridge (1975) used the terminology \"minimum entropy exchange\", but after that, for example in Paltridge (1978), and in Paltridge (1979), he used the now current terminology \"maximum entropy production\" to describe the same thing. The logic of Paltridge's earlier work is open to serious criticism. Nicolis and Nicolis (1980) discuss Paltridge's work, and they comment that the behaviour of the entropy production is far from simple and universal. Later work by Paltridge focuses more on the idea of a dissipation function than on the idea of rate of production of entropy.\n", "2. The argument so far has glossed over the question of \"fluctuations\". It has also implicitly assumed that the uncertainty predicted at time \"t\" for the variables at time \"t\" will be much smaller than the measurement error. But if the measurements do meaningfully update our knowledge of the system, our uncertainty as to its state is reduced, giving a new \"S\" which is \"less\" than \"S\". (Note that if we allow ourselves the abilities of Laplace's demon, the consequences of this new information can also be mapped backwards, so our uncertainty about the dynamical state at time \"t\" is now \"also\" reduced from \"S\" to \"S\" ).\n", "A special case of entropy increase, the entropy of mixing, occurs when two or more different substances are mixed. If the substances are at the same temperature and pressure, there is no net exchange of heat or work – the entropy change is entirely due to the mixing of the different substances. At a statistical mechanical level, this results due to the change in available volume per particle with mixing.\n\nSection::::Definitions and descriptions.:Equivalence of definitions.\n", "Since entropy is a state function, the entropy change of any process in which temperature and volume both vary is the same as for a path divided into two steps – heating at constant volume and expansion at constant temperature. For an ideal gas, the total entropy change is\n\nSimilarly if the temperature and pressure of an ideal gas both vary,\n\nSection::::Entropy change formulas for simple processes.:Phase transitions.\n", "One position is to say that the constant increase of entropy we observe happens \"only\" because of the initial state of our universe. Other possible states of the universe (for example, a universe at heat death equilibrium) would actually result in no increase of entropy. In this view, the apparent T-asymmetry of our universe is a problem in cosmology: why did the universe start with a low entropy? This view, if it remains viable in the light of future cosmological observation, would connect this problem to one of the big open questions beyond the reach of today's physics — the question of \"initial conditions\" of the universe.\n", "At an abstract level, this result implies that some of the information we originally had about the system has become \"no longer useful\" at a macroscopic level. At the level of the 6\"N\"-dimensional probability distribution, this result represents coarse graining—i.e., information loss by smoothing out very fine-scale detail.\n\nSection::::Philosophical Implications.:Caveats with the argument.\n\nSome caveats should be considered with the above.\n", "For heating or cooling of any system (gas, liquid or solid) at constant pressure from an initial temperature formula_43 to a final temperature formula_44, the entropy change is\n\nprovided that the constant-pressure molar heat capacity (or specific heat) \"C\" is constant and that no phase transition occurs in this temperature interval.\n\nSimilarly at constant volume, the entropy change is\n\nwhere the constant-volume heat capacity C is constant and there is no phase change.\n\nAt low temperatures near absolute zero, heat capacities of solids quickly drop off to near zero, so the assumption of constant heat capacity does not apply.\n", "Entropy is produced in irreversible processes. Some important irreversible processes are:\n\nBULLET::::- heat flow through a thermal resistance\n\nBULLET::::- fluid flow through a flow resistance such as in the Joule expansion or the Joule-Thomson effect\n\nBULLET::::- diffusion\n\nBULLET::::- chemical reactions\n\nBULLET::::- Joule heating\n\nBULLET::::- friction between solid surfaces\n\nBULLET::::- fluid viscosity within a system.\n\nThe expression for the rate of entropy production in the first two cases will be derived in separate sections.\n\nSection::::Performance of heat engines and refrigerators.\n", "BULLET::::- The fact that knowing this state does not depend on the order in which observations are made (commutativity)\n", "Current theories suggest the entropy gap to have been originally opened up by the early rapid exponential expansion of the universe.\n\nSection::::Interdisciplinary applications of entropy.:Economics.\n", "If the universe can be considered to have generally increasing entropy, then – as Roger Penrose has pointed out – gravity plays an important role in the increase because gravity causes dispersed matter to accumulate into stars, which collapse eventually into black holes. The entropy of a black hole is proportional to the surface area of the black hole's event horizon. Jacob Bekenstein and Stephen Hawking have shown that black holes have the maximum possible entropy of any object of equal size. This makes them likely end points of all entropy-increasing processes, if they are totally effective matter and energy traps. However, the escape of energy from black holes might be possible due to quantum activity (see Hawking radiation).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04340	how exactly does milk get 'evaporated'? (Like for baking etc) shouldn't cans of evaporated milk be empty?	Evaporated milk has ~60% of the water removed, but everything else remains (milk fats and solids). It can be made at home by simmering down milk to around half its original volume. Evaporation of aqueous (water based) solutions doesn't result in their complete disappearance, only the water in the mixture actually evaporates. For example, evaporate salt water and you'll be left with dry salt.	[ "The process involves the evaporation of 60% of the water from the milk, followed by homogenization, canning, and heat-sterilization.\n\nSection::::Evaporated milk infant formulas.\n", "The shelf life of canned evaporated milk varies according to both its added content and its proportion of fat. For the regular unsweetened product a life of fifteen months can be expected before any noticeable destabilization occurs.\n\nSection::::Notable producers.\n\nEvaporated milk is sold by several manufacturers:\n\nBULLET::::- Carnation Evaporated Milk (the brand is now owned by Nestlé and licensed to Smuckers in Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- PET Evaporated Milk (now owned by Smuckers)\n\nBULLET::::- Magnolia evaporated milk - (now produced by Eagle Family Foods owned by Smuckers )\n", "Evaporated milk is sometimes used in its reduced form, in tea or coffee, or as a topping for desserts. Reconstituted evaporated milk, equivalent to normal milk, is mixed 1 part by volume of evaporated milk with 1 ½ parts of water. Where evaporated milk is required but not available, it can be replaced by simmering 2 ½ parts of fresh milk down to 1 part. \n\nSection::::Reconstitution and substitution.:In the United States.\n\nAccording to the United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Chapter 1, Part 131, Sub part B, Section 130 \"Evaporated milk\", (April 2006) \n", "In order to prevent spoilage, milk can be kept refrigerated and stored between in bulk tanks. Most milk is pasteurized by heating briefly and then refrigerated to allow transport from factory farms to local markets. The spoilage of milk can be forestalled by using ultra-high temperature (UHT) treatment. Milk so treated can be stored unrefrigerated for several months until opened but has a characteristic \"cooked\" taste. Condensed milk, made by removing most of the water, can be stored in cans for many years, unrefrigerated, as can evaporated milk. The most durable form of milk is powdered milk, which is produced from milk by removing almost all water. The moisture content is usually less than 5% in both drum- and spray-dried powdered milk.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms for protein adsorption.:Biochemical.\n\nWhile the aggregates can explain much of the protein fouling found in milk processing, this does not account for it all. A third type of fouling has been discovered that is explained by the chemical interactions of the denatured β-lg proteins.\n", "Practically everywhere, condensed milk and evaporated milk are distributed in metal cans, 250 and 125 mL paper containers and 100 and 200 mL squeeze tubes, and powdered milk (skim and whole) is distributed in boxes or bags.\n\nSection::::Varieties and brands.:Spoilage and fermented milk products.\n", "Evaporated milk\n\nEvaporated milk, known in some countries as \"unsweetened condensed milk\", is a shelf-stable canned milk product with about 60% of the water removed from fresh milk. It differs from sweetened condensed milk, which contains added sugar. Sweetened condensed milk requires less processing since the added sugar inhibits bacterial growth.\n", "Drum drying or freezing are two processes for preserving juice solids. When product enzymes are deactivated through heat stabilization, they are frozen. Light and air are used for drum-drying, but this process often decreases the flavor and color of the solids.\n\nSection::::Use.\n", "After the juice is filtered, it may be concentrated in evaporators, which reduce the size of juice by a factor of 5, making it easier to transport and increasing its expiration date. Juices are concentrated by heating under a vacuum to remove water, and then cooling to around 13 degrees Celsius. About two thirds of the water in a juice is removed. The juice is then later reconstituted, in which the concentrate is mixed with water and other factors to return any lost flavor from the concentrating process. Juices can also be sold in a concentrated state, in which the consumer adds water to the concentrated juice as preparation.\n", "Evaporated milk in Canada is defined to be milk from which water has been evaporated, and contains at least 25% milk solids and 7.5% milk fat. It may contain added vitamin C if a daily intake of this product contains between 60 to 75 milligrams, and may also contain vitamin D in an amount no less than 300 International Units and no more than 400 International Units. Disodium phosphate or sodium citrate (or both) may be added, as well as an emulsifying agent.\n\nSection::::Reconstitution and substitution.:Middle East.\n", "partial removal of water only from milk. It contains not less than 6.5 \n\npercent by weight of milk fat, not less than 16.5 percent by weight of \n\nmilk solids not fat, and not less than 23 percent by weight of total \n\nmilk solids. Evaporated milk contains added vitamin D as prescribed by \n\nparagraph (b) of this section. It is homogenized. It is sealed in a \n\ncontainer and so processed by heat, either before or after sealing, as \n\nto prevent spoilage.\n", "Protein adsorption can also occur as a direct result of heating a mixture. Protein adsorption in milk processing is often used as a model for this type of adsorption in other situations. Milk is composed mainly of water, with less than 20% of suspended solids or dissolved proteins. Proteins make up only 3.6% of milk in total, and only 26% of the components that are not water. These proteins are all responsible for fouling that occurs during pasteurization.\n", "A different kind of evaporator can be used for heating and possibly boiling a product containing a liquid to cause the liquid to evaporate from the product.\n\nThe appropriate process can be used to remove water or other liquids from liquid based mixtures. The process of evaporation is widely used to concentrate liquid foods, such as soup or make concentrated milk called \"condensed milk\" done by evaporating water from the milk. In the concentration process, the goal of evaporation is to vaporize most of the water from a solution which contains the desired product. \n", "Water content of dairy products is quite variable. Butter is 15% water. Cow's milk ranges between 88-86% water. Swiss cheese is 37% percent water. The water content of milk and dairy products varies with the percentage of butterfat so that whole milk has the lowest percentage of water and skimmed milk has the highest.\n\nIn the sugar industry the dry matter content is an important parameter to control the crystallization process and is often measured on-line by means of microwave density meters.\n\nSection::::Dry matter basis.\n", "As milk is heated during pasteurization many of the proteins in the milk are denatured. Pasteurization temperatures can reach 161 °F (71.7 °C). This temperature is high enough to denature the proteins below, lowering the nutritional value of the milk and causing fouling. Milk is heated to these high temperatures for a short time (15–20 seconds) to reduce the amount of denaturization. However fouling from denatured proteins is still a significant problem. \n", "The product takes up half the space of its nutritional equivalent in fresh milk. When the liquid product is mixed with a proportionate amount of water, evaporated milk becomes the rough equivalent of fresh milk. This makes evaporated milk attractive for some purposes as it can have a shelf life of months or even years, depending upon the fat and sugar content. This made evaporated milk very popular before refrigeration as a safe and reliable substitute for perishable fresh milk, as evaporated milk could be shipped easily to locations lacking the means of safe milk production or storage.\n", "Evaporated milk is fresh, homogenized milk from which 60 percent of the water has been removed. After the water has been removed, the product is chilled, stabilized, packaged and sterilized. It is commercially sterilized at 240-245 °F (115-118 °C) for 15 minutes. A slightly caramelized flavor results from the high heat process (Maillard reaction), and it is slightly darker in color than fresh milk. The evaporation process concentrates the nutrients and the food energy (kcal); unreconstituted evaporated milk contains more nutrients and calories than fresh milk per unit volume.\n\nSection::::Reconstitution and substitution.\n", "Section::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Manual.\n", "Milking is now performed almost exclusively by machine, though human technicians are still essential on most facilitiess The most common milking machine is called a cluster milker. This milker consists of four metal cups—one per teat—each lined with rubber or silicone. The cluster is attached to both a milk collection system and a pulsating vacuum system. When the vacuum is on, it pulls air from between the outer metal cup and the liner, drawing milk out of the teat. When the vacuum turns off, it gives the teat an opportunity to refill with milk. In most milking systems, a milking technician must attach the cluster to each cow, but the machine senses when the cow has been fully milked and drops off independently.\n", "Section::::Examples of adsorption.:Dairy industry.\n\nThermal treatment of milk by indirect heating (e.g. pasteurization) to reduce microbial load and increase shelf life is generally performed by a plate heat exchanger. Heat exchanger surfaces can become fouled by adsorbed milk protein deposits. Fouling is initiated by formation of a protein monolayer at room temperature, followed by heat induced aggregation and deposition of whey protein and calcium phosphate deposits. Adsorbed proteins decrease efficiency of heat transfer and potentially affect product quality by preventing adequate heating of milk.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms for protein adsorption.\n", "When the process is applied to food and the water is evaporated and removed, the food can be stored for long periods of time without spoiling. It is also used when boiling a substance at normal temperatures would chemically change the consistency of the product, such as egg whites coagulating when attempting to dehydrate the albumen into a powder.\n\nThis process was invented by Henri Nestlé in 1866, of Nestlé Chocolate fame, although the Shakers were already using a vacuum pan earlier than that (see condensed milk).\n", "Section::::Milking operation.\n\nMilking machines are held in place automatically by a vacuum system that draws the ambient air pressure down from of vacuum. The vacuum is also used to lift milk vertically through small diameter hoses, into the receiving can. A milk lift pump draws the milk from the receiving can through large diameter stainless steel piping, through the plate cooler, then into a refrigerated bulk tank.\n", "Milk coming from the cow is transported to a nearby storage vessel by the airflow leaking around the cups on the cow or by a special \"air inlet\" (5-10 l/min free air) in the claw. From there it is pumped by a mechanical pump and cooled by a heat exchanger. The milk is then stored in a large vat, or bulk tank, which is usually refrigerated until collection for processing.\n\nSection::::Waste disposal.\n", "FCOJ producers generally use evaporators to remove much of the water from the juice in order to decrease its weight and decrease transportation costs. Other juice producers generally deaerate the juice so that it can be sold much later in the year.\n", "Section::::Bulk tank cleaning systems.:Automatic Washing.:Automatic Washing Limitations.\n\nBecause no physical scrubbing occurs with automatic wash systems, the cleanser relies on surfactants and detergents to dissolve the fats left on the interior of the tank by the cream in the milk. However, this is not sufficient to remove milkstone buildup, and the tank may need to be washed occasionally with milkstone remover to remove this scale buildup that can harbor bacteria and contaminants.\n" ]	[ "Evaporated milk should be an empty can.", "Evaporation applies to all parts of milk in evaporated milk. " ]	[ "Only the water in the milk is evaporated, the milk solids are left behind. ", "In evaporated milk the only part of the milk that is evaporated is water. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Evaporated milk should be an empty can.", "Evaporation applies to all parts of milk in evaporated milk. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Only the water in the milk is evaporated, the milk solids are left behind. ", "In evaporated milk the only part of the milk that is evaporated is water. " ]
2018-01353	How come the very bottom of the ocean is cold even though it’s closer to the mantle?	It's cold because it's much harder for the heat from the sun to reach it. There is heat from other sources, but not as much.	[ "An upper bound on the amount of water in the mantle can be obtained by considering the amount of water that can be carried by its minerals (their \"storage capacity\"). This depends on temperature and pressure. There is a steep temperature gradient in the lithosphere where heat travels by conduction, but in the mantle the rock is stirred by convection and the temperature increases more slowly (see figure). Descending slabs have colder than average temperatures.\n", "If a zone undergoes dramatic changes in temperature with depth, it contains a thermocline. The tropical thermocline is typically deeper than the thermocline at higher latitudes. Polar waters, which receive relatively little solar energy, are not stratified by temperature and generally lack a thermocline because surface water at polar latitudes are nearly as cold as water at greater depths. Below the thermocline, water is very cold, ranging from −1 °C to 3 °C. Because this deep and cold layer contains the bulk of ocean water, the average temperature of the world ocean is 3.9 °C. \n", "The two areas of greatest temperature gradient in the oceans are the transition zone between the surface waters and the deep waters, the thermocline, and the transition between the deep-sea floor and the hot water flows at the hydrothermal vents. Thermoclines vary in thickness from a few hundred meters to nearly a thousand meters. Below the thermocline, the water mass of the deep ocean is cold and far more homogeneous. Thermoclines are strongest in the tropics, where the temperature of the epipelagic zone is usually above 20 °C. From the base of the epipelagic, the temperature drops over several hundred meters to 5 or 6 °C at 1,000 meters. It continues to decrease to the bottom, but the rate is much slower. The cold water stems from sinking heavy surface water in the polar regions.\n", "Surface currents make up only 8% of all water in the ocean, are generally restricted to the upper of ocean water, and are separated from lower regions by varying temperatures and salinity which affect the density of the water, which in turn, defines each oceanic region. Because the movement of deep water in ocean basins is caused by density-driven forces and gravity, deep waters sink into deep ocean basins at high latitudes where the temperatures are cold enough to cause the density to increase.\n", "The two areas of greatest and most rapid temperature change in the oceans are the transition zone between the surface waters and the deep waters, the thermocline, and the transition between the deep-sea floor and the hot water flows at the hydrothermal vents. Thermoclines vary in thickness from a few hundred meters to nearly a thousand meters. Below the thermocline, the water mass of the deep ocean is cold and far more homogeneous. Thermoclines are strongest in the tropics, where the temperature of the epipelagic zone is usually above 20 °C. From the base of the epipelagic, the temperature drops over several hundred meters to 5 or 6 °C at 1,000 meters. It continues to decrease to the bottom, but the rate is much slower. Below 3,000 to 4,000 m, the water is isothermal. At any given depth, the temperature is practically unvarying over long periods of time. There are no seasonal temperature changes, nor are there any annual changes. No other habitat on earth has such a constant temperature.\n", "Most of the heat energy of sunlight is absorbed in the first few centimeters at the ocean's surface, which heats during the day and cools at night as heat energy is lost to space by radiation. Waves mix the water near the surface layer and distribute heat to deeper water such that the temperature may be relatively uniform in the upper , depending on wave strength and the existence of surface turbulence caused by currents. Below this mixed layer, the temperature remains relatively stable over day/night cycles. The temperature of the deep ocean drops gradually with depth. As saline water does not freeze until it reaches (colder as depth and pressure increase) the temperature well below the surface is usually not far from zero degrees.\n", "The temperature of the lower mantle ranges from 1960 K at the topmost layer to 2630 K at a depth of 2700 km. Models of the temperature of the lower mantle approximate convection as the primary heat transport contribution, while conduction and radiative heat transfer are considered negligible. As a result, the lower mantle's temperature gradient as a function of depth is approximately adiabatic. Calculation of the geothermal gradient observed a decrease from 0.47 K/km at the uppermost lower mantle to 0.24 K/km at 2600 km.\n\nSection::::Composition.\n", "The atmosphere is heated from below, which leads to convection, the largest expression of which is the Hadley circulation. By contrast the ocean is heated from above, which tends to suppress convection. Instead ocean deep water is formed in polar regions where cold salty waters sink in fairly restricted areas. This is the beginning of the thermohaline circulation.\n", "The source of mantle plumes is postulated to be the core-mantle boundary at 3,000 km depth. Because there is little material transport across the core-mantle boundary, heat transfer must occur by conduction, with adiabatic gradients above and below this boundary. The core-mantle boundary is a strong thermal (temperature) discontinuity. The temperature of the core is approximately 1,000 degrees Celsius higher than that of the overlying mantle. Plumes are postulated to rise as the base of the mantle becomes hotter and more buoyant.\n", "Surface water temperatures, which vary with latitude, current systems, and season and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, range from below to over . Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator, and minimum values are found in the polar regions. In the middle latitudes, the area of maximum temperature variations, values may vary by .\n\nFrom October to June the surface is usually covered with sea ice in the Labrador Sea, Denmark Strait, and Baltic Sea.\n", "During the nighttime, the surface ocean cools because the atmospheric circulation is reduced due to the change in heat with the setting of the sun each day. Cooler water is less buoyant and will sink. This buoyancy effect causes water masses to be transported to lower depths even lower those reached during daytime. During the following daytime, water at depth is restratified or un-mixed because of the warming of the sea surface and buoyancy driving the warmed water upward. The entire cycle will be repeated and the water will be mixed during the following nighttime.\n", "At the Indian Ocean, some of the cold and salty water from the Atlantic—drawn by the flow of warmer and fresher upper ocean water from the tropical Pacific—causes a vertical exchange of dense, sinking water with lighter water above. It is known as overturning. In the Pacific Ocean, the rest of the cold and salty water from the Atlantic undergoes haline forcing, and becomes warmer and fresher more quickly.\n", "The dense water masses formed by these processes flow downhill at the bottom of the ocean, like a stream within the surrounding less dense fluid, and fill up the basins of the polar seas. Just as river valleys direct streams and rivers on the continents, the bottom topography constrains the deep and bottom water masses.\n", "Scientists at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution conducted an experiment three decades ago in deep Sargasso Sea looking at the rate of sinking. They found what became known as marine snow in which the POM are repackaged into much larger particles which sink at much greater speed, 'falling like snow'.\n", "If the rate of temperature increase with depth observed in shallow boreholes were to persist at greater depths, temperatures deep within the Earth would soon reach the point where rocks would melt. We know, however, that the Earth's mantle is solid because of the transmission of S-waves. The temperature gradient dramatically decreases with depth for two reasons. First, the mechanism of thermal transport changes from conduction, as within the rigid tectonic plates, to convection, in the portion of Earth's mantle that convects. Despite its solidity, most of the Earth's mantle behaves over long time-scales as a fluid, and heat is transported by advection, or material transport. Second, radioactive heat production is concentrated within the crust of the Earth, and particularly within the upper part of the crust, as concentrations of uranium, thorium, and potassium are highest there: these three elements are the main producers of radioactive heat within the Earth. Thus, the geothermal gradient within the bulk of Earth's mantle is of the order of 0.5 kelvin per kilometer, and is determined by the adiabatic gradient associated with mantle material (peridotite in the upper mantle).\n", "Variable salinity in water and variable water content in air masses are frequent causes of convection in the oceans and atmosphere which do not involve heat, or else involve additional compositional density factors other than the density changes from thermal expansion (see \"thermohaline circulation\"). Similarly, variable composition within the Earth's interior which has not yet achieved maximal stability and minimal energy (in other words, with densest parts deepest) continues to cause a fraction of the convection of fluid rock and molten metal within the Earth's interior (see below).\n", "One is the salinity of water, a prime example of this being the Mediterranean/Atlantic exchange. The saltier waters of the Mediterranean sink to the bottom and flow along there, until they reach the ledge between the two bodies of water. At this point, they rush over the ledge into the Atlantic, pushing the less saline surface water into the Mediterranean.\n\nSection::::Density current.:Temperature.\n", "Basalts formed at mid-ocean ridges and hotspots originate in the mantle and are used to provide information on the composition of the mantle. Magma rising to the surface may undergo fractional crystallization in which components with higher melting points settle out first, and the resulting melts can have widely varying water contents; but when little separation has occurred, the water content is between about 0.07–0.6 wt%. (By comparison, basalts in back-arc basins around volcanic arcs have between 1 wt% and 2.9 wt% because of the water coming off the subducting plate.)\n", "ULSW that remains in the DWBC dilutes as it moves equatorward. Deep convection in the Labrador Sea during the late 1980s and early 1990s resulted in CLSW with a lower CFC concentration due to downward mixing. Convection allowed the CFCs to penetrate further downward to 2000m. These minimum could be tracked, and were first observed in the subtropics in the early 1990s.\n", "In the mantle, temperatures range from approximately at the upper boundary with the crust to approximately at the core-mantle boundary. The geothermal gradient of the mantle increases rapidly in the thermal boundary layers at the top and bottom of the mantle, and increases gradually through the interior of the mantle. Although the higher temperatures far exceed the melting points of the mantle rocks at the surface (about 1200 °C for representative peridotite), the mantle is almost exclusively solid. The enormous lithostatic pressure exerted on the mantle prevents melting, because the temperature at which melting begins (the solidus) increases with pressure.\n", "AMOC is driven by ocean temperature and salinity differences. The major possible mechanism causing the cold ocean surface temperature anomaly is based on the fact that freshwater decreases ocean water salinity, and through this process prevents colder waters sinking. Observed freshwater increase originates probably from Greenland ice melt.\n\nSection::::Research.\n\nSection::::Research.:2015 and earlier.\n", "Water is most dense at at standard atmospheric pressure. Thus as water cools below 3.98 °C it decreases in density and will rise. As the temperature climbs above 3.98 °C, water density also decreases and causes the water to rise, which is why lakes are warmer on the surface during the summer. The combination of these two effects means that the bottom of most deep bodies of water located well away from the equatorial regions is at a constant 3.98 °C.\n", "Hydrothermal vents are the direct contrast with constant temperature. In these systems, the temperature of the water as it emerges from the \"black smoker\" chimneys may be as high as 400 °C (it is kept from boiling by the high hydrostatic pressure) while within a few meters it may be back down to 2–4 °C.\n\nSection::::Environment.:Salinity.\n\nSalinity is constant throughout the depths of the deep sea. There are two notable exceptions to this rule:\n", "The minerals make the water heavier (DOW) so the water naturally sinks to the ocean floor where it commences a 2000-year journey. It flows southwards down the Atlantic Ocean, moves around the African Cape and then inches north through the Indian Ocean and also into the western Pacific Ocean, first coming close to land at Taiwan, then Okinawa and Hawaii and then arching back south, towards the Antarctica where the changing sea water temperatures from the summer sun force the deep ocean water to the surface to feed the largest micro and macro food chain on our planet.\n", "Another factor of density is temperature. Thermohaline (literally meaning heat-salty) currents are very influenced by heat. Cold water from glaciers, icebergs, etc. descends to join the ultra-deep, cold section of the worldwide Thermohaline current. After spending an exceptionally long time in the depths, it eventually heats up, rising to join the higher Thermohaline current section. Because of the temperature and expansiveness of the Thermohaline current, it is substantially slower, taking nearly 1000 years to run its worldwide circuit.\n\nSection::::Turbidity current.\n" ]	[ "Because the bottom of the ocean is closer to the mantle, it should actually be warm and not cold." ]	[ "The heat from the sun is unable to reach the bottom of the ocean, therefore it is much colder than every other portion of the ocean. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Because the bottom of the ocean is closer to the mantle, it should actually be warm and not cold.", "Because the bottom of the ocean is closer to the mantle, it should actually be warm and not cold." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The heat from the sun is unable to reach the bottom of the ocean, therefore it is much colder than every other portion of the ocean. ", "The heat from the sun is unable to reach the bottom of the ocean, therefore it is much colder than every other portion of the ocean. " ]
2018-20789	Why does the Moon cause high tides on the side of the Earth opposite of it?	Imagine you're participating in the hammer throw at the Olympics, you're swinging the ball around but the centre of rotation is somewhere between you and the ball, meaning you are also being flung outwards in the opposite direction. Replace yourself with earth and the hammer with the moon and you've got roughly the same situation, the sea is literally being flung outwards on the opposite side of the moon due to the earth and the moon orbiting eachother.	[ "When the Earth, Moon, and Sun are in line (Sun–Earth–Moon, or Sun–Moon–Earth) the two main influences combine to produce spring tides; when the two forces are opposing each other as when the angle Moon–Earth–Sun is close to ninety degrees, neap tides result. As the Moon moves around its orbit it changes from north of the Equator to south of the Equator. The alternation in high tide heights becomes smaller, until they are the same (at the lunar equinox, the Moon is above the Equator), then redevelop but with the other polarity, waxing to a maximum difference and then waning again.\n", "Most places experience two high tides each day, occurring at intervals of about 12 hours and 25 minutes. This is half the 24 hours and 50 minute period that it takes for the Earth to make a complete revolution and return the Moon to its previous position relative to an observer. The Moon's mass is some 27 million times smaller than the Sun, but it is 400 times closer to the Earth. Tidal force or tide-raising force decreases rapidly with distance, so the moon has more than twice as great an effect on tides as the Sun. A bulge is formed in the ocean at the place where the Earth is closest to the Moon, because it is also where the effect of the Moon's gravity is stronger. On the opposite side of the Earth, the lunar force is at its weakest and this causes another bulge to form. As the Moon rotates around the Earth, so do these ocean bulges move around the Earth. The gravitational attraction of the Sun is also working on the seas, but its effect on tides is less powerful than that of the Moon, and when the Sun, Moon and Earth are all aligned (full moon and new moon), the combined effect results in the high \"spring tides\". In contrast, when the Sun is at 90° from the Moon as viewed from Earth, the combined gravitational effect on tides is less causing the lower \"neap tides\".\n", "Because the gravitational field created by the Moon weakens with distance from the Moon, it exerts a slightly stronger than average force on the side of the Earth facing the Moon, and a slightly weaker force on the opposite side. The Moon thus tends to \"stretch\" the Earth slightly along the line connecting the two bodies. The solid Earth deforms a bit, but ocean water, being fluid, is free to move much more in response to the tidal force, particularly horizontally. As the Earth rotates, the magnitude and direction of the tidal force at any particular point on the Earth's surface change constantly; although the ocean never reaches equilibrium—there is never time for the fluid to \"catch up\" to the state it would eventually reach if the tidal force were constant—the changing tidal force nonetheless causes rhythmic changes in sea surface height.\n", "Syzygy causes the bimonthly phenomena of spring and neap tides. At the new and full moon, the Sun and Moon are in syzygy. Their tidal forces act to reinforce each other, and the ocean both rises higher and falls lower than the average. Conversely, at the first and third quarter, the Sun and Moon are at right angles, their tidal forces counteract each other, and the tidal range is smaller than average. Tidal variation can also be measured in the earth's crust, and this may affect the frequency of earthquakes.\n", "The rise and fall of the oceans due to tidal effects is a key influence upon the coastal areas. Ocean tides on the planet Earth are created by the gravitational effects of the Sun and Moon. The tides produced by these two bodies are roughly comparable in magnitude, but the orbital motion of the Moon results in tidal patterns that vary over the course of a month.\n", "Tides are controlled mainly by the gravitational pull of the moon. About once a day the moon rotates about the earth, attracting as it travels the bulge of water called the high tide that also travels round the earth. There are actually two high tides, because the earth and moon, as a system, both rotate about a common centre of mass. This centre is two-thirds out from the centre of the earth, not at the centre of the earth. The effect of the earth spinning about this centre is that it behaves as a centrifuge, resulting in a second high tide bulge in the ocean most distant from the moon.\n", "The most obvious effect of tidal forces is to cause two bulges in the Earth's oceans, one on the side facing the Moon and the other on the side opposite. This results in elevated sea levels called ocean tides. As the Earth spins on its axis, one of the ocean bulges (high tide) is held in place \"under\" the Moon, while another such tide is opposite. As a result, there are two high tides, and two low tides in about 24 hours. Since the Moon is orbiting the Earth in the same direction of the Earth's rotation, the high tides occur about every 12 hours and 25 minutes; the 25 minutes is due to the Moon's time to orbit the Earth. The Sun has the same tidal effect on the Earth, but its forces of attraction are only 40% that of the Moon's; the Sun's and Moon's interplay is responsible for spring and neap tides. If the Earth were a water world (one with no continents) it would produce a tide of only one meter, and that tide would be very predictable, but the ocean tides are greatly modified by other effects: the frictional coupling of water to Earth's rotation through the ocean floors, the inertia of water's movement, ocean basins that grow shallower near land, the sloshing of water between different ocean basins. As a result, the timing of the tides at most points on the Earth is a product of observations that are explained, incidentally, by theory.\n", "The ocean's surface is closely approximated by an equipotential surface, (ignoring ocean currents) commonly referred to as the geoid. Since the gravitational force is equal to the potential's gradient, there are no tangential forces on such a surface, and the ocean surface is thus in gravitational equilibrium. Now consider the effect of massive external bodies such as the Moon and Sun. These bodies have strong gravitational fields that diminish with distance and act to alter the shape of an equipotential surface on the Earth. This deformation has a fixed spatial orientation relative to the influencing body. The Earth's rotation relative to this shape causes the daily tidal cycle. The ocean surface moves because of the changing tidal equipotential, rising when the tidal potential is high, which occurs on the parts of the Earth nearest to and furthest from the Moon. When the tidal equipotential changes, the ocean surface is no longer aligned with it, so the apparent direction of the vertical shifts. The surface then experiences a down slope, in the direction that the equipotential has risen.\n", "The Moon's orbit around Earth is elliptical, which causes the Moon to be closer to Earth and farther away at different times. The Moon and the Sun are aligned every two weeks, which results in spring tides, which are 20% higher than normal. During the period of the new moon, the Moon and Sun are on the same side of Earth, so the high tides or bulges produced independently by each reinforce each other (and has nothing to do with the spring season). Tides of maximum height and depression produced during this period are known as spring tide. Spring tides that coincide with the moon's closest approach to Earth (\"perigee\") have been called perigean spring tides and generally increase the normal tidal range by a couple of inches.\n", "A second influence on the tides occurs because of gravitation from the sun. Gravitation from the sun has less influence than the moon, because it is so much further from earth. However, the sun influences the tidal range. When the sun, earth and moon are aligned in a straight line (at new and full moon), their tidal effects combine, producing the particularly high and low tides called s. When the sun is at right angles to the moon, the effects are partially cancelled, producing the small tides called neap tides.\n", "Because the Moon's mass is a considerable fraction of that of Earth (about 1:81), the two bodies can be regarded as a double planet system, rather than as a planet with a satellite. The plane of the Moon's orbit around Earth lies close to the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun (the ecliptic), rather than in the plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation of Earth (the equator) as is usually the case with planetary satellites. The mass of the Moon is sufficiently large, and it is sufficiently close, to raise tides in the matter of Earth. In particular, the water of the oceans bulges out towards and away from the Moon. The average tidal bulge is synchronized with the Moon's orbit, and Earth rotates under this tidal bulge in just over a day. However, Earth's rotation drags the position of the tidal bulge ahead of the position directly under the Moon. As a consequence, there exists a substantial amount of mass in the bulge that is offset from the line through the centers of Earth and the Moon. Because of this offset, a portion of the gravitational pull between Earth's tidal bulges and the Moon is not parallel to the Earth–Moon line, i.e. there exists a torque between Earth and the Moon. Since the bulge nearer the moon pulls more strongly on it than the bulge further away, this torque boosts the Moon in its orbit and slows the rotation of Earth.\n", "Internal tides generated by tidal semidiurnal currents impinging on steep submarine ridges in island passages, ex: Mona Passage, or near the shelf edge, can enhance turbulent dissipation and internal mixing near the generation site. The development of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability during the breaking of the internal tide can explain the formation of high diffusivity patches that generate a vertical flux of nitrate (NO) into the photic zone and can sustain new production locally.\n\nAnother mechanism for higher nitrate flux at spring tides results from pulses of strong turbulent dissipation associated with high frequency internal soliton packets.\n", "Section::::Contexts.:In animals.\n\nCalifornia grunion fish have an unusual mating and spawning ritual during the spring and summer months. The egg laying takes place on four consecutive nights, beginning on the nights of the full and new Moons, when tides are highest. However, this is a well understood reproductive strategy that is more related to tides than it is to lunar phase. It happens to correlate with the lunar phase because tides are highest when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are aligned, i.e., at new Moon or full Moon.\n", "The gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun give rise to two high tides and two low tides every lunar day, or every 24 hours and 50 minutes. Therefore, there is a gap of 12 hours and 25 minutes between every high tide and between every low tide.\n", "Perigean spring tide\n\nA proxigean spring tide (also known as a perigean spring tide) is a tide that occurs three or four times per year when the Moon's perigee (its closest point to Earth during its 29.5-day elliptical orbit) coincides with a spring tide (when the Earth, Sun and Moon are nearly aligned every two weeks). This tide usually adds only a couple of inches to normal spring tides.\n\nSection::::Astronomical causes.\n", "When the Moon is at first quarter or third quarter, the Sun and Moon are separated by 90° when viewed from the Earth, and the solar tidal force partially cancels the Moon's tidal force. At these points in the lunar cycle, the tide's range is at its minimum; this is called the neap tide, or neaps. Neap is an Anglo-Saxon word meaning \"without the power\", as in \"forðganges nip\" (forth-going without-the-power).\n", "The gravitational attraction that the Moon exerts on Earth is the cause of tides in the sea; the Sun has a smaller tidal influence. If Earth had a global ocean of uniform depth, the Moon would act to deform both the solid Earth (by a small amount) and the ocean in the shape of an ellipsoid with the high points roughly beneath the Moon and on the opposite side of Earth. However, because of the presence of the continents, Earth's much faster rotation and varying ocean depths, this simplistic visualisation does not happen. Although the tidal flow period is generally synchronized to the Moon's orbit around Earth, its relative timing varies greatly. In some places on Earth, there is only one high tide per day, whereas others such as Southampton have four, though this is somewhat rare.\n", "Scientists have confirmed that the combined effect of the Sun and Moon on the Earth's oceans, the tide, is when the Moon is either new or full. and that during lunar perigee, the tidal force is somewhat stronger, resulting in perigean spring tides. However, even at its most powerful, this force is still relatively weak, causing tidal differences of inches at most.\n\nSection::::Total Lunar Eclipses.\n", "Gravitational Tides are caused by changes in the relative location of the Earth, sun, and moon, whose orbits are perturbed slightly by Jupiter. Newton's law of universal gravitation states that the gravitational force between a mass at a reference point on the surface of the Earth and another object such as the Moon is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The declination of the Moon relative to the Earth means that as the Moon orbits the Earth during half the lunar cycle the Moon is closer to the Northern Hemisphere and during the other half the Moon is closer to the Southern Hemisphere. This periodic shift in distance gives rise to the lunar fortnightly tidal constituent. The ellipticity of the lunar orbit gives rise to a lunar monthly tidal constituent. Because of the nonlinear dependence of the force on distance additional tidal constituents exist with frequencies which are the sum and differences of these fundamental frequencies. Additional fundamental frequencies are introduced by the motion of the Sun and Jupiter, thus tidal constituents exist at all of these frequencies as well as all of the sums and differences of these frequencies, etc. The mathematical description of the tidal forces is greatly simplified by expressing the forces in terms of gravitational potentials. Because of the fact that the Earth is approximately a sphere and the orbits are approximately circular it also turns out to be very convenient to describe these gravitational potentials in spherical coordinates using spherical harmonic expansions.\n", "Section::::Effect on lunar orbit.\n", "Body tides in planets and moons, as well as in binary stars and binary asteroids, play a key role in long-term dynamics of planetary systems. For example, it is due to body tides in the Moon that it is captured into the 1:1 spin-orbit resonance (and is always showing us one side). Owing to the body tides in it, Mercury is trapped in the 3:2 spin-orbit resonance with the Sun. \n\nFor the same reason, it is believed that many of the exoplanets are captured in higher spin-orbit resonances with their host stars.\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n", "Section::::Formation mechanism.\n", "The changing distance separating the Moon and Earth also affects tide heights. When the Moon is closest, at perigee, the range increases, and when it is at apogee, the range shrinks. Every lunations (the full cycles from full moon to new to full), perigee coincides with either a new or full moon causing perigean spring tides with the largest \"tidal range\". Even at its most powerful this force is still weak, causing tidal differences of inches at most.\n\nSection::::Tidal constituents.:Other constituents.\n", "Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans, but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present. For example, the shape of the solid part of the Earth is affected slightly by Earth tide, though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n\nTide changes proceed via the following stages:\n\nBULLET::::- Sea level rises over several hours, covering the intertidal zone; flood tide.\n\nBULLET::::- The water rises to its highest level, reaching high tide.\n\nBULLET::::- Sea level falls over several hours, revealing the intertidal zone; ebb tide.\n", "inescapable conclusion that over most of the ocean significant ‘vertical’ mixing is confined to topographically complex boundary areas implies a potentially radically different interior circulation than is possible with uniform mixing. \n\nWhether ocean circulation models... neither explicitly accounting for the energy input into the system nor providing \n\nfor spatial variability in the mixing, have any physical relevance under changed climate conditions is at issue.” There is a limited understanding of “the sources controlling the internal wave energy in the ocean and \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03134	Why do some countries call 911 while others call 999, 000, etc?	Back when rotary phones were a thing, higher numbers took longer to dial. 999 was chosen as an emergency numbwr, but could easily be misdialed during stressful situations. When it was adopted here 911 was decided as easier number to dial. All largely irrelevant now that those phones barely exist outside of museums.	[ "In Singapore, the number 999 was inherited from British rule and continued after independence. The number is attributed more to requesting for the police, with the number 995, established in 1984, used for direct lines to the fire brigade and ambulance services of the Singapore Civil Defence Force. Because most of the population of Singapore is Chinese, it is likely that 995 was adopted because the Chinese pronunciation for that number (九九五, jiŭ jiŭ wŭ) sounds similar to the Chinese phrase for 'Save me' (救救我, jiù jiù wŏ).\n\nSection::::Eswatini.\n", "The Kingdom of Eswatini uses the 999 emergency number for police contact only. Also 975 for human trafficking reports. The other emergency numbers in use are 977 for emergency medical assistance and 933 for the fire service.\n\nSection::::Trinidad and Tobago.\n\nIn Trinidad and Tobago, 999 is used to contact the police only. The number 990 is used for the ambulance service and fire brigade.\n\nSection::::Others.\n", "Most countries have an emergency telephone number, also known as the universal emergency number, which can be used to summon the emergency services to any incident. This number varies from country to country (and in some cases by region within a country), but in most cases, they are in a short number format, such as 911 (United States and many parts of Canada), 999 (United Kingdom), 112 (Europe) and 000 (Australia).\n", "Not all NANP countries use the same codes. For example, the emergency telephone number is not always 911: Trinidad and Tobago and Dominica use 999, as in the United Kingdom. The country of Barbados uses 211 for police force, 311 for fire, and 511 for ambulance, while Jamaica uses 114 for directory assistance, 119 for police force, and 110 for fire and ambulance services.\n", "In Ireland, 999 (and the European and GSM standard 112) are the national emergency numbers. The 999 and 112 service is able to respond in English, Irish (As the first official language, public services are always available in English and Irish), Polish, French, German and Italian. 999 and 112 operators in Ireland answer the calls in under one second and say \"Emergency, which service?\". The caller may then request the Gardaí (the Irish police), ambulance, fire service, coastguard, or cave and mountain rescue service. The caller is then transferred to the emergency dispatcher for the appropriate service.\n\nSection::::Bangladesh.\n", "000 (also known as Triple Zero) is the primary national emergency number in Australia. The Emergency Call Service is operated by Telstra and overseen by the Australian Communications and Media Authority, and is intended only for use in life-threatening or time-critical emergencies. Other emergency numbers in Australia are 112 for GSM mobile and satellite phones, which is answered by a 000 operator and 106 for TDD textphones. 000 was also the emergency number in Denmark and Finland until the introduction of the 112 number in 1993 and in Norway until 1986, when the emergency numbers diverted to 001 for fire brigade, 002 for police and 003 for ambulance. Those numbers changed in 1994 to 110, 112 and 113 respectively.\n", "The 112 emergency number is an all-service number in Poland like in other EU states, but old numbers that were traditionally designated for emergencies are still in use parallel to 112. Those are 999 for ambulance, 998 for fire brigade and 997 for police.\n\nSection::::United Arab Emirates.\n\nIn the United Arab Emirates the 999 service is used to contact the police who are also capable of forwarding the call as appropriate to the ambulance or fire services. The number 998 connects directly to the ambulance service and 997 to the fire brigade.\n\nSection::::Singapore.\n", "Other emergency services may also be reached through the 999 system, but do not maintain permanent emergency control centres. All of these emergency services are summoned through the ECC of one of the four principal services listed above:\n\nBULLET::::- Lifeboat\n\nBULLET::::- Mountain rescue\n\nBULLET::::- Lowland rescue\n\nBULLET::::- Cave rescue\n\nBULLET::::- Moorland search and rescue service (particularly in Cornwall and Yorkshire)\n\nBULLET::::- Quicksand search and rescue service (operating in the extensive quicksands of Morecambe Bay)\n\nBULLET::::- Mine rescue\n\nBULLET::::- Bomb disposal (provided by HM Armed Forces)\n\nSection::::United Kingdom.:History.\n", "Section::::United Kingdom.:Emergency services.\n\nIn the United Kingdom there are four emergency services which maintain full-time emergency control centres (ECC), to which 999 emergency calls may be directly routed by emergency operators in telephone company operator assistance centres (OAC). These services are as follows, listed in the order of percentage of calls received:\n\nBULLET::::- Police service UK\n\nBULLET::::- Ambulance service UK\n\nBULLET::::- Fire services UK\n\nBULLET::::- coastguards UK\n", "In \"Coronation Street\", the fictional Manchester suburb of Weatherfield uses the unallocated range (0161) 715 xxxx.\n\nSection::::Special service numbers.\n\nSection::::Special service numbers.:Emergency services and helplines.\n\nThe UK has two free emergency numbers—the traditional 999, which is still widely used, and the EU standard 112, which can be used in all member states of the European Union. Both 999 and 112 are used to contact all emergency services: Police, Fire Service, Ambulance Service, and Coastguard. (Standard advice for Mountain Rescue or Cave Rescue is to ask the emergency operator for the police, who oversee the communication with these two services.)\n", "999 (emergency telephone number)\n\n999 is an official emergency telephone number in a number of countries which allows the caller to contact emergency services for urgent assistance.\n\nCountries and territories using 999 include Bahrain, Bangladesh, Botswana, Ghana, Hong Kong, Kenya, Macau, Malaysia, Mauritius, Qatar, Ireland, Poland, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Eswatini, Trinidad and Tobago, Seychelles, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom and Zimbabwe.\n\nSection::::United Kingdom.\n\n999 is the official emergency number for the United Kingdom, but calls are also accepted on the European Union emergency number, 112. All calls are answered by 999 operators. Calls are always free.\n", "Section::::Hong Kong and Macau.\n\n999 was introduced to Hong Kong for emergency services (Police, Fire-fighting Services and Ambulance Services) during British rule and continues to be used following the transfer of sovereignty.\n\nMacau also adopted the 999 number; it also introduced two emergency hotline numbers: 110 (mainly for tourists from mainland China) and 112 (mainly for tourists from overseas).\n\nThe worldwide emergency number for GSM mobile phones, 112, also works on all GSM networks in the country. Calls made to this number are redirected to the 999 call centre.\n\nSection::::Malaysia.\n", "In Bangladesh, 999 is the national emergency number. It officially launched on 11 December, 2017. This number is toll-free. Calling this number connects the caller to an operator, who then connects the caller to the police, ambulance or fire service.\n\nThe services are provided under the national help desk, which has been set up at a cost of Tk 60.50 crore.\n\nIn the past, dialing 100 would connect to Bangladesh Police, 101 to Rapid Action Battalion, 102 to fire services, 103 to ambulance service and 104 to the Access to Information Programme under the Prime Minister's Office.\n", "Section::::Answering.:Victoria.\n\nIn the state of Victoria, answering 000 as well as emergency service dispatch and call taking for Victoria Police, Ambulance Victoria, the Country Fire Authority and the Metropolitan Fire Brigade, is handled by the Emergency Services Telecommunications Authority (ESTA). ESTA operates three State Emergency Communications Centres, located in the Melbourne CBD, East Burwood, and Ballarat.\n", "In 2010, the Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) began researching options that may provide improved location information for mobile services when dialing 000. In 2017-18, ACMA stated in their annual report that both Industry and Government had begun to make considerable investment to communications infrastructure.\n", "There are three primary emergency services that can be summoned directly by the public:\n\nBULLET::::- Police — law enforcement, criminal investigation, and maintenance of public order.\n\nBULLET::::- Fire — firefighting, hazardous materials response, and technical rescue.\n\nBULLET::::- EMS — emergency medical services and technical rescue\n\nEmergency services have one or more dedicated emergency telephone numbers reserved for critical emergency calls. In some countries, one number is used for all the emergency services (e.g. 911 in the U.S., 999 in the UK). In some countries, each emergency service has its own emergency number.\n\nSection::::Specialized emergency services.\n", "BULLET::::- \"191:\" Federal Highway Police\n\nBULLET::::- \"192:\" ambulance\n\nBULLET::::- \"193:\" firefighters\n\nBULLET::::- \"194:\" Federal Police Department\n\nBULLET::::- \"197:\" Civil Police\n\nBULLET::::- \"198:\" state Highway Patrol\n\nBULLET::::- \"199:\" Civil Defense\n\nBULLET::::- \"911:\" emergency number in the United States (redirects to \"190\")\n\nMost citizens only know the \"190\" (Military Police) number for emergencies, but \"192\" (ambulance), \"193\" (firefighters) and \"199\" (civil defense) are also commonly known. Usually a call to 190 (military police) describing an emergency with a non-criminal nature will be redirected to the proper number or provide assistance if they are qualified to (as in cases of choking children).\n", "BULLET::::- Suspicion that a crime is in progress, or that an offender is in the area\n\nBULLET::::- Structure on fire\n\nBULLET::::- Another serious incident which needs immediate emergency service attendance\n\nAll telecoms providers operating in the UK are obliged as part of their licence agreement to provide a free of charge emergency operator service. As of 2014 emergency calls made on any network in the UK are handled by BT.\n\nOn dialling 999 or 112 an operator will answer and ask, \"Emergency. Which service?\" Previously operators asked \"Which service do you require?\" (approximately up to the mid-90s).\n", "BULLET::::- In 1959, Winnipeg, Manitoba (16 municipalities) used 9-9-9 as the first North American deployment of a local unified emergency number. North America later standardised on 9-1-1, with +1-204-999-xxxx eventually reassigned as a standard mobile telephone exchange.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 000 – emergency number in Australia\n\nBULLET::::- 111 – emergency number in New Zealand\n\nBULLET::::- 112 – emergency number across the European Union and on GSM mobile networks across the world\n\nBULLET::::- 119 – emergency number in Jamaica and parts of Asia\n\nBULLET::::- 9-1-1 (also known as 911) – emergency number in Canada, the Cayman Islands, and the United States\n", "The worldwide emergency number for GSM mobile phones, 112, also works on all GSM networks in the country. Calls made to this number are redirected to the 999 call centre.\n\nSection::::Mauritius.\n\nMauritius uses the 999 emergency number for police contact only. The other emergency numbers in use are 114 for emergency medical assistance and 115 for the fire service.\n\nSection::::Poland.\n", "90 000 was the phone number to the Swedish emergency service that started in 1953, and was operational until July 1, 1996.\n", "As it happens, the choice of 999 was fortunate for accessibility reasons, compared with e.g. lower numbers, because in the dark or in dense smoke 999 could be dialled by placing a finger one hole away from the dial stop (see the articles on rotary dial and GPO telephones) and rotating the dial to the full extent three times. This enables all users including the visually impaired to easily dial the emergency number. It is also the case that it is relatively easy for 111, and other low-number sequences, to be called accidentally, including when transmission wires making momentary contact produce a pulse similar to dialling (e.g. when overhead cables touch in high winds).\n", "Hoax calls and improper use are a problem. For these reasons, there are frequent public information campaigns in the UK on the correct use of the 999 system.\n\nAlternative three-digit numbers for non-emergency calls have also been introduced in recent years. 101 was introduced for non-urgent calls in England and Wales The scheme was extended to Scotland and Northern Ireland.\n", "Since 2014, smartphones which implement Advanced Mobile Location will detect that an emergency call is being placed, and use any available location services (WiFi or GPS based location) to send an emergency SMS containing an identifier for the call and the phone's location, accurate to 30 meters. This is intended to be received by the mobile operator whilst the call is in progress.\n", "In the case of mobile numbers, which had to be dialed in full, the only change was that the 0 was no longer used:\n\nSection::::Emergency calls (always toll-free).\n\nBULLET::::- General emergency: 112\n\nBULLET::::- Ambulance: 155\n\nBULLET::::- Police: 158\n\nBULLET::::- Fire brigade: 150\n\nBULLET::::- Municipal police: 156\n\nSection::::Prefixes.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-23659	Countries such as the United States have a very high standard of living whilst being in tremendous amounts of debt; why can’t less fortunate countries operate in the same way?	There's not really a correlation. Less wealthy countries are less wealthy because their economies are not developed for whatever reason. The United States does not have a particularly high amount of debt. Remember, sovereign debt is not personal debt. When you go to get a loan for your house or use your credit card, you are asking the bank for money. The United States (and other nations) asks "who wants to buy treasury bonds?", which people buy (including the US government, and US private citizens, remember the US owns more than 60% of US debt).	[ "Section::::Theories.:How democracy affects economic performance.\n\nGiven that the factors leading to democratic vs. dictatorial regimes, the second part of the story in \"Why Nations Fail\" explains why inclusive political institutions give rise to economic growth.\n\nThis argument was previously and more formally presented in another paper by Acemoglu and Robinson, \"Institutions as the Fundamental Cause for Long-Run Growth\". With this theory, Acemoglu and Robinson try to explain the different level of economic development of all countries with one single framework.\n", "Acemoglu and Robinson's major thesis is that economic prosperity depends above all on the inclusiveness of economic and political institutions. Institutions are \"inclusive\" when many people have a say in political decision-making, as opposed to cases where a small group of people control political institutions and are unwilling to change. They argue that a functioning democratic and pluralistic state guarantees the rule of law. The authors also argue that inclusive institutions promote economic prosperity because they provide an incentive structure that allows talents and creative ideas to be rewarded.\n", "Consequently, in these resource-rich rentier states there is a challenge to developing civil society and democratization. Hence, theorists such as Beblawi and Luciani conclude that the nature of rentier states provides a particular explanation for the presence of authoritarian regimes in such resource rich states.\n", "Beyond the incentive compatibility problems that can happen to foreign aid donations –that foreign aid granting countries continue to give it to countries with little results of economic growth but with corrupt leaders that are aligned with the granting countries’ geopolitical interests and agenda –there are problems of fiscal fragility associated to receiving an important amount of government revenues through foreign aid. Governments that can raise a significant amount of revenue from this source are less accountable to their citizens (they are more autonomous) as they have less pressure to legitimately use those resources. Just as it has been documented for countries with an abundant supply of natural resources such as oil, countries whose government budget consists largely of foreign aid donations and not regular taxes are less likely to have incentives to develop effective public institutions. This in turn can undermine the country's efforts to develop.\n", "Acemoglu and Robinson counter that their theory distinguishes between political and economic institutions and that it is not political institutions that contribute to growth directly but economic institutions shaped by the political institutions. In the case of China, even though the political institutions on a higher level are far from inclusive, the incentive to reform Chinese economy does come from political institutions; in 1978 from Deng Xiaoping's Opening up policy at the end of the internal political feud during the Cultural Revolution. This exactly fits into the theory that the change in political institutions has shaped economic institutions and thus has influenced economic performance. This economic growth is further expected to shape the political institutions in China in the future. One can only say that China is an outlier to the theory when in the future China becomes as wealthy as U.S. or Germany but still remains an authoritarian regime.\n", "Those considerations do not apply to private debts, by contrast: credit risk (or the consumer credit rating) determines the interest rate, more or less, and entities go bankrupt if they fail to repay. Governments need a far more complex way of managing defaults because they cannot really go bankrupt (and suddenly stop providing services to citizens), albeit in some cases a government may disappear as it happened in Somalia or as it may happen in cases of occupied countries where the occupier doesn't recognize the occupied country's debts.\n", "In fact, if such a strategy of financing development from outside the home country is undertaken, it creates a number of problems. For example, the foreign investors may carelessly misuse the resources of the underdeveloped country. This would in turn limit that economy's ability to diversify, especially if natural resources were plundered. This may also create a distorted social structure. Apart from this, there is also a risk that the foreign investments may be used to finance private luxury consumption. People would try to imitate Western consumption habits and thus a balance of payments crisis may develop, along with economic inequality within the population.\n", "Political institutions (such as a constitution) determine the \"de jure\" (or written) distribution of political power, while the distribution of economic resources determines the \"de facto\" (or actual) distribution of political power. Both \"de jure\" and \"de facto\" political power distribution affect the economic institutions in how production is carried out, as well as how the political institutions will be shaped in the next period. Economic institutions also determine the distribution of resources for the next period. This framework is thus time dependent—institutions today determine economic growth tomorrow and institutions tomorrow.\n", "Not having clear legal title to property limits its potential to be used as collateral to secure loans, depriving many poor countries one of their most important potential sources of capital. Unregistered businesses and lack of accepted accounting methods are other factors that limit potential capital.\n\nBusinesses and individuals participating in unreported business activity and owners of unregistered property face costs such as bribes and pay-offs that offset much of any taxes avoided.\n", "The situation that \"most developing countries are not able to borrow abroad in their domestic currency\" is referred to \"original sin\" in economics literature. Original sin is present among most of the developing economies, especially in periods with high inflation rate and currency depreciation. This global capital market imperfection contributes a lot to the widespread liability dollarization phenomenon. International transaction costs, network externalities, lack of credible domestic policies and underdeveloped local bond market are claimed to be the main reasons to the original sin.\n\nSection::::Explanations.:Contractionary depreciation.\n", "\"Currency mismatches\" occur when the currency in which debts are denominated is different from the currency in which assets are denominated. In emerging economies, it is often the case that a high proportion of debt is denominated in foreign currency, making them vulnerable to a balance sheet mismatch where debt burdens increase without necessarily increasing in the ability to pay. The difficulty to denominate debt in terms of a currency more tractable to each country’s repayment capacity is labeled as the original sin hypothesis, which appears as one of the possible explanations to why emerging countries have trouble handling debt levels that would be otherwise manageable for advanced economies.\n", "The fourth determinant is the exchange rate regime. As indicated by Hausmann and Panizza (2003), countries with fixed exchange rate regime experience large volatility in their domestic-currency interest rate, while countries that have a floating exchange rate regime experience larger exchange rate volatility. This creates differences in the structures of borrowing. Empirical studies show that fixed exchange rate regime is the main reason of liability dollarization. Despite these common weaknesses, emerging and developing economies have been able to attract capital because they have often operated under fixed or pegged exchange rate regimes until the early 2000s.\n", "Regarding the case of India, the authors deny an equivalence between inclusive political institutions and electoral democracy. Electoral democracy is the de jure system adopted by a country while political institutions refer to the de facto structure and quality of political system of a certain country. For example, India's political system has long been dominated by the Congress Party; the provision of public goods is preyed upon by political Patrimonialism; various members of Lok Sabha (the Indian legislature) face criminal charges; and caste-based inequality still exists. The quality of democracy is very poor and thus the political institutions are flawed in India, which explains why economic institutions are equally poor and economic growth is stymied.\n", "For example, in the case of democratization of Europe, especially in England before the Glorious Revolution, political institutions were dominated by the monarch. However, profits from increasing international trade extended \"de facto\" political power beyond the monarch to commercially engaged nobles and a new rising merchant class. Because these nobles and the merchant class contributed to a significant portion of the economic output as well as the tax income for the monarch, the interaction of the two political powers gave rise to political institutions that increasingly favored the merchant class, plus economic institutions that protected the interests of the merchant class. This cycle gradually empowered the merchant class until it was powerful enough to take down the monarchy system in England and guarantee efficient economic institutions.\n", "When a despotic regime contracts a debt, not for the needs or in the interests of the state, but rather to strengthen itself, to suppress a popular insurrection, etc, this debt is odious for the people of the entire state. This debt does not bind the nation; it is a debt of the regime, a personal debt contracted by the ruler, and consequently it falls with the demise of the regime. The reason why these odious debts cannot attach to the territory of the state is that they do not fulfil one of the conditions determining the lawfulness of State debts, namely that State debts must be incurred, and the proceeds used, for the needs and in the interests of the State. Odious debts, contracted and utilised for purposes which, to the lenders' knowledge, are contrary to the needs and the interests of the nation, are not binding on the nation – when it succeeds in overthrowing the government that contracted them – unless the debt is within the limits of real advantages that these debts might have afforded. The lenders have committed a hostile act against the people, they cannot expect a nation which has freed itself of a despotic regime to assume these odious debts, which are the personal debts of the ruler.\n", "The third determinant is the level of debt burden. High public indebtedness gives rise to an inability to service debt. Consequently, governments attempt to reduce debt service costs through inflation, unexpected changes in interest rates, explicit taxation, or outright default. Such situations reduce their credibility. Therefore, governments will tend to have a shorter maturity debt composition to enhance credibility when the debt burden is high. Most commonly, the ability to service debt is proxied with an array of macroeconomic indicators including the ratios of the fiscal balance to GDP, primary balance to GDP, government debt to exports and government debt to GDP (Hausman et al.,2003 and Mehl et al.,2005).\n", "Managing Volatility and Supporting Low-income Country Growth Enhancing macro-economic policy effectiveness Shallow financial systems limit fiscal, monetary, and exchange rate policy choices; hamper macroeconomic policy transmission; and impede opportunities for hedging or diversifying risk. This is of particular concern because LICs are vulnerable to external shocks, such as sharp swings in commodity prices and fluctuations in external financing. Limited policy space and instruments to mitigate the ensuing macroeconomic volatility often translate into large growth and welfare costs for these countries.\n\nSection::::Macroeconomics.:Economic growth.\n", "The high volatility in domestic output and terms of trade appears as key devices determining the indebtedness capacity of emerging economies. More volatility would induce a higher default risk, restricting the borrowing capacity of countries even at low levels of indebtedness.\n", "In their last version of their original sin hypothesis, Eichengreen, Hausmann and Panizza defined domestic component of original sin as the \"inability to borrow domestically long-term at fixed rates in local currency\" while keeping the definition of (international) original sin same. They reported that no country (having an original sin ratio higher than 0.75) with high domestic original sin had low international original sin suggesting that if a country could not persuade its own citizens to lend in local currency at long maturities, it could not convince foreigners to do the same. On the other hand, they reported that seven countries, among the 21 emerging countries included in their sample, had low domestic original sin but relatively high international original sin, suggesting that dominant use of local currency in domestic markets is not a sufficient condition for dominant use internationally.\n", "To receive debt relief under HIPC, a country must first meet HIPC's threshold requirements. At HIPC's inception in 1996, the primary threshold requirement was that the country's debt remains at unsustainable levels despite full application of traditional, bilateral debt relief. At the time, HIPC considered debt unsustainable when the ratio of debt-to-exports exceeded 200-250% or when the ratio of debt-to-government revenues exceeded 280%.\n\nSection::::HIPC Initiative.:Funding.\n", "A politically unstable state is anything but risk-free as it may—being sovereign—cease its payments. Examples of this phenomenon include Spain in the 16th and 17th centuries, which nullified its government debt seven times during a century, and revolutionary Russia of 1917 which refused to accept the responsibility for Imperial Russia's foreign debt. Another political risk is caused by external threats. It is mostly uncommon for invaders to accept responsibility for the national debt of the annexed state or that of an organization it considered as rebels. For example, all borrowings by the Confederate States of America were left unpaid after the American Civil War. On the other hand, in the modern era, the transition from dictatorship and illegitimate governments to democracy does not automatically free the country of the debt contracted by the former government. Today's highly developed global credit markets would be less likely to lend to a country that negated its previous debt, or might require punishing levels of interest rates that would be unacceptable to the borrower.\n", "The fifth attempt is the slope of the yield curve. In theory, and given the existence of term premiums, issuing short-term debt is cheaper than issuing long-term debt. However, refinancing risk is higher for short-term debt and frequent refinancing implies a larger risk of financing with higher interest rates. Therefore, governments face a trade-off between cheaper funding costs, which tilts the duration towards short-term maturities and refinancing risk, which tilts the duration towards longer-term maturities. Generally, an upward-sloping yield curve is associated with higher long-term borrowing to meet investor demand and, hence, lower original sin.\n", "MMT does agree with mainstream economics, that debt denominated in a foreign currency certainly is a fiscal risk to governments, since the indebted government cannot create foreign currency. In this case the only way the government can sustainably repay its foreign debt is to ensure that its currency is continually in high demand by foreigners over the period that it wishes to repay the debt – an exchange rate collapse would potentially multiply the debt many times over asymptotically, making it impossible to repay. In that case, the government can default, or attempt to shift to an export-led strategy or raise interest rates to attract foreign investment in the currency. Either one has a negative effect on the economy.\n", "The second determinant of the original sin is monetary credibility. This is important for both domestic and international original sin. The monetary credibility is proxied usually by inflation. Generally, the ratio of domestic debt to total public debt is higher in countries with lower and less volatile inflation indicating that inflation can change the composition of public debt and make it riskier. Hausmann and Panizza (2003) find that monetary credibility, as measured by lower inflation and the imposition of capital controls, are associated with lower domestic original sin in emerging economies. On the international side, their study shows that if the monetary and fiscal authorities are inflation prone, foreign investors will lend only in foreign currency, which is protected against inflation risk, or at short maturities, so that the interest rates can be adjusted quickly to any acceleration of inflation.\n", "SAPS are viewed by some postcolonialists as the modern procedure of colonization. By minimizing a government's ability to organise and regulate its internal economy, pathways are created for multinational companies to enter states and extract their resources. Upon independence from colonial rule, many nations that took on foreign debt were unable to repay it, limited as they were to production and exportation of cash crops, and restricted from control of their own more valuable natural resources (oil, minerals) by SAP free-trade and low-regulation requirements. In order to repay interest, these postcolonial countries are forced to acquire further foreign debt, in order to pay off previous interests, resulting in an endless cycle of financial subjugation.\n" ]	[ "United States is in a tremendous amount of debt and should not be able to withhold a high standard of living while other countries can't operate similarily.", "United States is in a tremendous amount of debt, and due to this they shouldn't be able to maintain a high standard of living compared to other countries. " ]	[ "The United States is not in a particularly high amount of debt, therefore the high standard of living is maintainable. ", "The United States is not in a particularly high amount of debt, other economies are simply underdeveloped. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "United States is in a tremendous amount of debt and should not be able to withhold a high standard of living while other countries can't operate similarily.", "United States is in a tremendous amount of debt, and due to this they shouldn't be able to maintain a high standard of living compared to other countries. ", "United States is in a tremendous amount of debt." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The United States is not in a particularly high amount of debt, therefore the high standard of living is maintainable. ", "The United States is not in a particularly high amount of debt, other economies are simply underdeveloped. ", "The United States is not in a particularly high amount of debt." ]
2018-10036	What are the actual consequences if you download Movies/Shows/Music off torrent sites? I’m aware it’s not legal but I’ve never come across anyone who has been punished for this. Is it not something that is widely prosecuted or is this actually enforced more than most people are aware of?	I worked at a university once and a few students who were living in the dorms got their lives destroyed when the Feds subpoenaed the campus IP addresses and caught people downloading torrents, hit them with bank shattering fines. My understanding was that since it was a publicly funded school they were able to get their internet records, which would be hard to do on your personal home. So I guess if you avoid using public connection you should be good.	[ "Downloading media files involves the use of linking and framing Internet material, and relates to copyright law. Streaming and downloading can involve making copies of works that infringe on copyrights or other rights, and organizations running such websites may become vicariously liable for copyright infringement by causing others to do so.\n", "They are also required to not represent that consumers have any \"legal\" or \"contractual\" obligation to pay for the software unless the computer owner has provided personal identification and agreed to pay, and that failure to pay will result in collection proceedings or affect the computer owner's credit status unless the owner has provided personal identification such as a credit card and agreed to pay. Customer service agents may state that they \"believe\" the computer owner is responsible for paying for the download, and offer several purchase options including a one-time 30-day non-renewing license for $29.95, after which access to the service will terminate.\n", "In April 2016, Marina Lonina (18) and Raymond Gates (29) were arrested in Ohio on charges that Gates raped an underage friend of Marina's while Lonina live-streamed the crime on Periscope. The prosecutor pointed out that Lonina, who was taken advantage of by a much older man, had gotten \"caught up\" in her excitement over the number of \"likes\" she was getting, and is shown on screen \"laughing and giggling.\" Joss Wright of the Oxford Internet Institute pointed out that \"[given the] volume of content being created and uploaded every day [ . . . there] is almost no practical way to prevent content like this being uploaded and shared.\"\n", "Movieland representatives said the downloads were not spyware and did not get on computers accidentally, insisting they were not \"drive-by downloads\".\n\nThey said the FTC lawsuit was \"improperly brought\", and pointed out that at the time the complaint was filed a federal judge rejected the FTC's request for a temporary restraining order that would have immediately ended the cited billing practices. \n", "Some countries, like Canada and Germany, have limited the penalties for non-commercial copyright infringement. For example, Germany has passed a bill to limit the fine for individuals accused of sharing movies and series to €800-900. Canada's Copyright Modernization Act claims that statutory damages for non-commercial copyright infringement are capped at C$5,000 but this only applies to copies that have been made without the breaking of any \"digital lock\". However, this only applies to \"bootleg distribution\" and not non-commercial use.\n\nSection::::Existing and proposed laws.:DMCA and anti-circumvention laws.\n", "Legislatures have reduced infringement by narrowing the scope of what is considered infringing. Aside from upholding international copyright treaty obligations to provide general limitations and exceptions, nations have enacted compulsory licensing laws applying specifically to digital works and uses. For example, in the U.S., the DMCA, an implementation of the 1996 WIPO Copyright Treaty, considers digital transmissions of audio recordings to be licensed as long as a designated copyright collective's royalty and reporting requirements are met. The DMCA also provides safe harbor for digital service providers whose users are suspected of copyright infringement, thus reducing the likelihood that the providers themselves will be considered directly infringing.\n", "In Europe, the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) has ruled that it is legal to create temporary or cached copies of works (copyrighted or otherwise) online. The ruling relates to the British Meltwater case settled on 5 June 2014.\n", "Proposed laws such as the Stop Online Piracy Act broaden the definition of \"willful infringement\", and introduce felony charges for unauthorized media streaming. These bills are aimed towards defeating websites that carry or contain links to infringing content, but have raised concerns about domestic abuse and internet censorship.\n\nSection::::Existing and proposed laws.:Noncommercial file sharing.\n\nSection::::Existing and proposed laws.:Noncommercial file sharing.:Legality of downloading.\n\nTo an extent, copyright law in some countries permits downloading copyright-protected content for personal, noncommercial use. Examples include Canada and European Union (EU) member states like Poland, and The Netherlands.\n", "Downloading and streaming relates to the more general usage of the Internet to facilitate copyright infringement also known as \"software piracy\". As overt static hosting to unauthorized copies of works (i.e. centralized networks) is often quickly and uncontroversially rebuffed, legal issues have in recent years tended to deal with the usage of dynamic web technologies (decentralized networks, trackerless BitTorrents) to circumvent the ability of copyright owners to directly engage particular distributors and consumers.\n\nSection::::Copyright.:Litigations in European Union.\n", "Some commentators have suggested that copyright violation through BitTorrent need not mean a loss of sales. \n\nIn addition, the \"Game of Thrones\" director, HBO programming president and Time Warner CEO Jeff Bewkes spoke about the positive effects of file sharing.\n\nBewkes further commented that he did not consider the unauthorized distribution to result in the loss of HBO subscriptions, rather: \"Our experience is, it all leads to more penetration, more paying subs and more health for HBO.\" The show is the most infringed TV show, and \"the show’s first season was the best-selling TV DVD of 2012.\n\nSection::::Patent infringement.\n", "Legal issues with BitTorrent\n\nThe use of the BitTorrent protocol for sharing of copyrighted content generated a variety of novel legal issues. While the technology and related platforms are legal in many jurisdictions, law enforcement and prosecutorial agencies are attempting to address this avenue of copyright infringement. Notably, the use of BitTorrent in connection with copyrighted material may make the \"issuers\" of the BitTorrent file, link or metadata liable as an infringing party under some copyright laws. Similarly, the use of BitTorrent to procure illegal materials could potentially create liability for end users as an accomplice.\n", "In 1998, the U.S. Congress adopted the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) which introduced criminal anti-circumvention provisions to prevent copyright infringement. This Act was enacted to implement the provisions of the WIPO Copyright Treaty and the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty in the U.S. and to prevent circumvention of Digital Rights Management systems. Section 1204 of the U.S. Copyright Act imposes serious criminal penalties on persons who wilfully and for purposes of commercial advantage or private financial gain, circumvent technological protection measures or traffic in any such circumvention technology. The DMCA distinguishes between first-time offenders and repeat offenders and the criminal sanctions that can be imposed are either imprisonment or fines, or both.\n", "In August 14, 2012, a download option was created, called DCuevana.\n\nAs of 2014, cuevana.tv distributed the software \"Cuevana Storm\" which, like Popcorn Time, operates as a torrent client that lets downloaders immediately watch a movie while simultaneously uploading it to others.\n\nSection::::Legal instances.\n\nBULLET::::- November 22, 2011, HBO Latin America initiated a criminal case against Cuevana and one of its founders Tomas Escobar for alleged violation of Argentine law 11,723 (intellectual property). The judge in the case has decided not to block access to Cuevana.\n", "In June 2018, Trevon Maurice Franklin of Fresno, California pleaded guilty to violating federal copyright law back in February 2016, when he downloaded the superhero film \"Deadpool\" from Putlocker and then uploaded it to Facebook eight days after the film was released theatrically in the United States. As a result, the film was viewed over 6 million times for free, with the total retail value of the copies being estimated at around $2,500. U.S. District Judge John A. Kronstadt set 27 September as the sentencing date for the federal class-A misdemeanor, which carries a possible penalty of up to one year in prison, along with a $100,000 fine. After missing the September 27 sentencing hearing, Franklin was sentenced in October to 24 days in federal detention followed by a year of supervised release, including 20 hours of community service per week.\n", "Section::::Existing and proposed laws.:Noncommercial file sharing.:Legality of uploading.\n\nAlthough downloading or other private copying is sometimes permitted, public distribution – by uploading or otherwise offering to share copyright-protected content – remains illegal in most, if not all countries. For example, in Canada, even though it was once legal to download any copyrighted file as long as it was for noncommercial use, it was still illegal to distribute the copyrighted files (e.g. by uploading them to a P2P network).\n\nSection::::Existing and proposed laws.:Noncommercial file sharing.:Relaxed penalties.\n", "After three years, Maverickeye finally received their first court order in the beginning of 2015 and sent out the first batch of letters in July 2015.\n\nSingapore\n\nMaverickeye identified more than 500 Singapore Internet Protocol (IP) addresses - of Singtel, StarHub and M1 Limited subscribers - at which the movie \"Dallas Buyers Club\" was allegedly downloaded.\n\nDenmark\n\nDallas Buyers Club (DBC) also demanded fines for legal damages from Popcorn Time users in Denmark at the end of 2014. In summer this year, DBC’s copyright owner filed mass lawsuits against those who have allegedly downloaded the movie through BitTorrent.\n", "Article 14 bis of the DADVSI law explicitly exempts from this regime the act of downloading a copyrighted work on a peer-to-peer network. This exemption is further extended to the act of making some copyrighted work available to the public without any commercial purpose, when this is an automatic result of the use of a peer-to-peer network for obtaining it; this clause was added because many peer-to-peer networks automatically make downloaded content available to other users, thus merely exempting downloads from the counterfeiting felony would not have been sufficient.\n", "Cara Cusumano, director of the Tribeca Film Festival, stated in April 2014: \"Piracy is less about people not wanting to pay and more about just wanting the immediacy – people saying, 'I want to watch Spiderman right now' and downloading it\". The statement occurred during the third year that the festival used the Internet to present its content, while it was the first year that it featured a showcase of content producers who work exclusively online. Cusumano further explained that downloading behavior is not merely conducted by people who merely want to obtain content for free:\n", "The Boy Genius Report weblog noted that \"As long as an Internet user is streaming copyrighted content online ... it’s legal for the user, who isn’t willfully [sic] making a copy of said content. If the user only views it directly through a web browser, streaming it from a website that hosts it, he or she is apparently doing nothing wrong.\"\n", "Complicating the legal analysis are jurisdictional issues that are common when nation states attempt to regulate any activity. BitTorrent files and links can be accessed in different geographic locations and legal jurisdictions. Thus, it is possible to host a BitTorrent file in geographic jurisdictions where it is legal and others where it is illegal. A single link, file or data or download action may be actionable in some places, but not in others. This analysis applies to other sharing technologies and platforms.\n\nSection::::Jurisdictional variations.\n", "Christian Barry believes that understanding illegal downloading as equivalent to common theft is problematic, because clear and morally relevant differences can be shown \"between stealing someone’s handbag and illegally downloading a television series\". On the other hand, he thinks consumers should try to respect intellectual property unless doing so imposes unreasonable cost on them.\n", "Despite the unauthorised decryption of media being illegal in many countries, smart card piracy is a crime which is very rarely punished, due to it being virtually undetectable, particularly in the case of satellite viewing. Laws in many countries do not clearly specify whether the decryption of foreign media services is illegal or not. This has caused much confusion in places such as Europe, where the proximity of many countries, coupled with the large land mass covered by satellite beams, allows signal access to many different providers. These providers are reluctant to pursue criminal charges against many viewers as they live in different countries. There have, however, been several high-profile prosecution cases in the USA, where satellite dealers have been taken to court resulting in large fines or jail time.\n", "This copy protection system also has the effect of preventing what would otherwise be claimed as fair use - legitimate owners backing up paid downloads in case of loss or damage to their computer data, or for use in on other devices where legal to do so.\n\nSection::::viodentia and FairUse4WM.\n", "The alleged violations of Washington state law included taking control of a user's computer in violation of the Spyware Act and the Consumer Protection Act (CPA), by remotely installing billing software that initiates and controls the pop-up cycle, misrepresenting the ability to uninstall software in violation of the same acts, by listing the software in Add/Remove Programs although the software cannot be uninstalled, unconscionable business practices in violation of the CPA, by the \"aggressive and harassing\" billing method used and the failure to disclose it, including use of a billing method \"that forces payment by completely obstructing users' access to their computers\", threats, harassment and intimidation in billing practices in violation of the CPA, by threatening collection proceedings and an adverse effect on users' credit records, while in fact defendants do not even know the consumer's name; and referring to consumers' \"legal obligation\" to pay, when in fact there is no legally binding contract, failure to disclose material facts in violation of the CPA, the \"aggressive, relentless, threatening\" form of the payment demands; the fact that the uninstallation option for the software will be disabled; and that the defendants \"transmit software to the user's computer surreptitiously\", and misrepresentations in violation of the CPA, including stating the software contains \"no spyware\" when in fact the software itself constitutes spyware by its behavior.\n", "Selective content poisoning (also known as proactive or discriminatory content poisoning) attempts to detect copyright violators while allowing legitimate users to continue to enjoy the service provided by an open P2P network. The protocol identifies a peer with its endpoint address while the file index format is changed to incorporate a digital signature. A peer authentication protocol can then establish the legitimacy of a peer when she downloads and uploads files. Using identity based signatures, the system enables each peer to identify infringing users without the need for communication with a central authority. The protocol then sends poisoned chunks to these detected users requesting a copyright protected file only. If all legitimate users simply deny download requests from known infringers, the latter can usually accumulate clean chunks from colluders (paid peers who share content with others without authorization). However, this method of content poisoning forces illegitimate users to discard even clean chunks, prolonging their download time.\n" ]	[ "Prosecution seems to be rare for people who illegally download material from torrent sites." ]	[ "Feds are able, and do, surveil public connections and prosecute for this type of activity." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Prosecution seems to be rare for people who illegally download material from torrent sites.", "Prosecution seems to be rare for people who illegally download material from torrent sites." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Feds are able, and do, surveil public connections and prosecute for this type of activity.", "Feds are able, and do, surveil public connections and prosecute for this type of activity." ]
2018-21210	Why do wind turbines obscure radar?	Radar engineer here. We hate wind turbines! ELI5 version is radars are really good at detecting physical things. Planes, buldings, mountians, all things. But we only care about moving things, so there are filters that throw out stationary objects and only show moving objects on the display. Wind turbines are tall enough to be in the radar beams path, and they have a moving signal so it shows up. A whole field of them will look like a field of helicopters just hovering. And a real plane flying over would just blend in.	[ "BULLET::::- On 4 February 2008, according to British Ministry of Defence turbines create a hole in radar coverage so that aircraft flying overhead are not detectable. In written evidence, Squadron Leader Chris Breedon said: \"This obscuration occurs regardless of the height of the aircraft, of the radar and of the turbine.\"\n", "Wind farms can interfere with ground radar systems used for military, weather and air traffic control. The large, rapidly moving blades of the turbines can return signals to the radar that can be mistaken as an aircraft or weather pattern.\n\nActual aircraft and weather patterns around wind farms can be accurately detected, as there is no fundamental physical constraint preventing that. But aging radar infrastructure is significantly challenged with the task. The US military is using wind turbines on some bases, including Barstow near the radar test facility.\n\nSection::::Criticism.:Ground radar interference.:Effects.\n", "The level of interference is a function of the signal processors used within the radar, the speed of the aircraft and the relative orientation of wind turbines/aircraft with respect to the radar. An aircraft flying above the wind farm's turning blades could become impossible to detect because the blade tips can be moving at nearly aircraft velocity. Studies are currently being performed to determine the level of this interference and will be used in future site planning. Issues include masking (shadowing), clutter (noise), and signal alteration. Radar issues have stalled as much as 10,000 MW of projects in USA.\n", "NCTR on JEM specifically depends on the periodic rotation of the blades of a turbine, with variations caused by the geometry of the elements of the engine (e.g., multiple rotors, the cowling, exhaust, and stators). More generally, the idea of \"micro-Doppler\" mechanisms, from any mechanical movements in the target structure (\"micro-motion dynamics\"), extends the problem to cover more than rotating aircraft structures, but also automatic gait recognition of human beings. The micro-Doppler idea is more general than those used in JEM alone to consider objects that have vibrational or other kinds of mechanical movement. The basisc of JEM is described in\n", "Some very long range radars are not affected by wind farms.\n\nSection::::Criticism.:Ground radar interference.:Mitigation.\n\nPermanent problem solving include a \"non-initiation window\" to hide the turbines while still tracking aircraft over the wind farm, and a similar method mitigates the false returns.\n\nEngland's Newcastle Airport is using a short-term mitigation; to \"blank\" the turbines on the radar map with a software patch. Wind turbine blades using stealth technology are being developed to mitigate radar reflection problems for aviation. As well as stealth windfarms, the future development of infill radar systems could filter out the turbine interference.\n", "Radar interference is consistently a problem with wind turbines which causes different groups to be against the use of wind farms near urban areas. After studies were performed to test the radar interference of wind lenses compared to the wind turbine, the wind lens had significantly less interference because of the smaller more compact design of the shroud itself as well as the shape and make of the shroud making it less of a problem with radar interference.\n\nSection::::Design.:Limitations.\n\nDespite the beneficial additions to the design, there are still limitations.\n", "During quasi-linear convective systems (QLCS), colloquially known as squall lines, the detection of mesovortices, which generate at 4,000 to 8,000 feet above ground level, is not always possible with SAILS cuts, as the base 0.5 degree scan travels below the formation of mesovortices at closer distances to the radar. Mid-Volume Rescan of Low-Level Elevations (MRLE) consecutively scans either the two, three or four lowest scan angles during the middle of a typical volume scan, allowing more frequent surveillance of mesovortex formation during QLCS events. MRLE will be deployed on a non-operational basis in RPG 18.0 in spring of 2018, with possible operational deployment with RPG 19.0, if proven useful or of importance.\n", "Section::::History.:Radar uses.\n", "During the Summer of 2013, the Radar Operations Center, in order to facilitate \"Proof of Concept\" testing of MESO-SAILS, defined two VCPs that were based on VCP-12 that included hardcoded additional low-level split-cut scans. For the first testing, which commenced on June 26, 2013, SAILSx2 (2 supplemental low levels soundings) was executed for approximately 4 and 1/2 hours and during the testing, a Radar Technician observed the behavior of the pedestal/antenna assembly. No excessive wear was noted to the assembly of the KOUN radar in Norman, Oklahoma.\n", "To increase the number of low level scans, one can redo the same process as SAILS many times: MESO-SAILS (Multiple Elevation Scan Option for SAILS). These additional supplemental low-level elevation scans are evenly spaced, in time (as close as possible given the defined VCP rotation rates), throughout the volume scan. The radar operator may choose 1 to 3 extra scans, depending on the weather situation. This lengthens the time of the total scan but provide low level coverage more often.\n\nSection::::History and deployment.\n", "One problem with this approach is that radar signals often change in amplitude for reasons that have nothing to do with beam position. Over the period of a few tenths of seconds, for instance, changes in target heading, rain clouds and other issues can dramatically affect the returned signal. Since conical scanning systems depend on the signal growing or weakening due only to the position of the target relative to the beam, such changes in reflected signal can cause it to be \"confused\" about the position of the target within the beam's scanning area.\n", "For a target close to the Earth's surface such that the earth and target are in the same range resolution cell one of two conditions are possible. The most common case is when the beam intersects the surface at such an angle that the area illuminated at any one time is only a fraction of the surface intersected by the beam as illustrated in Figure 2.\n\nSection::::Surface clutter.:Pulse length limited case.\n", "In contrast, the carcinotron could sweep through all the possible frequencies so rapidly that it appeared to be a constant signal on all of the frequencies at once. Typical designs could generate hundreds or low thousands of watts, so at any one frequency, there might be a few watts of power. However, at long range the amount of energy from the original radar that reaches the aircraft is only a few watts anyway, so the carcinotron can overpower them.\n", "Surface reflections appear in almost all radar. Ground clutter generally appears in a circular region within a radius of about near ground-based radar. This distance extends much further in airborne and space radar. Clutter results from radio energy being reflected from the earth surface, buildings, and vegetation. Clutter includes weather in radar intended to detect and report aircraft and spacecraft.\n", "Off-design performance is normally displayed as a turbine map or characteristic.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "There are anecdotal reports of negative health effects from noise on people who live very close to wind turbines.\n\nPeer-reviewed research has generally not supported these claims.\n\nThe United States Air Force and Navy have expressed concern that siting large wind turbines near bases \"will negatively impact radar to the point that air traffic controllers will lose the location of aircraft.\"\n\nSection::::Politics.\n\nSection::::Politics.:Central government.\n", "Section::::Type 7010 radar.\n", "WSR-88D radars scan a number of elevation angles to scan the atmosphere around the site. The number of angles and the length of each scan depend on the meteorological situation (no precipitation, scattered, generalized, or deep convective precipitation). These schemes are called Volume Coverage Patterns (VCP).\n", "Section::::Development.:Flight testing.\n\nIn January 1941 scanner units from both GEC and Nash & Thomson had arrived at Leeson for testing. The aircraft was still being fitted with the radome, so the team took the time to test both units head to head and see if one had a clear advantage in terms of interpreting the display. On the bench, watching the operation of the spiral scanner produced various results of awe in the team. Dee later wrote:\n", "BULLET::::- Shemya Island's COBRA DANE line of sight radar with the capability of tracking an aircraft at up to a altitude through an area covering (the curvature of the earth being its limiting factor);\n\nBULLET::::- Shemya Island's COBRA TALON, an over-the-horizon radar array with a range from to . COBRA TALON operated by bouncing its emissions off the ionosphere (deflection) to the other side of the line of sight horizon, thus acquiring its targets.\n", "Some clutter may also be caused by a long radar waveguide between the radar transceiver and the antenna. In a typical plan position indicator (PPI) radar with a rotating antenna, this will usually be seen as a \"sun\" or \"sunburst\" in the centre of the display as the receiver responds to echoes from dust particles and misguided RF in the waveguide. Adjusting the timing between when the transmitter sends a pulse and when the receiver stage is enabled will generally reduce the sunburst without affecting the accuracy of the range, since most sunburst is caused by a diffused transmit pulse reflected before it leaves the antenna. Clutter is considered a passive interference source, since it only appears in response to radar signals sent by the radar.\n", "Section::::Miscellaneous.\n\nBULLET::::- Building - Each ASR-9 site of installation received a prefabricated metal building with a dedicated generator engine room. The building size was approximately 60 ft long, 24 ft wide, and 12 feet in height. The generator room allows an addition of another 24 ft in length, 14 ft wide, and 12 ft in height. If the site of installment had a currently operating ASR radar, the equipment present met the standards to be modified and re-used.\n", "BULLET::::- HRS antennas of type HRS 1/2/z and 2/1/z exist, but see little practical use in shortwave broadcasting. VHF and UHF repeaters for FM radio or television in the UK quite often employ a pair of horizontal dipoles (or short yagis) one above the other (i.e. HRS 1/2/z) to concentrate transmission power in the vertical plane.\n\nBULLET::::- The Russian Duga Over The Horizon Radar may have used an antenna of type HRS 32/16/0.75 (estimated – not verified), with potential directional ERP in the gigawatt range.\n\nSection::::HRS antenna.\n", "Pulse-Doppler radar can reduce clutter by over 60dB, which can allow objects smaller than to be detected without overloading computers and users. Systems using pulse-Doppler signal processing with speed rejection set above the wind speed have no clutter zone. This means that the clear region extends all the way to the ground.\n\nSection::::Limiting factors.:Clear Region.\n\nThe Clear Region is the zone that begins several miles beyond the radar horizon at low elevation angles.\n\nThe clear region is also the zone above low elevation angles with clear skies.\n", "Small radar systems that lack range modulation are only reliable when used with one object in a sterile environment free from vegetation, aircraft, birds, weather phenomenon, and other nearby vehicles.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-22146	How did curse words come to be curse words	There are a few theories, some are probably more right than others and multiple theories could also be true. One theory, curse words usually have something in common: they refer to physical drives or body parts used to fulfill those urges. Now consider the dichotomy of the spiritual world and physical world that dominated philosophy for so long(maybe still does in some areas). The thinking is that a person should keep their mind, and by extension their language, on the spiritual rather than the physical world. So try not to say things that refer to a beastial nature. Just take it all with a grain of salt, for the most part it’s just a measure of manners.	[ "BULLET::::- German people, including the Pennsylvania Dutch speak in terms of hexing (from \"hexen\", the German word for doing witchcraft), and a common hex in days past was that laid by a stable-witch who caused milk cows to go dry and horses to go lame.\n\nSection::::Tecumseh's curse.\n", "In Ancient Egypt, so-called \"Execration Texts\" appear around the time of the 12th Dynasty, listing the names of enemies written on clay figurines or pottery which were then smashed and buried beneath a building under construction (so that they were symbolically \"smothered\"), or in a cemetery.\n\nSection::::\"Voces mysticae\".\n\n\"Voces mysticae\" are words not immediately recognizable as belonging to any known language, and are commonly associated with curse tablets. Anthropologist Stanely J. Tambiah proposed in 1968 that such words were intended to represent \"the language that demons can understand\".\n", "The history of curse words and profanity was part of spoken words in medieval era. The word \"fuck\" was used in English in the fifteenth century, though the usage in earlier times of 13th century was not with abusive intent. The word \"shit\" is the oldest of words in use with early references found in German and Scandinavia languages.\n\nSection::::Research.\n", "Curses have also been used as plot devices in literature and theater. When used as a plot device they involve one character placing a curse or hex over another character. This is distinguished from adverse spells and premonitions and other such plot devices. Examples of the curse as a plot device are the following:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rigoletto\"— Count Monterone places a curse on Rigoletto. Rigoletto blames the climactic death of his daughter on the curse.\n", "Profanities, in the original meaning of \"blasphemous profanity\", are part of the ancient tradition of the comic cults which laughed and scoffed at the deity or deities: an example of this would be Lucian's \"Dialogues of the Gods\" satire. \n\nSection::::Etymology.:English.\n", "Religious curses generally; depending on the listener, location, and their culture, among other things; include the words damn, God, and hell, while words such as fuck, shit, and bitch are generally seen as non-religious curses in the western world.\n\nSection::::Language.:Profanity.\n\nProfanity are words that are considered hateful or contemptuous, especially in regard to religion. \n", "Section::::About.\n\nThe study of the forms of curses comprise a significant proportion of the study of both folk religion and folklore. The deliberate attempt to levy curses is often part of the practice of magic. In Hindu culture the Sage or Rishi is believed to have the power to bless and curse. Examples include the curse placed by Rishi Bhrigu on king Nahusha and the one placed by Rishi Devala.\n\nSpecial names for specific types of curses can be found in various cultures:\n", "Section::::Bible.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Curses\" (Vanna album), a 2007 album by Vanna\n\nBULLET::::- \"Curses\" (Future of the Left album), a 2007 album by Future of the Left\n\nBULLET::::- \"Curse\" (video game), a 1989 Sega Mega Drive console game\n\nBULLET::::- \"Curses\" (video game), a 1993 interactive fiction computer game\n\nBULLET::::- \"Curses!\", a 1925 film directed by Fatty Arbuckle\n\nBULLET::::- Curse, Inc., an online video game portal and software company.\n\nBULLET::::- Curse (comics), a fictional villain in the comic book \"Spawn\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Curse and mark of Cain, the punishment of the first murder\n", "According to the Catholic Encyclopedia article \"Cursing\", the Bible depicts God cursing the serpent, the earth, and Cain (, , ). Similarly Noah curses Canaan (), and Joshua curses the man who should build the city of Jericho (). In various books of the Hebrew Bible there are long lists of curses against transgressors of the Law (, , etc.). The 10 Plagues of Egypt, preceding the 10 Commandments, can be seen as curses cast from the rods of Aron and Moses acting on instruction from the God of Israel, in order to enable the enthralled to come free from the yoke of enforced serfdom, slavery and the like.\n", "In the 1945 war film \"A Walk in the Sun\", the screenplay substitutes \"loving\" for \"fucking\" (the universal American soldier's descriptor).\n\nIn \"A Christmas Story\", the character Ralphie is punished by his parents for saying \"Oh, fuck,\" although the offensive word is replaced with \"fudge\" in the film. The narrator, an adult version of Ralphie (voiced by Jean Shepherd), explains that \"I didn't say fudge. I said THE word...the queen mother of dirty words: the F-dash-dash-dash word.\"\n\nIn the 1984 film \"Johnny Dangerously\", the character Roman Maronie is known for butchering the English language, especially English vulgarities:\n", "Curse words, or cursing, have been recognized by religious organizations as being able to cause actual mental and physical harm. More recently such words have separated themselves from their religious meanings, and it is doubtful that those who use curse words imagine the words will bring actual mental or physical harm. Both parties are aware that the cursing is simply an expression, and the ones receiving the curse words or phrase are aware they are being targeted.\n", "In the New Testament, Christ curses the barren fig-tree (), pronounces his denunciation of woe against the incredulous cities (), against the rich, the worldly, the scribes and the Pharisees, and foretells the awful malediction that is to come upon the damned (). The word curse is also applied to the victim of expiation for sin (), to sins temporal and eternal (; ).\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Book curse\n\nBULLET::::- Curse of 39\n\nBULLET::::- Curse of Turan\n\nBULLET::::- Curse tablet\n\nBULLET::::- Fortune telling fraud\n\nBULLET::::- Nocebo\n\nBULLET::::- Profanity\n\nBULLET::::- Superman curse\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "The word most associated with the verbal form of vulgarity is \"cursing.\" However, there are many subsections of vulgar words. American psychologist Timothy Jay classifies \"dirty words\" because it \"allows people interested in language to define the different types of reference or meaning that dirty words employ. One can see that what is considered taboo or obscene revolves around a few dimensions of human experience that there is a logic behind dirty word usage.\" One of the most commonly used vulgar terms in the English language is \"fuck\".\n\nSection::::Language.:Cursing.\n", "BULLET::::- African American hoodoo presents us with the jinx and crossed conditions, as well as a form of foot track magic which was used by Ramandeep, whereby cursed objects are laid in the paths of victims and activated when walked over.\n", "The word has probable cognates in other Germanic languages, such as German \"ficken\" (to fuck); Dutch \"fokken\" (to breed, to beget); dialectal Norwegian \"fukka\" (to copulate), and dialectal Swedish \"focka\" (to strike, to copulate) and \"fock\" (penis). This points to a possible etymology where Common Germanic \"fuk-\" comes from an Indo-European root meaning \"to strike\", cognate with non-Germanic words such as Latin \"pugno\" \"I fight\" or \"pugnus\" \"fist\". By application of Grimm's law, this hypothetical root has the form *\"pug–\". There is a theory that \"fuck\" is most likely derived from Flemish, German, or Dutch roots, and is probably not derived from an Old English root.\n", "Reading the account of the blasphemer in British anthropologist Mary Douglas observed that the man did two bad things — he cursed and he spoke against or \"pierced with words\" the Name of God. Douglas noted that the Israelites put him to death by stoning, and the Hebrew stem of the verb translated as \"to stone\" means to hurl or pelt. Douglas suggested that if wordplay is admitted, the story could be read to say that the blasphemer hurled insults at the Name of God, and then God ordained that the blasphemer should die by stones hurled at him. Employing the English metaphor of mud-slinging, Douglas compared the end of the story to: \"he has slung mud, let him die by mud slung at him.\" Selecting possible meanings of character names that fit the story, Douglas suggested that the story told to children could go like this: Once there was a man with no name, son of Retribution, grandson of Lawsuit, from the house of Judgment, who pelted insults at the Name, and God said that he should die — because he pelted God's Name, he should be pelted to death. Douglas proposed that by quoting the \"eye for eye\" law in a jingly form, in a peculiar circumstance where it does not really fit, surrounded by funny names, the writer of Leviticus may be trying to say something else about the measure-for-measure principle, testing the universal validity of the principle of retribution. Douglas posited that the \"subtlety of thought and the high degree of literary control exerted throughout Leviticus\" suggest that the priestly writer referred to other people's legal codes in an ironic if not disingenuous vein. Douglas concluded that the writer of Leviticus aped the style of foreign laws when touching on \"negative reciprocity,\" but it is rather \"positive reciprocity, gift with gift,\" that is the central theme in Leviticus. The writer of Leviticus sought to show that God's compassion and God's justice were available to be perceived by anyone reading the Bible's account of God's covenant.\n", "A curse (also called an imprecation, malediction, execration, malison, anathema, or commination) is any expressed wish that some form of adversity or misfortune will befall or attach to one or more persons, a place, or an object. In particular, \"curse\" may refer to such a wish or pronouncement made effective by a supernatural or spiritual power, such as a god or gods, a spirit, or a natural force, or else as a kind of spell by magic or witchcraft; in the latter sense, a curse can also be called a hex or a jinx. In many belief systems, the curse itself (or accompanying ritual) is considered to have some causative force in the result. To reverse or eliminate a curse is sometimes called \"removal\" or \"breaking\", as the spell has to be dispelled, and is often requiring elaborate rituals or prayers.\n", "There is a broad popular belief in curses being associated with the violation of the tombs of mummified corpses, or of the mummies themselves. The idea became so widespread as to become a pop-culture mainstay, especially in horror films (though originally the curse was invisible, a series of mysterious deaths, rather than the walking-dead mummies of later fiction). The \"Curse of the Pharaohs\" is supposed to have haunted the archeologists who excavated the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun, whereby an imprecation was supposedly pronounced from the grave by the ancient Egyptian priests, on anyone who violated its precincts. Similar dubious suspicions have surrounded the excavation and examination of the (natural, not embalmed) Alpine mummy, \"Ötzi the Iceman\". While such curses are generally considered to have been popularized and sensationalized by British journalists of the 19th century, ancient Egyptians were in fact known to place curse inscriptions on markers protecting temple or tomb goods or property.\n", "Section::::Types.:Cursing.:Historical Origins.\n\nCursing rituals involving both children and adults date back to ancient times, but resurfaced in a contemporary setting around 1969 with the advent of LaVeyan Satanism. Many cursing rituals around the world were largely aggravated by the Satanic panic phenomenon, which was particularly prevalent in South Africa.\n\nSection::::Types.:Cursing.:Regional Statistics.\n", "In 1811, Tecumseh's forces attacked Harrison's army in the Battle of Tippecanoe, earning Harrison fame and the nickname \"Old Tippecanoe\". In an account of the aftermath of the battle, Tecumseh's brother Tenskwatawa supposedly set a curse against Harrison. This is the basis of the curse legend, even though it was Richard Mentor Johnson who was said to be the man who killed Tecumseh.\n\nSection::::As plot devices.\n", "In Stephen King's 2006 novel \"Lisey's Story\", the main characters, Lisey and Scott Landon, use the word \"smuck\" instead of \"fuck\", replacing it wherever \"fuck\" would be conceivably used: \"smucking, mothersmucker, smucked up\", etc.\n\nIn the \"Gaunt's Ghosts\" series by Dan Abnett, the Imperial Guardsmen use the word \"feth\" as a general all-purpose swear word, primarily to replace the word \"fuck\".\n\nIn the series \"TZA\", John Spencer uses \"spash\" in place of most curses from the second book forth.\n", "Across old, medieval and modern religious discourse, direct mention of the name of the \"evil spirit\" Satan reflects the \"taboo on the devil\", born from out of the belief that doing so will incite misfortune on the speaker and interlocutor. Instead, this antagonist is euphemistically identified by the characteristic of being harmful or betraying towards the religion. This is seem from alternative labels such as \"feond\" (fiend) dating to Old English, \"enemī\" (enemy) dating to Middle English in 1382, and \"arch-traitor\" dating to Modern English in 1751, among countless others.\n", "In the Nickelodeon children's show \"iCarly\", characters often use the term \"chizz\" as a general purpose expletive, most often used in place of 'shit'. \"iCarly\" is notorious for its thinly veiled adult humor. Likewise, in the spinoff \"Sam & Cat\", the term \"wazz\" is used in place of 'piss'.\n\nCharacters in the series \"The Good Place\" find themselves in an afterlife where they are incapable of using profanity. When they intend to curse, the word instead comes out as a benign minced oath such as \"fork\" for \"fuck\", \"shirt\" for \"shit\", or \"bench\" for \"bitch\".\n", "In English, swear words and curse words tend to have Germanic, rather than Latin etymology \"Shit\" has a Germanic root, as, likely, does \"fuck\". The more technical alternatives are often Latin in origin, such as \"defecate\" or \"excrete\" and \"fornicate\" or \"copulate\" respectively. Because of this, profanity is sometimes referred to colloquially as \"Anglo-Saxon\". This is not always the case. For example, the word \"wanker\" is considered profane in Britain, but it dates only to the mid-20th century.\n\nSection::::History.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]

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